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258931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piermont | Piermont | Piermont is the name of two places in the United States of America:
Piermont, New Hampshire
Piermont, New York
See also
Piedmont
Piedmont (United States) | [
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258932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Domanski | Don Domanski | Don Domanski (29 April 1950 – 7 September 2020) was a Canadian poet.
Biography
He was born and raised in Sydney, Nova Scotia, and lived briefly in Toronto, Vancouver and Wolfville, before settling in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where he lived for most of his life. Author of nine collections of poetry, his work has been translated into Arabic, Chinese, Czech, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. In a review of Wolf-Ladder John Bradley described Domanski's poetry as "earthy and astral, dark and buoyant, a cross between Robert Bly, Ted Hughes, and the Brothers Grimm." In 1999 he received the Canadian Literary Award for Poetry from CBC (the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation). His 2007 collection All Our Wonder Unavenged was honoured with the Governor General's Award for Poetry, the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia Masterworks Award, and the Atlantic Poetry Prize. In 2014 he won the J.M. Abraham Poetry Award for Bite Down Little Whisper. Domanski mentored other poets through the Banff Centre for the Arts Wired Writing Studio and the Writers' Federation of Nova Scotia Mentorship program.
Also a visual artist, he created art that appeared in galleries in Halifax and Seoul, South Korea, and on covers of his poetry collections. Domanski also collected fossils for over a decade, and subsequently turned his attention to meteorites and Stone Age tools. He found a neural arch of a 350-million-year-old (Lower Carboniferous) amphibian previously thought to have gone extinct in the Devonian period. He was given credit for the find in Amphibian Biology, Vol. 4, Palaeontology, The Evolutionary History of Amphibians, ed. Harold Heatwole and Robert L. Carroll. His interest in religions inspired visits to churches and cathedrals in France, Ireland, England and Argentina, mosques in Istanbul, Rumi's tomb in Konya, and Buddhist temples and monasteries in China.
Bibliography
Poetry collections
1975: The Cape Breton Book of the Dead (House of Anansi Press)
1978: Heaven (House of Anansi Press)
1982: War in an Empty House (House of Anansi Press)
1986: Hammerstroke (House of Anansi Press)
1991: Wolf-Ladder (Coach House Press) (shortlisted for a Governor General's Award)
1994: Stations of the Left Hand (Coach House Press) (shortlisted for a Governor General's Award)
1998: Parish of the Physic Moon (McClelland & Stewart)
2007: All Our Wonder Unavenged (Brick Books) (winner of the Governor General's Award, The Atlantic Poetry Prize and the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia Masterworks Award)
2013: Bite Down Little Whisper (Brick Books) (shortlisted for a Governor General's Award; winner of J. M. Abraham Poetry Prize)
Pamphlets
2006: All Our Wonder Unavenged (Jack Pine Press)
2006: Poetry and the Sacred (Ralph Gustafson Lecture, Institute for Coastal Research)
2014: Field Notes (Corbel Stone Press)
2015: Fetishes of the Floating World (espresso)
Anthologies
2007: Earthly Pages: The Poetry of Don Domanski (Wilfrid Laurier University Press)
2021: Selected Poems 1975-2021 (Corbel Stone Press)
Honours
1999 – Canadian Literary Award for Poetry (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation)
2007 – Governor General's Award for All Our Wonder Unavenged
2008 – The Atlantic Poetry Prize for All Our Wonder Unavenged
2008 – Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia Masterworks Award for All Our Wonder Unavenged
2014 – J.M. Abraham Poetry Award for Bite Down Little Whisper
Notes
Further reading
Almon, Bert. "From Nova Scotia to the Cosmos." Review of Earthly Pages: The Poetry of Don Domanski. Canadian Literature 198 (Autumn 2008): 118–19. https://canlit.ca/article/from-nova-scotia-to-the-cosmos/
Armstrong, Tammy. "Atlantic Canada's Poetic Menagerie: Animal Presence in the Poetry of John Thompson, Don Domanski, John Steffler and Harry Thurson." Abstract for PhD dissertation. 2014. https://unbscholar.lib.unb.ca/islandora/object/unbscholar%3A6230
Bartlett, Brian. "Don Domanski." The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. (2005).
Bartlett, B. "The Trees Are Full of Rings." (Introduction to Earthly Pages: The Poetry of Don Domanski.) (2007).
Bartlett, B. "From The Basement of Fables: Don Domanski's Wolf-Ladder" All Manner of Tackle: Living with Poetry (2017): 179–94.
Bondar, Alanna F. Review of All Our Wonder Unavenged. The Goose (on-line) 4.1 (Spring 2008). http://www.alecc.ca/uploads/goose/THE%20GOOSE%204%202008.pdf
Colford, Ian. Review of Stations of the Left Hand. The Pottersfield Portfolio 16.2 (1996)80-82. http://www.iancolford.com/s/Stations_of_the_Left_Hand.pdf
Cooley, Dennis. Review of Hammerstroke. Journal of Canadian Poetry 3 (1986).
Downie, Glenn. "How Poems Work [Domanski's "Devildom"]." The Globe and Mail. Dec. 1 2011. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/how-poems-work/article22401676/
Goldstein, David B. Review of Bite Down Little Whisper. The Malahat Review 186 (spring 2014): 87-91. http://malahatreview.ca/reviews/186reviews_goldstein.html
Howell, Stevie. Review of Bite Down Little Whisper. Quill and Quire Dec. 2013. https://www.brickbooks.ca/reviews/bite-down-little-whisper-don-domanski-reviewed-by-stevie-howell/
Johnson, S.D. "The Wisdom of Falling." Interview. Where the Words Come From: Canadian Poets in Conversation. Ed. Tim Bowling. Nightwood Editions, 2002, 244–55.
Kenney, Patricia. "Rich Biodiversity in a Parallel Universe: Don Domanski's Bite Down Little Whisper." Arc July 17, 2014. https://arcpoetry.ca/2014/07/17/rich-biodiversity-in-a-parallel-universe-don-domanskis-bite-down-little-whisper/
Knight, Erin. "Poets in Profile: Don Domanski." Interview. http://www.openbookontario.com/news/poets_profile_don_domanski/
Leyton, Katherine. "Don Domanski." https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/don-domanski
Lindsay, G. Review of Parish of the Physic Moon. Journal of Canadian Poetry 15 (1998).
MacKendrick, Louis. Review of Stations of the Left Hand. Journal of Canadian Poetry 11 (1996).
Milton, Paul. "Wonder and the Sacred." Canadian Literature 198 (Autumn 2008): 123–24.
Nason, Jim. "Don Domanski Presented by Jim Nason." Sept. 10, 2015. https://www.brickbooks.ca/week-37-don-domanski-presented-by-jim-nason/
O'Meara, David. "Dangerous Words: Don Domanski and Metaphor." https://www.brickbooks.ca/reviews/dangerous-words-don-domanski-and-metaphor-reviewed-by-david-omeara/
Oughton, John."Blank Paper and the Infinite: An Interview with Don Domanski." Poetry Canada Review 12.2 (1992).
Pew, Jeff. "Don Domanski Presented by Jeff Pew." July 30, 2015. https://www.brickbooks.ca/don-domanski-presented-by-jeff-pew/
Pirie, Pearl. "Don Domanski on Role of Poet as Scribe of Sacred Geometries." Pesbo (on-line). April 16, 2008. https://pearlformance.livejournal.com/98190.html
Sowton, Ian. "Decision" Review of Hammerstroke. Canadian Literature 127 (Winter 1990): 159–60. https://canlit.ca/article/decisions/
Stephenson, Liisa. "Signs and Wonders." Maple Tree Literary Supplement (Sept. 2011). https://www.mtls.ca/issue3/writings-review-stephenson.php
Strickland, Molly. "Progression Beyond Conscious Thought in 'Untitled with Invisible Ink.'" In Atlantic Canadian Poets' Archive. http://www.stu-acpa.com/don-domanski.html
Sutherland, Fraser. "Domanski, Don Rusu." https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/culture-magazines/domanski-don-rusu
Szumigalski, Anne. Review of Parish of the Physic Moon. Quill and Quire 1996. https://quillandquire.com/review/parish-of-the-psychic-moon/
Thran, Nick. "Thrash and Gasp." Review of All Our Wonder Unavenged. Books in Canada
External links
Don Domanski reading from All Our Wonder Unavenged at Killam Library, Dalhousie University, Halifax, March 13, 2008. https://vimeo.com/16276250
Nick Thran reading of poems from All Our Wonder Unavenged. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q54dVNSMywQ
Nick Thran reading of poems from Bite Down Little Whisper. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6oW4M1yUfSU
1950 births
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian poets
Canadian male poets
People from Sydney, Nova Scotia
Writers from Nova Scotia
21st-century Canadian male writers
2020 deaths | [
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258933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover%20Castle | Dover Castle | Dover Castle is a medieval castle in Dover, Kent, England. It was founded in the 11th century and has been described as the "Key to England" due to its defensive significance throughout history. Some sources say it is the largest castle in England, a title also claimed by Windsor Castle.
History
Iron age
This site may have been fortified with earthworks in the Iron Age or earlier, before the Romans invaded in AD 43. This is suggested on the basis of the unusual pattern of the earthworks which does not seem to be a perfect fit for the medieval castle. Excavations have provided evidence of Iron Age occupation within the locality of the castle, but it is not certain whether this is associated with the hillfort.
Roman era
The site also contains one of Dover's two Roman lighthouses (or pharoses), one of only three surviving Roman-era lighthouses in the world, and the tallest and most complete standing Roman structure in England. It is also claimed to be Britain's oldest standing building. Built in the early 2nd century, the 5-level 8-sided tower was made of layers of tufa, Kentish ragstone, and red bricks. The castle lighthouse survived after being converted into a belfry in the Saxon era (c. 1000), having a new upper layer added (c. 1430), and was partially renovated in 1913–1915. The scant remains of the other Roman lighthouse, known as the Bredenstone or the Devil's Drop of Mortar, are located on the opposing Western Heights, across the town of Dover.
The Roman lighthouse at Boulogne-sur-Mer across the Channel survived for many centuries, and its light should have been visible from Dover. It was built circa AD 39 by order of the Emperor Caligula, possibly in preparation for an invasion of Britain. Suetonius refers to Caligula's "erection of a tall lighthouse, not unlike the one at Pharos, in which fires were to be kept going all night as a guide to ships". Known as the Tour d'Ordre, coastal erosion led to it toppling into the sea in 1644. Engravings of its height may show how the Dover Roman lighthouse once looked.
Saxon and early Norman
After the Battle of Hastings in October 1066, William the Conqueror and his forces marched to Westminster Abbey for his coronation. They took a roundabout route via Romney, Dover and Canterbury. From the Cinque Ports foundation in 1050, Dover has always been a chief member—it may also have been this that first attracted William's attention, and got Kent the motto of Invicta. In the words of William of Poitiers:
In 1088, eight knights were appointed under tenures to guard Dover Castle, their names were: William d'Albrincis; Fulberl (or Fulbert) de Dover; William d'Arsic; Geoffrey Peverell; William Maminot; Robert du Port; Hugh Crevecoeur; and Adam Fitzwilliam.
Henry II to early modern times
It was during the reign of Henry II that the castle began to take recognisable shape. The inner and outer baileys and the great keep belong to this time. Maurice the Engineer was responsible for building the keep. From 1179 to 1188, the King spent over £6,500 on the castle, an enormous sum, considering that his annual revenue was likely around £10,000.
In 1216, during the First Barons' War, a group of rebel barons invited the future Louis VIII of France to come and take the English crown. He had some success breaching the walls, but was ultimately unable to take the castle. The vulnerable north gate that had been breached in the siege was converted into an underground forward-defence complex (including St John's Tower), and new gates built into the outer curtain wall on the western (Fitzwilliam's Gate) and eastern (Constable's Gate) sides. During the siege, the English defenders tunnelled outwards and attacked the French.
During the time of Stephen de Pencester, a windmill was erected on Tower 22, which was later known as the Mill Tower. By the Tudor age, the defences themselves had been superseded by gunpowder. They were improved by Henry VIII, who made a personal visit, and added to it with the Moat Bulwark.
During the English Civil War, it was held for the king but then taken by supporters of the Parliamentarians in 1642 without a shot being fired. Knowing the castle was lightly guarded, a local merchant Richard Dawkes accompanied by 10 men scaled the cliffs and attacked the porter's lodge, obtaining the keys and entering the castle before the garrison was summoned.
Dover Castle was a crucial observation point for the cross-channel sightings of the Anglo-French Survey, which used trigonometric calculations to link the Royal Greenwich Observatory with the Paris Observatory. This work was overseen by General William Roy.
19th century
Massive rebuilding took place at the end of the 18th century during the Napoleonic Wars. William Twiss, the Commanding Engineer of the Southern District, as part of his brief to improve the town's defences, completed the remodelling of the outer defences of Dover Castle by adding the huge Horseshoe, Hudson's, East Arrow and East Demi-Bastions to provide extra gun positions on the eastern side, and constructing the Constable's Bastion for additional protection on the west. Twiss further strengthened the Spur at the northern end of the castle, adding a redan, or raised the gun platform. By taking the roof off the keep and replacing it with massive brick vaults, he was able to mount heavy artillery on the top. Twiss also constructed Canon's Gateway to link the defences of the castle with those of the town.
With Dover becoming a garrison town, there was a need for barracks and storerooms for the additional troops and their equipment. The solution adopted by Twiss and the Royal Engineers was to create a complex of barracks tunnels about 15 metres below the cliff-top, and the first troops were accommodated in 1803. The windmill on the Mill Tower was demolished during the Anglo-American War of the orders of the Ordnance Board. It was said that the sale of materials from the demolished mill did not cover the cost of the demolition. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the tunnels were partly converted and used by the Coast Blockade Service to combat smuggling. This was a short-term endeavour, though, and in 1827 the headquarters were moved closer to shore. The tunnels then remained abandoned for more than a century.
Between 1856 and 1858, Anthony Salvin constructed a new officer's barracks to the south of the castle. Salvin was responsible for the exterior, which he designed in a Tudor Revival style, while the castle's Clerk of the Works, G. Arnold, was responsible for the interior.
Second World War
The outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 saw the tunnels converted first into an air-raid shelter and then later into a military command centre and underground hospital. In May 1940, Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay directed the evacuation of French and British soldiers from Dunkirk, code-named Operation Dynamo, from his headquarters in the cliff tunnels. A military telephone exchange was installed in 1941 and served the underground headquarters. The switchboards were constantly in use and had to have a new tunnel created alongside it to house the batteries and chargers necessary to keep them functioning. A statue of Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay stands outside the tunnels in honour of his work on the Dunkirk evacuation and protecting Dover during the Second World War.
Post-war
After the war the tunnels were to be used as a shelter for the Regional Seats of Government in the event of a nuclear attack. This plan was abandoned for various reasons, including the realisation that the chalk of the cliffs would not provide significant protection from radiation, and because of the inconvenient form of the tunnels and their generally poor condition. Tunnel levels are denoted as A - Annexe, B - Bastion, C - Casemate, D - Dumpy and E - Esplanade. Annexe and Casemate levels are open to the public, Bastion is 'lost', but investigations continue to locate it and gain access. Dumpy (converted from Second World War use, to serve as a Regional Seat of Government in the event of an atomic war) is closed, together with its esplanade (last used as an air raid shelter in the Second World War).
Between 2007 and 2009, English Heritage spent £2.45 million on recreating the castle's interior. According to figures released by the Association of Leading Visitor Attractions, 368,243 people visited Dover Castle in 2019. The Queen's & Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment Regimental Museum is located in the castle.
Dover Castle remains a Scheduled Monument, which means it is a "nationally important" historic building and archaeological site that has been given protection against unauthorised change. It is also a Grade I listed building, and recognised as an internationally important structure. The Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports is officially head of the castle, in his conjoint position of Constable of Dover Castle, and the Deputy Constable has his residence in Constable's Gate.
In October 2021, the castle was one of 142 sites across England to receive part of a £35 million grant from the government's Culture Recovery Fund.
Churches and chapels
There are two sacred places within the grounds of the castle:
Royal chapel - Located within the keep, dedicated to St Thomas Becket.
St Mary in Castro - A Saxon church, rebuilt in the Victorian era.
Filming location
The castle has been used by productions in TV series such as the Doctor Who episode The Mind of Evil, Wolf Hall, The Hollow Crown and The Amazing Race 31. The medieval setting has also been used in theatrical releases such as Lady Jane (1986), Hamlet (1990), To Kill a King (2003), The Other Boleyn Girl (2007) Into the Woods (2014) and Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015).
See also
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
Dover Castle Clock
Eastbourne Redoubt
Governor of Dover Castle
List of castles in England
Pevensey Castle
Notes
Further reading
External links
Dover Castle page at the English Heritage website.
Friends of Dover Castle
Images
A series of aerial photos of Dover Castle
Images of World War II tunnels
Dover Castle images from English Heritage
Tourist attractions in Kent
Castles in Kent
Scheduled monuments in Kent
Forts in Dover, Kent
English Heritage sites in Kent
Invasions of England
Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom
Norman conquest of England
Military history of Dover, Kent
Napoleonic war forts in England
Grade I listed buildings in Kent
Grade I listed castles
Anthony Salvin buildings
History museums in Kent
Military and war museums in England
World War II museums in the United Kingdom
Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment | [
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258938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Stafford%2C%203rd%20Duke%20of%20Buckingham | Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham | Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham (3 February 1478 – 17 May 1521) was an English nobleman. He was the son of Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, and Katherine Woodville, and nephew of Elizabeth Woodville and King Edward IV. Thus Edward Stafford was a first cousin once removed of King Henry VIII. He was convicted of treason and executed on 17 May 1521.
Family
Edward Stafford, born 3 February 1478 at Brecon Castle in Wales, was the eldest son of Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, and Catherine Woodville (the daughter of Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, by Jacquetta of Luxembourg, daughter of Pierre de Luxembourg, Count of St. Pol) and was thus a nephew of Elizabeth Woodville and King Edward IV.
By his father's marriage to Catherine Woodville, Stafford had a younger brother, Henry Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, and two sisters: Elizabeth, who married Robert Radcliffe, 1st Earl of Sussex, and Anne, who married firstly Sir Walter Herbert (d. 16 September 1507), an illegitimate son of William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke, and secondly George Hastings, 1st Earl of Huntingdon.
After the execution of the 2nd Duke of Buckingham, his widow, Catherine Woodville, married Jasper Tudor, second son of Owen Tudor and King Henry V's widow, Catherine of Valois. After Jasper Tudor's death on 21 December 1495, Catherine Woodville married Sir Richard Wingfield (d. 22 July 1525). Catherine Woodville died 18 May 1497. After her death, Sir Richard Wingfield married Bridget Wiltshire, daughter and heiress of Sir John Wiltshire of Stone, Kent.
Career
In October 1483 Stafford's father was central in Buckingham's rebellion against King Richard III. He was beheaded without trial on 2 November 1483, whereby all his honours were forfeited. Stafford is said to have been hidden in various houses in Herefordshire at the time of the rebellion, and perhaps for the remainder of Richard III's reign. After Richard III's defeat at Bosworth on 22 August 1485, and King Henry VII's accession to the crown, Stafford was made a Knight of the Order of the Bath on 29 October 1485 as Duke of Buckingham, and attended Henry VII's coronation the following day, although his father's attainder was not formally reversed by Parliament until November. The young Duke's wardship and lands were granted, on 3 August 1486, along with the wardship of his younger brother, Henry Stafford, to the King's mother, Margaret Beaufort, and according to Davies it is likely Buckingham was educated in her various households.
Buckingham was in attendance at court at the elevation of Henry VII's second son, the future King Henry VIII, as Duke of York, on 9 November 1494, and was made a Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1495. In September 1497 he was a captain in the forces sent to quell a rebellion in Cornwall.
As a young man, Buckingham played a conspicuous part in royal weddings and the reception of ambassadors and foreign princes, 'dazzling observers by his sartorial splendour'. At the wedding of Henry VII's eldest son and heir Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Catherine of Aragon in 1501, he is said to have worn a gown worth £1500. He was the chief challenger at the jousting tournament held the following day.
At the accession of King Henry VIII, Buckingham was appointed on 23 June 1509, for the day of the coronation only, Lord High Constable, an office which he claimed by hereditary right. He also served as Lord High Steward at the coronation and bearer of the crown. In 1509 he was made a member of the King's Privy Council. On 9 July 1510 he had licence to crenellate his manor of Thornbury, Gloucestershire, and according to Davies rebuilt the manor house as 'an impressively towered castle' with 'huge oriel windows in the living-quarters in the inner court'.
In 1510 Buckingham was involved in a scandal concerning his sister, Anne, who was the wife of George Hastings, 1st Earl of Huntingdon. After hearing rumours concerning her and Sir William Compton, Buckingham found Compton in Anne's room. Compton was forced to take the sacrament to prove that he and Anne had not committed adultery, and Anne's husband sent her away to a convent from the court. There is no extant evidence establishing that Anne and Sir William Compton were guilty of adultery. In 1523 Compton took the unusual step of bequeathing land to Anne in his will, and directing his executors to include her in the prayers for his kin for which he had made provision in his will. There are some suggestions that the affair continued until 1513. He returned to the King's graces, being present at the marriage of Henry's sister, served in Parliament and was present at negotiations with Francis I of France and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.
From June to October 1513, Buckingham served as a captain during Henry VIII's invasion of France, commanding 500 men in the 'middle ward'. About 1517 he was one of 12 challengers chosen to joust against the King and his companions but excused himself on the ground that he feared to run against the King's person. He and his wife, Eleanor, attended the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520.
Although Buckingham was appointed to commissions of the peace in 1514 and charged—together with other Marcher lords—with responsibility for keeping order in south Wales, particularly along the borderland Welsh Marches, he was rebuked by the King in 1518 for failing to achieve the desired results. Buckingham exercised little direct political influence and was never a member of the King's inner circle.
Betrayal and execution
Buckingham was one of few peers with substantial Plantagenet blood and maintained numerous connections, often among his extended family, with the rest of the upper aristocracy, activities which attracted Henry's suspicion. During 1520, Buckingham became suspected of potentially treasonous actions and Henry authorised an investigation. The King personally examined witnesses against him, gathering enough evidence for a trial. The Duke was finally summoned to Court in April 1521 and arrested and placed in the Tower. He was tried before a panel of 17 peers, being accused of listening to prophecies of the King's death and intending to kill the King. Buckingham was executed on Tower Hill on 17 May. Buckingham was posthumously attainted by Act of Parliament on 31 July 1523, disinheriting most of his wealth from his children.
Some conclude this was one of the few executions of high personages under Henry VIII in which the accused was "almost certainly guilty". However, Sir Thomas More complained that the key evidence was hearsay from servants who, as commoners, were threatened and tortured to extract false confessions.
Buckingham's literary patronage included two translations, a printed translation of Helyas, Knyghte of the Swanne (on the Knight of the Swan), which he commissioned in 1512, and A Lytell Cronicle, a translation of an account of the Near East which he may have commissioned in 1520 in connection with his proposed pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
Marriage and issue
In 1488, Henry VII had suggested a marriage between Buckingham and Anne of Brittany, but in December 1489 the executors of Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, paid the King £4,000 for Buckingham's marriage to Percy's eldest daughter Eleanor (d. 1530). They had a son and three daughters:
Henry Stafford, 1st Baron Stafford (18 September 1501 – 30 April 1563), who married Ursula Pole, daughter of Sir Richard Pole by his wife, Margaret, Countess of Salisbury, daughter of George, Duke of Clarence.
Lady Elizabeth Stafford (c. 1497 – 30 November 1558), the second wife of Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk.
Lady Katherine Stafford (c. 1499 – 14 May 1555), who married Ralph Neville, 4th Earl of Westmorland.
Lady Mary Stafford, the youngest daughter, who married, about June 1519, as his third wife, George Neville, 5th Baron Bergavenny.
Buckingham is also said to have had three illegitimate children:
George Stafford.
Henry Stafford.
Margaret Stafford (c. 1511 – 25 May 1537), whom Buckingham married to his ward, Thomas Fitzgerald of Leixlip, half-brother to the Earl of Kildare.
In fiction
The accusation and condemnation of Buckingham is depicted in the Shakespeare play Henry VIII.
In the 2003 two-part drama Henry VIII starring Ray Winstone and Helena Bonham Carter, Buckingham is played by Charles Dance. His character was a minor one, killed off in the first 15 minutes.
Buckingham is a character in the first two episodes of the first season of the drama series The Tudors in 2007. Portrayed by Steven Waddington, Buckingham's intrigues are fictionalised, with several key facts omitted.
Buckingham's (fictional) son is a character in the novel The Blanket of the Dark, by John Buchan (1931). He has grown up as Peter Pentecost in the forests near Oxford and is told of his true heritage in the year 1536. Later he has a fateful encounter with the King and decides that he does not wish to pursue a life of power.
He is portrayed by Olly Rix in the 2019 Starz miniseries The Spanish Princess, where he is depicted early on as seducing one of Catherine of Aragon's ladies in waiting.
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Thornbury Castle
Stafford family, Tudorplace website
|-
1478 births
1521 deaths
People from Brecon
03
Knights of the Garter
Lord High Constables of England
Lord High Stewards
Executions at the Tower of London
Prisoners in the Tower of London
People executed under Henry VIII
Executed English people
15th-century English people
16th-century English nobility
Edward
People executed by Tudor England by decapitation
Male Shakespearean characters
Executed Welsh people
Welsh politicians convicted of crimes
Burials at Austin Friars, London
People executed under the Tudors for treason against England | [
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258943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsall | Walsall | Walsall (, or ; locally ) is a market town and administrative centre in the West Midlands County, England. Historically part of Staffordshire, it is located north-west of Birmingham, east of Wolverhampton and from Lichfield.
Walsall is the administrative centre of the wider Metropolitan Borough of Walsall. At the 2011 census, the town's built-up area had a population of 67,594, with the wider borough having a population of 269,323. Neighbouring settlements in the borough include Darlaston, Brownhills, Pelsall, Willenhall, Bloxwich and Aldridge.
History
Early settlement
The name Walsall is derived from "Walh halh", meaning "valley of the Welsh", referring to the British who first lived in the area. However, it is believed that a manor was held here by William FitzAnsculf, who held numerous manors in the Midlands. By the first part of the 13th century, Walsall was a small market town, with the weekly market being introduced in 1220 and held on Tuesdays. The mayor of Walsall was created as a political position in the 14th century.
The Manor of Walsall was held by the Crown and given as a reward to royal proteges. In 1525, it was given to the King's illegitimate son, Henry Duke of Richmond, and in 1541 to the courtier Sir John Dudley, later Duke of Northumberland. It was seized by Queen Mary in 1553, after Northumberland had been found guilty of treason.
Queen Mary's Grammar School was founded in 1554, and the school carries the queen's personal badge as its emblem: the Tudor Rose and the sheaf of arrows of Mary's mother Catherine of Aragon tied with a Staffordshire Knot.
The town was visited by Queen Elizabeth I, when it was known as 'Walshale'. It was also visited by Henrietta Maria in 1643. She stayed in the town for one night at a building named the 'White Hart' in the area of Caldmore.
The Manor of Walsall was later sold to the Wilbrahim and Newport families, and passed by inheritance to the Earls of Bradford. On the death of the fourth Earl in 1762, the estate was transferred to his sister Diana, Countess of Mountrath and then reverted to the Earls of Bradford until the estates were sold after World War II. The family's connection with Walsall is reflected in local placenames, including Bridgeman Street, Bradford Lane, Bradford Street and Mountrath Street.
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution changed Walsall from a village of 2,000 people in the 16th century to a town of over 86,000 in approximately 200 years. The town manufactured a wide range of products including saddles, chains, buckles and plated ware. Nearby, limestone quarrying provided the town with much prosperity.
In 1824, the Walsall Corporation received an Act of Parliament to improve the town by providing lighting and a gasworks. The gasworks was built in 1826 at a cost of £4,000. In 1825, the corporation built eleven tiled, brick almshouses for poor women. They were known to the area as 'Molesley's Almshouses'.
The 'Walsall Improvement and Market Act' was passed in 1848 and amended in 1850. The Act provided facilities for the poor, improving and extending the sewerage system and giving the commissioners the powers to construct a new gas works. On 10 October 1847, a gas explosion killed one person and destroyed the west window of St Matthew's Church.
Walsall finally received a railway line in 1847, 48 years after canals reached the town, Bescot having been served since 1838 by the Grand Junction Railway. In 1855, Walsall's first newspaper, the Walsall Courier and South Staffordshire Gazette, was published.
The Whittimere Street drill hall was completed in 1866.
First World War
Over 2000 men from Walsall were killed in fighting during the First World War. They are commemorated by the town's cenotaph, which is located on the site of a bomb which was dropped by Zeppelin 'L 21', killing the town's mayoress and two others. Damage from the Zeppelin can still be seen on what is now a club on the corner of the main road, just opposite a furniture shop. A plaque commemorates the incident. The town also has a memorial to local VC recipient, John Henry Carless and decorated air ace Frederick Gibbs.
20th-century developments
Walsall's first cinema opened in the town centre in 1908; however, the post World War II decline in cinema attendances brought on by the rise in television ownership resulted in that and all of Walsall's other cinemas eventually being closed. The first Wurlitzer theatre organ in Great Britain was installed in the New Picture House cinema in Lower Bridge Street in the town centre. It was later renamed the Gaumont then Odeon.
Slum clearances began after the end of World War I, with thousands of 19th-century buildings around the town centre being demolished as the 20th century wore on, with new estates being built away from the town centre during the 1920s and 1930s. These were concentrated in areas to the north of the town centre such as Coal Pool, Blakenall Heath (where Walsall's first council houses were built in 1920), Goscote and Harden. after the end of World War II, Beechdale.
Significant developments also took place nearer to the town centre, particularly during the 1960s when a host of tower blocks were built around the town centre; however, most of these had been demolished by 2010.
The Memorial Gardens opened in 1952 in honour of the town's fallen combatants of the two world wars. The Old Square Shopping Centre, a modern indoor shopping complex featuring many big retail names, opened in 1969. The Old Square shopping centre is currently laying derelict, with shops set to open in the centre soon. Primark and The Co-operative have opened in the former Tesco store, after the supermarket chained moved to Littleton Street on the site of Walsall College. The college agreed a land swap with Tesco resulting in the construction of a new college building as part of the new Tesco development. A row of derelict shops were demolished in 2016, and rebuilt as a Poundland, which opened on Saturday 15 July 2017, and B & M, which opened on 17 August 2017. The Entertainer (Amersham) Ltd. also opened a store on 21 October 2017.
The County Borough of Walsall, which was established at Walsall Council House and originally consisted of Walsall and Bloxwich, was expanded in 1966 to incorporate most of Darlaston and Willenhall, as well as small parts of Bilston and Wednesbury. The current Metropolitan Borough of Walsall was formed in 1974 when Aldridge-Brownhills Urban District was incorporated into Walsall. At the same time, Walsall was transferred from the historic county of Staffordshire to become part of the new West Midlands county.
The Saddlers Centre, a modern shopping mall, opened in 1980, being refurbished within a decade. On 23 November 1981, an F1/T2 tornado touched down in Bloxwich and later moved over parts of Walsall town centre and surrounding suburbs, causing some damage. The Jerome K. Jerome museum, dedicated to the locally born author (1859–1927), was opened in 1984.
The town's prolific leather industry was recognised in 1988 when the Princess Royal opened Walsall Leather Museum.
By the 1990s, a canalside area in the town centre known as Town Wharf was being developed for leisure, shopping and arts facilities.
21st century
The town's new art gallery opened at Town Wharf in early 2000. The following year, Crown Wharf retail park opened nearby, accommodating retailers including Next and TK Maxx which closed on the 9th September 2020.
The 21st century has also seen a number of housing regeneration projects in the most deprived areas. Many of the town's 1960s tower blocks have been demolished, as well as interwar council housing in parts of Blakenall Heath and Harden, along with all of the Goscote estate. New private and social housing has been built on the site of most of the demolished properties.
Redevelopment and local government reorganisation
Walsall underwent modernisation in the 1970s with a new town centre being built at the expense of some medieval properties. In 1974, Walsall was transferred from the county of Staffordshire to form the metropolitan county of the West Midlands.
The Saddlers' Centre, a modern shopping complex, was opened in the town centre in 1980. This included a new Marks & Spencer department store.
Early 2000 saw the opening of The New Art Gallery Walsall in the north-west of the town centre near Wolverhampton Street, along with the new Crown Wharf Retail Park shortly afterwards. Part of Park Street, the town's main shopping area, was redeveloped around the same time. The centrepiece of this redevelopment was the new British Home Stores department store, which relocated from St Paul's Street at the end of the 1990s. The BHS store closed in 2016 after the company went into administration. Marks and Spencer closed their store a few years later.
Construction is ongoing in St Matthew's Quarters. A new Asda store opened in 2007 and when completed St Matthew's Quarters will also include brand shops and modern flats. Walsall College has moved to a new site within the town centre whilst on the old site Tesco has opened a new shopping complex.
The Savoy Cinema was a landmark on Park Street for more than half a century after its opening on 3 October 1938. It was refurbished in 1973 and became the Cannon Cinema after a takeover in 1986, but closed on 18 November 1993 after operating as a cinema for 55 years. It was demolished some 18 months later and the town's new Woolworth's store was built on its site. The store closed down at the end of 2008 when the retailer went into liquidation, and the building was re-occupied by a new T J Hughes department store which opened on 9 October 2009. However, the building became vacant again on 14 August 2011 when financial difficulties led to T.J. Hughes pulling out of the town after less than two years of trading. (TJ Hughes returned to the former Argos store in the Saddler Centre but have since closed for a second time.) It was re-occupied two months later with the opening of a Poundland store in the building on 22 October that year.
Geography
A local landmark is Barr Beacon, which is reportedly the highest point following its latitude eastwards until the Ural Mountains in Russia. The soil of Walsall consists mainly of clay with areas of limestone, which were quarried during the Industrial Revolution.
Suburbs and areas
Climate
Demography
The 2011 Census put Walsall's estimated resident population at around 269,000 people, an increase of around 6.2% from the previous census in 2001.
White British people make up 76.9% of Walsall's population, with the share of residents from a minority ethnic group at 23.1% in 2011, higher than the 19.5% in England and Wales and an increase from 14.8% in Walsall in 2001. The largest increase is in people of Asian background, with a rise from 10.4% in 2001 to 15.2% in 2011.
The Christian share of the population of Walsall in 2011 was 59%, followed by adherents of no religion at 20%, Muslims at 8.2%, and Sikhs at 4.3%.
The Walsall dialect is often referred to as "Yam-Yam". The accent is often incorrectly referred to as a Brummie accent by people from outside the West Midlands.
Economy
Walsall has had many industries, from coal mining to metal working. In the late 19th century, the coal mines ran dry, and Walsall became internationally famous for its leather trade. Walsall still manufactures the Queen's handbags, saddles for the Royal family and leathergoods for the Prince of Wales. Walsall is the traditional home of the English saddle manufacturing industry, hence the nickname of Walsall Football Club, "the Saddlers". Apart from leather goods, other industries in Walsall include iron and brass founding, limestone quarrying, small hardware, plastics, electronics, chemicals and aircraft parts.
Walsall's location in Central England and the fact that the M6 runs through the Metropolitan Borough of Walsall has increased its investment appeal. The main RAC control centre is located in Walsall close by J9 of the M6 and there are now plans to redevelop derelict land in nearby Darlaston and turn it into a state-of-the-art regional centre. Between Bloxwich and Walsall there is a business corridor where TK Maxx has recently opened a regional depot. Currently established businesses include Homeserve plc and South Staffordshire Water.
The three largest businesses by turnover in the borough are all involved with the storage and distribution of retail goods to an associated network of high street or cornershop stores. Poundland Ltd (owned by South African giant Steinhoff), A F Blakemore and Sons Ltd and One Stop Stores Ltd (part of Tesco plc) turn over more than £4.5bn annually between them.
Education
Walsall is home to the University of Wolverhampton's Sports and Art Campus and School of Education, all part of the Walsall Campus in Gorway Road, which includes a student village. Walsall College provides further education, and is based around three sites across Walsall. There are ten secular junior schools and three religious junior schools near the town centre. Walsall also houses many secondary schools, including comprehensives, academies, private and grammar schools (Namely Queen Mary's Grammar School and Queen Mary's High School).
The age of transfer to secondary school throughout the borough is 11 years, although the Aldridge-Brownhills area of the borough had a system of 5–9 first, 9–13 middle and 13–18 secondary schools until 1986, as the former urban district council of this area had adopted the three-tier system in 1972.
Schools within the borough are administered by Walsall MBC.SERCO.
Religion
Christianity is the largest religion in the Walsall Borough, shown in the 2011 census as 59.0%. The second largest is Islam recorded at 8.2%.
Of the churches in Walsall, St Matthew's Church lies to the north of the town centre near the ASDA supermarket, and can be seen when entering Walsall in any direction where it is the highest structure. In 1821, St Matthew's Church was demolished with exception of the tower and chancel and replaced at a cost of £20,000 to a design by Francis Goodwin.
St Martin's Church was consecrated in 1960 to serve the suburban housing estates of Orchard Hills, Brookhouse and Park Hall.
Mellish Road Methodist Chapel, built 1910, had to be demolished in 2011, due to subsidence.
Other churches in Walsall include: The Crossing at St Paul's, in the town centre, and the Rock Church, near the Walsall Arboretum, Walsall Community Church, which meets at the Goldmine Centre.
There are also numerous mosques or Masjids in Walsall. Most of these are in close proximity to each other, located in the adjoining areas of Caldmore and Palfrey, just south of the town centre.
In the ward of Palfrey, there is Walsall's most-attended mosque, Masjid-Al-Farouq, alongside Aisha Mosque. Caldmore is home to four mosques: Masjid-e-Usman, Shah Jalal Masjid, Jalalia Masjid, and Ghausia Qasmia Mosque. In Chuckery, in the southeast of Walsall, lies Anjuman-e-Gosia Mosque, and Jamia Masjid Ghausia is located in the Birchills neighbourhood.
There is also a private Islamic school and Madrassah with 4 campuses across Walsall known as Abu Bakr Trust. Most mosques in Walsall also run their own evening Madrassahs.
Transport
Walsall bus station is made up of two smaller bus stations, Bradford Place bus station and St Paul's bus station, one being larger than the other and providing more services. Over 90 bus routes operated by five bus operators serve Walsall. (Although other bus companies were perceived operating as independent companies, in reality they were part of the Thandi Group). Services from St Paul's bus station leave Walsall in many directions; there are services south-east to Birmingham; west to Wolverhampton, Willenhall, north to Bloxwich, Cannock and Brownhills; and east to Sutton Coldfield and Aldridge, with many to the latter. In addition, services link Staffordshire areas such as Burntwood, Lichfield and Cannock. St Paul's is also home to the Walsall Information Centre.
Bradford Place mainly operates buses to the south and south-west, to West Bromwich, Bilston, Willenhall, Darlaston, Oldbury, Dudley and Merry Hill Centre. There are also numerous shorter bus routes leaving from both stations which give the town centre a link to housing estates including Alumwell, Beechdale, Chuckery, Park Hall and the Walsall Manor Hospital.
Walsall railway station is situated on Station Street in the town centre and is also accessible from the Saddlers shopping centre. There are typically four trains per hour from the station to Birmingham and one train per hour to Rugeley with fewer trains in the evenings and on Sundays. There is also a suburban station at Bescot.
Walsall is extremely well connected within the UK road network as it is served by the M6 which connects the M1 motorway towards London and M74 motorway towards Glasgow. There are three nearby junctions which serve Walsall on the M6 motorway: J7, J9 and J10. The stretch between these junctions is one of the busiest in Europe. The town is also served by A34 road which connects Manchester and the M42 motorway towards London, and is connected regionally by the A454 Black Country route. In 2018, the UK Department for Transport estimated 953 million miles were driven on Walsall's roads.
A tram service began in the town towards the end of the 19th century and ran until 2 October 1933.
Walsall Aerodrome operated from the 1930s until 1956. The nearest airport to Walsall is Birmingham Airport, which is located within 30 minutes drive.
The West Midlands Metro runs from Wolverhampton to Birmingham city centre and soon the metro will run and operate a tram extension from north of the former Wednesbury Town railway station across Potter Lane to a stop at Brierley Hill which will see the metro line use the corridor from Wednesbury Town to Dudley before running street level and back onto the track at Canal Street before branching off to Merry Hill and a tram stop at Brierley Hill.
The corridor section from Walsall to Wednesbury Town has been preserved for freight traffic to use to Round Oak Steel Terminal in the near future. It is possible that the metro extension will look to run an extension to Walsall via Bescot but will utilise the line with either people carriers or tram-trains.
Walsall was also to be part of the former '5' Ws scheme which would have connected it to Wolverhampton, Wednesfield, Willenhall and Wednesbury. Walsall Council decided to pull Walsall and Willenhall out of the scheme in favour of reopening the line to Wolverhampton to passengers via Darlaston and Willenhall. A proposal for the new stations to be built is part of a wider investment strategy to improve local services.
Culture
Arboretum and illuminations
Walsall Arboretum was officially opened on 4 May 1874 by the wealthy Hatherton family. It was hoped that the park would provide "a healthy change from dogfights, bull-baiting and cockfights", however the 2d (old pence) admission was not popular with the public and within seven years the council took over ownership to provide free admission. Among the attractions available were two boating lakes on the sites of former quarries, tennis courts, an outdoor swimming pool, and later – in the extension – a children's play area and paddling pool.
Over the years the Arboretum has seen many events and changes, including the beginnings of the Walsall Arboretum Illuminations as an annual event in 1951.
Originally white bulbs in trees for courting couples in the autumn, in the 1960s and 1970s, the lights were purchased secondhand from Blackpool Illuminations, but over the years they were increasingly made "in house" and now all are.
The Illuminations had up to sixty thousand bulbs and took year-round planning. Although the event had attracted an estimated 250,000 people in 1995, lack of growth beyond this figure has raised the prospect of major redevelopment as the light shows have been exactly the same for a number of years. In February 2009, Walsall council announced that the Illuminations would not take place in 2009, 2010 and 2011.
In January 2010, it was announced that the Illuminations had been permanently scrapped and would be replaced by other events such as concerts and laser shows throughout the year. The existing lights would be sold off where possible to interested parties.
Art gallery
The New Art Gallery Walsall opened in 2000. Named, as was its predecessor, the E M Flint Gallery in memory of Ethel Mary Flint, head of art at Queen Mary's Grammar School, an exhibitor at the Royal Academy, and a former mayor of Walsall, it contains a large number of works by Jacob Epstein as well as works by Van Gogh, Monet, Turner, Renoir and Constable. The large gallery space is host to temporary exhibitions. The lifts of the building use the voice of Noddy Holder to announce the arrival at various floors.
Museums
Walsall had two museums, Walsall Museum (closed 2015) and Walsall Leather Museum (still open). Walsall Museum featured local history objects primarily from the manufacturing trades and also had a space for temporary exhibitions, while the leather museum displays a mixture of leather goods and has recreations of leatherworkers workshops.
Public art
The refurbished Sister Dora statue stands at the crossroads of Park Street and Bridge Street. Opposite this stood a locally famous concrete hippopotamus, which has since been moved to outside the library and replaced by a fountain. The hippo was designed by local architect and sculptor John Wood.
Literature
Though the novelist and essayist Jerome K. Jerome was born in the town, he never wrote about it. Some writers have, including the Walsall born John Petty (1919–1973) who set a number of his books in Walsall, most famously Five Fags a Day (1956). More recently the comic novelist Paul McDonald has used Walsall as a location for Surviving Sting (2001) and Kiss Me Softly, Amy Turtle (2004).
TV and radio
Big Centre TV, the local television channel covering Birmingham and the Black Country, was for a short time based in Walsall town centre. Big Centre TV ceased broadcasting at midnight on Friday 4 November 2016 and reopened and relaunched as Made in Birmingham at 6 pm on Tuesday 8 November 2016. On 19 August 2018, Made in Birmingham rebranded its social media pages as Birmingham TV and changed its website address.
Sport
Walsall's football club, Walsall F.C., the Saddlers, was founded in 1888 when Walsall Town F.C. and Walsall Swifts F.C. merged. They won their first game against Aston Villa. The club currently play in Football League Two.
There are also a number of non-league football clubs based within the borough, including Rushall Olympic.
Walsall has a cricket club, Walsall Cricket Club who won Birmingham League Premier Division in 2006.
Walsall RUFC is Walsall's rugby union team which is currently competing in Midlands 1 West.
Aldridge and Walsall Hockey Club currently plays in the West Midlands Premier League and is managed by Sir Mark Grundy.
Walsall was also once home to Formula 1 constructor Ensign Racing, in Walsall Wood from 1973 to 1980, before moving to Chasetown.
Walsall was home to a horse racing course. The grandstand was constructed in 1809 at a cost of £1,300 on a piece of land donated by the Earl of Bradford on a lease of 99 years. Soon after completion, one of the lower compartments was converted into a billiards room, which contained a table donated by Lord Chichester Spencer of Fisherwick Park. Throughout the 19th century, races were held annually at the racecourse at Michaelmas.
Shopping
In 1809, a market house was constructed at the end of High Street, on the site of the market cross, for the sale of poultry, eggs, butter and dairy produce. The building was demolished in 1852 along with other buildings that had fallen into disrepair. A pig market was constructed in the town in 1815 on High Street. At its peak, the market would handle the sale of 2,000 pigs per day.
In 1847, the corporation tried to construct a new market hall on the 'Bowling Green', to the rear of the Dragon Inn. The scheme proposed to use a large amount of public money to construct the hall. Shopkeepers feared that their businesses would be affected and demonstrations were held across the town against the proposals. The demonstrations forced the plans to be shelved.
Walsall town centre is a popular shopping destination in the Black Country. This is partly because of the ample supply of free or extremely cheap parking available within the town centre, including at two large supermarkets — Tesco and Asda — located on opposite sides of the town centre. Crown Wharf Retail Park is the most popular area of shopping, Housing Asda's first non-food store, Asda Living, as well as popular shops and restaurants such as Outfit, Argos Smyths Toys, Bank, River Island, Starbucks and Nando's.
Park Street remains Walsall's main shopping high street. Well-known retailers such as New Look, Deichmann, USC and Primark are all located on this fully pedestrianized high street. There is one main shopping mall 'Bradford Mall' formerly known as the 'Saddlers Centre' and two smaller malls located in the town centre. 'The Old Square' shopping mall houses Debenhams and other smaller retailers, while 'Quasar Centre', now known as 'Park Place Shopping Centre', houses Wilko's and the other smaller retailers. Other shopping destinations include Broadwalk Retail Park and Reedswood Retail Park.
The area around Walsall Art Gallery is under redevelopment. A new Premier Inn hotel has opened along with an 8 screen The Light Cinemas in addition to popular restaurants such as PizzaExpress, TGI Fridays and Bella Italia. There is also a second cinema to be opened across the road opposite Tesco, which will also house popular restaurants.
Recent changes
Projects due for completion in 2009 and 2010 include Walsall Manor Hospital redevelopment worth £174 million, the new Walsall College worth £65 million, the Waterfront South development worth £60 million and the St. Matthew's Quarter worth more than £25 million. Other projects with approval include £500 million Walsall Gigaport which is a high-speed fibre optic internet environment for national and international businesses, Waterfront North development worth £65 million and the Waterfront Lex development.
Walsall Transport Package worth £17 million was also due for completion in 2009 but was actually completed earlier, allowing the early opening of a £55 million supermarket development to create scores of extra jobs. This is an overall development of roads in and out of Walsall town centre as well as those towards Walsall Arboretum.
Notable people
Twin towns
Bahla, Oman (since 1953)
Mulhouse, France (since 1962)
Amritsar, India
Kobar, West Bank, Palestine
References
External links
Walsall Metropolitan Borough Council
Towns in the West Midlands (county)
Unparished areas in the West Midlands (county) | [
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258944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olinda | Olinda | Olinda () is a historic city in Pernambuco, Brazil, in the Northeast Region. It is located on the country's northeastern Atlantic Ocean coast, in the Metropolitan Region of Recife, the state capital. It has a population of 393,115 people, covers , and has a population density of 9,437 inhabitants per square kilometer. It is noted as one of the best-preserved colonial cities in Brazil, and has been inhabited since 1535.
As the former capital of the Captaincy of Pernambuco during the colonial era, Olinda has many historical buildings--the center was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982--and a rich culture. The Carnaval of Olinda, a popular street party, is very similar to traditional Portuguese carnivals, with the addition of African influenced dances, reflecting the history of the Northeast. All the festivities are celebrated on the streets with no bleachers or roping, and unlike in other cities, admission is free. There are hundreds of small musical groups (sometimes featuring a single performer) in many genres.
History
Several indigenous tribes occupied the coast of Northeastern Brazil for several thousand years, and the hills of the present day municipality of Olinda had settlements of Caetés and Tupinambá tribes, which were frequently at war. French mercenaries are thought to be the first Europeans to reach the region, but the Portuguese exploited intertribal rivalries and managed to build a stronghold on the former Caeté village on a high hill. Recent studies by the Federal University of Pernambuco have uncovered new evidence of the pre-colonial population of the area.
The settlement of Olinda was founded in 1535 by Duarte Coelho Pereira, from Portugal; it was elevated to a town on March 12, 1537. It was made the seat of the Roman Catholic Territorial Prelature of Pernambuco in 1614, becoming the Diocese of Olinda in 1676. The economy of the region was dominated by the production of sugarcane. This, combined with the importing of slaves from Africa to support cultivation made Olinda a colonial stronghold.
Olinda was the capital of the Portuguese hereditary captaincy of Pernambuco, but was burned by Dutch invaders. The Portuguese built their town on the hill, for practical purposes (eg, sewers) and to make it easier to defend. In the 17th century the Kingdom of Portugal was united with Spain (the 1580-1640 Iberian Union). Taking advantage of this period of Portuguese weakness, the area around Olinda and Recife was occupied by the Dutch who gained access to the Portuguese sugarcane plantations. John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen was appointed as the governor of the Dutch possessions in Brazil in 1637 by the Dutch West India Company on recommendation of Frederick Henry. He landed at Recife, the port of Pernambuco and the chief stronghold of the Dutch, in January 1637. By a series of successful expeditions, he gradually extended the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on the south to São Luís de Maranhão in the north. He likewise conquered the Portuguese possessions of Saint George del Mina, Saint Thomas, and Luanda, Angola, on the west coast of Africa. After the dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640, Portugal would reestablish its authority over the lost territories of the Portuguese Empire, including the former Dutch Brazil. Sugarcane plantation slavery would continue to be a source of wealth in Olinda until the Lei Áurea ("Golden Law") abolished slavery in an independent Brazil in 1888.
Olinda declined in importance after the Dutch invasion. Recife became the capital of Pernambuco in 1827, and Olinda is part of the greater Recife metropolitan area. Due to the historic position of the city, its cathedral, a World Heritage Site, called São Salvador do Mundo, remains the primary seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Olinda and Recife, with a co-cathedral in Recife. Olinda also has a Minor Basilica, again a World Heritage Site (Minor): Basílica Abacial do Mosteiro de São Bento de Olinda.
Besides its natural beauty, Olinda is also one of Brazil's main cultural centers: in 1982 it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The city relives the magnificence of the past every year during the large Carnival, to the rhythms of frevo, maracatu and other northeast music and dances.
Geography
Olinda is located on the coast of the state of Pernambuco, six kilometers north of the center of Recife. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the municipality of Paulista to the north, and Recife to the south and west. It is part of the Metropolitan Region of Recife (RMR).
The average elevation is 16 m above sea level. The landscapes is made of plains and hills, some of them steep. Olinda is mostly drained by the Paratibe River (55.13% of the territory), with the remainder drained by the Capibaribe River. The municipality is in the Atlantic Forest ecoregion.
Olinda has a tropical monsoon type climate (Köppen-Geiger: Am), typical of the eastern section of the northeastern Brazilian coast, with average monthly temperatures consistently above 18 °C, little diurnal variation in temperature, abundant rainfall most of the year, and high relative humidity.
Economy
The main economic activities in Olinda are based in tourism, commerce, transportation industry and artcraft. The tourist sector has a boom every Carnival when thousands of people are in the old historic town center.
Economic indicators
Economy by Sector
Gallery
Historic Centre
See also
List of museums in Pernambuco
References
External links
Official website of the prefeitura
Official website of the Câmara Municipal
Explore the Historic Centre of the Town of Olinda in the UNESCO collection on Google Arts and Culture
https://web.archive.org/web/20130407002251/http://olindavirtual.org/
https://web.archive.org/web/20060614045202/http://www.olinda.com.br/ Commercial site
Video Olinda, Pernambuco (PT)
Video Olinda street Carnival
Populated places established in 1535
World Heritage Sites in Brazil
Historic districts
Populated coastal places in Pernambuco
1535 establishments in Brazil
Municipalities in Pernambuco
1630 establishments in the Dutch Empire
Populated places established by the Dutch West India Company | [
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258945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paulista | Paulista | Paulista is a municipality in Pernambuco, Brazil, with a population of 334,376 as of 2020. It has the highest Human Development Index (HDI) of the Recife metropolitan area. It is the birthplace of footballer Rivaldo and is also famous for its beaches, including Maria Farinha with the giant Veneza water park. It was incorporated as a city in 1935.
The land on which the city is built was sold to a bandeirante from São Paulo in 1689, whence the city's name.
Beaches
Conceição Beach - At long with many coconut trees, this beach has calm and very deep water. Also has many bars and tents.
Janga Beach - an urban beach with artificial reefs
Maria Farinha Beach - features quiet and shallow waters. At low tide, it is possible to see the reefs, and at this time, the beach has almost no waves.
Pau Amarelo Beach - features quiet water and a formation of sand banks, which give rise to small sandbar islets and natural pools.
The beaches of Paulista are a nesting ground for endangered hawksbill sea turtles.
Economy
The main economic activities in Paulista are based in commerce, tourism and textile industry.
Economic Indicators
Economy by Sector
Health Indicators
Notable people
Heider Dias Sotero, footballer
See also
Jamesson Andrade de Brito
References
Video Janga beach and Pernambuco folklore
Populated coastal places in Pernambuco
Municipalities in Pernambuco
1935 establishments in Brazil | [
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258947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivaldo | Rivaldo | Rivaldo Vítor Borba Ferreira (born 19 April 1972), known as Rivaldo (), is a Brazilian former professional footballer. He played mainly as an attacking midfielder but also as a second striker. He is regarded as one of the greatest players of all time. Labelled a "bandy-legged genius" by The Guardian (due to being bowlegged), although he was predominantly left footed he was capable of playing on either flank, and was on occasion deployed as a wide midfielder or as a winger.
Rivaldo spent five years with Spanish club Barcelona, where he formed a successful partnership with Patrick Kluivert, and won the 1998 and 1999 Spanish La Liga championship and the 1998 Copa del Rey. With 130 goals for Barcelona he is the club's ninth highest goalscorer. His three goals against Valencia in June 2001 which qualified Barcelona for the Champions League, the last goal of which was a last minute 20-yard bicycle kick winner, is often ranked the greatest hat-trick ever.
From 1993 to 2003, Rivaldo played 74 matches and scored 35 goals for Brazil and is the seventh highest goalscorer. He helped Brazil reach the final of the 1998 FIFA World Cup, and won the 1999 Copa América where he was named player of the tournament. Rivaldo starred in an attacking trio with Ronaldo and Ronaldinho in the 2002 FIFA World Cup winning team. Scoring in five of Brazil's seven games at the tournament (including a feint that set up Ronaldo for the second goal in the final), Rivaldo was named in the FIFA World Cup All-Star Team in 2002 having also previously been selected in 1998.
One of the most skillful and creative players of his generation, Rivaldo was renowned for his bending free kicks, bicycle kicks, feints, powerful ball striking from distance, and ability to both score and create goals. In 1999, he won the Ballon d'Or and was named FIFA World Player of the Year. In 2004, he was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players. He is an inductee to the Brazilian Football Museum Hall of Fame. In March 2014, Rivaldo announced his retirement from professional football, however since June 2015 he made appearances for Mogi Mirim. On 14 August 2015, he announced that the comeback was over and that he was retiring once again to spend time in his home in Recife, named “Hitsville” due to his great love of Motown music. He also supports the schools he set up in Chad under his charity, Give Kids a Chance in Chad. In 2015, he acted in the Iranian-Brazilian film I Am Not Salvador. In 2018, Rivaldo was added as an icon to the FIFA video game FIFA 19.
Early life
Born in Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil, Rivaldo had a poor upbringing in the favelas of the city. His physical appearance still marks the poverty he experienced in his childhood: malnourishment-caused bowleggedness and the loss of several teeth. Predominantly left footed, Rivaldo began his professional career at the age of 16, when he signed with Paulistano Futebol Clube in 1989, despite the Paulistano coaches believing him too physically weak to succeed. Rivaldo's father Romildo was killed in a road accident in 1989, but Rivaldo signed his first professional contract later that year.
Club career
Santa Cruz, Mogi Mirim and Corinthians
He went on to play for Santa Cruz in 1991. In 1992, he moved south to the state of São Paulo where he played for Mogi Mirim in the second tier of Brazilian football. In 1993, he moved to the state capital to play for Corinthians in the first division, on loan.
Palmeiras
In the next year, he switched local allegiances and moved to Palmeiras, helping the club successfully defend its league championship in 1994 and winning Campeonato Paulista in 1996. In both 1993 and 1994, he was honoured by the authoritative publication Placar Magazine with the Bola de Ouro for the best player in his position.
Deportivo
Before the 1996 Olympics, Parma announced that they had signed Rivaldo and his teammate Amaral from Palmeiras. After the Olympics, there was a dispute, and rather than Italy, Rivaldo moved to Spain as he joined Deportivo La Coruña in La Liga. He only stayed for one season, but nonetheless it proved to be a successful one for both him and the club. Rivaldo was the joint-fourth top goalscorer of the season, with 21 goals from 41 matches, as Deportivo finished third in the league.
Barcelona
Rivaldo switched to FC Barcelona in 1997 in a transfer deal securing Deportivo a 4 billion pesetas (around $26 million) transfer fee, with Sir Bobby Robson convincing Barcelona to sign Rivaldo ahead of Steve McManaman by saying that Rivaldo would guarantee the team many goals.
In his first season at Barcelona, Rivaldo was the second top goalscorer with 19 goals in 34 matches, as Barcelona won The Double of La Liga and Copa del Rey. In 1999, he won another La Liga title with Barcelona, and once again was the league's second highest scorer with 24 goals. In 1999, Rivaldo was named FIFA World Player of the Year and he also received the Ballon d'Or. After Barcelona's unsuccessful Champions League campaign, Rivaldo was linked with a move away from Camp Nou. Then Manchester United captain Roy Keane was reported stating Rivaldo was the player he most wanted United to sign.
In his third season at Barcelona, Rivaldo fell out with manager Louis van Gaal, when he insisted playing as a playmaker rather than on the left wing. Even though he had a strained relationship with Van Gaal, Rivaldo went on to score 10 goals in the season's Champions League as the club reached the semi-finals. Van Gaal was fired in June 2000.
In the following 2000–01 season, Rivaldo was once again the second highest goalscorer of the league, with 23 goals. In the last game of the season, against Valencia CF, Rivaldo scored a hat-trick to win the game 3–2. Frequently ranked the greatest hat-trick ever, his first goal was a trademark bending free kick that curled into the bottom right corner, the second saw him send the Valencia player the wrong way with a feint before a strike with little back-lift from 25 yards swerved into the bottom left corner of the net, and his match-winning third occurred after Rivaldo controlled the ball with the chest from the edge of the 18-yard box and executed an overhead bicycle kick in the 89th minute, which he regards as the best goal of his career. An ecstatic Rivaldo ripped off his jersey and started swinging it over his head during his goal celebrations, while Barcelona club president Joan Gaspart broke with convention in the stadium's VIP box by punching the air with both fists and yelling his delight next to the opposition delegation. The win pushed Barcelona ahead of Valencia to secure a place in the 2001–02 Champions League. After the game Rivaldo stated; "What happened tonight has been incredible. I dedicate the winning goal to all the players who have fought so hard all season and all the supporters who have suffered so much. I'm delighted to have made them happy with my goals." He scored a total of 36 goals that season.
Milan
Rivaldo signed a three-year deal with the Italian Serie A club Milan. With Milan, he won the Coppa Italia and the Champions League in the 2002–03 season. In August 2003, he also won the UEFA Super Cup before cancelling his contract with Milan in November that year. After leaving Milan, he briefly returned to Brazil, playing for Cruzeiro in Belo Horizonte. He came close to signing for Bolton Wanderers in 2004, though Bolton eventually pulled out of the deal. Due to his poor performances throughout the season, he won the Bidone d'Oro Award in 2003, which is given to the worst Serie A player during a particular season.
Cruzeiro
Rivaldo decided to return to Brazil in early 2004, by appointment of coach Vanderlei Luxemburgo who convinced him to play for the club, becoming Cruzeiro's major signing for the Copa Libertadores. However, his time with the team was very short, only eleven games and two goals. As reported by CNN, Rivaldo left the club after just two months due to the firing of Luxemburgo, Rivaldo's mentor earlier in his career. Rivaldo stated, "When he left, I preferred to leave as well. It was my decision because I consider Luxemburgo to be a special person."
Olympiacos
On 22 July 2004, Rivaldo joined Olympiacos of Superleague Greece. During the 2004–05 season he scored some stand out goals, one of them coming in his first derby against Panathinaikos that arguably turned out to be his most famous in an Olympiacos shirt: a bending free kick to send Olympiacos to victory over their eternal rivals. Another notable goal by Rivaldo came the following week in Olympiacos's matchday 6 UEFA Champions League group game in England against eventual champions Liverpool F.C. where he scored a deft free-kick in front of the Kop and put the Greek giants ahead. However Olympiacos were eliminated after Liverpool talisman Steven Gerrard scored with a 25-yard half volley 3 minutes from full-time. In the last game of Rivaldo's first season at Olympiacos, the club needed a victory in order to win the Alpha Ethniki championship, with Panathinaikos just one point behind. Olympiacos went on to beat Iraklis 0–1 in an away match in Thessaloniki, thanks to Rivaldo's goal, and secured the championship.
Rivaldo renewed his contract with Olympiacos for a third year, despite now being 34 years old. In July 2006, Rivaldo announced that the 2006–07 season with Olympiacos would be his last in Europe, before returning to Brazil. However, he quickly changed his decision and decided to stay for another year. The 2006–2007 season saw him score 17 goals in 27 Superleague matches. Rivaldo scored 43 goals in 81 games for Olympiacos.
AEK Athens
Rivaldo was released by Olympiacos after a dispute with the chairman of the club, Sokratis Kokkalis, who decided that he was too old to continue with the club. Later that summer, he signed for Super League club AEK Athens on 29 May 2007. His first Super League goal with the Athens' club came through a penalty in their 3–0 win against Panionios. Rivaldo had another great season and the team. After the winning match against Olympiacos with 4–0, Rivaldo showed his four fingers to the camera.
Rivaldo had stated his intention to leave Greece if the ruling went in favour of Olympiakos and AEK Athens were not declared champions. He stated: "A team that was not good enough to win the title on the pitch does not deserve the trophy."
Bunyodkor
Rivaldo announced on 25 August 2008 to a Greek Sport Radio Station that he agreed to continue his career at Bunyodkor in Uzbekistan, effective immediately, after what he described as an "extremely tempting contract offer".
Rivaldo signed a two-year contract worth €10.2 million and later signed an extension to extend the contract to 2011. On his debut for Bunyodkor, Rivaldo scored both goals in a 2–0 win. In 2009, Rivaldo became the first player in the world to score one, then two, then three, then four goals in four consecutive matches. He scored one goal in the first match and two goals in the second match against Navbahor. In the third match on 25 June 2009, Rivaldo scored a hat trick in a 4–0 win against Metallurg. In the fourth match Bunyodkor beat Sogdiana Jizzakh 5–0 and Rivaldo scored four in 17 minutes. After the end of the 2009 season, Rivaldo won UFF Topscorer award, having scored 20 league goals, and was runner up for UFF Player of the Year award. He scored 33 goals for the club in total. Rivaldo announced on 11 August 2010 on Twitter that he had cancelled his contract with Bunyodkor.
Mogi Mirim
On 18 November 2010, he announced he would be returning to Mogi Mirim, the club that he had started his career in the early 1990s, through his Social Networking site, saying: "After sorting out a lot of things outside of the country, I have decided to play the Paulista 2011 for Mogi Mirim, of whom I am President." However, he joined São Paulo in January 2011.
São Paulo
On 23 January 2011, Rivaldo joined São Paulo. He scored on his debut for them in the First Division against Linense with a wonderful goal. The ball was sent over from the left hand side of the pitch, before Rivaldo controlled the ball and took it over a defender using his left knee, and finished at the near post. He spent most part of March 2011 tending injury, but came back for following fixtures such as a 1–1 draw with Palmeiras and a 2–1 win over Corinthians.
Rivaldo stated on his Twitter account that he would leave São Paulo by the end of the season: "I just want to inform everybody that on Saturday, it's going to be my last training session at São Paulo. I've been told by the club's official that this is going to be my last season here." He added: "I'm not saying goodbye to football yet. I still have a lot to accomplish. I just wish I could hang up my boots at the end of 2012."
Kabuscorp
Rivaldo joined Angolan club Kabuscorp in January 2012. On 18 March, Rivaldo scored a hat-trick against Recreativo Caala. Rivaldo left Kabuscorp in November 2012 after the expiration of his contract.
São Caetano
In January 2013, Rivaldo joined São Caetano, signing a deal that ran to December. He scored his first goal for his new club in his debut against Sport Club Corinthians Paulista, 9 February. During the following match against Clube Atlético Bragantino Rivaldo once again scored, although his team lost with 2–1. In November 2013, he left the club due to knee problems.
Mogi Mirim
In December 2013, Rivaldo joined Mogi Mirim, signing a deal that ran until 2015. His son Rivaldinho played for the club. Rivaldo had only made one league appearance for the club when he retired in July 2015.
Retirement
In March 2014, the Brazilian icon officially retired from football after a career which spanned more than 20 years, and he decided to remain as the president of Mogi Mirim to help run the club and to look after his son, Rivaldinho. In a released statement, Rivaldo commented: "My history as a player has come to the end. With tears in my eyes today I would like to thank God, my family and all the support, the affection that I received during those 24 years as a player." However, he returned to the team in June 2015. On 14 July 2015, Rivaldo and Rivaldinho scored goals in the same match for the first time as Mogi Mirim beat Macaé 3–1.
On 18 January 2019, SCC Mohammédia announced Rivaldo as their new technical director and coach for the following season. The player denied that a deal was made, as he signed a pre-contract in which the club must achieve promotion from National (third tier in the Moroccan league).
International career
In 1993, he debuted for the Brazil national football team, scoring the only goal in a friendly match against Mexico. He was selected to represent Brazil at the 1996 Summer Olympics. The Brazilian team won the bronze medal, but Rivaldo was not selected for the third place playoff.
Rivaldo returned to the Brazilian national team for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, where he scored three goals en route to the final, including two in the 3–2 quarter-final win against Denmark. Brazil were defeated 3–0 by hosts France in final, failing to defend their 1994 title. Rivaldo had not been a part of the victorious Brazilian team at the 1997 Copa América tournament, but was part of the successful defence of that title at the 1999 Copa América. Rivaldo finished the tournament as the top scorer, with five goals; one being an equaliser from a free-kick in a 2–1 win over Argentina in the quarter-finals, and two in the 3–0 victory over Uruguay in the final. He was named the Most Valuable Player of the tournament.
Rivaldo had been the centre of criticism when Brazil did not win tournaments, ever since the 1996 Olympics. In the 1–0 win against Colombia in November 2000, Rivaldo was booed so heavily that he threatened to retire from playing for his country.
The zenith of Rivaldo's national team career came at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted in South Korea and Japan, where he was able to erase the disappointment of the previous World Cup Final defeat, helping Brazil win their fifth World Cup. Featuring in an attacking trio with Ronaldo and Ronaldinho, dubbed "the three R's", Rivaldo scored in the first five games while Ronaldo scored in four matches. Despite a successful tournament, Rivaldo was involved in a controversial incident against Turkey. Near the end of the match, with the ball out of play, Turkish defender Hakan Ünsal kicked a ball towards Rivaldo, who was waiting at the corner flag. The ball struck his thigh, but Rivaldo fell to the ground clutching his face. The referee sent the Turkish player off with a second yellow card. After a video review, Rivaldo was fined 11,670 Swiss francs by FIFA.
Rivaldo's goal against Belgium in the second round prompted Belgian coach Robert Waseige to name him as the deciding factor. Ronaldinho assisted Rivaldo to score the equaliser against England in the quarter-finals before Ronaldinho scored the winning goal in a 2–1 victory. Brazil met Germany in the final, and went on to win the tournament with a 2–0 victory, courtesy of two goals by Ronaldo with Rivaldo involved in both goals. The first came after Rivaldo's shot was saved by German goalkeeper Oliver Kahn with Ronaldo scoring the rebound, and the second saw Rivaldo fool the German defence with a dummy as the ball ran on to Ronaldo who finished. Rivaldo was named by Brazil coach Luiz Felipe Scolari as the best player of the tournament. Rivaldo along with Ronaldo and Ronaldinho were named in the FIFA World Cup All-Star Team.
Rivaldo's last cap was on 19 November 2003 in Curitiba in a 3–3 draw with Uruguay. He played 79 minutes before being substituted for Luís Fabiano. He had scored his last goal just three days earlier from the penalty spot in a 1–1 draw with Peru. In his time with the national side, Rivaldo won 74 caps, and scored 35 goals.
Style of play
Regarded as one of the best players of his generation and also one of the greatest players of all time, Rivaldo was a critical, skillful, and creative player, known for his dribbling ability, use of feints, balance, and close ball control. Despite his height, he was also extremely agile. A dead-ball specialist, Rivaldo was renowned for his bending free kicks and penalty taking, as well as his ability to score from distance with powerful strikes. Left footed and possessing excellent technique, he was also known for his ball striking from volleys, and for having a penchant for scoring from bicycle kicks.
Although he was not a true striker, Rivaldo was a prolific goalscorer, capable of playing in several creative and offensive positions: during the prime of his career, a period where he won the Ballon d'Or and was named FIFA World Player of the Year, he was often deployed in a playmaking attacking midfield role as a classic number 10, due to his vision and passing ability, which made him an excellent assist provider. He could also function as a second striker, or as a left winger, a position which he often occupied earlier in his career, due to his pace and crossing ability. Although predominantly left footed, he was capable of playing on either wing.
In 2002, John Carlin of The Guardian noted that Rivaldo "combines to dazzling effect the two essential qualities of the ideal footballer: artistry and efficiency." His colleague, Rob Smyth, echoed his views in 2008, commenting: "if you could marry British will with continental skill, you would have the perfect footballer. Such a mixed recipe was thrillingly in evidence in Diego Maradona. Since then, however, perhaps only Rivaldo has fused the two qualities," noting that like the Argentinian, the Brazilian had "bronca" (the word used repeatedly in Diego Maradona's autobiography to refer to "anger, fury, hatred, resentment, bitter discontent). He also argued that "if you took everyone playing at the absolute peak of their game, Rivaldo was the best and most unstoppable footballer since Maradona." Former Dutch international Ruud Gullit believed that Rivaldo's ability and qualities were often overlooked, as "he played in the same era as Brazilian counterparts Ronaldo and Ronaldinho."
Career statistics
Source:
Club
International
International goals
Scores and results list Brazil's goal tally first.
Honours
Club
Palmeiras
Brazilian Série A: 1994
Campeonato Paulista: 1996
Barcelona
La Liga: 1997–98, 1998–99
Copa del Rey: 1997–98
UEFA Super Cup: 1997
Milan
Coppa Italia: 2002–03
UEFA Champions League: 2002–03
UEFA Super Cup: 2003
Cruzeiro
Campeonato Mineiro: 2004
Olympiacos
Super League Greece: 2005, 2006, 2007
Greek Cup: 2005, 2006
Bunyodkor
Uzbek League: 2008, 2009, 2010
Uzbekistani Cup: 2008, 2010
International
Brazil
FIFA World Cup: 2002; Runner-up 1998
Copa América: 1999
Confederations Cup: 1997
1996 Summer Olympics: Bronze Medalist
Umbro Cup: 1995
Individual
Brazilian Football Museum Hall of Fame
Brazilian Bola de Prata (2): 1993, 1994
La Liga Foreign Player of the Year: 1997–98
FIFA World Cup All-Star Team (2): 1998, 2002
ESM Team of the Year (2): 1998–99, 1999–2000
World Soccer Player of the Year: 1999
Onze d'Or: 1999
Ballon d'Or: 1999
FIFA World Player of the Year: 1999
Copa América Golden Boot: 1999
Copa América Best Player: 1999
Trofeo EFE: 1999
UEFA Champions League top goalscorer: 1999–2000
IFFHS World's Top Goal Scorer: 2000
FIFA World Player of the Year: Bronze award 2000
FIFA World Cup Silver Shoe: 2002
FIFA XI: 2002
FIFA 100
Greek Championship best foreign player (2): 2006, 2007
Uzbek League top goalscorer: 2009
See also
List of men's footballers with the most official appearances
List of association football families
References
External links
1972 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Recife
Brazilian footballers
Association football forwards
Santa Cruz Futebol Clube players
Mogi Mirim Esporte Clube players
Sport Club Corinthians Paulista players
Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras players
Deportivo de La Coruña players
FC Barcelona players
A.C. Milan players
Cruzeiro Esporte Clube players
Olympiacos F.C. players
AEK Athens F.C. players
FC Bunyodkor players
São Paulo FC players
Kabuscorp S.C.P. players
Associação Desportiva São Caetano players
Campeonato Brasileiro Série B players
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A players
La Liga players
Serie A players
Super League Greece players
Uzbekistan Super League players
Girabola players
Campeonato Brasileiro Série C players
UEFA Champions League winning players
World Soccer Magazine World Player of the Year winners
Ballon d'Or winners
Brazil under-20 international footballers
Olympic footballers of Brazil
Brazil international footballers
Footballers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
1997 FIFA Confederations Cup players
1998 FIFA World Cup players
1999 Copa América players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
Olympic bronze medalists for Brazil
Olympic medalists in football
FIFA Confederations Cup-winning players
Copa América-winning players
FIFA World Cup-winning players
FIFA World Player of the Year winners
FIFA 100
Brazilian expatriate footballers
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Greece
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Uzbekistan
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Angola
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Morocco
Expatriate footballers in Spain
Expatriate footballers in Italy
Expatriate footballers in Greece
Expatriate footballers in Uzbekistan
Expatriate footballers in Angola
Naturalised citizens of Spain
SCC Mohammédia non-playing staff
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics | [
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258949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal%20fiction | Legal fiction | A legal fiction is a fact assumed or created by courts, which is then used in order to help reach a decision or to apply a legal rule. The concept is used almost exclusively in common law jurisdictions , particularly in England .
Development of the concept
A legal fiction typically allows the court to ignore a fact that would prevent it from exercising its jurisdiction by simply assuming that the fact is different. In cases where the court must determine whether a standard has been reached, such as whether a defendant has been negligent, the court frequently uses the legal fiction of the "reasonable man". This is known as the "objective test", and is far more common than the "subjective test" where the court seeks the viewpoint of the parties (or "subjects"). Sometimes, the court may apply a "mixed test", as in the House of Lords' decision in DPP v Camplin 1978.
Legal fictions are different from legal presumptions which assume a certain state of facts until the opposite is proved, such as the presumption of legitimacy. A legal fiction, by contrast, can be seen in laws recognizing "virgin birth", i.e., that a child born to an unmarried mother has no biological, psychological, or sociological father. They are different from hypothetical examples, such as the 'reasonable person' which serve as tools for the court to express its reasoning. They are also different from legal principles which create a legal state of affairs that is different from the underlying facts, such as corporate personhood although these are sometimes wrongly called legal fictions.
The term legal fiction is sometimes used in a pejorative way. Jeremy Bentham was a famous historical critic of legal fictions. Proponents of legal fictions, particularly their use historically (for example, before DNA evidence could give every child the right to have both genetic parents determined easily), identify legal fictions as "scaffolding around a building under construction".
Examples
One example of a legal fiction is that the English courts (which have no legislative power, but have nevertheless developed the bulk of the common law) do not "create" new law but merely "declare" the common law that has existed since time immemorial.
Adoption
One example of a legal fiction occurs in adoption. Once an order or judgment of adoption (or similar decree from a court) is entered, one or both biological (or natural) parents becomes a legal stranger to the child, legally no longer related to the child and with no rights related to the child. Conversely, the adoptive parent or parents are legally considered to be parents of the adopted child. A new birth certificate reflecting this is issued, which is a legal fiction.
Doctrine of survival
The doctrine of survival is also an example of legal fiction. If two people die within a brief period of time or in a manner that renders it impossible to tell who had died first, when legally material to inheritance the older of the two is considered to have died first, subject to rebuttal by evidence demonstrating the actual order of death.
Ejectment
A similar albeit more complicated legal fiction involved pleadings in the common law action of ejectment by which title to real property was tried. The common law had a procedure whereby title to land could be put in direct issue, called the "writ of right". One inconvenience of this procedure, though, was that the defendant at his option could insist on trial by "wager of battle", that is trial by combat, a judicially sanctioned duel. Most plaintiffs were unwilling to stake life and limb on the hazard of the battle, so the procedure fell into disuse. Rather, an elaborate tale was told in the pleadings about how one John Doe leased land from the plaintiff but was ousted by Richard Roe, who claimed a contrary lease from the defendant. These events, if true, led to the "assize of novel disseisin", later called the "mixed action in ejectment", a procedure in which title could ultimately be determined, but which led instead to trial by jury. This is the origin of the names John Doe, Richard Roe, and so forth, for anonymous parties. The fiction of Doe, Roe, and the leases was not challenged by the parties unless they wished to stake their life and safety on a trial by combat. Wager of battle was in fact not abolished in England until 1819, though it fell into disuse by the end of the thirteenth century.
Jurisdiction of the Exchequer
In England a simple legal fiction extended the jurisdiction of the Court of the Exchequer to all types of cases involving debt. The Exchequer was originally a court that had a specialized jurisdiction involving taxes and other obligations to The Crown. The Court had only slight jurisdiction in regards to private matters between litigants. The Exchequer therefore had a much lighter caseload than the King's Bench and other courts in England. Litigants who commenced an action in the Exchequer Court on a debt, therefore, had to plead that they owed money to the King, which they could not pay because their debtor had in turn wrongfully withheld payment to them. It came to pass that the debt owed to the King became a legal fiction in that the original debtor was not entitled to controvert this allegation in order to oust the Exchequer from jurisdiction. The litigant, by using this artifice against the debtor, could bring his case into a court with a substantially lesser caseload.
Jurisdiction of the Court of King's Bench
The Bill of Middlesex was a legal fiction used by the Court of King's Bench to gain jurisdiction over cases traditionally in the remit of the Court of Common Pleas. Hinging on the King's Bench's retaining criminal jurisdiction over the county of Middlesex, the Bill allowed it to take cases traditionally in the remit of other common law courts by claiming that the defendant had committed trespass in Middlesex. Once the defendant was in custody, the trespass complaint would be quietly dropped and other complaints (such as debt or detinue) would be substituted.
Resignation from Parliament
Another legal fiction involves resignation from Parliament in the United Kingdom. In 1623 a rule was declared that said that Members of Parliament were given a trust to represent their constituencies and therefore were not at liberty to resign them. In those days, Parliament was relatively weak in comparison to the 21st century, and service was sometimes considered a resented duty rather than a position of power and honour. However, an MP who accepted an "office of profit" from the Crown (including appointment as a minister) was obliged to leave the House and seek re-election, because it was thought that his independence might be compromised if he were in the King's pay. Therefore, the device was invented that the MP who wished to quit applied to the King for the post of "Steward of the Chiltern Hundreds" or "Steward of the Manor of Northstead" with no duties or income, but legally an office of profit in the King's gift nonetheless. The first MP to avail himself of the Chiltern Hundreds to leave Parliament was John Pitt in 1751. The requirement for ministerial re-election has been abolished, but the "Chiltern Hundreds" mechanism has been retained to enable MPs to resign.
Surviving fictions
The elaborate fiction about poor Doe left homeless by Roe has been abolished by statute or by reforms in civil procedure in every common law jurisdiction. The business about Doe and Roe being the guardians of undisclosed parties who wish to bring suit, or the names of parties unknown, remains in some jurisdictions (although not in England). The doctrine of survival, although still existing in England, has been abolished in many U.S. states by the Uniform Simultaneous Death Act. Also, legal fictions have been invalidated as being contrary to public policy, as, for example, in the High Court of Australia's rejection in the Mabo cases of the doctrine of terra nullius, the legal fiction that there were no property rights in land in Australia before the time of European colonization.
The 2019 UK prorogation controversy was resolved through the use of legal fiction. Although the United Kingdom Supreme Court found that Prime Minister Boris Johnson's prorogation of parliament had been unlawful, it lacked the authority to order the recall of Parliament. Instead, the legal fiction was maintained that Parliament had never been prorogued; any references to prorogation were expunged from the record, and Parliament was instead recorded as being adjourned, enabling it to reassemble the next day.
Philosophical arguments
Henry Maine argued that legal fictions seem an ornate outgrowth of the law that ought to be removed by legislation. Jeremy Bentham sharply criticised the notion of legal fictions, saying that "fictions are to law what fraud is to trade."
William Blackstone defended them, observing that legislation is never free from the iron law of unintended consequences. Using the metaphor of an ancient castle, Blackstone opined:
Use in fiction
In the novel Joan and Peter (1918) by H. G. Wells, Peter's parents die in a sailing accident. As it is not known which parent dies first, a legal fiction is applied maintaining that the husband, being a man and therefore stronger, lived longer. This decision results in the father's will determining Peter's legal guardian. However, later in the novel a witness to the accident declares seeing the mother floundering some time after the father has disappeared, and so the legal fiction is overturned and the mother's will is followed, providing Peter with a new legal guardian. Wells was in fact in error as to the English law, which instead presumes that the older person died first.
In Act II, Scene 1 of Gilbert and Sullivan's The Gondoliers, Giuseppe Palmieri (who serves, jointly with his brother Marco, as King of Barataria) requests that he and his brother be also recognized individually so that they might each receive individual portions of food as they have "two independent appetites". He is, however, turned down by the Court (made up of fellow Gondolieri) because the joint rule "... is a legal fiction, and legal fictions are solemn things."
In the novel Lud-in-the-Mist (1926) by Hope Mirrlees, the concept of the legal fiction as a secular substitute for spiritual mysteries and magical illusions is a central theme. Legal fictions in the novel include referring to fairy fruit, mention of which is taboo, as woven silk fabric in order to allow the law to regulate it; and declaring members of the country's Senate "dead in the eyes of the law" in order to remove them from office, since the senators serve for life.
Limitations on their use
Legal fictions derive their legitimacy from tradition and precedent, rather than formal standing as a source of law. Historically, many legal fictions were created as ad hoc remedies forged to meet a harsh or an unforeseen situation. Conventions and practices over the centuries have imparted a degree of stability both to the institution of legal fictions and to specific legal fictions (such as adoptions and corporate personhood) that have been repeatedly invoked in judicial precedents. While judiciaries retain discretion in the use of legal fictions, some general propositions regarding the appropriateness of using legal fictions might be expressed as follows:
A legal fiction should not be employed to defeat law or result in illegality: it has been always stressed that a legal fiction should not be employed where it would result in the violation of any legal rule or moral injunction. In Sinclair v. Brougham 1914 AC 378 the House of Lords refused to extend the juridical basis of a quasi-contract to a case of an borrowing by a limited company, since it would sanction the evasion of the rules of public policy forbidding an borrowing by a company. In general, if it appears that a legal fiction is being used to circumvent an existing rule, the courts are entitled to disregard that fiction and look at the real facts. The doctrine of "piercing the corporate veil" is applied under those circumstances.
Legal fiction should operate for the purpose for which it was created and should not be extended beyond its legitimate field.
Legal fiction should not be extended so as to lead to unjust results. For example, the fiction that the wife's personality is merged in that of the husband should not be extended to deny to the wife of a disqualified man the right to an inheritance when it opens. The wife of a murderer can succeed to the estate of the murdered man in her own right and will not be affected by the husband's disqualification.
There cannot be a fiction upon a fiction. For example, in Hindu law, where a married person is given in adoption, and such person has a son at the time of adoption, the son does not pass into his father's adoptive family along with his father. He does not lose his gotra and right of inheritance in the family of his birth. The second example would be that the adopted son would by a fiction be a real son of the adoptive father and his wife associated with the adoption. But to say that he will be the real son of all the wives of the adoptive father is a fiction upon fiction.
In religion
In Judaism, it is forbidden to own any chametz (leavened food) during Passover, and any such products must be burned before the holiday. However, in practice, most Jews will sell all their chametz to a non-Jew before Passover for a nominal sum, typically through a rabbi acting as an agent on their behalf, then buy it back after the holiday ends, eliminating the need to destroy or give away large amounts of food.
See also
Ad hoc
Copyright traps
De jure
Fiction
Notes
References
External links | [
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258951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XLR | XLR | XLR may refer to:
XLR connector, an electrical connector commonly used in audio equipment
Cadillac XLR, a retractable hardtop convertible automobile
Megas XLR, an American animated television series
X-linked recessive inheritance
XLR-8, a roller coaster
XL programming language runtime | [
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] |
258953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candas%20Jane%20Dorsey | Candas Jane Dorsey | Candas Jane Dorsey (born November 16, 1952) is a Canadian poet and science fiction novelist who resides in her hometown of Edmonton, Alberta. Dorsey became a writer from an early age and works across genre boundaries, writing poetry, fiction, mainstream and speculative, short and long form, arts journalism and arts advocacy. Dorsey has also written television and stage scripts, magazine and newspaper articles, and reviews.
Dorsey currently teaches and holds workshops and readings. She has served on the executive board of the Writers' Guild of Alberta and is a founder of SF Canada. In 1998, Dorsey received the Prix Aurora Award.
Dorsey was editor-in-chief of The Books Collective (River, Slipstream and Tesseract Books) from 1992 through 2005.
Bibliography
Results of the Ring Toss - 1976
Hardwired Angel - 1987
Machine Sex and Other Stories - 1988
Leaving Marks - 1992
Black Wine - 1997 (winner, James Tiptree, Jr. Award, Crawford Award, Prix Aurora Awards)
Vanilla and Other Stories - 2000
A Paradigm of Earth - 2001
Ice & Other Stories - 2018
The Adventures of Isabel: A Postmodern Mystery, By the Numbers - 2020
References
External links
1952 births
Living people
Bisexual women
Bisexual writers
Canadian science fiction writers
Cyberpunk writers
Canadian LGBT novelists
Canadian women novelists
Science fiction editors
Writers from Edmonton
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
Canadian speculative fiction publishers (people)
Canadian speculative fiction editors
Canadian LGBT poets
20th-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian non-fiction writers
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian poets
21st-century Canadian non-fiction writers
21st-century Canadian women writers
21st-century LGBT people | [
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258957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotonicity%20criterion | Monotonicity criterion | The monotonicity criterion is a voting system criterion used to evaluate both single and multiple winner ranked voting systems. A ranked voting system is monotonic if it is neither possible to prevent the election of a candidate by ranking them higher on some of the ballots, nor possible to elect an otherwise unelected candidate by ranking them lower on some of the ballots (while nothing else is altered on any ballot). That is to say, in single winner elections no winner is harmed by up-ranking and no loser is helped by down-ranking. Douglas R. Woodall called the criterion mono-raise.
Raising a candidate on some ballots while changing the orders of other candidates does not constitute a failure of monotonicity. E.g., harming candidate by changing some ballots from to would violate the monotonicity criterion, while harming candidate by changing some ballots from to would not.
The monotonicity criterion renders the intuition that there should be neither need to worry about harming a candidate by (nothing else than) up-ranking nor it should be possible to support a candidate by (nothing else than) counter-intuitively down-ranking. There are several variations of that criterion; e.g., what Douglas R. Woodall called mono-add-plump: A candidate should not be harmed if further ballots are added that have top with no second choice. Noncompliance with the monotonicity criterion doesn't tell anything about the likelihood of monotonicity violations, failing in one of a million possible elections would be as well a violation as missing the criterion in any possible election.
Of the single-winner ranked voting systems, Borda, Schulze, ranked pairs, maximize affirmed majorities, descending solid coalitions, and descending acquiescing coalitions are monotonic, while Coombs' method, runoff voting, and instant-runoff voting (IRV) are not. The multi-winner single transferable vote (STV) system is also non-monotonic.
While Woodall articulated monotonicity in the context of ordinal voting systems, the property can be generalized to cardinal voting and plurality voting systems by evaluating whether reducing or removing support for a candidate can help that candidate win an election. In this context, first past the post, approval voting, range voting, STAR Voting, majority judgment, as well as the multiple-winner systems single non-transferable vote, plurality-at-large voting (multiple non-transferable vote, bloc voting) and cumulative voting are monotonic. Party-list proportional representation using D'Hondt, Sainte-Laguë or the largest remainder method is monotonic in the same sense.
Instant-runoff voting and the two-round system are not monotonic
Using an example that applies to instant-runoff voting (IRV) and to the two-round system, it is shown that these voting systems violate the mono-raise criterion.
Suppose a president were being elected among three candidates, a left, a right, and a center candidate, and 100 votes cast. The number of votes for an absolute majority is therefore 51.
Suppose the votes are cast as follows:
According to the 1st preferences, Left finishes first with 35 votes, Right gets 33 votes, and Center 32 votes, thus all candidates lack an absolute majority of first preferences.
In an actual runoff between the top two candidates, Left would win against Right with 30+5+16=51 votes. The same happens (in this example) under IRV, Center gets eliminated, and Left wins against Right with 51 to 49 votes.
But if at least two of the five voters who ranked Right first, and Left second, would raise Left, and vote 1st Left, 2nd Right; then Right would be defeated by these votes in favor of Center.
Let's assume that two voters change their preferences in that way, which changes two rows of the table:
Now Left gets 37 first preferences, Right receives 31 first preferences, and Center still receives 32 first preferences, and there is again no candidate with an absolute majority of first preferences.
But now Right is eliminated, and Center remains in round 2 of IRV (or the actual runoff in the Two-round system). And Center beats its opponent Left with a remarkable majority of 60 to 40 votes.
Estimated likelihood of IRV lacking monotonicity
Crispin Allard argued, based on a mathematical model of London voters that the probability of monotonicity failure actually changing the result of an STV multi-winner election for any given constituency would be 1 in 4000, however Warren D. Smith claims that this paper contains 2 computation errors and omits a type of nonmonotonicity, making Allard's result "1000 times smaller than the truth".
Lepelley et al. found a probability of for 3-candidate single-winner elections (vs 11.65% for Coombs' method).
Another result, using the (unrealistic) "impartial culture" probability model, yields about 15% probability in elections with 3 candidates. As the number of candidates increases, these probabilities tend to increase eventually toward 100% (in some models this limit has been proven, in others it is only conjectured). Other Monte Carlo experiments found probabilities of 5.7% for an IAC model, and 6.9% for a uniformly-distributed 1D political spectrum model.
Nicholas Miller also disputed Allard's conclusion and provided a different mathematical model for the three-candidate case.
A 2013 study using a 2D spatial model with various voter distributions found that IRV was non-monotonic in at least 15% of competitive elections, increasing with number of candidates. The authors conclude that "three-way competitive races will exhibit unacceptably frequent monotonicity failures" and "In light of these results, those seeking to implement a fairer multi-candidate election system should be wary of adopting IRV."
Real-life monotonicity violations
If the ballots of a real election are released, it is fairly easy to prove if
election of a candidate could have been circumvented by raising them on some of the ballots, or
election of an otherwise unelected candidate by lowering them on some of the ballots
would have been possible (nothing else is altered on any ballot). Both events can be considered as real-life monotonicity violations.
However, the ballots (or information allowing them to be reconstructed) are rarely released for ranked voting elections, which means there are few recorded monotonicity violations for real elections.
2009 Burlington, Vermont mayoral election
A monotonicity violation could have occurred in the 2009 Burlington, Vermont mayor election under instant-runoff voting (IRV), where the necessary information is available. In this election, the winner Bob Kiss could have been defeated by raising him on some of the ballots. For example, if all voters who ranked Republican Kurt Wright over Progressive Bob Kiss over Democrat Andy Montroll, would have ranked Kiss over Wright over Montroll, and additionally some people who ranked Wright but not Kiss or Montroll, would have ranked Kiss over Wright, then these votes in favor of Kiss would have defeated him. The winner in this scenario would have been Andy Montroll, who was also the Condorcet winner according to the original ballots, i.e. for any other running candidate, a majority ranked Montroll above the competitor. This hypothetical monotonicity violating scenario, however, would require that right-leaning voters switch to the most left-wing candidate.
Australian elections and by-elections
Since every or almost every IRV election in Australia has been conducted in the black (i.e. not releasing enough information to reconstruct the ballots), non-monotonicity is difficult to detect in Australia.
However, the theoretical disadvantage of non-monotonicity can be seen in the 2009 Frome state by-election. The by-election was a contest between the Liberal Party of Australia, Australian Labor Party, independent candidate Geoff Brock, and the National Party of Australia. The eventual winner was Brock, who placed only third on first preferences with about 24% of the vote. However, he was favoured by National Party voters, whose preferences placed him ahead of the Labor candidate by 31 votes. Labor was pushed to third place and eliminated in the next count, with most of their preferences flowing to Brock, allowing him to defeat the Liberal candidate. However, if a number of voters who preferred Liberal had given their first preference to Labor, Brock would been eliminated in the penultimate count. The final count would have been between the Liberal and Labor candidates, allowing the former to win. For this to happen, between 31 and 321 Liberal voters would have needed to instead vote Labor. This is classic monotonicity violation: a number of Liberal voters unintentionally hurt their most preferred candidate.
See also
Voting system
Voting system criterion
Monotone preferences in consumer theory.
Monotonicity (mechanism design)
Maskin monotonicity
References
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258958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced%20audio | Balanced audio | Balanced audio is a method of interconnecting audio equipment using balanced interfaces. This type of connection is very important in sound recording and production because it allows the use of long cables while reducing susceptibility to external noise caused by electromagnetic interference. The balanced interface guarantees that induced noise appears as common-mode voltages at the receiver which can be rejected by a differential device.
Balanced connections typically use shielded twisted-pair cable and three-conductor connectors. The connectors are usually three-pin XLR or TRS phone connectors. When used in this manner, each cable carries one channel, therefore stereo audio (for example) would require two of them.
Applications
Many microphones operate at low voltage levels and some with high output impedance (hi-Z), which makes long microphone cables especially susceptible to electromagnetic interference. Microphone interconnections are therefore a common application for a balanced interconnection, which allows the receiver to reject most of this induced noise. If the power amplifiers of a public address system are located at any distance from the mixing console, it is also normal to use balanced lines for the signal paths from the mixer to these amplifiers. Many other components, such as graphic equalizers and effects units, have balanced inputs and outputs to allow this. In recording and for short cable runs in general, a compromise is necessary between the noise reduction given by balanced lines and the cost introduced by the extra circuitry they require.
Interference reduction
Balanced audio connections use a number of techniques to reduce noise.
A typical balanced cable contains two identical wires, which are twisted together and then wrapped with a third conductor (foil or braid) that acts as a shield. The two wires form a circuit that can carry an audio signal.
The term balanced comes from the method of balancing the impedance of each wire in the circuit; the line and all circuits directly connected to it (such as the driver and receiver) must have identical impedances with respect to some reference point. This means that much of the electromagnetic interference will induce an equal noise voltage in each wire. Since the differential device at the receiving end only responds to the difference in voltage between the two signal lines, noise that is identical on both wires is rejected. This method can be implemented with a differential amplifier. A transformer may also be used instead of an active input stage.
A twisted pair makes the loop area between the conductors as small as possible, and ensures that a magnetic field that passes equally through adjacent loops will induce equal levels of noise on both lines, which is canceled out by the differential device in the receiver. If the noise source is extremely close to the cable, then it is possible it will be induced on one of the lines more than the other, and it will not be canceled as well, but canceling will still occur to the extent of the amount of noise that is equal on both lines.
The separate shield that’s commonly provided in a balanced audio cable also yields a noise rejection advantage over an unbalanced two-conductor arrangement (such as used in typical home stereos) where the shield must also act as the signal return wire. Therefore, any noise currents induced into a balanced audio shield will not be directly modulated onto the signal, whereas in a two-conductor system they will be. This also prevents ground loop problems, by separating the shield/chassis from signal ground.
Differential signaling
Signals are often transmitted over balanced connections using the differential mode, meaning the wires carry signals that are equal in magnitude but of opposite polarity to each other (for instance, in an XLR connector, pin 2 carries the signal with normal polarity, and pin 3 carries an inverted version of the same signal). Despite popular belief, this arrangement is not necessary for noise rejection. As long as the impedances are balanced, noise will couple equally into the two wires (and be rejected by a differential amplifier), regardless of the signal that is present on them. A simple method of driving a balanced line is to inject the signal into the "hot" wire through a known source impedance, and connect the "cold" wire to the signal's local ground reference through an identical impedance. Due to common misconceptions about differential signalling, this is often referred to as a quasi-balanced or impedance-balanced output, though it is, in fact, fully balanced and will reject common-mode interference.
However, there are some minor benefits to driving the line with a fully differential output:
Though the signal level would not be changed due to nominal level standardization, the maximum output from the differential drivers is twice as much, giving 6 dB extra headroom.
Increasing cable capacitance over long cable runs decreases the signal level at which high frequencies are attenuated. If each wire carries half the signal voltage swing as in fully differential outputs then longer cable runs can be used without the loss of high frequencies.
Noise that is correlated between the two amps (from imperfect power supply rejection, for instance), would be cancelled out.
At higher frequencies, the output impedance of the output amplifier can change, resulting in a small imbalance. When driven in differential mode by two identical amplifiers, this impedance change will be the same for both lines, and thus cancelled out.
Internally balanced audio design
Professional audio products (recording, public address, etc.) generally provide balanced inputs and outputs, typically via XLR or TRS phone connectors. However, in most cases, the internal circuitry is entirely unbalanced.
A small number of audio products have been designed with an entirely balanced signal path from input to output; the circuitry maintains its impedance balance throughout the device. This design is achieved by providing identical (mirrored) internal signal paths for both the "hot" and "cold" conductors. In critical applications, a 100% balanced circuit design can offer better signal integrity by avoiding the extra amplifier stages or transformers required for front-end unbalancing and back-end rebalancing.
Connectors
Three-pin XLR connectors and quarter-inch (¼" or 6.35mm) TRS phone connectors are commonly used for balanced audio interfaces. Many jacks are now designed to take either XLR or TRS phone plugs. Equipment intended for long-term installation sometimes uses terminal strips or Euroblock connectors.
With XLR connectors, pins 1, 2, and 3 are usually used for the shield (ideally connected to the chassis) and the two signal wires, respectively. (The phrase "ground, live, return", corresponding to "X, L, R", is often offered as a memory aid, although the second signal wire is not a "return" in the case of differential signaling) On TRS phone plugs, the tip is signal/non-inverting, the ring is return/inverting, and the sleeve is chassis ground.
If a stereophonic or other binaural signal is plugged into such a jack, one channel (usually the right) will be subtracted from the other (usually the left), leaving an unlistenable L − R (left minus right) signal instead of normal monophonic L + R (left plus right). Reversing the polarity at any other point in a balanced audio system will also result in this effect at some point when it is later mixed-down with its other channel.
Telephone lines also carry audio through balanced circuitry, though this is generally now limited to the local loop. It is called this because the two wires form a balanced loop through which both sides of the telephone call travel. As telephones require DC power to operate and to allow simple on/off hook detection, extra circuitry was developed where one signal wire is fed from the exchange power bus, typically −50 volts, and the other grounded, both via equal value inductors which have about 400 ohms DC resistance, to avoid short-circuiting the wanted AC signal and to maintain impedance balance.
Digital audio connections in professional environments are also frequently balanced, normally following the AES3 (AES/EBU) standard. This uses XLR connectors and twisted-pair cable with 110-ohm impedance. By contrast, the coaxial S/PDIF interface commonly seen on consumer equipment is unbalanced.
Converters
Balanced and unbalanced circuits can be interfaced by the use of a balun, often through a DI unit (also called a "DI box" or "direct box").
As a last resort a balanced audio line can be fed into an unbalanced input and vice versa as long as the electronic design used for the output stage is known. In the case of balanced output to unbalanced input, the negative output can be tied to ground, but in certain cases the negative output should be left disconnected.
See also
Differential pair
AES3
Phantom power
References
External links
UK Sound And Lighting Community — Article On Balanced Lines
Ray Rayburn: "Balanced-to-Unbalanced; How to Do it Right"
Audiovisual connectors
Microphones
Audio engineering
Sound recording
Sound reinforcement system
de:Symmetrische Signalübertragung
hu:Szimmetrikus audio vonal | [
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258959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phone%20connector%20%28audio%29 | Phone connector (audio) | A phone connector, also known as phone jack, audio jack, headphone jack or jack plug, is a family of electrical connectors typically used for analog audio signals. The standard is that a plug (described as the male connector) will connect with a jack (described as female).
The phone connector was invented for use in telephone switchboards in the 19th century and is still widely used.
The phone connector is cylindrical in shape, with a grooved tip to retain it. In its original audio configuration, it typically has two, three, four or, occasionally, five contacts. Three-contact versions are known as TRS connectors, where T stands for "tip", R stands for "ring" and S stands for "sleeve". Ring contacts are typically the same diameter as the sleeve, the long shank. Similarly, two-, four- and five- contact versions are called TS, TRRS and TRRRS connectors respectively. The outside diameter of the "sleeve" conductor is . The "mini" connector has a diameter of and the "sub-mini" connector has a diameter of . The "mini" connector has a length of .
Other terms
Specific models, and connectors used in specific applications, may be termed e.g. stereo plug, headphone jack, microphone jack, aux input, etc. The 3.5 mm versions are commonly called mini-phone, mini-stereo, mini jack, etc.
In the UK, the terms jack plug and jack socket are commonly used for the respective male and female phone connectors. In the US, a stationary (more fixed) electrical connector is called a jack. The terms phone plug and phone jack sometimes refer to different genders of phone connectors, but also sometimes refer to the RJ11 and older telephone plugs and corresponding jacks that connect wired telephones to wall outlets.
Phone plugs and jacks are not to be confused with the similar terms phono plug and phono jack (or in the UK, phono socket) which refer to RCA connectors common in consumer hi-fi and audiovisual equipment. The 3.5 mm connector is, however, sometimes—but counter to the connector manufacturers' nomenclature—referred to as mini phono.
Historical development
Quarter-inch size
Modern phone connectors are available in three standard sizes. The original version descends from as early as 1877, when the first-ever telephone switchboard was installed at 109 Court Street in Boston in a building owned by Charles Williams, Jr.; or 1878, when an early switchboard was used for the first commercial manual telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut created by George W. Coy. The 1877 switchboard was last known to be located in the lobby of 185 Franklin Street, Boston.
In February 1884, C. E. Scribner was issued US Patent 293,198 for a "jack-knife" connector that is the origin of calling the receptacle a "jack". Scribner was issued U.S. Patents 262,701, 305,021, and 489,570 relating to an improved design that more closely resembles the modern plug. The current form of the switchboard-plug was patented prior to 1902, when Henry P. Clausen received a patent on an improved design. It is today still used on mainstream musical equipment, especially on electric guitars.
Western Electric was the manufacturing arm of the Bell System, and thus originated or refined most of the engineering designs, including the telephone jacks and plugs which were later adopted by other industries, including the U.S. military.
By 1907, Western Electric had designed a number of models for different purposes, including:
Code No. 47 2-conductor plugs for use with type 3, 91, 99, 102, 103, 108, and 124 jacks—used for switchboards
Code No. 85 3-conductor plugs for use with type 77 jacks—used for the operator's head telephone
Code No. 103 twin 2-conductor plugs for use with type 91, and type 99 jacks—used for the operator's head telephone and chest transmitter (microphone)
Code No. 109 3-conductor plugs for use with jack 92 on telephone switchboards (with the same basic shape as the modern Bantam plugs)
Code No. 110, 3-conductor plug for use with jacks 49, 117, 118, 140, and 141 on switchboards
Code No. 112, twin 2-conductor plug for use with jacks 91 and 99—used for the operator's head telephone and chest, with a transmitter cutout key (microphone mute)
Code No. 116, 1-conductor plug for use with cordless jack boxes
Code No. 126, 3-conductor plug for use with type 132 and type 309 jacks on portable street railway sets
By 1950, the two main plug designs were:
WE-309 (compatible with -inch jacks, such as 246 jack), for use on high-density jack panels such as the 608A
WE-310 (compatible with -inch jacks, such as the 242)
Several modern designs have descended from those earlier versions:
B-Gauge standard BPO316 (not compatible with EIA RS-453)
EIA RS-453: Dimensional, Mechanical and Electrical Characteristics Defining Phone Plugs & Jacks standard of diameter, also found in IEC 60603-11:1992 Connectors for frequencies below 3 MHz for use with printed boards – Part 11: Detail specification for concentric connectors (dimensions for free connectors and fixed connectors).
Military variants
U.S. military versions of the Western Electric plugs were initially specified in Amendment No.1, MIL-P-642, and included:
M642/1-1
M642/1-2
M642/2-1
M642/2-2
M642/4-1
M642/4-2
MIL-P-642/2, also known as PJ-051. (Similar to Western Electric WE-310, and thus not compatible with EIA RS-453)
MIL-P-642/5A: Plug, Telephone (TYPE PJ-068) and Accessory Screws (1973), and MIL-DTL-642F: Plugs, Telephone, and Accessory Screws (2015), with diameter, also known by the earlier Signal Corps PL-68 designation. These are commonly used as the microphone jack for aviation radios, and on Collins S-line and many Drake amateur radios. MIL-DTL-642F states, "This specification covers telephone plugs used in telephone (including telephone switchboard consoles), telegraph, and teletype circuits, and for connecting headsets, handsets, and microphones into communications circuits."
Miniature size
The 3.5 mm or miniature size was originally designed in the 1950s as two-conductor connectors for earpieces on transistor radios, and remains a standard still used today. This roughly half-sized version of the original, popularized by the Sony EFM-117J radio (released in 1964), is still commonly used in portable applications. The three-conductor version became very popular with its application on the Walkman in 1979, as unlike earlier transistor radios, these devices had no speaker of their own; the usual way to listen to them was to plug in headphones. There is also an EIA standard for 0.141-inch miniature phone jacks.
The 2.5 mm or sub-miniature sizes were similarly popularized on small portable electronics. They often appeared next to a 3.5 mm microphone jack for a remote control on-off switch on early portable tape recorders; the microphone provided with such machines had the on-off switch and used a two-pronged connector with both the 3.5 and 2.5 mm plugs. They were also used for low-voltage DC power input from wall adapters. In the latter role they were soon replaced by coaxial DC power connectors. 2.5 mm phone jacks have also been used as the headset jacks on mobile telephones (see ).
The 3.5 mm and 2.5 mm sizes are sometimes called in and in respectively in the United States, though those dimensions are only approximations. All sizes are now readily available in two-conductor (unbalanced mono) and three-conductor (balanced mono or unbalanced stereo) versions.
Four-conductor versions of the 3.5 mm plug and jack are used for certain applications. A four-conductor version is often used in compact camcorders and portable media players, providing stereo sound and composite analog video. It is also used for a combination of stereo audio, a microphone, and controlling media playback, calls, volume and/or a virtual assistant on some laptop computers and most mobile phones, and some handheld amateur radio transceivers from Yaesu. Some headphone amplifiers have used it to connect "balanced" stereo headphones, which require two conductors per audio channel as the channels do not share a common ground.
Broadcast usage
By the 1940s, broadcast radio stations were using Western Electric Code No. 103 plugs and matching jacks for patching audio throughout studios. This connector was used because of its use in AT&T's Long Line circuits for distribution of audio programs over the radio networks' leased telephone lines. Because of the large amount of space these patch panels required, the industry began switching to 3-conductor plugs and jacks in the late 1940s, using the WE Type 291 plug with WE type 239 jacks. The type 291 plug was used instead of the standard type 110 switchboard plug because the location of the large bulb shape on this TRS plug would have resulted in both audio signal connections being shorted together for a brief moment while the plug is being inserted and removed. The Type 291 plug avoids this by having a shorter tip.
Patch bay connectors
Professional audio and the telecommunication industry use a diameter plug, associated with trademarked names including Bantam, TT, Tini-Telephone, and Tini-Tel. They are not compatible with standard EIA RS-453/IEC 60603-11 1/4-inch jacks. In addition to a slightly smaller diameter, they have a slightly different geometry. The three-conductor TRS versions are capable of handling balanced line signals and are used in professional audio installations. Though unable to handle as much power, and less reliable than a jack, Bantam connectors are used for professional console and outboard patchbays in recording studio and live sound applications, where large numbers of patch points are needed in a limited space. The slightly different shape of Bantam plugs is also less likely to cause shorting as they are plugged in.
Less common
A two-pin version, known to the telecom industry as a "310 connector", consists of two -inch phone plugs at a centre spacing of . The socket versions of these can be used with normal phone plugs provided the plug bodies are not too large, but the plug version will only mate with two sockets at inches centre spacing, or with line sockets, again with sufficiently small bodies. These connectors are still used today in telephone company central offices on "DSX" patch panels for DS1 circuits. A similar type of 3.5 mm connector is often used in the armrests of older aircraft, as part of the on-board in-flight entertainment system. Plugging a stereo plug into one of the two mono jacks typically results in the audio coming into only one ear. Adapters are available.
A short-barrelled version of the phone plug was used for 20th century high-impedance mono headphones, and in particular those used in World War II aircraft. These have become rare. It is physically possible to use a normal plug in a short socket, but a short plug will neither lock into a normal socket nor complete the tip circuit.
Less commonly used sizes, both diameters and lengths, are also available from some manufacturers, and are used when it is desired to restrict the availability of matching connectors, such as inside diameter jacks for fire safety communication in public buildings.
Aviation and US military connectors
US military phone connectors include both 0.25-in. (6.35 mm) and 0.21-in. (5.34 mm) diameter plugs, which both mate with the M641-series open frame jacks, exemplified by Switchcraft C11 and C12 series jacks. Military specifications and standards relating to phone connectors include MIL-STD 202, MIL-P-642/*, and MIL-J-641.
Commercial and general aviation (GA) civil airplane headset plugs are similar, but not identical. A standard -in. monaural plug, type PL-55 (both two-conductor phone plugs, also called PJ-055B, which mate with JK-24 and JK-34A jacks) is used for headphones. On many newer GA aircraft the headphone jack is a standard -in. phone connector wired in the standard unbalanced stereo configuration instead of the PJ-055 to allow stereo music sources to be reproduced.
Aviation headphones are paired with special tip-ring-sleeve, 3/16-in (0.206 in)/5.23-mm diameter plug, type PJ-068 (PL-68), for the microphone. The PJ-068 mates with a JK-33 jack (Switchcraft C-12B), and is similar to the Western Electric plug WE-109. In the microphone plug the Ring is used for the microphone hot and the sleeve is ground. The extra (tip) connection in the microphone plug is often left unconnected but is also sometimes used for various functions, most commonly an optional push-to-talk switch, but on some aircraft it carries headphone audio and on others a DC supply.
Military aircraft and civil helicopters have another type termed a U-174/U; These are also known as NATO plugs or Nexus TP120 phone plugs. They are similar to -in. (6.35 mm) plug, but with a diameter short shaft with an extra ring, i.e. four conductors in total, allowing two for the headphones (mono), and two for the microphone. There is a confusingly similar four conductor British connector with a slightly smaller diameter and a different wiring configuration used for headsets in many UK Military aircraft and often also referred to as a NATO or UK NATO connector.
Mono and stereo compatibility
The original application for the 6.35 mm ( in) phone jack was in manual telephone exchanges. Many different configurations of these phone plugs were used, some accommodating five or more conductors, with several tip profiles. Of these many varieties, only the two-conductor version with a rounded tip profile was compatible between different manufacturers, and this was the design that was at first adopted for use with microphones, electric guitars, headphones, loudspeakers, and other audio equipment.
When a three-conductor version of the 6.35 mm plug was introduced for use with stereo headphones, it was given a sharper tip profile in order to make it possible to manufacture jacks that would accept only stereo plugs, to avoid short-circuiting the right channel of the amplifier. This attempt has long been abandoned, and now the convention is that all plugs fit all sockets of the same size, regardless of whether they are balanced or unbalanced, mono or stereo. Most 6.35 mm plugs, mono or stereo, now have the profile of the original stereo plug, although a few rounded mono plugs are still produced. The profiles of stereo miniature and sub-miniature plugs have always been identical to the mono plugs of the same size.
The results of this physical compatibility are:
If a two-conductor plug is inserted into a three-conductor socket, the result is that the ring (right channel) of the socket is grounded. This property is deliberately used in several applications. However, if equipment is not designed for such a use, grounding the right channel causes a short circuit which has the potential to damage an audio amplifier channel. In any case, any signal from the right channel is naturally lost in this scenario.
If a three-conductor plug is connected to a two-conductor socket, normally the result is to leave the ring of the plug unconnected. This open circuit is potentially dangerous to equipment utilizing vacuum tubes, but most solid-state devices will tolerate an open condition well. A three-conductor socket could be wired as an unbalanced mono socket to ground the ring in this situation, but the more conventional wiring is to leave the ring unconnected, exactly simulating a mono socket.
Because of a lack of standardization in the past regarding the dimensions (length) given to the ring conductor and the insulating portions on either side of it in 6.35 mm ( in) phone connectors and the width of the conductors in different brands and generations of sockets, there are occasional issues with compatibility between differing brands of plug and socket. This can result in a contact in the socket bridging (shorting) the ring and sleeve contacts on a phone connector.
General use
In the most common arrangement, consistent with the original intention of the design, the male plug is connected to a cable, and the female socket is mounted in a piece of equipment. A considerable variety of line plugs and panel sockets is available, including plugs suiting various cable sizes, right-angle plugs, and both plugs and sockets in a variety of price ranges and with current capacities up to 15 amperes for certain heavy-duty in versions intended for loudspeaker connections.
Common uses of phone plugs and their matching sockets include:
Headphone and earphone jacks on a wide range of equipment. 6.35 mm ( in) plugs are common on home and professional component equipment, while 3.5 mm plugs are nearly universal for portable audio equipment and headphones. 2.5 mm plugs are not as common, but are used on communication equipment such as cordless phones, mobile phones, and two-way radios, especially in the earliest years of the 21st century before the 3.5 mm became standard on mobile phones. The use of headphone jacks in smartphones is declining in favor of USB-C connectors and wireless Bluetooth solutions.
Consumer electronics devices such as digital cameras, camcorders, and portable DVD players use 3.5 mm connectors for composite video and audio output. Typically, a TRS connection is used for mono unbalanced audio plus video, and a TRRS connection for stereo unbalanced audio plus video. Cables designed for this use are often terminated with RCA connectors on the other end. Sony also used this style of connection as the TV-Out on some models of Vaio laptop.
Hands-free sets and headsets often use 3.5 mm or 2.5 mm connectors. TRS connectors are used for mono audio out and an unbalanced microphone (with a shared ground). Four-conductor TRRS phone connectors add an additional audio channel for stereo output. TRRS connectors used for this purpose are sometimes interoperable with TRS connectors, depending on how the contacts are used.
Microphone inputs on tape and cassette recorders, sometimes with remote control switching on the ring, on early, monaural cassette recorders mostly a dual-pin version consisting of a 3.5 mm TS for the microphone and a 2.5 mm TS for remote control which switches the recorder's power supply.
Patching points (insert points) on a wide range of equipment.
Personal computers, sometimes using a sound card plugged into the computer. Stereo 3.5 mm jacks are used for:
Line in (stereo)
Line out (stereo)
Headphones and loudspeaker out (stereo)
Microphone input (mono, usually with 5 V power available on the ring.)
Older laptop computers generally have one jack for headphones and one mono jack for a microphone at microphone level.
LCD monitors with built-in speakers will need a cable with 3.5 mm male TRS plugs on each end to connect to the sound card.
Devices designed for surround output may use multiple jacks for paired channels (e.g. TRS for front left and right; TRRS for front center, rear center, and subwoofer; and TRS for surround left and right).
Eurorack, Moog and other modular synthesizers
Almost all electric guitars use a in mono jack as their output connector. Some makes (such as Shergold) use a stereo jack instead for stereo output, or a second stereo jack, in addition to a mono jack (as with Rickenbacker).
Instrument amplifiers for guitars, basses and similar amplified musical instruments. in jacks are overwhelmingly the most common connectors for:
Inputs. A shielded cable with a mono in phone plug on each end is commonly termed a guitar cable or a patch cable, the first name reflecting this usage, the second the history of the phone plug's development for use in manual telephone exchanges.
Loudspeaker outputs
Line outputs
Foot switches and effects pedals. Stereo plugs are used for double switches (for example by Fender). There is little compatibility between makers.
Effects loops, which are normally wired as patch points
Electronic keyboards use jacks for a similar range of uses to guitars and amplifiers, and in addition:
Sustain pedals
Expression pedals
Electronic drums use jacks to connect sensor pads to the synthesizer module or MIDI encoder. In this usage, a change in voltage on the wire indicates a drum stroke.
TRS jacks are sometimes used for balanced connections for instance in compact or economy audio mixing desks for balanced microphone inputs. In some audio equipment, a TRS connection may be offered in addition to an XLR balanced line connector.
Loudspeaker connections for older or consumer sound reinforcement equipment. Speakon connectors are used in modern professional systems as they mate with greater contact area and thus carry higher current, lock in place and do not risk shorting out the amplifier upon insertion or disconnection. Some professional loudspeakers carry both Speakon and TRS connectors for compatibility. Heavy-duty in loudspeaker jacks are rated at 15 A maximum which limits them to applications involving less than 1,800 watts.
Modular synthesizers commonly use monophonic cables for creating patches.
Quarter-inch phone connectors are widely used to connect external processing devices to insert points on mixing consoles. Two- or three-conductor phone connectors might be used in pairs as separate send and return jacks, or a single three-conductor phone jack might serve as both send and return, in which case the signals are unbalanced. The one unbalanced combination send/return TRS insert jack saves both panel space and component complexity, but the unbalanced connection may introduce a slight buzz. Insert points on mixing consoles may also be XLR, RCA or bantam TT (tiny telephone) jacks, depending on the make and model.
Some small electronic devices such as audio cassette players, especially in the cheaper price brackets, use a two-conductor 3.5 mm or 2.5 mm phone jack as a DC power connector.
Some photographic studio strobes have in or 3.5 mm jacks for the flash synchronization input. A camera's electrical flash output (PC socket or hot shoe adapter) is cabled to the strobe light's sync input jacks.
Some cameras use the 2.5 mm stereo jack for the connector for the remote shutter release (and focus activation); examples are Canon's RS-60E3 remote switch and Sigma's CR-21 wired remote control.
Some miniaturized electronic devices use 2.5 mm or 3.5 mm jacks as serial port connectors for data transfer and unit programming. This technique is particularly common on graphing calculators, such as the TI-83 series, and some types of amateur and two-way radio. In more modern equipment USB mini-B connectors are provided in addition to or instead of jack connectors. The second-generation iPod Shuffle from Apple has one TRRS jack which serves as headphone, USB, or power supply, depending on the connected plug.
The Atari 2600 (Video Computer System), the first widely popular home video game console with interchangeable software programs, used a 3.5 mm TS (two conductor) jack for 9 V 500 mA DC power.
The Apple Lisa personal computer used a three-conductor TRS phone connector for its keyboard.
The Sangean DCR-200 radio uses a wire aerial terminating with a 2.5 mm phone connector.
Computer sound
Personal computer sound cards, such as Creative Labs' Sound Blaster line, use a 3.5 mm phone connector as a mono microphone input, and deliver a 5 V bias voltage on the ring to power the FET preamplifier built into electret microphones. Adjustmes may be required to achieve compatibility between different manufacturers.
The Apple PlainTalk microphone jack used on some older Macintosh systems is designed to accept an extended 3.5 mm three-conductor phone connector; in this case, the tip carries power for a preamplifier inside the microphone. It cannot accept a standard microphone without a preamp. If a PlainTalk-compatible microphone is not available, the jack can accept a line-level sound input.
Normally, 3.5 mm three-conductor sockets are used in computer sound cards for stereo output. Thus, for a sound card with 5.1 output, there will be three sockets to accommodate six channels: front left and right; surround left and right; and center and subwoofer. 6.1 and 7.1 channel sound cards from Creative Labs, however, use a single three-conductor socket (for the front speakers) and two four-conductor sockets. This is to accommodate rear-center (6.1) or rear left and right (7.1) channels without the need for additional sockets on the sound card.
Some portable computers have a combined 3.5 mm TRS-TOSLINK jack, supporting stereo audio output using a TRS connector, or TOSLINK (stereo or 5.1 Dolby Digital/DTS) digital output using a suitable optical adapter. Most iMac computers have this digital/analog combo output feature as standard, with early MacBooks having two ports, one for analog/digital audio input and other for output. Support for input was dropped on various later models
Some newer computers, such as Lenovo laptops, have 3.5 mm TRRS headset sockets, which are compatible with phone headsets and may be distinguished by a headset icon instead of the usual headphones or microphone icons. These are particularly used for voice over IP.
Video
Equipment requiring video with stereo audio input/output sometimes uses 3.5 mm TRRS connectors. Two incompatible variants exist, of and length, and using the wrong variant may either simply not work, or could cause physical damage.
Attempting to fully insert the longer (17 mm) plug into a receptacle designed for the shorter (15 mm) plug may damage the receptacle, and may damage any electronics located immediately behind the receptacle. However, partially inserting the plug will work as the tip/ring/ring distances are the same for both variants.
Using the shorter plug in a socket designed for the longer connector will result in the plug not 'locking in', and may additionally result in wrong signal routing and/or a short circuit inside the equipment (e.g. the plug tip may cause the contacts inside the receptacle – tip/ring 1, etc. - to short together).
The shorter 15 mm TRRS variant is more common and fully physically compatible with 'standard' 3.5 mm TRS and TS connectors.
Recording equipment
Many small video cameras, laptops, recorders and other consumer devices use a 3.5 mm microphone connector for attaching a (mono/stereo) microphone to the system.
These fall into three categories:
Devices that use an unpowered microphone: usually a cheap dynamic or piezoelectric microphone. The microphone generates its own voltage, and needs no power.
Devices that use a self-powered microphone: usually a condenser microphone with internal battery-powered amplifier.
Devices that use a "plug-in powered" microphone: an electret microphone containing an internal FET amplifier. These provide a good quality signal, in a very small microphone. However, the internal FET needs a DC power supply, which is provided as a bias voltage for an internal preamp transistor.
Plug-in power is supplied on the same line as the audio signal, using an RC filter. The DC bias voltage supplies the FET amplifier (at a low current), while the capacitor decouples the DC supply from the AC input to the recorder. Typically, V=1.5 V, R=1 kΩ, C=47 μF.
If a recorder provides plug-in power, and the microphone does not need it, everything will usually work ok. In the converse case (recorder provides no power; microphone needs power), no sound will be recorded. Neither misconfiguration will damage consumer hardware, but providing power when none is needed could destroy a broadcast-type microphone.
PDAs and mobile phones
Three- or four-conductor (TRS or TRRS) 2.5 mm and 3.5 mm sockets are common on older cell phones and newer smartphones respectively, providing mono (three conductor) or stereo (four conductor) sound and a microphone input, together with signaling (e.g., push a button to answer a call). These are used both for handsfree headsets (esp. mono audio plus mic, also stereo audio plus mic, plus signaling for call handling) and for (stereo) headphones (stereo audio, no mic). Wireless (connectorless) headsets or headphones usually use the Bluetooth protocol.
3.5 mm TRRS (stereo-plus-mic) sockets became particularly common on smartphones, and have been used e.g. by Nokia since 2006; they are often compatible with standard 3.5 mm stereo headphones. Some computers now also include a TRRS headset socket, compatible with headsets intended for smartphones.
There are multiple conflicting standards for TRRS connectors and their compatibility with three conductor TRS. The four conductors of a TRRS connector are assigned to different purposes by different manufacturers. Any 3.5 mm plug can be plugged mechanically into any socket, but many combinations are electrically incompatible. For example, plugging TRRS headphones into a TRS headset socket (or vice versa) or plugging TRRS headphones from one manufacturer into a TRRS socket from another may not function correctly, or at all. Mono audio will usually work, but stereo audio or microphone may not work, depending on wiring. Signaling compatibility depends both on wiring compatibility and the signals sent by the hands-free/headphones controller being correctly interpreted by the phone. Adapters that are wired for headsets will not work for stereo headphones and conversely. Further, as TTY/TDDs are wired as headsets, TTY adapters can also connect a 2.5 mm headset to a phone.
TRRS standards
Two different forms are frequently found, both of which place left audio on the tip and right audio on the first ring (for compatibility with stereo connectors). Where they differ is in the placement of the microphone and return contacts:
The first, which places the ground return on the sleeve and the microphone on the second ring, is standardized in OMTP and has been accepted as a national Chinese standard YDT 1885–2009. It is mostly used on older devices, such as older Nokia mobiles, older Samsung smartphones, and some Sony Ericsson phones, and products meant for the Chinese market. Headsets using this wiring may be indicated by black plastic separators between the rings.
The second, which reverses these contacts, with the microphone on the sleeve, is used by Apple's iPhone line, and has become the de facto TRRS standard, to maintain compatibility with these products. It is now used by HTC devices, recent Samsung, Nokia, and Sony phones, among others. This is referred to as CTIA/AHJ, and has the disadvantage that the mic will be shorted to ground if the body of the device is metal and the sleeve has a flange that contacts it. Headsets using this wiring may be indicated by white plastic separators between the rings.
If a CTIA headset is connected to a mobile phone with OMTP interface, the missing ground will effectively connect speakers in out-of-phase series, resulting in no voice on typical popular music recordings where the singers are in the center; in this case, if the main microphone button is held down, shorting across the microphone and restoring ground, the correct sound may be audible.
The 4-pole 3.5 mm connector is defined by the Japanese standard JEITA/EIAJ RC-5325A, "4-Pole miniature concentric plugs and jacks", originally published in 1993. 3-pole 3.5 mm TRS connectors are defined in JIS C 6560. See also JIS C 5401 and IEC 60130-8.
Interoperability
The USB Type-C Cable and Connector Specification Revision 1.1 specifies a mapping from a USB-C jack to a 4-pole TRRS jack, for the use of headsets, and supports both CTIA and OMTP (YD/T 1885–2009) modes. See Audio Adapter Accessory Mode (Appendix A). Some devices transparently handle many jack standards, and there are hardware implementations of this available as components.
Some devices apply voltage to the sleeve and second ring to detect the wiring, and switch the last two conductors to allow a device made to one standard to be used with a headset made to the other.
TRRRS standards
New TRRRS standard for 3.5 mm connectors was developed and recently approved by ITU-T. The new standard, called P.382 (formerly P.MMIC), outlines technical requirements and test methods for a 5-pole socket and plug configuration. Compared to the legacy TRRS standard, TRRRS provides one extra line that can be used for connecting a second microphone or external power to/from the audio accessory.
P.382 requires compliant sockets and plugs to be backwards compatible with legacy TRRS and TRS connectors. Therefore, P.382 compliant TRRRS connectors should allow for seamless integration when used on new products. TRRRS connectors enable following audio applications: active noise cancelling, binaural recording and others, where dual analogue microphone lines can be directly connected to a host device. It was commonly found on Sony phones starting with the Xperia Z1-XZ1 and Xperia 1 II.
Switch contacts
Panel-mounting jacks are often provided with switch contacts. Most commonly, a mono jack is provided with one normally closed (NC) contact, which is connected to the tip (live) connection when no plug is in the socket, and disconnected when a plug is inserted. Stereo sockets commonly provide two such NC contacts, one for the tip (left channel live) and one for the ring or collar (right channel live). Some designs of jack also have such a connection on the sleeve. As this contact is usually ground, it is not much use for signal switching, but could be used to indicate to electronic circuitry that the socket was in use.
Less commonly, some jacks are provided with normally open (NO) or change-over contacts, and/or the switch contacts may be isolated from the connector.
The original purpose of these contacts was for switching in telephone exchanges, for which there were many patterns. Two sets of change-over contacts, isolated from the connector contacts, were common. The more recent pattern of one NC contact for each signal path, internally attached to the connector contact, stems from their use as headphone jacks. In many amplifiers and equipment containing them, such as electronic organs, a headphone jack is provided that disconnects the loudspeakers when in use. This is done by means of these switch contacts. In other equipment, a dummy load is provided when the headphones are not connected. This is also easily provided by means of these NC contacts.
Other uses for these contacts have been found. One is to interrupt a signal path to enable other circuitry to be inserted. This is done by using one NC contact of a stereo jack to connect the tip and ring together when no plug is inserted. The tip is then made the output, and the ring the input (or vice versa), thus forming a patch point.
Another use is to provide alternative mono or stereo output facilities on some guitars and electronic organs. This is achieved by using two mono jacks, one for left channel and one for right, and wiring the NC contact on the right channel jack to the tip of the other, to connect the two connector tips together when the right channel output is not in use. This then mixes the signals so that the left channel jack doubles as a mono output.
Where a 3.5 mm or 2.5 mm jack is used as a DC power inlet connector, a switch contact may be used to disconnect an internal battery whenever an external power supply is connected, to prevent incorrect recharging of the battery.
A standard stereo jack is used on most battery-powered guitar effects pedals to eliminate the need for a separate power switch. In this configuration, the internal battery has its negative terminal wired to the sleeve contact of the jack. When the user plugs in a two-conductor (mono) guitar or microphone lead, the resulting short circuit between sleeve and ring connects an internal battery to the unit's circuitry, ensuring that it powers up or down automatically whenever a signal lead is inserted or removed. A drawback of this design is the risk of inadvertently discharging the battery if the lead is not removed after use, such as if the equipment is left plugged in overnight.
Design
Notes
Balanced audio
When a phone connector is used to make a balanced connection, the two active conductors are both used for a monaural signal. The ring, used for the right channel in stereo systems, is used instead for the inverting input. This is a common use in small audio mixing desks, where space is a premium and they offer a more compact alternative to XLR connectors. Another advantage offered by TRS phone connectors used for balanced microphone inputs is that a standard unbalanced signal lead using a TS phone jack can simply be plugged into such an input. The ring (right channel) contact then makes contact with the plug body, correctly grounding the inverting input.
A disadvantage of using phone connectors for balanced audio connections is that the ground mates last and the socket grounds the plug tip and ring when inserting or disconnecting the plug. This causes bursts of hum, cracks and pops and may stress some outputs as they will be short circuited briefly, or longer if the plug is left half in.
This problem does not occur when using the 'gauge B' (BPO) phone connector (PO 316) which although it is of 0.25 in (6.35 mm) diameter has a smaller tip and a recessed ring so that the ground contact of the socket never touches the tip or ring of the plug. This type was designed for balanced audio use, being the original telephone 'switchboard' connector and is still common in broadcast, telecommunications and many professional audio applications where it is vital that permanent circuits being monitored (bridged) are not interrupted by the insertion or removal of connectors. This same tapered shape used in the 'gauge B' (BPO) plug can be seen also in aviation and military applications on various diameters of jack connector including the PJ-068 and 'bantam' plugs. The more common straight-sided profile used in domestic and commercial applications and discussed in most of this article is known as 'gauge A'.
XLR connectors used in much professional audio equipment mate the ground signal on pin 1 first.
Unbalanced audio
Phone connectors with three conductors are also commonly used as unbalanced audio patch points (or insert points, or simply inserts), with the output on many mixers found on the tip (left channel) and the input on the ring (right channel). This is often expressed as "tip send, ring return". Other mixers have unbalanced insert points with "ring send, tip return". One advantage of this system is that the switch contact within the panel socket, originally designed for other purposes, can be used to close the circuit when the patch point is not in use. An advantage of the tip send patch point is that if it is used as an output only, a 2-conductor mono phone plug correctly grounds the input. In the same fashion, use of a "tip return" insert style allows a mono phone plug to bring an unbalanced signal directly into the circuit, though in this case the output must be robust enough to withstand being grounded. Combining send and return functions via single in TRS connectors in this way is seen in very many professional and semi-professional audio mixing desks, because it halves the space needed for insert jack fields which would otherwise need two jacks, one for send and one for return. The tradeoff is that unbalanced signals are more prone to buzz, hum and outside interference.
In some three-conductor TRS phone inserts, the concept is extended by using specially designed phone jacks that will accept a mono phone plug partly inserted to the first click and will then connect the tip to the signal path without breaking it. Most standard phone connectors can also be used in this way with varying success, but neither the switch contact nor the tip contact can be relied upon unless the internal contacts have been designed with extra strength for holding the plug tip in place. Even with stronger contacts, an accidental mechanical movement of the inserted plug can interrupt signal within the circuit. For maximum reliability, any usage involving first click or half-click positions will instead rewire the plug to short tip and ring together and then insert this modified plug all the way into the jack.
The TRS tip return, ring send unbalanced insert configuration is mostly found on older mixers. This allowed for the insert jack to serve as a standard-wired mono line input that would bypass the mic preamp. However tip send has become the generally accepted standard for mixer inserts since the early-to-mid 1990s. The TRS ring send configuration is still found on some compressor sidechain input jacks such as the dbx 166XL.
In some very compact equipment, 3.5 mm TRS phone connectors are used as patch points.
Some sound recording devices use a three-conductor phone connector as a mono microphone input, using the tip as the signal path and the ring to connect a standby switch on the microphone.
Poor connections
Connectors that are tarnished, or that were not manufactured within tight tolerances, are prone to cause poor connections. Depending upon the surface material of the connectors, tarnished ones can be cleaned with a burnishing agent (for solid brass contacts typical) or contact cleaner (for plated contacts).
See also
Banana connector
Coaxial power connector
Notes
References
External links
The 19th Century plug that's still being used—BBC News
Audio engineering
Audiovisual connectors
Computer connectors
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258960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severians | Severians | The Severians or Severyans or Siverians (; ; ) were a tribe or tribal confederation of early East Slavs occupying areas to the east of the middle Dnieper River and southeast of the Danube River. They are mentioned by the Bavarian Geographer (9th century), Emperor Constantine VII (956–959), the Khazar ruler Joseph (c. 955), and in the Primary Chronicle (1113).
Ethnonym
The etymology of the name "Severian" is uncertain. The name of the Severia region originated from the Slavic tribes. One theory proposes derivation from the Slavic word for "north" (sěver; men of the north), but the Severians never were the northernmost tribe of Slavs. Another theory proposes an Iranic derivation, from the name of the Sarmatian Seuer tribe (seu meaning "black"). Some scholars have argued that Jews called this tribe the Sawarta, based on the Kievan Letter (c. 930), written in Hebrew as SWRTH (read either as Sur'ata or Sever'ata), derived from Slavic sirota ("orphan"; in the letter, possibly meaning "convert"); or that the name "Severian" comes from the Magyar Savarti ("black"; possibly borrowed from Proto-Germanic swartaz). Based on the writings of the Bavarian Geographer, some scholars connect the ethnonym to the Zuierani, Zeriuani, or Sebbirozi (most probably the Sabirs).
History
The Severians are believed to have continued the East Slavic tribal union along the middle Dnieper valley, after the political disappearance of the Antae and Dulebes, either independently or under Khazar policy. It is presumed they inhabited the lower Desna and upper Sejm and Sula rivers. They were thought to have been centered in Chernihiv ("black city"). However, as the Severians in the historical sources inhabited both the Dnieper valley and a part of the Danube valley, and as the Zeriuani realm was said to be so great that all Slavs traced their origins to it, Henryk Łowmiański believed that the Ruthenian Severians were the Slavic mother tribe. Professor Traian Stoianovich described the Severian Slavs; a mix of Slavs and Slavicized formerly Turkic speaking Huns.
Some Severians settled in the territory of present-day northeastern Bulgaria, (Moesia Inferior, and Scythia Minor). According to Theophanes the Confessor, the Bulgars subjugated the so-called Seven Slavic tribes. One of these tribes, the Severeis, were resettled in the east "from the klisuras before Veregava" (), most likely the Rish Pass of the Balkan Mountains; while the other six tribes were resettled in the southern and western regions, as far the boundary with the Pannonian Avars. In 767, the Byzantines kidnapped the Severian prince Slavun, who had made trouble in Thrace, indicating they retained a tributary relationship with the Bulgars.
The other Severians had as neighbors the Radimichs, Krivichs, and Vyatichs in the north and the Derevlians and Polianians in the west. Those tribes had to pay tribute to the Khazars in 859 in the form of squirrel and beaver skins, which suggests they lived in or near the northern forests. In 884, Oleg of Novgorod annexed their territory to the Kievan Rus'. The Severians had to pay a "light tribute." According to Oleg, he had acted not against the Severians but against the Khazars. It is possible that the Severians accepted Oleg's rule because he imposed lower taxes on them.
Together with other East Slavic tribes, Severians participated in the Oleg's campaign against Constantinople in 907. In the 10th century, in his De Administrando Imperio, Constantine VII wrote that in winter, the Rus princes (archontes) moved to and were maintained in the lands of their Severian and Krivich tributaries. Eventually, Severian territory became part of the Grand Principality of Chernigov, and the last reference to them is from 1024, when they are mentioned as part of the troops recruited by Mstislav of Chernigov for his druzhina. They had a significant impact on the victory at the Battle of Listven (1024), especially against the Varangians.
Scholars disagree about the abovementioned dates. Some place Oleg's conquest in the 920–930s; the Khazar ruler Joseph (c. 955) mentioned that his empire ruled over the "Sever, Slaviun, and Ventit"; while Constantine VII wrote that the Severians paid tribute to the Rus and not the Khazars c. 950.
The Severians eventually came to be known as the Chernihovians and gave their name to the region of Severia.
Culture
Archaeologists have found numerous rural settlements associated with the Severians, including burial mounds with cremated bodies, from the 8th–10th centuries. Like other East Slavs, the Severians were mostly engaged in agriculture; cattle breeding; hunting; and different handicrafts such as pottery, weaving, and metalworking. It is considered that trade was not very developed, and they offered honey, wax, furs, and slaves. According to Constantine VII, they provided not only tribute but also transport via boats dug out from single hollowed trees.
The Severians were a patriarchial culture ruled by clan or tribal leaders, who held political authority in the commune (zadruga) and convened tribal councils. The centers of political power were the fortified grady, which were built in forests or on elevations, around which villages developed. Some Saltovo-Mayaki forts were situated on Severian land.
In the Primary Chronicle, it is recorded that the Drevlians, Radimichs, Vyatichi, and Severians all lived violent lifestyles, and they did not enter monogamous marriages but practiced polygamy, specifically polygyny, instead.
References
See also
List of Medieval Slavic tribes
East Slavic tribes
Slavic tribes in Thrace and Moesia
Medieval Ukraine
Medieval Russia
Saltovo-Mayaki culture | [
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258961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assignat | Assignat | An assignat () was a monetary instrument, an order to pay, used during the time of the French Revolution, and the French Revolutionary Wars.
France
Assignats were paper money (fiat currency) issued by the Constituent Assembly in France from 1789 to 1796, during the French Revolution, to address imminent bankruptcy. They were backed by the value of properties now held by the nation; those of the crown taken over on 7th October, and those of the Catholic Church, which were confiscated, on the motion of Mirabeau, by the Assembly on 2 November 1789. Credit was wrecked, according to Talleyrand; for Mirabeau "the deficit was the treasure of the nation". In September the treasury was empty. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord proposed "national goods" should be given back to the nation. Necker proposed to borrow from "Caisse d'Escompte", but his intention to change the private bank into a national bank like the Bank of England failed. A general bankruptcy seemed certain. On 21 December 1789 a first decree was voted through, ordering the issue (in April 1790) of 400 million assignats, certificates of indebtedness of 1,000 livres each, with an interest rate of 5%, secured and repayable based on the auctioning of the "Biens nationaux". The assignats were immediately a source of political controversy. Constitutional monarchists such as Maury, Cazalès, Bergasse and d'Eprémesnil opposed it.
While their proponents, like other eighteenth-century advocates of "land banks," argued that land was a more stable source of value than was gold or silver, the assignats' opponents saw them as based on an illegitimate seizure of property.
The assignats were first to be paid to the creditors of the state. With these the creditors could purchase national land, the assignats having, for this purpose, the preference over other forms of money. If the creditor did not care to purchase land, it was supposed that he could obtain the face value for them from those who desired land. Those assignats which were returned to the state as purchase-money were to be cancelled, and the whole issue, it was argued, would consequently disappear as the national lands were distributed.
Originally meant as bonds, the assignats were re-defined as legal tender (assignats-monnaie) in April 1790 to address the liquidity crisis provoked by the political, social, and cultural instability of the Revolution.
1790–1792
Étienne Clavière lobbied for large issues of assignats representing national wealth and operating as legal tender. On 17 April 1790, the notes were declared legal tender but their interest was reduced to 3%. For daily life smaller denominations of 200 and 300 livres were needed. The assignats would compensate for the scarcity of coin and would revive industry and trade. Once the assignats were paid, they had to be burnt. A surety was prepared for future issues of paper money. As soon as the assignats started to circulate, their value decreased by 5 percent. Du Pont de Nemours feared the emission of assignats would double the price of bread.
On 27 August 1790 the Assembly decided another issue of 1,9 billion assignats which would become legal tender before the end of the year for all actions, c.q. banknotes, which could be acquired by anyone and used for ordinary business transactions. Necker, suspected of reactionary tendencies, resolutely against the transformation of the assignat into paper currency, handed in his resignation on 3 September. The massive and dangerous issue of 1,9 billion he succeeded to get down to 800 million, but the attacks may have influenced his resignation. Necker was not backed by Comte de Mirabeau, his strongest opponent who called for "national money".
Necker foretold that the paper money, with which the dividends were about to be paid, would soon be of no value. Since no one had truly the right to make assignats, everyone would soon begin to do so. Montesquiou-Fézensac, charged with the issue of assignats, feared stockjobbing and greed.
When the cost of reimbursing Old Regime venal office holders for their properties (judgeships, military ranks etc.) added yet more to the Revolution's inherited debts, the National Assembly voted by a narrow margin to issue additional assignats in September 1790, initially of an additional 800 million francs. By September 1791, the value of the assignats had depreciated by 18–20 percent.
The properties backing the assignats were renamed biens nationaux ("national goods") and auctioned by district-level authorities. On 10 March 1790, on the proposition Pétion, the administration of the church property was transferred to the municipalities. Through the sale of these properties, assignats were used to successfully retire a significant portion of the national debt. However, since these land sales were their original intent, the assignats were issued only in large denominations (50, 100, 200, and 1000 livres) that worked poorly as a daily medium of exchange. Moreover, the National Assembly never mandated that assignats and Old Regime coins (which remained in circulation) had to be exchanged on par. Already in fall 1790, the National Assembly itself was paying a 7.5% commission to exchange large denomination assignats for smaller coins. By the end of 1791, the discount rate was often 20% or more. These limits on the bills' practical use, and further issues eventually totalling 3.75 billion francs, coupled with the organized opposition of counter-revolutionaries, led to their losing value. On 1 February 1792 the assignats depreciated almost with 50%. Patriotic revolutionaries blamed the assignats' depreciation on foreign conspiracies. Clavière held the coalition of states responsible for the collapse of the assignat. Dillaye wrote that the British, Belgian, and Swiss counterfeited the currency industrially: "Seventeen manufacturing establishments were in full operation in London, with a force of four hundred men devoted to the production of false and forged Assignats." On 17 October 1792, no less than 2,400 million assignations were in circulation.
After the outbreak of war, the fall of the monarchy, and the declaration of a Republic, the National Convention mandated that bills and coins exchange on par, but this law could never be enforced. Instead, the assignats continued depreciating. By August 1793 the amount of assignats in circulation had doubled to 5 billion. Rising prices and food shortages exacerbated public unrest in September. Bills such as the Maximum Price Act of 1793 aimed to address this situation.
1793–1799
On 8 November 1793 the director of the manufacture of assignats :fr:Simon-François Lamarche was executed. On 2 December Clavière was arrested; he committed suicide within a week. On 24 February 1794 the extension of the "maximum" to all commodities only increased the confusion. Trade was paralysed and all manufacturing establishments were closed down. By June 1794 the total number of assignats aggregated nearly 8 billion, of which only 2,464 million had returned to the treasury and been destroyed, after an emission of 1,205 million assignats on 19 June. In August, the Thermidorian Convention lifted the Maximum Price Act in the name of "economic freedom" and the assignats lost almost all value over the next year. By 1796 the issues had reached 45.5 billion francs, excluding counterfeits, and the Directoire issued Mandats, a currency in the form of land warrants to replace the assignats, although these too quickly failed and were received back by the state at a steep discount. Napoleon opposed all forms of fiat currency. By the 1830s–1840s, the assignats and other papers issued during the Revolution had become collectors' items.
Italy
Between 1798 and 1799, the revolutionary French forces established the Roman Republic, which also issued assignats (Italian: assegnati). They were issued by the law of 23 Fructidor VI (14 Sept 1798). The currency used was paolo or giulio, the older currency of the Papal States. Roman Republic also issued coins denominated in baiocco and scudo.
Russia
The term assignat is similar to the Russian word assignatsia which means "banknote". Assignatsionny rubl (assignation ruble) was used in Russia from 1769 until 1 January 1849. This had no connection to the French Revolution.
See also
Warrant of payment
References
Further reading
Fiat Money Inflation in France, Mises Institute
Bosher, John F. French Finances, 1770–1795: From Business to Bureaucracy (1970)
Harris, Seymour E. The Assignats (1930)
Spang, Rebecca L., Stuff and Money in the Time of the French Revolution (London and Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015).
A Cursory View of the Assignats and Remaining Resources of French Finance ... by Francis d' Ivernois
Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England: From the Norman ..., Band 31
External links
Economic history of France
Banknotes
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258963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando%20de%20Noronha | Fernando de Noronha | Fernando de Noronha () is an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, part of the State of Pernambuco, Brazil, and located offshore from the Brazilian coast. It consists of 21 islands and islets, extending over an area of . Only the eponymous main island is inhabited; it has an area of and a population estimated at 3,101 in 2020.
The islands are administratively unique in Brazil. They form a "state district" () that is administered directly by the government of the state of Pernambuco (despite being closer to the state of Rio Grande do Norte). The state district's jurisdiction also includes the very remote Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, located northeast of Fernando de Noronha. 70% of the islands' area was established in 1988 as a national marine park.
In 2001, UNESCO designated it as a World Heritage Site because of its importance as a feeding ground for tuna, sharks, turtles, and marine mammals. Its time zone is UTC−02:00 all year round.
History
Discovery
Fernando de Noronha's occupation dates to the early 16th century. Due to its geographical position, the archipelago was one of the first lands sighted in the New World, being shown in a nautical chart in 1500 by the spanish cartographer Juan de La Cosa, and in 1502 by the portuguese Alberto Cantino, in the latter with the name "Quaresma".
Based on the written record, Fernando de Noronha island was discovered on August 10, 1503, by a Portuguese expedition, organized and financed by a private commercial consortium headed by the Lisbon merchant Fernão de Loronha. The expedition was under the overall command of captain Gonçalo Coelho and carried the Italian adventurer Amerigo Vespucci aboard, who wrote an account of it. The flagship of the expedition hit a reef and foundered near the island, and the crew and contents had to be salvaged. On Coelho's orders, Vespucci anchored at the island, and spent a week there, while the rest of the Coelho fleet went on south. In his letter to Soderini, Vespucci describes the uninhabited island and reports its name as the "island of St. Lawrence" (August 10 is the feast day of St. Lawrence; it was a custom of Portuguese explorations to name locations by the liturgical calendar).
Its existence was reported to Lisbon sometime between then and January 16, 1504, when King Manuel I of Portugal issued a charter granting the "island of St. John" (São João) as a hereditary captaincy to Fernão de Loronha. The date and new name in the charter has presented historians with a puzzle. As Vespucci did not return to Lisbon until September 1504, the discovery must have been earlier. Historians have hypothesized that a stray ship of the Coelho fleet, under an unknown captain, may have returned to the island (prob. on August 29, 1503, feast day of the beheading of St. John the Baptist) to collect Vespucci, did not find him or anyone else there, and went back to Lisbon by itself with the news. (Vespucci in his letter, claims he left the island August 18, 1503, and upon his arrival in Lisbon a year later, on September 7, 1504, the people of Lisbon were surprised, as they "had been told" (presumably by the earlier captain?) that his ship had been lost. The captain who returned to Lisbon with the news (and the St. John name) is unknown. (Some have speculated this captain was Loronha himself, the chief financier of this expedition, but that is highly unlikely.)
This account, reconstructed from the written record, is severely marred by the cartographic record. An island, named Quaresma, looking very much like Fernando de Noronha island, appears in the Cantino planisphere. The Cantino map was composed by an anonymous Portuguese cartographer, and completed before November 1502, well before the Coelho expedition even set out. This has led to speculation that the island was discovered by a previous expedition. However, there is no consensus on which expedition that might have been. The name "Quaresma" means Lent, suggesting it must have been discovered in March or early April, which does not correspond well with the known expeditions. There is also a mysterious red island to the left of Quaresma in the Cantino map that does not fit with Fernando de Noronha island. Some have explained these anomalies away by reading quaresma as anaresma (meaning unknown, but sidesteps the Lent timing), and proposing that the red island is just an accidental inkblot.
Assuming Quaresma is indeed Fernando de Noronha, then it's unknown who discovered it. One proposal is that it was discovered by a royal Portuguese mapping expedition that was sent out in May 1501, commanded by an unknown captain (possibly André Gonçalves) and also accompanied by Amerigo Vespucci. According to Vespucci, this expedition returned to Lisbon in September 1502, just on time to influence the final composition of the Cantino map. Unfortunately, Vespucci does not report discovering this island then – indeed he is quite clear that the first time he (and his fellow sailors) saw the island was on the 1503 Coelho expedition. However, there is a letter written by an Italian saying that a ship arrived "from the land of Parrots" in Lisbon on July 22, 1502 (three months before Vespucci). This could be a stray ship from the mapping expedition that returned prematurely, or another expedition altogether, about which we have no information. The timing of its reputed arrival (July 1502), makes it possible that it stumbled on the island sometime in March 1502, on the homeward voyage, well within Lent.
A third possible (but unlikely) theory is that the island was discovered already in 1500, shortly after the discovery of Brazil by the Second India Armada under Pedro Alvares Cabral. After his brief landfall at Porto Seguro, Cabral dispatched a supply ship under either Gaspar de Lemos or André Gonçalves (sources conflict) back to Lisbon, to report the discovery. This returning supply ship would have returned north along the Brazilian coast and might have come across Fernando de Noronha island, and reported its existence in Lisbon by July 1500. However, this contradicts the Quaresma name, since the returning supply ship was sailing well after Lent.
A fourth (but also unlikely) possibility is that it was discovered by the Third India Armada of João da Nova, which set out from Lisbon in March or April 1501, and arrived back in September 1502, also in time to influence the Cantino map. Chronicler Gaspar Correia asserts that on the outward voyage, the Third Armada made a stop on the Brazilian coast around Cape Santo Agostinho. Two other chroniclers (João de Barros and Damião de Góis) do not mention a landfall, but do report they discovered an island (which they believe to be identified as Ascension island, but this is not certain). So it is possible that the Third Armada may indeed have discovered Fernando de Noronha island on their outward leg. However, the timing is very tight: Easter landed on April 11, 1501, while the estimated departure date of the Third Armada from Lisbon ranges from March 5 to April 15, not leaving enough time to reach those environs within Lent.
As a result of these anomalies, some modern historians have proposed that Fernando de Noronha is not depicted on the 1502 Cantino map at all. Instead, they have proposed that Quaresma island and the accompanying red "inkblot" are in fact the Rocas Atoll, slightly misplaced on the map. This reserves the discovery of Fernando de Noronha island itself as indeed on August 10, 1503, by the Gonçalo Coelho expedition, as originally reported by Vespucci.
The transition of the name from "São João" to "Fernando de Noronha" was probably just natural usage. A royal letter dated May 20, 1559, to descendants of the Loronha family, still refers to the island by its official name of ilha de São João., but already in other places, e.g. the logbook of Martim Afonso de Sousa in the 1530s, it was referred to as the "island of Fernão de Noronha" ("Noronha" being a common misspelling of "Loronha"). The informal name eventually displaced the official name.
1500–1700
The Lisbon merchant Fernão de Loronha held not only Fernando de Noronha island as a hereditary captaincy but also (from 1503 to around 1512) a commercial monopoly on trade in Brazil. Between 1503 and 1512, Noronha's agents set up a string of warehouses (feitorias) along the Brazilian coast, and engaged in trade with the indigenous peoples in Brazil for brazilwood, a native red dye wood highly valued by European clothmakers. Fernando de Noronha island was the central collection point of this network. Brazilwood, continuously harvested by the coastal Indians and delivered to the various coastal warehouses, was shipped to the central warehouse on Fernando de Noronha island, which was intermittently visited by a larger transport ship that would carry the collected loads back to Europe. After the expiration of Loronha's commercial charter in 1512, the organization of the brazilwood enterprise was taken over by the Portuguese crown, but Loronha and his descendants retained private ownership of Fernando de Noronha island itself as a hereditary captaincy, at least down to the 1560s.
1700–1900
In July 1719, the Welsh pirate Bartholomew Roberts, also known as "Black Bart," was present on the island for a total of nine weeks, before heading off in search of Portuguese ships in the West Indies.
Captain Henry Foster stopped at Fernando de Noronha during his scientific survey expedition as commander of HMS Chanticleer, which had set out in 1828. As well as surveying coasts and ocean currents, Foster used a Kater invariable pendulum to make observations on gravity. He took the island as the point of junction of his double line of longitudes setting out his survey. He was given considerable assistance by the Governor of Fernando Noronha who let Foster use part of his own house for the pendulum experiments. The longitude of Rio de Janeiro taken by Foster was among those on one side of a significant discrepancy, which meant that the charts of South America were in doubt.
To resolve this, the Admiralty instructed Captain Robert FitzRoy to command on a survey expedition. One of its essential tasks was a stop at Fernando Noronha to confirm its exact longitude, using the 22 chronometers on board the ship to give the precise time of observations. They arrived at the island in the late evening of 19 February 1832, anchoring at midnight. On 20 February FizRoy landed a small party to take the observations, despite difficulties caused by heavy surf, then sailed on for Bahia, Brazil that evening.
During the day, the island was visited by the naturalist Charles Darwin, who was one of the Beagles passengers. He took notes for his book on geology. He wrote about admiring the woods:
"The whole island is one forest, & this is so thickly intertwined that it requires great exertion to crawl along. — The scenery was very beautiful, & large Magnolias & Laurels & trees covered with delicate flowers ought to have satisfied me. — But I am sure all the grandeur of the Tropics has not yet been seen by me. — We had no gaudy birds, No humming birds. No large flowers".
His experiences on Fernando de Noronha were recorded in his journal, later published as The Voyage of the Beagle. He also included a short description of the island in his 1844 Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle.
The island was also used as a penal colony in the 19th century.
1900–present
In the late 18th century, the first prisoners were sent to Fernando de Noronha. A prison was built. In 1897 the government of the state of Pernambuco took possession of the prison. Between 1938 and 1945, Fernando de Noronha was a political prison. The former governor of Pernambuco, Miguel Arraes, was incarcerated there. In 1957 the prison was closed and the archipelago was visited by President Juscelino Kubitschek.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the British arrived to provide technical cooperation in telegraphy (The South American Company). Later the French came with the French Cable and the Italians with Italcable.
In 1942, during World War II, the archipelago was made a Federal territory, which included Rocas Atoll and Saint Peter and Paul Rocks. The government sent political and ordinary prisoners to the local prison.
An airport was constructed in September 1942 by the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command for the Natal-Dakar air route. It provided a transoceanic link between Brazil and French West Africa for cargo, transiting aircraft and personnel during the Allies campaign in Africa. Brazil transferred the airport to the jurisdiction of the United States Navy on 5 September 1944. After the end of the war, the administration of the airport was transferred back to the Brazilian Government.
The geographic position of the airport averted a major air disaster on the 21 July 1950. A BOAC Canadair C-4 Argonaut, with a crew of 7 and 12 passengers, en-route to Natal from Dakar encountered severe engine problems which resulted, at one point, in both engines on the starboard wing being shut down. With only two functioning engines on the port wing, the reduction in power output caused the aircraft to steadily lose altitude from its normal cruising altitude of 20000 ft at a rate of 400 ft/min.A further difficulty was that the propeller on the inboard engine could not be feathered, which significantly increased aircraft drag. The crew also had to cope with a persistent fire on the same engine. As a result the Captain ordered an SOS to be issued. The crew realised that they might not be able to reach Natal and would have to ditch in the South Atlantic. Consequently, the Captain decided to divert to Fernando de Noronha, 480 miles to the southwest. En-route the crew managed to restart the outboard engine and this enabled the aircraft to maintain an altitude of 9000 ft. Although there were problems with coolant temperature on the port wing engines plus difficulties in locating the small archipelago, the crew nursed the Argonaut to a safe landing at Fernando de Noronha, some four hours after their ordeal began.
Nowadays, Fernando de Noronha Airport is served by daily flights from Recife and Natal on the Brazilian coast.
In 1988, Brazil designated approximately 70% of the archipelago as a maritime national park, with the goal of preserving the land and sea environment. On October 5, 1988, the Federal Territory was dissolved and added to the state of Pernambuco (except Rocas Atoll, which was added to the state of Rio Grande do Norte).
Today Fernando de Noronha's economy depends on tourism, restricted by the limitations of its delicate ecosystem. In addition to the historical interest noted above, the archipelago has been the subject of the attention of various scientists dedicated to the study of its flora, fauna, geology, etc. The jurisdiction is considered to be a separate "entity" by the DX Century Club, and so is visited rather often by amateur radio operators.
In 2001, UNESCO declared Fernando de Noronha, with Rocas Atoll, a World Heritage Site. It cited the following reasons:
a) the island's importance as a feeding ground for several species, including tuna, billfish, cetaceans, sharks, and marine turtles,
b) a high population of resident spinner dolphins and
c) protection for endangered species, such as the hawksbill sea turtle (critically endangered) and various birds.
In 2009, Air France Flight 447 crashed into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Fernando de Noronha. Rescue and recovery operations were launched from this island. Bodies and debris from the Airbus A330 operating the flight were recovered within five days. All 228 people on board were killed. The crash had been caused by the flight crew's inappropriate response to inaccurate airspeed readings due to the pitot tubes being blocked, with the first officer (who was the pilot flying) pulling the nose up, which caused the aircraft to enter a stall and crash.
Geography
Geology
The islands of this archipelago are the visible parts of a range of submerged mountains. It consists of 21 islands, islets and rocks of volcanic origin. The main island has an area of , being long and wide at its maximum. The base of this enormous volcanic formation is below the surface. The volcanic rocks are of variable though mainly silica-undersaturated character with basanite, nephelinite and phonolite among the lava types found. The main island, from which the group gets its name, makes up 91% of the total area; the islands of Rata, Sela Gineta, Cabeluda and São José, together with the islets of Leão and Viúva make up the rest. The central upland of the main island is called the Quixaba.
Flora
The United Nations Environment Programme lists 15 possible endemic plant species, including species of the genera Capparis noronhae (2 species), Ceratosanthes noronhae (3 species), Cayaponia noronhae (2 species), Moriordica noronhae, Cereus noronhae, Palicourea noronhae, Guettarda noronhae, Bumelia noronhae, Physalis noronhae, and Ficus noronhae.
Fauna
The islands have two endemic birds: the Noronha elaenia (Elaenia ridleyana) and the Noronha vireo (Vireo gracilirostris). Both are present on the main island; the Noronha vireo is also present on Ilha Rata. In addition there is an endemic subspecies of eared dove (Zenaida auriculata noronha). Subfossil remains of an extinct endemic rail have also been found. The archipelago is also an important site for breeding seabirds. An endemic sigmodontine rodent (Noronhomys vespuccii), mentioned by Amerigo Vespucci, is now extinct. The islands have two endemic reptiles, the Noronha wormlizard (Amphisbaena ridleyi) and the Noronha skink (Trachylepis atlantica).
Marine life
The life above and below sea is the main attraction of the island. Sea turtles, cetaceans (most common among these are spinner dolphins and humpback whales, followed by many others such as pantropical spotted dolphins, short-finned pilot whales, melon-headed whales), albatrosses, and many other species are frequently observed.
Climate
Fernando de Noronha has a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw/As), with two well-defined seasons for rainfall, if not temperature. The rainy season lasts from February to July; the rest of the year sees little rain. The temperature ranges, both diurnal and monthly, are unusually slight.
Conservation and environmental threats
Most of the original large trees were cut down in the 19th century, when the island was used as a prison, for firewood and to keep the prisoners from hiding and making rafts.
Also, exotic species have been introduced:
Linseed, intended for use as cattle feed.
Tegu lizards (Tupinambis merianae, locally known as teju) introduced in the 1950s to control a rat infestation. It did not work because Tegus are diurnal and rats, nocturnal. The lizards are now considered a plague, feeding mostly on bird eggs.
Rock cavies (Kerodon rupestris, locally known as mocó) introduced by the military in the 1960s as hunting game for soldiers.
Domestic cats, introduced as pets, now they spread throughout the whole island and several acquired a feral status, surviving only by preying on native birds, rock cavies and synanthropic rodents.
From these, the domestic cat and the tegu lizard have become invasive.
The island is divided between the Fernando de Noronha Marine National Park and the Fernando de Noronha Environmental Protection Area. The latter covers the urban, tourist area.
Economy
Tourism including dolphin watching, diving and charter fishing comprise the majority of the island's economy.
Economic indicators
The archipelago of Fernando de Noronha in 2005 had a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of R$22,802,000 and a per capita income of R$10,001. The Human Development Index (HDI) district's state was estimated at 0.862 (PNUD/2000). The only two banking centers in the archipelago are a branch of Banco Santander Brasil and a Banco Bradesco one. There are one or two additional ATMs around the main island.
Tourism
The beaches of Fernando de Noronha are promoted for tourism and recreational diving. The most popular ones include Baía do Sancho, Pig Bay, Dolphins Bay, Sueste Bay and Praia do Leão. Due to the South Equatorial Current that pushes warm water from Africa to the island, diving to depths of does not require a wetsuit. The visibility underwater can reach up to .
The part of the island facing the mainland has the beaches in the following order: Baía do Sancho, Baía dos Porcos, Praia da Cacimba do Padre, Praia do Bode, Praia dos Americanos, Praia do Boldró, Praia da Conceição, Praia do Meio and Praia do Cachorro. The part of the island facing the Atlantic Ocean has only three beaches: Praia do Leão, Praia do Sueste and Praia do Atalaia. A great way to get to know the island is to walk from Praia dos Americanos, pass by Praia do Boldró, Praia da Conceição, Praia do Meio and finish the walking at Praia do Cachorro.
The island is served by Gov. Carlos Wilson Airport with regular flights to Natal and Recife.
Gallery
See also
Noronha hotspot
References
Bibliography
Duarte Leite (1923) "O Mais antigo mapa do Brasil" in História da Colonização Portuguesa do Brasil, vol.2, pp. 221–81.
Greenlee, W.B. (1945) "The Captaincy of the Second Portuguese Voyage to Brazil, 1501–1502", The Americas, Vol. 2, p. 3–13.
Roukema, E. (1963) "Brazil in the Cantino Map", Imago Mundi, Vol. 17, p. 7–26
External links
Fernando de Noronha Official website
Fernando de Noronha Much information about Fernando de Noronha (in Portuguese)Tourism A photo tour of the island PVV.org
Information provided by a local resident
A recent Blog about Fernando de Noronha - In English
Audio interview with Fernando de Noronha resident about life on Fernando de NoronhaVideos'
Fernando de Noronha National Park
Noronha beaches and underwater
Noronha scuba diving
Archipelagoes of Brazil
Archipelagoes of the Atlantic Ocean
Landforms of Pernambuco
Protected areas of Pernambuco
Ecoregions of Brazil
Neotropical tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Neotropical ecoregions
Former subdivisions of Brazil
Populated coastal places in Pernambuco
World Heritage Sites in Brazil
Geological type localities
Islands of the South Atlantic Ocean
Important Bird Areas of Brazil
Important Bird Areas of Atlantic islands
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258967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brolly | Brolly | Brolly may refer to:
People
Anne Brolly, Sinn Féin politician and councillor on Limavady Borough Council in Northern Ireland
Bob Brolly, Northern Ireland-born broadcaster and singer
Brian Brolly (1936–2006), English showbusiness entrepreneur
Francie Brolly (born 1947), musician, retired teacher and republican politician from Dungiven, Northern Ireland
Joe Brolly (born 1969), Irish barrister, Gaelic football analyst, and former player from Dungiven, County Londonderry, Northern Ireland
Mike Brolly (born 1954), Scottish-born former professional footballer
Sarah Buxton Brolly (born 1965), American actress
Shane Brolly (born 1970), Northern Irish actor, writer, and director
Other uses
Umbrella, colloquially
Brolly, California, in Modoc County
See also
Broly, fictional character in the Dragon Ball series | [
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258979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnutrition | Malnutrition | Malnutrition occurs when an individual gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues and form.
Malnutrition is a category of diseases that includes undernutrition and overnutrition. Undernutrition is a lack of nutrients, which can result in stunted growth, wasting, and underweight. A surplus of nutrients causes overnutrition, which can result in overweight and obesity. In some developing countries, overnutrition in the form of obesity is beginning to appear within the same communities as undernutrition.
Most clinical studies use the term 'malnutrition' to refer to undernutrition. However, the use of 'malnutrition' instead of 'undernutrition' makes it impossible to distinguish between undernutrition and overnutrition, a less acknowledged form of malnutrition. Accordingly, a 2019 report by The Lancet Commission suggested expanding the definition of malnutrition to include "all its forms, including obesity, undernutrition, and other dietary risks." The World Health Organization and The Lancet Commission have also identified "[t]he double burden of malnutrition," which occurs from "the coexistence of overnutrition (overweight and obesity) alongside undernutrition (stunted growth and wasting)."
Prevalence
It is estimated that nearly one in three persons globally suffers from at least one form of malnutrition: wasting, stunting, vitamin or mineral deficiency, overweight, obesity, or diet-related noncommunicable diseases. Undernutrition is more common in developing countries.
In children
In 2020, 149 million children under five years old were stunted, 45 million were wasted, and 38.9 million were overweight or obese. The following year, an estimated 45% of deaths in children were linked to undernutrition.
Vitamin A deficiency affects one third of children under age 5 around the world, leading to 670,000 deaths and 250,000–500,000 cases of blindness.
In adults
As of June 2021, 1.9 billion adults were overweight or obese, and 462 million adults were underweight. Globally, two billion people had iodine deficiency in 2017. In 2020, 900 million women and children suffered from anemia, which is often caused by iron deficiency.
Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including elderly people and women (in particular while pregnant or breastfeeding children under five years of age). Undernutrition is an increasing health problem in people aged over 65 years, even in developed countries, especially among nursing home residents and in acute care hospitals. In the elderly, undernutrition is more commonly due to physical, psychological, and social factors, not a lack of food. Age-related reduced dietary intake due to chewing and swallowing problems, sensory decline, depression, imbalanced gut microbiome, poverty and loneliness are major contributors to undernutrition in the elderly population.
Recent increase
There has been an increase in world hunger over the past decade. In 2015, 795 million people (about one in ten people on earth) had undernutrition. In 2020, one in nine people in the world—or 820 million people worldwide—was hungry.
These increases are partially related to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, which continues to highlight the weaknesses of current food and health systems. It has contributed to food insecurity, increasing hunger worldwide; meanwhile, lower physical activity during lockdowns has contributed to increases in overweight and obesity. In 2020, experts estimated that by the end of the year, the pandemic could double the number of people at risk of suffering acute hunger. Similarly, experts estimate that the prevalence of moderate and severe wasting could increase by 14% due to COVID-19; coupled with reductions in nutrition and health services coverage, this could result in over 128,000 additional deaths among children under 5 in 2020 alone.
Other major causes of hunger include manmade conflicts, climate changes, and economic downturns.
Definitions
Undernutrition
Undernutrition occurs when an individual is not getting enough calories, protein, or micronutrients. It adversely affects physical and mental functioning, and causes changes in body composition and body cell mass. Undernutrition is a major health problem, causing the highest mortality rate in children, and is responsible for long-lasting physiologic effects.
Undernutrition can manifest as stunting, wasting, and underweight. If undernutrition occurs during pregnancy, or before two years of age, it may result in permanent problems with physical and mental development. Extreme undernutrition can cause starvation, chronic hunger, Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM), and/or Moderate Acute Malnutrition (MAM).
The signs and symptoms of micronutrient deficiencies depend on which micronutrient is lacking. However, undernourished people are often thin and short, with very poor energy levels; and swelling in the legs and abdomen is also common. People who are undernourished often get infections and frequently feel cold.
Micronutrient malnutrition
Micronutrient malnutrition results from inadequate intake of vitamins and minerals. Worldwide, deficiencies in iodine, Vitamin A, and iron are the most common. Children and pregnant women in low-income countries are at especially high risk for micronutrient deficiencies.
Anemia is most commonly caused by iron deficiency, but can also result from other micronutrient deficiencies and diseases. This condition can have major health consequences.
It is possible to have overnutrition simultaneously with micronutrient deficiencies; this condition is termed the double burden of malnutrition.
Protein-energy malnutrition
'Undernutrition' sometimes refers specifically to protein–energy malnutrition (PEM). This condition involves both micronutrient deficiencies and an imbalance of protein intake and energy expenditure. It differs from calorie restriction in that calorie restriction may not result in negative health effects. Hypoalimentation (underfeeding) is one cause of undernutrition.
Two forms of PEM are kwashiorkor and marasmus; both commonly coexist.
Kwashiorkor is primarily caused by inadequate protein intake. Its symptoms include edema, wasting, liver enlargement, hypoalbuminaemia, and steatosis; the condition may also cause depigmentation of skin and hair. The disorder is further identified by a characteristic swelling of the belly, which disguises the sufferer's undernourished condition. 'Kwashiorkor' means ‘displaced child’ and is derived from the Ga language of coastal Ghana in West Africa. It means "the sickness the baby gets when the next baby is born," as it often occurs when the older child is deprived of breastfeeding and weaned to a diet composed largely of carbohydrates.
Marasmus (meaning ‘to waste away’) can result from a sustained diet that is deficient in both protein and energy. This causes the sufferer's metabolism to adapt in order to prolong survival. The primary symptoms are severe wasting, leaving little or no edema; minimal subcutaneous fat; and abnormal serum albumin levels. It is traditionally seen in cases of famine, significant food restriction, or severe anorexia. Conditions are characterized by extreme wasting of the muscles and a gaunt expression.
Overnutrition
Excessive consumption of energy-dense foods and drinks and limited physical activity causes overnutrition. It causes overweight, defined as a body mass index (BMI) of 25 or more, and can lead to obesity (a BMI of 30 or more). Overnutrition is linked to chronic non-communicable diseases like diabetes, certain cancers, and cardiovascular diseases.
Classifying malnutrition
Definition by Gomez & Galvan
In 1956, Gómez and Galvan studied factors associated with death in a group of undernourished children in a hospital in Mexico City, Mexico. They defined three categories of malnutrition: first, second, and third degree. The degree of malnutrition is calculated based on a child's body size compared to the median weight for their age. The risk of death increases with increasing degrees of malnutrition.
An adaptation of Gomez's original classification is still used today. While it provides a way to compare malnutrition within and between populations, this classification system has been criticized for being "arbitrary" and for not considering overweight as a form of malnutrition. Also, height alone may not be the best indicator of malnutrition; children who are born prematurely may be considered short for their age even if they have good nutrition.
Definition by Waterlow
In the 1970s, John Conrad Waterlow established a new classification system for malnutrition. Instead of using just weight for age measurements, Waterlow's system combines weight-for-height (indicating acute episodes of malnutrition) with height-for-age to show the stunting that results from chronic malnutrition. One advantage of the Waterlow classification is that weight for height can be calculated even if a child's age is unknown.
The World Health Organization frequently uses these classifications of malnutrition, with some modifications.
Effects
Malnutrition weakens every part of the immune system. Protein and energy malnutrition increases susceptibility to infection; so do deficiencies of specific micronutrients (including iron, zinc, and vitamins). In communities or areas that lack access to safe drinking water, these additional health risks present a critical problem.
Malnutrition plays a major role in the onset of active tuberculosis. It also raises the risk of HIV transmission from mother to child, and increases replication of the virus. Malnutrition can cause vitamin-deficiency-related diseases like scurvy and rickets. As malnutrition worsens, sufferers have less energy and experience impairment in brain functions. This can make it difficult (or impossible) to them to perform the tasks needed to acquire food, earn an income, or gain an education.
Malnutrition can also cause acute problems, like hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). This condition can cause lethargy, limpness, seizures, and loss of consciousness. Children are particularly at risk and can become hypoglycemic after 4 to 6 hours without food. Dehydration can also occur in malnourished people, and can be life-threatening, especially in babies and small children.
Signs
There are many different signs of dehydration in malnourished people. These can include sunken eyes; a very dry mouth; decreased urine output and/or dark urine; increased heart rate with decreasing blood pressure; and altered mental status.
Cognitive development
Protein-calorie malnutrition can cause cognitive impairments. This most commonly occurs in people who were malnourished during a "critical period ... from the final third of gestation to the first 2 years of life". For example, in children under two years of age, iron deficiency anemia is likely to affect brain function acutely, and probably also chronically. Similarly, folate deficiency has been linked to neural tube defects.
Iodine deficiency is "the most common preventable cause of mental impairment worldwide." "Even moderate [iodine] deficiency, especially in pregnant women and infants, lowers intelligence by 10 to 15 I.Q. points, shaving incalculable potential off a nation's development." Among sufferers, very few people experience the most visible and severe effects: disabling goiters, cretinism and dwarfism. These effects occur most commonly in mountain villages. However, 16 percent of the world's people have at least mild goiter (a swollen thyroid gland in the neck)."
Causes & risk factors
Social and political
Undernutrition most commonly results from a lack of access to high-quality, nutritious food. This is often related to high food prices and poverty. For example, Khan and Kraemer (2009) found that in Bangladesh, low socioeconomic status was associated with chronic malnutrition since it inhibited purchase of nutritious foods (like milk, meat, poultry, and fruits). Food shortages may also contribute to malnutritions in countries which lack technology. However, in the developing world, eighty percent of malnourished children live in countries that produce food surpluses, according to estimates from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The economist Amartya Sen observes that, in recent decades, famine has always been a problem of food distribution, purchasing power, and/or poverty, since there has always been enough food for everyone in the world.
There are also sociopolitical causes of malnutrition. For example, the population of a community might be at increased risk for malnutrition if government is poor and the area lacks health-related services. On a smaller scale, certain households or individuals may be at an even higher risk due to differences in income levels, access to land, or levels of education.
It is argued that commodity speculators are increasing the cost of food. As the real-estate bubble in the United States was collapsing, it is said that trillions of dollars moved to invest in food and primary commodities, causing the 2007–2008 food price crisis.
The use of biofuels as a replacement for traditional fuels raises the price of food. The United Nations special rapporteur on the right to food, Jean Ziegler proposes that agricultural waste, such as corn cobs and banana leaves, should be used as fuel instead of crops.
In some developing countries, overnutrition (in the form of obesity) is beginning to appear in the same communities where malnutrition occurs. Variations in the health status of individuals in the same society are associated with the societal structure and an individual's socioeconomic status which leads to income inequality, racism, educational differences and lack of opportunities.
Diseases & conditions
Infectious diseases which increase nutrient requirements, such as gastroenteritis, pneumonia, malaria, and measles, can cause malnutrition. So can some chronic illnesses, especially HIV/AIDS.
Malnutrition can also result from abnormal nutrient loss due to diarrhea or chronic small bowel illnesses, like Crohn's disease or untreated coeliac disease. "Secondary malnutrition" can result from increased energy expenditure.
In infants, a lack of breastfeeding may contribute to undernourishment. Anorexia nervosa and bariatric surgery can also cause malnutrition.
Dietary practices
Undernutrition
Undernutrition due to lack of adequate breastfeeding is associated with the deaths of an estimated one million children annually. Illegal advertising of breast-milk substitutes contributed to malnutrition and continued three decades after its 1981 prohibition under the WHO International Code of Marketing Breast Milk Substitutes.
Maternal malnutrition can also factor into the poor health or death of a baby. Over 800,000 neonatal deaths have occurred because of deficient growth of the fetus in the mother's womb.
Deriving too much of one's diet from a single source, such as eating almost exclusively potato, maize or rice, can cause malnutrition. This may either be from a lack of education about proper nutrition, or from only having access to a single food source.
It is not just the total amount of calories that matters but specific nutritional deficiencies such as vitamin A deficiency, iron deficiency or zinc deficiency can also increase risk of death.
Overnutrition
Overnutrition caused by overeating is also a form of malnutrition. In the United States, more than half of all adults are now overweight—a condition that, like hunger, increases susceptibility to disease and disability, reduces worker productivity, and lowers life expectancy. Overeating is much more common in the United States, since most people have adequate access to food. Many parts of the world have access to a surplus of non-nutritious food. Increased sedentary lifestyles also contribute to overnutrition. Yale University psychologist Kelly Brownell calls this a "toxic food environment," where fat- and sugar-laden foods have taken precedence over healthy nutritious foods.
In these developed countries, overnutrition can be prevented by choosing the right kind of food. More fast food is consumed per capita in the United States than in any other country. This mass consumption of fast food results from its affordability and accessibility. Fast food, which is low in cost and nutrition, is high in calories. Due to increasing urbanization and automation, people are living more sedentary lifestyles. These factors combine to make weight gain difficult to avoid.
Overnutrition also occurs in developing countries. It has appeared in parts of developing countries where income is on the rise. It is also a problem in countries where hunger and poverty persist. Economic development, rapid urbanisation and shifting dietary patterns have increased the burden of overnutrition in the cities of low and middle-income countries. In China, consumption of high-fat foods has increased, while consumption of rice and other goods has decreased.
Overeating leads to many diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes, that may be fatal.
Agricultural productivity
Local food shortages can be caused by a lack of arable land, adverse weather, and/or poorer farming skills (like inadequate crop rotation). They can also occur in areas which lack the technology or resources needed for the higher yields found in modern agriculture. These resources include fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, machinery, and storage facilities. As a result of widespread poverty, farmers and governments cannot provide enough of these resources to improve local yields.
Additionally, the World Bank and some wealthy donor countries have pressured developing countries to use free market policies. Even as the United States and Europe extensively subsidized their own farmers, they urged developing countries to cut or eliminate subsidized agricultural inputs, like fertilizer. Without subsidies, few (if any) farmers in developing countries can afford fertilizer at market prices. This leads to low agricultural production, low wages, and high, unaffordable food prices. Fertilizer is also increasingly unavailable because Western environmental groups have fought to end its use due to environmental concerns. The Green Revolution pioneers Norman Borlaug and Keith Rosenberg cited as the obstacle to feeding Africa by .
Future threats
In the future, variety of factors could potentially disrupt global food supply and cause widespread malnutrition.
Global warming is of importance to food security. Almost all malnourished people (95%) live in the tropics and subtropics, where the climate is relatively stable. According to the latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports, temperature increases in these regions are "very likely." Even small changes in temperatures can make extreme weather conditions occur more frequently. Extreme weather events, like drought, have a major impact on agricultural production, and hence nutrition. For example, the 1998–2001 Central Asian drought killed about 80 percent of livestock in Iran and caused a 50% reduction in wheat and barley crops there. Other central Asian nations experienced similar losses. An increase in extreme weather such as drought in regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa would have even greater consequences in terms of malnutrition. Even without an increase of extreme weather events, a simple increase in temperature reduces the productivity of many crop species, and decreases food security in these regions.
Another threat is colony collapse disorder, a phenomenon where bees die in large numbers. Since many agricultural crops worldwide are pollinated by bees, colony collapse disorder represents a threat to the global food supply.
Prevention
Reducing malnutrition is key part of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG2), "Zero Hunger," which aims to reduce malnutrition, undernutrition, and stunted child growth.
Food security
In the 1950s and 1960s, the Green Revolution aimed to bring modern Western agricultural techniques (like nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides) to Asia. Investments in agriculture, such as fund fertilizers and seeds, increased food harvests and thus food production. Consequently, food prices and malnutrition decreased (as they had earlier in Western nations).
The Green Revolution was possible in Asia because of existing infrastructure and institutions, such as a system of roads and public seed companies that made seeds available. These resources were in short supply in Africa, decreasing the Green Revolution's impact on the continent.
For example, almost five million of the 13 million people in Malawi used to need emergency food aid. However, in the early 2000s, the Malawian government changed its agricultural policies, and implemented subsidies for fertilizer and seed introduced against World Bank strictures. By 2007, farmers were producing record-breaking corn harvests. Corn production leaped to 3.4 million in 2007 compared to 1.2 million in 2005, making Malawi a major food exporter. Consequently, food prices lowered and wages for farmworkers rose. Such investments in agriculture are still needed in other African countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Despite the country's great agricultural potential, the prevalence of malnutrition in the DRC is among the highest in the world. Proponents for investing in agriculture include Jeffrey Sachs, who argues that wealthy countries should invest in fertilizer and seed for Africa's farmers.
Imported Ready to Use Therapeutic Food (RUTF) has been used to treat malnutrition in northern Nigeria. Some Nigerians also use soy kunu, a locally sourced and prepared blend consisting of peanut, millet and soybeans.
New technology in agricultural production has great potential to combat undernutrition. It makes farming easier, thus improving agricultural yields. By increasing farmers' incomes, this could reduce poverty. It would also open up area which farmers could use to diversify crops for household use.
The World Bank claims to be part of the solution to malnutrition, asserting that countries can best break the cycle of poverty and malnutrition by building export-led economies, giving them the financial means to buy foodstuffs on the world market. The role of the World Bank cannot be overemphasized in the prevention of malnutrition..
Economics
Many aid groups have found that giving cash assistance (or cash vouchers) is more effective than donating food. Particularly in areas where food is available but unaffordable, giving cash assistance is a cheaper, faster, and more efficient way to deliver help to the hungry. In 2008, the UN's World Food Program, the biggest non-governmental distributor of food, announced that it would begin distributing cash and vouchers instead of food in some areas, which Josette Sheeran, the WFP's executive director, described as a "revolution" in food aid. The aid agency Concern Worldwide piloted a method of giving cash assistance using a mobile phone operator, Safaricom, which runs a money transfer program that allows cash to be sent from one part of a country to another.
However, during a drought, delivering food might be the most appropriate way to help people, especially those who live far from markets and thus have limited access to them. Fred Cuny stated that "the chances of saving lives at the outset of a relief operation are greatly reduced when food is imported. By the time it arrives in the country and gets to people, many will have died." U.S. law requires food aid to be purchased at home rather than in the countries where the hungry live; this is inefficient because approximately half of the money spent goes for transport. Cuny further pointed out that "studies of every recent famine have shown that food was available in-country—though not always in the immediate food deficit area" and "even though by local standards the prices are too high for the poor to purchase it, it would usually be cheaper for a donor to buy the hoarded food at the inflated price than to import it from abroad."
Food banks and soup kitchens address malnutrition in places where people lack money to buy food. A basic income has been proposed as a way to ensure that everyone has enough money to buy food and other basic needs. This is a form of social security in which all citizens or residents of a country regularly receive an unconditional sum of money, either from a government or some other public institution, in addition to any income received from elsewhere.
Successful initiatives
Ethiopia pioneered a program that later became part of the World Bank's prescribed method for coping with a food crisis. Through the country's main food assistance program, the Productive Safety Net Program, Ethiopia provided rural residents who were chronically short of food a chance to work for food or cash. Foreign aid organizations like the World Food Program were then able to buy food locally from surplus areas to distribute in areas with a shortage of food. Aid organizations now view the Ethiopian program as a model of how to best help hungry nations.
Successful initiatives also include Brazil's recycling program for organic waste, which benefits farmers, the urban poor, and the city in general. City residents separate organic waste from their garbage, bag it, and then exchange it for fresh fruit and vegetables from local farmers. This reduces the country's waste while giving the urban poor a steady supply of nutritious food.
World population
Restricting population size is a proposed solution to malnutrition. Thomas Malthus argues that population growth can be controlled by natural disasters and by voluntary limits through "moral restraint." Robert Chapman suggests that government policies are a necessary ingredient for curtailing global population growth. The United Nations recognizes that poverty and malnutrition (as well as the environment) are interdependent and complementary with population growth. According to the World Health Organisation, "Family planning is key to slowing unsustainable population growth and the resulting negative impacts on the economy, environment, and national and regional development efforts". However, more than 200 million women worldwide lack adequate access to family planning services.
There are different theories about what causes famine. Some theorists, like the Indian economist Amartya Sen, believe that the world has more than enough resources to sustain its population. In this view, malnutrition is caused by unequal distribution of resources and under- or unutilized arable land. For example, Sen argues that "no matter how a famine is caused, methods of breaking it call for a large supply of food in the public distribution system. This applies not only to organizing rationing and control, but also to undertaking work programmes and other methods of increasing purchasing power for those hit by shifts in exchange entitlements in a general inflationary situation."
Food sovereignty
Food sovereignty is one suggested policy framework to resolve access issues. In this framework, people (rather than international market forces) have the right to define their own food, agricultural, livestock, and fishery systems. Food First is one of the primary think tanks working to build support for food sovereignty. Neoliberals advocate for an increasing role of the free market.
Health facilities
Another possible long-term solution to malnutrition is to increase access to health facilities in rural parts of the world. These facilities could monitor undernourished children, act as supplemental food distribution centers, and provide education on dietary needs. Similar facilities have already proven very successful in countries such as Peru and Ghana.
Breastfeeding
In 2016, estimates suggested that more widespread breastfeeding could prevent about 823,000 deaths annually of children under age 5. In addition to reducing infant deaths, breast milk provides an important source of micronutrients - which are clinically proven to bolster children's immune systems - and provides long-term defenses against non-communicable and allergic diseases. Breastfeeding improves cognitive abilities in children, and correlates strongly with individual educational achievements. As previously noted, lack of proper breastfeeding is a major factor in child mortality rates, and is a primary determinant of disease development for children. The medical community recommends exclusively breastfeeding infants for 6 months, with nutritional whole food supplementation and continued breastfeeding up to 2 years or older for overall optimal health outcomes. Exclusive breastfeeding is defined as giving an infant only breast milk for six months as a source of food and nutrition. This means no other liquids, including water or semi-solid foods.
Barriers to breastfeeding
Breastfeeding is noted as one of the most cost-effective medical interventions benefiting child health. While there are considerable differences among developed and developing countries, there are universal determinants of whether a mother breastfeeds or uses formula; these include income, employment, social norms, and access to healthcare. Many newly made mothers face financial barriers; community-based healthcare workers have helped to alleviate these barriers, while also providing a viable alternative to traditional and expensive hospital-based medical care. Recent studies, based upon surveys conducted from 1995 to 2010, show that exclusive breastfeeding rates have risen globally, from 33% to 39%. Despite the growth rates, medical professionals acknowledge the need for improvement given the importance of exclusive breastfeeding.
21st century global initiatives
Starting around 2009, there was renewed international media and political attention focused on malnutrition. This resulted in part from spikes in food prices and the 2008 financial crisis. Additionally, there was an emerging consensus that combating malnutrition is one of the most cost-effective ways to contribute to development. This led to the 2010 launch of the UN's Scaling up Nutrition movement (SUN).
In April 2012, a number of countries signed the Food Assistance Convention, the world's first legally binding international agreement on food aid. The following month, the Copenhagen Consensus recommended that politicians and private sector philanthropists should prioritize interventions against hunger and malnutrition in order to maximize the effectiveness of aid spending. The Consensus recommended prioritizing these interventions ahead of any others, including the fights against malaria and AIDS.
In June 2015, the European Union and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation launched a partnership to combat undernutrition, especially in children. The program was first implemented in Bangladesh, Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Laos and Niger. It aimed to help these countries improve information and analysis about nutrition, enabling them to develop effective national nutrition policies.
Also in 2015, the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization created a partnership aimed at ending hunger in Africa by 2025. The African Union's Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) provided the framework for the partnership. It includes a variety of interventions, including support for improved food production, a strengthening of social protection, and integration of the right to food into national legislation.
The EndingHunger campaign is an online communication campaign whose goal is to raise awareness about hunger. The campaign has created viral videos depicting celebrities voicing their anger about the large number of hungry people in the world.
After the Millennium Development Goals expired in 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals became the main global policy focus to reduce hunger and poverty. In particular, Goal 2: Zero Hunger sets globally agreed-upon targets to wipe out hunger, end all forms of malnutrition, and make agriculture sustainable. The partnership Compact2025 develops and disseminates evidence-based advice to politicians and other decision-makers, with the goal of ending hunger and undernutrition by 2025. The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) led the partnership, with the involvement of UN organisations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and private foundations.
Treatment
Improving nutrition
Efforts to improve nutrition are some of the common forms of development aid. Interventions often promote breastfeeding in order to reduce rates of malnutrition and death in children. Some of these interventions have been successful. In young children, outcomes improve when children between six months and two years of age receive complementary food (in addition to breast milk). There is also good evidence that supports giving supplemental micronutrients to pregnant women and young children in the developing world.
Sending food and money is a common form of development aid, aimed at feeding hungry people. Some strategies help people buy food within local markets. Simply feeding students at school is insufficient.
Longer-term measures include improving agricultural practices, reducing poverty, and improving sanitation.
Identifying malnourishment
Measuring children is crucial to identifying malnourishment. In 2000, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) established the International Micronutrient Malnutrition Prevention and Control (IMMPaCt) program. It tested children for malnutrition by conducting a three-dimensional scan, using an iPad or a tablet. Its objective was to help doctors provide more efficient treatments. There may be some chance of error when using this method.
A systematic review of 42 studies found that many approaches to mitigating acute malnutrition are equally effective; thus, intervention decisions can be based on cost-related factors. Overall, evidence for the effectiveness of acute malnutrition interventions is not robust. The limited evidence related to cost indicates that community and outpatient management of children with uncomplicated malnutrition may be the most cost-effective strategy.
Medical management
It is often possible to manage severe malnutrition within a person's home, using ready-to-use therapeutic foods. In people with severe malnutrition complicated by other health problems, treatment in a hospital setting is recommended. In-hospital treatment often involves managing low blood sugar, maintaining adequate body temperature, addressing dehydration, and gradual feeding.
Routine antibiotics are usually recommended because malnutrition weakens the immune system, causing a high risk of infection. Additionally, broad spectrum antibiotics are recommended in all severely undernourished children with diarrhea requiring admission to hospital.
A severely malnourished child who appears to have dehydration, but has not had diarrhea, should be treated as if they have an infection.
Among malnourished people who are hospitalized, nutritional support improves protein intake, calorie intake, and weight.
Bangladeshi model
In response to child malnutrition, the Bangladeshi government recommends ten steps for treating severe malnutrition:
Prevent or treat dehydration
Prevent or treat low blood sugar
Prevent or treat low body temperature
Prevent or treat infection;
Correct electrolyte imbalances
Correct micronutrient deficiencies
Start feeding cautiously
Achieve catch-up growth
Provide psychological support
Prepare for discharge and follow-up after recovery
Therapeutic foods
Due in part to limited research on supplementary feeding, there is little evidence that this strategy is beneficial. A 2015 systematic review of 32 studies found that there are limited benefits when children under 5 receive supplementary feeding, especially among younger, poorer, and more undernourished children.
However, specially formulated foods do appear to be useful in treating moderate acute malnutrition in the developing world. These foods may have additional benefits in humanitarian emergencies, since they can be stored for years, can be eaten directly from the packet, and do not have to be mixed with clean water or refrigerated. In young children with severe acute malnutrition, it is unclear if ready-to-use therapeutic food differs from a normal diet.
Severely malnourished individuals can experience refeeding syndrome if fed too quickly. Refeeding syndrome can result regardless of whether food is taken orally or parenterally. It can present several days after eating with potentially fatal heart failure, dysrhythmias, and confusion.
Some manufacturers have fortified everyday foods with micronutrients before selling them to consumers. For example, flour has been fortified with iron, zinc, folic acid, and other B vitamins like thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin B12. Baladi bread (Egyptian flatbread) is made with fortified wheat flour. Other fortified products include fish sauce in Vietnam and iodized salt.
Micronutrient supplementation
According to the World Bank, treating malnutrition - mostly by fortifying foods with micronutrients - improves lives more quickly than other forms of aid, and at a lower cost. After reviewing a variety of development proposals, The Copenhagen Consensus, a group of economists who reviewed a variety of development proposals, ranked micronutrient supplementation as its number-one treatment strategy.
In malnourished people with diarrhea, zinc supplementation is recommended following an initial four-hour rehydration period. Daily zinc supplementation can help reduce the severity and duration of the diarrhea. Additionally, continuing daily zinc supplementation for ten to fourteen days makes diarrhea less likely to recur in the next two to three months.
Malnourished children also need both potassium and magnesium. Within two to three hours of starting rehydration, children should be encouraged to take food, particularly foods rich in potassium like bananas, green coconut water, and unsweetened fresh fruit juice.Along with continued eating, many homemade products can also help restore normal electrolyte levels. For example, early during the course of a child's diarrhea, it can be beneficial to provide cereal water (salted or unsalted) or vegetable broth (salted or unsalted). If available, vitamin A, potassium, magnesium, and zinc supplements should be added, along with other vitamins and minerals.
Giving base (as in Ringer's lactate) to treat acidosis without simultaneously supplementing potassium worsens low blood potassium.
Treating diarrhea
Preventing dehydration
Food and drink can help prevent dehydration in malnourished people with diarrhea. Eating (or breastfeeding, among infants) should resume as soon as possible. Sugary beverages like soft drinks, fruit juices, and sweetened teas are not recommended as they may worsen diarrhea.
Malnourished people with diarrhea (especially children) should be encouraged to drink fluids; the best choices are fluids with modest amounts of sugar and salt, like vegetable broth or salted rice water. If clean water is available, they should be encouraged to drink that too. Malnourished people should be allowed to drink as much as they want, unless signs of swelling emerge.
Babies can be given small amounts of fluids via an eyedropper or a syringe without the needle. Children under two should receive a teaspoon of fluid every one to two minutes; older children and adults should take frequent sips of fluids directly from a cup. After the first two hours, fluids and foods should be alternated, rehydration should be continued at the same rate or more slowly, depending on how much fluid the child wants and whether they are having ongoing diarrhea. Alternating between rehydration and food at this point is After the first two hours of rehydration it is recommended that to alternate between rehydration and food.
If vomiting occurs, fluids can be paused for 5–10 minutes and then restarted more slowly. Vomiting rarely prevents rehydration, since fluids are still absorbed and vomiting is usually short-term.
Oral rehydration therapy
If prevention has failed and dehydration develops, the preferred treatment is rehydration through oral rehydration therapy (ORT). In severely undernourished children with diarrhea, rehydration should be done slowly, according to the World Health Organization.
Oral rehydration solutions consist of clean water mixed with small amounts of sugars and salts. These solutions help restore normal electrolyte levels, provide a source of carbohydrates, and help with fluid replacement.
Reduced-osmolarity ORS is the current standard of care for oral rehydration therapy, with reasonably wide availability. Introduced in 2003 by WHO and UNICEF, reduced-osmolarity solutions contain lower concentrations of sodium and glucose than original ORS preparations. Reduced-osmolarity ORS has the added benefit of reducing stool volume and vomiting while simultaneously preventing dehydration. Packets of reduced-osmolarity ORS include glucose, table salt, potassium chloride, and trisodium citrate. For general use, each packet should be mixed with a liter of water. However, for malnourished children, experts recommend adding a packet of ORS to two liters of water, along with an extra 50 grams of sucrose and some stock potassium solution.
People who have no access to commercially available ORS can make a homemade version using water, sugar, and table salt. Experts agree that homemade ORS preparations should include one liter (34 oz.) of clean water and 6 teaspoons of sugar; however, they disagree about whether they should contain half a teaspoon of table salt or a full teaspoon. Most sources recommend using half a teaspoon of salt per liter of water. However, people with malnutrition have an excess of body sodium.. To avoid worsening this symptom, ORS for people with severe undernutrition should contain half the usual amount of sodium and more potassium.
Patients who do not drink may require fluids by nasogastric tube. Intravenous fluids are recommended only in those who have significant dehydration due to their potential complications, including congestive heart failure.
Low blood sugar
Hypoglycemia, whether known or suspected, can be treated with a mixture of sugar and water. If the patient is conscious, the initial dose of sugar and water can be given by mouth. Otherwise, they should receive glucose by intravenous or nasogastric tube. If seizures occur (and continue after glucose is given), rectal diazepam may be helpful. Blood sugar levels should be re-checked on two hour intervals.
Hypothermia
Hypothermia (dangerously low core body temperature) can occur in malnutrition, particularly in children. Mild hypothermia causes confusion trembling, and clumsiness; more severe cases can be fatal. Keeping malnourished children warm can prevent or treat hypothermia. Covering the child (including their head) in blankets is one method. Another method is to warm the child through direct skin-to-skin contact with their mother or father, then covering both parent and child.
Warming methods are usually most important at night. Prolonged bathing or prolonged medical exams can further lower body temperature and are not recommended for malnourished children at high risk of hypothermia.
Epidemiology
The figures provided in this section on epidemiology all refer to undernutrition even if the term malnutrition is used which, by definition, could also apply to too much nutrition.
The Global Hunger Index (GHI) is a multidimensional statistical tool used to describe the state of countries’ hunger situation. The GHI measures progress and failures in the global fight against hunger. The GHI is updated once a year. The data from the 2015 report shows that Hunger levels have dropped 27% since 2000. Fifty two countries remain at serious or alarming levels. In addition to the latest statistics on Hunger and Food Security, the GHI also features different special topics each year. The 2015 report include an article on conflict and food security.
People affected
The United Nations estimated that there were 821 million undernourished people in the world in 2017. This is using the UN's definition of 'undernourishment', where it refers to insufficient consumption of raw calories, and so does not necessarily include people who lack micro nutrients. The undernourishment occurred despite the world's farmers producing enough food to feed around 12 billion people—almost double the current world population.
Malnutrition, as of 2010, was the cause of 1.4% of all disability adjusted life years.
Mortality
Mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58 percent of the total mortality in 2006: "In the world, approximately 62 million people, all causes of death combined, die each year. One in twelve people worldwide is malnourished and according to the Save the Children 2012 report, one in four of the world’s children are chronically malnourished. In 2006, more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients".
In 2010 protein-energy malnutrition resulted in 600,000 deaths down from 883,000 deaths in 1990. Other nutritional deficiencies, which include iodine deficiency and iron deficiency anemia, result in another 84,000 deaths. In 2010 malnutrition caused about 1.5 million deaths in women and children.
According to the World Health Organization, malnutrition is the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases. Six million children die of hunger every year. Underweight births and intrauterine growth restrictions cause 2.2 million child deaths a year. Poor or non-existent breastfeeding causes another 1.4 million. Other deficiencies, such as lack of vitamin A or zinc, for example, account for 1 million. Malnutrition in the first two years is irreversible. Malnourished children grow up with worse health and lower education achievement. Their own children tend to be smaller. Malnutrition was previously seen as something that exacerbates the problems of diseases such as measles, pneumonia and diarrhea, but malnutrition actually causes diseases, and can be fatal in its own right.
History
Hunger has been a perennial human problem. However, until the early 20th century, there was relatively little awareness of the qualitative aspects of malnutrition.
Throughout history, various peoples have known the importance of eating certain foods to prevent symptoms now associated with malnutrition. Yet such knowledge appears to have been repeatedly lost and then re-discovered. For example, the ancient Egyptians reportedly knew the symptoms of scurvy. Much later, in the 14th century, Crusaders sometimes used anti-scurvy measures - for example, ensuring that citrus fruits were planted on Mediterranean islands, for use on sea journeys. However, for several centuries, Europeans appear to have forgotten the importance of these measures. They rediscovered this knowledge in the 18th century, and by the early 19th century, the Royal Navy was issuing frequent rations of lemon juice to every crewman on their ships. This massively reduced scurvy deaths among British sailors, which in turn gave the British a significant advantage in the Napoleonic Wars. Later on in the 19th century, the Royal Navy replaced lemons with limes (unaware at the time that lemons are far more effective at preventing scurvy).
According to historian Michael Worboys, malnutrition was essentially discovered, and the science of nutrition established, between World War I and World War II. Advances built on prior works like Casimir Funk's 1912 formulisation of the concept of vitamins. Scientific study of malnutrition increased in the 1920s and 1930s, and grew even more common after World War II.
Non-governmental organizations and United Nations agencies began to devote considerable energy to alleviating malnutrition around the world. The exact methods and priorities for doing this tended to fluctuate over the years, with varying levels of focus on different types of malnutrition like Kwashiorkor or Marasmus; varying levels of concern on protein deficiency compared to vitamins, minerals and lack of raw calories; and varying priorities given to the problem of malnutrition in general compared to other health and development concerns. The green Revolution of the 1950s and 1960s saw considerable improvement in capability to prevent malnutrition.
One of the first official global documents addressing Food security and global malnutrition was the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR). Within this document it stated that access to food was part of an adequate right to a standard of living. The Right to food was asserted in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, a treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 16, 1966. The Right to food is a human right for people to feed themselves in dignity, be free from hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition. As of 2018, the treaty has been signed by 166 countries, by signing states agreed to take steps to the maximum of their available resources to achieve the right to adequate food.
However, after the 1966 International Covenant the global concern for the access to sufficient food only became more present, leading to the first ever World Food Conference that was held in 1974 in Rome, Italy. The Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger and Malnutrition was a UN resolution adopted November 16, 1974 by all 135 countries that attended the 1974 World Food Conference. This non-legally binding document set forth certain aspirations for countries to follow to sufficiently take action on the global food problem. Ultimately this document outline and provided guidance as to how the international community as one could work towards fighting and solving the growing global issue of malnutrition and hunger.
Adoption of the right to food was included in the Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the area of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, this 1978 document was adopted by many countries in the Americas, the purpose of the document is, "to consolidate in this hemisphere, within the framework of democratic institutions, a system of personal liberty and social justice based on respect for the essential rights of man."
A later document in the timeline of global inititaves for malnutrition was the 1996 Rome Declaration on World Food Security, organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization. This document reaffirmed the right to have access to safe and nutritious food by everyone, also considering that everyone gets sufficient food, and set the goals for all nations to improve their commitment to food security by halving their amount of undernourished people by 2015. In 2004 the Food and Agriculture Organization adopted the Right to Food Guidelines, which offered states a framework of how to increase the right to food on a national basis.
Special populations
Undernutrition is an important determinant of maternal and child health, accounting for more than a third of child deaths and more than 10 percent of the total global disease burden according to 2008 studies.
Children
Undernutrition adversely affects the cognitive development of children, contributing to poor earning capacity and poverty in adulthood. The development of childhood undernutrition coincides with the introduction of complementary weaning foods which are usually nutrient deficient. The World Health Organization estimates that malnutrition accounts for 54 percent of child mortality worldwide, about 1 million children. There is a strong association between undernutrition and child mortality. Another estimate also by WHO states that childhood underweight is the cause for about 35% of all deaths of children under the age of five years worldwide. Over 90% of the stunted children below five years of age live in sub-Saharan Africa and South Central Asia. Although access to adequate food and improving nutritional intake is an obvious solution to tackling undernutrition in children, the progress in reducing children undernutrition is disappointing.
Women
Researchers from the Centre for World Food Studies in 2003 found that the gap between levels of undernutrition in men and women is generally small, but that the gap varies from region to region and from country to country. These small-scale studies showed that female undernutrition prevalence rates exceeded male undernutrition prevalence rates in South/Southeast Asia and Latin America and were lower in Sub-Saharan Africa. Datasets for Ethiopia and Zimbabwe reported undernutrition rates between 1.5 and 2 times higher in men than in women; however, in India and Pakistan, datasets rates of undernutrition were 1.5–2 times higher in women than in men. Intra-country variation also occurs, with frequent high gaps between regional undernutrition rates. Gender inequality in nutrition in some countries such as India is present in all stages of life.
Studies on nutrition concerning gender bias within households look at patterns of food allocation, and one study from 2003 suggested that women often receive a lower share of food requirements than men. Gender discrimination, gender roles, and social norms affecting women can lead to early marriage and childbearing, close birth spacing, and undernutrition, all of which contribute to malnourished mothers.
Within the household, there may be differences in levels of malnutrition between men and women, and these differences have been shown to vary significantly from one region to another, with problem areas showing relative deprivation of women. Samples of 1000 women in India in 2008 demonstrated that malnutrition in women is associated with poverty, lack of development and awareness, and illiteracy. The same study showed that gender discrimination in households can prevent a woman's access to sufficient food and healthcare. How socialization affects the health of women in Bangladesh, Najma Rivzi explains in an article about a research program on this topic. In some cases, such as in parts of Kenya in 2006, rates of malnutrition in pregnant women were even higher than rates in children.
Women in some societies are traditionally given less food than men since men are perceived to have heavier workloads. Household chores and agricultural tasks can in fact be very arduous and require additional energy and nutrients; however, physical activity, which largely determines energy requirements, is difficult to estimate.
Physiology
Women have unique nutritional requirements, and in some cases need more nutrients than men; for example, women need twice as much calcium as men.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding
During pregnancy and breastfeeding, women must ingest enough nutrients for themselves and their child, so they need significantly more protein and calories during these periods, as well as more vitamins and minerals (especially iron, iodine, calcium, folic acid, and vitamins A, C, and K). In 2001 the FAO of the UN reported that iron deficiency afflicted 43 percent of women in developing countries and increased the risk of death during childbirth. A 2008 review of interventions estimated that universal supplementation with calcium, iron, and folic acid during pregnancy could prevent 105,000 maternal deaths (23.6 percent of all maternal deaths). Malnutrition has been found to affect three quarters of UK women aged 16–49 indicated by them having less folic acid than the WHO recommended levels.
Frequent pregnancies with short intervals between them and long periods of breastfeeding add an additional nutritional burden.
Educating children
“Action for healthy kids” has created several methods to teach children about nutrition. They introduce 2 different topics, self-awareness which teaches children about taking care of their own health and social awareness, which is how culinary arts vary from culture to culture. As well as its importance when it comes to nutrition. They include eBooks, tips, cooking clubs. including facts about vegetables and fruits.
Team Nutrition has created “MyPlate eBooks” this includes 8 different eBooks to download for free. These eBooks contain drawings to color, audio narration, and a large number of characters to make nutrition lessons entertaining for children.
According to the FAO, women are often responsible for preparing food and have the chance to educate their children about beneficial food and health habits, giving mothers another chance to improve the nutrition of their children.
Elderly
Malnutrition and being underweight are more common in the elderly than in adults of other ages. If elderly people are healthy and active, the aging process alone does not usually cause malnutrition. However, changes in body composition, organ functions, adequate energy intake and ability to eat or access food are associated with aging, and may contribute to malnutrition. Sadness or depression can play a role, causing changes in appetite, digestion, energy level, weight, and well-being. A study on the relationship between malnutrition and other conditions in the elderly found that malnutrition in the elderly can result from gastrointestinal and endocrine system disorders, loss of taste and smell, decreased appetite and inadequate dietary intake. Poor dental health, ill-fitting dentures, or chewing and swallowing problems can make eating difficult. As a result of these factors, malnutrition is seen to develop more easily in the elderly.
Rates of malnutrition tend to increase with age with less than 10 percent of the "young" elderly (up to age 75) malnourished, while 30 to 65 percent of the elderly in home care, long-term care facilities, or acute hospitals are malnourished. Many elderly people require assistance in eating, which may contribute to malnutrition. However, the mortality rate due to undernourishment may be reduced. Because of this, one of the main requirements of elderly care is to provide an adequate diet and all essential nutrients. Providing the different nutrients such as protein and energy keeps even small but consistent weight gain. Hospital admissions for malnutrition in the United Kingdom have been related to insufficient social care, where vulnerable people at home or in care homes are not helped to eat.
In Australia malnutrition or risk of malnutrition occurs in 80 percent of elderly people presented to hospitals for admission. Malnutrition and weight loss can contribute to sarcopenia with loss of lean body mass and muscle function. Abdominal obesity or weight loss coupled with sarcopenia lead to immobility, skeletal disorders, insulin resistance, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and metabolic disorders. A paper from the Journal of the American Dietetic Association noted that routine nutrition screenings represent one way to detect and therefore decrease the prevalence of malnutrition in the elderly.
See also
Action Against Hunger
A Place at the Table
Agrobiodiversity
Child health and nutrition in Africa
Childhood obesity
Community Therapeutic Care
Deficiency (medicine)
Eating disorder
Economic issues
Famine scales
Fome Zero (Hunger 0)
Food Donation Connection
Homelessness
Hunger in the United Kingdom
Hunger in the United States
Hunger marches
The Hunger Project
Income inequality
Integrated Food Security Phase Classification
Malnutrition in India
Malnutrition in South Africa
Malnutrition in Peru
Malnutrition in Zimbabwe
NutritionDay
Nutrition and Education International
Muselmann
National Security Study Memorandum 200 (1974)
Oxfam
Poverty trap
Project Open Hand
Social programs
Starvation response
Sustainable fishery
United Nations Millennium Declaration
Vitamin deficiency
References
External links
Action Against Hunger | ACF-USA
Action Against Hunger | ACF-UK
Hunger Relief International | HRI
Hunger Relief research on IssueLab
The Global Food Security and Nutrition Forum (FSN Forum)
Ten Things you can do to Fight World Hunger The Nation, May 13, 2009
United Nation 2007 report
World Food Programme | WFP
UN
WFP
Global issues
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia infectious disease articles ready to translate
Health effects of food and nutrition
Limbic system
Motivation
Neuropsychology
Eating behaviors
Hazards of outdoor recreation | [
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258980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergodic%20hypothesis | Ergodic hypothesis | In physics and thermodynamics, the ergodic hypothesis says that, over long periods of time, the time spent by a system in some region of the phase space of microstates with the same energy is proportional to the volume of this region, i.e., that all accessible microstates are equiprobable over a long period of time.
Liouville's theorem states that, for Hamiltonian systems, the local density of microstates following a particle path through phase space is constant as viewed by an observer moving with the ensemble (i.e., the convective time derivative is zero). Thus, if the microstates are uniformly distributed in phase space initially, they will remain so at all times. But Liouville's theorem does not imply that the ergodic hypothesis holds for all Hamiltonian systems.
The ergodic hypothesis is often assumed in the statistical analysis of computational physics. The analyst would assume that the average of a process parameter over time and the average over the statistical ensemble are the same. This assumption—that it is as good to simulate a system over a long time as it is to make many independent realizations of the same system—is not always correct. (See, for example, the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou experiment of 1953.)
Assumption of the ergodic hypothesis allows proof that certain types of perpetual motion machines of the second kind are impossible.
Systems that are ergodic are said to have the property of ergodicity; a broad range of systems in geometry, physics and stochastic probability theory are ergodic. Ergodic systems are studied in ergodic theory.
Phenomenology
In macroscopic systems, the timescales over which a system can truly explore the entirety of its own phase space can be sufficiently large that the thermodynamic equilibrium state exhibits some form of ergodicity breaking. A common example is that of spontaneous magnetisation in ferromagnetic systems, whereby below the Curie temperature the system preferentially adopts a non-zero magnetisation even though the ergodic hypothesis would imply that no net magnetisation should exist by virtue of the system exploring all states whose time-averaged magnetisation should be zero. The fact that macroscopic systems often violate the literal form of the ergodic hypothesis is an example of spontaneous symmetry breaking.
However, complex disordered systems such as a spin glass show an even more complicated form of ergodicity breaking where the properties of the thermodynamic equilibrium state seen in practice are much more difficult to predict purely by symmetry arguments. Also conventional glasses (e.g. window glasses) violate ergodicity in a complicated manner. In practice this means that on sufficiently short time scales (e.g. those of parts of seconds, minutes, or a few hours) the systems may behave as solids, i.e. with a positive shear modulus, but on extremely long scales, e.g. over millennia or eons, as liquids, or with two or more time scales and plateaux in between.
See also
Ergodic process
Ergodic theory, a branch of mathematics concerned with a more general formulation of ergodicity
Ergodicity
Loschmidt's paradox
Poincaré recurrence theorem
References
Ergodic theory
Statistical mechanics
Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
Concepts in physics | [
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258983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elective%20monarchy | Elective monarchy | An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the electors vary from case to case. Historically it was not uncommon for elective monarchies to transform into hereditary ones over time, or for hereditary ones to acquire at least occasional elective aspects.
Evolution
Many, if not most, kingdoms were officially elective historically, though the candidates were typically only from the family of the deceased monarch. Eventually, however, most elected monarchies introduced hereditary succession, guaranteeing that the title and office stayed within the royal family and specifying, more or less precisely, the order of succession.
Today, almost all monarchies are hereditary monarchies in which the monarchs come from one royal family with the office of sovereign being passed from one family member to another upon the death or abdication of the incumbent.
Historical examples
Europe
Ancient Greece
The kings of Macedon and of Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the Ecclesia of the Demos, the assembly of all free Athenian citizens. Military service often was linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house.
Ancient Rome and Byzantium
In the ancient Roman Kingdom the kings were elected by the Roman assemblies. Once the Roman kings were overthrown, there remained an absolute prohibition for royal establishment in the Roman constitution, a prohibition which formally remained in place during imperial times, both classical Roman and Byzantine. In practice, however, Imperial Rome was a monarchy. During the Principate (27 BCE to 284 CE), which was the foundational stage of Roman imperialism, Roman monarchs would often take care to disguise their de facto position with the de jure apparatus of republicanism. This was particularly the case for Augustus, the first Emperor, who established the Principate. Whilst given many titles (including "Augustus", i.e. "majestic") he described himself as princeps senatus, or merely "first among senators". The illusion of being elected from the Senate continued when Tiberius succeeded to the purple. Over time the principle weakened as republican government passed into distant history, and the Empire became functionally an absolute monarchy. The office of Roman and Byzantine emperor remained vaguely elective (albeit with the election procedure never strictly defined, but generally understood to be a matter for the Senate). For instance, whilst the first five Emperors were all descended from Julius Caesar, in each case their position was proclaimed, not inherited as of right. Claudius, the fourth Emperor, in particular stands out, being "elected" to office once the Praetorian Guard had made it clear he was their candidate.
Accordingly, heredity never was, and could never be, formally established in law. And whilst the later, more overtly authoritarian Dominate period further stripped the republican veneer from the constitution, Emperors succeeded by a mixture of proclamation by the Legions or Senate as much as by blood (though sons did succeed fathers).
In order to bypass the prohibition on heredity and ensure dynastic continuity, many reigning Byzantine emperors had their heirs crowned co-emperor so that the throne could not be considered vacant at their own death and thus the need for succession by election would not arise.
British Isles
England
A system of elective monarchy existed in Anglo-Saxon England (see Witenagemot).
John of England, chosen as King of England by a council of nobles and royal advisors at the death of his brother, Richard I, in 1199 because the heir by strict primogeniture, Arthur of Brittany, was a child at that time. This affirmed the principle of elective monarchy.
In 14th, 15th, late 17th and early 18th century England, the Parliament effectively asserted that Monarchy in England was elective in principle – at least as between various contenders with some dynastic claim for the throne. Henry IV of England was chosen by Parliament in 1399 to replace Richard II. Richard was childless, and the Earl of March, the next in line to the throne, was a young child at the time, so Parliament bypassed him in favour of Henry, who had led a revolt against Richard. Parliament also confirmed depositions during the Wars of the Roses, as well as Henry VIII's settlements of the crown. During the Exclusion Crisis, King Charles II strongly opposed any such idea – but following the Glorious Revolution, Parliament did enact the Act of Succession, whose effect was to disinherit the Stuarts and replace them by the Hanoverians, whose dynastic claim was far more remote. William III and Mary II, were chosen by Parliament to replace James II. (Mary was James' daughter, William was James' nephew, and William and Mary were succeeded by Mary's younger sister Anne.) Parliament passed laws in the late 17th and early 18th centuries which explicitly excluded Catholics (and thus the male descendants of James II) from the order of succession. In later times, with constitutional monarchy well established, Parliament made no further interference in the succession to the British throne.
Ireland, Man and Scotland
In Ireland, from the beginning of recorded history until the mid-16th/early 17th century, succession was determined by an elective system based on patrilineal relationship known as tanistry.
In Scotland, the Declaration of Arbroath of 1320 asserted the rights of the nobles to choose a King if required, which implied elective monarchy. Tanistry was also the system of royal succession until King Malcolm II in the early 11th century introduced direct inheritance. The Isle of Man also used tanistry.
Dutch Republic
In the Dutch Republic of the 17th and 18th centuries there was the office of the Stadtholder, whose powers fell short of those of a monarch, and which was elective. Each of the seven Dutch provinces could separately elect its own Stadtholder, and it did not have to be the same person in all of them. In theory anyone could be elected Stadtholder, though in practice it was restricted to members of the House of Orange. There was no obligation to elect a Stadtholder at all, and the leaders of the Dutch Republican faction, such as Oldenbarnevelt and De Witt, repeatedly tried to abolish the office of Stadtholder or leave it vacant – which it was for several decades of Dutch history. Conversely, the House of Orange and its adherents tried to increase the powers of the Stadtholder to approximate those of a monarch, to make it officially hereditary (which it became in the later part of the 18th century) and finally to transform it into a full-fledged monarchy – as it was in 1815.
Gaul/France
The Gallic tribes were each ruled by a rix, which can be translated as king, who were elected for terms of one year or longer. Candidates were drawn from relatives of past kings.
The Frankish kingdom was at least partly elective. Merovingian kings were elected, while Carolingian kings were elected at times. In the 10th century Western Frankish royal elections switched between different lineages before settling on the Capetians. Medieval France was an elective monarchy at the time of the first Capetian kings; the kings however took the habit of, during their reign, having their son elected as successor. The election soon became a mere formality and vanished after the reign of Philip II. After declaring the throne vacant, the French Chamber of Deputies voted 229-33 to declare Louis-Philippe of France as King of the French during the July Revolution of 1830, creating an elective monarchy. France briefly had again a kind of elective monarchy when Napoleon III was first elected President of France and then transformed himself into an Emperor – which, him being the nephew and heir of the Emperor Napoleon I, was not entirely a surprise.
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire, beginning with its predecessor Eastern Francia, is perhaps the best-known example of an elective monarchy. However, from 1440 to 1740, a Habsburg was always elected emperor, the throne becoming unofficially hereditary. During that period, the emperor was elected from within the House of Habsburg by a small council of nobles called prince-electors. The secular electoral seats were hereditary. However, spiritual electors (and other prince-(arch)bishops) were usually elected by the cathedral chapters as religious leaders, but simultaneously ruled as monarch (prince) of a territory of imperial immediacy (which usually comprised a part of their diocesan territory). Thus the prince-bishoprics were elective monarchies too. The same holds true for prince-abbacies, whose princess-abbesses or prince-abbots were elected by a college of clerics and imperially appointed as princely rulers in a pertaining territory.
Bohemia
Since medieval times, the King of Bohemia was elected by the Estates of Lands of the Bohemian Crown. Since 1526, when the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I assumed the Bohemian Crown, it was always held by the Habsburgs, who expected this situation to go on indefinitely. In 1618 the Bohemians chose to exercise in practice their legal right to choose a King at their discretion, and bestowed the Bohemian Crown on Frederick V, Elector Palatine – "The Winter King". However, the Habsburgs regarded this as an act of rebellion, imposed their rule over Bohemia in the Battle of the White Mountain and in the aftermath abolished the Bohemian Elective Monarchy and made exclusive Habsburg rule the de jure as well as de facto situation. The attempt to make Frederick V King of Bohemia is regarded as a catalyst for the Thirty Years War.
Hungary
Hungary was an elective monarchy until 1687. This elective right carried on for another two more decades in the Principality of Transylvania which de jure continued to belong to the Lands of the Hungarian Crown but had split from Hungary when the childless King Louis II died after the Battle of Mohács.
Iberia
Visigothic Hispania elected the king from the relatives of past kings, in accordance with the Germanic traditions.
The Kingship of Aragon was initially elected by the "rich men" barons. Later this right was limited to the Cortes confirming the succession of the heir.
During the 19th century, more precisely between 1870 and 1873, an attempt of such a system took place in Spain. After the Glorious Revolution and Isabella II's subsequent deposition in 1868 a new parliament was constituted through direct male suffrage. It was then decided that a democratically elected monarch was needed in Spain. The debates regarding Isabella I's succession took place until October 1869, when Amadeo I was finally chosen. Nevertheless, his reign lasted until 11 October 1873, when he abdicated citing his inability to solve the problems Spain was going through, after which the parliament proclaimed a republic.
Portugal's monarchy contained the remnants of the elective principle in requiring reciprocal oaths, the assent of the Cortes and acclamation before acceding to the throne. The Cortes affirmed the crown as elective when it elevated King John in 1385. In Portugal, on 6 April 1385 in the aftermath of 1383–1385 Crisis, the Council of the Kingdom elected John I, then Master of the Order of Aviz, as King of Portugal. His half-brother Ferdinand I had died without a male heir in October 1383, and different factions made strenuous efforts to secure the throne for Princess Beatrice, Ferdinand's only daughter and Queen consort of Castile and León, or for either of her uncles Infante John, Duke of Valencia de Campos and Infante Denis, Lord of Cifuentes. The Council elected instead the younger (and illegitimate) son of Peter I, thus avoiding a jure uxoris Castilian king.
Kingdom of Jerusalem
In the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, the kingship was partially elected and partially hereditary. During the height of the kingdom in the mid-12th century there was a royal family and a relatively clear line of succession. Nevertheless, the king was elected, or at least recognized, by the Haute Cour. Here the king was considered a primus inter pares (first among equals), and in his absence his duties were performed by his seneschal.
Poland (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth)
The tradition of electing the country's ruler, which occurred when there was no clear heir to the throne, dates to the very beginning of Polish statehood. The election privilege, exercised during the gatherings known as wiec, was usually limited to the most powerful nobles (magnates) or officials, and was heavily influenced by local traditions and strength of the ruler.
In Poland, after the death of the last Piast in 1370, Polish kings were initially elected by a small council; gradually, this privilege was granted to all members of the szlachta (Polish nobility). Kings of Poland and Grand Dukes of Lithuania during the times of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) were elected by gatherings of crowds of nobles at a field in Wola, today a district in Warsaw. Since in Poland, all sons of a noble were nobles, and not only the eldest, every one of an estimated 500,000 nobles could potentially have participated in such elections in person – by far the most extensive franchise of any European country at the time. During the election period, the function of the king was performed by an interrex (usually in the person of the primate of Poland). This unique Polish election was termed the free election (wolna elekcja).
Scandinavia
Scandinavian kingship, according to the Germanic tradition, was elected upon the death of the previous king. The selection was not always limited to the heirs of the previous king (e.g. in Sweden when the royal house was changing between the houses of Eric and Sverker between generations). Originally, kings were supposed to be elected from among the descendants of a previous king, which was connected to descent from gods. There could also be joint rule between multiple kings. Disputed succession was common because of a large number of sons sired by kings. However when single rule appeared in the 9th century, civil wars grew in frequency throughout the region. Later, Christianisation led to the promulgation of primogeniture in Norway in 1163 and Denmark in 1170, but the elective idea still persisted in the requirement to be certified by a local assembly and subsequently the magnates would still elect the new king, albeit while the incumbent king was still alive. This demonstrated the enduring power of the nobles.
Originally, the Kings of Sweden were elected by all free men at the Mora Thing. Elective monarchy continued until 1544, when the Riksdag of the Estates designated the heirs of King Gustav Vasa as the heirs to the throne. The Danish monarchy was also officially elective, although the eldest son of the reigning monarch was usually elected. This continued until 1660, when a hereditary and absolute monarchy was instituted by Frederick III. Though the monarchy of Norway was originally hereditary, it too became elective in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Candidates had to be of royal blood, but the kingship was elected by a council of noblemen, rather than automatically passing to the eldest son. In 1905 Prince Carl was elected King of Norway, after the male population in the 1905 Norwegian monarchy referendum decided Norway should still be a monarchy.
The Scandinavian kingdoms were united under the Danish crown by Margaret I of Denmark in 1389, but many of her successors had the united kingdoms split up as Sweden elected a different king than Denmark and Norway upon succession. The election was usually contested through a Danish invasion of Sweden until Christian II of Denmark after his reconquest of Sweden had many of those voting against him executed in the Stockholm Bloodbath (1520), which ended much of the support for the Danish king on the Swedish throne.
In 1810, the Swedish Riksdag elected the French Marshall and Prince of Pontecorvo Jean Bernadotte to be the new Crown Prince, since it was apparent that the Swedish branch of the House of Holstein-Gottorp would die with the childless King Charles XIII. Bernadotte eventually ascended the throne as Charles XIV John of Sweden and founded the still current House of Bernadotte. In this case the elective aspect in the choice of Monarch was especially prominent, since Bernadotte had been a French commoner with no previous connection to Sweden and not the most remote of dynastic claims to the Swedish throne – his being chosen derived solely from urgent political and military considerations of the crisis time of the Napoleonic Wars.
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
The Sovereign Military Order of Malta, formerly known as the Knights Hospitaller or the Knights of Malta, remains a sovereign subject of international law since it was exiled to Rome from Malta during the French occupation of Malta under the First French Republic. The Order is ruled by the Prince and Grand Master, who is elected for life by the Council Complete of State. The Prince and Grand Master holds the rank of Prince, bestowed by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1607 and holds the precedence of a cardinal of the Church since 1630. The Council that elects the prince includes members of the Sovereign Council and other high-ranking office-holders and representatives of the Order's worldwide entities. The Sovereign Council, including the Grand Commander, the Grand Chancellor, the Grand Hospitaller, and the Receiver of the Common Treasure, aid the prince in governing the order.
Venice
The Republic of Venice was ruled from 697 to 1797 by a doge, who normally ruled for life, though a few were forced from office. His powers were never those of an absolute monarch, but he was the Republic's highest official and powerful within restrictions and levels of oversight that varied in different periods. The election process began with the Great Council of more than 2000 Venetian aristocrats and employed an elaborate system designed to prevent one family or alliance from dominating the process. It used smaller nominating groups that were reduced in number by the drawing of lots and required a supermajority for election.
Africa
Mali Empire
In Africa, the Mali Empire functioned as both a constitutional and elective monarchy. The mansa, or emperor, had to be approved by the Great Assembly known as the Gbara, despite hereditary claims.
Kongo
The Kingdom of Kongo was a purer example of an elective monarchy, where blood claims had even less influence. Nobles elected a king's successor, and it was common for the successor to be of a different family as his predecessor.
This form of elective monarchy existed in the kingdom from its inception in around 1400 until its complete disintegration in the early 20th century.
West Africa
In the pre-colonial period, a number of West African rulers, such as the kings and chieftains of the Ashanti Empire and those of Ife and the Oyo Empire, were elected from amongst the various royal families of their polities by colleges of noblemen known as kingmakers. This practice has continued to the present day.
Asia
Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, jirgas have been reportedly organized since at least the early 18th century when the Hotaki and Durrani dynasties rose to power.
There is a myth in the sense that the ancient Aryan tribes, who are hypothesized to have spoken Proto-Indo-Iranian, came down in intermittent waves from Central Asia and Afghanistan. They practiced a sort of jirga system with two types of councils – and . The (summit) comprised elders and tribal chiefs. The king also joined sessions of the . was a sort of rural council. In India they are referred to as Samiti and Sabha.
Iran
The Parthian Empire (248 BCE-224 CE), also known as the Arsacid Empire, is considered to be the oldest elective monarchy in the Asia. The King of Kings has been required to undergo an assembly of the nobles called Mahestān, as a vote of approval before being allowed to ascend to the imperial throne or to be removed from the power.
Other monarchs, such as the former Shah of Iran, have been required to undergo a parliamentary vote of approval before being allowed to ascend to the throne.
Mongol Empire
In the Mongol Empire, the Great Khan was chosen by the Kurultai. This was often convened in the capital. Other critical leadership positions were also assigned.
Korea
The ancient Korean kingdom of Silla elected its first king by a conference of tribal and village elders in 57 BC. Unified Silla's kings were elected by the aristocracy whose powers were on par with the king. In the kingdom of Goguryeo, the ruler was originally chosen from among the heads of the five tribes, most often the Sono tribe.
Oceania
In 1858, the central tribes of North Island elected Potatau te Wherowhero as their monarch. The Tainui tribal elders have continued this tradition and the New Zealand Maori Kingitanga movement alive to the present.
The Hawaiian Kingdom could be considered a de facto example. From 1864 until the monarchy was overthrown in 1893, it was constitutionally a hereditary monarchy utilizing male-preference primogeniture. However, the Constitutions of 1864 and 1887, and the draft constitution of 1893, all provided that, in the event of the extinction of the royal line, the Legislature would elect a "native aliʻi" as the new monarch and stirps of a new dynasty. In practice, however, during the entire time from 1864 until the abolition of the monarchy, the throne was never passed from parent to child, as every Hawaiian monarch who reigned during that period died without leaving issue. Following the 1872 death of King Kamehameha V, a non-binding referendum was held, in which William Charles Lunalilo won; he was subsequently elected king by the legislature in 1873. King Kalākaua was elected by the legislature in 1874, after Lunalilo's death. However, when Kalākaua died in 1891, the crown demised to the collateral line of his sister, Queen Liliʻuokalani. Prior to 1864, the Hawaiian King-in-Council appointed the heir to the Hawaiian throne.
The Americas
Mexico
The Tlatoanimeh of the Aztec Empire were chosen by a council of elders, nobles, and priests. He would be selected from a pool of four candidates.
Costa Rica
The mánkeme (king) of the Kingdom of Nicoya was elected by a council of elders known as the monéxico.
Chile and Argentina
French explorer Orélie-Antoine de Tounens claimed to be elected by the Mapuche to be the Great Toqui, Supreme Chieftain of the Mapuches, possibly in the belief that their cause might be better served with a European acting on their behalf. He later proclaimed himself as the King of Araucanía and Patagonia.
United States
An attempt to create an elective monarchy in the United States failed. Alexander Hamilton argued in a long speech before the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that the President of the United States should be an elective monarch, ruling for "good behavior" (i.e., for life, unless impeached) and with extensive powers. Hamilton believed that elective monarchs had sufficient power domestically to resist foreign corruption, yet there was enough domestic control over their behavior to prevent tyranny at home. His proposal was resoundingly voted down in favor of a four-year term with the possibility of reelection. In his later defense of the Constitution in The Federalist Papers, he often hints that a lifetime executive might be better, even as he praises the system with the four-year term.
Haiti
The crown of the Empire of Haiti, established in 1804, was also elective according to its 1805 constitution.
Extraordinary election
A hereditary monarchy may occasionally use election to fill a vacant throne. For example, the royal family may become extinct; depending on how precisely the succession to the throne is defined in law, several candidates with equally, or almost equally, strong claims could emerge, with an election being held to choose from among them. This differs from a formally elective monarchy in that it is an extraordinary measure, and with the new monarch the succession again becomes hereditary.
Alternatively, the monarch may be deposed, as in a revolution. While sometimes a monarch may be forced to abdicate in favour of his or her heir, on other occasions the royal family as a whole has been rejected, the throne going to an elected candidate. Examples of extraordinary election are:
Michael of Russia, chosen by a Zemsky Sobor (national assembly) in 1613 after the extinction of the Rurikid dynasty and the end of the Time of Troubles. The resulting Romanov dynasty was an old boyar house with close ties to the former royal family, and Michael's father, Feodor Romanov, was at the time a Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia under the monastic name of Filaret, in effect holding a position of interrex. Later, Patriarch Filaret, a skilled politician in his own right, became effectively a co-ruler and sometimes a regent for his weak and not very healthy son.
In 1971 seven individual Emirates in the Arabian Peninsula united to form the United Arab Emirates and became a federation. Upon its formation, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan of Abu Dhabi was elected as the head of the state and Ra'is (President) of the union by the ruling monarchs of the other six Emirates, while Zayed himself voted for Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, then ruler of Dubai.
Gopala, the first emperor of the Pala Empire, was chosen by independent regional warchiefs in the 8th century. This arrangement was common in many contemporary tribal societies in the region.
Invitation
Before republics became widespread or default form of modern government, back when many states operated as monarchies by default, new polities or countries in internal turmoil sometimes selected and invited some person to become their monarch. The selected person might have had little or nothing to do with his prospective kingdom; he might have had associations with a current great power or with a current regional power, or might appear as a true outsider, (hopefully) unbiased in matters of internal politics. (The concept of "invitation" may discreetly gloss over intense lobbying or diplomatic maneuvering in some cases.) By selecting a foreign prince or aristocrat, nations could expect to gain diplomatic links and a figurehead accustomed to the trappings of courts and ceremonial duties. Newly established states in the 19th and early 20th centuries established trends in the selection and appointment of newly minted monarchs.
At the start of the 20th century, the first monarchs of several newly independent nations were elected by parliaments: Norway is the prime example. Previously, following precedent set in newly independent Greece, new nations without a well-established hereditary royal family often chose their own monarchs from among the established royal families of Europe, rather than elevate a member of the local power establishment, in the hope that a stable hereditary monarchy would eventually emerge from the process. The first king of Belgium, as well as the now-deposed royal families of Greece, Bulgaria, Albania (unsuccessfully) and Romania, were originally appointed in this manner. On 9 October 1918 the Parliament of newly independent Finland elected Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse, brother-in-law of the German Emperor Wilhelm II, as King of Finland – but soon afterwards, this move was foiled by the German defeat in WWI and the demise of Monarchy in Germany itself, and Finland opted to become a Republic instead.
Examples include:
862: according to tradition, various tribes of northern Rus' invited Rurik, a chief of their former Varangian foes, to re-establish order: his descendants ruled in Kiev, Muscovy and Russia until 1612. The legend of an invitation echoes the habit of later invitations to Rurikids and others to rule in Pskov and in Novgorod.
1573: The Polish szlachta broke with tradition by looking beyond Central Europe for a candidate and electing the French Prince Henry, Duke of Anjou as King of Poland.
1810: Sweden elected the French Napoleonic Marshal Jean Bernadotte as Crown Prince: he became King Charles XIV John of Sweden in 1818.
1831: Belgium selected a German Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha as King Leopold I, the first King of the Belgians.
1832: European Great Power diplomats selected the German Prince Otto of Bavaria to become King Otto of Greece.
1863: The Greek National Assembly elected the Danish Prince William of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg as King George I of the Hellenes.
1863: The Conservative Party of Mexico offered the crown of the Second Mexican Empire to Maximilian, younger brother of Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.
1866: Romania elected the German Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as its Ruling Prince (he later became King Carol I of Romania).
1870: In the wake of political turmoil in Spain, the Spanish Cortes re-established the Spanish monarchy under a new royal house, electing the Italian Prince Amedeo of Savoy as King Amadeo I of Spain.
1879: Bulgaria elected the Russian-sponsored German Prince Alexander of Battenberg as its reigning knyaz (prince).
1887: The Bulgarian Grand National Assembly elected the Austro-Hungarian Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry as Prince (later Tsar) of Bulgaria.
1905: Norway, newly independent of Sweden, elected Prince Carl of Denmark as its first modern independent monarch: Haakon VII of Norway
1914: The European powers selected the German Prince William of Wied as the ruler of the Principality of Albania.
1918: The German-occupied Kingdom of Lithuania voted to offer the throne to the German Prince Wilhelm of Urach, Count of Württemberg, 2nd Duke of Urach, who would have become King Mindaugas II.
Current elective monarchies
Currently, the world's only true elective monarchies are:
Cambodia
The king is chosen for a life term by the Royal Council of the Throne from candidates of royal blood.
Holy See
In The Holy See and the associated Vatican City State, the Pope is elected in a conclave by the College of Cardinals, generally from among their number.
Malaysia
The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Supreme Head of State) is elected to a five-year term. Nine hereditary rulers from the Malay States form a Council of Rulers who will determine the next Agong via a secret ballot. The position has to date been de facto rotated amongst the State rulers, originally based on seniority. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong shall not be re-elected unless the rotation succession was complete.
Additionally, the Malaysian state of Negeri Sembilan is itself an elective monarchy, where the Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan is selected by a council of ruling chiefs. The ruling chiefs themselves are elected by the chieftain. Male candidates are determined based on matrilineal clan due to the influence of Minangkabau culture. The system was partially the basis for the federal monarchy.
The Sultan of Perak is selected from amongst the most senior male princes descending from the 18th Sultan of Perak, Sultan Ahmadin. The Sultan, Raja Muda (Crown Prince), and Raja Di-Hilir (Deputy Crown Prince) are selected by the Dewan Negara of Perak. A son of the reigning Sultan cannot become Raja Muda if there is a more senior prince descended from the previous Sultan; this is possible should the senior prince relinquish his right to become Raja Muda.
United Arab Emirates
The president, is elected by the Federal Supreme Council with a term of 5 years. Since its formation, the position has been a de facto hereditary position to the Al Nahyan sheikhs of Abu Dhabi by consensus of the Federal Supreme Council. Likewise, the Vice President and Prime Minister of the UAE is a position held by the Al Maktoum sheikhs of Dubai. Elections are held every 5 years. The position of the ruler of each emirate of the United Arab Emirates is determined by consensus of the respective ruling royal family of that emirate.
Similar forms
Andorra could be considered a semi-elective principality. Andorra's two heads of state are Spain's Bishop of La Seu d'Urgell and a French leader. From 1589 this was the king of France. Since the abolition of the French monarchy at the French Revolution, the French co-prince of Andorra is the (now democratically elected) President of France. The Andorran authorities and people have no say in the election of the President of France, leaving Andorra in the unique position of having a monarch who is democratically elected by the citizenry of another state.
Eswatini has a form of quasi-elective monarchy. No king can appoint his successor. Instead, the royal family decides which of his wives shall be "Great Wife" and "Indlovukazi" (She-Elephant / Queen Mother). The son of this "Great Wife" will automatically become the next king. The eldest son is never appointed successor, as he has other ceremonial roles.
Nigeria has a system whereby Nigerian traditional rulers (or "royal fathers", e.g. the Obas, Ezes and Emirs) are usually elected by councils of kingmakers from almost endless pools of contending cousins who are eligible for the elections because they all claim descent from founding monarchs or other royals. Each title is therefore held for life by one of these dynastic cousins in turn, often through rotation.
The cacique of the Ngöbe people of Costa Rica and Panama is appointed for life by a council of 13 elders. The latest election was in 2013 after the death of the previous cacique at around 100 years old. The current cacique is Costa Rican-born Pedro Palacios, son of the previous cacique Pedro Bejarano.
While Samoa has been a parliamentary republic since independence in 1962, it was commonly mistaken for an elective monarchy for most of its existence. The Constitution of Samoa provides that the Head of State be elected for a five-year term by the Fono, the Samoan parliament. Articles 18 and 45 of the Constitution provide, respectively, that any Member of Parliament may be elected head of state, and that any Samoan citizen may be elected to Parliament, although 47 out of the 49 seats in the Fono are reserved for matai, or chiefs (the other two are reserved for non-Samoans). However, most of the confusion stemmed from a special clause which named Malietoa Tanumafili II and Tupua Tamasese Meaole, who were two of the four paramount chiefs (Tama-a-Aiga), as joint presidents for life, only reverting to the normal rule of electing the head of state for five years upon Malietoa's death in 2007. In addition, the Samoan head of state is referred to as "His Highness", and an unwritten constitutional convention dictates that the President be elected from among the four paramount chiefs.
Saudi Arabia's throne, while hereditary, is not determined by a succession law but rather by consensus of the House of Saud as to who will be Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia; consensus may change depending on the Crown Prince's actions. Since 2007, the process of establishing the consensus of the House has been institutionalized in the form of the Allegiance Council, comprising the most powerful senior princes, which has the power to disapprove the King's nominee for Crown Prince and substitute its own by simple majority vote. In effect, this makes the Saudi monarchy elective within the House of Saud, as the king's eldest son has not become Crown Prince since the death of King Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud in 1953.
The Maori King Movement in New Zealand chooses a Maori monarch, elected by the kaumatua of various New Zealand iwi (tribes). However, every Maori monarch to date has been succeeded by his/her son or daughter, making the position hereditary in effect.
Wallis and Futuna (territories of the French Republic) have traditional heads of the three regions who are elected.
See also
Elective dictatorship
President for life
Tanistry
References
External links
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258986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergodic%20theory | Ergodic theory | Ergodic theory (Greek: "work", "way") is a branch of mathematics that studies statistical properties of deterministic dynamical systems; it is the study of ergodicity. In this context, statistical properties means properties which are expressed through the behavior of time averages of various functions along trajectories of dynamical systems. The notion of deterministic dynamical systems assumes that the equations determining the dynamics do not contain any random perturbations, noise, etc. Thus, the statistics with which we are concerned are properties of the dynamics.
Ergodic theory, like probability theory, is based on general notions of measure theory. Its initial development was motivated by problems of statistical physics.
A central concern of ergodic theory is the behavior of a dynamical system when it is allowed to run for a long time. The first result in this direction is the Poincaré recurrence theorem, which claims that almost all points in any subset of the phase space eventually revisit the set. Systems for which the Poincaré recurrence theorem holds are conservative systems; thus all ergodic systems are conservative.
More precise information is provided by various ergodic theorems which assert that, under certain conditions, the time average of a function along the trajectories exists almost everywhere and is related to the space average. Two of the most important theorems are those of Birkhoff (1931) and von Neumann which assert the existence of a time average along each trajectory. For the special class of ergodic systems, this time average is the same for almost all initial points: statistically speaking, the system that evolves for a long time "forgets" its initial state. Stronger properties, such as mixing and equidistribution, have also been extensively studied.
The problem of metric classification of systems is another important part of the abstract ergodic theory. An outstanding role in ergodic theory and its applications to stochastic processes is played by the various notions of entropy for dynamical systems.
The concepts of ergodicity and the ergodic hypothesis are central to applications of ergodic theory. The underlying idea is that for certain systems the time average of their properties is equal to the average over the entire space. Applications of ergodic theory to other parts of mathematics usually involve establishing ergodicity properties for systems of special kind. In geometry, methods of ergodic theory have been used to study the geodesic flow on Riemannian manifolds, starting with the results of Eberhard Hopf for Riemann surfaces of negative curvature. Markov chains form a common context for applications in probability theory. Ergodic theory has fruitful connections with harmonic analysis, Lie theory (representation theory, lattices in algebraic groups), and number theory (the theory of diophantine approximations, L-functions).
Ergodic transformations
Ergodic theory is often concerned with ergodic transformations. The intuition behind such transformations, which act on a given set, is that they do a thorough job "stirring" the elements of that set (e.g., if the set is a quantity of hot oatmeal in a bowl, and if a spoonful of syrup is dropped into the bowl, then iterations of the inverse of an ergodic transformation of the oatmeal will not allow the syrup to remain in a local subregion of the oatmeal, but will distribute the syrup evenly throughout. At the same time, these iterations will not compress or dilate any portion of the oatmeal: they preserve the measure that is density.) Here is the formal definition.
Let be a measure-preserving transformation on a measure space , with . Then is ergodic if for every in with , either or .
Examples
An irrational rotation of the circle R/Z, T: x → x + θ, where θ is irrational, is ergodic. This transformation has even stronger properties of unique ergodicity, minimality, and equidistribution. By contrast, if θ = p/q is rational (in lowest terms) then T is periodic, with period q, and thus cannot be ergodic: for any interval I of length a, 0 < a < 1/q, its orbit under T (that is, the union of I, T(I), ..., Tq−1(I), which contains the image of I under any number of applications of T) is a T-invariant mod 0 set that is a union of q intervals of length a, hence it has measure qa strictly between 0 and 1.
Let G be a compact abelian group, μ the normalized Haar measure, and T a group automorphism of G. Let G* be the Pontryagin dual group, consisting of the continuous characters of G, and T* be the corresponding adjoint automorphism of G*. The automorphism T is ergodic if and only if the equality (T*)n(χ) = χ is possible only when n = 0 or χ is the trivial character of G. In particular, if G is the n-dimensional torus and the automorphism T is represented by a unimodular matrix A then T is ergodic if and only if no eigenvalue of A is a root of unity.
A Bernoulli shift is ergodic. More generally, ergodicity of the shift transformation associated with a sequence of i.i.d. random variables and some more general stationary processes follows from Kolmogorov's zero–one law.
Ergodicity of a continuous dynamical system means that its trajectories "spread around" the phase space. A system with a compact phase space which has a non-constant first integral cannot be ergodic. This applies, in particular, to Hamiltonian systems with a first integral I functionally independent from the Hamilton function H and a compact level set X = {(p,q): H(p,q) = E} of constant energy. Liouville's theorem implies the existence of a finite invariant measure on X, but the dynamics of the system is constrained to the level sets of I on X, hence the system possesses invariant sets of positive but less than full measure. A property of continuous dynamical systems that is the opposite of ergodicity is complete integrability.
Ergodic theorems
Let T: X → X be a measure-preserving transformation on a measure space (X, Σ, μ) and suppose ƒ is a μ-integrable function, i.e. ƒ ∈ L1(μ). Then we define the following averages:
Time average: This is defined as the average (if it exists) over iterations of T starting from some initial point x:
Space average: If μ(X) is finite and nonzero, we can consider the space or phase average of ƒ:
In general the time average and space average may be different. But if the transformation is ergodic, and the measure is invariant, then the time average is equal to the space average almost everywhere. This is the celebrated ergodic theorem, in an abstract form due to George David Birkhoff. (Actually, Birkhoff's paper considers not the abstract general case but only the case of dynamical systems arising from differential equations on a smooth manifold.) The equidistribution theorem is a special case of the ergodic theorem, dealing specifically with the distribution of probabilities on the unit interval.
More precisely, the pointwise or strong ergodic theorem states that the limit in the definition of the time average of ƒ exists for almost every x and that the (almost everywhere defined) limit function ƒ̂ is integrable:
Furthermore, is T-invariant, that is to say
holds almost everywhere, and if μ(X) is finite, then the normalization is the same:
In particular, if T is ergodic, then ƒ̂ must be a constant (almost everywhere), and so one has that
almost everywhere. Joining the first to the last claim and assuming that μ(X) is finite and nonzero, one has that
for almost all x, i.e., for all x except for a set of measure zero.
For an ergodic transformation, the time average equals the space average almost surely.
As an example, assume that the measure space (X, Σ, μ) models the particles of a gas as above, and let ƒ(x) denote the velocity of the particle at position x. Then the pointwise ergodic theorems says that the average velocity of all particles at some given time is equal to the average velocity of one particle over time.
A generalization of Birkhoff's theorem is Kingman's subadditive ergodic theorem.
Probabilistic formulation: Birkhoff–Khinchin theorem
Birkhoff–Khinchin theorem. Let ƒ be measurable, E(|ƒ|) < ∞, and T be a measure-preserving map. Then with probability 1:
where is the conditional expectation given the σ-algebra of invariant sets of T.
Corollary (Pointwise Ergodic Theorem): In particular, if T is also ergodic, then is the trivial σ-algebra, and thus with probability 1:
Mean ergodic theorem
Von Neumann's mean ergodic theorem, holds in Hilbert spaces.
Let U be a unitary operator on a Hilbert space H; more generally, an isometric linear operator (that is, a not necessarily surjective linear operator satisfying ‖Ux‖ = ‖x‖ for all x in H, or equivalently, satisfying U*U = I, but not necessarily UU* = I). Let P be the orthogonal projection onto {ψ ∈ H | Uψ = ψ} = ker(I − U).
Then, for any x in H, we have:
where the limit is with respect to the norm on H. In other words, the sequence of averages
converges to P in the strong operator topology.
Indeed, it is not difficult to see that in this case any admits an orthogonal decomposition into parts from and respectively. The former part is invariant in all the partial sums as grows, while for the latter part, from the telescoping series one would have:
This theorem specializes to the case in which the Hilbert space H consists of L2 functions on a measure space and U is an operator of the form
where T is a measure-preserving endomorphism of X, thought of in applications as representing a time-step of a discrete dynamical system. The ergodic theorem then asserts that the average behavior of a function ƒ over sufficiently large time-scales is approximated by the orthogonal component of ƒ which is time-invariant.
In another form of the mean ergodic theorem, let Ut be a strongly continuous one-parameter group of unitary operators on H. Then the operator
converges in the strong operator topology as T → ∞. In fact, this result also extends to the case of strongly continuous one-parameter semigroup of contractive operators on a reflexive space.
Remark: Some intuition for the mean ergodic theorem can be developed by considering the case where complex numbers of unit length are regarded as unitary transformations on the complex plane (by left multiplication). If we pick a single complex number of unit length (which we think of as U), it is intuitive that its powers will fill up the circle. Since the circle is symmetric around 0, it makes sense that the averages of the powers of U will converge to 0. Also, 0 is the only fixed point of U, and so the projection onto the space of fixed points must be the zero operator (which agrees with the limit just described).
Convergence of the ergodic means in the Lp norms
Let (X, Σ, μ) be as above a probability space with a measure preserving transformation T, and let 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞. The conditional expectation with respect to the sub-σ-algebra ΣT of the T-invariant sets is a linear projector ET of norm 1 of the Banach space Lp(X, Σ, μ) onto its closed subspace Lp(X, ΣT, μ) The latter may also be characterized as the space of all T-invariant Lp-functions on X. The ergodic means, as linear operators on Lp(X, Σ, μ) also have unit operator norm; and, as a simple consequence of the Birkhoff–Khinchin theorem, converge to the projector ET in the strong operator topology of Lp if 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞, and in the weak operator topology if p = ∞. More is true if 1 < p ≤ ∞ then the Wiener–Yoshida–Kakutani ergodic dominated convergence theorem states that the ergodic means of ƒ ∈ Lp are dominated in Lp; however, if ƒ ∈ L1, the ergodic means may fail to be equidominated in Lp. Finally, if ƒ is assumed to be in the Zygmund class, that is |ƒ| log+(|ƒ|) is integrable, then the ergodic means are even dominated in L1.
Sojourn time
Let (X, Σ, μ) be a measure space such that μ(X) is finite and nonzero. The time spent in a measurable set A is called the sojourn time. An immediate consequence of the ergodic theorem is that, in an ergodic system, the relative measure of A is equal to the mean sojourn time:
for all x except for a set of measure zero, where χA is the indicator function of A.
The occurrence times of a measurable set A is defined as the set k1, k2, k3, ..., of times k such that Tk(x) is in A, sorted in increasing order. The differences between consecutive occurrence times Ri = ki − ki−1 are called the recurrence times of A. Another consequence of the ergodic theorem is that the average recurrence time of A is inversely proportional to the measure of A, assuming that the initial point x is in A, so that k0 = 0.
(See almost surely.) That is, the smaller A is, the longer it takes to return to it.
Ergodic flows on manifolds
The ergodicity of the geodesic flow on compact Riemann surfaces of variable negative curvature and on compact manifolds of constant negative curvature of any dimension was proved by Eberhard Hopf in 1939, although special cases had been studied earlier: see for example, Hadamard's billiards (1898) and Artin billiard (1924). The relation between geodesic flows on Riemann surfaces and one-parameter subgroups on SL(2, R) was described in 1952 by S. V. Fomin and I. M. Gelfand. The article on Anosov flows provides an example of ergodic flows on SL(2, R) and on Riemann surfaces of negative curvature. Much of the development described there generalizes to hyperbolic manifolds, since they can be viewed as quotients of the hyperbolic space by the action of a lattice in the semisimple Lie group SO(n,1). Ergodicity of the geodesic flow on Riemannian symmetric spaces was demonstrated by F. I. Mautner in 1957. In 1967 D. V. Anosov and Ya. G. Sinai proved ergodicity of the geodesic flow on compact manifolds of variable negative sectional curvature. A simple criterion for the ergodicity of a homogeneous flow on a homogeneous space of a semisimple Lie group was given by Calvin C. Moore in 1966. Many of the theorems and results from this area of study are typical of rigidity theory.
In the 1930s G. A. Hedlund proved that the horocycle flow on a compact hyperbolic surface is minimal and ergodic. Unique ergodicity of the flow was established by Hillel Furstenberg in 1972. Ratner's theorems provide a major generalization of ergodicity for unipotent flows on the homogeneous spaces of the form Γ \ G, where G is a Lie group and Γ is a lattice in G.
In the last 20 years, there have been many works trying to find a measure-classification theorem similar to Ratner's theorems but for diagonalizable actions, motivated by conjectures of Furstenberg and Margulis. An important partial result (solving those conjectures with an extra assumption of positive entropy) was proved by Elon Lindenstrauss, and he was awarded the Fields medal in 2010 for this result.
See also
Chaos theory
Ergodic hypothesis
Ergodic process
Lyapunov time – the time limit to the predictability of the system
Maximal ergodic theorem
Ornstein isomorphism theorem
Statistical mechanics
Symbolic dynamics
Lindy effect
References
Historical references
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Modern references
Vladimir Igorevich Arnol'd and André Avez, Ergodic Problems of Classical Mechanics. New York: W.A. Benjamin. 1968.
Leo Breiman, Probability. Original edition published by Addison–Wesley, 1968; reprinted by Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 1992. . (See Chapter 6.)
(A survey of topics in ergodic theory; with exercises.)
Karl Petersen. Ergodic Theory (Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990.
Joseph M. Rosenblatt and Máté Weirdl, Pointwise ergodic theorems via harmonic analysis, (1993) appearing in Ergodic Theory and its Connections with Harmonic Analysis, Proceedings of the 1993 Alexandria Conference, (1995) Karl E. Petersen and Ibrahim A. Salama, eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, . (An extensive survey of the ergodic properties of generalizations of the equidistribution theorem of shift maps on the unit interval. Focuses on methods developed by Bourgain.)
A. N. Shiryaev, Probability, 2nd ed., Springer 1996, Sec. V.3. .
(A detailed discussion about the priority of the discovery and publication of the ergodic theorems by Birkhoff and von Neumann, based on a letter of the latter to his friend Howard Percy Robertson.)
Andrzej Lasota, Michael C. Mackey, Chaos, Fractals, and Noise: Stochastic Aspects of Dynamics. Second Edition, Springer, 1994.
Manfred Einsiedler and Thomas Ward, Ergodic Theory with a view towards Number Theory. Springer, 2011.
Jane Hawkins, Ergodic Dynamics: From Basic Theory to Applications, Springer, 2021.
External links
Ergodic Theory (16 June 2015) Notes by Cosma Rohilla Shalizi
Ergodic theorem passes the test From Physics World | [
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258988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caruaru | Caruaru | Caruaru is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Pernambuco. The most populous city in the interior of the state, Caruaru is located in the microzone of Agreste and because of its cultural importance, it is nicknamed Capital do Agreste (Portuguese for the "capital city of the Agreste region"), Princesinha do Agreste ("Little Princess of Agreste"), and Capital do Forró ("the capital city of forró").
The city is located 140 kilometers (87 miles) from the state capital of Recife, which has an international airport. However, Caruaru has its own airport. Caruaru is renowned for its extensive Festival de São João ("Saint John's Festival"), which takes up the whole month of June, sometimes extending into July. Caruaru had a 2020 resident population of 365,278 inhabitants, living in a land area of 920.61 square kilometers (355.45 square miles).
Caruaru is the hometown, among others, of Álvaro Lins, Brazilian journalist, and Lieutenant Brigadier Reginaldo dos Santos, former dean of the Brazilian Technological Institute for Aeronautics.
History
The lands that today comprise the city of Caruaru were originally a cattle ranch owned by family Nunes dos Bezerros. This name was given because of the proximity of the farm to the Bezerros chapel. Some orphans used to live with the Nunes family. One of them, José Rodrigues de Jesus, inherited part of the estate, staying at the location that would later be named Caruaru.
There he built a chapel dedicated to the Immaculate Conception. A village started to grow around this chapel. In 1846, Friar Euzébio de Sales started to build the parish named Igreja Matriz, nowadays a cathedral. In later years, the church was rebuilt twice, the last one in 1883. The geographical position benefited the city, because it was a necessary stopover in the transportation of cattle to the interior of the state.
Geography
State: Pernambuco
Region: Agreste of Pernambuco
Bordering municipalities: Toritama, Vertentes, Frei Miguelinho and Taquaritinga do Norte (N); Altinho and Agrestina (S); Brejo da Madre de Deus and São Caetano (W); Bezerros and Riacho das Almas (E)
Area: 920.61 km2 (355.45 square miles)
Elevation: 554 m (1,818 ft)
Hydrography: Capibaribe, Ipojuca and Una rivers
Vegetation: Hypoxerophilous Caatinga
Climate: Semi-arid
Mean annual temperature: 23.5 °C (74.3 °F)
Main road: BR-232
Distance to Recife - 140 km
Distance to Gravatá - 48 km
Economy
The main economic activities in Caruaru are industry (especially textiles), tourism, commerce, and handicraft, and the primary sector, especially the raising of goats, chickens, and cattle, and the production of milk. Agricultural activity in the Caruaru area also includes beans, cassava, and maize. Caruaru also hosts one of the biggest open-air traditional handicrafts markets of Brazil, the Feira de Caruaru.
Economic Indicators
Health Indicators
Transports
Caruaru has one regional airport, the Oscar Laranjeira Airport, it is located in the west parte of the city, the nearest major international airport is the Recife/Guararapes–Gilberto Freyre International Airport in Recife which is 138 km far from the city. The city is served by two expressways, the BR-232 and the BR-104.
Culture
Festa Junina
Every June, as part of the nativity of St John the Baptist, Caruaru hosts one of the principal Brazilian Festa Junina. Since 1994, the festival has been held in Pátio de Eventos Luiz Gonzaga.
Sports
There are two association football (soccer) teams in the city: Clube Atlético do Porto, which plays at Antônio Inácio de Souza Stadium (capacity: 6,000), and Central Sport Club, which plays at Estádio Luiz José de Lacerda (capacity: 20,000). Both teams compete in the main series of Pernambuco's state tournament. Caruaru also hosts an annual race of the Brazilian Formula Truck competition, at the Ayrton Senna International Circuit, the state's main motor race track.
Tourism
Video: Saint John's Festival in Caruaru
Video: Caruaru's traditional handicraft market
Video: Caruaru's Formula Truck race
See also
List of cities in Brazil
References
External links
1849 establishments in Brazil
Populated places established in 1849 | [
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258992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen%20Gardner%20%28critic%29 | Helen Gardner (critic) | Dame Helen Louise Gardner, (13 February 1908 – 4 June 1986) was an English literary critic and academic. Gardner began her teaching career at the University of Birmingham, and from 1966 to 1975 was a Merton Professor of English Literature, the first woman to have that position. She was best known for her work on the poets John Donne and T. S. Eliot, but also published on John Milton and William Shakespeare. She published over a dozen books, and received multiple honours.
Her critical stance was traditional and focused on history and biography; it involved the work's historical context, the personal habits of the author, and the relationship of the text to the time period. One of her beliefs was that a literary critic's job is to assist other people in reading for themselves.
Personal life
Gardner was the daughter of Charles Henry and Helen Mary Roadnight Cockman Gardner. She went to North London Collegiate School. She did her B.A. at St Hilda's College, Oxford in 1929, later receiving a M.A. at the same college in 1935.
Academic career
Her teaching career began at the University of Birmingham, where she held a temporary post as an assistant lecturer from 1930 to 1931. After three years as an assistant lecturer at Royal Holloway College in London, she returned to Birmingham, as a member of the English department (1934–41). She became a tutor at Oxford in 1941 and was a fellow of St Hilda's College, Oxford from 1942 to 1966, where she was also a University Reader in Renaissance English Literature. From 1966 to 1975, Gardner was the Merton Professor of English Literature, the first woman to have that position, and a Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford.
The University of Cambridge offered Gardner the new chair in Medieval and Renaissance Literature, but she declined, in part because she had heard that the university's first choice, C.S. Lewis, had changed his mind about refusing the position.
Methodology and subject matter
Gardner published on T. S. Eliot from early on in her career; F. O. Matthiessen cited her 1942 essay "The Recent Poetry of T.S. Eliot" with approbation.
Her critical methodology included the work's historical context, the personal habits of the author, and the relationshop of the text to the time period. She prepared several editions of poetry by John Donne, including The Divine Poems (1952), Selected Prose (1967) and The Elegies and the Songs of Sonnets (1965), all of which she has been credited for her careful work. As a scholar of poetry by T. S. Eliot, she has written three studies on Eliot and has also said that the poet is a major influence on her own criticism. Gardner has also written criticism on John Milton and William Shakespeare. Gardner influenced the perceptions of many readers on British poetry, mostly such poetry from the late sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries. Gardner was an Anglican Christian and her faith was a subtle part of her writing.
Gardner, it is said, "belonged to no 'school'" of literary criticism. She was critical of the New Criticism and its insistence on multiple interpretations; Gardner disavowed "the rejection of determinate meanings in texts", insisting that despite texts being open to multiple interpretations, there is still "intentional communication" for readers to try to understand. In 1979, when she delivered the Charles Eliot Norton Lectures (published as In Defence of the Imagination) Gardner said that she opposed the then-current trend of literary criticism to over-interpreting texts and using technical jargon. When it comes to the function of a critic, she stated that it is to "shine a torch" and not "wield a sceptre", meaning that the function of a critic is "to illuminate rather than attack".
Honours
Gardner she was appointed as a CBE in 1962 and as a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1967. In 1971, she was elected as a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. She received honorary degrees from Cambridge, London, Harvard, and Yale universities. She died in Bicester in 1986.
Legacy
Gardner's will bequeathed the royalties from the New Oxford Book of English Verse to the National Portrait Gallery, for the purchase of portraits relating to English literature and portraits from the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The character E. M. Ashford in Margaret Edson Wit is based on Gardner. Wit was later adapted into a 2001 film. She was listed in International Who's Who in Poetry 2004 under the subheading "Literary Figures of the Past".
Works by Helen Gardner
Gardner wrote more than a dozen books: monographs, critical editions, and anthologies. She edited The New Oxford Book of English Verse 1250–1950 (published 1972), which replaced Arthur Quiller-Couch's The Oxford Book of English Verse. The New Oxford Book of English Verse 1250–1950 was also published in braille.
Gardner's 1971 book Religion and Literature collects two lecture series, the 1966 Ewing Lectures on religious poetry and the 1968 T. S. Eliot Memorial Lectures on tragedy. Diana Fortuna, reviewing the book for the Modern Language Review, praised the lectures on tragedy as "an essential introduction to the subject", but was less impressed with the lectures on religious poetry, judging that it covered too much material and consequently did not treat some selections "fully enough".
She also published an anthology of religious poetry, A Book of Religious Verse, which according to her 1972 reviewer in the New York Times "should be read in conjunction with her provocative lectures on religious poetry printed in her Religion and Literature". The reviewer noted Gardner's attempt to find "viable" religious poetry from the 20th century, but found that religious poems by Edwin Muir and W.H. Auden could not compare "with Herbert, Donne or Milton", and thought the volume "end[ed] with a whimper". Other criticism of her work includes her focus on judgments in analyzing literary works.
Bibliography
The Art of T.S. Eliot (1949)
The Divine Poems of John Donne (1952)
The Metaphysical Poets (1957)
The Business of Criticism (1959)
Edwin Muir: the W. D. Thomas Memorial Lecture (1961)
The Elegies and the Songs and Sonnets of John Donne (1965)
A Reading of Paradise Lost: the Alexander Lectures in the University of Toronto (1962)
The Waste Land 1972: The Adamson lecture, 3rd May 1972 (See List of Adamson Lectures.)
References
External links
"Gardnering" (26 January 2007)
1908 births
1986 deaths
Alumni of St Hilda's College, Oxford
Women anthologists
Academics of the University of Birmingham
Fellows of St Hilda's College, Oxford
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
English literary critics
Women literary critics
People from Finchley
People educated at North London Collegiate School
20th-century British women writers
20th-century British non-fiction writers
Merton Professors of English Literature
Fellows of the British Academy | [
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258995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgi%20Lozanov | Georgi Lozanov | {{Infobox academic
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| name = Georgi Lozanov| honorific_suffix =
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}}Georgi Lozanov''' (; 22 July 1926 – 6 May 2012), known as 'the father of accelerated learning', was a Bulgarian scientist, neurologist, psychiatrist, psychologist and educator, creator of suggestology, suggestopedia (or 'suggestopaedia', an experimental branch of suggestology for use in pedagogy), and integrated psychotherapy.
He developed suggestopedia, a learning/teaching theory based on his early-1960s study of suggestion which is known as "suggestology".
Lozanov's theory and practice triggered an accelerated learning movement in the West, where various techniques not originally included in the Lozanov's theory were introduced. Such techniques included elements such as breathing, visualization, and biofeedback. There is a school in Sliven dedicated to preparing teachers for using suggestopaedia during lessons in order to improve the learning speed of pupils.
During the 1970s his theories and method were carefully analyzed and evaluated worldwide by a committee on languages learning and eventually certified by Unesco as "the most cultural integral and effective learning method" in Second Language Acquisition, better known today as its corporate adaptation called the Accelerated Learning Method.
Among his research, Lozanov had conducted during his earlier career stages advanced long-term research in the field of parapsychology, especially on clairvoyance at the University of Sofia.
He eventually left the Soviet Union, and settled in Western Europe opening the Lozanov Institute in Vienna, while he was conducting extensive work in North America, particularly in Washington, D.C. and Ottawa, working at its corresponding Diplomatic Institutes on the development and implementation of accelerated second language training programs for federal government employees.
Legacy
In 1966 he created the State Suggestology Research Institute in Sofia, Bulgaria, and the Centre for Suggestology and Development of Personality at the University of Sofia " St Climent Ohridski", which he directed until 1984.
During the 1970s he created the Lozanov learning method for super-learning of foreign languages, after the methodology audit of 1978 the method was certified by the Unesco in 1980. Upon certification of his method, he created the International Centre for Desuggestology in Vienna, Austria.
Then in 2005 with the contribution of his colleague, the linguist, pedagogue, and artist Dr. Evelyna Gateva, they created the Lozanov International Centre for Teacher Training in Vorarlberg, Austria that developed and provided teacher-training programs and certified new instructor and facilitators. During March 2006 at the Trainers' Conference in Sofia, it was created the International Association of Suggestology (Suggestopedia) founded with headquarters in Oslo, Norway; Dr. Lozanov was elected honorary chairman of the Association, and Professor Lisa Hartmark from Norway was elected chairwoman.
Also in 2006, on March 26th, he created the Lozanov International Trainers Association and they founded LITTA the Lozanov Institute. There are hundreds os trained teachers at Litta website in many different countries, from 1991 to 2008. One, in particular, named Paulo Sergio Negrete, from Brazil, and trained in 2000, developed Neuropedia / Deblocking Method, based on Suggestopedia, which claims to be a development of the method. The scientific paper was published in 2011.
References
External links
http://chapmanenglishcourse.com
https://web.archive.org/web/20030503061120/http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet7/dipamo.html
2012 deaths
1926 births
Scientists from Sofia
Bulgarian neurologists | [
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258997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walmer%20Castle | Walmer Castle | Walmer Castle is an artillery fort originally constructed by Henry VIII in Walmer, Kent, between 1539 and 1540. It formed part of the King's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire, and defended the strategically important Downs anchorage off the English coast. Comprising a keep and four circular bastions, the moated stone castle covered and had 39 firing positions on the upper levels for artillery. It cost the Crown a total of £27,092 to build the three castles of Walmer, Sandown, and Deal, which lay adjacent to one another along the coast and were connected by earthwork defences. The original invasion threat passed, but during the Second English Civil War of 1648–49, Walmer was seized by pro-Royalist insurgents and was only retaken by Parliamentary forces after several months' fighting.
In the 18th century, Walmer became the official residence of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and was gradually modified from a military fortification into a private residence. Various Prime Ministers and prominent politicians were appointed as Lord Warden, including William Pitt, the Duke of Wellington and Lord Granville, who adapted parts of the Tudor castle as living spaces and constructed extensive gardens around the property. By 1904, the War Office agreed that Walmer had no remaining military utility and it passed to the Ministry of Works. Successive Lord Wardens continued to use the property but it was also opened to the public. Walmer was no longer considered a particularly comfortable or modern residence, however, and Lord Curzon blamed the poor condition of the castle for his wife's death in 1906.
Lord Wardens since the Second World War have included Winston Churchill, Robert Menzies and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, but they have made only intermittent use of Walmer Castle. In the 21st century, Walmer Castle is run as a tourist attraction by English Heritage. The interior of the castle displays a range of historical objects and pictures associated with the property and its Lord Wardens, protected since the 19th century by special legislation. The grounds include the Queen Mother's Garden, designed by Penelope Hobhouse as a 95th birthday gift for Elizabeth in 1997.
History
16th century
Walmer Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England, France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII. Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities, only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely. Modest defences, based around simple blockhouses and towers, existed in the south-west and along the Sussex coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale.
In 1533, Henry broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, Catherine of Aragon and remarry. Catherine was the aunt of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, and he took the annulment as a personal insult. This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England. An invasion of England appeared certain. In response, Henry issued an order, called a "device", in 1539, giving instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" and the construction of forts along the English coastline.
Walmer and the adjacent castles of Deal and Sandown were constructed to protect the Downs in east Kent, an important anchorage formed by the Goodwin Sands which gave access to Deal Beach, on which enemy soldiers could easily be landed. The stone castles were supported by a line of four earthwork forts, known as the Great Turf, the Little Turf Bulwark, the Great White Bulwark of Clay and the Walmer Bulwark, and a
defensive ditch and bank. Collectively the castles became known as the "castles of the Downs" and cost the Crown a total of £27,092 to build.
Walmer was built between April 1539 and autumn 1540, by a team including Richard Benese as the surveyor, William Clement as the master carpenter, and Christopher Dickenson as the master mason. It was initially garrisoned by a captain, two lieutenants, two porters, ten gunners and three soldiers, at an annual cost of £174. It was probably equipped with a range of brass and cast-iron guns, along with arquebuses and bows for close defence. In 1597, a report listed the castle's artillery as comprising a cannon, a culverin, five demi-culverins, a saker, a minion and a falcon.
17th century
Walmer Castle was left to decline in the early 17th century, with little money being made available for repairs and the garrison receiving low pay, leading some members to reside in nearby Deal rather the fort itself, and to take on additional employment to supplement their wages. Walmer Castle was seized by Parliamentary forces at the start of the first English Civil War between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament, but did not play a significant role in the remainder of the initial conflict. After the few years of unsteady peace after 1645, the Second Civil War broke out in 1648, this time with Charles' Royalist supporters joined by Scottish allies. The Parliamentary navy was based in the Downs, protected by Walmer and the other Henrician castles, but by May a Royalist insurrection was under way across Kent.
Vice-Admiral William Batten had been forced to resign from his post as Commander of the Fleet the previous year by Parliamentary officials, and he now encouraged the fleet to join the Royalist faction. Sir Henry Palmer, a former sailor, accompanied by other members of the Kentish gentry, also called on the fleet to revolt, taking advantage of the many fellow Kentish men in the crews. Walmer and Deal Castle declared for the King, shortly after the garrisons at Sandown. With both the coastal fortresses and the navy now under Royalist control, Parliament feared that foreign forces might be landed along the coast or aid sent to the Scots.
Parliament defeated the wider insurgency at the Battle of Maidstone at the start of June, and then sent a force under the command of Colonel Nathaniel Rich to deal with Walmer and the other castles along the Downs. Walmer Castle was the first to be besieged, and surrendered on 12 July. Deal was attacked in late July, and in August artillery assaults began on Sandown as well, leading to the surrender of both remaining fortifications. Walmer was badly damaged during the conflict and it was estimated by Rich, responsible for carrying out the repairs, that the work would cost at least £500.
In 1649, Parliament ordered new supplies of ammunition and powder be sent to Walmer and the other castles of the Downs, which were brought back into good order. The garrison at Walmer remained substantial during the period, with a governor, a corporal and 20 soldiers, but when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 he reduced the numbers again to a captain, lieutenant, porter and 16 men. In the Glorious Revolution of 1688 against Charles' brother, King James II, the townsfolk of Deal seized Walmer Castle on behalf of William III, the Prince of Orange. By the end of the century, however, the castle was increasingly regarded as out of date from a military perspective.
18th–19th centuries
1700–1828
In the 18th century, Walmer Castle became the official residence of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. The Lord Warden was originally a medieval title linked to five key ports along the coast of England; the position's prominence had faded, but it still retained important judicial and military functions. When Lionel Sackville, the Duke of Dorset, was appointed to the post in 1708 he decided that the existing residence in Dover Castle was unsatisfactory, probably because of the semi-ruinous state of the castle, and moved into Walmer Castle instead.
The Duke occupied the post of Lord Warden until 1765, save for two periods when it was filled by James Butler, the Duke of Ormonde and John Sidney, the Earl of Leicester. He carried out extensive work to make the castle more habitable, building extensions towards the north bastion and constructing a small house in the south bastion for the soldiers. Under the subsequent Lord Wardens, the politicians Robert Darcy, the Earl of Holderness, and Francis North, the Earl of Guildford, the castle continued to house artillery but it became increasingly less military in character.
The Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger was then made the Lord Warden in 1792. Pitt was badly in debt and King George III believed that the post, which came with a salary of £3,000 a year, would usefully supplement Pitt's income. Pitt made extensive use of the castle and by 1803 he used it as his main residence in an effort to reduce his living costs. Pitt's niece, Lady Hester Stanhope, joined him at Walmer between 1803 and 1806; together with Pitt, she carried out extensive work on the castle gardens, transforming them from a simple kitchen garden into a set of landscaped ornamental enclosures; Stanhope enlisted the Dover militia to help with the landscaping and planting.
With the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars, Pitt became energetically involved in the protection of the ports along the coast, entertaining the local garrison commanders, naval captains and the local gentry at Walmer on a regular basis. After Pitt resigned as Prime Minister in 1801, fears remained of a French invasion and he formed a volunteer cavalry unit at Walmer Castle, where he lived with his new officers. He also formed a unit of bombardier infantry and a fleet of 35 fishing boats called luggers, which he armed with or guns, reviewing them from the castle. Stanhope remarked on the constant drilling of army units around the castle during her time there.
Robert Jenkinson, the Earl of Liverpool, took possession of Walmer Castle following the death of Pitt in 1806. Liverpool was a favourite of King George's, and his appointment as Lord Warden was again intended to provide a valuable income and a country retreat. As Prime Minister, Liverpool used Walmer as a personal retreat and as a location for private political discussions with selected guests.
1829–99
On Lord Liverpool's death, Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington and the current Prime Minister, asked King George IV for the post of Lord Warden, primarily because he was seeking the use of Walmer Castle. Wellington took up post in 1829 and considered Walmer to be "the most charming marine residence". He made use of the castle each autumn, entertaining extensively there but living and sleeping in a single room. He was visited there twice by Victoria, once when she was still a princess and later as queen. Wellington let the gardens fall into a poor condition. Wellington died in his room at Walmer on 14 September 1852. His embalmed body was kept in his room to lie in state until 10 November, and when the room was opened for public visitors during the final two days, around 9,000 attended. The Duke's body was finally removed to London via Deal, complete with a military escort.
James Broun-Ramsay, the Marquess of Dalhousie became Lord Warden; on his death, the Prime Minister Henry Temple, the Viscount Palmerston, took over the castle in 1861. Palmerston initially declined to buy the contents of the castle from his predecessor's estate on taking up the post, a practice which had become traditional for the Lords Warden, complaining about the high price being proposed. This raised the risk that the historical contents of the castle might be sold off at open auction; and some of Wellington's former belongings were therefore removed by his family for safekeeping.
The politician Lord Granville was offered the post of Lord Warden by the new Prime Minister, John Russell in 1865. Russell noted that the role would be expensive for Granville to perform — the salary had been abolished in 1828 — but that it would provide him with a property by the sea, which Granville had been seeking to acquire for a while. Granville took over Walmer in 1865. He expanded the gardens, built new kennels for a hunting pack and spent many years reassembling the furniture and other objects that Pitt and Wellington had used at the castle. He received large numbers of visitors, many of whom stopped off while travelling to or from France. The diplomat Baron de Malortie visited Granville and his family at Walmer, and later praised the homely atmosphere in the castle. He described how, after breakfast, the family and guests would all gather in the drawing room, which was the only large room in the house, and Granville would answer government correspondence amid the daily life of the rest of the household.
The businessman and politician William Smith was appointed Lord Warden in 1891, but died in Walmer Castle during his first visit here in October of that year. Smith had proposed that the historical artefacts in the castle should be protected from being removed by later Lord Wardens and suggested that government pass an Indenture of Heirlooms Bill. The government carried out the plan after Smith's death, protecting almost 70 pieces of furniture and 50 artworks at the castle and forbidding them being moved from the castle without the Secretary of State for War's approval. Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, the Marquess of Salisbury, became the next Lord Warden; with adequate legal protection now in place, the 3rd Duke of Wellington suggested returning his grandfather's possessions to the castle, but Lady Salisbury declined the offer.
20th–21st centuries
By 1904 the War Office had concluded that Walmer had no remaining military value and agreed to transfer the castle to the Office of Works, who accepted it on the condition that they were paid £2,400 in order to carry out repairs. The Office's survey noted that "the lower floor ... is very inconvenient, dark and not conducive to health while the women servants have to sleep in a sort of dormitory in the slopes of the roof... The principal floor is, generally speaking, badly arranged and badly lighted and the Dining Room is very small"; the report suggested that it would be best to demolish the building and rebuild it.
Proposals were made to find the next Lord Warden, George Curzon, the Marquess Curzon, alternative accommodation and the Royal Marines were approached as replacement tenants for the castle, but declined the offer. The Ministry acquired agreement for most of the castle to be opened to the public, with various historical objects related to the property being put on display, including some donated by King Edward VII. Lord Curzon moved into the castle when returned from India in 1905. His wife, Mary, fell ill, which Curzon believed to be a result of their poor accommodation, and despite being moved to a new residence, she died shortly afterwards. As a result, Curzon decided to resign the post of Lord Warden, leaving the castle, and subsequently the Prince of Wales, the future George V, took up the post.
William Lygon, the Earl Beauchamp, became the Lord Warden in 1913, building a Roman Catholic chapel at the castle and holding large parties there each summer. His children later commented that they found the castle was chilly and cramped. The Prime Minister, Asquith, was invited by Beauchamp to use the castle during the First World War as a weekend retreat, as it had good communication links with the front line in France. Asquith's wife, Margot, was not initially impressed by Walmer, noting in her diary that while it was "very distinguished" and had "great charm", it was "terribly exposed" with "cold... noisy corridors and small rooms"; she later came to like the castle and noted that she was sad to finally leave it.
Lygon had sexual relations with men, which was illegal in England during this period. Rumours spread about the parties that he had held at Walmer Castle after the war, where, according to the historian Richard Davenport-Hines, he had "behaved indiscreetly with young men". The King was informed about his lifestyle and Lygon fled the country in 1931, resigning the appointment of Lord Warden the following year.
Lygon's successor, the politician Rufus Isaacs, the Marquess of Reading, became the Lord Warden in 1934, holding jovial family gatherings there. His wife, Stella, attempted to restore Wellington's old bedroom to its earlier appearance during the Duke's tenure and, as part of this project, the 4th Duke of Wellington agreed to send the original contents of the room back to the castle, where they still remain. The politician Freeman Freeman-Thomas, the Marquess of Willingdon, became Lord Warden in 1936, followed by Sir Winston Churchill who followed him in 1941 during the Second World War. Churchill noted to the Minister of Works and Buildings that he had told King George V on taking up the position that he doubted that he would be able to live at Walmer Castle during the war, as it was within range of the German artillery along the French coast, or indeed that he would able to afford to live there afterwards, and for that reason he hoped that the state would maintain the castle and gardens, and decide what use it should be put to after the war.
Sir Robert Menzies, the Australian politician, became the Lord Warden in 1965 and visited the castle on an annual basis, staying in the flat there. Elizabeth the Queen Mother followed Menzies in 1978, initially visiting the castle from the Royal Yacht, but from 1986 onwards taking over the entire castle for three days each July. This required moving furniture, silverware and other furnishings from London and caused difficulties for English Heritage, who managed the property. The current Lord Warden, Admiral the Lord Boyce, took up his post in 2004.
In the 21st century, the property is managed by English Heritage, attracting 152,391 visitors in 2019. English Heritage carried out a £674,000 programme of improvements to the castle in 2015 intended to improve the visitor experience. The castle is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument, while the surrounding gardens are protected with a grade II listing.
Architecture
Castle
Walmer Castle retains most of its original 16th-century structure, with a tall keep, across, at the centre, flanked by four rounded bastions, one of which served as a gatehouse, and a moat, surrounded in turn by a curtain wall. Its curved walls are thick. It was nearly identical to its sister castle at Sandown and was approximately across, covering . The historian John Hale considered the original castle to form a transitional design between older medieval English designs and newer Italian styles of defence.
The castle had three tiers of artillery – the heaviest and longest range weapons occupying the upper levels, including the keep – with a total of 39 firing positions, and 31 gunloops in the basement for handguns should close defence be required. The embrasures in the walls were all widely splayed to provide the maximum possible space for the guns to operate and traverse, and the interior of the castle was designed with vents to allow the smoke from its guns to escape.
From the 18th century onwards, the interior of the castle was converted to provide accommodation for the Lord Wardens, almost all of which is now open to visitors. The castle is still entered through the ground floor of the gatehouse in the western bastion, which contains the original porter's lodge. In the middle of the castle is the keep, which originally housed the Servants' Hall and now a set of tea rooms. In the southern bastion is a set of rooms which are reached through the Hall Room, originally built as gunners' lodgings in the 18th century and converted into the entrance hall to the castle in the 1930s. On the far side of the bastion are the Sackville and Willingdon Rooms, built in the 18th century; the Willingdon Room is now used as a museum for objects relating to William Pitt. The Lucas Room has been redecorated in a mid-19th century style and is used to present various items of Wellington memorabilia. The north and east bastions are filled in, providing solid foundations for the gun platforms above.
The second floor contains the Lord Warden's private apartments in the west bastion and the western half of the keep. In the southern bastion is the Duke of Wellington's Room and the Lucas Room, originally part of an apartment of rooms selected by William Pitt for his use, as they formed the warmest part of the castle. The corridor running across the castle through the keep was built by Pitt to link the north and south halves of the castle.
The Prince Consort's and Queen Victoria's rooms in the keep are named after their use during the royal visit of 1842, although their decoration today dates from the interwar period. The Dining Room, Drawing Room and Ante Room, which overlook the northern bastion, date from the 1730s, when the Duke of Dorset constructed them to form a private set of chambers. These rooms feature a range of pink and purple window glass, which tradition says was installed by the Earl of Liverpool to protect his wife's eyesight; recent analysis shows that some of the pink-tinted glass dates from the 1730s, and discoloured naturally over time, while other panes were intentionally purchased around 1800 in these hues, but probably as status symbols and not for any medical purpose.
Gardens
The gardens of Walmer Castle date mainly from the 1790s and 1860s and comprise around of land, split evenly between formal ornamental gardens and parkland. The main body of the gardens stretches away from the castle towards the north-west, and is made up of protected, well-drained, chalk-based soil, forming a maritime microclimate.
The castle is approached through the castle meadow, an area of open parkland, lined with Holm oaks planted in the 1860s, and is surrounded by the dry moat, now a garden dating from at least the 1850s and planted with trees and shrubs. Adjacent to the castle are the Queen Mother's Garden and the kitchen garden and glasshouses. The Queen Mother's Garden was built by English Heritage as a 95th birthday gift for the then Lord Warden in 1997, the site having been originally part of the wider kitchen gardens, before being turned into a tennis court in the 1920s. Designed by Penelope Hobhouse, the garden incorporates classical and Islamic themes, with a pool, a viewing mound and a classical pavilion. The two glasshouses have been restored, functioning as cold greenhouses, while the remainder of the kitchen garden is planted with a mixture of vegetables, fruit trees and flowers.
The Broadwalk is the main axis of the gardens and separates the glasshouses from the Oval Lawn, planted with lime trees and yews. The Broadwalk is lined by the "Cloud Hedge", a formal 19th-century yew hedge that grew out of control in the Second World War and was left in its current, undulating style. Two terraces in the middle of the garden, designed by William Masters in an Italianate style, separate the further half of the garden. On the other side are the paddock, planted with Holm oaks, and a curved belt of woodland of beech, ash and chestnut trees, badly damaged in the storms of 1987 and 1990. At the far end is the Glen, a woodland hollow formed from an old chalk quarry in the 19th century.
See also
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
English Heritage visitors' page
Castles in Kent
Forts in Kent
Device Forts
English Heritage sites in Kent
History of Kent
Royal residences in England
Historic house museums in Kent
Gardens in Kent
Dover District
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258998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan%20Guillou | Jan Guillou | Jan Oskar Sverre Lucien Henri Guillou (, ; born 17 January 1944) is a French-Swedish author and journalist. Guillou's fame in Sweden was established during his time as an investigative journalist, most notably in 1973 when he and co-reporter Peter Bratt exposed a secret and illegal intelligence organization in Sweden, Informationsbyrån (IB). He is still active within journalism as a column writer for the Swedish evening tabloid Aftonbladet. Among his books are a series of spy fiction novels about a spy named Carl Hamilton, and a trilogy(+) of historical fiction novels about a Knight Templar, Arn Magnusson. He is the owner of one of the largest publishing companies in Sweden, Piratförlaget (Pirate Publishing), together with his wife, publisher Ann-Marie Skarp, and Liza Marklund.
Life and career
Guillou was born in Södertälje, Stockholm County, Sweden. His Breton-Swedish father, Charles Guillou (1922–2020), came to Sweden as the son of a janitor at the French embassy in Stockholm. His mother, Marianne (née Botolfsen; 1922–2013), is Norwegian descent. Guillou acquired French citizenship at birth and became a Swedish citizen in 1975. When Guillou's grandfather was offered a position at the French embassy in Helsinki, Finland, his father decided to move with him and settled there. Guillou grew up with his mother and her new husband in Saltsjöbaden and Näsbypark outside of Stockholm.
Education
Guillou studied at Vasa Real in Stockholm but was expelled from the school because of his bad behaviour; including physical abuse, theft and blackmail. He then went on to study for two years at the Solbacka boarding school in Södermanland. He finished his studentexamen (upper-secondary final examination) from the boarding school Viggbyholmsskolan, located in Viggbyholm, in 1964. Guillou has described his upbringing, with the continuous physical abuse from his sadistic stepfather and the harsh treatment at the Solbacka school, in the semi-autobiographical novel Ondskan (1981). According to the Swedish tabloid newspaper Expressen, his mother, his sister, his teachers and his friends from the Solbacka school have contested his account and called the book a hoax.
Family
Guillou first lived together with author and translator Marina Stagh, with whom he has two children, Dan (born 1970) and Ann-Linn (born 1972) Guillou. His daughter Ann-Linn, a journalist and feminist commentator, lives in a civil union with Sandra Andersson, daughter of film director Roy Andersson.
He is now married to publisher Ann-Marie Skarp. He has an apartment in the Östermalm district of Stockholm, where he has lived for most of his adult life. He also has a country residence in Flybo, Östhammar Municipality, northern Roslagen, where he lives when he writes his books.
Employment
Guillou started his career as a journalist writing for the magazine FIB aktuellt from 1966 to 1967. He later co-founded the Folket i Bild/Kulturfront magazine, at which he worked from 1972 until 1977. He currently writes a column for Aftonbladet and also comments occasionally in other news outlets on current events usually taking the left-wing and the Anti-American side, particularly the conflicts in the Middle East and miscellaneous domestic issues, including the United States' War on Terrorism, Israeli policy towards the Palestinians, the Swedish Security Service, Swedish courtroom procedures and public inquiries.
Guillou has served as the host of several television programmes: Magazinet (1981–1984), Rekordmagazinet (last years together with Göran Skytte) and Grabbarna på Fagerhult (together with Pär Lorentzon and Leif G. W. Persson), all shown on Sveriges Television.
He co-authored the crime/drama television series Talismanen (TV4, 2003). In the series, Guillou and co-author Henning Mankell both play the roles of themselves. Guillou also authored and narrated the history documentary series Arns rike (TV4, 2004) and Häxornas tid (TV4, 2005).
The IB affair
In 1973, Folket i Bild/Kulturfront, a left-wing magazine, published a series of articles written by Guillou and Peter Bratt, revealing a Swedish secret intelligence agency called Informationsbyrån ("The Information Bureau" or IB for short). The articles, based on information initially furnished by former IB employee Håkan Isacson, described the IB as a secret organization that gathered information on Swedish communists and others deemed to be "security risks". The organization operated outside of the framework of the defense and ordinary intelligence, and was invisible in terms of state budget allocations. The articles in Folket i Bild/Kulturfront accused the IB staff of being engaged in alleged murder, break-ins, wiretapping against foreign embassies in Sweden and spying abroad.
The exposure of the IB in the magazine, which included headshots with names and social security numbers of some of the alleged staff published under the headline "Spies", led to a major domestic political scandal known as the "IB affair" (IB-affären). The activities ascribed to this secret outfit and its alleged ties to the Swedish Social Democratic Party were denied by Prime Minister Olof Palme, Defense Minister Sven Andersson and the chief of the Swedish defence forces, Stig Synnergren. However, later investigations by various journalists and by a public commissions, as well as autobiographies by the persons involved, have confirmed some of the activities described by Bratt and Guillou. In 2002, the public commission published a 3,000-page report where research about the IB affair was included.
Guillou, Peter Bratt and Håkan Isacson were all arrested, tried in camera and convicted of espionage. According to Bratt, the verdict required some stretching of established judicial practice on the part of the court since none of them were accused of having acted in collusion with a foreign power. After one appeal Guillou's sentence was reduced from one year to 10 months. Guillou and Bratt served part of their sentence in solitary cells. Guillou was kept first at Långholmen Prison in central Stockholm and later at Österåker Prison north of the capital.
The CIA affair
In 1976, two employees of Sveriges Radio contacted Guillou at Folket i Bild/Kulturfront with a story of a colleague that had been recruited by a CIA officer in Stockholm. They had earlier been turned down by a major newspaper, and now asked the journalist that had exposed IB if he could publish the story. The three worked out a scenario where the CIA recruiter could be legally accused of espionage, and instructed the recruit to collect evidence thereof. Unbelievable enough, the CIA officer agreed to give his spy written instructions of what information to retrieve, so the informal counter-intelligence group had only to stockpile these, take photographs of the two spies meeting, and discuss how much they needed before the final exposure would be made.
The recruited spy was at a later meeting instructed to go to Angola with orders to get information about both military and political conditions. The legally experienced within the group advised their double agent not to agree, but he went anyway. Afterwards, the group assembled to write a false report about the conditions in the civil war-ridden country. Before the three could finalize the entire story for publishing, the spy went to Angola a second time, now with additional tasks on his instruction sheet.
After the spy had returned to Sweden, Guillou in advance placed the article in a major newspaper and with a television news editor. He also contacted the Foreign Department in order to prevent official denials, and discuss the repercussions of the espionage exposure. The published article was a true 'scoop', and the CIA spy handler was ordered to leave Sweden together with a colleague. The spy himself, avoided prosecution thanks to the article's portrayal of him as a rather heroic journalist, exposing foreign illegal operations to the public. Afterwards, both he and Jan Guillou were interrogated by the Swedish Security Service, but for assumed political reasons, no criminal charges were made. This time, the system worked to the journalist's advantage.
Swedish tabloid accusing Guillou of being a "secret agent for the Soviet Union"
During a five-year period starting at 1967 Jan Guillou had a series of meetings with KGB representatives. In October 2009 the Swedish news tabloid Expressen told this story under the headline "Guillou secret agent for Soviet Union". The Swedish security service Säpo at the time knew of the contacts from Guillou's colleague Arne Lemberg, who suspected the activities could be illegal.
According to Jan Guillou his intention was to expose the KGB espionage journalistically through a scoop based on the activities he was being exposed to and the discussions he had with his KGB contact Jevgenij Gergel. One of the journalists who wrote the articles later commented that he believed Guillou's explanation, "I do not doubt one word of what he has said".
Guillou received payment from KGB for written reports on Swedish politics, and Expressen points to this fact when defending its choice to refer to Guillou as a secret agent. Former KGB Colonel and defector Sergey Tretyakov characterised Guillou as a "classic agent". "Because he accepted money and, worst of all, signed receipts, there's no question about it. The handling of him could be a textbook example at the KGB school in Moscow". Espionage prosecutor Tomas Lindstrand wrote to PON that "Agent and spy are not synonymous ideas .... an agent does not have to commit acts of espionage. An agent can perform assignments for his handler without crossing the line to what is prosecutable."
Säpo at the time was skeptical towards Lemberg's report and commented that it found nothing illegal in a newspaper man writing an article based on public information and delivering it to Jevgenij Gergel.
The public Ombudsman of the Swedish Press, Yrsa Stenius, later concluded that Expressen presentation of facts had been an example of irresponsible journalism. According to her, Expressen had not backed up its frontpage assertion, that "Jan Guillou [was a] Secret Soviet Agent", despite the fact that this had caused "massive" damage to Guillou's reputation. Stenius's conclusion caused controversy, and a number of newspaper leader writers demanded that she resign her post.
On 1 June 2010 The Swedish Press Council [PON] acquitted Expressen of wrongdoing. Expressen denies having claimed that Guillou was guilty of the crime of "espionage", and PON agrees. The frontpage and headline assertions ("Guillou Secret Soviet Agent", "Confesses KGB mission", "Recruited by chief of espionage") according to PON "do not have well defined meanings". PON was also satisfied that the factual details of the story were fully covered in the text of the articles which also included Guillou's own account of the events.
Political views
During the 1960s and early 1970s, Guillou was associated with the Maoist Clarté association. He was also a member of the Communist Party of Sweden (formerly known as the Communist League Marxists-Leninists), a minor Maoist party active mainly during the 1970s, for six months until he was expelled for refusing to pay the monthly member fee while he was living abroad. Today, he no longer considers himself a communist or a Maoist, but describes himself as socialist with a position on the political spectrum "to the left of the Left Party" (a Swedish party formerly known as "The Left Party, the Communists").
On the Middle East
Guillou is known for his support of the Palestinian people, and he has over the years consistently criticized Israel. In 1976, he wrote, "Zionism is in its foundation racist because the state of Israel is built upon an apartheid system, exactly like South Africa". He has repeatedly taken the stance that Israel is an "apartheid state". In an article published in Svenska Dagbladet in 1977, Guillou wrote, "I'm an optimist, I believe that Israel will cease to exist prior to Armageddon".
The book Irak – det nya Arabien (Iraq – The New Arabia), written by Guillou and his then-wife Marina Stagh, was published in 1977. In the book, which deals with Iraq under the Baath Party before Saddam Hussein's presidency, it is argued that the "European idea of Iraq as a particularly violent country" is simply "a blend of political propaganda and racist fantasies" (p. 91). Guillou and Stagh did the research for the book in 1975 and they assert that, at this time, "the Baath regime is clearly popular and among the most stable in the Arab World" (pp. 168–169), the freedom of the press enjoyed in Iraq was more extensive than in most other countries in the world (p. 239) and it would come as no surprise to the authors if "well before the year 2000, Iraq will have surpassed European countries in living standards" (p. 174).
The conditions at the Abu Ghraib prison, which Guillou claims to have visited as the first Western journalist, are described as excellent and even "better than Swedish prisons" (pp. 249–250). The book was published two years before Saddam Hussein became President of Iraq in 1979. In his 2009 autobiography, Ordets makt och vanmakt (The Power and Powerlessness of the Word), Guillou states that quotes such as the ones cited could be considered true back then. He does however also write that Saddam Hussein, who at the time of publishing was the vice-president under President Ahmed Hassan Al Bakr, was the actual leader of Iraq.
On the United States
Immediately following the September 11 attacks, Guillou caused controversy when he walked out of the Göteborg Book Fair in the midst of the three minutes of silence observed throughout Europe to honour the victims of the attacks. In an article in Aftonbladet, Guillou argued that the event was an act of hypocrisy, stating that "the U.S. is the great mass murderer of our time. The wars against Vietnam and its nearby countries alone claimed four million lives. Without a minute of silence in Sweden". He also criticised those who said that the attacks were "an attack on us all" by stating that the attacks were only "an attack on U.S. imperialism".
He labeled the media's reaction to the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot and the measures taken to avoid havoc at the airports unnecessary since the suspects had already been caught. He argued that the media coverage was sensationalist and driven by profit considerations, and that the British government used the occasion to give an impression of success in the War on Terrorism. Pointing out that no explosives had been found, he wrote in a column headlined "Don't believe anything written about al-Qaida" that the reactions had resulted in a victimization of the Muslim community.
When the film Evil (2003), an adaption of Guillou's autobiographical novel from 1981, was nominated for an Academy Award in 2003 Guillou was still listed as a terrorist by the US government, because of the IB affair, but managed to get a visa for attending the Academy Award ceremony. However, the director Mikael Håfström had given Guillou's ticket to his own wife and Guillou was not able to attend the ceremony.
On other issues
Ever since the IB affair and the resulting prison sentence for espionage in 1973, Guillou has been a strong critic of the Swedish Security Service. According to Guillou, the Security Service has listed him as a terrorist, which has led to problems with security officials when visiting other countries.
In recent years, Guillou has repeatedly criticised some people and groups within the Swedish radical feminist movement. However, he rejects being called an "antifeminist".
Guillou has also attracted controversy over his views on the history of homosexuality. He has said that "homosexuality is more of a vogue phenomenon than something you're born into. It's something that has come and gone through history" and that "homosexuality didn't exist in the 17th century".
Books
Early novels
Guillou's first novel Om kriget kommer (If the War Comes) was published in 1971. It's a political spy novel told in the form of a pseudo-documentary about how Sweden in the early 1970s launches a military invasion of South Africa and Rhodesia to overthrow the white apartheid regimes. The main character is the Swedish military spy Karl Aronovitch who prepares the invasion together with African politicians and guerillas.
His second novel, Det stora avslöjandet (The Big Disclosure), was written in prison (see the IB affair) and was published in 1974. The book is intended as a comedy and is a semi-autobiographical novel about a young journalist writing for men's magazines in Stockholm in the early 1970's. The author's alter ego created for the novel is named Erik Ponti, a character that would return in several of his later novels.
His third novel, Ondskan (The Evil), was published in 1981, and is heavily autobiographical in depicting the author's teenage experience of an abusive step-father and a sadistic upperclass boarding school. As in his previous novel, the character Erik Ponti functions as his fictional alter ego. The movie adaption Evil in 2003 was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 76th Academy Awards and won three Swedish Guldbagge Awards including Best Film.
Hamilton
In 1986 Guillou published Coq Rouge, the first novel about his fictional Swedish military spy Carl Hamilton. The idea to write a Swedish spy novel had first come to him in prison in 1974 (see the IB affair), but the writing was put on hold until the mid 80's when he was inspired to the plot of the novel when encountering the Norwegian security police in Oslo (an encounter that is featured in the novel where it happens to his alter ego Erik Ponti). The novel became a bestseller and nine more novels about Hamilton followed, with the series ending with its tenth title in 1995.
The main character Carl Hamilton is a Swedish navy officer with Navy SEAL and FBI training, having been secretly recruited by Sweden's military intelligence while doing compulsory military service. The plot follows Hamilton's career as a field operator for Sweden's security police and military intelligence agency, with various missions of investigating murder, infiltrating terrorist groups, rescuing hostages in foreign countries and committing assassinations, with a heavy focus on the world of politics and journalism. Partly because of Hamilton's radical leftist background he receives the codename Coq Rouge, which was used as the title for the original series.
Guillou stated that the tenth novel, En medborgare höjd över varje misstanke (1995), was the last book of the series and that it was impossible for Hamilton to return. However, when he was working on the novel Madame Terror ten years later, he realised that he needed Hamilton to make the plot work. After Hamilton had made his return, he also appears in the novel Men inte om det gäller din dotter.
Film and TV adaptations based on Hamilton
Codename Coq Rouge, portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård (1989)
Förhöret, portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård (television film 1989) (English translation: The Interrogation)
The Democratic Terrorist (TV series), with Humberto López y Guerra (1989)
Enemy's Enemy, portrayed by Peter Haber (television miniseries 1990)
The Democratic Terrorist (film), portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård (1992)
Vendetta, portrayed by Stefan Sauk (movie 1995, extended television miniseries 1996)
Tribunal, portrayed by Stefan Sauk (television film, 1995)
Hamilton, portrayed by Peter Stormare (movie 1998, extended television miniseries 2001)
Hamilton – I nationens intresse, portrayed by Mikael Persbrandt (2012)
Hamilton – Men inte om det gäller din dotter, portrayed by Mikael Persbrandt (2012)
Agent Hamilton portrayed by Jakob Oftebro (2020)
The Carl Hamilton who appears in the movies and tv series made between 1989 and 1998 (Stellan Skarsgård, Peter Haber, Stefan Sauk and Peter Stormare) is based on the novels, with minor changes.
The Carl Hamilton who appears in the movies Hamilton – I nationens intresse (2011) and Hamilton – Men inte om det gäller din dotter (2012), played by Mikael Persbrandt, is only loosely based on the character from the novel and does not follow the original story line or setting, and is mostly a new character moved into the 2010s.
The Carl Hamilton who appears in the tv series Hamilton (2020), played by Jakob Oftebro, is entirely different from the original story, both younger and moved to the 2020s.
Crusades trilogy
After finishing the Hamilton series in 1995, Guillou began writing a medieval trilogy about the Crusades. The intent was to depict the increasing modern day tensions between the Western world and the Arab world, by telling about the previous Holy War between Christianity and Islam. The main character of the trilogy is Arn Magnusson, a fictional Swedish nobleman in the 12th century who is forced to become a Knight Templar in Palestine during the Crusades. Arn becomes a witness as well as a catalyst to many important historical events, both in his homeland of Västra Götaland and in the Holy Land. Apart from depicting the Crusades, the novels also depict the early formation of Sweden.
The Crusades Trilogy consists of the following novels:
The Road to Jerusalem, original Swedish title Vägen till Jerusalem (1998)
The Knight Templar, original Swedish title Tempelriddaren (1999),
The Kingdom at the End of the Road, original Swedish title Riket vid vägens slut (2000)
As a follow-up to the trilogy Guillou also wrote a fourth medieval novel entitled The Heritage of Arn, original Swedish title Arvet efter Arn (2001) about Birger Jarl, a mighty ruler during the formation of Sweden and supposed founder of Stockholm. In Guillou's fictional universe, Birger Jarl is the grandson of Arn Magnusson.
The War on Terror
In 2004 Guillou returned to contemporary crime novels meant to depict the world of Western politics and law in the wake of 9/11 and the War on terror, mainly focusing on the new character Eva Johnsén-Tanguy, a high ranking police officer who comes to work within the Swedish security service. She is introduced in Tjuvarnas marknad ("Market of Thieves") in 2004, and her story continues in Fienden inom oss ("The Enemy Within Us") in 2007 and Men inte om det gäller din dotter ("But Not If It Concerns Your Daughter") in 2008, a novel which also saw the return of Carl Hamilton.
The Great Century
In 2011 Guillou published the first part of a new series meant to depict the 20th century, from 1901 to 2001. In his own words the project is to be his last, and also his biggest and his best, telling the story of humanity's greatest, bloodiest and most cruel century. The series follows the family Lauritzen, starting in the late 19th century when three brothers from a poor fishing village in Norway are sent to Dresden in Germany to become engineers. The series then continue with their descendants through the 20th century, and each novel is meant to cover one decade. The plot includes ambitious engineering projects in Scandinavia and Africa, colonialism, communities of artists, underground resistance and espionage during the world wars, the nuclear threat, the impact of American culture on Sweden, the leftist movement in the '60s and '70s, Vietnam protests, economy and politics and law. The first three novels are mainly set in Norway, Germany, Eastern Africa and Britain, while the setting moves to Sweden with the fourth novel.
Brobyggarna ("The Bridge Builders") (2011)
Dandy (2012)
Mellan rött och svart ("Between Red and Black") (2013)
Att inte vilja se ("Not Wanting to See") (2014)
Blå stjärnan ("The Blue Star") (2015)
Äkta amerikanska jeans ("Real American Jeans") (2016)
1968 (2017)
De som dödar drömmar sover aldrig ("Those Who Kill Dreams Never Sleep") (2018)
Den andra dödssynden ("The Second Deadly Sin") (2019)
Slutet på historien ("The End of the Story") (2020)
Awards and honours
1984 – Stora Journalistpriset ("Great Journalist Award"), for his writings in the Keith Cederholm-case
1984 – Aftonbladets TV-pris ("Aftonbladet TV Award"), in the category "Male Television Person of the Year"
1988 – Bästa svenska kriminalroman ("Best Swedish Crime Novel") from the Swedish Academy of Crime Writers, for I nationens intresse
1990 – Prix France Culture ("France Culture Award") from France Culture, for Ondskan (awarded as best novel translated into French)
1998 – Årets författare ("Author of the Year") from the Swedish Union of Local Government Officers
2000 – Årets bok ("Book of the Year") from Månadens Bok, for Riket vid vägens slut
2014 – The Lenin Award
Guillou was also chairman of the Swedish Publicists' Association (Publicistklubben) from 2000 to 2004.
References
External links
Piratförlaget – Jan Guillou , presentation at book publisher's website
Jan Guillou's column in Aftonbladet
The Salomonsson Agency
1944 births
Living people
People from Södertälje
Swedish people of French descent
Swedish people of Norwegian descent
Writers from Södermanland
Swedish journalists
Swedish-language writers
Swedish crime fiction writers
Swedish historical novelists
Writers of historical fiction set in the Middle Ages
Swedish socialists
People convicted of spying
Swedish autobiographers | [
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] |
259000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20church | Scottish church | The Scottish church may refer to:
Church of Scotland
Scottish Episcopal Church
Roman Catholic Church in Scotland
See also
Christianity in Scotland | [
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259001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walmer | Walmer | Walmer is a town in the district of Dover, Kent in England located on the coast, the parish of Walmer is south-east of Sandwich, Kent. Largely residential, its coastline and castle attract many visitors. It has a population of 6,693 (2001), increasing to 8,178 at the 2011 Census.
Walmer is closely associated with its adjoining neighbour, the town of Deal - sharing many amenities and services and benefiting from Deal's High Street shopping area.
Walmer railway station is on the Kent Coast Line.
History
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar reputedly landed on the beach here in 55 BC and 54 BC. It is only one possible landing place, proposed judging from the distances given in his account of the landings in his Gallic Wars. In the 19th century it was thought that he had landed by Deal Castle – hence a house there with SPQR emblazoned on its gate – but in 1907 the landing point has been proposed to be half a mile further south, beyond the lifeboat station, and marked by a concrete memorial. However, new archaeological excavations performed since 2015 suggest instead that the landing occurred in Pegwell Bay, in Thanet, much further north along the coast.
Medieval
The coastal confederation of Cinque Ports during its mediæval period consisted of a confederation of 42 towns and villages in all.
This includes Walmer, as a 'Limb' of Sandwich, Kent.
Walmer Castle
Walmer Castle and its formal gardens are an attraction for visitors. The official residence of Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports since the 18th Century, the building is now an English Heritage property.
Famous Lords Warden have included Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, Sir Winston Churchill, William Pitt the Younger (whose niece Lady Hester Stanhope first created the gardens), and the Duke of Wellington (of the Battle of Waterloo fame). Wellington lived there for 23 years and the castle houses not only a collection of Wellington memorabilia but also the room in which he died.
The Castle was built in 1540 as one of three on this part of the Kent coast by orders of Henry VIII. The others were nearby at Deal (southern Deal) and Sandown (north Deal) - the Deal one survives, the Sandown one has been lost to coastal erosion.
Walmer Aerodrome
The flat grassy plateau at Hawkshill Freedown on the southern edge of Walmer parish, adjacent to Walmer Castle, was requisitioned in April 1917 by the War Office for use as an aerodrome to increase capability for the defence of shipping in the English Channel. Wing Captain C. L. Lambe, Officer Commanding Royal Naval Air Service Dover and Dunkirk posted six pilots from different squadrons who had been involved in intense fighting on the Western Front to Walmer. These pilots were:
Flight Lieutenant Theo Vernon who became Flight Commander
Flight Sub Lieutenant Arthur.R. Brown
Flight Sub Lieutenant J.A. Shaw
Flight Lieutenant Stanley Kemball
Flight Sub Lieutenant William Lusby
Flight Sub Lieutenant Harry Chisam.
Once operational the airmen were kept busy fighting German bomber offensives with many victories recorded. Pilots from the Royal Flying Corps were also stationed at the Aerodrome as the RNAS and RFC often flew together on operations over the Western Front.
September 1917 saw the first death of an Officer who had been stationed at Walmer - Squadron Commander T. C. Vernon of 9 Naval Squadron. He had been the Commanding Officer of the Walmer Defence Flight until July 1917.
In November 1917, 3 Naval Squadron was relocated to Walmer from the Western Front. 4 Naval Squadron arrived 2 January 1918 to take over, then in March 1918, it became the home station of 8 Naval Squadron which was absorbed into the Royal Air Force on its creation on 1 April 1918.
After a few weeks of reduced activity on base a new Fighter Defence Flight was established in May 1918 with a primary mission to engage enemy fighters originating from Belgium and by 20 October 1918, the Belgium Coast was completely re-occupied by Allied Forces.
On 31 August 1918, Major Ronald Graham a WW1 ace took command of the newly formed No.233 Squadron RAF this incorporated the Fighter Defence Flight of Camels at RAF Walmer which was then under the command of Captain W. M. Alexander, another Flight (491)at Dover (Guston Road) and the Seaplane flight (407) Dover, Marine Parade. Flight 491 flying DH9s moved to RAF Walmer in January 1919 and in March 1919 the Squadron moved its headquarters to RAF Walmer. 233 Squadron RAF was disbanded in May 1919 but service records show it took a few months for all planes and pilots to leave.
Walmer remained on the emergency landing list of aerodromes.
RAF Walmer (also known as Hawkshill Down) was reopened during the Second World War as a strategic location for the defence of the UK. It was not used operationally for aircraft, but for some of the most important radar tracking and jamming systems used in the Second World War.
In 1941 Chain Home Low was installed at Walmer by the Army to increase the coverage of coastal radar systems in the South East. During 1942 an outstation of No. 80 (Signals) Wing RAF was opened which operated under the control of Bomber Command. In December 1942 A.M.E. type 9000 radar (Oboe) became fully operational which allowed precision bombing using Mosquito aircraft of 109 Squadron RAF. The Oboe system at Walmer worked jointly with a sister station in Norfolk, RAF Trimingham. They were known as cat and mouse stations. Target-finding aircraft controlled by Walmer were used extensively during the Battle of the Ruhr in March 1943. Oboe was one of the most precise navigational systems employed by any Air Force in the Second World War.
Large numbers of personnel were based at Walmer during this period including many from the WAAF (Women's Auxiliary Air Force). In October 1943 a detachment from 2752 Squadron RAF Regiment (anti-aircraft) was deployed to Walmer followed by the full squadron in June 1944. Servicemen from both 2852 and 2844 Squadrons RAF Regiments were recorded as serving at Walmer. From December 1943 until October 1944 Walmer was the site for the second station for an RAF jammer system (Grocer) which was used against German Air Force airborne interception radar (Lichtenstein). The transmitters and monitor were placed strategically at Walmer and further south at Kingsdown so as to not interfere with the work of Oboe. Twin Browning machine guns were used for the defence of the site throughout this period.
From June 1942 until 31 December 1944 Walmer was also used by M Balloon unit of the RAF for propaganda flights with the HQ at a house in St Clare Road (now Generals Meadow) which was used during the First World War as a military hospital. During February 1944 over 5,000,000 leaflets were dropped over Germany and France by 2,478 balloons released from Walmer.
In 1945 RAF Walmer/Hawkshill Down was closed and it returned to agricultural use.
On 12 August 2017 a new commemorative stand was placed on the Freedown on a site looking out over the English Channel. The stand was unveiled by the current Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports Admiral of the Fleet The Lord Boyce KG GCB OBE DL at a service led by the Vicar of Walmer and supported by the Chaplain of the Fleet and the Deputy Chaplain in Chief of the RAF. The new stand lists sixteen officers stationed at Walmer during the First World War and who lost their lives on active service. It also gives the history of the site during two World Wars.
A wooden memorial had been placed on the site of the airfield in 1920 under the direction of the Countess of Beauchamp, wife of the then Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. The location of the memorial has been changed a number of times, with the last site being on private land. There is very little of the original remaining.
In 2019, the VintageAirRally tried to organise the landing, at Walmer of the only De Havilland 9 still flying in the world. The DH9 was the last plane to fly out in 1919 and it was probably piloted by Harry Chisam, whose service records show he was stationed at Walmer in June 1919. Due to the height of trees now surrounding the area this was found to be impossible.
The Walmer Brewery 1816-1978
It is believed that Upper Walmer was home to a brewery from Tudor times and possibly earlier. In 1816 a small brewery on the Dover Road just south of the old Walmer Village was acquired by Edmund Thompson who then operated it as Thompson & Sons. In 1867 John Matthews bought the business and greatly expanded and modernised it, although he retained the Thompson Brewery name.
The development of maltings, bottling plants, brew house, stables and blacksmith's eventually made it an important local employer. Further houses were bought in Dover Road for use as offices and to house staff, and a long terrace of brick cottages was built in Belmont to house more workers.
During the 1950s, the brewery became part of the Charrington's company and its role was reduced to a bottling and distribution plant. It eventually closed in 1972 and was demolished in 1978 to make way for a housing development called Downlands. An old bell, once housed in the belfry at the brewery, was re-sited at The Thompson Bell, the last remaining public house in the village.
Governance
An electoral ward in the same name exists. The population of this ward at the 2011 census was 7,434.
Churches
Old St Mary's Church, Walmer
St Saviour's Church, Walmer
St Mary's Church, Walmer
People from Walmer
People born in Walmer include:
Dornford Yates
John Hassall (illustrator)
People who died in Walmer include:
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister
Lifeboats
References
External links
Walmer Parish Council
Walmer community website
Populated coastal places in Kent
Beaches of Kent
Civil parishes in Kent
Dover District | [
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259017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean%20Cogan | Dean Cogan | Dean Anthony Cogan (1826–1872) was a nineteenth-century Roman Catholic Irish priest, (awarded the religious title of dean), born in Slane, who wrote a history of the Diocese of Meath in Ireland. Published in two volumes in 1862 and 1867, Cogan's The Diocese of Meath was an important history of Christianity in Ireland.
Anthony Coogan was born in 1826, one of five sons and three daughters of baker Thomas Coogan and his wife Ann Sillary, his mother converted from the Church of Ireland to Catholicism to marry. Cogan trained for the priesthood in St. Finian's Seminary in Navan.
Cogan's work, which included a humanitarian dimension, led to the naming of a housing estate in his memory: 'Dean Cogan Place', located in Navan, where he had served as a curate.
A plaque unveiled in 2003 adorns the wall of his birthplace on main street Slane.
References
1826 births
1872 deaths
19th-century Irish Roman Catholic priests
19th-century Irish historians
People educated at St Finian's College | [
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259018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20Nevada | List of cities in Nevada | Nevada is a state located in the Western United States. According to the 2020 United States Census, it is the 33rd most populous state, with inhabitants, but the 7th largest by land area spanning . Nevada is divided into 17 counties and contains 19 incorporated municipalities. Nevada's incorporated municipalities cover only of the state's land mass but are home to of its population.
Incorporated places in the state are legally described as cities, except for the state capital Carson City, which has no legal description but is considered an independent city as it is not located in any county. To incorporate, a petition for incorporation can be made to the board of county commissioners, who consider numerous geographic, demographic, and economic factors. Cities are categorized by population for the purpose of determining the number of wards and council election structure as well as the number of city clerks: cities with 50,000 or more inhabitants are in population category one, cities with 5,000 or more but fewer than 50,000 inhabitants are in population category two, and cities having fewer than 5,000 inhabitants are in population category three. Cities are responsible for providing local services such as fire and police protection, road maintenance, water distribution, and sewer maintenance.
The largest municipality by population in Nevada is Las Vegas with 641,903 residents, and the smallest is Caliente with 990 residents. The largest municipality by land area is Boulder City, which spans , while Lovelock is the smallest at . The first place in Nevada to incorporate was Carson City, on , and the most recent place was Fernley, on .
Incorporated cities and municipalities
See also
List of census-designated places in Nevada
List of counties in Nevada
Notes
References
Nevada
Cities | [
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259019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9jean%20Ducharme | Réjean Ducharme | Réjean Ducharme (August 12, 1941 – August 21, 2017) was a Québécois novelist and playwright who resided in Montreal. He was known for his reclusive personality and did not appear at any public functions since his first successful book was published in 1966. A common theme of his early work was the rejection of the adult world by children.
(Swallowed), Ducharme's first novel, was short-listed for the 1966 Prix Goncourt, even though the author was only 24 years old and unknown. That same year, the book won the 1966 Governor General's Award for Poetry or Drama (Poésie et théâtre). L'Avalée des avalés later won the 2005 French version of Canada Reads, where it was defended by actress Sophie Cadieux.
In the 1992 movie Léolo, the main character spends much of his time reading and thinking about L'Avalée des avalés.
In 2017, Ducharme died of natural causes at age 76 in Montreal.
In summer 2021, the city's Sud-Ouest borough renamed its library the Bibliothèque Réjean-Ducharme in his honour.
Bibliography
L'Avalée des avalés - 1966 (winner of the 1966 Governor General's Awards)
translated into English as The Swallower Swallowed by Barbara Bray
translated into English as Swallowed by Madeleine Stratford (Montreal: Véhicule Press, 2020).
- 1967
translated into English as Miss Take by Will Browning
- 1968
La fille de Christophe Colomb - 1969
translated into English as The Daughter of Christopher Columbus by Will Browning
- 1973 winner of the 1973 Governor General's Award for Fiction)
translated in English as "Wild to Mild" by Robert Guy Scully
- 1976
Good Riddance (Les Bons débarras) - 1980 (film screenplay)
Happy Memories (Les Beaux souvenirs) - 1982 (film screenplay)
Ha ha!... - 1982 (winner of the 1982 Governor General's Award for Drama)
Dévadé - 1990
Va savoir - 1994 (nominated for a Governor General's Award
translated into English as Go Figure by Will Browning
Gros mots - 1999
See also
List of Canadian writers
List of Quebec writers
References
External links
Réjean Ducharme's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia
Fonds Réjean Ducharme (R11725) at Library and Archives Canada
Collection Rosette Rohana (lettres de Réjean Ducharme), (R12366) at Library and Archives Canada. The collection consists of 14 letters by Réjean Ducharme sent to Rosette Rohana and to one of her friend.
Canadian male novelists
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights
21st-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights
Writers from Quebec
Governor General's Award-winning fiction writers
1941 births
2017 deaths
French Quebecers
Best Screenplay Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners
Sculptors from Quebec
Prix Athanase-David winners
Governor General's Award-winning dramatists
Canadian novelists in French
Canadian dramatists and playwrights in French
20th-century Canadian sculptors
Male screenwriters
Canadian male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian male writers | [
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259021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Highway%20%28Australia%29 | National Highway (Australia) | The National Highway (part of the National Land Transport Network) is a system of roads connecting all mainland states and territories of Australia, and is the major network of highways and motorways connecting Australia's capital cities and major regional centres.
History
Legislation
National funding for roads began in the 1920s, with the federal government contributing to major roads managed by the state and territory governments. However, the Federal Government did not completely fund any roads until 1974, when the Whitlam Government introduced the National Roads Act 1974. Under the act, the states were still responsible for road construction and maintenance, but were fully compensated for money spent on approved projects.
In 1977, the 1974 Act was replaced by the State Grants (Roads) Act 1977, which contained similar provisions for the definition of "National Highways".
In 1988, the National Highway became redefined under the Australian Land Transport Development (ALTD) Act 1988, which had various amendments up to 2003. The 1988 Act was largely concerned with funding road development in cooperation with the state governments. The federal transport minister defined the components of the National Highway, and also a category of "Road of National Importance" (RONI), with federal funding implications. Section 10.5 of the Act required the state road authorities to place frequent, prominent, signs on the National Highways and RONI projects funded by the federal government.
In 2005, the National Highway became the National Land Transport Network, under the AusLink (National Land Transport) Act 2005. The criteria for inclusion in the network was similar to the previous legislation, but expanded to include connections to major commercial centres, and inter-modal facilities. All of the roads included in National Land Transport Network as of 2005 were formally defined by regulation in October 2005. The Minister for Transport may alter the list of roads included in the network. Three amendments to the scheduled list of roads have been made, in February 2007, September 2008 and February 2009. The third variation, published in February 2009, is current as of September 2012.
Under AusLink a program that operated between July 2004 and 2009, the AusLink National Network had additional links, both road and rail. The Federal Government encouraged funding from state, territory and local governments and public–private partnerships to upgrade the network and requires state government funding contributions on parts of the network, especially for new links. For example, the Pacific Highway and the Calder Highway are part of the National Network, yet new projects are being funded 50/50 by federal and state governments. State contributions (generally 20%) are required on some sections of the old network near major cities.
Roads and routes
The various superseded Acts defined National Highways as roads, or a series of connected roads, that were the primary connection between two State or Territory capital cities, as well as between Brisbane and Cairns, and between Hobart and Burnie. The Melbourne-Devonport ferry route is sometimes described colloquially as the 'sea highway', providing a link from Tasmania to the rest of the country by road.
The of roads included in the original National Highway system had large variations in road quality. Some sections were no more than dirt tracks, whilst others were four lane dual carriageways. While was sealed, there was also worth of gravel roads. The National Highway was gradually improved, with the sealed proportion increased from 73 per cent in the early 1970s to 88 per cent by 1981. The sealing works were completed in 1989.
Since 2005, National Highways were no longer defined in federal legislation. However, the routes were marked with a National Highway route marker up until 2013. These markers have "NATIONAL" printed in the upper portion of the shield, above the highway's number. The shield, text and number are coloured yellow while the background is dark green – the national colours of Australia. In 2014, the route makers retained the national colours, although the word "NATIONAL" was removed in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, and parts of both Queensland and Victoria.
National Highway numbering originates from the earlier national route network. Many of the routes that are now National Highways with the signature green and gold shields, continue beyond the official National Highway as the black and white shielded national routes. Certain stretches of the National Highways have "A" and "M" tag on their shields; particularly those in Victoria and South Australia. They have completely revised their route numbering, basing it on the British M, A, B, C classifications. These states have retained the original National Highway numbering and shield decal, having added the appropriate M and A classification.
List of roads on the National Land Transport Network
Sydney to Melbourne – Hume Motorway/Hume Highway/Hume Freeway
Sydney to Brisbane – the Pacific Motorway (Sydney–Newcastle), New England and Cunningham Highways route and the Pacific Highway route
Brisbane to Cairns – Bruce Highway
Brisbane to Darwin – Warrego, Landsborough, Barkly and Stuart Highways
Brisbane to Melbourne – Warrego, Gore, Newell and Goulburn Valley Highways and Hume Freeway
Melbourne to Adelaide – Western Freeway, Western Highway, Dukes Highway and South Eastern Freeway
Adelaide to Darwin – Port Wakefield Road, Augusta Highway and Stuart Highway
Adelaide to Sydney – Sturt and Hume Highway/Hume Motorway
Adelaide to Perth – Port Wakefield Road, Augusta Highway, Eyre, Coolgardie-Esperance (part) and Great Eastern Highways
Perth to Darwin – Great Northern, Victoria and Stuart Highways
Sydney to Canberra – Hume Motorway/Hume Highway and Federal Highway
Melbourne to Canberra – Hume Freeway/Hume Highway and Barton Highway
Hobart to Burnie including the link from Launceston to Bell Bay – Brooker, Midlands and the Bass Highway
Townsville to Mount Isa – Flinders Highway
Melbourne to Sale – Princes Highway
Perth to Bunbury – South Western Highway
Melbourne to Mildura – Calder Highway
Sydney to Dubbo – Great Western and Mitchell Highways
Sydney to Wollongong – Princes Motorway and Princes Highway
Melbourne to Geelong – Princes Highway
some urban links in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide, connecting the long distance links to each other and to ports and airports.
Former National Highway routes
The following roads were part of the original National Highway network. Most are still signposted with National Highway route markers. In 2013, New South Wales introduced a new alphanumeric route numbering system, which no longer includes national highways.
History of changes to Australia's National Highway network
Australia's National Highway Network has had a number of changes since the National Roads Act 1974 was originally established in 1974. The 1974 Act empowered the Federal Minister for Transport to declare as a National Highway, any existing or proposed road in a State, which (in the Minister's opinion), was the main route between two State capitals; a State capital and Canberra; a State capital and Darwin; Brisbane and Cairns; Hobart and Burnie; or any other road which, in the Minister's opinion, was important enough to be a National Highway.
Subsequent replacement legislation in 1977, 1988, and 2005, along with other intervening amendments, contained similar provisions. Notably, important roads to near-metropolitan locations such as Geelong, Bunbury and Wollongong were added in 2005, although not within the original concept of interstate National Highways.
Original routes included in 1974
The original components of the National Highway were officially declared on 20 September 1974, as "links" and terminated at the edge of each capital city. The parts of the routes within the major urban areas were not defined as National Highways, and the Sturt and Newell highway routes were not included in the original 1974 network. In June 1995, as a condition of federal funding, the National Highway route in New South Wales was required to remove existing tolling on the former F3 and former F6 inter-urban freeways, even though the former F6 did not become part of a National Highway until 2005.
The Sydney to Adelaide route via the Hume and Sturt highways, and the Melbourne to Brisbane route via the Newell Highway, were added as links of the National Highway network in November 1992 under the 1988 Act, however the decision to use the route from Goondiwindi to Brisbane via the Gore Highway and Toowoomba, rather than the Cunningham Highway (via Warwick), was not finalized until October 1993. These were the only two major routes added to the National Highway network between 1974 and 2005. In addition, the urban ends of intercity routes, and some link roads and ring roads joining national routes, were explicitly added to the National Highway network for the first time.
As sections of existing highways were upgraded or replaced by nearby parallel routes of a new higher standard, the "National Highway" designation was usually moved onto the new part of the route. The principal route between Sydney and Newcastle was shifted from the old Pacific Highway onto the new Sydney-Newcastle freeway in nine separate stages between 1966 and 1999 as the freeway was progressively implemented. Similar changes were made as the Hume Highway was re-developed.
Routes included in the National Land Transport Network for the first time under the 2005 legislation
Appendix 1 of the 'Auslink (National Land Transport) Bill' of 2004, listed the routes which were proposed to be included in 'The Auslink National Network'. The listing included here distinguished between the components of the "former National Highway system", and the additional routes to be added to the Auslink National Network after the implementation of the new Act, which occurred in 2005. All of the existing routes of the National Highway prior to 2005 were included in the new network. The routes added with the inception of the 2005 Act (as described in Appendix 1 referenced above, some of the descriptions are somewhat ambiguous but clarified in the ensuing regulations) are:
the Pacific Highway route between Newcastle and Brisbane
the route between Townsville and Mt Isa
the route from Sydney (or Eastern Creek) to Dubbo via the M4, Great Western and Mitchell highway
the Calder Highway route from Melbourne to Mildura via Bendigo
the Southern Freeway and Princes Highway route from Sydney to Wollongong
the Princes Freeway from Melbourne to Geelong
the Monash Freeway, Princes Freeway and Princes Highway to Taralgon and Sale
the route between Perth and Bunbury
the route from Launceston to Bell Bay
some additional urban connecting routes linking ports and airports and linking the national routes, and forming urban growth corridors, a complete definition of the network as of 2005 is included in the schedule of the 2005 Act
Changes to the National Land Transport Network made in 2007
The route description for the Cumberland Highway ( Pennant Hills Road ), between the junctions with the M2 motorway and the F3 Sydney-Newcastle Freeway, was altered. Almost all of the original Cumberland Highway route from Prestons to Wahroonga, established in the 2005 network, was deleted due to the opening of the M7 motorway.
Changes to the National Land Transport Network made in 2008
The route description of the national route consisting of part of the Princes Freeway and Princes Highway between Melbourne and Waurn Ponds (west of Geelong), was altered.
The proposed Townsville Port Access Road was added.
The proposed Tiger Brennan Drive extension in suburban Darwin was added.
Changes to the National Land Transport Network made in 2009
The portion of the M4 Western Motorway in Sydney, between Eastern Creek and Strathfield was added.
The part of the Princes Freeway, and Princes Highway, west of Melbourne which is included in the National network, was extended from Waurn Ponds to Colac.
A section of the Great Eastern Highway and the Great Eastern Highway Bypass in suburban Perth was added.
Alteration to the definition of the South Road route in Adelaide and addition of the access road to Adelaide Airport.
The Townsville Ring Road was added
The Karratha-Dampier Road and part of the North West Coastal Highway was added.
The Bunbury Port Access Road and part of the Bunbury Outer Ring Road were added.
Part of the Hobart-Burnie route was altered.
Urban components of the national land transport (road) network
In Sydney, only a subset of the network of motorways and major roads in the Sydney metropolitan area are part of the current National Land Transport (Roads) Network, the rest are not part of the national network and therefore the Federal Government does not contribute funding on the same basis. The following roads in and around Sydney are currently part of the designated National Land Transport Network
Hume Highway from Melbourne to the junction of the M7 and M5 at Prestons, continuing on the M5 South Western Motorway to General Holmes Drive (near Kyeemagh) and then Foreshore Road to its junction with Botany Road.
Cumberland Highway (Pennant Hills Road), between the junction with the M2 Hills Motorway at Carlingford, and the junction at the commencement of the Pacific Motorway at Wahroonga. Note: The 2005 network included a route comprising a small part of the old Hume Highway from Prestons to Liverpool, the Cumberland Highway from Liverpool to Northmead, part of James Ruse Drive, and Pennant Hills Road from North Parramatta to the Pacific Motorway junction at Wahroonga. Almost all of this route, except the connection between the M2 and Pacific motorways at the northern end, was removed from the national network in 2007, due to the opening of the M7/M2 route as an alternative.
Pacific Motorway, north from Wahroonga.
The whole of the Westlink M7 motorway, from its junction with the M5 at Prestons, to Seven Hills, and then the part of the M2 Hills Motorway from Seven Hills to the junction of the Cumberland Highway (Pennant Hills Road) at Carlingford.
King Georges Road, from its connection to the Princes Highway at Blakehurst, thence Wiley Avenue, thence Roberts Road to its intersection with the Hume Highway at Greenacre (Chullora).
The Princes Highway from its intersection with King Georges Road at Blakehurst, the Princes Motorway to its intersection with the Northern Distributor at Gwynneville (Wollongong).
The M4 Western Motorway, between Strathfield and Emu Plains, continuing onto the Great Western Highway towards Dubbo. The portion of the M4 between Eastern Creek and Strathfield was only added in 2009.
National highway route numbering
In addition to the network of federally funded National Highways defined in 1974, there was also a system of "national routes". This scheme, which predated the National Highways in 1953, was a plan to coordinate State road authorities to allocate consistent highway numbers to major highways which traversed more than one State, for the convenience of travellers. The most notable example is "Highway 1", which follows the periphery of the continent, and only parts of which form part of the former National Highway and current National Land Transport (Roads) Network.
See also
Highway 1 (Australia)
References
External links
AusLink National Network
National Land Transport Network – Road Corridors
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259022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRCAM | IRCAM | IRCAM (French: Ircam, , English: Institute for Research and Coordination in Acoustics/Music) is a French institute dedicated to the research of music and sound, especially in the fields of avant garde and electro-acoustical art music. It is situated next to, and is organisationally linked with, the Centre Pompidou in Paris. The extension of the building was designed by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers. Much of the institute is located underground, beneath the fountain to the east of the buildings.
A centre for musical research
Several concepts for electronic music and audio processing have emerged at IRCAM. John Chowning pioneered work on FM synthesis at IRCAM, and Miller Puckette originally wrote Max at IRCAM in the mid-1980s, which would become the real-time audio processing graphical programming environment Max/MSP. Max/MSP has subsequently become a widely used tool in electroacoustic music. Many of the techniques associated with spectralism, such as analyses based on fast Fourier transforms, were made practical by technological contributions at IRCAM. For instance, researchers at IRCAM have developed a special microphone capable of isolating each of the cello's four strings for separate amplification or electronic treatment. Along with tools for sound synthesis and analysis, IRCAM has played an instrumental role in developing programs for visualization of musical form with the creation of OpenMusic, a Lisp-based visual programming language.
IRCAM provides classes to train composers in music technology. Composers who do not have programming experience to create the technology end of a piece for ensemble and electronics are provided with an assistant who helps them to realise technically intensive parts of the piece. The assistant will follow the conceptual advice of a composer with no technology experience to realize a computer part, or will help a composer who can program in Max/MSP to make their "patch" more efficient and elegant. Tristan Murail's Désintégrations is an example of a piece realized in this program by a composer with significant technological skill, whereas Harrison Birtwistle's The Mask of Orpheus required an active and creative role for the technology assistants, such as Barry Anderson and Ian Dearden.
A cultural centre for musical modernism
Apart from electroacoustic programmes, IRCAM has programmes in contemporary classical music. It has disseminated music of post World War II modernist musicians such as that of Luciano Berio or Pierre Boulez, as well as younger performers and composers. Musical spectralism such as that of Tristan Murail, has also received support from IRCAM. Murail taught at IRCAM for a time. Kaija Saariaho, whose work has been influenced by spectralism, has also been supported by IRCAM.
IRCAM has also helped to develop various performance models. A resident ensemble of IRCAM, Ensemble InterContemporain, specialised in contemporary classical music, where each performer could be called upon to perform solo literature or ensemble literature. The Ensemble InterContemporain has been a model for many large ensembles in Europe, for example the Ensemble Modern and Klangforum Wien. Many classical contemporary pieces have been written for the chamber orchestra section of Ensemble InterContemporain.
There are regular concerts at IRCAM.
History
In 1970 President Georges Pompidou asked Pierre Boulez to found an institution for research in music. In 1973 the section of the building underneath was finished, and IRCAM opened in 1977. From the outset, Boulez was in charge of the institute. The initial administrators included Luciano Berio, Vinko Globokar, Jean-Claude Risset, and Max Mathews. 1990 Ircam established the Cursus Program for young Composers, a training in Computer Music and Composition. In 1992 Boulez, who then became honorary director, was succeeded by . In 2002 the philosopher Bernard Stiegler became the new head of the institute. On January 1, 2006, Stiegler became Director of Cultural Development at the Centre Pompidou and was replaced by .
The creation of IRCAM coincided with the rise of the debates about modernism and postmodernism in culture and the arts.
Its multimedia library was established in 1996. It is one of the first music hybrid libraries to have been created with close to 1000 hours of recorded music and over 2,000 scientific articles available online, in addition to its physical collections of sheet music and books on music and related domains.
Several international conferences have been held at IRCAM:
ICMC, the yearly International Computer Music Conference, in 1984
ISMIR 2002, the 3rd international conference on music information retrieval, in October 2002
NIME-06, the 6th International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, in June 2006
Acanthes, a yearly summer festival and series of composition workshops started in 2012
Research and development teams
Instrumental acoustics
Room acoustics
Music therapy
Musical perception and cognition
Analysis/synthesis
Music representations
Free software and software engineering
Sound design
Online services
Software developed at IRCAM
Some software is being developed at IRCAM, such as OpenMusic, AudioSculpt, OMax, Spat, Modalys, Antescofo and Orchidée.
Orchidée is developed as a tool to aid in orchestral composition in which musical scores using traditional instruments are generated by imitating a target input sound. It is used in Jonathan Harvey's 2008 piece, "Speakings", a composition based on emulating speech patterns and inflections. Orchidée is capable of computing the complex combinatorial possibilities of an orchestra based on musical attributes such as dynamics and instruments, perceptual attributes such as brightness, and timbre models.
IRCAM software is distributed via a subscription-based Forum. As of 2011, IRCAM Forum has 534 members including individual artists and art institutions around the world. IRCAM Forum members gather yearly at IRCAM for workshops regarding new technologies developed at IRCAM and elsewhere.
There are also partnerships with companies such as Cycling 74 (Max/MSP) and Flux:: (IRCAM Tools) for the development of proprietary software.
Notable works composed at IRCAM
Hanspeter Kyburz: ΟΥΤΙΣ, music theatre for ensemble and electronics (2000–12)
Georges Aperghis: Machinations, musical spectacle for four women and computer (2000)
Clarence Barlow: Çogluotobüsisletmesi, versions for piano (1978), magnetic tape (1980), and piano with tape (1980)
George Benjamin: Antara for ensemble and electronics (1986–87)
Luciano Berio: Chemins ex V, for clarinet and 4C computer (1980)
Luciano Berio: Orpheo II, opera for voice, orchestras, and tapes (1984)
Luciano Berio: La Voix des voies, spectacle-exposition for tape and diaporama (1977)
Harrison Birtwistle: The Mask of Orpheus (1986)
Pierre Boulez: Anthèmes II, for violin and electronics (1997)
Pierre Boulez: Dialogue de l'ombre double, for clarinet and tape (1985); version for bassoon and electronics (1995)
Pierre Boulez: ...explosante-fixe..., version for two flutes, MIDI-flute, electronics, and orchestra (1993)
Pierre Boulez: Répons, for six soloists, chamber ensemble, electronic sounds, and live electronics (1981–84)
John Cage: Roaratorio, an Irish Circus on Finnegans Wake (1980)
Unsuk Chin: Double Bind? for violin and electronics (2006)
John Chowning: Stria, for magnetic tape (1977)
Chaya Czernowin: "Hidden", for string quartet and electronics (2014)
Edison Denisov: Sur la Nappe d'un étang glacé, for nine instruments and tape (1991)
Luis de Pablo: Tornasol (1980–81)
Michel Decoust: Interphone, for soprano and tape (1977)
Jacob Druckman: Animus IV (1977)
Pascal Dusapin: To Be Sung, chamber opera in 43 numbers (1992–93)
Karlheinz Essl: Entsagung (1993) for ensemble and electronics
Lorenzo Ferrero: Ombres (1984) for ensemble and live electronics
Luca Francesconi: Etymo (1994)
Rolf Gehlhaar: Pas à pas, for tape and spatialization equipment (1981)
Gérard Grisey: Les Chants de l'Amour, for twelve mixed voices and magnétic tape (1982–84)
Georg Friedrich Haas: Les temps tiraillés, for 2 violins, bassoon, and electronics (2008)
Jonathan Harvey: Advaya, for cello and electronics (1994)
Jonathan Harvey: Bhakti (1982)
Jonathan Harvey: Mortuos Plango, Vivos Voco, for concrete sounds treated by computer (1980)
Jonathan Harvey: Ritual Melodies, for magnetic tape (1990)
Jonathan Harvey: String Quartet No. 4 with live electronics (2003)
Jonathan Harvey: Speakings, for orchestra and live electronics (2008)
York Höller: Antiphon, for string quartet and tape (1977)
York Höller: Arcus (1978)
York Höller: The Master and Margarita, opera in two acts after the novel by Mikhail Bulgakov (1989)
York Höller: Résonance (1982)
Jean-Michel Jarre: Oxygène (1976)
Panayiotis Kokoras: Morphallaxis (2008) for ensemble and electronics
Barbara Kolb: Millefoglie (1985)
Philippe Leroux: M for ensemble and electronics
Michaël Lévinas: Rebonds (1993)
Magnus Lindberg: Joy for orchestra and electronics
Magnus Lindberg: Related Rocks for two pianos, two percussionists, and electronics (1997)
Magnus Lindberg: Ur (1986)
Luca Lombardi: Hasta que caigan las puertas del odio, for choir (1977)
Tod Machover: Soft Morning, City!, for soprano, contrabass and tape (1980)
Tod Machover: VALIS, opera for six voices, 4X computer, and images (1986–87/1988)
Mesías Maiguashca: Fmélodies, for ensemble and tape (1982)
Philippe Manoury: Jupiter for flute and live electronics
Philippe Manoury: Pluton for piano and live electronics
Philippe Manoury: En Echo for soprano voice and live electronics
Yan Maresz: Sul Segno, for harp, guitar, cymbalon, contrabass and electronic equipment (2004)
Tristan Murail: L'Esprit des dunes, for chamber ensemble (1993–1994)
Emmanuel Nunes: Lichtung I (1988/1991)
Emmanuel Nunes: Lichtung II, for chamber ensemble and electronics (1996)
Michael Obst: Kristallwelt, for Ensemble and Electronics (1983)
Robert H.P. Platz: Pièce noire, for thirteen musicians and tape (1990)
Henri Pousseur: Liège à Paris (1977)
Horațiu Rădulescu: Incandescent Serene, for contrabass and tape (1982)
Roger Reynolds: The Angel of Death, for solo piano, chamber orchestra, and six-channel computer-processed sound (2001)
Roger Reynolds: Archipelago, for orchestra and magnetic tape (1983)
Terry Riley: Salome Dances for Peace, for string quartet (1986)
Jean-Claude Risset: Inharmonique, for soprano and tape (1977)
Jean-Claude Risset: Mirages, for six musicians and tape (1978)
Jean-Claude Risset: Songes (1979)
Manuel Rocha Iturbide: Transiciones de Fase, for brass quartet and electronics (1994)
Frederic Rzewski: Instrumental Studies (1977)
Kaija Saariaho: Lonh, for soprano and electronics (1995–96)
Kaija Saariaho: NoaNoa, for flute and electronics (1992)
Karlheinz Stockhausen: Kathinkas Gesang als Luzifers Requiem, version for flute and 6-channel tape (1985)
Marco Stroppa: In cielo, in terra, in mare, radiophonic opera on texts by Adolfo Moriconi (1992)
Jukka Tiensuu: Nemo for ensemble (1992)
Alejandro Viñao: Epitafios, for mixed choir and electronics (1999)
David Wessel: Antony (1977)
David Wessel: Contacts Turbulents, for saxophone and electronics (1986)
Trevor Wishart: VOX-5, an electroacoustic piece based around extended vocal techniques (1986)
James Wood: Mountain Language, for alphorn, cow bells, MIDI keyboard and electronics (1998)
Iannis Xenakis: Psappha, electronic version (1976/1996)
Frank Zappa: Perfect Stranger (1984)
Hans Zender: Lo Shu III, for flute and twenty-four instrumentalists (1979)
Affiliations
IRCAM is part of a consortium with Stanford's Center for Computer Research and Acoustics (CCRMA) and the Center for New Music and Audio Technologies (CNMAT) in Berkeley, California.
See also
, Stockholm
GRIM (), Marseille
SDIF (Sound Description Interchange Format), developed at IRCAM and CNMAT
STEIM (Studio for Electro Instrumental Music), Amsterdam
WORM, Rotterdam studio and venue
List of music software
References
Sources
Further reading
Anderson, Julian. 1989. "Désintégrations." Within liner notes to Tristan Murail. Montaigne MO 782175.
Dearden, Ian. "The Electronic Music of The Mask of Orpheus." Within liner notes to The Mask of Orpheus by Harrison Birtwistle. NMC D050, 1997.
Machover, Todd (ed.). 1984. "Musical Thought at IRCAM". Contemporary Music Review 1, part 1. London: Harwood Academic Publishers. ISSN 0749-4467
Peyser, Joan. 1976. Boulez: Composer, Conductor, Enigma. New York: Schirmer Books.
External links
Official site of IRCAM.fr
Brahms.IRCAM.fr – database of contemporary music
Research institutes in France
Experimental music
Electronic music organizations
Contemporary music organizations
Organizations established in 1970
Renzo Piano buildings
Pierre Boulez
Music organizations based in France | [
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] |
259025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRR | IRR | IRR or Irr may refer to:
Finance
Implied repo rate, in the futures market
Internal rate of return, a profitability metric
Iranian rial (ISO 4217 code), the currency of Iran
Interest rate risk, financial risk from fluctuating interest rates
Organisations
Incident Response Regiment (Australia), an emergency response agency
Institute of Race Relations, a policy institute
Institute for Religious Research, an apologetics organization
Iraqi Republic Railways, a transportation operator
South African Institute of Race Relations, a think tank
Science and technology
Image rejection ratio, a radio metric
Interrupt Request Register, a register used for managing interrupts in programmable interrupt controllers
Internet Routing Registry, a network routing database
Irregular galaxy, a galaxy that does not have a distinct regular shape
Other
Incidence rate ratio, a statistic derived from a Poisson regression model
Individual Ready Reserve, a personnel status of the United States Military
Infusion-related reaction or infusion reaction, a form of systemic inflammatory response syndrome caused by some diseases or drugs
Inner Ring Road (disambiguation)
Inter-rater reliability | [
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259026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Diocese%20of%20Meath | The Diocese of Meath | The Diocese of Meath is a nineteenth-century publication on the history of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Meath from medieval to nineteenth century times, written by one of the Diocese's priests, Dean Cogan, a priest in Navan, the then Diocesan capital.
Published in two volumes in 1862 and 1867, it was an important history of Christianity in Ireland, because Cogan made use of three sources of information:
folklore and memories of people alive in Meath the 1850s and 1860s (covering the period from the Penal Laws to the Great Famine (1845–49)) which were recorded in great detail.
access to the Meath diocese's archives; when the Roman Catholic Bishop of Meath moved from his former seat in Navan to the new cathedral in Mullingar in the early twentieth century (the diocesan seminary, St. Finians, also moved from Navan to Mullingar) the diocesan archives were lost in the process. How the priceless records, many of them by Cogan in his research in the 1860s, were lost remains a mystery;
access to papers relating to the church in Meath in the Irish Public Records Office. The Irish Public Records Office was destroyed by the Irish Republican Army in 1922, in effect destroying one thousand years of records, including most of the records from that source quoted by Cogan.
As a result, Cogan's book details parish histories, information on derelict churches, information on old burial sites where those who died in the Famine were buried, names of priests, details of the Penal Law, and information on the re-appearance of a Roman Catholic clerical structure following the reformation from sources that are no longer available to historians.
References
Volume 2
Volume 3
1862 non-fiction books
1867 non-fiction books
Books about Christianity
Religion in County Meath | [
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] |
259028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPV | NPV | NPV may refer to:
In economics:
Net present value, an economic standard method for evaluating competing long-term projects in capital budgeting
In politics:
National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, an initiative in the United States to elect the presidential candidate with the most votes nationwide
In science:
Negative predictive value, in biostatistics, the proportion of patients with negative test results who are correctly diagnosed
Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus, a virus that infects butterflies and moths
Negative Phase Velocity, an electromagnetic property induced by some exotic optical materials
Other uses:
De Nederlandse Padvinders (Netherlands Pathfinders), a precursor to Scouting Nederland, the national scouting organisation of the Netherlands
Negative pressure ventilator, an iron lung
See also | [
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] |
259036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macomb | Macomb | Macomb is the name of several places in the United States of America:
Macomb, Illinois
Macomb County, Michigan
Macomb Township, Michigan
Macomb, Missouri
Macomb, New York
Macomb's Purchase, New York
Macomb, Oklahoma
See also
McComb (disambiguation) | [
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259041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Blake%20%28tennis%29 | James Blake (tennis) | James Riley Blake (born December 28, 1979) is an American former professional tennis player. He was known for his speed and powerful, flat forehand. During his career, Blake amassed 24 singles finals appearances (winning 10 of them), while his career-high singles ranking was world No. 4. His career highlights included reaching the final of the 2006 Tennis Masters Cup, the semifinals of the 2008 Beijing Olympics (upsetting world No. 1 Roger Federer en route), the quarterfinals of the 2008 Australian Open and 2005 and 2006 US Open, as well as two titles at the Hopman Cup (2003, 2004) and being the American men's singles No. 1. Blake was a key performer for the victorious United States 2007 Davis Cup team, going 2–0 in the championship tie vs. Russia at second singles.
In 2005, Blake was presented with the Comeback Player of the Year award for his remarkable return to the tour. Later, in 2008, Blake was awarded another honor by the ATP, where he was named the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year.
Blake's autobiography, Breaking Back: How I Lost Everything and Won Back My Life, co-written with Andrew Friedman, discussed his comeback after his 2004 season. It was released on July 3. 2007, and debuted at No. 22 on the New York Times Best Seller list.
Blake announced that he would retire from professional tennis after the 2013 US Open, where he suffered a first round singles loss in five sets against Ivo Karlovic and a 6–2, 2–6, 2–6 doubles loss.
Early life and education
Blake was born in Yonkers, New York, to an African American father, Thomas Reynolds Blake, and a British mother, Betty. He has a brother Thomas, who has also been a professional tennis player, and three older half-brothers: Jason, Christopher, and Howard, and a half-sister Michelle.
Blake started playing tennis at the age of five alongside his older brother Thomas. When he was 13, he was diagnosed with severe scoliosis, and for five years as a teenager he was forced to wear a full-length back brace for 18 hours a day, though not while playing tennis.
The Blake family moved to Fairfield, Connecticut when Blake's father's job selling surgical supplies took him from New York to Hartford, Connecticut. Blake attended Fairfield High School, where a schoolmate and childhood friend was future musician John Mayer. Blake was inspired to pursue tennis after hearing his role model Arthur Ashe speak to the Harlem Junior Tennis Program. Brian Barker was his first (and longtime) coach. Blake left Harvard University, where he was a member of the A.D. Club, after his sophomore year to pursue a career in professional tennis.
Career
2001–2004: Making name and breaking neck
2001
At the age of 21, Blake saw his first Davis Cup action in 2001 against India and became the third person of African-American heritage to play for the Davis Cup for the United States (after Arthur Ashe and MaliVai Washington). Ranked no. 120 in the world, Blake accepted a wild card into Cincinnati Masters. He beat a qualifier and Arnaud Clément to reach the round of 16, where he met Patrick Rafter. Blake came close to winning the first set (falling in a tiebreak), and after dropping the second set, Rafter, according to Blake's autobiography, complimented him at the net and boosted his confidence immeasurably by saying, "Now do you believe you can beat someone like me, or even me?" Blake's name became more recognizable worldwide after he pushed the eventual champion Lleyton Hewitt to five sets at the US Open.
2002
In January 2002, Blake won the 2002 USTA Waikoloa Challenger in Hawaii. A month later in Memphis he posted his first win over a top-10 ranked opponent, Tommy Haas, who was then ranked no. 5, and reached the final, losing to Andy Roddick. He reached the quarterfinals at the ATP Masters Series (AMS) event in Rome in May and the final at Newport in July. In August, in Cincinnati, he won his first career ATP Tour title and his first ATP Masters Series title: it came in doubles with Todd Martin, making Blake the first African-American male to win a title of any kind in Cincinnati's 101-year history. He was also the first African-American to reach a final in Cincinnati since 1969, when Arthur Ashe reached the doubles finals with Charlie Pasarell. The next week in Washington, he won his first ATP Tour singles title, beating Andre Agassi in the semifinals and Paradorn Srichaphan in the final. At the US Open, he reached the third round, where he again faced the top-ranked and world number one Lleyton Hewitt for the rematch of the previous year. In an entertaining match Blake was again defeated in five sets.
2003
In 2003, his best results were a quarterfinals appearance at Indian Wells; a round of 16 finish at the Australian Open, Cincinnati, and Miami; a semifinal appearance at San Jose, and a finals appearance at Long Island, where he lost to Srichaphan. Blake was eliminated from the US Open in the 3rd round by Roger Federer.
2004
2004 was a difficult year for Blake. In May, while practicing with Robby Ginepri for the Masters event in Rome, he broke his neck when he slipped on the clay and collided with the net post. Blake fractured his seventh vertebra, but did not sustain any nerve damage and was ultimately able to make a full recovery from the injury. In July, his father died of stomach cancer. At the same time, Blake developed shingles, which temporarily paralyzed half his face and blurred his vision.
2005–2008: Rising to the elite and Top 10 years
2005
Blake's injuries and personal issues caused him to post relatively poor results for the first half of 2005. By April his ranking was 210. He decided to play the Challenger circuit, the "minor leagues" of tennis, in order to regain confidence and get more matches. In May he entered events in Tunica, Mississippi and Forest Hills, New York, and won both. He rejoined the ATP circuit and by August reached the final at the International Series event in Washington, D.C., where he fell to Roddick. He was given a wild card into AMS Cincinnati, drawing Federer in the first round. He then won the Pilot Pen Tennis tournament in New Haven, Connecticut, defeating Feliciano López in the final. After New Haven he was ranked 49.
Blake accepted a wildcard into the US Open where he had a memorable run. After defeating No. 2 Rafael Nadal in the round of 32, Blake beat Tommy Robredo in four sets to reach the quarterfinals where he faced Andre Agassi. The late-evening match is considered one of the greatest classics in the tournament's history. Blake was up two sets and a break in the third when Agassi made a comeback to eventually win in a fifth-set tiebreak. After the match Agassi said, "I wasn't the winner, tennis was". Later in October at the Stockholm Open, Blake won his third ATP tour title, defeating Srichaphan in the final. Blake finished 2005 ranked 22 in the world.
2006
At the beginning of 2006, Blake won the title at Sydney, taking his fourth ATP tour title defeating Russian Igor Andreev in the final. At the Australian Open he was seeded 20th, and despite losing in the third round to Spaniard Tommy Robredo he broke into the Top 20 for the first time in his career. In March he beat Hewitt in the final at Las Vegas for his fifth ATP tour title. At the first AMS event of the year Indian Wells, Blake defeated Robredo in the third round and world No. 2 Nadal in the semifinals, reaching his first career ATP Masters Series singles final, losing in the final to Federer. By reaching the final, Blake became the first African-American man since Arthur Ashe to reach the world's top 10.
At the French Open he defeated Spaniard Nicolás Almagro in four sets in the second round, to become the last remaining American, and then was beaten by Frenchman Gaël Monfils in five sets. Beginning the grass court season at the Stella Artois Championships, he defeated Andy Roddick in the semifinals, losing to Lleyton Hewitt in the final. Ranked No. 5, Blake took part in the International Series at Indianapolis. He won the singles title, defeating Roddick (for the second time in 2006). At the US Open he reached the quarterfinals, losing to top seed and defending champion Roger Federer. In that match Blake won his first ever set against Federer, winning the third set in a tiebreaker 11–9.
In his debut appearance at the Thailand Open in Bangkok, Blake won his seventh singles title, defeating Jarkko Nieminen in the quarterfinals, Marat Safin in the semifinals, and Ivan Ljubičić (for the first time) in the final.
Two weeks later Blake won his fifth title of 2006, defending his 2005 title in Stockholm, defeating Jarkko Nieminen. For the first time, Blake qualified for the Tennis Masters Cup in Shanghai. He went 2–1 in the Gold Group, defeating No. 2 Nadal and No. 3 Nikolay Davydenko, while losing to No. 6 Tommy Robredo. He qualified for the semifinals, beating defending champion David Nalbandian, losing the final to Federer. Blake finished 2006 at a career-high World Number 4 and as the highest-ranked American tennis player.
2007
In 2007 Blake won at the Sydney International for the second consecutive year. However, he then suffered a disappointing loss in the Round of 16 at the Australian Open, losing to tenth seed and eventual finalist Fernando González. In February, Blake made it to the final of the Delray Beach tournament, but lost it to the Belgian Xavier Malisse in three tight sets.
At the 2007 Tennis Channel Open in Las Vegas, as the defending champion, he was involved with a deep controversy. It was one of the several tournaments experimenting with the new round robin format, and Blake had lost his first match to Evgeny Korolev. Korolev lost his other match to Juan Martín del Potro. In order to advance to the quarterfinals, Blake had to defeat Del Potro in straight sets while losing five games or less. This would result in a three-way tie, with Blake losing the fewest games. With Blake leading 6–1, 3–1, Del Potro retired. This eliminated Del Potro from the three-way tie as he failed to complete one of his matches. Korolev then moved on to the next round, breaking the tie as he had defeated Blake in their direct match. Soon after, the organizers overruled the tournament guidelines, giving Blake a place in the quarterfinals. The following morning however, they changed the decision once again and as a result, Korolev re-advanced to the quarterfinals, while Blake was sent away from the tournament. Shortly after this incident, the ATP decided to cancel the round robin format, reverting any tournaments planning a round robin draw to the standard single-elimination draw.
During the summer hardcourt season, he advanced to his second career ATP Masters Series final. At AMS Cincinnati, he beat Alejandro Falla, Nicolas Kiefer, Juan Carlos Ferrero, Sam Querrey and Nikolay Davydenko en route to the final before falling to Roger Federer. He won the singles title at Penn Pilot in New Haven, Connecticut, and reached the final at Los Angeles, losing to Radek Štěpánek in three sets after having three set points in the first set. In the second round of the 2007 US Open, he won his first career five-set match against Fabrice Santoro. Blake made it to the fourth round, where he lost to No. 10 Tommy Haas in five sets, despite having match points in the fifth set. In September Blake and the rest of the US Davis Cup team defeated Sweden to reach the finals against Russia.
Blake lost in the third round of Paris to Richard Gasquet and thus finished outside the top eight players, losing his chance to defend the points he gained as finalist in the 2006 Tennis Masters Cup. In the 2007 Davis Cup finals Blake won his match against Mikhail Youzhny after Andy Roddick had beaten Dmitry Tursunov in the first rubber. The next day Bob and Mike Bryan won the doubles rubber over Igor Andreev and Nikolay Davydenko, sealing the Davis Cup win for the United States. Blake also defeated Tursunov in the last match of the finals to give Team USA 4–1 win.
2008
At the Australian Open, Blake defeated his first round opponent, Chilean Nicolás Massú. He then defeated compatriot Michael Russell. In the third round, he fought back from two sets down to beat French veteran Sébastien Grosjean who had beaten him in each of their three previous meetings. In the fourth round, Blake beat Marin Čilić in three sets to advance to the quarterfinals, his best showing yet down under. In the quarterfinal, Blake faced world No. 1 Roger Federer, and fell in straight sets. Although out of the Australian Open, Blake's ranking jumped back into the Top 10 to No. 9 following his best performance in the tournament yet.
In Delray Beach, Blake made it to the final for the second consecutive year, but fell to No. 244 Kei Nishikori of Japan in three sets in the final. At the 2008 Pacific Life Open, Blake reached the quarter-finals before losing to Rafael Nadal in three sets. They met again in the next tournament at the 2008 Miami Masters also in the quarter-finals, and again Blake lost to Nadal in three sets. Blake then started the clay court season at the River Oaks International tournament in Houston, Texas. In his second ATP final of the year and his first career clay-court final, Blake fell to Spaniard Marcel Granollers Pujol.
In August 2008, Blake represented the United States as one of its three men's singles tennis players in the Beijing Olympics. In the quarterfinals, he gained one of the biggest wins of his career with his first ever win over Roger Federer 6–4, 7–6. At the time, Federer was ranked as the world's No. 1 men's player. His semifinal match was against Fernando González, the Men's Singles bronze medalist at the 2004 Olympics in Athens. Blake had a triple match point in the final set, but would go on to lose 11–9. He then lost the bronze medal match to Serbian Novak Djokovic.
In the US Open, Blake was stretched to a 5 set thriller against American teenager Donald Young in the first round. Blake easily won his second round match after Steve Darcis retired and then lost to friend and fellow American Mardy Fish in the third round in straight sets.
2009–2013: Later years
2009
Blake defeated Frank Dancevic in the first round of the Australian Open. His success continued in the second round after deposing of Frenchman Sébastien de Chaunac in a match laden with spectator noise and bad line calls. Blake went on to face the 18th seed, Igor Andreev, in the third round and beat him. He lost in the fourth round in straight sets to the 2008 runner-up Jo-Wilfried Tsonga.
At the 2009 Estoril Open Blake advanced to his first clay-court final on European soil, after beating second seed and former Estoril Open champion Nikolay Davydenko in a rain-interrupted semi-final that was carried over due to bad light. Blake was defeated by Spain's Albert Montañés later that day in the finals. The 28-year-old Montanes saved two match points at 4–5 in the second set and fought back to beat fourth-seeded Blake in two hours and 14 minutes.
At the Aegon Championships at Queen's Club, Blake defeated Ivan Ljubičić, Sam Querrey, and Mikhail Youzhny to reach the semi-finals. He then reached the final after Andy Roddick retired with an ankle injury in the first set when the score was tied at 4 games all. He then went on to lose in the final to Andy Murray. After being eliminated in the first round of the singles, Blake partnered with compatriot Mardy Fish at the Wimbledon Men's Doubles. The Americans advanced to the semi-finals where they lost to defending champions Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić despite winning the first two sets.
Following a 3rd round loss at the 2009 US Open to Spain's Tommy Robredo, Blake split with longtime coach Brian Barker. He was replaced by Kelly Jones.
2010
At the 2010 Australian Open, Blake lost to fourth seed and US Open champion Juan Martín del Potro in the second round in five sets (8–10 final set). He then missed the clay court season due to a knee injury. Blake returned to action at Wimbledon, where he lost in the first round to Robin Haase, during which Blake accused ESPN commentator and former WTA player Pam Shriver of disrupting play due to her overly loud commentary from the box situated above the court behind him. This led to a verbal exchange between the two during the match. After the match, Blake declared that if his knee problems did not subside he would consider retirement. Blake, who refused to take any anti-inflammatories for his knee, called his performance "embarrassing" and said "I can't beat these guys at 80 percent." Despite these comments, Blake played the US Summer hard court season, and reached the third round of the 2010 US Open, where he lost to eventual finalist Novak Djokovic. Blake finished the year ranked outside the Top 100 for the first time since 2000.
2011-2013
Between the beginning of 2011-2013, Blake remained ranked outside the world's top 50, due to recurring injuries and loss of form. During the three seasons, he reached a single ATP-tour semifinal, at the 2011 Stockholm Open. At the US Open in August 2013, Blake announced his retirement.
Playing style
Blake was primarily an offensive baseliner. Blake was known for possessing one of the most powerful forehands in the game, with a solid transition game, and an effective serve and volley. Blake also possessed extremely quick footwork, although many claimed that he needed to work on changing direction. Blake's reputation as a "shotmaker," combined with potentially high-error flat groundstrokes made his style of play notably flashy, characterized by both a high number of winners and unforced errors. In turn, this made Blake's game somewhat streaky, as evidenced by his playing history.
Equipment and endorsements
Blake worked with Prince to create a new racquet with Prince's O3 technology. However, he did not feel comfortable with this racquet. So, he switched back to the Dunlop Sport Aerogel 200, then the 4D 200, for the 2009 season. He changed to Wilson at the start of the 2010 season, using the new Six.One Tour strung with Luxilon Big Banger Alu Power 16L strings at high tension (60+ pounds). He did not feel comfortable with this racquet either. Therefore, he switched back to Dunlop again. After the US Open of 2010, he began to test out rackets for Head. As August 26, 2011, he announced he will use Donnay rackets as his choice and using a customized Donnay X-Dual Pro. His clothing sponsor is Fila, with whom he started working in 2009 after using Nike for most his career. He has his own clothing line named Thomas Reynolds Collection after his father.
Blake signed an endorsement deal with Evian in 2005 and his contract was extended in 2008.
Personal life
Blake married publicist Emily Snider in Del Mar, California, in 2012. The couple have two daughters.
Blake enjoys golf and basketball, and is a fan of the New York Mets. He was featured on Bravo's second edition of Celebrity Poker Showdown but placed 2nd after losing to Maura Tierney.
Blake was also a red pro on Full Tilt Poker, though he has not been active there since shortly before Black Friday. He appeared in People magazine's Sexiest Man Alive issue. He is good friends with singer/songwriter John Mayer, who also attended Fairfield High School. When Blake was invited by Virginia's Anthem to do a cancer charity game honoring his late father, he invited Mayer, Andy Roddick, and Gavin DeGraw to perform.
2015 NYPD incident
On September 9, 2015, Blake was thrown down to the sidewalk, handcuffed, and arrested by a plainclothes New York City Police Department officer in front of the Grand Hyatt New York after being mistaken for a suspect of interest. The officers were relying on a witness and photo of a suspect that looked similar to Blake: they mistook him for a credit-card fraud suspect staying in the same hotel. Commissioner William Bratton apologized for the mistake and stated the "arrest raised serious questions about [the officer's] actions" but denied allegations of racism. Blake sued, but withdrew his claim, saying he wasn't looking for financial compensation, "on the condition that the city establish a legal fellowship to investigate police misconduct and advocate for victims of brutality".
The violence of the arrest has prompted Blake to take a more active stand on police brutality against minorities. He has requested a meeting with Bratton and New York Mayor Bill de Blasio. He has also written a book, Ways of Grace: Stories of Activism, Adversity, and How Sports Can Bring Us Together, published in June 2017 that details the incident and his shift to activism as a result. Blake was subsequently sued for defamation by the officer that had mistakenly arrested Blake as the book portrayed the officer "as a racist and a goon". The lawsuit was dismissed by a judge in September 2018.
Philanthropy
In 2008 Blake established The James Blake Foundation, which "invests vital seed money at the leading-edge of science: speed up the most promising work, and shortening the time it takes to turn lab discoveries into better treatments for patients." Since 2005, he has hosted Anthem Live!, a charity tennis exhibition and musical event in Virginia and New York City to raise money for cancer research. In July 2008, Blake established the Thomas Blake, Sr. Memorial Research Fund to support cancer research at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. The fund was named in memory of his father, who died from gastric cancer in 2004. Nike and Fila, which sponsored Blake, created T-shirts for Blake's charity, the J-Block program, and proceeds went to the Cancer Research Fund.
As of 2019, the most recent year for which IRS data has been published, Charity Navigator, which evaluates charities, gives the Blake Foundation a failing Encompass Rating Score of 15 out of 100.
Significant finals
Olympic Games
Singles: 1 (1 runner-up)
Year-end championships finals
Singles: 1 (1 runner-up)
Masters 1000 finals
Singles: 2 (2 runners-up)
Doubles: 1 (1 title)
ATP career finals
Singles: 24 (10 titles, 14 runners-up)
Doubles: 10 (7 titles, 3 runners-up)
Team tournaments: 3 (3–0)
Performance timelines
Singles
Doubles
Top 10 wins
References
Further reading
Blake, James; Friedman, Andrew L. (2007). Breaking back : How I lost everything and won back my life. New York: Harper Collins.
External links
James Blake official website
1979 births
Living people
African-American male tennis players
American male tennis players
American people of English descent
Harvard Crimson men's tennis players
Olympic tennis players of the United States
Sportspeople from Fairfield, Connecticut
Sportspeople from Yonkers, New York
Tennis people from Connecticut
Tennis players from Tampa, Florida
Tennis people from New York (state)
Tennis players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Hopman Cup competitors
American autobiographers
Writers from New York (state)
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople | [
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] |
259042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester%20%28disambiguation%29 | Manchester (disambiguation) | Manchester is a city in the northwest of England, historically in Lancashire.
Manchester may also refer to:
Greater Manchester
Greater Manchester Urban Area
Greater Manchester Statutory City Region
Manchester (ancient parish)
Manchester (ancient township)
Manchester (HM Prison), a men's prison ("Strangeways") in Manchester, England
Manchester (UK Parliament constituency), 1654–1660 and 1832–1885
Places
In Australia
County of Manchester, a cadastral unit in South Australia.
In Canada
Alyth/Bonnybrook/Manchester, Calgary, a neighbourhood in Calgary, Alberta
Manchester, Nova Scotia, a small community in Guysborough
In Jamaica
Manchester Parish
In South America
Manchester, Bolivia
Manchester, Suriname
In the United States
Manchester, California, in Mendocino County
Manchester, Monterey County, California, a ghost town near Big Sur
Manchester, Connecticut, a New England town
Manchester (CDP), Connecticut, the urban portion of the town
Manchester, Georgia
Manchester, Illinois
Manchester, Indiana
Manchester, Montgomery County, Indiana
Manchester Township, Dearborn County, Indiana
Manchester, Iowa
Manchester, Kansas
Manchester, Kentucky
Manchester, Maine
Manchester, Maryland
Manchester-by-the-Sea, Massachusetts, often referred to as just "Manchester"
Manchester, Michigan
Manchester, Minnesota
Manchester, Missouri
Manchester, New Hampshire, the largest Manchester in the U.S. and largest city in New Hampshire
Manchester Township, New Jersey
Manchester (town), New York
Manchester (village), New York
Manchester, Ohio
Manchester, Oklahoma
Manchester, Pennsylvania
Manchester (Pittsburgh), a neighborhood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Manchester, South Dakota
Manchester, Tennessee
Manchester, Houston, Texas
Manchester, Vermont
Manchester Center, Vermont
Manchester, Virginia, now part of Richmond
Manchester, Washington
Manchester (community), Green Lake County, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Manchester, Green Lake County, Wisconsin, a town
Manchester, Jackson County, Wisconsin, a town
Education
The University of Manchester, an institution of higher education in England
Manchester University (Indiana), an institution of higher learning in Indiana, USA
The Victoria University of Manchester, a predecessor of the University of Manchester, in existence from 1903 to 2004
Vehicles
Avro 533 Manchester, a twin-engine biplane photo-reconnaissance and bomber aircraft of 1918
Avro Manchester, a twin-engine heavy bomber used by the RAF during World War II
Manchester (barque), a four-masted British barque
HMS Manchester, the name of three ships of the Royal Navy
USS Manchester, the name of two ships of the United States Navy
Transport hubs
Airports
Manchester Airport (MAN), near Manchester, England
Manchester–Boston Regional Airport (MHT), near Manchester, New Hampshire, United States
Manchester Woodford Aerodrome, near Manchester, England, closed in 2011
City Airport Manchester, formerly Manchester Barton Aerodrome, Manchester, England
Bus stations
Manchester station (Los Angeles Metro), United States
Rail stations
Manchester station (MBTA), in Massachusetts, United States
Manchester station group, in England
Manchester Union Station, in New Hampshire, United States, closed in 1967
Music
Manchester (album), an album by Tim Barry
"Manchester" (song), a song by the Beautiful South
"Manchester, England", a song from Hair
Sports
Football (soccer)
Premier League
Manchester City F.C.
Manchester United F.C.
Manchester United (video game series)
Other
Manchester F.C. (disambiguation), several teams
Ice hockey
Manchester Monarchs (AHL), operated 2001–2015 in New Hampshire, United States
Manchester Monarchs (ECHL), operated 2015–2019 in New Hampshire, United States
Manchester Phoenix, operated 2003–2017 in England
Manchester Storm (1995–2002), in England
Manchester Storm (2015–), in England
Other
Manchester Silkworms, a collegiate baseball team in Connecticut, United States
Manchester Rugby Club, in England
Science and technology
Manchester capitalism, a capitalist intellectual movement of the 19th century, pioneered by John Stuart Mill and Adam Smith, amongst others, and also known as the "Manchester school" of economics
The Manchester School, an academic journal of economics
Manchester cloth, also known as Corduroy
Manchester code, an electronic transmission method used for communication
Manchester Mark 1, an early British computer
Manchester school (anthropology), a school of thought in anthropology
Manchester score, a system of assessing small-cell lung cancer
Manchester Ship Canal
Manchester, the name of a variant of the Athlon 64 X2 CPU
People
Groups
Manchester Regiment, also The Manchesters, a British Army regiment
Manchester Pals, World War I Army regiments formed by Lord Kitchener
Surname
Devon Manchester (born 1989), New Zealand field hockey player
Doug Manchester (born 1942), American real estate developer and newspaper owner
Glen Manchester (born 1965), English innovator and entrepreneur
Melissa Manchester (born 1951), American singer-songwriter
Roy C. Manchester (1887–1975), American Boy Scout executive
Susan Manchester (born 1987), American politician in Ohio
Tre Manchester (born 1992), American writer, director, and producer
William Manchester (1922–2004), American historian and biographer
Title
Duke of Manchester or Earl of Manchester, a title of the Peerage of the United Kingdom from 1626 to date
Other
"Manchester" (The West Wing), two-part episodes of the show
Manchester Terrier, a breed of dog
Manchester Arena bombing
Manchester, a term used in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa for bedding and linens
See also
Manchester High School (disambiguation)
Manchester school (disambiguation)
Manchester Township (disambiguation)
Madchester (musical genre) | [
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259052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvern | Malvern | Malvern or Malverne may refer to:
Places
Australia
Malvern, South Australia, a suburb of Adelaide
Malvern, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne
City of Malvern, a former local government area near Melbourne
Electoral district of Malvern, an electoral district in Victoria
England
Malvern, Worcestershire, a spa town and civil parish
Great Malvern, the central part of Malvern
Little Malvern, a village and civil parish south of Malvern
Malvern Hills, a ridge of hills on the boundary of Herefordshire and Worcestershire
Malvern Hills District, the governance of the Malverns and surrounding towns
Malvern Link, a suburb of Malvern
Malvern Wells, a suburb and civil parish south of Malvern
North Malvern, an area of Malvern
West Malvern, a suburb and civil parish west of Malvern
United States
Malvern, Alabama, a town
Malvern, Arkansas, a city
Malvern, Illinois, an unincorporated community in Whiteside County, Illinois
Malvern, Iowa, a city
Malverne, New York, a village
Malvern, Ohio, a village
Malvern, Pennsylvania, a borough
Malvern, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
Elsewhere
Malvern, Barbados, a town in the parish of Saint Joseph
Malvern, Jamaica, a village in the parish of Saint Elizabeth
Malvern, Gauteng, a suburb of Johannesburg, South Africa
Malvern, New Zealand, a village now called Sheffield
Malvern, Toronto, a neighbourhood in Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Education
Malvern College, a coeducational independent school in Malvern, Worcestershire, England
Malvern College Egypt, a British international school in Cairo, Egypt
Malvern Collegiate Institute, a high school in Toronto, Canada
Malvern High School (disambiguation)
Malvern Preparatory School, an independent Catholic middle and high school for boys in Pennsylvania, US
Other uses
Malvern (surname), a surname
Malvern (Charlottesville, Virginia), a historic home and farm in the US
Malvern Instruments, a manufacturer and supplier of laboratory analytical instruments
USS Malvern, the name of four US Navy ships
Viscount Malvern, a title in the Peerage of the UK
See also
Malvern Festival (disambiguation)
Malvern Water (bottled water)
Malvern station (disambiguation), stations with the name | [
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259056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary%20key | Primary key | In the relational model of databases, a primary key is a specific choice of a minimal set of attributes (columns) that uniquely specify a tuple (row) in a relation (table). Informally, a primary key is "which attributes identify a record," and in simple cases constitute a single attribute: a unique ID. More formally, a primary key is a choice of candidate key (a minimal superkey); any other candidate key is an alternate key.
A primary key may consist of real-world observables, in which case it is called a natural key, while an attribute created to function as a key and not used for identification outside the database is called a surrogate key. For example, for a database of people (of a given nationality), time and location of birth could be a natural key. National identification number is another example of an attribute that may be used as a natural key.
History
Although mainly used today in the relational database context, the term "primary key" pre-dates the relational model and is also used in other database models. Charles Bachman, in his definition of the navigational database, is the first person to define primary keys.
Design
In relational database terms, a primary key does not differ in form or function from a key that isn't primary. In practice, various motivations may determine the choice of any one key as primary over another. The designation of a primary key may indicate the "preferred" identifier for data in the table, or that the primary key is to be used for foreign key references from other tables or it may indicate some other technical rather than semantic feature of the table. Some languages and software have special syntax features that can be used to identify a primary key as such (e.g. the PRIMARY KEY constraint in SQL).
The relational model, as expressed through relational calculus and relational algebra, does not distinguish between primary keys and other kinds of keys. Primary keys were added to the SQL standard mainly as a convenience to the application programmer.
Defining primary keys in SQL
Primary keys are defined in the ISO SQL Standard, through the PRIMARY KEY constraint. The syntax to add such a constraint to an existing table is defined in SQL:2003 like this:
ALTER TABLE <table identifier>
ADD [ CONSTRAINT <constraint identifier> ]
PRIMARY KEY ( <column name> [ {, <column name> }... ] )
The primary key can also be specified directly during table creation. In the SQL Standard, primary keys may consist of one or multiple columns. Each column participating in the primary key is implicitly defined as NOT NULL. Note that some RDBMS require explicitly marking primary key columns as NOT NULL.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
...
)
If the primary key consists only of a single column, the column can be marked as such using the following syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name (
id_col INT PRIMARY KEY,
col2 CHARACTER VARYING(20),
...
)
Surrogate keys
In some circumstances the natural key that uniquely identifies a tuple in a relation may be cumbersome to use for software development. For example, it may involve multiple columns or large text fields. In such cases, a surrogate key can be used instead as the primary key. In other situations there may be more than one candidate key for a relation, and no candidate key is obviously preferred. A surrogate key may be used as the primary key to avoid giving one candidate key artificial primacy over the others.
Since primary keys exist primarily as a convenience to the programmer, surrogate primary keys are often used, in many cases exclusively, in database application design.
Due to the popularity of surrogate primary keys, many developers and in some cases even theoreticians have come to regard surrogate primary keys as an inalienable part of the relational data model. This is largely due to a migration of principles from the object-oriented programming model to the relational model, creating the hybrid object-relational model. In the ORM like active record pattern, these additional restrictions are placed on primary keys:
Primary keys should be immutable, that is, never changed or re-used; they should be deleted along with the associated record.
Primary keys should be anonymous integer or numeric identifiers.
However, neither of these restrictions is part of the relational model or any SQL standard. Due diligence should be applied when deciding on the immutability of primary key values during database and application design. Some database systems even imply that values in primary key columns cannot be changed using the UPDATE SQL statement.
Alternate key
Typically, one candidate key is chosen as the primary key. Other candidate keys become alternate keys, each of which may have a UNIQUE constraint assigned to it in order to prevent duplicates (a duplicate entry is not valid in a unique column).
Alternate keys may be used like the primary key when doing a single-table select or when filtering in a where clause, but are not typically used to join multiple tables.
See also
Natural key
Superkey
Unique key
Candidate key
Relational database
Notes
References
Database management systems
Data modeling | [
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259059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eichst%C3%A4tt%20%28district%29 | Eichstätt (district) | Eichstätt is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the south and clockwise) the districts of Neuburg-Schrobenhausen, Donau-Ries, Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen, Roth, Neumarkt, Kelheim and Pfaffenhofen, and by the city of Ingolstadt.
History
The district of Eichstätt in its present form was established in 1972 by merging the former district of Eichstätt with parts of the dissolved districts of Ingolstadt, Beilngries, Riedenburg and Hilpoltstein. The city of Eichstätt lost its status as a district-free city and became the capital of the new district.
Today the Eichstätt district has powerful economic structures. The rate of jobless people is only 1.2% (June 2011).
Geography
The district is located in the southern part of the Frankish Alb. 80% of the district are situated in the Altmühltal Nature Park. In the southeast the Danube forms a short part of the border.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms displays:
a torch, symbolising the industrial area within the metropolitan area of Ingolstadt
a crosier, symbolising the bishopric of Eichstätt
an antler, symbolising the medieval county of Hirschberg (German Hirsch = "deer")
the blue and white checkered pattern of Bavaria
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Altmühltal Nature Park (German, English)
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259060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantua%20%28disambiguation%29 | Mantua (disambiguation) | Mantua is the English form of the name of the city in Italy whose Italian name is Mantova.
Mantua may also refer to:
Places
United States
Mantua, Alabama, a hamlet in Greene County, Alabama
Mantua, a location in Monroe County, Iowa
Mantua, a village in Baltimore County, Maryland
Mantua Township, New Jersey, in Gloucester County
Mantua Creek, a stream in the above township
Mantua Township, Portage County, Ohio, a township in Ohio adjacent to Mantua, Ohio
Mantua, Ohio, a village in Portage County adjacent to Mantua Township, Portage County, Ohio
Mantua, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a neighborhood in the West Philadelphia section
Mantua, Utah, a town in eastern Box Elder County
Mantua, Virginia, a census-designated place in Fairfax County
Elsewhere
Mantua, Cuba, a municipality and city in the Pinar del Río Province
Mantua, Nova Scotia, an unincorporated community in West Hants, Nova Scotia, Canada
Other uses
Mantua (clothing), a style of women's dress of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
Mantua (Kimberley Hall), a 17th-century complete European women's costume
Mantua (moth), a genus of moths in the family Tortricidae | [
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259062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%20Duncan%20%28writer%29 | Dave Duncan (writer) | David John Duncan (30 June 1933 – 29 October 2018) was an award-winning Scottish Canadian fantasy and science fiction author.
Biography
Duncan was born in Newport-on-Tay, Scotland and was educated at the High School of Dundee before studying geology at the University of St Andrews. After graduating in 1955, he moved to Calgary, Alberta, becoming a Canadian citizen in 1960. He pursued a career as a geologist in the petroleum industry for nearly three decades before he started writing science fiction and fantasy novels. He made his first sale (A Rose Red City) two years later in 1986 at the age of 53, just two weeks after his 31-year career as a geologist came to an end due to a slump in the oil business, at which point he switched to full-time writing.
Duncan lived in Victoria, British Columbia. He was married to his wife, Janet, in 1959, and had one son, two daughters, and four grandchildren. He had one brother, Michael, who was an agriculturist.
Duncan died on 29 October 2018 at the age of 85.
Writing career
Duncan was a prolific writer and penned over fifty books.
His sixth book, West of January, won the 1990 Aurora award, an award he would win again in 2007 for Children of Chaos.
He was a member of SF Canada and in 2015 he was inducted into the Canadian Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame.
Although Duncan usually wrote under his own name, some of his early books were published under the pseudonyms Ken Hood and Sarah B. Franklin.
Bibliography
The Seventh Sword
A dying young man named Wallie Smith is transferred from Earth into the body of a master swordsman in a pre-technological world by its gods for their own purposes.
The Reluctant Swordsman (1988),
The Coming of Wisdom (1988),
The Destiny of the Sword (1988),
The Death of Nnanji (2012),
Pandemia
A Man of His Word
Magic Casement (1990),
Faery Lands Forlorn (1991),
Perilous Seas (1991),
Emperor and Clown (1992),
As mentioned in the forewords, these titles are based on an excerpt from the 1819 poem "Ode to a Nightingale" by John Keats.
The voice I hear this passing night was heard
In ancient days by emperor and clown:
Perhaps the self-same song that found a path
Through the sad heart of Ruth, when sick for home,
She stood in tears amid the alien corn;
The same that oft-times hath
Charm'd magic casements, opening on the foam
Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn.
A Handful of Men
The Cutting Edge (1992),
Upland Outlaws (1993),
The Stricken Field (1993),
The Living God (1994),
Omar
The Reaver Road (1992),
The Hunters' Haunt (1995),
The Great Game
Past Imperative (1995),
Present Tense (1996),
Future Indefinite (1997),
The Years of Longdirk
Published using the pseudonym Ken Hood:
Demon Sword (1995),
Demon Rider (1997),
Demon Knight (1998),
The King's Blades
Tales of the King's Blades
The Gilded Chain (1998),
Lord of the Fire Lands (1999),
Sky of Swords (2000),
Chronicles of the King's Blades
Paragon Lost (2002),
Impossible Odds (2003),
The Jaguar Knights (2004),
One Velvet Glove (2017),
The Ethical Swordsman (2019),
The King's Daggers
A series of young adult books set in the "King's Blades" world:
Sir Stalwart (1999),
The Crooked House (2000),
Silvercloak (2001),
Omnibus edition of all three is titled The Monster War,
Dodec
Children of Chaos (2006),
Mother of Lies (2007),
Nostradamus
The Alchemist's Apprentice (2007),
The Alchemist's Code (2008),
The Alchemist's Pursuit (2009),
Brothers Magnus
Speak to the Devil (2010),
When the Saints (2011),
The Starfolk
King of Swords (2013),
Queen of Stars (2014),
Ivor of Glenbroch
A series of young adult short stories:
The Runner and the Wizard (2013),
The Runner and the Saint (2014),
The Runner and the Kelpie (2014),
Omnibus edition of all three is titled The Adventures of Ivor,
The Enchanter General
Ironfoot (2017)
Trial by Treason (2018)
Merlin Redux (2019)
Standalone novels
A Rose-Red City (1987),
Shadow (1987),
West of January (1989),
Strings (1990),
Hero! (1991),
The Cursed (1995),
Daughter of Troy (1998), (as Sarah B. Franklin),
Ill Met in the Arena (August 2008),
Pock's World (October 2010),
Against the Light (January 2012),
Wildcatter (August 2012),
The Eye of Strife (April 2015),
Irona 700 (August 2015),
Eocene Station (August 2016),
Portal of a Thousand Worlds (February 2017),
Pillar of Darkness (January 2019),
References
External links
1933 births
2018 deaths
People educated at the High School of Dundee
Alumni of the University of St Andrews
Scottish fantasy writers
Canadian fantasy writers
Scottish emigrants to Canada
Scottish science fiction writers
Canadian science fiction writers
Writers from Victoria, British Columbia
British male novelists | [
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259063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jia%20Qinglin | Jia Qinglin | Jia Qinglin (; born 13 March 1940) is a retired senior leader of the People's Republic of China and of its ruling Communist Party. He was a member of the Politburo Standing Committee, the party's highest ruling organ, between 2002 and 2012, and Chairman of the National Committee of the People's Political Consultative Conference between 2003 and 2013. Jia's functions as the head of China's consultative legislative body were largely ceremonial in nature.
Jia, an engineer by trade, began his political career in Fujian in 1985. There, he rose steadily through the ranks and led the province during the Yuanhua scandal. In 1996, Jia was transferred to become mayor, then party chief of Beijing. Largely due to his patronage relationship with then General Secretary Jiang Zemin, Jia was promoted to the Politburo in 1997, and remained a mainstay figure in China's political elite for the next fifteen years. He retired in 2013.
Political career
Jia Qinglin was born in March 13. 1940 in rural Jiaohe County (now Botou), Hebei, to an ordinary family of farmers. Owing to his academic ability, he was admitted to the Shijiazhuang Industrial Management School and majored in industrial enterprise planning. Starting in 1958, he began studying electrical motor and appliance design and manufacturing at the Hebei Institute of Technology (now Hebei University of Technology). After graduating in 1962, he was assigned a technician position at the First Machine-Building Ministry and became involved in the Communist Youth League.
During the Cultural Revolution, Jia joined his educated contemporaries to perform manual labor at the May 7 Cadre School at the First Machine Building Ministry in Fengxin County, Jiangxi Province. In 1971, he began work at the Policy Research Office of the First Machine-Building Industry Ministry. In 1973, he was promoted to chief of the product management bureau of the First Ministry of Machine-building Industry. In 1978, he was named general manager of the China National Machinery and Equipment Import and Export Corporation. In 1983, he became director of Taiyuan Heavy Machinery Plant and its party secretary.
As part of wider national efforts by the Communist Party to make officials across the country more youthful and educated, in 1985, Jia made his foray into regional politics, being admitted to the Fujian provincial party standing committee and serving as deputy party secretary. He later also took on the concurrent role as head of party organization in Fujian. In 1990, he was promoted to acting governor, confirmed in 1991. In 1993, Jia was promoted to Communist Party Secretary of Fujian, the top office in the coastal province.
Sometime during the 1990s, Jia gained the confidence of then-General Secretary Jiang Zemin, with whom he developed a patron-client relationship. Jia was transferred to Beijing in 1996 to serve as mayor, and in 1997 was promoted to the position of party secretary, helping Jiang consolidate the city's political landscape after Chen Xitong was ousted on corruption charges. As Beijing party chief, Jia became a member of the Communist Party's ruling Politburo. He also came onto the national and international spotlight during the 50th Anniversary celebrations of the People's Republic of China as the event's master of ceremonies, reading prepared lines atop the Tiananmen Gate to millions of onlookers and television audiences.
At the national level
Because of his high local position and his ties to Jiang, in November 2002 Jia was named to the 16th Politburo Standing Committee (PSC) of the Communist Party of China. Although his ceremonial role as the Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, a quasi-consultative upper house in China's political system, made him fourth in the official order of precedence, it was widely accepted that the position carried very little power, perhaps the least powerful in the nine PSC members. Jia Qinglin was the most senior Chinese official to attend the funeral of Zhao Ziyang. With the transition of authority to Hu Jintao, Jia appeared to have been given the job of coordinating policy on Taiwan.
In 2007, Jia was named again to the 17th Politburo Standing Committee during the 17th Party Congress. Prior to the congress, it was speculated that Jia may be thrown out of the running due to his tainted record as the party chief of Fujian during the Yuanhua scandal. However, largely owing to the backing of Jiang Zemin, Jia was able to remain on the body for one more term.
In 2009, a Spanish court indicted Jia and four other officials of genocide against Falun Gong.
Jia exited from the Politburo Standing Committee in 2012 after reaching retirement age. He retired from politics for good in March 2013, when he relinquished his CPPCC post on schedule to Yu Zhengsheng. Jia continued to make public appearances in retirement. On 5 September 2015, Jia appeared at the China Victory Day Parade. On 21 December 2015, Jia visited Liancheng County in Fujian. In June 2016, Jia attended a science and innovation exhibition at the Beijing Exhibition Center. In October 2016, Jia showed up at the World Robot Conference in Beijing. On 17 May 2017, Jia met with Hebei University of Technology alumni at Zhongnanhai.
The financial dealings of Jia's granddaughter Jasmine Li () and son-in-law Li Pak-tam were reported on by media during the Panama Papers scandal; Jasmine had been featured on Chinese tabloids for appearing at a Hotel de Crillon debutante ball in Paris in 2009 wearing a Carolina Herrera designer gown.
See also
Politics of the People's Republic of China
Shanghai clique
References
External links
Jia Qinglin biography @ China Vitae
1940 births
Living people
Governors of Fujian
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Hebei
Mayors of Beijing
Politicians from Cangzhou
Hebei University of Technology alumni
People's Republic of China politicians from Hebei
Chairpersons of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
Delegates to the 8th National People's Congress
Delegates to the 9th National People's Congress
Delegates to the 10th National People's Congress
Delegates to the 11th National People's Congress
Members of the 17th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 16th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 15th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
People from Botou | [
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259065 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20key | Foreign key | A foreign key is a set of attributes in a table that refers to the primary key of another table. The foreign key links these two tables. Another way to put it: In the context of relational databases, a foreign key is a set of attributes subject to a certain kind of inclusion dependency constraints, specifically a constraint that the tuples consisting of the foreign key attributes in one relation, R, must also exist in some other (not necessarily distinct) relation, S, and furthermore that those attributes must also be a candidate key in S. In simpler words, a foreign key is a set of attributes that references a candidate key. For example, a table called TEAM may have an attribute, MEMBER_NAME, which is a foreign key referencing a candidate key, PERSON_NAME, in the PERSON table. Since MEMBER_NAME is a foreign key, any value existing as the name of a member in TEAM must also exist as a person's name in the PERSON table; in other words, every member of a TEAM is also a PERSON.
Summary
The table containing the foreign key is called the child table, and the table containing the candidate key is called the referenced or parent table. In database relational modeling and implementation, a candidate key is a set of zero or more attributes, the values of which are guaranteed to be unique for each tuple (row) in a relation. The value or combination of values of candidate key attributes for any tuple cannot be duplicated for any other tuple in that relation.
Since the purpose of the foreign key is to identify a particular row of referenced table, it is generally required that the foreign key is equal to the candidate key in some row of the primary table, or else have no value (the NULL value.). This rule is called a referential integrity constraint between the two tables.
Because violations of these constraints can be the source of many database problems, most database management systems provide mechanisms to ensure that every non-null foreign key corresponds to a row of the referenced table.
For example, consider a database with two tables: a CUSTOMER table that includes all customer data and an ORDER table that includes all customer orders. Suppose the business requires that each order must refer to a single customer. To reflect this in the database, a foreign key column is added to the ORDER table (e.g., CUSTOMERID), which references the primary key of CUSTOMER (e.g. ID). Because the primary key of a table must be unique, and because CUSTOMERID only contains values from that primary key field, we may assume that, when it has a value, CUSTOMERID will identify the particular customer which placed the order. However, this can no longer be assumed if the ORDER table is not kept up to date when rows of the CUSTOMER table are deleted or the ID column altered, and working with these tables may become more difficult. Many real world databases work around this problem by 'inactivating' rather than physically deleting master table foreign keys, or by complex update programs that modify all references to a foreign key when a change is needed.
Foreign keys play an essential role in database design. One important part of database design is making sure that relationships between real-world entities are reflected in the database by references, using foreign keys to refer from one table to another.
Another important part of database design is database normalization, in which tables are broken apart and foreign keys make it possible for them to be reconstructed.
Multiple rows in the referencing (or child) table may refer to the same row in the referenced (or parent) table. In this case, the relationship between the two tables is called a one to many relationship between the referencing table and the referenced table.
In addition, the child and parent table may, in fact, be the same table, i.e. the foreign key refers back to the same table. Such a foreign key is known in SQL:2003 as a self-referencing or recursive foreign key. In database management systems, this is often accomplished by linking a first and second reference to the same table.
A table may have multiple foreign keys, and each foreign key can have a different parent table. Each foreign key is enforced independently by the database system. Therefore, cascading relationships between tables can be established using foreign keys.
A foreign key is defined as an attribute or set of attributes in a relation whose values match a primary key in another relation. The syntax to add such a constraint to an existing table is defined in SQL:2003 as shown below. Omitting the column list in the REFERENCES clause implies that the foreign key shall reference the primary key of the referenced table.
Likewise, foreign keys can be defined as part of the CREATE TABLE SQL statement.
CREATE TABLE child_table (
col1 INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
col2 CHARACTER VARYING(20),
col3 INTEGER,
col4 INTEGER,
FOREIGN KEY(col3, col4) REFERENCES parent_table(col1, col2) ON DELETE CASCADE
)
If the foreign key is a single column only, the column can be marked as such using the following syntax:
CREATE TABLE child_table (
col1 INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
col2 CHARACTER VARYING(20),
col3 INTEGER,
col4 INTEGER REFERENCES parent_table(col1) ON DELETE CASCADE
)
Foreign keys can be defined with a stored procedure statement.
sp_foreignkey child_table, parent_table, col3, col4
child_table: the name of the table or view that contains the foreign key to be defined.
parent_table: the name of the table or view that has the primary key to which the foreign key applies. The primary key must already be defined.
col3 and col4: the name of the columns that make up the foreign key. The foreign key must have at least one column and at most eight columns.
Referential actions
Because the database management system enforces referential constraints, it must ensure data integrity if rows in a referenced table are to be deleted (or updated). If dependent rows in referencing tables still exist, those references have to be considered. SQL:2003 specifies 5 different referential actions that shall take place in such occurrences:
CASCADE
RESTRICT
NO ACTION
SET NULL
SET DEFAULT
CASCADE
Whenever rows in the parent (referenced) table are deleted (or updated), the respective rows of the child (referencing) table with a matching foreign key column will be deleted (or updated) as well. This is called a cascade delete (or update).
RESTRICT
A value cannot be updated or deleted when a row exists in a referencing or child table that references the value in the referenced table.
Similarly, a row cannot be deleted as long as there is a reference to it from a referencing or child table.
To understand RESTRICT (and CASCADE) better, it may be helpful to notice the following difference, which might not be immediately clear. The referential action CASCADE modifies the "behavior" of the (child) table itself where the word CASCADE is used. For example, ON DELETE CASCADE effectively says "When the referenced row is deleted from the other table (master table), then delete also from me". However, the referential action RESTRICT modifies the "behavior" of the master table, not the child table, although the word RESTRICT appears in the child table and not in the master table! So, ON DELETE RESTRICT effectively says: "When someone tries to delete the row from the other table (master table), prevent deletion from that other table (and of course, also don't delete from me, but that's not the main point here)."
RESTRICT is not supported by Microsoft SQL 2012 and earlier.
NO ACTION
NO ACTION and RESTRICT are very much alike. The main difference between NO ACTION and RESTRICT is that with NO ACTION the referential integrity check is done after trying to alter the table. RESTRICT does the check before trying to execute the UPDATE or DELETE statement. Both referential actions act the same if the referential integrity check fails: the UPDATE or DELETE statement will result in an error.
In other words, when an UPDATE or DELETE statement is executed on the referenced table using the referential action NO ACTION, the DBMS verifies at the end of the statement execution that none of the referential relationships are violated. This is different from RESTRICT, which assumes at the outset that the operation will violate the constraint. Using NO ACTION, the triggers or the semantics of the statement itself may yield an end state in which no foreign key relationships are violated by the time the constraint is finally checked, thus allowing the statement to complete successfully.
SET NULL, SET DEFAULT
In general, the action taken by the DBMS for SET NULL or SET DEFAULT is the same for both ON DELETE or ON UPDATE: the value of the affected referencing attributes is changed to NULL for SET NULL, and to the specified default value for SET DEFAULT.
Triggers
Referential actions are generally implemented as implied triggers (i.e. triggers with system-generated names, often hidden.) As such, they are subject to the same limitations as user-defined triggers, and their order of execution relative to other triggers may need to be considered; in some cases it may become necessary to replace the referential action with its equivalent user-defined trigger to ensure proper execution order, or to work around mutating-table limitations.
Another important limitation appears with transaction isolation: your changes to a row may not be able to fully cascade because the row is referenced by data your transaction cannot "see", and therefore cannot cascade onto. An example: while your transaction is attempting to renumber a customer account, a simultaneous transaction is attempting to create a new invoice for that same customer; while a CASCADE rule may fix all the invoice rows your transaction can see to keep them consistent with the renumbered customer row, it won't reach into another transaction to fix the data there; because the database cannot guarantee consistent data when the two transactions commit, one of them will be forced to roll back (often on a first-come-first-served basis.)
CREATE TABLE account (acct_num INT, amount DECIMAL(10,2));
CREATE TRIGGER ins_sum BEFORE INSERT ON account
FOR EACH ROW SET @sum = @sum + NEW.amount;
Example
As a first example to illustrate foreign keys, suppose an accounts database has a table with invoices and each invoice is associated with a particular supplier. Supplier details (such as name and address) are kept in a separate table; each supplier is given a 'supplier number' to identify it. Each invoice record has an attribute containing the supplier number for that invoice. Then, the 'supplier number' is the primary key in the Supplier table. The foreign key in the Invoice table points to that primary key. The relational schema is the following. Primary keys are marked in bold, and foreign keys are marked in italics.
Supplier (SupplierNumber, Name, Address)
Invoice (InvoiceNumber, Text, SupplierNumber)
The corresponding Data Definition Language statement is as follows.
CREATE TABLE Supplier (
SupplierNumber INTEGER NOT NULL,
Name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
Address VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT supplier_pk PRIMARY KEY(SupplierNumber),
CONSTRAINT number_value CHECK(SupplierNumber > 0)
)
CREATE TABLE Invoice (
InvoiceNumber INTEGER NOT NULL,
Text VARCHAR(4096),
SupplierNumber INTEGER NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT invoice_pk PRIMARY KEY(InvoiceNumber),
CONSTRAINT inumber_value CHECK (InvoiceNumber > 0),
CONSTRAINT supplier_fk
FOREIGN KEY(SupplierNumber) REFERENCES Supplier(SupplierNumber)
ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE RESTRICT
)
See also
Candidate key
Compound key
Superkey
Junction table
References
External links
SQL-99 Foreign Keys
PostgreSQL Foreign Keys
MySQL Foreign Keys
FirebirdSQL primary Keys
SQLite support for Foreign Keys
Microsoft SQL 2012 table_constraint (Transact-SQL)
Data modeling
Databases
SQL
Articles with example SQL code
de:Schlüssel (Datenbank)#Fremdschlüssel
no:Nøkkel (database)#Fremmednøkkel
zh:关系键#外键 | [
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259067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeng%20Qinghong | Zeng Qinghong | Zeng Qinghong (born 30 July 1939) is a retired Chinese politician. He was a member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, China's highest leadership council, and top-ranked member of the Secretariat of the Central Committee between 2002 and 2007. He also served as the Vice-President of the People's Republic of China from 2003 to 2008.
During the 1990s, Zeng was a close ally of then-Party general secretary Jiang Zemin, and was instrumental in consolidating Jiang's power. For years, Zeng was the primary force behind the party's organization and personnel.
Early life
Zeng was born to a family of Hakka background in Ji'an, Jiangxi province, in July 1939. He was the son of Zeng Shan, a communist revolutionary and later Minister of the Interior, and Deng Liujin (), a notable female participant of the Long March. Zeng was the eldest of five children. He graduated from Beijing 101 Middle School and the Automatic Control Department at the Beijing Institute of Technology. Zeng was an engineer, a specialist in automatic control systems. He joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in April 1960. Due to the revolutionary heritage of his father, Zeng was seen as a member of the so-called "Crown Prince Party", the descendants of veteran revolutionaries.
Zeng spent the early part of his career as a technician in the military defense industry in Beijing. He was sent down to do manual labor on People's Liberation Army bases in Hunan and Guangdong during the Cultural Revolution. With the opening of the reform era, Zeng joined the State Development and Reform Commission in 1979 and then held a series of management positions in the state petroleum sector, including a series of foreign liaison positions with the China National Offshore Oil Corporation.
Climbing the ranks
In 1984, Zeng began working for the Shanghai municipal government, where he became a key ally of then-Party Committee Secretary Jiang Zemin. When Jiang was elevated to General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in national leadership re-shuffle following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, he brought Zeng Qinghong along as his adviser.
As the deputy chief of the General Office of the Chinese Communist Party from 1989 to 1993, Zeng guided Jiang, an outsider to national politics, through the inner workings of the party, military and bureaucratic structure in Beijing. He promoted Jiang's leadership and thinking, broadened Jiang's network, and became Jiang's right-hand-man. Over the 1990s, Zeng consolidated control of party organs responsible for the appointment of cadres to important political positions. As head of the party's Organization Department from 1999 to 2002, Zeng strengthened Jiang's position by promoting members of the Jiang's "Shanghai clique" to leading central and regional posts. He also helped propagate Jiang's guiding political philosophy known as the "Three Represents" inside the party.
Over the next decade, he acquired a reputation as Jiang's 'hatchet man' against rivals. In 1992 he supposedly helped Jiang remove President Yang Shangkun and elder PLA General Yang Baibing, who threatened Jiang's support within the military. Then, he used an anti-corruption campaign to orchestrate the downfall of Beijing party chief and Jiang's foe Chen Xitong. Because he was seen to represent highly partisan interests, many of Jiang's factional opponents were said to be highly resistant to Zeng joining the Politburo as a full member for years. However, Jiang made it clear that a 'pre-condition' for his stepping down at the 16th Party Congress was for Zeng to become a member of the elite Politburo Standing Committee.
Politburo Standing Committee
At the 16th Party Congress held in 2002, Zeng became a member of the 16th Central Committee, a member of its Politburo and of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC), the Party's central decision-making body, as well as serving as the executive secretary of the Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party, responsible for party administrative affairs and policy coordination.
During his term in the PSC, although he was formally ranked fifth, Zeng was seen as a 'power broker' in the party, believed to possess power that was second only to General secretary Hu Jintao. Initially seen as a rival to general secretary Hu Jintao, Zeng was obliged to show a willingness to work towards consensus with the old guard following Jiang's semi-retirement.
On 6 June 2003, Zeng issued an order "not to play or sing 'The Internationale' in any provincial, city or county level party or party member meetings." The move was characterized as distancing China from orthodox communist doctrine.
Although Jiang stepped down from the PSC to make way for a younger "fourth generation" of leadership led by Hu Jintao, Jiang continued to wield significant influence on the new group of leaders, particularly through Zeng. Due in large measure to Zeng's efforts, six out of the nine new members of the Standing Committee, Wu Bangguo, Jia Qinglin, Huang Ju, Li Changchun, Luo Gan, and Zeng himself, were linked to Jiang's "Shanghai Clique" and considered his allies.
As Jiang Zemin reached the end of his term, observers speculated that Jiang may well have preferred Zeng Qinghong over Hu Jintao as his successor. But Hu prevailed in succeeding Jiang, ostensibly because Hu was 'handpicked' by former leader Deng Xiaoping. Zeng became vice-president in March 2003 at the National People's Congress held that year. During the SARS outbreak, Hu and Premier Wen Jiabao took very strong and assertive action while Zeng and other Jiang loyalists receded to the background. Zeng was also initially expected to succeed Hu as Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission as a condition of Jiang's resignation from the chairmanship in favor of Hu. However, when Jiang stepped down on 19 September 2004, Xu Caihou, and not Zeng, became vice-chairman.
Shifting loyalties
Although initially seen as a Jiang loyalist, observers characterized Zeng as much more sophisticated and shrewd and possessing more political savvy compared to his former boss Jiang. In addition, Zeng was said to differ with Jiang's "Shanghai Clique" on policy preferences. Zeng was an important figure within the highest ranks of party leadership. He was said to be a crucial player in pushing Jiang's move towards full retirement in 2004, when Jiang relinquished his final title, Chairman of the Central Military Commission. Observers saw the push for Jiang's retirement as indicating consensus between Zeng and Hu.
In the following years, Zeng emerged as a kingmaker-style figure, and a 'point-man' for Hu to manage crises situations. After the death of Zhao Ziyang, the former party General Secretary who lost power following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, Zeng worked as the intermediary between the Zhao's family and the senior party leadership. Zeng also worked with Hu to manage the potential effects on China of the ouster of authoritarian regimes in Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Ukraine. The head of the Ministry of State Security, China's top intelligence organization, was said to report directly to Zeng, as his father was the former head of this agency. When Shanghai Party Committee Secretary Chen Liangyu was dismissed in September 2006, Zeng led the anti-corruption task force against his longtime political enemy since they were in Shanghai. Additionally, Zeng also played a leading role in coordinating the funeral service for Politburo Standing Committee member Huang Ju, who died of cancer in 2007.
Departure
At the 17th Party Congress held in 2007, Zeng departed from the Central Committee, its Politburo, and the Politburo Standing Committee. His departure, which was seen as his retirement because of age, meant that he could no longer serve on the Communist Party's secretariat nor oversee the party's organization. His Vice-presidency ended in March 2008 at the 2008 National People's Congress. Before his retirement, however, Zeng used his political strength to secure the elevation of Xi Jinping and Zhou Yongkang into the Politburo Standing Committee. Xi, who succeeded Zeng in his posts of vice-president and executive secretary of the Secretariat, then became the heir apparent to succeed Hu Jintao as China's top leader. Zhou, who was his closest subordinate in his 'Oil Clique', became the most powerful Secretary of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission. Since then Zeng has made public appearances only on a few ceremonial occasions, such as the 30th anniversary of the Third plenum of the 11th Central Committee in 2008.
Son's wealth
In 2008, Zeng's son, Zeng Wei (), paid over A$32 million (~US$24 million) to buy a luxurious Australian property located in Sydney; at the time, it was said to be the third most expensive residential property transaction in Australia. He further caused controversy with his fight to demolish and rebuild it. In 2007, an exposé published by finance magazine Caijing alleged that Zeng Wei had, through a series of complex corporate vehicles, completed the purchase of power generation giant Shandong Luneng at 70 billion yuan (~$10 billion) below market value, and that Zeng Wei was, for all intents and purposes, the real owner of company despite his name not appearing in corporate documents.
See also
Politics of the People's Republic of China
History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)
References
External links
Zeng Qinghong and his CCP organization – World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong
Zeng Qinghong biography @ China Vitae, online database of China VIPs
Zeng Qinghong – People's Daily biography
Zeng Qinghong: A Man to Watch – Jamestown Foundation
Zeng Qinghong: A Potential Challenger to China's Heir Apparent – Jamestown Foundation
1939 births
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Jiangxi
Engineers from Jiangxi
Living people
Members of the 16th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party
People's Republic of China politicians from Jiangxi
Politicians from Ji'an
Systems engineers
Vice presidents of the People's Republic of China | [
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259068 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huang%20Ju | Huang Ju | Huang Ju (28 September 1938 – 2 June 2007) was a Chinese politician and a high-ranking leader in the Communist Party of China. He was a member of the Politburo Standing Committee, China's top decision making body, between 2002 and 2007, and also served as the first-ranked Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China beginning in 2003. He died in office before he could complete his terms on the Standing Committee and as Vice-Premier.
An electrical engineer by trade, Huang was a close confidante of party leader Jiang Zemin, to whom he owed his rise to power. He served as Mayor of Shanghai between 1991 and 1994, then Communist Party Secretary of the metropolis between 1994 and 2002. Huang's career in Shanghai and his family's alleged involvement in several corruption cases in the city generated controversy. After 2002, Huang emerged as one of the least popular and most partisan members of China's top leadership, and was named by observers as a "core member" of the Shanghai clique.
Early life and career
Huang was born in Shanghai and he was the second of five children in the family. Huang spent a long time in Zhejiang when he was young. From 1944 to 1950, he studied at Zhejiang Jiashan Yishan Primary School () and Qidong Primary School (). He attended Jiashan No.2 Middle School () and Jiaxing No.1 Middle School () for high school from 1950 to 1956. He attended Tsinghua University between 1956 and 1963 where he graduated in Electrical Engineering. In 1966, he joined the Communist Party of China.
Huang was employed as a technician in the foundry section of the Shanghai Artificial-board Machinery Factory () from 1963 to 1967. From 1967 to 1977, Huang worked as Technician in the power section of the Shanghai Zhonghua Metallurgical Factory (), where he also served as deputy lead of the production party group. He became deputy director of the Revolutionary Committee (during the Cultural Revolution, the highest day-to-day authority), Deputy Plant Manager, while working as an engineer, from 1977 to 1980. He was Assistant Manager of the Shanghai Petrochemical General Machinery Company () from 1980 to 1982. From 1982 to 1983 he was Deputy Commissioner of the Shanghai First Mechanical and Electrical Industry Bureau ().
Shanghai politics
From 1983 to 1984, Huang Ju served as a standing member of the Shanghai Municipal Party Committee and secretary of the industry affairs committee; he was the Shanghai Party Committee's Secretary General from 1984 to 1985 and deputy party chief in charge of propaganda from 1985 to 1986.
In 1987, Huang was named as a candidate for the Mayor of Shanghai, but received too few votes supporting his candidacy by the municipal People's Congress. Zhu Rongji was subsequently elected mayor instead. When Zhu ascended to Beijing to become governor of China's central bank, Huang became mayor of Shanghai in 1991 and then the city's party chief in 1994, serving until October 2002. In September 1994 he entered the Politburo of the Communist Party of China at the 4th Plenum of the 14th Central Committee.
Huang's rise in Shanghai politics was largely credited to the patronage of Jiang Zemin, who served as the Party Committee Secretary in Shanghai until the latter's sudden appointment to become General Secretary of the Communist Party following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. Huang was seen as one of Jiang's most trusted confidantes in Shanghai, and Jiang's elevation to become the party's top leader paved the way Huang to climb higher on the party's career ladder. Huang was said to be so thankful of Jiang's patronage that while on a working visit to New York during his term of Shanghai mayor, Huang and his entourage, immediately after leaving the airport, proceeded first thing to wine-and-dine Jiang's son Jiang Mianheng.
During Huang's term of party chief of Shanghai, he kept the city's party organization in line, and is remembered by some as having raised the income of Shanghai residents. The Pudong New Area also saw explosive growth under Huang. While Shanghai's economic growth continued during Huang Ju's time as the city's leader, most observers credit Shanghai's success to the work of Zhu Rongji and Xu Kuangdi. Among the mayors of Shanghai in the late 20th century, Huang was the least popular. During his term as Shanghai party chief, Huang often criticized mayor Xu Kuangdi, and opposed Xu's holding higher office. Because Xu was a popular figure in Shanghai, Huang's open suppression of Xu damaged his reputation among ordinary residents. In Shanghai political circles, Huang earned a reputation as being extremely adept at crafting relationships with his superiors. However, both Huang's successor Chen Liangyu and Jiang Zemin evaluated Huang's term in Shanghai with gushing praise, stating that Huang was instrumental in contributing to Shanghai's economic growth.
Controversies
In May 1994, after Huang's installation as the Shanghai party chief, his wife Yu Huiwen, along with Shanghai official Chen Tiedi began a charity organization allegedly for money laundering for Huang's wife and close colleagues, who received "donations" from the business elite. Although some of this money did indeed go to charity, there was a large amount of funds unaccounted for. It was unclear what Huang's involvement was in this process, but it was clear that his power in Shanghai gave license to his family.
Huang was also believed to be implicated in the Shanghai real estate scandals involving Zhou Zhengyi, one of Shanghai's business elite. Huang did little to curb monopolies in Shanghai's booming real estate sector. Public protests resulted from residents being evicted from their homes (with little or no compensation) to make way for new construction. Zhou was eventually charged with multiple counts of fraud, but only sentenced to three years in prison, which analysts speculated was due to Huang exerting his influence on the municipal courts.
In addition, Huang's wife, Yu Huiwen, controlled the Shanghai pension fund, and was linked to Zhang Rongkun, who was at the centre of allegations of misappropriation of the fund's money. Huang's brother, who was made a high-ranking executive of a Pudong development firm, also moved funds for personal use.
Ascension to Beijing
Huang's patron, General Secretary Jiang Zemin, was due to leave his party leadership post in 2002, handing the reins of power to a new generation of leaders led by Hu Jintao. In the lead-up to the 16th Party Congress held in the autumn of 2002, Jiang worked to promote some of his former associates in Shanghai to the Politburo Standing Committee, the de facto top decision making body of the country. Initially Huang was said to have been offered to replace Ding Guangen to take over the central propaganda department, but Huang declined. Jiang also reportedly proposed that Huang lead the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, which entailed a seat on the Standing Committee. Eventually, it was settled that Huang would earn a seat on the Standing Committee as Executive Vice-Premier assisting Wen Jiabao, replacing outgoing Vice-Premier Li Lanqing.
Huang's appointment was controversial, not only because of his poor reputation in Shanghai, but also because he was seen as highly partisan, and that he was tapped for promotion solely due to his coziness with Jiang and not as a result of tangible achievements. Zhu Rongji, then the outgoing Premier and who had worked with Huang in Shanghai, was reportedly opposed to Huang's elevation. Back in 1997, Huang's election to the 15th Central Committee received only 1,455 votes in favour, out of 2,074 votes cast, and some 300 votes against, unusually low in Chinese national politics. This meant that nearly one third of party delegates did not even approve of Huang's central committee membership. In 2002, of the full members of the Central Committee, Huang again received the lowest number of votes of anyone elected, meaning there was a real possibility that Huang would not have entered the Standing Committee at all, since Standing Committee members must be selected from the Central Committee.
Nevertheless, on 15 November 2002, Huang was officially named a member of the 9-man Politburo Standing Committee, joining other Jiang associates such as Jia Qinglin, Zeng Qinghong, and Li Changchun on the supreme body. In March 2003, he was confirmed by the National People's Congress as Vice-Premier of the State Council, ranking first.
His position as First Vice-Premier was considered a figurehead role with little power, especially when compared to previous First Vice-Premiers Yao Yilin and Li Lanqing. His official portfolios were to oversee finance and banking. Huang served as a member of the Leading Group for Financial and Economic Affairs.
Huang's political fate seemed to hang in the balance when his close former colleague Chen Liangyu was removed from the Politburo and put under investigation for corruption as part of the Shanghai pension scandal in 2006. By this time, Huang was already ill and cut back on public appearances. There was speculation that Huang would be implicated in the scandal.
Illness
In February 2006, the South China Morning Post reported that Huang was seriously ill, and was expected to step down. Although some government officials said he had pancreatic cancer, the party did not, at the time, disclose the nature of his condition.
On 17 March, sources reported he was near death. Huang attended a Science and Technology forum in Beijing on 5 June, temporarily reducing speculation that he was soon going to die.
After giving a keynote speech at the State-Owned Enterprise (SOE) executives' conference on 5 January 2007, he was notably absent at the Central Conference on Financial Affairs later on that month. Huang offered his condolences to late party elder Bo Yibo when Bo died, but did not attend the funeral as would have been expected of a Standing Committee member. Huang's absence prompted speculation that his critical condition was preventing him from carrying out his official duties. Hong Kong media speculated that Huang was undergoing medical treatment in Shanghai. Huang appeared, looking frail, during the National People's Congress in March 2007. The government denied Huang's request to resign effective March 2007, but thereafter his position became entirely ceremonial. He handed over his role of oversight of the Financial Affairs portfolio to premier Wen Jiabao in January. Huang disappeared from public view in March 2007. Huang left Shanghai in April and was admitted to the 301 Military Hospital in Beijing, after which his health situation deteriorated.
Some media sources reported Huang's death as early as May, though the initial reports turned out to be false. To reduce speculation, by 9 May, the authorities closed off the south-west wing of the 301 Military Hospital, and directed that all news related to Huang on television and on the internet follow official releases from official state news agency Xinhua.
False reports of Huang's death surfaced twice thereafter; some suggest his illness was used as an opportunity by internet users to vent about social and political problems. Despite his being incapacitated, Huang was elected as one of Shanghai's local party representatives to the Party's 17th Party Congress on 29 May.
Death
On 2 June 2007, Huang Ju died in Beijing. In unprecedented fashion, the English and Chinese versions of his obituary were relayed simultaneously to the country and the world only a few hours after his death, at around 6:30 am Beijing time. Official Chinese news agency Xinhua reported that Huang had died at 2:03 am, of an unnamed illness, at age 68. His death was the top story on the national news program Xinwen Lianbo, where news anchors in black suits read off a dry and sober 155-word news item. The screen simply displayed "Comrade Huang Ju has passed away."
In his concise official obituary, he was hailed as a "long-tested and faithful Communist fighter and an outstanding leader of the party and the state." This posthumous designation was used for most of Communist China's high-ranking leaders. The official state media called Huang an "important member of the Central Committee Leadership under General Secretary Hu Jintao who dedicated his heart to the development of the Party and the State, and offered all of his intellectual strength and power for the cause." Former Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin, in official footage, was in tears as he shook the hands of Huang's widow Yu Huiwen.
Websites reporting Huang Ju's death forbade discussions, and internet forums censored all negative comments and speculation about Huang Ju's political life. In Shanghai, where Huang was one of the city's former Mayors, reception of his death was cold. Among the mayors of Shanghai, Huang received the lowest ratings, while his contemporaries, Zhu Rongji and Xu Kuangdi, were more popular. There were no public displays of mourning in Shanghai.
Huang was the first PSC member to die in office since Chairman Mao himself in September 1976, some thirty years earlier, and the highest-ranking communist leader to die in office since economic reforms began in 1978. He was the only First Vice-Premier ever to die in office.
Funeral
Huang's funeral was notable as one of the highest-ranking ceremonies for the death of any Communist leader since Deng Xiaoping's state funeral in 1997. It was the top story on CCTV's Xinwen Lianbo national news broadcast at 7 pm on 5 June 2007, and occupied well over ten minutes of broadcast time in the half-hour program. Despite its priority and importance, however, Huang's funeral was noticeably simpler than that of previous leaders. The official "funeral" (zhuidaohui; ) designation for deceased leaders was not used; rather, it was termed a "send-off ceremony" (gaobie yishi; ). Analysts suggested that Huang's funeral may open the precedent for simple funerals for other deceased leaders. In a break with normally-strict rules of protocol, the funeral news coverage began with Zeng Qinghong standing at the hospital awaiting Huang Ju's funeral procession, and not with Hu Jintao. All high-ranking Chinese leaders, including President Hu Jintao, Premier Wen Jiabao, former paramount leader and party leader Jiang Zemin, and former Premier Zhu Rongji, attended the ceremony.
Political impact
Huang's death opened a vacancy on the Politburo Standing Committee, which signaled an opportunity for the consolidation of Hu Jintao's power during the 17th Party Congress held in October 2007. However, most observers believed Huang's death would have a limited effect on Chinese politics, because Huang was absent from public life for over a year prior to his death. Huang's seat on the PSC was left vacant until a newly minted PSC at 17th Party Congress, which saw Li Keqiang being slated to take over for the position of first-ranked Vice-Premier; in the interim, Wu Yi took over some of Huang's former responsibilities at the State Council as its Vice-Premier.
Huang's death was nevertheless seen as a major political blow to the Shanghai Clique, a loose grouping of senior officials with connections to Shanghai and rose to prominence in the footsteps of the political career of party leader Jiang Zemin. The Shanghai Clique reportedly often found themselves at odds with those officials more closely aligned with Hu Jintao. Huang, along with disgraced Shanghai Party secretary Chen Liangyu, who was convicted and sent to prison on charges of fraud and corruption, were both seen as staunch political opponents of Hu and Premier Wen Jiabao. Some commentators suggested that the timing of Huang's death conveniently absolved himself of any responsibility in the Shanghai pension scandal and spared him and his family from political disgrace, thus avoiding any open splits in the Party's top leadership.
Legacy
Huang Ju was officially eulogized with some of the highest honours given to deceased Communist Party officials, being called "an outstanding member of the Communist Party of China, a long-tested faithful fighter of the Communist cause, and an extraordinary leader of the Party and State." Huang's tenure in Shanghai was marked with high levels of economic growth and a dramatic transformation of the city's skyline and urban infrastructure. Some Shanghai residents and political commentators suggest that Huang contributed significantly to the development of the Pudong area.
Huang faced significant criticism as well. Chinese-language media speculated that Huang provided "political shelter" for real estate mogul Zhou Zhengyi, allowing the latter a free hand in the forced eviction of local residents to pave way for his company's construction projects. Zhou would eventually be sentenced to three years in prison on charges of securities fraud. The sentence, which was seen as extremely lenient by the standards of Chinese law, was allegedly due to pressure applied by Huang Ju on the city's courts. Of the 42 major construction projects in the city during Huang's tenure in Shanghai, seven was reportedly awarded to Zhou. In addition, according to Weiquan lawyer Zheng Enchong and a civil group representing those affected by forced evictions, Huang continued to unduly influence the proceedings of the Zhou case by impeding its further investigation.
Huang's legacy was the subject of a photo collection book published by the Shanghai People's Press in December 2012, entitled Huang Ju. The book's title was inscribed with the calligraphy of Jiang Zemin. The book contained photos of Huang from his early years to his days as Vice-Premier. Shanghai party chief Han Zheng attended the book launch event. The event signalled that Huang continued to be regarded positively in an official capacity.
Personal
Huang was married to Yu Huiwen (), who was an executive on a Shanghai Pensions board, and speculated to be involved in corruption cases in the city. In February 1995, his daughter, Huang Fan (), married James Fang Yiwei (), the son of Fang Dachuan (), a pro-Taiwan newspaperman in San Francisco, for which Huang was criticized by political rivals.
See also
Politics of the People's Republic of China
References
External links
biography @ Biography, ChinaVitae.com
Huang Ju's official biography
Huang Ju's legacy in Shanghai
1938 births
2007 deaths
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Zhejiang
Vice Premiers of the People's Republic of China
Mayors of Shanghai
Politicians from Jiaxing
Tsinghua University alumni
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
People's Republic of China politicians from Zhejiang
Members of the 16th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 15th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 14th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
Engineers from Zhejiang
Secretaries of the Communist Party Shanghai Committee | [
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259069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henning%20Mankell | Henning Mankell | Henning Georg Mankell (; 3February 19485October 2015) was a Swedish crime writer, children's author, and dramatist, best known for a series of mystery novels starring his most noted creation, Inspector Kurt Wallander. He also wrote a number of plays and screenplays for television.
He was a left-wing social critic and activist. In his books and plays he constantly highlighted social inequality issues and injustices in Sweden and abroad. In 2010, Mankell was on board one of the ships in the Gaza Freedom Flotilla that was boarded by Israeli commandos. He was below deck on the MV Mavi Marmara when nine civilians were killed in international waters.
Mankell shared his time between Sweden and countries in Africa, mostly Mozambique where he started a theatre. He made considerable donations to charity organizations, mostly connected to Africa.
Life and career
Mankell's grandfather, also named Henning Mankell, lived from 1868 to 1930 and was a composer. Mankell was born in Stockholm, Sweden in 1948. His father Ivar was a lawyer who divorced his mother when Mankell was one year old. He and an older sister lived with his father for most of their childhood. The family first lived in Sveg, Härjedalen in northern Sweden, where Mankell's father was a district judge. In the biography on Mankell's website, he describes this time when they lived in a flat above the court as one of the happiest in his life. In Sveg, a museum was built in his honour during his lifetime.
Later, when Mankell was thirteen, the family moved to Borås, Västergötland on the Swedish west coast near Gothenburg. After three years he dropped out of school and went to Paris when he was 16. Shortly afterwards he joined the merchant marine, working on a cargo ship and he "loved the ship's decent hard-working community". In 1966, he returned to Paris to become a writer. He took part in the student uprising of 1968. He later returned to work as a stagehand in Stockholm. At the age of 20, he had already started as author at Riksteatern in Stockholm. In the following years he collaborated with several theatres in Sweden. His first play, The Amusement Park dealt with Swedish colonialism in South America. In 1973, he published The Stone Blaster, a novel about the Swedish labour movement. He used the proceeds from the novel to travel to Guinea-Bissau. Africa would later become a second home to him, and he spent a big part of his life there. When his success as a writer made it possible, he founded and ran a theatre in Mozambique.
From 1991 to 2013, Mankell wrote the books which made him famous worldwide, the Kurt Wallender mystery novels. Wallender was a fictional detective living in Ystad in southern Sweden, who supervised a squad of detectives in solving murders, some of which were bizarre. As they worked to catch a killer who had to be stopped before he could kill again, the team often worked late into the nights in a heightened atmosphere of tension and crisis. Wallender's thoughts and worries about his daughter, his health, his lack of friends and a social life, his worries about Swedish society, shared his mental life with his many concerns and worries about the case he was working. There were ten books in the series. They were translated into many languages and sold millions of copies worldwide. The series gave Mankell the freedom and wherewithal to pursue other projects which interested him.
After living in Zambia and other African countries, Mankell was invited from 1986 onward to become the artistic director of Teatro Avenida in Maputo, Mozambique. He subsequently spent extended periods in Maputo working with the theatre and as a writer. He built his own publishing house, Leopard Förlag, in order to support young talented writers from Africa and Sweden. His novel Chronicler of the Winds, published in Sweden as Comédie infantil in 1995, reflects African problems and is based on African storytelling. On 12June 2008, he was awarded an honorary Doctorate from the University of St Andrews in Scotland "in recognition of his major contribution to literature and to the practical exercise of conscience".
Around 2008, Mankell developed two original stories for the German police series Tatort. Actor Axel Milberg, who portrays Inspector Klaus Borowski, had asked Mankell to contribute to the show when they were promoting The Man from Beijing audiobook, a project that Milberg had worked on. The episodes were scheduled to broadcast in Germany in 2010. In 2010, Mankell was set to work on a screenplay for Sveriges Television about his father-in-law, movie and theatre director Ingmar Bergman, on a series produced in four one-hour episodes. Mankell pitched the project to Sveriges Television and production was planned for 2011.
At the time of his death, Mankell had written over 40 novels that had sold more than 40 million copies worldwide.
Personal life
Mankell was married four times and had four sons, Thomas, Marius, Morten and Jon, by different relationships. In 1998 he married Eva Bergman, daughter of film director Ingmar Bergman.
Death
In January 2014, Mankell announced that he had been diagnosed with lung cancer and throat cancer. In May 2014, he reported that treatments had worked well and he was getting better.
He wrote a series of articles inspired by his wife Eva, describing his situation, how it felt to be diagnosed, how it felt to be supported, how it felt to wait, and after his first chemotherapy at Sahlgrenska University Hospital about the importance of cancer research. Three weeks before his death he wrote about what happens to people's identity when they are stricken by a serious illness. His last post was published posthumously 6 October.
On 5October 2015, Mankell died at the age of 67, almost two years after having been diagnosed.
Political views
In his youth Mankell was a left-wing political activist and participated in the Protests of 1968 in Sweden, protesting against, among other things, the Vietnam War, the Portuguese Colonial War, and the apartheid regime in South Africa. Furthermore, he got involved with Folket i Bild/Kulturfront which focused on cultural policy studies. In the 1970s, Mankell moved from Sweden to Norway and lived with a Norwegian woman who was a member of the Maoist Workers' Communist Party. He took an active part in their activities but did not join the party.
In 2002, Mankell gave financial support by buying stocks for 50,000 NOK in the Norwegian left-wing newspaper Klassekampen. In 2009, Mankell was a guest at the Palestine Festival of Literature. He said he had seen "repetition of the despicable apartheid system that once treated Africans and coloured as second-class citizens in their own country". He found a resemblance between the Israeli West Bank barrier and the Berlin Wall: "The wall that is currently dividing the country will prevent future attacks, in short term. In the end, it will face the same destiny as the wall that once divided Berlin did." Considering the environment the Palestinian people live in, he continued: "Is it strange that some of them in pure desperation, when they cannot see any other way out, decide to become suicide bombers? Not really? Maybe it is strange that there are not more of them."
Mankell stated in an interview with Haaretz that he did not support Hezbollah. In Mankell's opinion the state of Israel should not have a future as a two-state solution and this "will not be the end of the historical occupation". He said he did not encounter antisemitism during his journey, just "hatred against the occupants that is completely normal and understandable", and said that "to keep these two things separate is crucial".
Gaza flotilla
In 2010, Henning Mankell was on board the MS Sofia, one of the boats which took part in the flotilla which tried to break the Israeli embargo of the Gaza strip. Following the Israel Defense Forces' boarding of the flotilla on the morning of 31May 2010, Mankell was deported to Sweden. He subsequently called for global sanctions against Israel. In 2010 it was reported that he was considering halting Hebrew translations of his books. In June 2011, Mankell stated in an article in the Israeli newspaper Haaretz that he had never considered preventing his books from being translated into Hebrew, and that unidentified persons had stolen his identity to make this false claim.
Mankell was supposed to be one of twenty Swedish participants in "Freedom Flotilla II" which never took place. It was originally scheduled to sail to Gaza in June 2011.
Charity and legacy
In 2007, Henning Mankell donated 15 million Swedish crowns (about 1.5 million euros) to SOS Children's Villages for a children's village in Chimoio in western Mozambique. Mankell donated vast amounts of money to charitable organizations such as SOS Children's Villages and Hand in Hand, a collection of independent organizations.
In the 1980s, Mankell visited United Nations refugee camps in Mozambique and later accompanied UN High Commissioner Sadako Ogata to refugee camps in South Africa. In 2013, he visited Congolese refugees in Uganda. He wrote on the plight of refugees and after his death his website asked for donations in his name to the UN Commission on Refugees.
The theme for short stories submitted to the inaugural Festival Fim do Caminho Literary Prize, "Crime in Mozambique", was chosen in homage to Mankell.
Works
Wallander series
Kurt Wallander is a fictional police inspector living and working in Ystad, Sweden. In the novels, he solves shocking murders with his colleagues. The novels have an underlying question: "What went wrong with Swedish society?"
The series has won many awards, including the German Crime Prize and the British 2001 CWA Gold Dagger for Sidetracked (1995).
The ninth book, The Pyramid (1999), is a prequel about Wallander's past, covering the time until just before the start of Faceless Killers (1991). It includes a collection of five novellas:
Wallander's First Case
The Man with the Mask
The Man on the Beach
The Death of the Photographer
The Pyramid
Ten years after The Pyramid, Mankell published another Wallander novel, The Troubled Man (2009), which he said would definitely be the last in the series.
Linda is the daughter of Kurt Wallander, who follows in his footsteps as a police officer. Mankell began an intended trilogy of novels with her as the protagonist. However, following the suicide of Johanna Sällström, the actress playing the character at the time in the Swedish TV series, Mankell was so distraught that he decided to abandon the series after only the first novel.
Bibliography
Crime fiction
Wallander series
Mördare utan ansikte (1991; English translation by Steven T. Murray: Faceless Killers, 1997)
Hundarna i Riga (1992; English translation by Laurie Thompson: The Dogs of Riga, 2001)
Den vita lejoninnan (1993; English translation by Laurie Thompson: The White Lioness, 1998)
Mannen som log (1994; English translation by Laurie Thompson: The Man Who Smiled, 2005)
Villospår (1995; English translation by Steven T. Murray: Sidetracked, 1999) Gold Dagger 2001
Fotografens död (1996; English translation included in The Pyramid as The Death of the Photographer)
Den femte kvinnan (1996; English translation by Steven T. Murray: The Fifth Woman, 2000)
Steget efter (1997; English translation by Ebba Segerberg: One Step Behind, 2002)
Brandvägg (1998; English translation by Ebba Segerberg: Firewall, 2002)
Pyramiden (1999; short stories; English translation by Ebba Segerberg with Laurie Thompson: The Pyramid, 2008)
Mannen på stranden (2000; included in The Pyramid as The Man on the Beach)
Handen (2004; novella; originally published in Dutch (2004) as Het Graf (The Grave). Published in Swedish, 2013. English translation by Laurie Thompson: An Event in Autumn, 2014)
Den orolige mannen (2009; English translation by Laurie Thompson: The Troubled Man, 2011)
Linda Wallander
Innan frosten (2002; English translation by Ebba Segerberg: Before the Frost, 2005)
Other crime novels
Danslärarens återkomst (2000; English translation by Laurie Thompson: The Return of the Dancing Master, 2004)
Kennedys hjärna (2005; English translation by Laurie Thompson: Kennedy's Brain, 2007, U.S. release)
Kinesen (2007; English translation by Laurie Thompson: The Man from Beijing, 2010)
Other fiction
Bergsprängaren (1973); English translation by George Goulding: The Rock Blaster, (2020)
Vettvillingen (1977)
Fångvårdskolonin som försvann (1979)
(1980)
(1981)
Daisy Sisters (1982)
(1984)
Leopardens öga (1990); English translation by Steven T. Murray: The Eye of the Leopard, (2008)
Comédia infantil (1995); English translation by Tiina Nunnally: Chronicler of the Winds, (2006)
Vindens son (2000); English translation by Steven T. Murray: Daniel (2010)
Tea-Bag (2001) English translation by Ebba Segerberg: The Shadow Girls (2012)
Djup (2004); English translation by Laurie Thompson: Depths, (2006)
Italienska skor (2006); English translation by Laurie Thompson: Italian Shoes (2009)
Minnet av en smutsig ängel (2011); English translation by Laurie Thompson: A Treacherous Paradise, (2013)
Svenska gummistövlar (2015); English translation by Marlaine Delargy: After the Fire, (2017)
Essays
Kvicksand (2014) part memoir, part collection of essays, English translation by Laurie Thompson: Quicksand: What It Means to Be a Human Being
Children's books
Sofia series
Secrets in the Fire – 2000 (Eldens hemlighet, 1995)
Playing with Fire – 2002 (Eldens gåta, 2001)
The Fury in the Fire – 2009 (, 2005)
Joel Gustafsson series
A Bridge to the Stars – 2005 ( – 1990)
Shadows in the Twilight – 2007 (Skuggorna växer i skymningen – 1991)
When the Snow Fell – 2007 (Pojken som sov med snö i sin säng – 1996)
The Journey to the End of the World – 2008 ( – 1998)
Young children's books
The Cat Who Liked Rain – 2007
Film and television
Original screenplays for television and TV
Etterfølgeren (The Successor) (1997 film)
Labyrinten (2000), TV mini-series
(2003), TV mini-series (co-written with Jan Guillou)
Unnamed Ingmar Bergman docudrama (2012), TV mini-series
Film and television adaptations of novels
Wallander (1997–2007) Sveriges Television. Swedish language.
Wallander (2005, 2009, 2013) Yellow Bird for TV4 (Sweden). Swedish language.
Wallander (2008, 2010, 2012, 2016) Yellow Bird for BBC (UK). English language.
Plays
Awards and honours
1991 – Swedish Crime Writers' Academy, Best Swedish Crime Novel Award for Faceless Killers
1991 – Nils Holgersson Plaque for A Bridge to the Stars
1992 – Glass Key award For Best Nordic Crime Novel: Faceless Killers
1993 – Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis for A Bridge to the Stars
1995 – Swedish Crime Writers' Academy, Best Swedish Crime Novel Award for Sidetracked
1996 – Astrid Lindgren Prize
2001 – Crime Writers' Association Gold Dagger for Best Crime Novel of the Year: Sidetracked
2001 – Corine Literature Prize for One Step behind
2004 – Toleranzpreis der Evangelischen Akademie Tutzing
2005 – Gumshoe Award for Best European Crime Novel: The Return of the Dancing Master
2008 – Corine Literature Prize for the German Audiobook [[The Man from Beijing (novel)|The Man from Beijing]]''
See also
:Category:Works by Henning Mankell
References
External links
Comprehensive Henning Mankell fan site
Branagh's Wallander – Website relating to the BBC's English-language Wallander starring Kenneth Branagh and Swedish versions with Krister Henriksson and Rolf Lassgärd
Henning Mankell: the artist of the Parallax View – Slavoj Zizek
The Mirror of Crime: Henning Mankell interview at Tangled Web (5/2001)
Guardian Interview (11/2003)
Henning Mankell on Gaza flotilla attack: 'I think they went out to murder', The Guardian 3 June 2010
Henning Mankell: My responsibility is to react: video interview by Louisiana Channel, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art in 2012.
John Burnside: Quicksand by Henning Mankell review / uplifting, serious reflections on what it means to be human The Guardian 11 February 2016
1948 births
2015 deaths
Writers from Stockholm
Litteris et Artibus recipients
Swedish-language writers
Swedish crime fiction writers
Swedish communists
Sommar (radio program) hosts
Crime fiction writers
Mystery writers
August Prize winners
Deaths from cancer in Sweden
Swedish male writers
20th-century Swedish novelists
21st-century Swedish novelists
Swedish children's writers
Swedish dramatists and playwrights
Male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century dramatists and playwrights
21st-century dramatists and playwrights
Swedish human rights activists | [
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259071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Church%20of%20England | History of the Church of England | The formal history of the Church of England is traditionally dated by the Church to the Gregorian mission to England by Augustine of Canterbury in AD 597. As a result of Augustine's mission, and based on the tenets of Christianity, Christianity in England fell under control or authority of the Pope. This gave him the power to appoint bishops, preserve or change doctrine, and/or grant exceptions to standard doctrine.
The phrase Church of England, however, frequently refers to the Church as of 1534, when it separated from the Catholic Church and became one of many churches embracing the Protestant Reformation. King Henry VIII of England was less concerned with church doctrine, and more with practical matters. Desiring control over religious dictates in order to annul his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, he had himself (as opposed to the Pope) declared to be the supreme head of the Church in England. This resulted in a schism with the Papacy. Henry also used the schism as an excuse to seize the considerable land and wealth of many monasteries. As a result of this schism, many non-Anglicans consider that the Church of England only existed from the 16th century Protestant Reformation, and the phrase in common usage may frequently mean that. This article, however, includes the entire history of Christian Church in its various forms in England.
Christianity arrived in the British Isles around AD 47 during the Roman Empire according to Gildas's De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. Archbishop Restitutus and others are known to have attended the Council of Arles in 314. Christianity developed roots in Sub-Roman Britain and later Ireland, Scotland, and Pictland. The Anglo-Saxons (Germanic pagans who progressively seized British territory) during the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, established a small number of kingdoms and evangelisation of the Anglo-Saxons was carried out by the successors of the Gregorian mission and by Celtic missionaries from Scotland. The church in Wales remained isolated and was only brought within the jurisdiction of English bishops several centuries later.
The Church of England became the established church by an act of Parliament in the Act of Supremacy, beginning a series of events known as the English Reformation. During the reign of Queen Mary I and King Philip, the church was fully restored under Rome in 1555. However, the pope's authority was again explicitly rejected after the accession of Queen Elizabeth I when the Act of Supremacy 1558 was passed. Catholic and Reformed factions vied for determining the doctrines and worship of the church. This ended with the 1558 Elizabethan Settlement, which developed the understanding that the church was to be "both Catholic and Reformed".
Roman Britain
The earliest historical evidence of Christianity in Roman Britain is found in the writings of Tertullian and Origen from the first half of the 3rd century, though little is known of the Christians who lived there. The first recorded Christian martyr in Britain, Saint Alban, is thought to have been executed around 304 during the Diocletian Persecutions. St Albans Cathedral stands on the site where he is said to have died.
Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan in 312. At this time, there is evidence that some kind of church organisation had been established. Major cities saw the building of churches in the basilica architectural style, and local bishops participated in church councils. Three Romano-British bishops were present at the Council of Arles in 314: Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelfius.
Around 397, Ninian arrived in Britain as a missionary to the Picts. Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippo's theology of original sin. While Pelagius never taught in Britain, Pelagianism found a foothold on the island. In 429, two bishops from Gaul arrived to help stamp out the heresy: Germanus of Auxerre and Lupus of Troyes.
Irish Anglicans trace their origins back to the founding saint of Irish Christianity, St Patrick, who is believed to have been a Roman Briton and pre-dated Anglo-Saxon Christianity. Anglicans also consider Celtic Christianity a forerunner of their church, since the re-establishment of Christianity in some areas of Great Britain in the 6th century came via Irish and Scottish missionaries, notably followers of St Patrick and St Columba.
Anglo-Saxon period
Church foundations (597–787)
The Roman Empire ceased to govern Britain after 409. Thereafter, the Romano-British were conquered by Germanic peoples known collectively as Anglo-Saxons. The new inhabitants practiced Anglo-Saxon paganism, and Celtic Christianity was confined to Cornwall and Wales.
In the 580s, Æthelberht, king of Kent, married the Frankish princess Bertha. Bertha was allowed to remain a Christian and was accompanied by clergy, including a Frankish bishop named Liudhard. Her husband gave her St Martin's Church, a Romano-British church outside of Canterbury, to worship in. Probably influenced by his wife, Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory I to send missionaries, and in 596 the Pope dispatched Augustine, together with a party of priests and monks. This Gregorian Mission arrived in 597. At Christmas, a mass baptism saw 10,000 people convert to Christianity. Æthelberht was baptised in 601.
Over the next few years, the organisation of the English Church was laid out by Pope Gregory and Augustine. While ultimately under papal authority, the church was to be divided into two ecclesiastical provinces, each led by a metropolitan or archbishop. The northern province was to be based at York, and the southern province was to be based at London. Augustine, as archbishop of the southern province, was to have final authority over the entire English Church. Augustine and his successors never moved to London, remaining at Canterbury instead. This division between the Province of Canterbury led by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Province of York led by the Archbishop of York remains into the 21st century. Controversially, Pope Gregory gave Augustine authority over the indigenous Celtic British bishops. In response, the British bishops refused to cooperate with the Roman missionaries. The Celtic and Roman churches disagreed on several issues. The most important was the date of Easter. There were other differences over baptismal customs and the style of tonsure worn by monks.
By the time of Augustine's death in 604, Christianity had been firmly established in Kent. Many churches were built, and St Augustine's Abbey was established as a Benedictine monastery. The Diocese of Rochester was established at this time. In 604, an attempt was made to establish a diocese at London, but this was unsuccessful. In 630, Felix of Burgundy established the Diocese of Dunwich in the Kingdom of Essex. Around the same time, Birinus brought Christianity to Wessex, becoming the first Bishop of Dorchester.
In 625, the Italian monk Paulinus left Kent with the Princess Æthelburh of Kent, who married King Edwin of Northumbria. Edwin was baptised in 627, and Paulinus became the first Bishop of York. Paulinus fled after Edwin was defeated and killed in battle in 633. The new king, Oswald of Northumbria, promoted the Celtic Christian tradition as practiced at Iona, a center of Celtic monasticism. Saint Aidan established a monastery at Lindisfarne, which became the headquarters of the Diocese of Lindisfarne.
Under King Oswiu of Northumbria, tensions between followers of the Roman and Celtic traditions continued. To settle matters, Osiwu summoned the Synod of Whitby in 664. Both sides made arguments, but the king decided that Northumbria would follow the Roman tradition. His decision was decided on the basis of authority: the successors of Saint Peter outweighed the successors of Saint Columba.
In 668, Theodore of Tarsus became Archbishop of Canterbury. He contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, reforming many aspects of the church's administration. At the Synod of Hertford in 672, canons were adopted to promote greater uniformity, among these that the English bishops should hold an annual council at Clovesho. A major reorganisation of the English church occurred the late 700s. King Offa of Mercia wanted his own kingdom to have an archbishop since the Archbishop of Canterbury was also a great Kentish magnate. In 787, a council of the English church attended by two papal legates elevated the Diocese of Lichfield into an archbishopric. There were now three provinces in England: York, Lichfield and Canterbury. However, this arrangement was abandoned in 803, and Lichfield was reabsorbed into the Province of Canterbury.
Initially, the diocese was the only administrative unit in the Anglo-Saxon church. The bishop served the diocese from a cathedral town with the help of a group of priests known as the bishop's familia. These priests would baptise, teach and visit the remoter parts of the diocese. Familiae were placed in other important settlements, and these were called minsters. The parish system grew out of manorialism. The parish church was a private church built and endowed by the lord of the manor, who retained the right to nominate the parish priest. The priest supported himself by farming his glebe and was also entitled to other support from parishioners. The most important was the tithe, the right to collect one-tenth of all produce from land or animals. Originally, the tithe was a voluntary gift, but the church successfully made it a compulsory tax by the 10th century.
English unification
England suffered from Viking raids beginning in the late 8th century. Monasteries and minster-churches were favorite targets since much of England's portable wealth was held there in the form of golden crosses, altar plate, and jewels decorating relics and illuminated Bibles. Eventually, the raids turned into wars of conquest and the kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia, and parts of Mercia were conquered (see Danelaw). Alfred the Great of Wessex and his successors led the Anglo-Saxon resistance and reconquest, culminating in the formation of a single Kingdom of England.
While the Vikings were quickly converted to Christianity, church institutions lost significant wealth and the lines of succession to many bishoprics were interrupted. The northern dioceses were most dramatically effected, with some bishoprics disappearing entirely. From 870, there ceased to be bishops at Dunwich and Elmham in East Anglia. At some point, Theodred, bishop of London, was in charge of Suffolk and possibly Norfolk. By the 950s, all of East Anglia was included in the Diocese of Elmham (later Norwich). In Eastern Mercia, Viking conquest forced the bishops of Lindsey and Leicester to move south to Dorchester-on-Thames. The Diocese of Dorchester (later Lincoln) held jurisdiction over a huge area extending from the Middle Thames to the Humber. The Archdiocese of York survived, but it's influence and wealth was greatly diminished. From 972, the archbishop was simultaneously Bishop of Worcester. Bishop of Lindisfarne was forced to abandon his see and after much wandering settled at Chester-le-Street and finally established his see permanently at Durham.
Under King Edward the Elder, the southern dioceses were reorganised so that there was one for each shire. The Diocese of Wells was created for Somerset, Crediton for Devon, and St Germans for Cornwall. There was Winchester for Hampshire, Ramsbury for Wiltshire, Sherborne for Dorset, and Selsey for Sussex. Canterbury and Rochester covered Kent, and the Bishop of London controlled Middlesex, Essex, Hertfordshire and Surrey.
Bishops were chosen by the king and tended to be recruited from among royal chaplains or monasteries. The bishop-elect was then presented at a synod where clerical approval was obtained and consecration followed. The appointment of an archbishop was more complicated and required approval from the Pope. The Archbishop of Canterbury had to travel to Rome to receive the pallium, his symbol of office. These visits to Rome and the payments that accompanied them (such as Peter's Pence) was a point of contention.
Medieval consolidation
As in other parts of medieval Europe, tension existed between the local monarch and the Pope about civil judicial authority over clerics, taxes and the wealth of the Church, and appointments of bishops, notably during the reigns of Henry II and John. As begun by Alfred the Great in 871 and consolidated under William the Conqueror in 1066, England became a politically unified entity at an earlier date than other European countries. One of the effects was that the units of government, both of church and state, were comparatively large. England was divided between the Province of Canterbury and the Province of York under two archbishops. At the time of the Norman Conquest, there were only 15 diocesan bishops in England, increased to 17 in the 12th century with the creation of the sees of Ely and Carlisle. This is far fewer than the numbers in France and Italy. A further four medieval dioceses in Wales came within the Province of Canterbury.
Following the depredations of the Viking invasions of the 9th century, most English monasteries had ceased to function and the cathedrals were typically served by small communities of married priests. King Edgar and his Archbishop of Canterbury Dunstan instituted a major reform of cathedrals at a synod at Winchester in 970, where it was agreed that all bishops should seek to establish monasticism in their cathedrals following the Benedictine rule, with the bishop as abbot. Excavations have demonstrated that the reformed monastic cathedrals of Canterbury, Winchester, Sherborne and Worcester were rebuilt on a lavish scale in the late 10th century. However, renewed Viking attacks in the reign of Ethelred, stalled the progress of monastic revival.
In 1072, following the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror and his archbishop Lanfranc sought to complete the programme of reform. Durham and Rochester cathedrals were refounded as Benedictine monasteries, the secular cathedral of Wells was moved to monastic Bath, while the secular cathedral of Lichfield was moved to Chester, and then to monastic Coventry. Norman bishops were seeking to establish an endowment income entirely separate from that of their cathedral body, and this was inherently more difficult in a monastic cathedral, where the bishop was also titular abbot. Hence, following Lanfanc's death in 1090, a number of bishops took advantage of the vacancy to obtain secular constitutions for their cathedrals – Lincoln, Sarum, Chichester, Exeter and Hereford; while the major urban cathedrals of London and York always remained secular. Furthermore, when the bishops' seats were transferred back from Coventry to Lichfield, and from Bath to Wells, these sees reverted to being secular. Bishops of monastic cathedrals, tended to find themselves embroiled in long-running legal disputes with their respective monastic bodies; and increasingly tended to reside elsewhere. The bishops of Ely and Winchester lived in London as did the Archbishop of Canterbury. The bishops of Worcester generally lived in York, while the bishops of Carlisle lived at Melbourne in Derbyshire. Monastic governance of cathedrals continued in England, Scotland and Wales throughout the medieval period; whereas elsewhere in western Europe it was found only at Monreale in Sicily and Downpatrick in Ireland.
An important aspect in the practice of medieval Christianity was the veneration of saints, and the associated pilgrimages to places where the relics of a particular saint were interred and the saint's tradition honoured. The possession of the relics of a popular saint was a source of funds to the individual church as the faithful made donations and benefactions in the hope that they might receive spiritual aid, a blessing or a healing from the presence of the physical remains of the holy person. Among those churches to benefit in particular were: St. Alban's Abbey, which contained the relics of England's first Christian martyr; Ripon, with the shrine of its founder St. Wilfrid; Durham, which was built to house the body of Saints Cuthbert of Lindisfarne and Aidan; Ely, with the shrine of St. Etheldreda; Westminster Abbey, with the magnificent shrine of its founder St. Edward the Confessor; and Chichester, which held the honoured remains of St. Richard. All these saints brought pilgrims to their churches, but among them the most renowned was Thomas Becket, the late Archbishop of Canterbury, who was assassinated by henchmen of King Henry II in 1170. As a place of pilgrimage Canterbury was, in the 13th century, second only to Santiago de Compostela.
Separation from papal authority
John Wycliffe (about 1320 – 31 December 1384) was an English theologian and an early dissident against the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century. He founded the Lollard movement, which opposed a number of practices of the Church. He was also against papal encroachments on secular power. Wycliffe was associated with statements indicating that the Church in Rome is not the head of all churches, nor did St Peter have any more powers given to him than other disciples. These statements were related to his call for a reformation of its wealth, corruption and abuses. Wycliffe, an Oxford scholar, went so far as to state that "The Gospel by itself is a rule sufficient to rule the life of every Christian person on the earth, without any other rule." The Lollard movement continued with his pronouncements from pulpits even under the persecution that followed with Henry IV up to and including the early years of the reign of Henry VIII.
The first break with Rome (subsequently reversed) came when Pope Clement VII refused, over a period of years, to annul Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, not purely as a matter of principle, but also because the Pope lived in fear of Catherine's nephew, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, as a result of events in the Italian Wars.
Henry first asked for an annulment in 1527. After various failed initiatives he stepped up the pressure on Rome, in the summer of 1529, by compiling a manuscript from ancient sources arguing that, in law, spiritual supremacy rested with the monarch and also against the legality of papal authority. In 1531 Henry first challenged the Pope when he demanded 100,000 pounds from the clergy in exchange for a royal pardon for what he called their illegal jurisdiction. He also demanded that the clergy should recognise him as their sole protector and supreme head. The church in England recognised Henry VIII as supreme head of the Church of England on 11 February 1531. Nonetheless, he continued to seek a compromise with the Pope, but negotiations (which had started in 1530 and ended in 1532) with the papal legate Antonio Giovanni da Burgio failed. Efforts by Henry to appeal to Jewish scholarship concerning the contours of levirate marriage were unavailing as well.
In May 1532 the Church of England agreed to surrender its legislative independence and canon law to the authority of the monarch. In 1533 the Statute in Restraint of Appeals removed the right of the English clergy and laity to appeal to Rome on matters of matrimony, tithes and oblations. It also gave authority over such matters to the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. This finally allowed Thomas Cranmer, the new Archbishop of Canterbury, to issue Henry's annulment; and upon procuring it, Henry married Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII excommunicated Henry VIII in 1533.
In 1534 the Act of Submission of the Clergy removed the right of all appeals to Rome, effectively ending the Pope's influence. The first Act of Supremacy confirmed Henry by statute as the Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1536. (Due to clergy objections the contentious term "Supreme Head" for the monarch later became "Supreme Governor of the Church of England" – which is the title held by the reigning monarch to the present.)
Such constitutional changes made it not only possible for Henry to have his marriage annulled but also gave him access to the considerable wealth that the Church had amassed. Thomas Cromwell, as Vicar General, launched a commission of enquiry into the nature and value of all ecclesiastical property in 1535, which culminated in the Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536–1540).
Reformation
Many Roman Catholics consider the separation of the Church in England from Rome in 1534 to be the true origin of the Church of England, rather than dating it from the mission of St. Augustine in AD 597. While Anglicans acknowledge that Henry VIII's repudiation of papal authority caused the Church of England to become a separate entity, they believe that it is in continuity with the pre-Reformation Church of England. Apart from its distinct customs and liturgies (such as the Sarum rite), the organizational machinery of the Church of England was in place by the time of the Synod of Hertford in 672 – 673, when the English bishops were first able to act as one body under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry's Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533) and the Acts of Supremacy (1534) declared that the English crown was "the only Supreme Head in earth of the Church of England, called Ecclesia Anglicana," in order "to repress and extirpate all errors, heresies, and other enormities and abuses heretofore used in the same." The development of the Thirty-Nine Articles of religion and the passage of the Acts of Uniformity culminated in the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. By the end of the 17th century, the English church described itself as both Catholic and Reformed, with the English monarch as its Supreme Governor. MacCulloch commenting on this situation says that it "has never subsequently dared to define its identity decisively as Protestant or Catholic, and has decided in the end that this is a virtue rather than a handicap."
King Henry VIII of England
The English Reformation was initially driven by the dynastic goals of Henry VIII, who, in his quest for a consort who would bear him a male heir, found it expedient to replace papal authority with the supremacy of the English crown. The early legislation focused primarily on questions of temporal and spiritual supremacy. The Institution of the Christian Man (also called The Bishops' Book) of 1537 was written by a committee of 46 divines and bishops headed by Thomas Cranmer. The purpose of the work, along with the Ten Articles of the previous year, was to implement the reforms of Henry VIII in separating from the Roman Catholic Church and reforming the Ecclesia Anglicana. "The work was a noble endeavor on the part of the bishops to promote unity, and to instruct the people in Church doctrine." The introduction of the Great Bible in 1538 brought a vernacular translation of the Scriptures into churches. The Dissolution of the Monasteries and the seizure of their assets by 1540 brought huge amounts of church land and property under the jurisdiction of the Crown, and ultimately into the hands of the English nobility. This simultaneously removed the greatest centres of loyalty to the pope and created vested interests which made a powerful material incentive to support a separate Christian church in England under the rule of the Crown.
Cranmer, Parker and Hooker
By 1549, the process of reforming the ancient national church was fully spurred on by the publication of the first vernacular prayer book, the Book of Common Prayer, and the enforcement of the Acts of Uniformity, establishing English as the language of public worship. The theological justification for Anglican distinctiveness was begun by the Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, the principal author of the first prayer book, and continued by others such as Matthew Parker, Richard Hooker and Lancelot Andrewes. Cranmer had worked as a diplomat in Europe and was aware of the ideas of Reformers such as Andreas Osiander and Friedrich Myconius as well as the Roman Catholic theologian Desiderius Erasmus.
During the short reign of Edward VI, Henry's son, Cranmer and others moved the Church of England significantly towards a more reformed position, which was reflected in the development of the second prayer book (1552) and in the Forty-Two Articles. This reform was reversed abruptly in the reign of Queen Mary, a Roman Catholic who re-established communion with Rome following her accession in 1553.
In the 16th century, religious life was an important part of the cement which held society together and formed an important basis for extending and consolidating political power. Differences in religion were likely to lead to civil unrest at the very least, with treason and foreign invasion acting as real threats. When Queen Elizabeth came to the throne in 1558, a solution was thought to have been found. To minimise bloodshed over religion in her dominions, the religious settlement between the factions of Rome and Geneva was brought about. It was compellingly articulated in the development of the 1559 Book of Common Prayer, the Thirty-Nine Articles, the Ordinal, and the two Books of Homilies. These works, issued under Archbishop Matthew Parker, were to become the basis of all subsequent Anglican doctrine and identity.
The new version of the prayer book was substantially the same as Cranmer's earlier versions. It would become a source of great argument during the 17th century, but later revisions were not of great theological importance. The Thirty-Nine Articles were based on the earlier work of Cranmer, being modelled after the Forty-Two Articles.
The bulk of the population acceded to Elizabeth's religious settlement with varying degrees of enthusiasm or resignation. It was imposed by law, and secured Parliamentary approval only by a narrow vote in which all the Roman Catholic bishops who were not imprisoned voted against. As well as those who continued to recognise papal supremacy, the more militant Protestants, or Puritans as they became known, opposed it. Both groups were punished and disenfranchised in various ways and cracks in the facade of religious unity in England appeared.
Despite separation from Rome, the Church of England under Henry VIII remained essentially Catholic rather than Protestant in nature. Pope Leo X had earlier awarded to Henry himself the title of fidei defensor (defender of the faith), partly on account of Henry's attack on Lutheranism. Some Protestant-influenced changes under Henry included a limited iconoclasm, the abolition of pilgrimages, and pilgrimage shrines, chantries, and the extinction of many saints' days. However, only minor changes in liturgy occurred during Henry's reign, and he carried through the Six Articles of 1539 which reaffirmed the Catholic nature of the church. All this took place, however, at a time of major religious upheaval in Western Europe associated with the Reformation; once the schism had occurred, some reform probably became inevitable. Only under Henry's son Edward VI (reigned 1547 – 1553) did the first major changes in parish activity take place, including translation and thorough revision of the liturgy along more Protestant lines. The resulting Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1549 and revised in 1552, came into use by the authority of the Parliament of England.
Reunion with Rome
Following the death of Edward, his half-sister the Roman Catholic Mary I (reigned 1553 – 1558) came to the throne. She renounced the Henrician and Edwardian changes, first by repealing her brother's reforms then by re-establishing unity with Rome. The Marian Persecutions of Protestants and dissenters took place at this time. The queen's image after the persecutions turned into that of an almost legendary tyrant called Bloody Mary. This view of Bloody Mary was mainly due to the widespread publication of Foxe's Book of Martyrs during her successor Elizabeth I's reign.
Nigel Heard summarises the persecution thus: "It is now estimated that the 274 religious executions carried out during the last three years of Mary's reign exceeded the number recorded in any Catholic country on the continent in the same period."
The Church under Elizabeth I and the Stuarts
Upon Mary's death in 1558, her half-sister Elizabeth I (reigned 1558 – 1603) came to power. Elizabeth became a determined opponent of papal control and once again declared that the Church of England was independent of Papal jurisdiction. In 1559, Parliament recognised Elizabeth as the Church's supreme governor, with a new Act of Supremacy that also repealed the remaining anti-Protestant legislation. A new Book of Common Prayer appeared in the same year. Elizabeth presided over the "Elizabethan Settlement", an attempt to satisfy the Puritan and Catholic forces in England within a single national Church. Elizabeth was eventually excommunicated on 25 February 1570 by Pope Pius V, finally breaking communion between Rome and the Anglican Church.
King James Bible
Shortly after coming to the throne, James I attempted to bring unity to the Church of England by instituting a commission consisting of scholars from all views within the Church to produce a unified and new translation of the Bible free of Calvinist and Popish influence. The project was begun in 1604 and completed in 1611 becoming de facto the Authorised Version in the Church of England and later other Anglican churches throughout the communion until the mid-20th century. The New Testament was translated from the Textus Receptus (Received Text) edition of the Greek texts, so called because most extant texts of the time were in agreement with it.
The Old Testament was translated from the Masoretic Hebrew text, while the Apocrypha was translated from the Greek Septuagint (LXX). The work was done by 47 scholars working in six committees, two based in each of the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, and Westminster. They worked on certain parts separately; then the drafts produced by each committee were compared and revised for harmony with each other.
This translation had a profound effect on English literature. The works of most famous authors such as John Milton, Herman Melville, John Dryden and William Wordsworth are deeply inspired by it.
The Authorised Version is often referred to as the King James Version, particularly in the United States. King James was not personally involved in the translation, though his authorisation was legally necessary for the translation to begin, and he set out guidelines for the translation process, such as prohibiting footnotes and ensuring that Anglican positions were recognised on various points. A dedication to James by the translators still appears at the beginning of modern editions.
English Civil War
For the next century, through the reigns of James I and Charles I, and culminating in the English Civil War and the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far-reaching reform, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, but the casualties included a king, Charles I and an Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud. For about a decade (1647–1660), Christmas was another casualty as Parliament abolished all feasts and festivals of the Church to rid England of outward signs of Popishness. Under the Protectorate of the Commonwealth of England from 1649 to 1660, Anglicanism was disestablished, presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced as an adjunct to the Episcopal system, the Articles were replaced with a non-Presbyterian version of the Westminster Confession (1647), and the Book of Common Prayer was replaced by the Directory of Public Worship.
Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform. In the midst of the apparent triumph of Calvinism, the 17th century brought forth a Golden Age of Anglicanism. The Caroline Divines, such as Andrewes, Laud, Herbert Thorndike, Jeremy Taylor, John Cosin, Thomas Ken and others rejected Roman claims and refused to adopt the ways and beliefs of the Continental Protestants. The historic episcopate was preserved. Truth was to be found in Scripture and the bishops and archbishops, which were to be bound to the traditions of the first four centuries of the Church's history. The role of reason in theology was affirmed.
Restoration and beyond
With the Restoration of Charles II, Anglicanism too was restored in a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the Tudors, had to be abandoned. The 1662 revision of the Book of Common Prayer became the unifying text of the ruptured and repaired Church after the disaster that was the civil war.
When the new king Charles II reached the throne in 1660, he actively appointed his supporters who had resisted Cromwell to vacancies. He translated the leading supporters to the most prestigious and rewarding sees. He also considered the need to reestablish episcopal authority and to reincorporate "moderate dissenters" in order to effect Protestant reconciliation. In some cases turnover was heavy—he made four appointments to the diocese of Worcester in four years 1660–63, moving the first three up to better positions.
Glorious Revolution and Act of Toleration
James II was overthrown by William of Orange in 1688, and the new king moved quickly to ease religious tensions. Many of his supporters had been Nonconformist non-Anglicans. With the Act of Toleration enacted on 24 May 1689, Nonconformists had freedom of worship. That is, those Protestants who dissented from the Church of England such as Baptists, Congregationalists and Quakers were allowed their own places of worship and their own teachers and preachers, subject to acceptance of certain oaths of allegiance. These privileges expressly did not apply to Catholics and Unitarians, and it continued the existing social and political disabilities for dissenters, including exclusion from political office. The religious settlement of 1689 shaped policy down to the 1830s. The Church of England was not only dominant in religious affairs, but it blocked outsiders from responsible positions in national and local government, business, professions and academe. In practice, the doctrine of the divine right of kings persisted Old animosities had diminished, and a new spirit of toleration was abroad. Restrictions on Nonconformists were mostly either ignored or slowly lifted. The Protestants, including the Quakers, who worked to overthrow King James II were rewarded. The Toleration Act of 1689 allowed nonconformists who have their own chapels, teachers, and preachers, censorship was relaxed. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with an Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and Roman Catholics and those Puritans who dissented from the establishment, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than controlling it.
18th century
Spread of Anglicanism outside England
The history of Anglicanism since the 17th century has been one of greater geographical and cultural expansion and diversity, accompanied by a concomitant diversity of liturgical and theological profession and practice.
At the same time as the English reformation, the Church of Ireland was separated from Rome and adopted articles of faith similar to England's Thirty-Nine Articles. However, unlike England, the Anglican church there was never able to capture the loyalty of the majority of the population (who still adhered to Roman Catholicism). As early as 1582, the Scottish Episcopal Church was inaugurated when James VI of Scotland sought to reintroduce bishops when the Church of Scotland became fully presbyterian (see Scottish reformation). The Scottish Episcopal Church enabled the creation of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America after the American Revolution, by consecrating in Aberdeen the first American bishop, Samuel Seabury, who had been refused consecration by bishops in England, due to his inability to take the oath of allegiance to the English crown prescribed in the Order for the Consecration of Bishops. The polity and ecclesiology of the Scottish and American churches, as well as their daughter churches, thus tends to be distinct from those spawned by the English church—reflected, for example, in their looser conception of provincial government, and their leadership by a presiding bishop or primus rather than by a metropolitan or archbishop. The names of the Scottish and American churches inspire the customary term Episcopalian for an Anglican; the term being used in these and other parts of the world.
At the time of the English Reformation the four (now six) Welsh dioceses were all part of the Province of Canterbury and remained so until 1920 when the Church in Wales was created as a province of the Anglican Communion. The intense interest in the Christian faith which characterised the Welsh in the 18th and 19th centuries was not present in the sixteenth and most Welsh people went along with the church's reformation more because the English government was strong enough to impose its wishes in Wales rather than out of any real conviction.
Anglicanism spread outside of the British Isles by means of emigration as well as missionary effort. The 1609 wreck of the flagship of the Virginia Company, the Sea Venture, resulted in the settlement of Bermuda by that Company. This was made official in 1612, when the town of St George's, now the oldest surviving English settlement in the New World, was established. It is the location of St Peter's Church, the oldest-surviving Anglican church outside the British Isles (Britain and Ireland), and the oldest surviving non-Roman Catholic church in the New World, also established in 1612. It remained part of the Church of England until 1978, when the Anglican Church of Bermuda separated. The Church of England was the state religion in Bermuda and a system of parishes was set up for the religious and political subdivision of the colony (they survive, today, as both civil and religious parishes). Bermuda, like Virginia, tended to the Royalist side during the Civil War. The conflict in Bermuda resulted in the expulsion of Independent Puritans from the island (the Eleutheran Adventurers, who settled Eleuthera, in the Bahamas). The church in Bermuda, before the Civil War, had a somewhat Presbyterian flavour, but mainstream Anglicanism was asserted afterwards (although Bermuda is also home to the oldest Presbyterian church outside the British Isles). Bermudians were required by law in the 17th century to attend Church of England services, and proscriptions similar to those in England existed on other denominations.
English missionary organisations such as USPG—then known as the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge (SPCK) and the Church Missionary Society (CMS) were established in the 17th and 18th centuries to bring Anglican Christianity to the British colonies. By the 19th century, such missions were extended to other areas of the world. The liturgical and theological orientations of these missionary organisations were diverse. The SPG, for example, was in the 19th century influenced by the Catholic Revival in the Church of England, while the CMS was influenced by the Evangelicalism of the earlier Evangelical Revival. As a result, the piety, liturgy, and polity of the indigenous churches they established came to reflect these diverse orientations.
19th century and after
The Church of Ireland, an Anglican establishment, was disestablished in Ireland in 1869. The Welsh Church would later be disestablished in 1919, but in England the Church never lost its established role. However Methodism Catholics and other denominations were relieved of many of their disabilities through the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, Catholic emancipation, and parliamentary reform. The Church responded by greatly enlarging its role of activities, and turning to voluntary contributions for funding.
Revivals
The Plymouth Brethren seceded from the established church in the 1820s. The church in this period was affected by the Evangelical revival and the growth of industrial towns in the Industrial Revolution. There was an expansion of the various Nonconformist churches, notably Methodism. From the 1830s the Oxford Movement became influential and occasioned the revival of Anglo-Catholicism. From 1801 the Church of England and the Church of Ireland were unified and this situation lasted until the disestablishment of the Irish church in 1871 (by the Irish Church Act, 1869).
The growth of the twin "revivals" in 19th century Anglicanism—Evangelical and Catholic—was hugely influential. The Evangelical Revival informed important social movements such as the abolition of slavery, child welfare legislation, prohibition of alcohol, the development of public health and public education. It led to the creation of the Church Army, an evangelical and social welfare association and informed piety and liturgy, most notably in the development of Methodism.
The Catholic Revival had a more penetrating impact by transforming the liturgy of the Anglican Church, repositioning the Eucharist as the central act of worship in place of the daily offices, and reintroducing the use of vestments, ceremonial, and acts of piety (such as Eucharistic adoration) that had long been prohibited in the English church and (to a certain extent) in its daughter churches. It influenced Anglican theology, through such Oxford Movement figures as John Henry Newman, Edward Pusey, as well as the Christian socialism of Charles Gore and Frederick Maurice. Much work was done to introduce a more medieval style of church furnishing in many churches. Neo-Gothic in many different forms became the norm rather than the earlier Neo-Classical forms. Both revivals led to considerable missionary efforts in parts of the British Empire.
Expanded roles at home and worldwide
During the 19th century, the Church expanded greatly at home and abroad. The funding came largely from voluntary contributions. In England and Wales it doubled the number of active clergyman, and built or enlarged several thousand churches. Around mid-century it was consecrating seven new or rebuilt churches every month. It proudly took primary responsibility for a rapid expansion of elementary education, with parish-based schools, and diocesan-based colleges to train the necessary teachers. In the 1870s, the national government assume part of the funding; in 1880 the Church was educating 73% of all students. In addition there was a vigorous home mission, with many clergy, scripture readers, visitors, deaconesses and Anglican sisters in the rapidly growing cities. Overseas the Church kept up with the expanding Empire. It sponsored extensive missionary work, supporting 90 new bishoprics and thousands of missionaries across the globe.
In addition to local endowments and pew rentals, Church financing came from a few government grants, and especially from voluntary contributions. The result was that some old rural parishes were well funded, and most of the rapidly growing urban parishes were underfunded.
Prime ministers and the Queen
Throughout the 19th century patronage continued to play a central role in Church affairs. Tory Prime Ministers appointed most of the bishops before 1830, selecting men who had served the party, or had been college tutors of sponsoring politicians, or were near relations of noblemen. In 1815, 11 bishops came from noble families; 10 had been the tutors of a senior official. Theological achievement or personal piety were not critical factors in their selection. Indeed, the Church was often called the "praying section of the Tory party." Not since Newcastle, over a century before, did a prime minister pay as much attention to church vacancies as William Ewart Gladstone. He annoyed Queen Victoria by making appointments she did not like. He worked to match the skills of candidates to the needs of specific church offices. He supported his party by favouring Liberals who would support his political positions. His counterpart, Disraeli, favoured Conservative bishops to a small extent, but took care to distribute bishoprics so as to balance various church factions. He occasionally sacrificed party advantage to choose a more qualified candidate. On most issues Disraeli and Queen Victoria were close, but they frequently clashed over church nominations because of her aversion to high churchmen.
1914–1970
The current form of military chaplain dates from the era of the First World War. A chaplain provides spiritual and pastoral support for service personnel, including the conduct of religious services at sea or in the field. The Army Chaplains Department was granted the prefix "Royal" in recognition of the chaplains' wartime service. The Chaplain General of the British Army was Bishop John Taylor Smith who held the post from 1901 to 1925.
While the Church of England was historically identified with the upper classes, and with the rural gentry, Archbishop of Canterbury William Temple (1881–1944) was both a prolific theologian and a social activist, preaching Christian socialism and taking an active role in the Labour Party until 1921. He advocated a broad and inclusive membership in the Church of England as a means of continuing and expanding the church's position as the established church. He became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1942, and the same year he published Christianity and Social Order. The best-seller attempted to marry faith and socialism—by "socialism" he meant a deep concern for the poor. The book helped solidify Anglican support for the emerging welfare state. Temple was troubled by the high degree of animosity inside, and between the leading religious groups in Britain. He promoted ecumenicism, working to establish better relationships with the Nonconformists, Jews and Catholics, managing in the process to overcome his anti-Catholic bias.
Parliament passed the Enabling Act in 1919 to enable the new Church Assembly, with three houses for bishops, clergy, and laity, to propose legislation for the Church, subject to formal approval of Parliament. A crisis suddenly emerged in 1927 over the Church's proposal to revise the classic Book of Common Prayer, which had been in daily use since 1662. The goal was to better incorporate moderate Anglo-Catholicism into the life of the Church. The bishops sought a more tolerant, comprehensive established Church. After internal debate the Church's new Assembly gave its approval. Evangelicals inside the Church, and Nonconformists outside, were outraged because they understood England's religious national identity to be emphatically Protestant and anti-Catholic. They denounced the revisions as a concession to ritualism and tolerance of Roman Catholicism. They mobilized support in parliament, which twice rejected the revisions after intensely heated debates. The Anglican hierarchy compromised in 1929, while strictly prohibiting extreme and Anglo-Catholic practices.
During the Second World War the head of chaplaincy in the British Army was an Anglican chaplain-general, the Very Revd Charles Symons (with the military rank of major-general), who was formally under the control of the Permanent Under-Secretary of State. An assistant chaplain-general was a chaplain 1st class (full colonel), and a senior chaplain was a chaplain 2nd class (lieutenant colonel). At home the Church saw its role as the moral conscience of the state. It gave enthusiastic support for the war against Nazi Germany. George Bell, Bishop of Chichester and a few clergymen spoke out that the aerial bombing of German cities was immoral. They were grudgingly tolerated. Bishop Bell was chastised by fellow clergy members and passed over for promotion. The Archbishop of York replied, "it is a lesser evil to bomb the war-loving Germans than to sacrifice the lives of our fellow countrymen..., or to delay the delivery of many now held in slavery".
A movement towards unification with the Methodist Church in the 1960s failed to pass through all the required stages on the Anglican side, being rejected by the General Synod in 1972. This was initiated by the Methodists and welcomed on the part of the Anglicans but full agreement on all points could not be reached.
Divorce
Standards of morality in Britain changed dramatically after the world wars, in the direction of more personal freedom, especially in sexual matters. The Church tried to hold the line, and was especially concerned to stop the rapid trend toward divorce. It reaffirmed in 1935 that, "in no circumstances can Christian men or women re-marry during the lifetime of a wife or a husband." When king Edward VIII wanted to marry Mrs. Wallis Simpson, a newly divorced woman, in 1936, the archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Gordon Lang led the opposition, insisting that Edward must go. Lang was later lampooned in Punch for a lack of "Christian charity".
Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin also objected vigorously to the marriage, noting that "although it is true that standards are lower since the war it only leads people to expect a higher standard from their King." Baldwin refused to consider Churchill's concept of a morganatic marriage where Wallis would not become Queen consort and any children they might have would not inherit the throne. After the governments of the Dominions also refused to support the plan, Edward abdicated in order to marry the woman.
When Princess Margaret wanted in 1952 to marry Peter Townsend, a commoner who had been divorced, the Church did not directly intervene but the government warned she had to renounce her claim to the throne and could not be married in church. Randolph Churchill later expressed concern about rumours about a specific conversation between the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, and the Princess while she was still planning to marry Townsend. In Churchill's view, "the rumour that Fisher had intervened to prevent the Princess from marrying Townsend has done incalculable harm to the Church of England", according to research completed by historian Ann Sumner Holmes. Margaret's official statement, however, specified that the decision had been made "entirely alone", although she was mindful of the Church's teaching on the indissolubility of marriage. Holmes summarizes the situation as, "The image that endured was that of a beautiful young princess kept from the man she loved by an inflexible Church. It was an image and a story that evoked much criticism both of Archbishop Fisher and of the Church' policies regarding remarriage after divorce."
However, when Margaret actually did divorce (Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon), in 1978, the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Donald Coggan, did not attack her, and instead offered support.
In 2005, Prince Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles, a divorcée, in a civil ceremony. Afterwards, the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, gave the couple a formal service of blessing. In fact, the arrangements for the wedding and service were strongly supported by the Archbishop "consistent with the Church of England guidelines concerning remarriage" because the bride and groom had recited a "strongly-worded" act of penitence, a confessional prayer written by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury to King Henry VIII. That was interpreted as a confession by the couple of past sins, albeit without specific reference and going "some way towards acknowledging concerns" over their past misdemeanours.
1970–present
The Church Assembly was replaced by the General Synod in 1970.
On 12 March 1994 the Church of England ordained its first female priests. On 11 July 2005 a vote was passed by the Church of England's General Synod in York to allow women's ordination as bishops. Both of these events were subject to opposition from some within the church who found difficulties in accepting them. Adjustments had to be made in the diocesan structure to accommodate those parishes unwilling to accept the ministry of women priests. (See women's ordination)
The first black archbishop of the Church of England, John Sentamu, formerly of Uganda, was enthroned on 30 November 2005 as Archbishop of York.
In 2006 the Church of England at its General Synod made a public apology for the institutional role it played as a historic owner of slave plantations in Barbados and Barbuda. The Reverend Simon Bessant recounted the history of the church on the island of Barbados, West Indies, where through a charitable bequest received in 1710 by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, thousands of sugar plantation slaves had been appallingly treated and branded using red-hot irons as the property of the "society".
In 2010, for the first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men).
See also
Anglican Communion
Anglicanism
Church Army
Church of Ireland#History
History of the Scottish Episcopal Church
Religion in the United Kingdom
State religion
Notes
References
Further reading
Buchanan, Colin. Historical Dictionary of Anglicanism (2nd ed. 2015) excerpt
Chadwick, Owen. The Victorian Church, Part One: 1829–1859 (1966); The Victorian Church, Part Two: 1860–1901 (1970)
Flew, Sarah. Philanthropy and the Funding of the Church of England: 1856–1914 (2015) excerpt
Hardwick, Joseph. An Anglican British world: The Church of England and the expansion of the settler empire, c. 1790–1860 (Manchester UP, 2014).
Hastings, Adrian. A History of English Christianity 1920–2000 (4th ed. 2001), 704pp, a standard scholarly history.
Kirby, James. Historians and the Church of England: Religion and Historical Scholarship, 1870–1920 (2016) online at DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198768159.001.0001
Lawson, Tom. God and War: The Church of England and Armed Conflict in the Twentieth Century (Routledge, 2016).
Maughan Steven S. Mighty England Do Good: Culture, Faith, Empire, and World in the Foreign Missions of the Church of England, 1850–1915 (2014).
Norman, Edward R. Church and society in England 1770–1970: a historical study (Oxford UP, 1976).
Picton, Hervé. A Short History of the Church of England: From the Reformation to the Present Day. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2015. 180 p.
Sampson, Anthony. Anatomy of Britain (1962) online free pp 160–73. Sampson had five later updates, but they all left religion out.
Soloway, Richard Allen. “Church and Society: Recent Trends in Nineteenth Century Religious History.” Journal of British Studies 11.2 1972, pp. 142–159. online
Tapsell, Grant. The later Stuart Church, 1660–1714 (2012).
Primary sources
Flindall, Roy P., ed. The Church of England, 1815–1948: a documentary history (London: S.P.C.K., 1972) online
Gee, Henry, and William John Hardy, eds. Documents Illustrative of English Church History (1896); coverage to 1689 online
External links
Project Canterbury, Documenting Anglican History Online
A Covenant between the Methodist Church in Britain and the Church of England was signed on 1 November 2003 | [
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259073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue%20of%20William%20Blackstone | Statue of William Blackstone | Sir William Blackstone is a bronze statue by Paul Wayland Bartlett of the English legal scholar William Blackstone. It is located at E. Barrett Prettyman United States Courthouse, at 333 Pennsylvania Avenue in northwest Washington, D.C., in the Judiciary Square neighborhood.
It was installed on August 11, 1943.
See also
List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 6
References
External links
1920 sculptures
Artworks in the collection of the National Park Service
Bronze sculptures in Washington, D.C.
Outdoor sculptures in Washington, D.C.
Sculptures of men in Washington, D.C.
Statues in Washington, D.C.
1943 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Northwest (Washington, D.C.) | [
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259075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altm%C3%BChl | Altmühl | The Altmühl () is a river in Bavaria, Germany. It is a left tributary of the river Danube and is approximately long.
Course
The source of the Altmühl is close to the town of Ansbach. From here the river runs southeastwards as a narrow brook to enter the (a lake) north of Gunzenhausen. After leaving Gunzenhausen the river describes a broad curve through the Franconian Jura. It enters the (Altmühl Valley Nature Park), which is known for its natural environment: The meanders of the Altmühl river have cut deep gorges into the mountains of the Franconian Jura.
The Altmühl passes the towns of Treuchtlingen, Eichstätt and Beilngries.
Downriver of Dietfurt the river bed was straightened and integrated into a canal connecting the river Main and the river Danube (the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal). In spite of protests by conservationists the canal was opened in 1992 and has changed much of the eastern Altmühl valley.
The Altmühl finally flows into the Danube in Kelheim.
River
The Altmühl rises on the southern slope of the Franconian Ridge northeast of Rothenburg ob der Tauber, near the Hohe Leite and about 500m southeast of the Burgbernheim wilderness Wildbad. As its source, the Royal Bavarian Hydrotechnical Bureau at Munich in 1904 fixed the drainage ditch of Hornauer Weiher. This is fed by some streams; in the meantime the source of one of them is regarded as Altmühl origin. The Altmühl therefore rises just south of the major European watershed and then flows mainly in southeastern direction. It is the slowest river in Bavaria, flows very slowly, is even one of the slowest German rivers and is also the longest river that rises and flows in the same German state.
The Altmühl can be divided into three parts.
Altmühl above Leutershausen, view to the Frankenhöhe
In the upper third, it is a meadow river slowly flowing in a broad valley. The landscape is flat, slightly hilly and the ground consists mainly of rocks of the Keuper period, here mainly limestone and clay. The mudstone seals the subsoil, therefore, the Altmühl in the upper reaches of a not too broad stream.
In its middle course flows the Altmühl in the north and east on Altmühlsee at Gunzenhausen over. The riverbed was rebuilt here during the construction of the Altmühlsee in the 1980s. On the southern shore of the Altmühlsee, the course of the river crosses the Altmühlüberleiter underground .
Only at high tide does water flow from the Altmühl over the Altmühlzuleiter into the Altmühlsee, which was created as a reservoir for the Danube-Main Reconciliation . This lake is designated as a bird and nature reserve. The water taken from the lake flows through the tunnel of the Altmühlüberleiters first in the small Brombachsee and thus into the river system of the Regnitz north of the continental divide. The Regnitzwasser flows finally over the Main into the Rhine, so that with the transfer an artificial river bifurcation was created.
Altmühltal at the Burgstein at the Bubenrother mill in morning mist
From Treuchtlingen the Altmühl flows in its lower course through the Franconian Jura plateau , in whose karst limestone she has dug a narrow valley. On the steep valley slopes here sometimes bizarre rock formations. Particularly well are about 20m above the river level lying, kesselelförmige washouts at the village Eßlingen can be seen.
Altmühl near Eichstätt
From Dollnstein the Jura Breakthrough Valley suddenly becomes much wider. From here the Altmühl flows through an earlier valley of the larger Danube. At Rennertshofen this "Urdonautal" branches off from the present Danube valley; in the section where not the Altmühl flows in it, but only small brooks, it is called Wellheimer dry valley.
From the year 1910 the course of the river from was under Wurmsbach downwards straightened and with numerous fortifications regulated, causing many oxbow lakes were cut off. Meanwhile, some of the regulatory measures have been reversed again, such as the Treuchtlinger district Graben and shortly before Eichstätt at Wasserzell.
Their lowest run from Dietfurt on the Altmühl was expanded in the middle of the 19th century with 10 barrages to a part of the Ludwig-Danube-Main Canal. The same route was used from 1975 to 1991 for the construction of the Main-Danube Canal , a major shipping route with barrages in Riedenburg and Kelheim. For the first time in a waterway construction project in Europe, landscaping plans for ecological measures were set up in order to replace nature and landscape interventions; 15% of the canal construction costs were spent on this. The Altmühl flows below Kelheim into the Danube at Danube kilometers 2411.54. The well 34 kilometers long Altmühl line is included in the federal waterway Main-Danube Canal; In addition, there are still 580 meters Altmühl from above the weir Dietfurt to the MDK federal waterway.
Along the Altmühl runs the well-marked and quite well furnished Altmühltalradweg. Canoeing can be done safely on the river itself.
See also
Altmühltal
References
External links
Rivers of Bavaria
Federal waterways in Germany
Rivers of Germany | [
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] |
259080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altm%C3%BChltal | Altmühltal | Altmühltal is a Verwaltungsgemeinschaft (federation of municipalities) in the district of Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen and Eichstätt in Bavaria in Germany. It consists of the following municipalities:
Alesheim
Dittenheim
Markt Berolzheim
Meinheim
Rhine–Main–Danube Canal
The final section to be built of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal (which enables barges to navigate from the North Sea to the Black Sea) runs between Nuremberg and Kelheim. This issue became politically controversial in the 1970s and 1980s, mainly because of the long section through the Altmühl valley.
See also
Kleines Schulerloch inscription
Verwaltungsgemeinschaften in Bavaria
Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen | [
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259082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sydney%20Morning%20Herald | The Sydney Morning Herald | The Sydney Morning Herald (SMH) is a daily compact newspaper published in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, and owned by Nine. Founded in 1831 as the Sydney Herald, the Herald is the oldest continuously published newspaper in Australia and "the most widely-read masthead in the country." The newspaper is published in compact print form from Monday to Saturday as The Sydney Morning Herald and on Sunday as its sister newspaper, The Sun-Herald and digitally as an online site and app, seven days a week. It is considered a newspaper of record for Australia. The print edition of The Sydney Morning Herald is available for purchase from many retail outlets throughout the Sydney metropolitan area, most parts of regional New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory and South East Queensland.
Overview
The Sydney Morning Herald publishes a variety of supplements, including the magazines Good Weekend (included in the Saturday edition of The Sydney Morning Herald); and Sunday Life. There are a variety of lift-outs, some of them co-branded with online classified-advertising sites:
The Guide (television) on Mondays
Good Food (food) and Domain (real estate) on Tuesdays
Money (personal finance) on Wednesdays
Drive (motoring), Shortlist (entertainment) on Fridays
News Review, Spectrum (arts and entertainment guide), Domain (real estate), Drive (motoring) and MyCareer (employment) on Saturdays
The executive editor is James Chessell and the editor is Lisa Davies. Tory Maguire is national editor, Monique Farmer is life editor, and the publisher is chief digital and publishing officer Chris Janz.
Former editors include Darren Goodsir, Judith Whelan, Sean Aylmer, Peter Fray, Meryl Constance, Amanda Wilson (the first female editor, appointed in 2011), William Curnow, Andrew Garran, Frederick William Ward (editor from 1884 to 1890), Charles Brunsdon Fletcher, Colin Bingham, Max Prisk, John Alexander, Paul McGeough, Alan Revell, and Alan Oakley.
History
In 1831 three employees of the now-defunct Sydney Gazette, Ward Stephens, Frederick Stokes, and William McGarvie, founded The Sydney Herald. In 1931 a Centenary Supplement (since digitised) was published. The original four-page weekly had a print run of 750. In 1840, the newspaper began to publish daily. In 1841, an Englishman named John Fairfax purchased the operation, renaming it The Sydney Morning Herald the following year. Fairfax, whose family were to control the newspaper for almost 150 years, based his editorial policies "upon principles of candour, honesty and honour. We have no wish to mislead; no interest to gratify by unsparing abuse or indiscriminate approbation."
During the 1890s Donald Murray, who invented a predecessor of the teleprinter, worked there. The Herald added a weekly "Page for Women" in 1905 which was edited by Theodosia Ada Wallace.
The SMH was late to the trend of printing news rather than just advertising on the front page, doing so from 15 April 1944. Of the country's metropolitan dailies, only The West Australian was later in making the switch. In 1949, the newspaper launched a Sunday edition, The Sunday Herald. Four years later, this was merged with the newly acquired Sun newspaper to create The Sun-Herald, which continues to this day.
By the mid-1960s a new competitor had appeared in Rupert Murdoch's national daily The Australian, which was first published on 15 July 1964.
In 1981, John Fairfax & Sons Limited commemorated the Herald's 150th anniversary by presenting the City of Sydney with Stephen Walker's sculpture, Tank Stream Fountain.
In 1995, the company launched the newspaper's web edition smh.com.au. The site has since grown to include interactive and multimedia features beyond the content in the print edition. Around the same time, the organisation moved from Jones Street to new offices at Darling Park and built a new printing press at Chullora, in the city's west. The SMH later moved with other Sydney Fairfax divisions to a building at Darling Island.
In May 2007, Fairfax Media announced it would be moving from a broadsheet format to the smaller compact or tabloid-size, in the footsteps of The Times, for both The Sydney Morning Herald and The Age. Fairfax Media dumped these plans later in the year. However, in June 2012, Fairfax Media again announced it planned to shift both broadsheet newspapers to tabloid size, in March 2013. Fairfax also announced it would cut staff across the entire group by 1,900 over three years and erect paywalls around the papers' websites. The subscription type is to be a freemium model, limiting readers to a number of free stories per month, with a payment required for further access. The announcement was part of an overall "digital first" strategy of increasingly digital or on-line content over printed delivery, to "increase sharing of editorial content," and to assist the management's wish for "full integration of its online, print and mobile platforms."
In July 2013 it was announced that the SMH 's news director, Darren Goodsir, would become editor-in-chief, replacing Sean Aylmer.
On 22 February 2014, the final Saturday edition was produced in broadsheet format with this too converted to compact format on 1 March 2014, ahead of the decommissioning of the printing plant at Chullora in June 2014.
Editorial stance
The newspaper's editorial stance is generally centrist. According to one commentator it is seen as the most centrist among the three major Australian non-tabloids (the other two being The Australian and The Age). In 2004, the newspaper's editorial page stated: "market libertarianism and social liberalism" were the two "broad themes" that guided the Heralds editorial stance. During the 1999 referendum on whether Australia should become a republic, the Herald (like the other two major papers) strongly supported a "yes" vote.
The Sydney Morning Herald did not endorse the Labor Party for federal office in the first six decades of Federation, always endorsing a conservative government. The newspaper endorsed Labor in only six federal elections: 1961 (Calwell), 1984 and 1987 (Hawke), 2007 (Rudd), 2010 (Gillard), and 2019 (Shorten).
During the 2004 Australian federal election, the Herald did not endorse a party, but subsequently resumed its practice of making endorsements. After endorsing the Coalition at the 2013 and 2016 federal elections, the newspaper begrudgingly endorsed Bill Shorten's Labor Party in 2019, after Malcolm Turnbull was ousted as prime minister.
At the state level, the Herald has consistently backed the Coalition; the only time since 1981 that it has endorsed a Labor government for New South Wales was Bob Carr's government in the 2003 election.
The Herald endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the run-up for the 2016 U.S. presidential election.
Notable contributors
Writers
Waleed Aly
Eliza Ashton
Julia Baird
Lucian Boz
Mike Carlton
Anne Davies
Peter FitzSimons
Ross Gittins
Richard Glover
Peter Hartcher
Amanda Hooton
Adele Horin
H. G. Kippax
Roy Masters
Anne Summers
Kate McClymont
Illustrators
Simon Letch, named as one of the year's best illustrators on four consecutive occasions.
Ownership
Fairfax went public in 1957 and grew to acquire interests in magazines, radio, and television. The group collapsed spectacularly on 11 December 1990 when Warwick Fairfax, great-great-grandson of John Fairfax, attempted to privatize the group by borrowing $1.8 billion. The group was bought by Conrad Black before being re-listed in 1992. In 2006, Fairfax announced a merger with Rural Press, which brought in a Fairfax family member, John B. Fairfax, as a significant player in the company. From 10 December 2018 Nine and Fairfax Media merged into one business known as Nine. Nine Entertainment Co. owns The Sydney Morning Herald.
Content
Column 8
Column 8 is a short column to which Herald readers send their observations of interesting happenings. It was first published on 11 January 1947. The name comes from the fact that it originally occupied the final (8th) column of the broadsheet newspaper's front page. In a front-page redesign in the lead-up to the Sydney Olympic Games in 2000, Column 8 moved to the back page of the first section from 31 July 2000.
The content tends to the quirky, typically involving strange urban occurrences, instances of confusing signs (often in Engrish), word play, and discussion of more or less esoteric topics.
The column is also sometimes affectionately known as Granny's Column, after a fictional grandmother who supposedly edited it. The column's original logo was a caricature of Sydney Deamer, originator of the column and its author for 14 years.
It was edited for 15 years by George Richards, who retired on 31 January 2004. Other editors besides Deamer and Richards have been Duncan Thompson, Bill Fitter, Col Allison, Jim Cunningham, Pat Sheil, and briefly, Peter Bowers and Lenore Nicklin. The column is, as of March 2017, edited by Herald journalist Tim Barlass, who frequently appends reader contributions with puns; and who made the decision to reduce the column's publication from its traditional six days a week, down to just weekdays.
Opinion
The Opinion section is a regular of the daily newspaper, containing opinion on a wide range of issues. Mostly concerned with relevant political, legal and cultural issues, the section presents work by regular columnists, including Herald political editor Peter Hartcher, Ross Gittins and Elizabeth Farrelly, as well as occasional reader-submitted content. Iconoclastic Sydney barrister Charles C. Waterstreet, upon whose life the television workplace comedy Rake is loosely based, had a regular humour column in this section.
Good Weekend
Good Weekend is a liftout magazine that is distributed with both The Sydney Morning Herald and The Age in Saturday editions.
It contains, on average, four feature articles written by its stable of writers and others syndicated from overseas as well as sections on food, wine and fashion.
Writers include Stephanie Wood, Jane Cadzow, Melissa Fyfe, Tim Elliott, Konrad Marshall and Amanda Hooton.
Other sections include "Modern Guru," which features humorous columnists including Danny Katz responding to the everyday dilemmas of readers; a regular column by writer Benjamin Law; a Samurai Sudoku; and "The Two of Us," containing interviews with a pair of close friends, relatives or colleagues.
"Good Weekend" is edited by Katrina Strickland. Previous editors include Ben Naparstek, Judith Whelan and Fenella Souter.
Digitisation
The paper has been partially digitised as part of the Australian Newspapers Digitisation Program project of the National Library of Australia.
See also
Journalism in Australia
List of newspapers in Australia
The Sydney Mail – weekly magazine of The Sydney Morning Herald, published from 1860 to 1938
References
Further reading
Merrill, John C. and Harold A. Fisher. The world's great dailies: profiles of fifty newspapers (1980) pp 314–19
Gavin Souter (1981) Company of Heralds: a century and a half of Australian publishing by John Fairfax Limited and its predecessors, 1831-1981 Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press,
Gavin Souter (1992) Heralds and angels: the house of Fairfax 1841-1992 Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books,
External links
Earth Hour archive
1831 establishments in Australia
Australian news websites
Fairfax Media
Fairfax Media
Newspapers published in Sydney
Publications established in 1831
Daily newspapers published in Australia
Newspapers on Trove
Nine Entertainment | [
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259085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franconian%20Jura | Franconian Jura | The Franconian Jura ( , , or ) is an upland in Bavaria, Germany. Located between two rivers, the Danube in the south and the Main in the north, its peaks reach elevations of up to and it has an area of some 7053.8 km2.
Large portions of the Franconian Jura are part of the Altmühl Valley Nature Park. The scenic meanders and gorges formed by the river Altmühl draw tourists to visit the region.
Geologically, the Franconian Jura is the eastern continuation of the Swabian Jura. The mountain chains are separated from each other by the impact crater of the Nördlinger Ries.
The northern part of the Franconian Jura is known as Little Switzerland ().
References
Central Uplands
Geography of Bavaria
Mountain ranges of Bavaria
Mountain ranges of Germany | [
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259086 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang%20Shangkun | Yang Shangkun | Yang Shangkun (3 August 1907 – 14 September 1998) was a Chinese Communist military and political leader, President of the People's Republic of China (de jure head of state) from 1988 to 1993, and one of the Eight Elders that dominated the Party after the death of Mao Zedong.
Born to a prosperous land-owning family, Yang studied politics at Shanghai University and Marxist philosophy and revolutionary tactics at Moscow Sun Yat-sen University. He went on to hold high office under both Mao Zedong and later Deng Xiaoping; from 1945 to 1965 he was Director of the General Office and from 1945 to 1956 Secretary–General of the Central Military Commission (CMC). In these positions, Yang oversaw much of the day-to-day running of government and Party affairs, both political and military, amassing a great deal of bureaucratic power by controlling things like the flow of documents, the keeping of records, and the approval and allocation of funds. Purged, arrested and imprisoned during the Cultural Revolution, he spent 12 years in prison but staged a comeback in 1978, becoming a key ally of Deng, serving as Mayor of Guangzhou (1979–81), and returning to the CMC as Secretary–General and also Vice Chairman (1981–89), before assuming the Presidency.
One of the earliest supporters of Chinese economic reform, Yang justified it with references to Vladimir Lenin and the New Economic Policy. However, he strongly opposed any form of political reform, and, despite his own suffering during the Cultural Revolution, actively defended the image and record of Mao. Together with his half-brother, General Yang Baibing, Yang Shangkun effectively controlled the PLA for the entire 1980s and into the early 1990s. Despite his initial hesitation, he went on to play a leading role in crushing the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and was actually the one who planned and supervised the operations to clear the square and surrounding streets. Yang's downfall came in 1993, when he failed in his attempts to undermine the new leadership of Jiang Zemin and to retain control of the PLA, and was forced to retire by a coalition of Party elders, including Deng himself.
Early political and military activities
Yang was born to a land-owning family in Shuangjiang, Tongnan County, near the city of Chongqing in Sichuan, and studied at Chengdu Higher Normal School and its affiliated secondary school in 1920–25, and then returned to Chongqing. His older brother, Yang Yingong was one of the founding Executive Committee members of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in Sichuan, and influenced Yang Shangkun's ideological orientation. After joining the Communist Youth League in 1925, and the CCP in 1926, he enrolled in Shanghai University, where he studied politics. Later in 1927 Yang traveled to the Soviet Union and enrolled at the Moscow Sun Yat-sen University, where he studied Marxist theory and techniques of political organization and mobilization.
Yang was a member of a group of Chinese students who studied in Moscow and returned to China to take a leading role in the CCP, later known as the 28 Bolsheviks. The Comintern sent Yang back to China to assist and support other pro-Comintern CCP leaders, including Bo Gu, Wang Ming, and Zhang Guotao, but Yang and some of the other 28 Bolsheviks, including Ye Jianying, supported Mao Zedong instead. On his return from Moscow in 1931, Yang Shangkun started his military career in the Chinese Red Army, serving as Director of the Political Department in the 1st Red Army and moving around different battle areas under the command of Zhu De and Zhou Enlai. In January 1934, he was appointed Political Commissar of the 3rd Red Army, commanded by Peng Dehuai.
Second Sino–Japanese War and Chinese Civil War
During the Second Sino–Japanese War Yang Shangkun was Deputy Secretary of the CCP North China Bureau and worked with Liu Shaoqi behind the Japanese lines. In January 1939, Yang became Secretary of the North China Bureau and worked with Zhu De and Peng Dehuai to cooperate with the military operations of the Eighth Route Army, including the Hundred Regiments Campaign. In 1941, Yang returned to Yan'an and worked as personal aide to Mao. In 1945, he became the Director of the General Office of the Party, as well as Secretary–General of the Central Military Commission, that was chaired by Mao himself. In these capacities, he was responsible for much of the day-to-day administration of the Party's military and political work, and carried out this duty with much success.
In the subsequent Chinese Civil War 1949, Yang was Commander of the "Central Security Force" protecting the Party Center, and, in his roles as Director of the General Office and Secretary–General of the CMC, played a significant role in the ultimate Communist victory and the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949.
People's Republic
After the founding of the PRC in October 1949 and until the outbreak of the Cultural Revolution in 1966, Yang Shangkun was one of very few CCP leaders who worked closely with Mao Zedong at Zhongnanhai on a daily basis. As the Director of the General Office and Secretary–General of the CMC, he oversaw much of the actual day-to-day work of most party activities and military affairs. On the eve of the Cultural Revolution Yang was identified as a supporter of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, and was purged as a counter-revolutionary. After being ejected from the Communist Party and removed from all positions, Yang was persecuted by Red Guards, who accused Yang of planting a covert listening device to spy on Mao, the same accusation shared by Deng Xiaoping.
Yang remained in prison until Mao died and Deng Xiaoping rose to power, in 1978. After Deng gained control of the military he recalled Yang, raised him to the position of general, and gave Yang the responsibility of reforming China's army, which Deng considered as larger than necessary and engaged in too many non-military activities. Deng raised Yang to the position of Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission in order to give Yang the authority to complete these reforms (Deng was chairman). In 1982 Yang was also appointed as a full member of the Politburo.
Yang had a close friendship with Deng and shared many of Deng's long-term economic goals, but was far less enthusiastic about the agenda of political liberalization promoted by other senior leaders favored by Deng, including Hu Yaobang, Zhao Ziyang, Wan Li, and Hu Qili. Yang justified his support of economic reforms by referencing Vladimir Lenin and the New Economic Policy, and he emphasized that the Communist Party should still enjoy overall control of the economy, even in private businesses, through the system of Party committees in all enterprises. He also always defended Mao Zedong as a great and historic leader, despite his own suffering at the hands of radical Maoists.
In the early 1980s, Yang explicitly backed the efforts of a foreign China historian, Harrison Salisbury, to compile an account of the Long March by conducting extensive interviews with surviving Long March participants. The resulting book, Long March: The Untold Story, has been praised by China scholars as an excellent synthesis of first-hand oral sources. Within China, many Chinese veterans asked why it took a foreigner to produce such a book.
Presidency
In 1988, Yang was appointed President of the People's Republic of China replacing Li Xiannian. Under the conventions of the 1982 Constitution, the President's role was largely symbolic, with formal executive power wielded by the General Secretary of the Communist Party and the Premier of the State Council. In practice, party and state leaders still deferred to paramount leader Deng Xiaoping, who, however, was not all-powerful, as he still had to compromise on some policies with other party elders such as Chen Yun and Li Xiannian.
Yang's role during the Tiananmen protests of 1989 caused a fundamental shift in China's political structure. Yang was at first sympathetic to the students and sided with General Secretary Zhao Ziyang in supporting them. As the Vice Chairman and Secretary-General of the Central Military Commission, he even praised Zhao's position by claiming that “[Zhao] Ziyang’s notion of pacifying the student movement through democracy and law is good and seems quite workable right now.” Zhao's position was contested by Premier Li Peng and Party elder Li Xiannian, who wanted to use force to suppress the student demonstrations, and who engaged in an internal power struggle with Zhao to convince other senior leaders of their position.
After the hard-liners gained the upper hand, Yang changed his position and supported the use of force to suppress student protestors. In May 1989 Yang appeared on Chinese television, where he denounced the student demonstrations as "anarchy" and defended the imposition of martial law on several areas of Beijing affected by the protests. Yang then mobilized and planned the suppression of the demonstrators, an operation in which several hundred protesters were killed on 4 June and subsequent days. Yang's nephew, Yang Jianhua, commanded the highly disciplined 27th Group Army, which was brought into Beijing from Hebei to suppress the demonstrators.
Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, Yang Shangkun was hugely influential within the People's Liberation Army. Yang and his younger half-brother, Yang Baibing, purged China's military of any officers who had not sufficiently supported the government's violent crackdown on students. Yang then began an organized attempt to fill as many senior military positions as possible with his supporters, generating an attitude of resentment among other military elders, who accused Yang of attempting to dominate the army and possibly challenge Deng's authority by developing a "Yang family clique". When Yang resisted the rise of Jiang Zemin (who had been the Party secretary of Shanghai), whom Deng began to groom to succeed him as paramount leader, party elders, including Deng himself forced Yang to retire in 1993, along with some of his family.
According to Voice of America, before Yang Shangkun died in 1998, he allegedly told army doctor Jiang Yanyong that the crackdown on 4 June had been the most serious mistake committed by Li Peng and the Communist Party in its history, a mistake that Yang believed he could not correct, but which he believed would eventually be corrected.
Yang died on 14 September 1998, aged 91. His official obituary described him as "a great proletarian revolutionary, a statesman, a military strategist, a staunch Marxist, an outstanding leader of the party, the state, and the people's army."
Personal life
In 1929, he married Li Bozhao, a woman who participated in the Long March alongside Yang. They had three sons.
See also
Politics of the People's Republic of China
References
Citations
Sources
Domes, Jurgen. Peng Te-huai: The Man and the Image, London: C. Hurst & Company. 1985. .
Eckholm, Erik. "Yang Shangkun, 91, Ex-China Chief, Dies". The New York Times. 15 September 1998. Retrieved 28 January 2012.
Teiwes, Frederick C. "Peng Dehuai and Mao Zedong". The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs. University of Chicago Press. No. 16, July 1986. pp. 81–98. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
Xinhua. "The Glorious, Militant Life of Yang Shangkun" The People's Daily. Retrieved 28 January 2012.
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1907 births
1998 deaths
People's Republic of China politicians from Chongqing
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Chongqing
Mayors of Guangzhou
Presidents of the People's Republic of China
Victims of the Cultural Revolution
Beijing Foreign Studies University faculty
Moscow Sun Yat-sen University alumni
20th-century Chinese politicians
Members of the 13th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 12th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
Vice Chairpersons of the National People's Congress | [
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259087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Russell%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Bedford | John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford | John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford (c. 1485 – 14 March 1555) was an English royal minister in the Tudor era. He served variously as Lord High Admiral and Lord Privy Seal. Among the lands and property he was given by Henry VIII after the Dissolution of the Monasteries, were the Abbey and town of Tavistock, and the area that is now Covent Garden. Russell is the ancestor of all subsequent Earls and Dukes of Bedford and Earls Russell, including John Russell, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and philosopher Bertrand Russell.
Origins
John Russell was born ca. 1485 probably at Berwick-by-Swyre, Dorset, the son of Sir James Russell (d. Nov. 1505) and his first wife Alice Wyse, daughter of Thomas Wyse of Sidenham, near Tavistock, Devon. James's father was possibly Sir William Russell, but more likely his brother John Russell (d. pre November, 1505) by his wife Alice Froxmere, daughter of John Froxmere of Droitwich, Worcestershire, because his coat of arms quarters Froxmere. The elder John Russell was the son of Sir Henry Russell (d. 1463/4), and Elizabeth Herring, daughter of John Herring of Chaldon Herring. Henry, great-grandfather of the 1st Earl, was a substantial wine merchant and shipper, who represented Weymouth in the House of Commons four times.
The Russell pedigree can only be traced back with certainty to Henry Russell's father, Sir Stephen Russell, the evidence being contained in a deed of April 1440 in which Henry Russell made over to his daughter Christina and her husband Walter Cheverell of Chauntemarle, a tenement in Dorchester to be held of himself and his heirs upon rent of a red rose. In the deed Henry referred to himself as son and heir of Sir Stephen Russell and of Alice his wife. This Alice appears to have been the heir general of the De la Tour family, which had long owned Berwick-by-Swyre, and by whom therefore the manor was brought into the Russell family.
Both Sir Henry and Sir Stephen were referred to as Gascoigne as well as Russell, possibly due to their wine trade with France, as in a 1442 pardon under the Privy Seal referring to Henry Russell of Weymouth, merchant, alias Henry Gascoign, gentleman. It was long believed in the noble Russell family, certainly by the 2nd Earl of Bedford, that the family was descended from the ancient family of Russell of Kingston Russell in Dorset, three miles northeast of Berwick, which descent was declared unproven by Gladys Scott Thomson in her Two Centuries of Family History, London, 1930, an exhaustive and scholarly work on the early pedigree of the Earls of Bedford. (For a disambiguation of the Bedford Russells and the Russells of Kingston Russell, see Kingston Russell).
Career
In 1506 John Russell was of service to Archduke Philip of Austria and Juana his wife (King and Queen of Castile) when they were shipwrecked off Weymouth, and escorted the royal couple to the English court in London. He was one of the most accomplished gentlemen of his time and so impressed them by his gracious manners that they praised him highly to King Henry VII. He became a Gentleman of the Privy Chamber to Henry VII in 1507 and to his son and successor Henry VIII in 1509, who employed him in various military and diplomatic missions during the War of the League of Cambrai. He was at the taking of Thérouanne and Tournai. He was knighted on 2 July 1522 after losing an eye at the taking of Morlaix in Brittany, and he witnessed the Battle of Pavia.
Following his marriage in the Spring of 1526 he made alterations to his ancestral seat Chenies Manor House to reflect his new good fortunes. He now stood in favour with the King and Cardinal Wolsey, though he would not suffer disgrace at the fall of the latter.
He was made High Sheriff of Dorset and Somerset in 1528 and served as Member of Parliament for Buckinghamshire 1529–1536, retaining the royal favour despite the antipathy of Anne Boleyn. Late in 1536, he was made a Privy Counsellor, and helped to suppress the Pilgrimage of Grace.
The fall and execution of Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter, left a power vacuum in the south-western counties of England, which Russell was called upon to fill. On 9 March 1538/1539 he was created Baron Russell, and appointed Lord President of the Council of the West. In the next month, he was made a Knight of the Garter. In July 1539 he was made High Steward of Cornwall, and Lord Warden of the Stannaries.
The Council of the West proved unsuccessful as an instrument of government, and did not survive the fall of Cromwell. Russell, however, remained a great magnate in the western counties, and obtained the office of Lord High Admiral in 1540. (The previous holder, the Earl of Southampton, replaced Cromwell as Lord Privy Seal.) After Henry VIII met Anne of Cleves at Rochester, the next day he asked Russell if he "thought her fair". Russell replied with his natural diplomacy and prudence that he took her "not to be fair, but of a brown complexion". In 1542, Russell himself resigned the Admiralty and succeeded to the Privy Seal on the death of Southampton. He was High Steward of the University of Oxford from 1543 till his death.
During the Italian War of 1542, he unsuccessfully besieged Montreuil in 1544, and was Captain General of the Vanguard of the army for the attack on Boulogne in 1545. He was a close companion of King Henry VIII during the last years of his reign. On Henry's death in 1547, he was one of the executors of the King's will, and one of sixteen counsellors during the minority of his son King Edward VI.
On 21 June 1553 he was one of the twenty-six peers who signed the settlement of the crown on Lady Jane Grey. He was sent to attend King Philip II into England on his arrival from Spain to wed the Queen Mary.
Earldom
He was Lord High Steward at the Coronation of King Edward VI (1547–1553) on 20 February 1547. He was created by that young king (in practice by the Regent) Earl of Bedford on 19 January 1550 for his assistance in carrying out the order of the Council against "images" and for promoting the new religion. In 1552, he was made Lord Lieutenant of Devon.
Marriage and progeny
In the spring of 1526 he married Anne Sapcote, daughter of Sir Guy Sapcote of Huntingdonshire by his wife Margaret Wolston and widow successively of John Broughton (d. 24 January 1518) of Toddington, Bedfordshire, by whom she had a son and three daughters, and secondly of Sir Richard Jerningham (d.1525), by whom she had no issue. By Anne Sapcote he had one child:
Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford (1527–1585), son and heir.
Step-children
The issue of Anne Sapcote by her first husband John Broughton (d. 1518) were as follows:
John Broughton (d. 1528).
Katherine Broughton (d. 23 April 1533), who was the ward firstly of Cardinal Wolsey, and secondly Agnes Howard, Duchess of Norfolk, who arranged the marriage of Katherine, as his first wife, to her eldest son, William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham.
Anne Broughton (d. 16 May 1562), who married, as his second wife, by dispensation dated 24 May 1539, Sir Thomas Cheyney, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. There is a monument to her at Toddington.
Daughter whose name is unknown, and who died between July 1517 and 1529.
Death and burial
Russell died on 14 March 1554/5 and was buried at his ancestral manor of Chenies, Buckinghamshire, in the private Bedford Chapel of the parish church next to Chenies Manor House, his former chief residence. The Dukes of Bedford continue to be buried in this chapel.
His widow, Anne, died on 14 March 1559 and was buried at Chenies 21 March 1559.
Succession
Russell is the ancestor of all subsequent Earls and Dukes of Bedford and Earls Russell, including John Russell, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the philosopher Bertrand Russell.
Properties acquired
On the Dissolution of the Monasteries King Henry VIII granted Russell lands and properties including Tavistock Abbey and Plympton Abbey in Devon, the wealthiest two abbeys in Devon, and the Cistercian Dunkeswell Abbey also in Devon. He was granted the Blackfriars in Exeter, on the site of which he built his opulent townhouse known as Bedford House, from where he conducted his duties as Lord Lieutenant of Devon. These grants made him the largest landowner in Devon. In Bedfordshire he acquired the site of Woburn Abbey which he made his chief seat. In London he was granted seven acres (28,000 m2) called "Long Acre", and the kitchen garden of Westminster Abbey, which is now the site of Covent Garden. The present Duke of Bedford (or his trustees, the "Bedford trustees") retain still in 2013 several acres of prime London property comprising the Bedford Estate centred on Bedford Square and Tavistock Square.
Garter stall plate
John Russell's Garter stall plate survives affixed to the back of his stall in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The shield shows quarterly of four: 1st grand quarter: quarterly 1st & 4th: Argent, a lion rampant gules on a chief sable three escallops of the first (Russell); 2nd & 3rd: Azure, a tower argent (de la Tour); 2nd Gules, three herrings hauriant argent (Herringham); 3rd Sable, a griffin segreant between three crosses crosslet fitchy argent (Froxmere); 4th: Sable, three chevronnels ermine in dexter chief a crescent or for difference (Wyse). Crest: A goat passant argent; Supporters: Dexter: A goat argent, Sinister: A lion rampant gules Motto: Plus que Jamais ("More than Never"). Inscription in French: Du tres noble et puisant Seigneur Johan Conte de Bedford Baron Russell Chevalier du tres noble Ordre de la Jarretiere et Garduen du Prive Seau, fust enstalle a Wyndsor le XVIII jure de Maye l'an du Roy Henry VIII de son reigne XXXI l'an 1539 ("Of the very noble and powerful Lord John, Earl of Bedford, Baron Russell, Knight of the Very Noble Order of the Garter and Keeper of the Privy Seal was installed at Windsor the 18th day of May the year of King Henry VIII of his reign the 31st, the year 1539").
Footnotes
References
. A severe and detailed critique of the work of Wiffen.
(Includes an early pedigree of the Earls of Bedford, and builds on J. Horace Round's critique of Wiffen)
Fatally flawed in its erroneous linkage of the Russell Earls of Bedford with the "baronial" Russells of Kingston Russell.
External links
Will of Lady Anne, Countess of Bedford, proved 21 March 1559, PROB 11/42A/512, National Archives Retrieved 30 May 2013
John Russell at Tudor Place
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1485 births
1555 deaths
John
John
High Sheriffs of Somerset
High Sheriffs of Dorset
English MPs 1529–1536
Knights of the Garter
Lord High Stewards
Lord-Lieutenants of Cornwall
Lord-Lieutenants of Devon
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Lords Privy Seal
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15th-century English people
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Peers of England created by Henry VIII
Court of Henry VIII | [
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259089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Fawcett | Brian Fawcett | Brian Fawcett (born May 13, 1944) is a Canadian writer and cultural analyst who lives in Toronto, Ontario.
Fawcett was born and raised in Prince George, in northwest British Columbia, and graduated from Simon Fraser University as a Woodrow Wilson Fellow. Before becoming a full-time writer, he worked as an urban planner. In 2001, he co-founded (with Stan Persky) the website www.dooneyscafe.com (named after a restaurant on Toronto's Bloor Street West), which is described as "a news service" and to which he is a regular contributor. He has also taught cultural literacy in maximum security prisons. In 2003 Virtual Clearcut: Or, the Way Things Are in My Hometown won the Pearson Writers' Trust Non-Fiction Prize (in 2011 Hilary Weston began sponsoring the Writers' Trust Prize).
Bibliography
Fiction
The Opening: Prince George, Finally (1974)
My Career with the Leafs and Other Stories (1982)
Capital Tales (1984)
The Secret Journal of Alexandre Mackenzie (1985)
Cambodia: A Book For People Who Find Television too Slow (1986)
Public Eye: An Investigation Into the Disappearance of the World (1990)
Gender Wars: A Novel and Some Conversation About Sex and Gender (1994)
The Last of the Lumbermen (2013)
A Blue Spruce Christmas (2010)
Poetry
Five Books of a Northmanual (1971)
Friends (1971)
Five Books of A Norhmanual (1972)
The Opening (1974)
Permanent Relationships (1975)
The Second Life (1976)
Creatures of State (1977)
Tristram's Book (1981)
Aggressive Transport (1982)
Non-fiction
Unusual Circumstances, Interesting Times and Other Impolite Interventions (1991)
The Compact Garden: Discovering the Pleasures of Planting in a Small Space (1992)
The Disbeliever's Dictionary: A Completely Disrespectful Lexicon of Canada Today (1997)
Virtual Clearcut, or The Way Things Are in My Hometown (2003)
Local Matters: A Defence of Dooney's Café and other Non-Globalized Places, People, and Ideas (2003)
Human Happiness (2011)
References
Further reading
Wiersema, Robert. British Columbia National Award for Canadian Non-Fiction. Introduction for Brian Fawcett. British Columbia Achievement Foundation.
Doyle, MF. interview Ten Questions, with Brian Fawcett Open Book : Toronto.
Interview Five Questions with Brian Fawcett Open Book : Toronto, 2012
External links
www.dooneyscafe.com
Brian Fawcett fonds (1996.2) at Northern BC Archives
Living people
1944 births
Canadian male novelists
Canadian male poets
Writers from British Columbia
Writers from Toronto
People from Prince George, British Columbia
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian male writers
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian male writers | [
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259098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20Modell | Art Modell | Arthur Bertram Modell (June 23, 1925 – September 6, 2012) was an American businessman, entrepreneur and National Football League team owner. He owned the Cleveland Browns franchise for 35 years and established the Baltimore Ravens franchise, which he owned for nine years.
Assuming control of the Browns franchise in 1961, Modell was a key figure in helping promote the NFL and was initially popular in Cleveland for his active role in the community and his efforts to improve the team. However, he made controversial actions during his ownership, which included the firing of Paul Brown, the franchise's first coach and namesake, and the release of Jim Brown from the roster. In 1995, Modell faced widespread scorn in Cleveland when he attempted to relocate the Browns to Baltimore. Under the terms of an NFL-brokered settlement, Modell left the Browns' name and heritage in Cleveland, which was assumed by a new Browns team in 1999. In return, Modell retained the contracts of all Browns personnel and reconstituted his organization as the Baltimore Ravens, who are officially reckoned as a 1996 expansion team. Praised in Baltimore for returning football to the city after the departure of the Colts, Modell remains a controversial figure in Cleveland due to the relocation and, in particular, for his decision-making around the management of Cleveland Stadium and the construction of a replacement.
Early life and education
Modell was born to a Jewish family in Brooklyn, New York. His father George was a wine sales manager who went bankrupt after the stock market crash of 1929 and later died when Modell was 14. Modell attended New Utrecht High School. At the age of 15, Modell left high school to help support his family. His first job was cleaning the hulls of ships in a Brooklyn shipyard.
In 1943, when he was 18, he joined the US Army Air Corps. After his service during World War II, he enrolled in a New York City television school under the G.I. Bill. In 1947, he founded his own production company with a fellow student and in 1949, they produced one of the first daytime shows in the country, Market Melodies, dedicated to cooking and decorating. Modell sold the idea of his show to the Grand Union grocery store chain and Modell installed televisions, at his expense, in the aisles of the chain's stores where the show soon became very popular. At the time, very few households had televisions so the store format was wildly successful. In 1954, using the lucrative Grand Union account as leverage, he was hired as a senior account executive at the advertising company L.H. Hartman Co. in New York City, eventually becoming a partner. Formed after the Prohibition era, L.H. Hartman was primarily involved in liquor advertising. In 1958, Modell bought an upstate New York champagne maker, Gold Seal Vineyards Inc. In 1960, L.H. Hartman was dissolved, and Modell again used his Grand Union account to land a job as senior vice president at the advertising firm Kastor, Hilton, Chesley, Clifford & Atherton.
As Cleveland Browns owner (1961–1995)
During the 1940s and 1950s, Modell worked in advertising, public relations, and television production in New York City. He purchased the Cleveland Browns in 1961 for $4 million, investing only $250,000 of his own money. He borrowed $2.7 million and found partners to cover the rest.
Coach Paul Brown's firing (1963)
In the early stages of Modell's ownership of the team, a rift began to grow between head coach Paul Brown and some players such as Milt Plum and Jim Brown, who openly questioned Brown's coaching methods and demeanor. Players took concerns to the new owner Modell, who they could better relate to than the older, more disciplinarian head coach. In the 1962 off-season, Brown traded away all-pro Bobby Mitchell and first-round draft pick Leroy Jackson for Heisman Trophy winner Ernie Davis without Modell's knowledge. Davis was shortly thereafter diagnosed with terminal leukemia, and some doctors felt that Davis playing football would not exacerbate his condition. He began a conditioning program in preparation to play in the regular season and desired to be a part of the team. Brown and Modell's working relationship was permanently strained after Brown then, against Modell's wishes, continuously refused to play Davis. Davis died the following year without ever playing a snap. Modell fired Brown on January 9, 1963, and named Brown's assistant, Blanton Collier, as the new head coach on January 16, 1963.
Browns win NFL Championship Game (1964)
After three non-playoff seasons, the 1964 Browns' team would finish 10–3–1 and appear in the 1964 NFL Championship Game against a heavily favored Don Shula coached Baltimore Colts team with Pro Football Hall of Fame quarterback Johnny Unitas as its signal caller. The Browns beat the Colts 27–0 in Cleveland Municipal Stadium. This particular Browns team consisted of many players initially drafted and acquired by Brown. During the next 30 years in Cleveland, not a single Modell team won the league title, although they would go on to appear in a total of six NFL/AFC championship title games from 1965 - 1995. Prior to Modell's arrival, the Browns had dominated the NFL and the AAFC, winning seven championships in 17 years.
Modell's team promotions
Using his background in advertising to market the team, Modell showed a flair for promotions, with one popular innovation coming in 1962 by scheduling pro football preseason doubleheaders at Cleveland Stadium. Modell also became active in NFL leadership, serving as NFL President and using his television connections to help negotiate the league's increasingly lucrative television contracts. And he was willing to provide his team as an opponent for both the first prime time Thanksgiving game in 1966 and the opening Monday Night Football broadcast in 1970.
Community involvement in Cleveland area
Modell took an active role in Cleveland community life and was a leading fundraiser for charities and various Republican Party candidates. He married TV soap opera star Patricia Breslin in 1969, having previously been a well-known bachelor and man about town. For many years he was able to disarm newspaper and TV reporters with his quick wit. For example, with regard to the NFL's innovative policy of sharing all network television revenue on an equal basis per team, so that the Green Bay Packers and New York Giants each got an equal slice of the revenue, Modell joked that the NFL is run by “a bunch of fat-cat Republicans who vote socialist on football.”
Player contract battles
In 1967, five African American members of the Browns involved in a contract dispute refused to report to training camp. Modell eventually traded or released four of the players, with only standout running back Leroy Kelly staying. Kelly would go on to "play out his option" but the restrictive nature of free agency in the NFL at the time severely limited his options. Subsequent contract battles with defensive end Jack Gregory in 1972 and second-round draft pick Tom Skladany in 1977 only served to damage Modell's image among Cleveland fans. Feeling that the constant sellouts the team had enjoyed should be used to bolster the team, fan animosity manifested itself with anti-Modell stadium banners that were quickly removed by Cleveland Stadium management.
As Municipal Stadium landlord (1973–1995)
Modell as head of Stadium Corp. (1973)
Modell took control of Cleveland Municipal Stadium in 1973, which had been owned by the City of Cleveland but had become too expensive for the city to operate or maintain. He worked out a deal with the city whereby his newly formed entity, dubbed Stadium Corp., would rent the stadium from the City for $1 per year, assume all operating and repair costs and would sublease the stadium to its two primary tenants, the Browns and the Cleveland Indians, Cleveland's franchise in the American League of Major League Baseball.
Cleveland Indians baseball
As head of Stadium Corp., Modell was also the landlord of the Indians organization. This was a sound business decision even though the Indians played poorly and drew small crowds throughout much of the 1970s and 1980s. The Browns who were paying rent to both themselves and Modell, by constructing loges in the ballpark, generated significant cash flow from the loge rentals not shared with the Indians. Modell later claimed the loge rentals were not profitable as he had financed their construction at the prevailing high interest rates, although he did not explain why the rental income that was earned was not used to offset the debt.
Indians grow dissatisfied with Modell
The Indians organization became dissatisfied with Modell's Stadium Corp. as its landlord. Modell did not share the loge revenues earned from baseball games with the Indians. Eventually the Indians persuaded City of Cleveland and Cuyahoga County voters to fund a new ballpark (which became known as Jacobs Field) through new taxes.
Modell's dissatisfaction with Jacobs Field
In turn, Modell was dissatisfied with the Indians' new ballpark because Stadium Corp.'s suite rental revenue decreased once Jacobs Field opened. Many suite customers switched their business from Cleveland Stadium's older suites to Jacobs Field's newer suites, due to the Indians' new-found success and popularity in the mid-1990s and because Modell's Stadium Corp. refused to decrease the annual rent for the suites even though the events for which the suites could be used decreased substantially (81 home games) with the loss of the Indians as a tenant.
Gries Sports Enterprises lawsuit
In 1979, Stadium Corp. and Modell were implicated in a lawsuit brought by Browns minority shareholder Robert Gries of Gries Sports Enterprises, who successfully alleged that Stadium Corp. manipulated the Browns' accounting records to help Stadium Corp. and Modell absorb a loss on real property that had been purchased in the Cleveland suburb of Strongsville as a potential site for a new stadium. The lawsuit, Gries Sports Enterprises v. Cleveland Browns Football Co., 26 Ohio St. 3d 15 (1986), was a leading Ohio case concerning a corporate officer's fiduciary duty toward shareholders.
Gateway Sports project clash
Modell was offered a place as a tenant in Cleveland's new Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex. However, he instead asked for improvements to Municipal Stadium. Because Modell's Stadium Corp. still controlled Municipal Stadium, it may have made more business sense for Modell to try to keep the Indians at Municipal, particularly as the baseball team began to show signs of improvement both on the playing field and at the box office. The Indians went on to play in the World Series in 1995 and 1997, and sold out 455 straight games at Jacobs Field from 1995 until 2001. The City of Cleveland agreed to make the improvements to Municipal Stadium which were to be funded through an extension of the sin tax, which was instead used to provide funding for the Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex.
Modell relocates to Baltimore (1996)
While the City of Cleveland, Ohio, wanted to improve Municipal Stadium, Modell issued a public moratorium on discussions relating to the stadium issue for the future of his franchise. It was during this time that Modell entered into secret discussions with the State of Maryland to move the franchise to Baltimore for the 1996 season. The announcement of the move occurred several days before the public referendum on the extension of the sin tax that would fund the improvements on Municipal Stadium as Modell had originally requested. Modell wrote a letter to Cleveland's mayor Michael R. White and Ohio's governor George Voinovich saying that the passing of the referendum may not be enough to keep the Browns. Modell had lost $21 million in the previous two seasons. Modell also wanted that information to be made public. Commentators have speculated that the timing of the announcement was to cause the referendum to go down in defeat and thus allow Modell to make the case that he was not receiving the public support he needed to remain viable in Cleveland. Nonetheless, the referendum was passed by a wide margin. Modell was assisted in the move by Alfred Lerner, who would go on to become the new owner of the reactivated Cleveland Browns franchise in 1998. Modell's move returned the NFL to Baltimore for the first time since the Colts left for Indianapolis after the 1983 season. The reaction in Cleveland was hostile. Modell had promised never to move the team. He had publicly criticized the Baltimore Colts' move to Indianapolis, and had testified in favor of the NFL in court cases where the league unsuccessfully tried to stop Al Davis from moving the Oakland Raiders from Oakland to Los Angeles.
The City of Cleveland vs. Cleveland Browns
The City of Cleveland sued Modell, the Browns, Stadium Corp, the Maryland Stadium Authority, and the authority's director, John A. Moag Jr., in City of Cleveland v. Cleveland Browns, et al., Cuyahoga County Court of Common Pleas Case No. CV-95-297833, for breaching the Browns' lease, which required the team to play its home games at Cleveland Stadium for several years beyond 1995.
Browns franchise deactivated, to resume in '99
Eventually the NFL and the parties worked out a deal. The Browns' franchise would be deactivated for three years. Modell initially tried to take the Browns name with him to Baltimore. However, as part of a negotiated settlement, Modell agreed that he would leave behind the Browns' name, colors and heritage (including team records) for a replacement franchise, in the form of either a new team or a relocated franchise. In return, Modell was allowed to take the franchise rights, players and organization to Baltimore to form a new team, the Ravens. Cleveland received a loan from the NFL to help with the cost of a new stadium. The Browns returned to the NFL in 1999 with Lerner, a friend of Modell as well as a minority owner of Modell's original franchise and MBNA CEO and owner, assuming ownership, after Lerner outbid other interested parties for the right to buy the reactivated Browns' franchise.
The Browns' record under Modell
During Modell's 35 seasons as team owner the Browns qualified for the postseason 17 times, winning 11 division titles and the NFL championship in 1964. The team's overall regular season record during Modell's tenure was 252–233–10, (winning percentage .519), and its post-season record was 7 wins against 14 losses (winning percentage .333).
Impact of move
The move fueled a proliferation of 12 new stadiums throughout the NFL. Using the NFL-City of Cleveland agreement's promise to supply a team to Cleveland by 1999, several NFL franchises coerced their respective cities to build new stadiums with public funds. Such franchises include the Broncos, Eagles, Seahawks, Buccaneers, Bengals, Lions, Cardinals and Colts.
The Minnesota Twins signed a deal with Hennepin County, Minnesota, for Target Field in 2006, where they agreed to a provision that was later codified into law which allows the state of Minnesota the right of first refusal to buy the team if it is ever sold, and requires that the name, colors, World Series trophies, etc. remain in Minnesota if the Twins are ever moved out of state, a deal similar to what Modell agreed to with the city of Cleveland during the move.
In December 2005, the San Jose Earthquakes MLS franchise moved to Houston, Texas, to become the Houston Dynamo. At the time, it was announced by the league that while players and staff would move with the team, the team name, colors, logo, and records (including two championship trophies) would stay in San Jose for when a new expansion team arrives.
In 2008, the Earthquakes returned under the ownership of Lew Wolff, a real estate developer, landowner and part-owner of the Oakland Athletics MLB franchise. There have been discussions about moving the Oakland A's to San Jose (which seem to be hampered by the San Francisco Giants territorial rights to the south Bay Area) although offers to move to the A's to Sacramento, California (where the A's minor league club – the River Cats – are based) have been rejected by the A's ownership.
When the Seattle SuperSonics moved to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, in 2008, the owners agreed to leave the "SuperSonics" name, logo, and colors in Seattle for a possible future NBA franchise; however the items would remain the property of the Oklahoma City team along with other "assets" including championship banners and trophies. The team was subsequently renamed the Oklahoma City Thunder. Both the Thunder and any future Seattle NBA team will also "share" the SuperSonics' history.
Modell was a Hall of Fame finalist in 2001 and a semifinalist in 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, and 2011.
The original Browns were considered one of the NFL's flagship franchises, as well as an institution by many Northern Ohioans. He never returned to Cleveland after 1996. When Browns kicking legend Lou "The Toe" Groza died in 2000, Modell did not appear.
Browns' final game at Municipal Stadium (1995)
When the final game was played in Cleveland Municipal Stadium in 1995, there were more people outside it protesting the move than inside enjoying their last Browns game before the three-year deactivation. The protesters were acknowledged by the NBC announcing crew. Former NFL head coach Mike Ditka said, "...these are some of the best fans in the NFL. I said that when I came here with my Bears. They (the Cleveland sports fans) don't deserve this. If Modell had any sort of sense of dignity he would have sold the team."
As principal owner of Baltimore Ravens (1996–2004)
Former Colts players, fans rally around team
Many Baltimore fans, including several prominent old-time Colts players who lived in the area, considered the Ravens to be the successors of the Baltimore Colts.
Other retired stars, like Art Donovan, had mixed emotions about the Ravens' arrival: happiness that the great fans of the city now had an NFL team to cheer for again, but also sadness that Cleveland had felt the same loss that Baltimore had in 1984, and a neutral view of the new team itself.
Head coaching changes
Upon the team's move in 1996, Modell selected former NFL head coach and offensive guru Ted Marchibroda as its new head coach. Marchibroda, who also had been the head of the Colts when they were in Baltimore during the late 1970s, had coached them the previous three seasons in Indianapolis, and they were fresh off of an appearance in a memorable 1995 AFC Championship loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers.
However, the new Ravens still struggled to be competitive and suffered in mediocrity for the first 3 seasons in Baltimore, missing the playoffs each year. In 1999, they hired former NFL assistant coach Brian Billick as the head coach, replacing Marchibroda. Like Marchibroda, Billick, an Ohio native, had been considered one of the brightest offensive minds among the league's offensive coaches, and also had been considered by Modell as a possible Browns head coaching candidate.
Super Bowl XXXV
In 2000, the Ravens, under the coaching of Billick, qualified for the postseason for the first time, winning the AFC Wild-Card position with a 12–4 record. (Tennessee won their division that year.) Led by a stingy defense anchored by team captain and NFL All-Pro middle linebacker Ray Lewis, and quarterbacked by former Pro-Bowler Trent Dilfer, they would go on to defeat the NFC Champion New York Giants in the Super Bowl, 34–7. Shortly after the Super Bowl XXXV victory, Modell handed the reins of the day-to-day operations of the team over to his son, David. The Ravens qualified again for the postseason in 2001 as defending Super Bowl Champions, and once more in 2003, winning their first division title. The Ravens' regular season record during Modell's tenure as team owner stands at 72–63.
Community involvement in Baltimore area
Modell and his wife, former television actress Patricia Breslin, donated millions of dollars to a variety of charities, most notably the SEED School, a boarding school being developed in Baltimore for disadvantaged youth; Johns Hopkins Hospital; Kennedy Krieger Institute; St. Vincent's Center, a home for abused children; and the House of Ruth, a domestic violence center. Modell received the Generous Heart Award from Dr. Ben Carson Scholarship Foundation, given annually for excellence in the community.
Ravens sold to minority owner Bisciotti
Despite a no-cost stadium lease, as well as retaining all revenues from parking, concessions, and TV, as well as a reported $25 million subsidy from the state of Maryland, Modell's ownership of the Ravens resulted in continual financial hardships for the team. In late 2002, the hardships led the NFL to take the unusual step of directing Modell to sell his franchise.
In 2003, Modell sold the Ravens to minority owner and Maryland businessman Steve Bisciotti; under the deal, Modell retained a small interest (approximately 1% share) upon the team's sale as a legal maneuver to avoid a claim by the Andrews trust, which was controlled by family of a former business adviser who sought to collect an estimated $30 million finder's fee upon Modell's sale of the team. The Andrews trust essentially claimed that under a 1963 agreement, Modell owed a finder's fee for his original purchase of the team which was to be paid when Modell sold his entire interest. In July 2005, Modell prevailed in court and defeated the Andrews trust's claim. At the time of sale, the franchise's worth was estimated at approximately US$600 million.
Soon after Modell reconstituted his organization in Baltimore in 1996, he had sold a small minority interest to Bisciotti. However, Bisciotti had the option to buy the team fully in right (approximately 99%) until March 2004, this upon becoming a minority owner (about 45%) outright in 1999. Bisciotti exercised his purchase option in January 2004. Modell retained his 1% share and an office at the Ravens' headquarters in Owings Mills, Maryland, as a team consultant.
Modell in popular culture
The furious fan reaction to Modell's planned move of the franchise to Baltimore has been lampooned and chronicled in many media circles, particularly in print and television. On the cover of the December 4, 1995, issue of Sports Illustrated titled "Battle for the Browns", there is a cartoon of Modell punching a Browns fan, adorned with a Browns Helmet/dog and dogbone mask, in the stomach. He was portrayed in the 2008 movie The Express: The Ernie Davis Story, which was about Syracuse running back and Browns draftee Ernie Davis.
An episode of The Drew Carey Show (whose title character and titular actor is a native Clevelander) referenced Modell. During a party at Drew's house, which featured many Cleveland personalities, former Browns quarterback Bernie Kosar asks Drew where the bathroom is. Drew directs Kosar to the bathroom, following with the instruction, "Just don't take a Modell."
Personal life
Modell's only marriage was to Patricia Breslin, lasting from 1969 until her death in 2011. He adopted Breslin's two sons, John and David, from her first marriage to actor David Orrick McDearmon (1914–1979). David would later work for the Browns/Ravens' franchise, eventually become team president and CEO before the team's sale in 2004. Modell had been considered one of northeastern Ohio's most eligible bachelors, as well as a man about town, before marrying Patricia. As of 2009, Modell and his wife lived in Cockeysville, Maryland. They also retained residences in nearby Owings Mills, Maryland, where son David lived with his family, and Vero Beach, Florida. They had a total of six grandchildren. Patricia died on October 12, 2011, at the age of 80.
Although Modell later retired and had relinquished control of the Ravens, he is still hated in Cleveland, not only for moving the Browns, but also for his firing of head coach Paul Brown in 1963. Some consider the Browns' move and subsequent lawsuits as having cost Modell a spot in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, which is in Canton, Ohio, 60 miles south of Cleveland and part of the Cleveland television market and Browns' territorial rights.
Modell had a history of coronary disease. He died on September 6, 2012, at Johns Hopkins Hospital at the age of 87 due to natural causes. He hadn't returned to Cleveland before his death.
The Ravens dedicated the 2012 season to Modell. On Week 1, all team members wore an "Art" decal on their helmets, and for the rest of their season, they wore an "Art" patch on the left side of their jerseys. They would go on to win Super Bowl XLVII.
The Sunday following Modell's death was also the opening weekend of the 2012 NFL season. Each team playing a home game was asked to hold a moment of silence in memory of Modell. However, after much discussion, the Browns elected not to hold a moment of silence, but rather a "brief read over the public address system." Finally, at the request of David Modell, the Browns opted not to commemorate or even mention Modell during their pregame festivities to avoid a negative reaction from the team's fans.
On July 23, 2014, a video surfaced on YouTube of an unidentified Browns fan desecrating the grave of Modell wearing a Lyle Alzado jersey by urinating on the grave through a catheter. Baltimore County filed charges for disorderly conduct at the request of Modell's stepson David Modell once the fan was identified. The charges were dropped after the fan apologized and appeared on David Modell's radio show.
References
External links
1925 births
2012 deaths
American sports businesspeople
Philanthropists from New York (state)
Baltimore Ravens owners
Cleveland Browns owners
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
People from Brooklyn
New Utrecht High School alumni
Jewish American sportspeople
Jewish American military personnel
20th-century American philanthropists
21st-century American Jews | [
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] |
259102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca%20wine | Coca wine | Coca wine is an alcoholic beverage combining wine with cocaine. One popular brand was Vin Mariani, developed in 1863 by French-Corsican chemist and entrepreneur Angelo Mariani.
At the end of the 19th century, the fear of drug abuse made coca-based drinks less popular. This led to the prohibition of cocaine in the United States in 1914 via the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act, and the removal of cocaine from coca wine, though coca leaf remained. Coca wine itself became illegal in the United States when its other main drug, alcohol, was banned just a few years later with Eighteenth Amendment in 1920.
Related beverages
In Atlanta, John Pemberton, a pharmacist, developed a beverage based on Vin Mariani, called Pemberton's French Wine Coca. It proved popular among American consumers. In 1886, when Georgia introduced Prohibition, Pemberton had to replace the wine in his recipe with non-alcoholic syrup. The new recipe became Coca-Cola.
Physiological effects
The combination of cocaine and alcohol leads to the formation of cocaethylene in the body. Studies suggest the compound decreases the feelings of drunkenness from alcohol alone and heightens euphoric sensations, but is also potentially cardiotoxic, more so than either cocaine or alcohol alone.
References
External links
University of Buffalo "Before Prohibition: Images from the preprohibition era when many psychotropic substances were legally available in America and Europe" Addiction Research Unit
Cocaine
Mixed drinks
Wine
Polysubstance alcoholic drinks | [
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259105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence%20of%20irrelevant%20alternatives | Independence of irrelevant alternatives | The independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA), also known as binary independence or the independence axiom, is an axiom of decision theory and various social sciences. The term is used in different connotation in several contexts. Although it always attempts to provide an account of rational individual behavior or aggregation of individual preferences, the exact formulation differs widely in both language and exact content.
Perhaps the easiest way to understand the axiom is how it pertains to casting a ballot. There the axiom says that if Charlie (the irrelevant alternative) enters a race between Alice and Bob, with Alice (leader) liked better than Bob (runner-up), then the individual voter who likes Charlie less than Alice will not switch their vote from Alice to Bob. Because of this, a violation of IIA is commonly referred to as the "spoiler effect": support for Charlie "spoils" the election for Alice, while it "logically" should not have. After all, Alice was liked better than Bob, and Charlie was liked less than Alice.
In collective decision making contexts, the axiom takes a more refined form, and is mathematically intimately tied with Condorcet methods, the Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem, and the Arrow Impossibility theorem. They all have to do with cyclical majorities between ranked sets, and the related proofs take the same basic form. Behavioral economics has shown the axiom to be commonly violated by humans.
The many forms of IIA
In individual choice theory, IIA sometimes refers to Chernoff's condition or Sen's α (alpha):
if an alternative x is chosen from a set T, and x is also an element of a subset S of T, then x must be chosen from S. That is, eliminating some of the unchosen alternatives shouldn't affect the selection of x as the best option.
In social choice theory, Arrow's IIA is one of the conditions in Arrow's impossibility theorem, which states that it is impossible to aggregate individual rank-order preferences ("votes") satisfying IIA in addition to certain other reasonable conditions. Arrow defines IIA thus:
The social preferences between alternatives x and y depend only on the individual preferences between x and y.
In social choice theory, IIA is defined as:
If A is selected over B out of the choice set {A,B} by a voting rule for given voter preferences of A, B, and an unavailable third alternative X, then if only preferences for X change, the voting rule must not lead to Bs being selected over A.
In voting theory this often happens because of perverse incentives caused by the voting method. But in fact people violate the axiom for psychological reasons as well.
For example in microeconomics, the axiom is further connected to the theory of revealed preference and formalised instrumental rationality: in neoclassical economics it is generally held to be true, as a basic, predictive part of the framework, and something which theoretically stops Dutch books from happening. However, since it is empirically speaking either unsound or at best a crude approximation of live human behavior, the axiom continues to evoke lively debate. Not the least because it can further be argued that in order for a person to be rational, they should abide by the axiom—thus making the axiom also a matter of moral philosophy and axiology.
Voting theory
In voting systems, independence from irrelevant alternatives is often interpreted as, if one candidate (X) would win an election, and if a new candidate (Y) were added to the ballot, then either X or Y would win the election.
Approval voting, range voting, and majority judgment satisfy the IIA criterion if it is assumed that voters rate candidates individually and independently of knowing the available alternatives in the election, using their own absolute scale. This assumption implies that some voters having meaningful preferences in an election with only two alternatives will necessarily cast a vote which has little or no voting power, or necessarily abstain. If it is assumed to be at least possible that any voter having preferences might not abstain, or vote their favorite and least favorite candidates at the top and bottom ratings respectively, then these systems fail IIA. Allowing either of these conditions alone causes failure. Another cardinal system, cumulative voting, does not satisfy the criterion regardless of either assumption.
An alternative interpretation for the cardinal case is that the ballots themselves pass IIA (i.e. altering the ballot after they have been cast), but not the internal voter preferences (i.e. changing the context in which the ballots were created). Under the assumption of sincerity, the ranked information in ranked ballots and a voter's preference order are the same, so this distinction is not made and both sets of ranked information are assumed to be one and the same. Under the cardinal voting scenario, the context of the election and relative intensity of preferences is what leads to a specific cardinal ballot (and not an absolute scale), and thus, changing the context would change the ballot. Under this interpretation, there is no need for the assumption that voters cast ballots that independently evaluate each candidate on an absolute scale, as the information in the cardinal ballot represents a relative comparative scale. This interpretation is empirically supported by how individuals respond to cardinal comparative evaluations.
An anecdote that illustrates a violation of IIA has been attributed to Sidney Morgenbesser:
After finishing dinner, Sidney Morgenbesser decides to order dessert. The waitress tells him he has two choices: apple pie and blueberry pie. Sidney orders the apple pie. After a few minutes the waitress returns and says that they also have cherry pie at which point Morgenbesser says "In that case I'll have the blueberry pie."
All voting systems have some degree of inherent susceptibility to strategic nomination considerations. Some regard these considerations as less serious unless the voting system fails the easier-to-satisfy independence of clones criterion.
Local independence
A criterion weaker than IIA proposed by H. Peyton Young and A. Levenglick is called local independence from irrelevant alternatives (LIIA).
LIIA requires that both of the following conditions always hold:
If the option that finished in last place is deleted from all the votes, then the order of finish of the remaining options must not change. (The winner must not change.)
If the winning option is deleted from all the votes, the order of finish of the remaining options must not change. (The option that finished in second place must become the winner.)
An equivalent way to express LIIA is that if a subset of the options are in consecutive positions in the order of finish, then their relative order of finish must not change if all other options are deleted from the votes. For example, if all options except those in 3rd, 4th and 5th place are deleted, the option that finished 3rd must win, the 4th must finish second, and 5th must finish 3rd.
Another equivalent way to express LIIA is that if two options are consecutive in the order of finish, the one that finished higher must win if all options except those two are deleted from the votes.
LIIA is weaker than IIA because satisfaction of IIA implies satisfaction of LIIA, but not vice versa.
Despite being a weaker criterion (i.e. easier to satisfy) than IIA, LIIA is satisfied by very few voting methods. These include Kemeny-Young and ranked pairs, but not Schulze. Just as with IIA, LIIA compliance for rating methods such as approval voting, range voting, and majority judgment require the assumption that voters rate each alternative individually and independently of knowing any other alternatives, on an absolute scale (calibrated prior to the election), even when this assumption implies that voters having meaningful preferences in a two candidate election will necessarily abstain.
Criticism of IIA
IIA is largely incompatible with the majority criterion unless there are only two alternatives.
Consider a scenario in which there are three candidates A, B, & C, and the voters' preferences are as follows:
25% of the voters prefer A over B, and B over C. (A>B>C)
40% of the voters prefer B over C, and C over A. (B>C>A)
35% of the voters prefer C over A, and A over B. (C>A>B)
(These are preferences, not votes, and thus are independent of the voting method.)
75% prefer C over A, 65% prefer B over C, and 60% prefer A over B. The presence of this societal intransitivity is the voting paradox. Regardless of the voting method and the actual votes, there are only three cases to consider:
Case 1: A is elected. IIA is violated because the 75% who prefer C over A would elect C if B were not a candidate.
Case 2: B is elected. IIA is violated because the 60% who prefer A over B would elect A if C were not a candidate.
Case 3: C is elected. IIA is violated because the 65% who prefer B over C would elect B if A were not a candidate.
To show failure, it is only assumed at least possible that enough voters in the majority might cast a minimally positive vote for their preferred candidate when there are only two candidates, rather than abstain. Most ranked ballot methods and Plurality voting satisfy the Majority Criterion, and therefore fail IIA automatically by the example above. Meanwhile, passage of IIA by Approval and Range voting requires in certain cases that voters in the majority are necessarily excluded from voting (they are assumed to necessarily abstain in a two candidate race, despite having a meaningful preference between the alternatives).
So even if IIA is desirable, requiring its satisfaction seems to allow only voting methods that are undesirable in some other way, such as treating one of the voters as a dictator. Thus the goal must be to find which voting methods are best, rather than which are perfect.
An argument can be made that IIA is itself undesirable. IIA assumes that when deciding whether A is likely to be better than B, information about voters' preferences regarding C is irrelevant and should not make a difference. However, the heuristic that leads to majority rule when there are only two options is that the larger the number of people who think one option is better than the other, the greater the likelihood that it is better, all else being equal (see Condorcet's Jury Theorem). A majority is more likely than the opposing minority to be right about which of the two candidates is better, all else being equal, hence the use of majority rule.
The same heuristic implies that the larger the majority, the more likely it is that they are right. It would seem to also imply that when there is more than one majority, larger majorities are more likely to be right than smaller majorities. Assuming this is so, the 75% who prefer C over A and the 65% who prefer B over C are more likely to be right than the 60% who prefer A over B, and since it is not possible for all three majorities to be right, the smaller majority (who prefer A over B) are more likely to be wrong, and less likely than their opposing minority to be right. Rather than being irrelevant to whether A is better than B, the additional information about the voters' preferences regarding C provides a strong hint that this is a situation where all else is not equal.
In social choice
From Kenneth Arrow, each "voter" i in the society has an ordering Ri that ranks the (conceivable) objects of social choice—x, y, and z in simplest case—from high to low.
An aggregation rule (voting rule) in turn maps each profile or tuple (R1, ...,Rn) of voter preferences (orderings)
to a social ordering R that determines the social preference (ranking) of x, y, and z.
Arrow's IIA requires that whenever a pair of alternatives is ranked the same way in two preference profiles (over the same choice set), then the aggregation rule must order these alternatives identically across the two profiles.
For example, suppose an aggregation rule ranks a above b at the profile given by
(acbd, dbac),
(i.e., the first individual prefers a first, c second, b third, d last; the second individual prefers d first, ..., and c last). Then, if it satisfies IIA, it must rank a above b at the following three profiles:
(abcd, )
(abcd, )
(acdb, ).
The last two forms of profiles (placing the two at the top; and placing the two at the top and bottom) are especially useful
in the proofs of theorems involving IIA.
Arrow's IIA does not imply an IIA similar to those different from this at the top of this article nor conversely.
In the first edition of his book, Arrow misinterpreted IIA by considering the removal of a choice from the consideration set. Among the objects of choice, he distinguished those that by hypothesis are specified as feasible and infeasible. Consider two possible sets of voter orderings (, ..., ) and (, ...,) such that the ranking of X and Y for each voter i is the same for and . The voting rule generates corresponding social orderings R and R'. Now suppose that X and Y are feasible but Z is infeasible (say, the candidate is not on the ballot or the social state is outside the production possibility curve). Arrow required that the voting rule that R and R' select the same (top-ranked) social choice from the feasible set (X, Y), and that this requirement holds no matter what the ranking is of infeasible Z relative to X and Y in the two sets of orderings. IIA does not allow "removing" an alternative from the available set (a candidate from the ballot), and it says nothing about what would happen in such a case: all options are assumed to be "feasible."
Examples
Borda count
In a Borda count election, 5 voters rank 5 alternatives [A, B, C, D, E].
3 voters rank [A>B>C>D>E].
1 voter ranks [C>D>E>B>A].
1 voter ranks [E>C>D>B>A].
Borda count (a=0, b=1): C=13, A=12, B=11, D=8, E=6. C wins.
Now, the voter who ranks [C>D>E>B>A] instead ranks [C>B>E>D>A]; and the voter who ranks [E>C>D>B>A] instead ranks [E>C>B>D>A]. They change their preferences only over the pairs [B, D], [B, E] and [D, E].
The new Borda count: B=14, C=13, A=12, E=6, D=5. B wins.
The social choice has changed the ranking of [B, A] and [B, C]. The changes in the social choice ranking are dependent on irrelevant changes in the preference profile. In particular, B now wins instead of C, even though no voter changed their preference over [B, C].
Borda count and strategic voting
Consider an election in which there are three candidates, A, B, and C, and only two voters. Each voter ranks the candidates in order of preference. The highest ranked candidate in a voter's preference is given 2 points, the second highest 1, and the lowest ranked 0; the overall ranking of a candidate is determined by the total score it gets; the highest ranked candidate wins.
Considering two profiles:
In profiles 1 and 2, the first voter casts his votes in the order BAC, so B receives 2 points, A receives 1, and C receives 0 from this voter.
In profile 1, the second voter votes ACB, so A will win outright (the total scores: A 3, B 2, C 1).
In profile 2, the second voter votes ABC, so A and B will tie (the total scores: A 3, B 3, C 0).
Thus, if the second voter wishes A to be elected, he had better vote ACB regardless of his actual opinion of C and B. This violates the idea of "independence from irrelevant alternatives" because the voter's comparative opinion of C and B affects whether A is elected or not. In both profiles, the rankings of A relative to B are the same for each voter, but the social rankings of A relative to B are different.
Copeland
This example shows that Copeland's method violates IIA. Assume four candidates A, B, C and D with 6 voters with the following preferences:
The results would be tabulated as follows:
[X] indicates voters who preferred the candidate in the column caption to the one in the row caption
[Y] indicates voters who preferred the candidate in the row caption to the one in the column captionResult: A has two wins and one defeat, while no other candidate has more wins than defeats. Thus, A is elected Copeland winner.
Change of irrelevant preferences
Now, assume all voters would raise D over B and C without changing the order of A and D. The preferences of the voters would now be:
The results would be tabulated as follows:Result: D wins against all three opponents. Thus, D is elected Copeland winner.
Conclusion
The voters changed only their preference orders over B, C and D. As a result, the outcome order of D and A changed. A turned from winner to loser without any change of the voters' preferences regarding A. Thus, Copeland's method fails the IIA criterion.
Instant-runoff voting
In an instant-runoff election, 5 voters rank 3 alternatives [A, B, C].
2 voters rank [A>B>C].
2 voters rank [C>B>A].
1 voter ranks [B>A>C].
Round 1: A=2, B=1, C=2; B eliminated.
Round 2: A=3, C=2; A wins.
Now, the two voters who rank [C>B>A] instead rank [B>C>A]. They change only their preferences over B and C.
Round 1: A=2, B=3, C=0; B wins with a majority of the vote.
The social choice ranking of [A, B] is dependent on preferences over the irrelevant alternatives [B, C].
Kemeny–Young method
This example shows that the Kemeny–Young method violates the IIA criterion. Assume three candidates A, B and C with 7 voters and the following preferences:
The Kemeny–Young method arranges the pairwise comparison counts in the following tally table:
The ranking scores of all possible rankings are:Result: The ranking A > B > C has the highest ranking score. Thus, A wins ahead of B and C.
Change of irrelevant preferences
Now, assume the two voters (marked bold) with preferences B > C > A would change their preferences over the pair B and C. The preferences of the voters would then be in total:
The Kemeny–Young method arranges the pairwise comparison counts in the following tally table:
The ranking scores of all possible rankings are:Result: The ranking C > A > B has the highest ranking score. Thus, C wins ahead of A and B.
Conclusion
The two voters changed only their preferences over B and C, but this resulted in a change of the order of A and C in the result, turning A from winner to loser without any change of the voters' preferences regarding A. Thus, the Kemeny-Young method fails the IIA criterion.
Minimax
This example shows that the Minimax method violates the IIA criterion. Assume four candidates A, B and C and 13 voters with the following preferences:
Since all preferences are strict rankings (no equals are present), all three Minimax methods (winning votes, margins and pairwise opposite) elect the same winners.
The results would be tabulated as follows:
[X] indicates voters who preferred the candidate in the column caption to the one in the row caption
[Y] indicates voters who preferred the candidate in the row caption to the one in the column captionResult: A has the closest biggest defeat. Thus, A is elected Minimax winner.
Change of irrelevant preferences
Now, assume the two voters (marked bold) with preferences B > A > C change the preferences over the pair A and C. The preferences of the voters would then be in total:
The results would be tabulated as follows:Result: Now, B has the closest biggest defeat. Thus, B''' is elected Minimax winner.
Conclusion
So, by changing the order of A and C in the preferences of some voters, the order of A and B in the result changed. B is turned from loser to winner without any change of the voters' preferences regarding B. Thus, the Minimax method fails the IIA criterion.
Plurality voting system
In a plurality voting system 7 voters rank 3 alternatives (A, B, C).
3 voters rank (A>B>C)
2 voters rank (B>A>C)
2 voters rank (C>B>A)
In an election, initially only A and B run: B wins with 4 votes to As 3, but the entry of C into the race makes A the new winner.
The relative positions of A and B are reversed by the introduction of C, an "irrelevant" alternative.
Ranked pairs
This example shows that the Ranked pairs method violates the IIA criterion. Assume three candidates A, B and C and 7 voters with the following preferences:
The results would be tabulated as follows:
The sorted list of victories would be:Result: A > B and B > C are locked in (and C > A cannot be locked in after that), so the full ranking is A > B > C. Thus, A is elected Ranked pairs winner.
Change of irrelevant preferences
Now, assume the two voters (marked bold) with preferences B > C > A change their preferences over the pair B and C. The preferences of the voters would then be in total:
The results would be tabulated as follows:
The sorted list of victories would be:Result: All three duels are locked in, so the full ranking is C > A > B. Thus, the Condorcet winner C is elected Ranked pairs winner.
Conclusion
So, by changing their preferences over B and C, the two voters changed the order of A and C in the result, turning A from winner to loser without any change of the voters' preferences regarding A. Thus, the Ranked pairs method fails the IIA criterion.
Schulze method
This example shows that the Schulze method violates the IIA criterion. Assume four candidates A, B, C and D and 12 voters with the following preferences:
The pairwise preferences would be tabulated as follows:
Now, the strongest paths have to be identified, e.g. the path D > A > B is stronger than the direct path D > B (which is nullified, since it is a tie).Result: The full ranking is C > D > A > B. Thus, C is elected Schulze winner and D is preferred over A.
Change of irrelevant preferences
Now, assume the two voters (marked bold) with preferences C > B > D > A change their preferences over the pair B and C. The preferences of the voters would then be in total:
Hence, the pairwise preferences would be tabulated as follows:
Now, the strongest paths have to be identified:Result: Now, the full ranking is A > B > C > D. Thus, A' is elected Schulze winner and is preferred over D.
Conclusion
So, by changing their preferences over B and C, the two voters changed the order of A and D in the result, turning A from loser to winner without any change of the voters' preferences regarding A. Thus, the Schulze method fails the IIA criterion.
Two-round system
A probable example of the two-round system failing this criterion was the 2002 French presidential election. Polls leading up to the election have suggested a runoff between centre-right candidate Jacques Chirac and centre-left candidate Lionel Jospin, in which Jospin has been expected to win. However, the first round was contested by an unprecedented 16 candidates, including left-wing candidates who intended to support Jospin in the runoff, eventually resulting in the far-right candidate, Jean-Marie Le Pen, finishing second and entering the runoff instead of Jospin, which Chirac won by a large margin. Thus, the presence of many candidates who did not intend to win in the election changed which of the candidates won.
Criticisms of the IIA assumption
IIA implies that adding another option or changing the characteristics of a third option does not affect the relative odds between the two options considered. This implication is not realistic for applications with similar options.
Consider the Red Bus/Blue Bus example, due to Daniel McFadden. Commuter John Doe faces a decision between taking a car or a red bus. Suppose he chooses between these two options with equal probability on a given day (because of weather or whim). The odds ratio between car and red bus then equals 1:1. Now add a third alternative: blue bus. If Doe does not care about bus color, we would expect the probability of car to remain .5, while the probability of each of the two bus types would be 0.25. But IIA rules that out. It says that the new choice must not change the odds ratio of 1:1 between car and red bus. Since Doe's indifference to color requires the odds of red and blue bus to be equal, the new probabilities must be: car 0.33, red bus 0.33, blue bus 0.33. The overall probability of car travel has fallen from .5 to .33, which is absurd. The problem with the IIA axiom is that it takes no account of the fact that red bus and blue bus are perfect substitutes.
The failure of this assumption has also been observed in practice, for example in the opinion polling for the 2019 European Elections held in the United Kingdom. In one survey, 21% of potential voters expressed support for the Labour Party under the scenario where there were three smaller Anti-Brexit parties to choose from, but under a scenario where two of those three parties did not stand candidates, the support for Labour dropped to 18%. This means at least 3% of potential voters stopped supporting their preferred party when a less preferred party dropped out.
In econometrics
IIA is a direct consequence of the assumptions underlying the multinomial logit and the conditional logit models in econometrics. If these models are used in situations which in fact violate independence (such as multicandidate elections in which preferences exhibit cycling or situations mimicking the Red Bus/Blue Bus example given above) then these estimators become invalid.
Many modeling advances have been motivated by a desire to alleviate the concerns raised by IIA. Generalized extreme value, multinomial probit (also called conditional probit) and mixed logit are models for nominal outcomes that relax IIA, but they often have assumptions of their own that may be difficult to meet or are computationally infeasible. IIA can be relaxed by specifying a hierarchical model, ranking the choice alternatives. The most popular of these is the nested logit model.
Generalized extreme value and multinomial probit models possess another property, the Invariant Proportion of Substitution, which suggests similarly counterintuitive individual choice behavior.
Choice under uncertainty
In the expected utility theory of von Neumann and Morgenstern, four axioms together imply that individuals act in situations of risk as if they maximize the expected value of a utility function. One of the axioms is an independence axiom analogous to the IIA axiom:
If , then for any and ,
where p is a probability, pL+(1-p)N means a gamble with probability p of yielding L and probability (1-p) of yielding N, and means that M is preferred over L. This axiom says that if one outcome (or lottery ticket) L is considered to be not as good as another (M), then having a chance with probability p of receiving L rather than N is considered to be not as good as having a chance with probability p of receiving M rather than N''.
In nature
Natural selection can favor animals' non-IIA-type choices, thought to be due to occasional availability of foodstuffs, according to a study published in January 2014.
See also
Independence of Smith-dominated alternatives
Luce's choice axiom
Sure-thing principle
Menu dependence
Decoy effect
Predictably Irrational#The Truth about Relativity
Footnotes
References
Discusses and deduces the not always recognized differences between various formulations of IIA.
Further reading
Electoral system criteria
Econometric modeling
Social choice theory | [
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259106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order%20of%20the%20Phoenix%20%28fictional%20organisation%29 | Order of the Phoenix (fictional organisation) | The Order of the Phoenix is a secret organisation in the Harry Potter series of fiction books written by J. K. Rowling. Founded by Albus Dumbledore to fight Lord Voldemort and his followers, the Death Eaters, the Order lends its name to the fifth book of the series, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.
Synopsis
Before the Harry Potter chronology starts – when the character Lord Voldemort declared war on the wizarding world – Albus Dumbledore, headmaster of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry and an upstanding and powerful citizen of the wizarding world, attempted to take control of the situation by founding the Order of the Phoenix. Several characters joined the organisation, seeking to prevent Voldemort from taking over the wizarding world and establishing a tyrannical new world order. During this period, before the events of the Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the Order sustained heavy losses, including the murders of minor characters such as the Prewetts, the Bones and the McKinnons. The Longbottoms were also tortured to insanity at the hands of Bellatrix Lestrange.
Voldemort's first reign of terror ended after the murders of James and Lily Potter, and the unsuccessful attempt to murder their son, Harry Potter, at the beginning of the series. The spell rebounded on to him and severely diminished Voldemort's powers and as a result the Order was temporarily disbanded due to the lack of any further threat.
When Harry reported that Voldemort had returned, towards the end of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Dumbledore reactivated the Order. Many of the original members returned and were soon joined by recruits who effectively replaced those who had died in service during the first conflict. The Order established their headquarters at Number Twelve, Grimmauld Place, Sirius Black's family home, during the interval between the fourth and fifth books in the series. Dumbledore was the Secret-Keeper for the Order, meaning that only he could reveal the location of the Order's headquarters to others. Dumbledore's death in book six made the location vulnerable and it was abandoned in favour of The Burrow as a result.
The Order led the fight against Voldemort in the fifth instalment while the Minister for Magic refused to accept the return of Voldemort. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, some Order members take turns guarding Sybill Trelawney's prophecy, which referred to Voldemort's downfall and Harry's role in defeating him. Rubeus Hagrid, the Hogwarts Grounds Keeper and an original Member of the Order, was accompanied by Olympe Maxime in an attempt to recruit the giants to the Order's cause. Some members also participated in a battle at the Department of Mysteries near the end of the fifth book. Order members patrolled Hogwarts, the Wizarding school, on the night of Dumbledore's death in Half-Blood Prince, fighting the Death Eaters who managed to enter the castle.
In the series finale, attention turns to escorting the Death Eaters' main target, Harry Potter, from his summer home with the Dursleys to the Weasleys' Burrow. Later in the novel, after Voldemort's takeover of the Ministry had succeeded, some Order members hosted "Potterwatch", a secret pirate radio programme providing news on the Wizarding World that Voldemort's regime did not want the general population to know. During the climax of the book, most of the Order, aided by Dumbledore's Army, the Hogwarts staff and the older students, Slytherin house members included, fought against the Death Eaters in the Battle of Hogwarts, in which several Order members and other allies lost their lives.
Members of the Order
Original
The following characters were members of the Order of the Phoenix during Lord Voldemort's initial rise to power and several years prior to the main events of the Harry Potter series. Many of these characters later served as members of the revived Order.
Members of the reconstituted Order
These new members joined the Order when Dumbledore reactivated it after Lord Voldemort's return at the end of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire.
Order members
This is a list of notable members of the Order of the Phoenix. Albus Dumbledore, Severus Snape, Minerva McGonagall, Rubeus Hagrid, Sirius Black, Remus Lupin, and Fred and George Weasley have their own pages, and Peter Pettigrew is listed under Death Eater.
Fleur Delacour
Fleur Isabelle Delacour is a student of Beauxbatons Academy in France, and is selected as a champion in the prestigious Triwizard Tournament. Her maternal grandmother is a Veela, from whom Fleur inherited her silvery-blonde hair, pale eyes, good looks, and ability to enchant men. It is revealed in the Tournament wand inspection that the core of Fleur's wand is a Veela hair from the head of her grandmother.
During the Triwizard Tournament, Fleur is initially aloof and unfriendly despite receiving much admiration from the boys, especially Ron. During the second task of the Tournament, she attempts to rescue her sister Gabrielle Delacour from the lake but fails, hindered by the Grindylows. When Harry rescues Gabrielle instead, Fleur is extremely grateful, despite her sister being in no real danger, and becomes much warmer towards both Harry and Hogwarts. Fleur finishes in 4th place in the Triwizard Tournament due to being Stunned during the last task.
In the following year, Fleur works at Gringotts with Bill Weasley, whom she already met during the Tournament, and the pair get engaged. They together start living in their new home called the Shell Cottage. Bill is attacked by werewolf Fenrir Greyback and severely mauled near the end of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince in the Battle of the Astronomy Tower. However, since Greyback is in his human form at the time of the attack, Bill suffers only partial lycanthropic contamination. Molly Weasley, who largely disapproves of Fleur, assumes that she will no longer wish to marry Bill, but Fleur is adamant that their wedding plans go unchanged and proudly declares Bill's wounds to be a sign of bravery, adding, "I am good looking enough for the both of us anyway". Her fierce, loving loyalty to her fiancé earns her much respect from most of Bill's erstwhile disapproving family, especially Molly, who is finally forced to admit that their love is genuine.
In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Fleur and Bill take part in the operation to escort Harry safely to the Burrow, and they witness Mad-Eye Moody being killed by Voldemort. The couple has their wedding and reception at the Burrow, but the event is interrupted when Death Eaters attack after the fall of the Ministry of Magic. Fleur and Bill allow Ron to stay with them after he walks out on Harry and Hermione during their hunt for Horcruxes. The newlyweds later provide a safe haven for the trio and others rescued from Malfoy Manor at Shell Cottage, their home. Both Bill and Fleur are combatants for the Order during the Battle of Hogwarts and manage to survive it. The couple go on to have three children: Victoire, Dominique and Louis.
French actress and model Clémence Poésy portrays Fleur in the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire and both parts of the Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows film adaptation.
Aberforth Dumbledore
Aberforth Dumbledore is Albus Dumbledore's brother. He is the younger brother by some three years and the less skilled of the two; as such, he is usually left in the background while his brother basks in the glory of his comparative success. His first appearance is in the book Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. After his parents' deaths and Albus' return home to look after their unstable sister Ariana, Aberforth quarrels with his brother and his brother's friend, Gellert Grindelwald, over their plans to start a new order, neglecting Ariana. Grindelwald began torturing him, leading to the three dueling. This argument results in Ariana's accidental death at the hands of one of them. At Ariana's funeral, Aberforth publicly confronts Albus and strikes him, breaking his nose. Eventually, Aberforth becomes the owner and barman of the Hog's Head inn. He is known for his strong affinity with goats. His Patronus takes the form of a goat, and he recounts to the trio that as a boy he fed the goats in company with his sister, Ariana. Aberforth was also tried before the Wizengamot (the Wizard High Court), for performing inappropriate charms on a goat. His tavern also, according to Harry's description in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, has a faint smell of goats. In the film adaptation, a bleating goat can be seen shuffling about in the back of the pub.
It is not until Deathly Hallows that Aberforth plays an important role in the series by taking Harry, Ron, and Hermione into his bar before the Death Eaters can capture them. Aberforth later reveals to the trio some facts they did not know about the history of the Dumbledore family. While being held prisoner in Malfoy Manor, Harry briefly glimpses Aberforth's eye in the remaining shard of the two-way mirror he was given by Sirius and calls for Aberforth's help. Aberforth bought its counterpart from Mundungus Fletcher. Using the mirror to watch over the trio, Aberforth sends Dobby to rescue them and the other prisoners from the Manor. He liked Dobby and was upset to hear Bellatrix Lestrange killed him.
Aberforth allows the resistance fighters to use a secure passageway from the Hog's Head to the Room of Requirement through Ariana's portrait, it being the only unguarded entrance into Hogwarts. This passage is used to evacuate underage students from Hogwarts and, according to Neville, it was also used by members of Dumbledore's Army to get food when they were living in the Room of Requirement because that is one thing the Room of Requirement would not do. Aberforth leaves the Order, believing the war against Voldemort is lost. However, he quickly joins the Battle of Hogwarts and is last seen Stunning Augustus Rookwood. According to Rowling, Aberforth survives the battle, and is still "at the Hog's Head, playing with his goats".
Jim McManus appeared briefly as Aberforth in the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Ciarán Hinds plays Aberforth in a larger role in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2. Richard Coyle plays the middle-aged version of the character in the Fantastic Beasts films, with his first appearance coming in the upcoming third film in the series, Fantastic Beasts: The Secrets of Dumbledore.
Arabella Figg
Arabella Doreen Figg, better known simply as Mrs. Figg, is a Squib living undercover as a Muggle and on Dumbledore's orders surreptitiously watches over Harry while he is at home with the Dursleys. She is a Chekhov gun, first mentioned as a seemingly insignificant neighbour in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone and not revealed as a member of the magical community until Order of the Phoenix. She has a lifelong love of cats and does "a roaring trade" in crossbred cats and Kneazles, their magical variant. Within the Order of the Phoenix, she functions as one of Dumbledore's liaisons between the magical and Muggle worlds. In Order of the Phoenix, she aids Harry after he and his cousin Dudley Dursley are attacked by two Dementors, and chooses to reveal herself to him. She explains to Harry that she deliberately made Harry's stays with her unpleasant so that the Dursleys would continue to send him to her, though she would have preferred to do otherwise. When the Ministry of Magic tries to have Harry expelled from Hogwarts for underage use of magic (after he cast a Patronus charm to protect himself and his cousin), her testimony before the Wizengamot is crucial in allowing Harry to stay at Hogwarts. However, according to Rowling, Squibs are incapable of seeing Dementors, and it is suggested by her manner during the trial that she has been prompted what to say with regard to the Dementors. In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, she attends Dumbledore's funeral at Hogwarts.
Mrs. Figg was portrayed by Kathryn Hunter in the film adaptation of Order of the Phoenix.
Mundungus Fletcher
Mundungus "Dung" Fletcher is mentioned in passing in some of the earlier books in the series, but it is not until the second chapter of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix that he makes his first appearance. Mundungus is described as a "squat, unshaven man" with "short, bandy legs", "long, straggly ginger hair", and "bloodshot, baggy eyes that gave him the doleful look of a basset hound". He is involved in many illegal activities, yet he seems confined to relatively minor crimes, such as theft and trading stolen goods on the black market. Many members of the Order have mixed feelings about him, but he is very loyal to Dumbledore, who once got him out of serious trouble. His connections enable him to hear rumours and information rolling around the shadier segments of the wizarding population, which could potentially prove instrumental in the fight against Voldemort.
He is briefly mentioned in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire where following the Death Eaters attack at the Quidditch World Cup, Mundungus put in an insurance claim to the Ministry of Magic for a twelve-bedroomed tent with an en-suite jacuzzi, while in reality, he had been sleeping under a cloak propped on sticks. As a member of both the original and the newly reformed Order of the Phoenix, he is assigned guard duty to protect Harry, but abandons his position to conduct a shady cauldron-trading deal, leaving a critical opening through which Dementors manage to attack Harry. In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Harry catches Mundungus outside the Three Broomsticks trying to sell what had been Sirius' property (which now belongs to Harry after Sirius' death) to Aberforth, and the boy confronts him. Mundungus goes into hiding but is later jailed in Azkaban for impersonating an Inferius during a botched robbery.
In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Mundungus has managed to get out of prison, but the circumstances are unclear. He is Confunded by Snape, and gives the idea of using the Polyjuice Potion and six Potter decoys to the Order and helps with the escort of Harry from Privet Drive. He travels with Mad-Eye Moody on a broomstick as one of the Potter decoys. During the flight from Privet Drive, he flees when Voldemort himself shows up. It is later revealed by Kreacher that, included in the property he stole from 12 Grimmauld Place in the previous book was a heavy locket from the drawing room. That locket was the Slytherin's locket Horcrux. Then Kreacher is sent by Harry to capture Mundungus, who reveals that Umbridge took the locket from him under threat of arrest.
Andy Linden plays Mundungus Fletcher in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 1.
Alastor (Mad-Eye) Moody
Alastor "Mad-Eye" Moody is perhaps the most famous Auror in the modern times of the Wizarding World, single-handedly responsible for capturing numerous wizard criminals. He is also said never to have killed his quarry, even when permitted to do so, unless he had no other choice. Moody's face is badly scarred; he has lost several body parts while fighting Dark wizards, including his left eye, lower left leg, and part of his nose; and he is cautious – some characters might say paranoid – in that he refuses to eat or drink anything which he himself did not prepare. He has replaced his missing eye with a magical one that can rotate 360 degrees and see through almost everything (including walls, doors, Invisibility Cloaks, and the back of his own head). He walks with a pronounced limp due to his prosthetic leg and uses a walking staff. He frequently exclaims "Constant vigilance!" to encourage wizards to be on their guard against the dark arts, and keeps a number of devices in his office to alert him to the presence of potential enemies. Before his retirement from the Aurors' Office, he was Nymphadora Tonks' mentor, and still regards her as his protégée.
In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Moody is appointed as the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher at Hogwarts, coming out of retirement as a favour to Dumbledore. Shortly before the school year begins, however, Moody is attacked by Barty Crouch, Jr., who subdues him with the Imperius Curse and takes Polyjuice Potion to assume his appearance. He keeps the real Moody alive as a source both of Polyjuice potion ingredients and of personal information helpful in putting the impersonation over and takes Moody's place at Hogwarts. Moody's well-known habit of carrying around his own drinks in a private hip flask allows Crouch to take the Polyjuice Potion as needed to sustain the masquerade without raising suspicion.
Crouch/Moody becomes noted for teaching and demonstrating normally higher-level topics to Harry's fourth-year class (such as the Unforgivable Curses). He is a demanding teacher who expects students to work. He puts up with very little, for example punishing Draco Malfoy by transforming him into a ferret to stick up for Harry when Malfoy was tormenting him.
After Harry unexpectedly returns alive from the graveyard battle with Voldemort, Crouch/Moody takes Harry back to his office, questions him about Voldemort and what happened in the graveyard, and reveals that he is working for Voldemort. He then prepares to kill Harry, but Dumbledore, McGonagall, and Snape stop him. Having neglected to take his hourly dose of Polyjuice potion, Crouch transforms back to his own appearance and, under the influence of Veritaserum, confesses everything. Dumbledore then rescues the real Moody from his magic trunk.
In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the real Moody has joined the newly re-formed Order and leads the party transferring Harry from 4 Privet Drive to Number 12 Grimmauld Place. He appears at the climax of that book, arriving at the battle at the Department of Mysteries after being tipped off by Snape. He also appears with Lupin and Tonks at the very end, when they give the Dursleys a warning concerning their treatment of Harry. Moody only features briefly in Half-Blood Prince. In Deathly Hallows he is killed by Voldemort after being abandoned by Mundungus Fletcher, who was acting as a Potter decoy. The Order is unable to recover his body, but later his magical eye is found by Harry mounted on Dolores Umbridge's office door to spy on Ministry of Magic employees. Harry retrieves the eye, disgusted that it would be used in such a way, and buries it at the base of an old tree in Mad-Eye's memory.
Moody is portrayed by Brendan Gleeson in the film series.
James Potter
James Potter, nicknamed Prongs, is the father of Harry Potter and husband of Lily Potter. James met Sirius Black, Remus Lupin, and Peter Pettigrew when they entered Hogwarts. When James, Sirius, and Peter discovered that Remus is, in fact, a werewolf, the three of them illegally learned to become Animagi to accompany Remus safely during his transformations and keep him under control. It is during this time that they discovered almost all the secret passageways of Hogwarts and designed the Marauder's Map. At school, James is said to have been a talented player on the Gryffindor Quidditch team. In the film version of Philosopher's Stone, Harry and his friends find James' name listed on a plaque as a Seeker on his Quidditch team; however, Rowling stated in an interview that she intended him to be a Chaser.
Rowling describes James and Harry as having similar attributes: the same thin face, the same hands, the same untidy black hair sticking up at the back, and about the same height at school age. However, Rowling also describes James as having hazel eyes and a slightly longer nose than Harry does. Like Harry, James is generally described to be a good, loyal friend who "regarded it as the height of dishonour to mistrust his friends". Characters in the books sometimes comment negatively on James' personality, about which Rowling comments that "there was a lot of good in James". The Hogwarts student population seems to have admired James back in his day, and teachers respected his talent, though not his behaviour.
His popularity, however, was not universal, as a mutual hatred sprang up between him and Snape. Snape constantly tells Harry that James was "exceedingly arrogant", and on one occasion, Sirius admits that he and James could sometimes be "arrogant little berks" but that "James grew out of it" (which Lily is said to have noted by their seventh year). He became Head Boy in his seventh year along with Lily as Head Girl.
In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, after seeing a scene from Snape's memories within a Pensieve of a fifteen-year-old James and Sirius bullying Snape, Harry agrees with Snape's assessment of his father's arrogance. According to Dumbledore in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, however, James and Snape shared a rivalry, not unlike that of Draco and Harry. In addition, Lupin tells Harry that Snape "never lost an opportunity to curse James". According to an interview with Rowling, "James always suspected Snape harboured deeper feelings for Lily, which was a factor in James' behaviour to Snape." However, when Sirius attempts to lure Snape into the Shrieking Shack where Lupin stays during his werewolf transformations, James prevents him from entering the tunnel under the Whomping Willow, thus saving Snape's life; although – as Snape points out – this also saved James from expulsion.
After graduating from Hogwarts, James – along with Lily and his friends – become "full-time fighters" for the Order, and do not hold regular jobs, supporting his family and Lupin, whose status as a werewolf made him unemployable, on family gold. In an interview, Rowling revealed that James and Lily were asked by Voldemort to join the Death Eaters, but refused, making it "one strike against them before they were even out of their teens". When his son Harry becomes Voldemort's target, the Potters go into hiding and name Pettigrew as their secret keeper. However, on 31 October 1981, the Potters' whereabouts are betrayed by Pettigrew, and they are attacked by Voldemort without warning at their home in Godric's Hollow. James urges his wife to take Harry and run while he holds Voldemort off. Wandless, he is killed.
He briefly appears in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire as a result of Priori Incantatem, when Harry's wand and Voldemort's meet, showing the most recent spells cast by each – in the case of Voldemort's wand, the most recent lives taken. He makes a final appearance at the end of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows through the use of the Resurrection Stone.
James and Sirius are the heroes of the Harry Potter prequel, an 800-word story set three years before Harry's birth. The two friends are riding Sirius' motorbike and are chased by two Muggle policemen for breaking the speed limit. The policemen attempt to arrest them when three Death Eaters on broomsticks fly down towards them. James and Sirius use the police car as a barrier and the Death Eaters crash into it. In the end, they escape from the policemen by flying away on the motorbike.
In the film series, James is portrayed by Adrian Rawlins as an adult, Robbie Jarvis as a teenager and Alfie McIlwain as a child.
Lily Potter
Lily J. Potter (née Evans) is the mother of Harry Potter. She is described as being very pretty, with startlingly green almond-shaped eyes and thick, long, dark auburn hair. She is one of the "all-time favorite students" of star collector Horace Slughorn, who describes her as "vivacious", "charming", "cheeky", and "very funny" and recalls that he "often told her she should have been in Slytherin". In addition, Slughorn says Lily is one of the brightest students he ever taught, with a natural and intuitive ability at Potions. Rowling describes Lily as being "a bit of a catch"; she was a popular girl for whom many boys had romantic feelings. Although Lily is Muggle-born, she is an extremely gifted witch at the top of her class. She became Head Girl in her seventh year. Lily's sister Petunia Dursley despised her for being a witch and viewed her as a "freak", although Petunia is later revealed to have been envious of her abilities. Rowling stated that Lily did receive warning letters for testing the limits of the Statute of Secrecy. Lily's Patronus is a doe, presumably to pair with James' Animagus shape of a stag (also the form of Harry's Patronus).
After witnessing a memory from Snape about Lily's and James' time as Hogwarts students, Harry gathers the impression that Lily hated James, but Sirius and Lupin assure him that she did not; they "simply got off on the wrong foot", because Snape and James hated each other, and Snape was Lily's best friend at the time, despite him sorting into Slytherin. Rowling confirmed this view when asked how Lily and James had fallen in love if Lily hated him. Lupin tells Harry that after James matured, Lily started seeing him in their seventh year. Rowling later echoed Lupin's words, describing it as James having to "[tone] down some of his more 'bombastic' behavior". They married soon after leaving Hogwarts, with Sirius as best man at their wedding.
The old, pre-Hogwarts friendship between Lily and Snape is fully revealed in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, along with the fact that Snape harboured unrequited romantic feelings for Lily from childhood. Rowling states that while Lily loved Snape as a friend, she might have returned those romantic feelings if Snape had not become so seriously involved in the Dark Arts. Their relationship ends in their fifth year at Hogwarts, when Snape, in his anger and humiliation at being jinxed by James and Sirius, unthinkingly calls Lily a "Mudblood" after she defended him.
After leaving Hogwarts, Snape became a Death Eater and informed Voldemort of half of an overheard prophecy, which Voldemort takes to refer to Lily and her son, Harry. Fearing for Lily's life, Snape joins the Order as a spy for Dumbledore, in exchange for what he hopes will be Dumbledore's protection of Lily. Voldemort offered Lily the chance to step aside before he killed Harry because of Snape's request to spare Lily's life, but Lily refused and Voldemort killed her. The result of her selfless act of love manifested itself two ways: when Voldemort attempted to kill Harry with the Killing Curse the spell backfired, rendering Voldemort non-corporeal. The lingering protection afforded to Harry by Lily's sacrifice rendered Voldemort unable to touch him physically. The second way in which Harry is protected by Lily's sacrifice occurs when Petunia takes Harry in. Dumbledore told Harry that he had extended Lily's protection to Privet Drive because Lily and Petunia are related by blood. This protection ends when Harry comes of age at 17.
Though Harry bears a great resemblance to his father, it is often noted that he has Lily's eyes. Dumbledore has said that Harry's deepest nature is much more similar to his mother's. In a 1999 interview, Rowling stated; "Harry has his father's and mother's good looks. But he has his mother's eyes, and that's very important in a future book". That future book was Deathly Hallows. In Snape's death scene in that novel, after having passed on his memories to Harry, he whispers to Harry: "Look... at... me..." In one of Snape's memories, it is revealed that Dumbledore persuades Snape to protect Harry after Lily's death by mentioning the fact that he has "precisely" the same eyes as his mother. His last words to Harry were simply a desire to see Lily's eyes before he died.
Harry's dead parents are seen five times in the books (not counting their appearances in numerous magical photographs). Firstly in Philosopher's Stone, Harry sees James and Lily in the Mirror of Erised. Secondly during Harry's struggle with Voldemort in Goblet of Fire, they appear momentarily, along with other victims killed by Voldemort's wand. They appear in Snape's memories in both Order of the Phoenix and Deathly Hallows, and finally in Deathly Hallows when Harry makes his self-sacrificing walk into the Forbidden Forest, determined to let Voldemort kill him without offering resistance, Harry's parents walk at his side and Lily tells him how proud they are of him.
In an interview conducted by Daniel Radcliffe, Rowling revealed that Lily Potter's maiden name, Evans, was based on the real name of the author George Eliot, Mary Anne Evans.
Lily is portrayed by Geraldine Somerville as an adult in the film series, and by Susie Shinner as a teenager and Ellie Darcey-Alden as a child.
Kingsley Shacklebolt
Kingsley Shacklebolt is a senior Auror who acts as informer for the Order within the Ministry of Magic. He is first introduced in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, when he volunteers to be one of the members of the Advance Guard that escorted Harry from the Dursleys' home to Number 12, Grimmauld Place. Kingsley is in charge of the search for Sirius in the Ministry; however, knowing Sirius is innocent, he is supplying the Ministry false information that Sirius is in Tibet. He is present in the scene of the fifth book when Harry is confronted about Dumbledore's Army, after Marietta Edgecombe betrays it to Dolores Umbridge. Kingsley swiftly modifies Marietta's memory, but to avoid suspicion from the Ministry, Dumbledore is forced to hex him too as he flees.
Kingsley takes part in the battle at the Department of Mysteries and appears to be very skilled at duelling as he is seen fighting two Death Eaters at once. However, after Sirius is killed, he continues the duel with Bellatrix Lestrange, during which Kingsley is hit by a spell that causes a "loud bang" and he hits the ground "yelling in pain". In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, the new Minister for Magic, Rufus Scrimgeour, appoints Kingsley to the Muggle Prime Minister's office, posing as a secretary, but being the Prime Minister's guard.
It is revealed in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows that Kingsley is one of the few wizards that the Dursleys seem to like, due to his skill at blending in well with Muggles and his calm, collected demeanour. In that book, Kingsley first appears with other Order members to move Harry from the Dursleys' home to safety in the Burrow. Later in the book, he manages to send a timely warning to Bill and Fleur's wedding using his Patronus, a lynx, when Voldemort overthrows the Ministry of Magic, giving the guests a chance to escape. He continues to guard the Prime Minister but is eventually forced to flee. He later is heard preaching equal rights for Muggles and Wizards on the pirate radio programme "Potterwatch" under the pseudonym "Royal". In the Battle of Hogwarts, he is first seen organising those who remained to fight. He is later seen dueling an unnamed Death Eater, and ends up duelling Voldemort himself, alongside Minerva McGonagall and Horace Slughorn, but after Bellatrix's death, Voldemort's anger erupts; Kingsley and the two others are defeated (although not killed). Kingsley is appointed temporary Minister for Magic following the death of Voldemort and the deposition of Voldemort's puppet ruler, Pius Thicknesse. However, it was later revealed by Rowling in an interview that Kingsley did become the new Minister permanently, revolutionising the Ministry itself.
George Harris appeared as Kingsley in the movies Order of the Phoenix and both parts of Deathly Hallows.
Nymphadora Tonks
Nymphadora Tonks is a Metamorphmagus and an Auror. Her name means "Gift of the Nymphs". She despises her given name and prefers to be called by her surname alone. She is still referred to as "Tonks" by her peers even after her marriage.
She is described as having "a pale heart-shaped face, dark twinkling eyes", and is usually depicted with different hair colours, which she can change at will. Tonks is seen to be notoriously clumsy and unskilled at household spells. Nymphadora is the only daughter of Ted and Andromeda Tonks, the latter being sister to Bellatrix Lestrange and Narcissa Malfoy; Nymphadora is therefore Draco Malfoy's first cousin yet she never addresses him as family, alluding to him simply as "the Malfoy boy". Tonks is sorted into Hufflepuff, and graduates from Hogwarts one year before Harry enters, after which she begins three years of Auror training; under Moody's tutelage, she qualifies as an Auror one year before her first appearance in Order of the Phoenix.
Tonks and Kingsley act as spies for the Order in the Ministry. She helps to escort Harry first from the Dursleys' house to Order headquarters, and later to the Hogwarts Express. Tonks later fights the Death Eaters at the Department of Mysteries, in which she is injured by Bellatrix, and has to be taken to St Mungo's. During Half-Blood Prince, Tonks is stationed at Hogsmeade and assigned to guard Hogwarts. Harry observes she is constantly depressed and rarely smiles. Also, he sees her hair is a mousy brown instead of its usual bright bubble-gum pink. After Dumbledore's death, it is revealed that Tonks has fallen in love with Lupin, and her Patronus has, as a result, changed to the form of a wolf. Lupin is reluctant to return her affections arguing that he is "too old, too poor, and too dangerous" for her. Because of this, she falls into a depression that disturbs her magical abilities including her ability to change her appearance at will.
However, early in Deathly Hallows, Tonks announces that she has recently married Remus Lupin. Tonks accompanies twelve Order members to take Harry from the Dursleys' home to The Burrow. She flies with Ron, who impersonates Harry using Polyjuice Potion to throw the Death Eaters off the real Harry's trail. During the aerial battle, Tonks fights Bellatrix again and injures Bellatrix's husband, Rodolphus. Later in the book, Remus reveals Tonks is pregnant. He leaves her for a brief period, believing that he, through their marriage, has caused her to become an outcast and their unborn child would be better off without him, but changes his mind and returns to her side after a heated argument with Harry. In April of the seventh book, Tonks gives birth to Teddy Remus Lupin, named after her father and husband. Towards the end of the book, Tonks and Lupin join the Battle of Hogwarts. During the battle, Tonks is killed by Bellatrix, and Lupin is killed by Antonin Dolohov, leaving Teddy an orphan to be raised by his maternal grandmother, Andromeda. In an interview shortly after the release of Deathly Hallows, Rowling confessed that she had originally intended for Tonks and Lupin to survive the series ending, but felt that she had to kill them after she spared Arthur Weasley in Order of the Phoenix.
Natalia Tena played Tonks in the film versions of Order of the Phoenix, Half-Blood Prince and both parts of Deathly Hallows.
Arthur Weasley
Arthur Weasley is the patriarch of the Weasleys, a family of wizards who are considered "blood traitors" by Death Eaters for their interest in the Muggle world. He is married to Molly Weasley, with whom he has seven children, including Ron, Harry's best friend. During his time at Hogwarts, Arthur belonged to the house of Gryffindor. Arthur is described as being tall and thin, and as having a receding hairline and horn-rimmed glasses. An affable, light-hearted man, he tends not to be the authority figure in the family; his wife Molly handles that area. Arthur works for the Ministry of Magic, initially in the Misuse of Muggle Artefacts Office. He is obsessed with learning about Muggle customs and inventions and owns a large collection of mostly Muggle used items. His department lacks funding, and his salary is only just able to provide for a vast family, leaving his family finances precarious.
Mr. Weasley first appears in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, when Harry stays with the Weasley family at The Burrow during the summer before the first term of Hogwarts begins. In this book, Lucius Malfoy tries to discredit Arthur when Harry and Ron are seen flying his enchanted car and by placing Tom Riddle's diary in Ginny's cauldron so that she can open the Chamber of Secrets and take the blame for the attacks on Muggle-borns. However, Lucius fails to fulfil his objective and the diary is destroyed.
At the start of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Arthur wins a large cash prize in a sweepstake and uses it to take the whole family on a holiday to Egypt. After they return, Arthur thinks that Harry should know (what Arthur then believes to be) the truth about Sirius Black. In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, it seems that Arthur does not fully believe the stories of Harry's abuse at the hands of the Dursleys until he witnesses what they think about Harry and the Wizarding world and is stunned to see them so eager to say goodbye to him, before taking him to the Quidditch World Cup. At the beginning of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Mr. Weasley is a member of the Order and accompanies Harry to his visit to the Ministry. During one of his shifts in the Ministry guarding Sybill Trelawney's prophecy, Voldemort's pet snake Nagini attacks him. Harry, who is mentally connected with Voldemort, manages to see this in a vision and is able to warn the Hogwarts authorities. Arthur is subsequently saved just in time and sent to St Mungo's Hospital for Magical Maladies and Injuries, where he fully recovers. Rowling has revealed that in the original draft for Order of the Phoenix she planned to kill Arthur. She changed her mind, however, saying that she could not kill Arthur as he is one of the few good fathers in the series. However, as she "wanted to kill parents", she spared Arthur's life in exchange for Lupin's and Tonks'. In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Arthur has been promoted to Head of the Office for the Detection and Confiscation of Counterfeit Defensive Spells and Protective Objects.
In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Arthur is part of the group that moves Harry from Privet Drive for the last time, accompanied by his son Fred who acted as one of the seven Potters. Arthur continues to work in the Ministry but all his movements are tracked. When it is discovered that Ron is travelling with Harry and not sick at home, the Weasleys are forced to hide. Arthur reappears in the Battle of Hogwarts, in which he loses his son Fred, and is joined by Percy Weasley in defeating Pius Thicknesse.
Arthur Weasley appears in every film except the first and is portrayed by Mark Williams.
Bill Weasley
William Arthur "Bill" Weasley is the eldest born son of Arthur and Molly Weasley. He is described to be "hard-working" and "down-to-earth", but possesses a fondness for "a bit of adventure, a bit of glamour". During his time at Hogwarts, Bill becomes both a prefect and Head Boy, with 12 OWLs to his credit. Later, he works for Gringotts Bank in Egypt as a Curse-Breaker.
He makes his first full appearance in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, where he is described as being a good-looking young man, sporting long red hair tied back in a ponytail and a single fang earring. When he and Mrs Weasley pay a visit to Hogwarts during the Triwizard Tournament, Fleur eyes him with "great interest". Bill returns to Britain to work with the Order in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. He meets Fleur at Gringotts head office in London where she is employed at the time, giving her lessons to improve her English. After a year-long relationship, the couple gets engaged, and Bill brings his fiancée home to get to know his family, who disapprove of her.
Bill fights against the Death Eaters' attack at Hogwarts near the end of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, where he is attacked by werewolf Fenrir Greyback, who disfigures him. As Greyback was in human form at the time of the attack, Bill suffers only partial lycanthropy contamination—permanent scarring of his face, and an acquired liking for very rare beef. Fleur, who regards his wounds as a proud sign of his bravery, is adamant that their wedding proceed as scheduled, impressing Bill's family about the match's strength. In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Fleur and Bill take part in getting Harry escorted safely from the Dursleys' house, and they witness Mad-Eye Moody being killed by Voldemort himself, which they announce upon their return to the Burrow. The couple have their wedding there and later provide a safe haven for the trio and several others in their home, Shell Cottage. Both Bill and Fleur were combatants during the Battle of Hogwarts, and both survived the battle. Bill and Fleur later have three children: Victoire, Dominique and Louis.
Richard Fish appeared as Bill briefly in the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Domhnall Gleeson, the son of actor Brendan Gleeson (Alastor Moody in the series), plays Bill Weasley in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and the roller coaster ride Harry Potter and the Escape from Gringotts at The Wizarding World of Harry Potter – Diagon Alley in Universal Studios Florida.
Charlie Weasley
Charlie Weasley is the second son of Arthur and Molly Weasley and is described as having a build like that of his brothers Fred and George: shorter and stockier than Bill, Percy and Ron. He has a broad, good-natured face, which is slightly weather-beaten and very freckly. His arms are muscly, and one of them has a long shiny burn. While at Hogwarts, he was a prefect, a Quidditch Captain, and a legendary Seeker for the Gryffindor Quidditch team. His skills as a Seeker were so good that it was said, "He could have been capped for England if he hadn't gone off chasing dragons."
After school, Charlie chooses to go to Romania to work with dragons as a Dragon Keeper. At Harry, Ron and Hermione's request, he takes Hagrid's baby dragon, Norbert, an illegally hatched Norwegian Ridgeback, into his care in Harry's first year, and he is part of a team of Dragon Keepers that brings four dragons of different breeds to Hogwarts in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire for the First Task of the Triwizard Tournament.
During the second rise of Voldemort, Charlie's task in the Order is to try to rally support abroad. Charlie returns to the Burrow in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows to participate in his brother Bill's wedding as best man. He enters the later part of the Battle of Hogwarts, alongside Horace Slughorn, at the head of reinforcements for the defenders, and survives the battle without serious injury. He does not marry or have children, since he "preferred dragons to women", according to Rowling.
Alex Crockford appeared briefly as Charlie in the film adaptation of Prisoner of Azkaban.
Molly Weasley
Molly Weasley (née Prewett) is the wife of Arthur Weasley and the matriarch of the Weasley family. She is the mother of seven children, including Ron Weasley, who becomes Harry Potter's best friend. Molly is born into the pure-blood Prewett family, being the sister of Gideon and Fabian Prewett. The character is first introduced in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, when she kindly tells Harry how to cross the barrier through to Platform Nine and Three-Quarters. In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, she is furious with Fred, George, and Ron after she discovers that they flew their parents' enchanted car to rescue Harry from his aunt and uncle who had imprisoned him in his room. At the beginning of the school year, Molly sends Ron a Howler, screaming at him in anger that he and Harry flew the family car again, this time to Hogwarts. In Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, the Weasleys win the Daily Prophet draw and use the gold on a trip to Egypt to visit Bill. They return to Britain and stay at The Leaky Cauldron with Harry and Hermione. Harry overhears Mr and Mrs Weasley arguing one night about telling Harry the truth about the supposed connection between Sirius Black and Harry; Arthur feels Harry should know the truth but Molly, feeling the truth would terrify him, assures him Harry will be perfectly safe at Hogwarts with Dumbledore's protection, and orders Percy Weasley to keep an eye on Harry at the school.
When Harry arrives at the Burrow in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Molly finds out about Fred and George's experimentation with dangerous sweets they were manufacturing and tells them off before leaving for the Quidditch World Cup; however, after the Dark Mark appears over the sky at the World Cup campsite, Molly is upset for yelling at Fred and George, worried that something might have happened to them after she treated them so horribly. Towards the climax of that book, Molly and Bill arrive at Hogwarts to see the Third Task of the Triwizard Tournament, acting as family guests to Harry. After the return of Voldemort, Dumbledore asks Molly and Bill to join the Order and fight in the impending Second War. Molly comforts Harry and, for the first time in his life, he has someone to be there for him, like a mother.
Molly and the Weasleys are staying at the Order headquarters, Number Twelve, Grimmauld Place, in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, where she and Sirius fight over how much to tell Harry about the Order's operations. Days later, Molly is found in the drawing room, with a boggart that transforms into her dead family members and Harry, and confesses her nightmares of losing more family members to Voldemort and the Death Eaters. At the beginning of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Molly clashes with Bill's fiancée, Fleur Delacour; however, at the end of the novel, when Molly rushes to Hogwarts with her husband and Fleur to tend to her son Bill, who had been ferociously attacked by Fenrir Greyback, Fleur is greatly offended when Molly jumps to the conclusion she will break up with Bill due to his scarring, letting her know in no uncertain terms that his scars are a reminder of the courage that Bill displayed. Fleur and Molly unexpectedly hug and begin to see each other in a much more positive light.
At the beginning of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Molly and Arthur offer the Burrow as Order headquarters when Grimmauld Place is no longer safe. She feels immensely uncomfortable with the trio's decision to drop out of Hogwarts and initially attempts to dissuade them from doing so. As the novel progresses, the family is forced to head for safety at Auntie Muriel's home. At the end of the book, Molly and her entire family fight in the Battle of Hogwarts. She is devastated by the death of her son Fred and is pushed to the edge when Bellatrix Lestrange almost strikes Ginny with the Killing Curse. Enraged, she engages Bellatrix in an intense duel, killing her with a curse that hits her in the chest. Rowling has stated that the reason she had Molly kill Bellatrix was to show Molly's great powers as a witch and to provide a contrast between Molly's consumption with "maternal love" and Bellatrix's with "obsessive love".
The Chicago Tribunes Courtney Crowder lists Molly Weasley as her favourite literary mother, describing her as the "original Mama Grizzly", citing her many touching moments with Harry as well as the final book in the series, where "her feelings jumped off the page" as testament to her strong personality. Crowder summarises Molly's character as "levelheaded, yet willing to fight, intelligent, welcoming, and above all, extremely loving". In a Mother's Day article Molly was also voted the third greatest celebrity mother by The Flowers and Plants association who see the character as "formidable, practical, creative and resourceful". Bob Smietana of Christianity Today links Molly's defence of Ginny in the final book into a wider theme in the series about the strength of parental love, which he feels to carry considerable emotional weight. Empire listed Molly Weasley 24th on their Top 30 Harry Potter characters. Novelist Stephen King notes that when Molly called Bellatrix a "bitch" after she sees the Death Eater trying to kill Ginny, it was "the most shocking bitch in recent fiction", and that it shows how adult the books had become.
Julie Walters portrays Molly Weasley in every film except Goblet of Fire, in which her role in the novel is cut out. In 2003, BBC voted her portrayal of Molly as the second-"best screen mother", behind Julia Roberts as Erin Brockovich.
Notes
References
External links
The Harry Potter Lexicon item on the Order of the Phoenix
Harry Potter organisations
Fictional secret societies
Fictional revolutionary organizations | [
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259107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Hamilton%20novels | Carl Hamilton novels | The Carl Hamilton novels is a book series by Swedish author and journalist Jan Guillou centered on the fictional Swedish spy Carl Hamilton. The main character is an elite military officer working for the Swedish Security agency and Intelligence agency during the end of the Cold War, residing in Stockholm but active internationally.
Carl Hamilton has been called "Sweden's James Bond", but the plot of Guillou's novels also has a heavy focus on politics and journalism. One commentator said the books "... place [Guillou] besides John le Carré and Len Deighton" (famous British spy novelists). The first novel was published in 1986 and the series is a best-seller in Sweden, with more than 10 million sold copies. The character of Carl Hamilton has also appeared in a number of film and television adaptations.
Novels
Carl Hamilton is the main character of the first ten novels released between 1986 and 1995. He makes a return as a supporting character in the novels Madame Terror (2006) and Men inte om det gäller din dotter (2008). He also makes a short appearance as a minor character in De som dödar drömmar sover aldrig (2018) and Den andra dödssynden (2019).
1986 – Coq Rouge
1987 – Den demokratiske terroristen
1988 – I nationens intresse
1989 – Fiendens fiende
1990 – Den hedervärde mördaren
1991 – Vendetta
1992 – Ingen mans land
1993 – Den enda segern
1994 – I hennes majestäts tjänst
1995 – En medborgare höjd över varje misstanke
2006 – Madame Terror
2008 – Men inte om det gäller din dotter
Other appearances
1995 – Hamlon (novella)
2018 – De som dödar drömmar sover aldrig
2019 – Den andra dödssynden
Concept and creation
While working as a journalist in the early 1970s Jan Guillou had been convicted of espionage for exposing an illegal secret spy organization inside the Swedish military (see the IB affair). During his prison sentence in 1974, he read the crime novels about Martin Beck, written by his friends and fellow left wing writers Per Wahlöö and Maj Sjöwall, and this inspired him to write his own political crime novels. But instead of writing about the police he would write about the world of intelligence and counter-intelligence from the viewpoint of a Swedish spy, making use of his vast research and journalistic experience in this field.
Guillou had published his debut novel "Om kriget kommer" (If the War Comes) in 1971, some years before the IB affair, where the main character is also an officer in the Swedish military intelligence. But he didn't begin writing on the new spy project until the mid-1980s, when a personal encounter with Norwegian security police in Oslo inspired him to the plot of the first novel. Many years after the IB affair, Guillou had also befriended the former chief of the Swedish military intelligence, who came to serve as a sounding board for the plot of the novels and be the inspiration for the character of the retired spy chief DG.
The inspiration for the main character Carl Hamilton was a left wing speaker that Guillou had seen giving a speech during a political manifestation in Stockholm in the late 1960s. This person was named Oxenstierna, an old name from Swedish nobility, and was referred to as 'Comrade Oxenstierna' during the manifestation, which greatly amused Guillou since he found the idea of a Swedish Count who was also a Socialist to be very entertaining. The reason he changed the name to Hamilton, another old name from the nobility, was because there were so few living people from the family of Oxenstierna and Hamilton was more common and easier to use anonymously.
Writing style
Jan Guillou uses an intended journalistic style for his prose, making the series serve as a contemporary chronicle for Sweden and the end of the Cold War. Each novel in the series has its intended political theme, often depicting the use of un-democratic methods to protect democracy.
Several characters in the books are based on actual people, often slightly disguised. For example, real life Swedish spy Stig Bergling becomes 'Stig Sandström' and real life intelligence chief Ulf Samuelsson becomes 'Samuel Ulfsson'. Many real life politicians feature such as Carl Bildt, Yasser Arafat and Mikhail Gorbachev. Jan Guillou himself is the basis of a character named Erik Ponti, which was the alter ego he used in his autobiographical novel Ondskan from 1981 (literal translation: The Evil).
The character of Carl Hamilton
Early life
As a teenager from the Swedish upperclass in Stockholm, Hamilton was an active member of the intellectual Maoist organisation Clarté and pro-Palestine groups. When entering Sweden's compulsory military service as an attack diver for the Navy, his political intent was to infiltrate the system in order to strengthen it against the threat of Soviet imperialism and at the same time reduce the traditionally right wing tendencies of the armed forces. While being trained by the Navy, at 22 years old, he is recruited by the spy chief DG ("The Old One"), with an offer to become a new kind of secret field operator for military intelligence. Instead of attending the Swedish Naval Academy, Hamilton is sent to the US to be secretly trained by the FBI and the Navy SEALs. The cover story for his additional time in the USA was that Hamilton was studying computers at University of California, San Diego. He spent five years in California, completing both college and his secret military and intelligence training in the Mojave Desert. He returned to Sweden in 1981.
A young version of Hamilton also makes brief appearances in the novels De som dödar drömmar sover aldrig (2018) and Den andra dödssynden (2019) that takes place in the 1970s and 1980s.
Career
At the beginning of the first novel, Coq Rouge (1986), Hamilton has been misplaced to a desk job at the Swedish security service, SÄPO. Because of changed political policies and military union rules, and not least his radical past, his old mentor and recruiter DG has not been able to get him into the military intelligence as was intended. Only after the events in the second novel does he actually get to join the military intelligence, called OP5, after having proved his superior skills in the field. As a secret field operator he is used to gather intelligence, infiltrate, lead rescue operations and commit assassinations. After his cover has been blown in the fourth novel, Fiendens fiende, he is often used for political PR purposes and becomes internationally famous, even named Time Person of the Year.
When he first starts making a name for himself in the secret world of spies, during the events of the first novel, he is given the international codename Coq Rouge, which has been used as a title of the main series. This codename is ironically derived from a conversation between Näslund, his chief at the Swedish security service, and an Israeli counterpart during a meeting between security officers in France. Näslund, who hates Hamilton, says that Hamilton is as proud as a rooster and a communist. During the conversation, they are drinking wine from a bottle with a red coq on the bottle, and the Israeli officer says: "Why don't we call him the red rooster, "Coq Rouge?". The real codename that Hamilton himself uses with his military colleagues is Trident.
Hamilton works for many years in the Swedish military intelligence until he is appointed chief of the Swedish security service in the tenth novel, En medborgare höjd över varje misstanke (1995).
Ten years after conclusion of the main series with the tenth novel, Hamilton makes an unexpected return in the novel Madame Terror (2006), as the commander of a Palestinian submarine with a mission to destroy the Israeli navy. Guillou had stated in 1995 that the series had ended and could not continue. However, when he was working on Madame Terror, he realised that he needed Hamilton to fill in a specific role for the plot to work. After that, Hamilton makes yet another appearance in the novel Men inte om det gäller din dotter (2008), where he is again forced to take up arms.
Personal traits
From his conservative upperclass upbringing, Hamilton has a great interest in wine and classical music. In the first few novels, he lives in an apartment in the Old Town of central Stockholm. Later in the series, he moves to a castle outside Stockholm. As a teenager he was a Communist, while as an adult he considers himself a Socialist.
Before he went to the USA he inherited shares, and when returning this has made him a millionaire on the stock market. Since he has always despised economy built on speculation, he moves his money to funds and property, which to his disliking makes him even richer.
When Hamilton wears his Swedish Naval uniform he wears the insignia of the Navy SEALs, and during the series he is awarded an impressive collection of medals and military decorations.
His preferred weapons are a Beretta 92 (pistol) and a Smith & Wesson Combat Magnum (revolver). He owns a Beretta pistol with a grip in nacre, inscribed with the family weapon of house Hamilton, which he got as a parting gift from his American instructors in California.
He has no fear of darkness, harbouring a well-grounded conviction that because of his superior military training he is the thing to fear in the night. Since a young age he has a particular talent for sharpshooting, which comes to be his personal method for self-meditation. No matter how chaotic his emotional or physical situation, he becomes calm when aiming a gun, "blanking out everything except the line between eye, sight and target".
Throughout the series, he becomes increasingly tormented and troubled by his work experience, and sometimes visualizes his inner demons as "blocks of black ice surfacing in a raging river", and routinely suppresses them. In the early books, his mentor DG, who is a trained psychologist as well as a military officer, acts as his sounding board.
Medals and decorations
Marinens skyttemedalj
För tapperhet i fält (Gustav III:s)
Commander of the Bundesverdienstkreuz
Commander of the Legion of Honour
För tapperhet i fält (Gustaf V:s)
H. M. The King's Medal 8th size by the Order of the Seraphim ribbon
Order of the Red Star
Time Person of the Year
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Plot
Coq Rouge (1986)
Original Swedish title: Coq Rouge: berättelsen om en svensk spion (literal: Coq Rouge – the Story of a Swedish Spy)
In the mid 1980s, a high-ranking officer in the Swedish security service, SÄPO, is found murdered in Stockholm. Together with the policemen of the security service, the young Carl Hamilton is tasked with investigating the murder and soon makes use of his secret military training. The conservative Swedish police put their main focus on Palestinians and left wing radicals, but when the investigation takes Hamilton to Beirut and Israel he finds a different truth.
Den demokratiske terroristen (1987)
The Democratic Terrorist
The West German security service has need of a Swedish colleague to help them infiltrate a remaining group of the Red Army Faction (RAF) that is supposedly planning a terrorist operation in Sweden. Carl Hamilton is the perfect choice with his military training and radical background in the leftist movement.
I nationens intresse (1988)
In the Interest of the Nation
Hamilton has been transferred to the military intelligence he was intended for. His first mission is to escort a defecting Soviet Admiral from Cairo to Sweden, and soon learns that the Soviet Armed Forces has installed secret underwater bases in the Stockholm archipelago. In the shadow of this great threat to the nation, Hamilton is tormented by guilt from a brutal event that his intense military training has caused in his private life.
Enemy's Enemy (1989)
Original Swedish title: Fiendens fiende. English translation by Thomas Keeland in 1992.
A Soviet defector in London feeds the Swedish security service information that Hamilton is a double agent working for Russia. Much of this information seems to come from another Swedish double agent, who has recently escaped Swedish prison and is now guarded by the Russians in Moscow. This leads to the disturbing question if the Swedish military intelligence can conduct a secret murder on one of their own citizens.
Den hedervärde mördaren (1990)
The Honourable Murderer
Retired high-ranking Swedish officers are being brutally murdered, and the murderers are leaving traces to a supposed Nazi past. While Sweden is in turmoil from racist movements, Hamilton and his colleagues in the military intelligence are tasked to conduct their own investigation of the murders, searching the military archives and learning the dark past of their predecessors.
Vendetta (1991)
Vendetta
When members of the Swedish arms industry are kidnapped by the Italian mafia in Sicily, Hamilton is tasked to handle the negotiations. He brings one of his closest friends and military colleagues for the mission, and after a deadly first encounter with the mafia, he is thrown into a vicious vendetta where all of his military training is put to use.
Ingen mans land (1992)
No Man's Land
Hamilton and the Swedish military intelligence are tasked with preventing stolen nuclear warheads from being smuggled out of Russia, resulting in a secret military operation across the Russian border with a very dark and very disturbing mission.
Den enda segern (1993)
The Only Victory
As a sequel to the previous novel, a second nuclear warhead has been smuggled out through Sweden, revealing that the first deadly attempt was meant only as a sinister distraction. Hamilton, who is tormented by his deeds during that mission, must now work with former enemies in the Russian military intelligence to track the second warhead and the people who stole it, and to prevent a war he must also try to bring the new conservative government in Sweden and the US military into a collaboration with his old friends in the PLO.
I hennes majestäts tjänst (1994)
On Her Majesty's Service
The British MI5 and MI6 need the assistance of Hamilton and his unit within the Swedish military intelligence to investigate a growing number of mysterious deaths in the British defence industry. Meanwhile, hateful enemies from Hamilton's own past are planning a sinister revenge.
En medborgare höjd över varje misstanke (1995)
A Citizen Raised Above Every Suspicion
With his private life in ashes, Hamilton is appointed head of the Swedish security service and begins an effort to reshape the organization. While he is doing a lecture tour of Sweden's universities, several immigrant agents of the security service are being murdered with military skill.
Hamlon (novella) (1995)
After escaping from Sweden, convicted of murder, Hamilton is now living a secret life as a retired rich man in La Jolla, California, with the name Charles Hamlon under the protection of the FBI. When a local murder investigation makes the FBI search for a suspect with elite military skills, Hamlon is taken into consideration.
This novella is written as a draft for an eleventh novel, but the plot was never intended to be solved and it ends with an afterword where Jan Guillou accounts for why the series would not continue. Guillou states that En medborgare höjd över varje misstanke was the last book and the conclusion of the series, and in order to make sure that Hamilton would never return he was now "banished" from Sweden through a life sentence and eternal exile in California. Since Guillou only intended to write with clear political themes, based around Sweden, no further books would be possible.
Madame Terror (2006)
Carl Hamilton has spent ten years in secret exile as Charles Hamlon in California, where he is keeping his body in shape and getting psychological help. One day an old friend from the Palestinian intelligence service, Mouna al-Husseini who the world presumed dead, comes to recruit him for a mission. With the help of the Russians, who want revenge on the Americans for sinking the Kursk submarine, the Palestinians have developed a high-tech alfa class attack submarine. The crew is mixed Russian and Palestinian, but they have trouble collaborating. They need a strong leader that is neither Russian nor Palestinian, but who can speak Russian, supports the Palestinian cause, has Russian and Palestinian medals, has naval background, understands the strategies of war and is a high-ranking officer. Only one living man fits this description: Carl Hamilton. Their mission is to destroy the entire Israeli fleet.
Men inte om det gäller din dotter (2008)
But Not If it Concerns Your Daughter
After leading the Palestinians to a short-lived victory against Israel, Hamilton is exiled to Russia since the Americans under the George W. Bush regime has declared him an enemy and a terrorist. When he can no longer stay in Russian, after having refused a demand from president Vladimir Putin to become a commander of brutal Russian military operations, he returns to Stockholm in order to have his old murder conviction reconsidered in court. Acquitted, he begins a new retired life in the company of new and old friends, but when a small child is kidnapped by Saudi Arabian terrorists he must once again take up arms and lead another military operation.
Film and TV adaptations
Codename Coq Rouge, portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård (1989)
Förhöret, portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård (television, 1989) (English translation: The interrogation)
Enemy's Enemy, portrayed by Peter Haber (television miniseries 1990)
The Democratic Terrorist, portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård (1992)
Vendetta, portrayed by Stefan Sauk (1995)
Tribunal, portrayed by Stefan Sauk (television, 1995)
Hamilton, portrayed by Peter Stormare (1998, television miniseries 2001)
Hamilton: In the Interest of the Nation (Hamilton: I nationens intresse), portrayed by Mikael Persbrandt (2012)
Agent Hamilton: But Not If It Concerns Your Daughter (Hamilton 2: Men inte om det gäller din dotter) (2012)
Agent Hamilton: In Her Majesty's Service (Hamilton 3: I hennes majestäts tjänst) (2016)
Agent Hamilton (TV series), with Jakob Oftebro (2019)
The Carl Hamilton who appears in the movies and TV series made between 1989 and 1998 (Stellan Skarsgård, Peter Haber, Stefan Sauk and Peter Stormare) is based on the novels, with minor changes.
The Carl Hamilton who appears in the movies Hamilton – I nationens intresse (2011) and Hamilton – Men inte om det gäller din dotter (2012), played by Mikael Persbrandt, is only loosely based on the character from the novels and does not follow the original story line or setting, and is mostly a new character moved into the 2010s.
The Carl Hamilton who appears in the TV series Hamilton (2020), played by Jakob Oftebro, is a younger version moved to the 2020s, with very little resemblance to the original novels.
References
Fictional secret agents and spies
Fictional Swedish people
Fictional navy personnel
Fictional murderers
Fictional counts and countesses
Literary characters introduced in 1986
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259109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrics%20%28company%29 | Quadrics (company) | Quadrics was a supercomputer company formed in 1996 as a joint venture between Alenia Spazio and the technical team from Meiko Scientific. They produced hardware and software for clustering commodity computer systems into massively parallel systems. Their highpoint was in June 2003 when six out of the ten fastest supercomputers in the world were based on Quadrics' interconnect. They officially closed on June 29, 2009.
Company history
The Quadrics name was first used in 1993 for a commercialized version of the APE100 SIMD parallel computer produced by Alenia Spazio and originally developed by INFN, the Italian National Institute of Nuclear Physics. In 1996, a new Alenia subsidiary, Quadrics Supercomputers World (QSW) was formed, based in Bristol, UK and Rome, Italy, inheriting the Quadrics SIMD product line and the Meiko CS-2 massively parallel supercomputer architecture. In 2002 the company name was shortened to be simply Quadrics.
Initially, the new company focussed on the development potential of the CS-2's processor interconnect technology. Their first design was the Elan2 network ASIC, intended for use with the UltraSPARC CPU, attached to it using the Ultra Port Architecture (UPA) system bus. Plans to introduce the Elan2 were later dropped, and a new Elan3 hosted on PCI introduced instead. By the time of its release Elan3 had been re-aimed at the Alpha/PCI market instead, after Quadrics had formed a relationship with Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).
The combination of Quadrics and Alpha 21264 (EV6) microprocessors proved very successful, and Digital/Compaq rapidly became one of the world's largest suppliers of supercomputers. This culminated with the building the largest machine in the US, the 20 TFLOP ASCI Q, installed at Los Alamos National Laboratory during 2002 and 2003. The machine consisted of 2,048 AlphaServer SC nodes (which are based on AlphaServer ES45), each with four 1.25 GHz Alpha 21264A (EV67) microprocessors and two rails of the Quadrics QsNet network.
Quadrics also had success in selling Linux based systems. Quadrics' first Linux based system was installed in June/July 2001 at SHARCNET. It was the fastest civilian system in Canada at the time of installation. Another high-profile Quadrics system was the fastest Linux cluster in the world called Thunder installed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 2003/2004. Thunder consisted of 1024 Intel Tiger Quad Itanium II Processor servers to deliver 19.94 teraflops on parallel Linpack. Peak performance of the system was 22.9 teraflops, at a level of efficiency of 87%.
In 2004, Quadrics was selected by Bull for what will be the fastest supercomputer in Europe: TERA-10 at the French CEA: 544 Bull NovaScale 6160 computing nodes, each including eight Itanium 2 processors. The global configuration will feature 8,704 processors with 27 terabytes of core memory. Each of these computing nodes will contain multiple Quadrics QsNetII (Elan4) network adapters to deliver over 60 teraflops (sixty thousands billions of operations per second).
Quadrics was selected by HP for the upgrade of SHARCNET, the Canadian Cluster of Clusters, with four new high-performance computing clusters that would increase the network's capacity from 1,000 to 6,000 processors. QsNetII was used for one capacity and one capability cluster.
In August 2005 Quadrics and STMicroelectronics signed a development agreement. The cooperation was to cover the design of a future generations of Quadrics high speed multi gigabit interconnect, and the exploitation of the products in a range of high volume applications. This co-operation never bore fruit despite the secondment of STMicroelectronics Bristol based staff to Quadrics.
The decision to close the company was made in April 2009, despite the next-generation QsNetIII product being very close to completion. Support for older products and the IP rights were transferred to Vega UK Ltd (now Telespazio VEGA ), and the Quadrics offices were closed on June 29, 2009. Many of Quadrics' technical staff have since found similar employment in developing HPC networking products with Gnodal, one of the many fabless semiconductor companies based in Bristol in the UK.
Quadrics products
Hardware
Quadrics QsNetI - HPC interconnect based on the elan3/elite3 ASICs (350MB/s @ 5us MPI latency)
Quadrics QsNetII - HPC interconnect based on the elan4/elite4 ASICs (912MB/s on SR1400 EM64T and 1.26us MPI latency on HP DL145G2)
QsTenG - 10 Gigabit Ethernet switches, from 24-port (1U) to very large switches.
QsNet III - HPC interconnect based on the elan5/elite5 ASICs (approximately 2GB/s each direction and 1.3us MPI latency). This is the first product from Quadrics that is compatible with a standard - in this case 10Gbit Ethernet.
QsNet
QsNet was a high speed interconnect designed by Quadrics used in high-performance computing computer clusters, particularly Linux Beowulf clusters. Although it can be used with TCP/IP; like SCI, Myrinet and InfiniBand it is usually used with a communication API such as Message Passing Interface (MPI) or SHMEM called from a parallel program.
The interconnect consists of a PCI card in each compute node and one or more dedicated switch chassis. These are connected with a copper cables. Within the switch chassis are a number of line cards that carry Elite switch ASICs. These are internally linked to form a fat tree topology. Like other interconnects such as Myrinet very large systems can be built by using multiple switch chassis arranged as spine (top-level) and leaf (node-level) switches. Such systems were called "federated networks".
It was announced in 1998 and used PCI 66-64 cards that had 'elan3' Custom ASIC on them. These gave an MPI bandwidth of around 350MB/s unidirectional with 5us latency.
QsNet II
QsNet II was the fourth and penultimate generation of Quadrics interconnect family products, and was launched in 2003. QsNetII interfaced to the host computer through the standard IO PCI-X bus. Later versions of the card had PCIe physical interfaces although this was bridged on the card to PCI-X with a performance penalty. A native PCIe version was never developed. Instead resource was focused on QsNetII's successor QsNetIII which although completed was never released commercially.'''.
The architecture of the network interface has been developed to offload the entire task of interprocessor communication from the main processor, and to avoid the overhead of system calls for user process to user process messaging. QsNetII is designed for use within SMP systems — multiple, concurrent processes can utilise the network interface without any task switching overhead. A I/O processor offloads protocol handling from the main CPU. Local memory on the PCI card provides storage for buffers, translation tables and I/O adapter code. All the PCI bandwidth is available to data communication.
QsNetII's core design is based on two ASICs: Elan4 and Elite4. Elan4 is a communication processor that forms the interface between a high-performance multistage network and a processing node with one or more CPUs. Elite4 is a switching component that can switch eight bidirectional communications links, each of which carrying data in both directions simultaneously at 1.3GB/s.
Quadrics QsNetII interconnect like its predecessor QsNet uses a 'fat tree' topology, QsNetII scales up to 4096 nodes, each node might have multiple CPUs so that systems of >10,000 CPUs can be constructed. Multiple, parallel QsNet networks can be employed in a system to maintain the compute to communications ratio where high CPU count SMP nodes are employed. The fat tree topology is resilient with large amounts of redundancy in the higher levels of the switch.
Performance depends on platform used and configuration of the system, QsNetII MPI latency on standard AMD Opteron starts at 1.22μs; Bandwidth on Intel Xeon Intel 64 is 912MB/s.
In 2004, Quadrics started releasing small to medium switch stand-alone switch configurations called QsNetII E-Series, these configurations range from the 8 to the 128-way systems.
QsTenG
In November 2005, Quadrics announced a new product based on 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 GigE), called QsTenG. The first QsTenG switch was an 8U chassis with 12 slots for 10 GigE line cards, making 96 ports in total. Each line card had eight 10 GigE ports that connect using 10GBASE-CX4 connectors. Each line card also had four internal ports that connected the line cards together into a fat tree configuration. Since then, Quadrics brought out a second generation of 10 GigE switches, starting with a compact 1U switch with 24 ports, which comes in two variants, TG201-CA, 24 ports CX4, and TG201-XA, 24 ports in total, 12 XSP and 12 CX4. They were expected to bring out a range of larger switches in 2009, the chassis was planned to be the same as the QsNetIII, the switch to have been called TG215.
Late in 2007, the Quadrics management decided to cancel the QsTenG Ethernet developments and concentrate efforts on the QsNet product line. This caused a group employees to leave and help found Gnodal, to develop large scalable Ethernet systems.
Software
Software included a cluster resource manager software package called QuadricsRms, and Quadrics Linux Software, core components of the QsNet software release for Linux under the GNU LGPL License
See also
NUMAlink
HIPPI
InfiniBand
Myrinet
Scalable Coherent Interconnect (SCI)
Gigabit Ethernet
References
External links
Fujitsu
Vega HPC support
Quadrics company name FAQ
Supercomputers
Computer networks
Networking companies
Networking hardware companies | [
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259110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodiam%20Castle | Bodiam Castle | Bodiam Castle () is a 14th-century moated castle near Robertsbridge in East Sussex, England. It was built in 1385 by Sir Edward Dalyngrigge, a former knight of Edward III, with the permission of Richard II, ostensibly to defend the area against French invasion during the Hundred Years' War. Of quadrangular plan, Bodiam Castle has no keep, having its various chambers built around the outer defensive walls and inner courts. Its corners and entrance are marked by towers, and topped by crenellations. Its structure, details and situation in an artificial watery landscape indicate that display was an important aspect of the castle's design as well as defence. It was the home of the Dalyngrigge family and the centre of the manor of Bodiam.
Possession of Bodiam Castle passed through several generations of Dalyngrigges, until their line became extinct, when the castle passed by marriage to the Lewknor family. During the Wars of the Roses, Sir Thomas Lewknor supported the House of Lancaster, and when Richard III of the House of York became king in 1483, a force was despatched to besiege Bodiam Castle. It is unrecorded whether the siege went ahead, but it is thought that Bodiam was surrendered without much resistance. The castle was confiscated, but returned to the Lewknors when Henry VII of the House of Lancaster became king in 1485. Descendants of the Lewknors owned the castle until at least the 16th century.
By the start of the English Civil War in 1641, Bodiam Castle was in the possession of Lord Thanet. He supported the Royalist cause, and sold the castle to help pay fines levied against him by Parliament. The castle was subsequently dismantled, and was left as a picturesque ruin until its purchase by John Fuller in 1829. Under his auspices, the castle was partially restored before being sold to George Cubitt, 1st Baron Ashcombe, and later to Lord Curzon, both of whom undertook further restoration work. The castle is protected as a Grade I listed building and Scheduled Monument. It has been owned by The National Trust since 1925, donated by Lord Curzon on his death, and is open to the public. It was featured in the 2019 film, Pagan Warrior.
Background
Edward Dalyngrigge was a younger son and thus deprived of his father's estates through the practice of primogeniture, hence he had to make his own fortunes. By 1378, he owned the manor of Bodiam by marrying into a land-owning family. From 1379 to 1388, Dalyngrigge was a Knight of the Shire for Sussex and one of the most influential people in the county. By the time he applied to the king for a licence to crenellate (build a castle), the Hundred Years' War had been fought between England and France for nearly 50 years. Edward III of England (reigned 1327–1377) pressed his claim for the French throne and secured the territories of Aquitaine and Calais. Dalyngrigge was one of many Englishmen who travelled to France to seek their fortune as members of Free Companies – groups of mercenaries who fought for the highest bidder. He left for France in 1367 and journeyed with Lionel, Duke of Clarence and son of Edward III. After fighting under the Earl of Arundel, Dalyngrigge joined the company of Sir Robert Knolles, a notorious commander who was reputed to have made 100,000 gold crowns as a mercenary from pillage and plunder. It was as a member of the Free Companies that Dalyngrigge raised the money to build Bodiam Castle; he returned to England in 1377.
The Treaty of Bruges (1375) ensured peace for two years, but after it expired, fighting resumed between England and France. In 1377 Edward III was succeeded by Richard II. During the war, England and France struggled for control of the English Channel, with raids on both coasts. With the renewed hostilities, Parliament voted that money should be spent on defending and fortifying England's south coast, and defences were erected in Kent in anticipation of a French invasion. There was internal unrest as well as external threats, and Dalyngrigge was involved in suppressing the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. The manor of Bodiam was granted a charter in 1383 permitting a weekly market and an annual fair to be held. In 1385, a fleet of 1,200 ships – variously cogs, barges, and galleys – gathered across the English Channel at Sluys, Flanders; the population of southern England was in a state of panic. Later in the year, Edward Dalyngrigge was granted a licence to fortify his manor house.
Construction and use
Dalyngrigge's licence from Richard II permitted him to refortify his existing manor house, but instead he chose a fresh site to build a castle on. Construction was completed in one phase, and most of the castle is in the same architectural style. Archaeologist David Thackray has deduced from this that Bodiam Castle was built quickly, probably because of the threat from the French. Stone castles were usually time-consuming and expensive to build, often costing thousands of pounds. Dalyngrigge was Captain of the port of Brest in France from 1386 to 1387, and as a result was probably absent for the first years of the castle's construction. It replaced the old manor house as Dalyngrigge's main residence and the administrative centre of the manor. It is not recorded when Bodiam Castle was completed, but Thackray suggests that it was before 1392; Dalyngrigge did not have long to spend in the completed castle, as he was dead by 1395.
Danlyngrigge's estates, including the castle, were inherited by his son, John Dalyngrigge. Like his father, John enjoyed the favour of the king and was described as the "King's Knight"; in 1400 he was granted an annual allowance of 100 marks by the king. He died on 27 September 1408, leaving a will by which his property passed to his widow Alice during her lifetime. Since they had no children, at Alice's death (which occurred in 1442) it was to pass to John's cousin Richard Dallingrigge, son of Edward's brother Walter. Upon Richard's death without issue in 1470, his brother William having died before him, he left the estates to Sir Roger Lewknor, son of Richard's sister Phillippe Dallingridge. (Phillippe had married Sir Thomas Lewknor of Horsted Keynes before 1417, and died in 1421; Sir Thomas, who made a second marriage, died in 1452.) By this means, Bodiam Castle passed from the Dallingrigge into the Lewknor family.
Sir Thomas Lewknor, son of Sir Roger, was a supporter of the House of Lancaster during the Wars of the Roses, which began in 1455. When Richard of the House of York ascended to the throne as Richard III in 1483, Lewknor was accused of treason and of raising men-at-arms in southeast England. In November 1483, Lewknor's uncle and Thomas Howard, the Earl of Surrey, were given permission to levy men and besiege Bodiam Castle, where Lewknor was based. It is not recorded whether the siege went ahead, and Thackray suggests that Lewknor surrendered without much resistance. His property was confiscated, and Nicholas Rigby was made constable of the castle. On Henry VII's accession to the English throne the attainder was revoked, and Bodiam Castle was returned to Lewknor. However, not all the surrounding land was returned to the family until 1542. Possession of Bodiam Castle passed through several generations of the Lewknor family. Although the inheritance of the castle can be traced through the 16th and 17th centuries, there is little to indicate how it was used in this period, or if the family spent much time in it.
Following the death of Sir Roger Lewknor in 1543, his estates were divided among his descendants, and the castle and manor were split. John Levett of Salehurst purchased the castle in 1588. In 1623, most of the estates of Bodiam were bought by Sir Nicholas Tufton, later Earl of Thanet. His son, John Tufton, 2nd Earl of Thanet, inherited Nicholas's property on his father's death in 1631; it was John Tufton who reunited possession of castle and manor when he bought Bodiam Castle in 1639. John Tufton was a supporter of the Royalist cause during the English Civil War, and led an attack on Lewes, and was involved in a Royalist defeat at Haywards Heath. Parliament confiscated some of his lands in 1643, and more in 1644, as well as fining him £9,000 (£ today). To help pay his fine, Tufton sold Bodiam Castle for £6,000 (£ today) in March 1644 to Nathaniel Powell, a Parliamentarian.
Picturesque ruins
After the Civil War, Powell was made a baronet by Charles II. Although it is unrecorded when Bodiam Castle was dismantled (slighted), it was probably after it was bought by Powell. During and after the Civil War, many castles were slighted to prevent them from being reused. Not all were destroyed completely, and in some cases care was taken not to unnecessarily deface the structure. At Bodiam, it was deemed sufficient to dismantle the barbican, the bridges, and the buildings inside the castle. When Nathaniel Powell died in 1674 or 1675, Bodiam Castle was passed on to his son, also called Nathaniel. After the second Nathaniel, the castle came into the possession of Elizabeth Clitherow, his daughter-in-law.
In 1722 Sir Thomas Webster bought the castle. For over a century, Bodiam Castle and its associated manor descended through the Webster family. It was in this period that the site became popular as an early kind of tourist attraction because of its connection with the medieval period. The first drawings of Bodiam Castle date from the mid-18th century, when it was depicted as a ruin overgrown with ivy. Ruins and medieval buildings such as Bodiam Castle served as an inspiration for the revival in Gothic architecture and the renovation of old structures.
The third Sir Godfrey Webster began looking for buyers for the castle in 1815, and in 1829 he finally managed to sell it and of the surrounding land to John 'Mad Jack' Fuller for £3,000 (£ today). Fuller repaired one of the towers, added new gates to the site, and removed a cottage which had been built within the castle in the 18th century; he is thought to have bought the castle to prevent the Webster family from dismantling it and reusing its materials. George Cubitt, later Baron Ashcombe, purchased the castle and its from Fuller's grandson in 1849, for over £5,000 (£ today). Cubitt continued the renovations that Fuller started. He commissioned the first detailed survey of Bodiam Castle in 1864, and undertook repairs to the tower at the southwest corner of the site, which had almost entirely collapsed. Because there was then a fashion for ruins covered in ivy, the vegetation was not removed despite its detrimental effect on the masonry, and the trees which had taken root in the courtyard were left.
Lord Curzon decided that "so rare a treasure [as Bodiam Castle] should neither be lost to our country nor desecrated by irreverent hands". Curzon made enquiries about buying the castle, but Cubitt did not wish to sell. However, after Cubitt's death, Curzon was able to make a deal with Cubitt's son, and he bought Bodiam Castle and its lands in 1916. Curzon began a programme of investigation at Bodiam in 1919, and with architect William Weir restored parts of the castle. The moat, on average about deep but deep in the southeast corner, was drained and of mud and silt removed; during excavations the original footings of the bridges to the castle were discovered. Nearby hedges and fences were removed to provide an unobscured view of the castle. There were excavations in the interior, and a well was discovered in the basement of the southwest tower. Vegetation was cleared, stonework repaired, and the original floor level re-established throughout the castle. A cottage was built to provide a museum to display the finds from the excavations and a home for a caretaker. Bodiam Castle was given to the National Trust in 1925.
The National Trust continued the restoration work, and added new roofs to the towers and gatehouse. Excavations were resumed in 1970, and the moat was once again drained. Bodiam Castle was used in Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975) in an establishing shot identifying it as "Swamp Castle" in the "Tale of Sir Lancelot" sequence. It had previously been used for the filming of Camelot, an episode of The Goodies broadcast in 1973. It was later the filming location for the Doctor Who serial The King's Demons, broadcast in 1983.
The Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England carried out a survey of the earthworks surrounding Bodiam Castle in 1990. In the 1990s, Bodiam Castle was at the centre of a debate in castle studies over the balance between militaristic and social interpretations of such sites. The arguments focused on elements such as the apparent strength of the defences – such as the imposing moat – and elements of display. It has been suggested that the moat could have been drained in a day because the embankment surrounding it was not substantial, and that as such it did not pose a serious obstacle to an attacker. Also, the large windows in the castle's exterior were defensive weak points. The castle is a Scheduled Monument, which means it is a "nationally important" historic building and archaeological site which has been given protection against unauthorised change. It is also a Grade I listed building, and recognised as an internationally important structure. Today the castle is open to the public, and according to figures released by the Association of Leading Visitor Attractions, nearly 175,598 people visited in 2017. In the opinion of historian Charles Coulson, Bodiam "represents the popular ideal of a medieval castle".
Architecture
Location and landscape
The castle's location was ostensibly chosen to protect England's south coast from raids by the French. A landscape survey by the Royal Commission for Historic Monuments concluded that if this were the case, then Bodiam Castle was unusually sited, as it is far from the medieval coastline.
The area surrounding Bodiam Castle was landscaped when the castle was built, to increase its aesthetic appeal. Archaeologists Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham have described Bodiam as one of the best examples of landscaping to emphasise a castle. The water features were originally extensive, but only the moat survives, along with the earthworks left over from its construction. Roughly rectangular, the moat is supplied by several springs, some of them within it, which made it difficult to drain during the excavations of the 1930s. A moat can prevent attackers from gaining access to the base of a castle's walls, but in the case of Bodiam it also had the effect of making the castle appear larger and more impressive by isolating it in its landscape. The moat is now regarded more as an ornamental feature than a defence. The approach to the castle through the moat and satellite ponds was indirect, giving visitors time to view the castle in its intended splendour. Military historian Cathcart King describes the approach as formidable, and considers it the equal of the 13th-century castles of Edward I in Wales, such as Caerphilly Castle.
The castle sits roughly in the middle of the moat. The postern gate at the rear would have been connected to the moat's south bank by a drawbridge and a long timber bridge. The main entrance on the north side of the castle is today connected to the north bank by a wooden bridge, but the original route would have included two bridges: one from the main entrance to an island in the moat, and another connecting the island to the west bank. For the most part the bridge was static, apart from the section closest to the west bank, which would have been a drawbridge. The island in the moat is called the Octagon, and excavations on it have uncovered a garderobe (toilet), suggesting that there may have been a guard on the island, although it is unclear to what extent it was fortified. The Octagon was connected to a barbican by a bridge, probably a drawbridge. The castle's 28 toilets drained directly into the moat, which in the words of archaeologist Matthew Johnson would have been effectively an "open sewer".
Exterior and entrance
A quadrangular castle, Bodiam is roughly square-shaped. This type of castle, with a central courtyard and buildings against the curtain wall, was characteristic of castle architecture in the 14th century. Bodiam Castle has been described by military historian Cathcart King as the most complete surviving example of a quadrangular castle. There are circular towers at each of the four corners, with square central towers in the south, east, and west walls. The main entrance is a twin-towered gatehouse in the north face of the castle. There is a second entrance from the south; the postern gate is through a square tower in the middle of the south wall. The towers are three storeys high, taller than the curtain walls and the buildings in the castle which are two storeys high.
Between the Octagon and the main gatehouse in the north wall was a barbican, of which little survives – just a piece of the west wall – although the structure was originally two stories high. The surviving fabric includes a slot for a portcullis for the barbican's north gate, although there are no hinges for gates. The base of a garderobe demonstrates that the second story would have provided space for habitation, probably a guard room. Drawings from the late 18th century show the ground floor of the barbican still standing and includes detail such as vaulting inside the passageway.
The gatehouse in the castle's north wall is three storeys high; now reached by a static bridge, it was originally connected to the barbican by a drawbridge. The top of the gatehouse is machicolated, and the approach is overlooked by gun-loops in the gatehouse towers. The gatehouse is the only part of the castle which has gun-loops, and the curtain wall and towers are studded with windows for domestic use rather than military. There are guardrooms on the ground floor and a basement beneath them. The passage would originally have had three wooden portcullises. Above the entrance passage is an arch in the gateway, although it leads nowhere. The ceiling of the passage through the gatehouse into the castle is vaulted and pierced with murder holes. Murder holes were most likely used to drop objects on attackers, similar to machicolations, or to pour water to extinguish fires.
Just above the gate, there are three coats of arms carved in relief into the arch; from left to right they are the arms of the Wardeux, Dalyngrigge, and Radynden families. The Wardeux family was that of Edward Dalyngrigge's wife; the Radyndens were relations of the Dalyngrigges. Above the arms is a helm bearing a unicorn head crest. Three coats of arms also decorate the postern gate; the central arms is that of Sir Robert Knolles, who Edward Dalyngrigge had fought for in the Hundred Years' War, but those flanking it are blank.
Interior
Although the exterior of Bodiam Castle has largely survived, the interior is ruinous. The domestic buildings within the castle lined the curtain walls. However, remains are substantial enough to recreate a plan of the castle. The structure was divided into separate living areas for the lord and his family, high-status guests, the garrisons, and servants. The south range of the castle consisted of the great hall, the kitchens, and associated rooms. The great hall, to the east of the centrally located postern gate, was and would have been as tall as the curtain wall. To the west of the great hall was the pantry and buttery, linked to the great hall by a screens passage. The three standing arches gave access to different rooms, the pantry, buttery and the kitchen which was at the far west of the south range. This layout was typical of large medieval houses. The great hall was the social centre of the castle, and where the lord would have entertained guests. The buttery and pantry occupied the bottom floor, and above was a room of unknown purpose. The buttery had a cellar and was used to store ale and wine, while the pantry held the supplies for the kitchen. To prevent heat from the cooking fires becoming unbearable, the kitchen was as tall as the curtain walls to provide a large space to absorb the heat. In the southwest tower was a well, from which water would have been drawn for the household.
Along the east wall is a chapel, a hall, and an antechamber. To accommodate the chapel, the curtain wall near the northeast corner projects further into the moat than the rest of the wall along the east side. Immediately south of the chapel was the main accommodation for the lord and his family. The buildings were two storeys high and incorporated a basement. The exact layout of the rooms is unclear.
Arranged along the west curtain wall was an extra hall and a kitchen; it is not certain what these were used for, although it is probable that these were intended to provide for the household's retainers. The "retainers' hall" had no windows on its west side and would have been relatively dark compared to the great hall. Also, whereas the great hall had a large fireplace, the "retainers' hall" had none. The hall was adjacent to the kitchen, to which it was directly connected, with no screens passage in between. Above the "retainers' hall", which was confined to the ground floor, was a room with no fireplace and of unclear purpose.
East of the main gatehouse was a two-storey building with a basement. The basement was probably used for storage while the above two floors provided accommodation. The purpose of the buildings along the west end of the north range is uncertain. The sparse arrangement, with little provision for lighting, has led to suggestions that it was used as stables, however there are no drains which are usually associated with stables. The tower in the northwest corner of the castle had a garderobe and fireplace on each of the three above-ground floors, and there was a basement underneath.
See also
Bodiam, Eastern Cape, a South African town named after the Castle
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
Kenilworth Castle – an elaborate castle well known for its water defences
List of castles in England
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Information at the National Trust
History of Bodiam Castle
Archaeological sites in East Sussex
Buildings and structures completed in 1385
Castles in East Sussex
Grade I listed buildings in East Sussex
Grade I listed castles
Historic house museums in East Sussex
Museums in East Sussex
National Trust properties in East Sussex
Ruins in East Sussex
Scheduled monuments in East Sussex
Water castles in the United Kingdom
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259112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism%20insurance | Terrorism insurance | Terrorism insurance is insurance purchased by property owners to cover their potential losses and liabilities that might occur due to terrorist activities.
It is considered to be a difficult product for insurance companies, as the odds of terrorist attacks are very difficult to predict and the potential liability enormous. For example, the September 11, 2001 attacks resulted in an estimated $31.7 billion loss. This combination of uncertainty and potentially huge losses makes the setting of premiums a difficult matter. Most insurance companies therefore exclude terrorism from coverage in casualty and property insurance, or else require endorsements to provide coverage.
Industry needs
Concentration of risk is another factor in determining availability for terrorism insurance. Due to the concentrated losses of the World Trade Center, carriers were hit with large losses in one centralized location. Insurers seek to spread the coverage over a wider geographic area than as with other aggregate perils, such as flood.
Modelling the risks
Insurance companies are using an approach that is similar to that used with natural catastrophe risks. A Swiss report suggested that in this case where demand is greater than the supply for terrorism coverage that a short-term solution is possible: a mix of government and private resource to make easy the transition. In this situation, the government would serve two functions: to establish rules to overcome the capacity shortage and to be the insurer of last resort.
By country
Netherlands
Insurance payments related to terrorism are restricted to a billion euro per year for all insurance companies together. This regards property insurance, but also life insurance, medical insurance, etc.
United States
In 2002, the US Congress enacted the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act, in which the government shared the cost of large insurance losses.
On December 26, 2007, the President of the United States signed into law the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2007 which extends the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (TRIA) through December 31, 2014. The law extends the temporary federal Program that provides for a transparent system of shared public and private compensation for insured losses resulting from acts of terrorism.
Some economists have supported U.S. government subsidies of terrorism insurance. Soon after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, economist Edwin Mills expressed concern over whether private developers could build real estate without subsidies for insurance. Economist David R. Barker argued that properly structured subsidies could increase overall economic efficiency. Other economists have argued against these subsidies.
The United States insurance market offers coverage to the majority of large companies which ask for it in their policies. The price of the policy depends on where the clients are residing and how much limit they buy.
According to The Economist, one of the best studies to understand TRIA has been the one undertaken in 2005 by the Center for Risk Management at the Wharton Business School ("TRIA and Beyond"; available on their website below).
In mid-2007 the idea of another extension to TRIA was tabled and is officially known as TRIREA, (Terrorism Risk Insurance Revision and Extension Act). Initially TRIREA contained several new provisions including a mandatory 'make available' clause for NCBR coverage (Nuclear, Chemical, Biological and Radiological) and the ending of the distinction between domestic and foreign events.
The act expired on December 31, 2014, but was renewed at the start of the next congress, with Obama signing the extension of the TIRA through 2020 on January 12, 2015. Up until the 2014 expiration, many experts warned that "construction projects could be stalled and commercial loans on shopping malls, utilities and skyscrapers could be in jeopardy." In addition, according to the Baltimore Sun, the National Football League denied rumors that it would cancel the Super Bowl over the issue.
Iraq
The New York Times reports that in Baghdad personal terrorism insurance is available. One company offers such insurance for $90, and if the customer is a victim of terrorism in the next year, it pays the heirs $3,500.
United Kingdom
In the UK, following the Baltic Exchange bomb in 1992, all UK insurers stopped including terrorism coverage on their commercial insurance policies with effect from 1 January 1993 (home insurance policies were unaffected). As a consequence, the government and insurance industry established the Pool Reinsurance Company Ltd (Pool Re). Primarily funded by premiums paid by policyholders, the government guarantees the fund although any such support must be repaid from future premiums. To date, despite paying over £600 million in relation to thirteen separate claims, no government support has been necessary.
France
In France, a pool of insurers and reinsurers was set up on 1 January 2002 under the name Gestion de l'Assurance et de la RÉassurance des risques attentats et Actes de Terrorisme (GAREAT). GAREAT is constituted upon the principle of mutuality between its Members, all of whom are jointly liable, and relies on the support given to GAREAT by international reinsurers as well as by the French State which provides unlimited coverage to the GAREAT programme via unlimited treaties reinsured 100% by Caisse Centrale de Réassurance (CCR). As a non-profit-making Economic Interest Grouping mandated by its Members, GAREAT returns to the latter that part of the premiums which are not used to finance the reinsurance coverage at the close of each year.
Countries with long-term terrorism insurance programmes
According to the policy agenda of The Real Estate Roundtable, long-term terrorism insurance is available in the following countries:
Australia
Austria
Finland
France
Germany
Israel
Namibia
Netherlands
Russia
South Africa
Spain
Switzerland
Turkey
United Kingdom
India
See also
Security
Geneva Association (also known as the International Association for the Study of Insurance Economics)
Pool Re
References
External links
Terrorism from the Insurance Information Institute
Policy Watch: Challenges for Terorrism Risk Insurance in the United States (Wharton's authors)
Terrorism Insurance: Where's the coverage?
America Needs Terrorism Insurance
Terrorism Insurance: Where Do We Go from Here? (Wharton's authors)
CIAT: Coalition to Insure Against Terrorism
Wharton Risk Center on Terrorism Insurance Markets
Types of insurance
insurance | [
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] |
259113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comical | Comical | Comical may refer to:
Comedy, a genre of fiction intended to be humorous
Comical Radio, a weekly comedy radio show in New York City | [
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259114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Maniakes | George Maniakes | George Maniakes (, transliterated as Georgios Maniaces, Maniakis, or Maniaches, ; died 1043) was a prominent general of the Byzantine Empire during the 11th century. He was the catepan of Italy in 1042. He is known as Gyrgir in Scandinavian sagas. He is popularly said to have been extremely tall and well built, almost a giant.
Biography
Maniakes was a Greek general of the Byzantine Empire who first became prominent during a campaign in 1030–1031, when the Byzantine Empire was defeated at Aleppo but went on to capture Edessa from the Arabs. His greatest achievement was the partial reconquest of Sicily from the Arabs beginning in 1038. Here, he was assisted by the Varangian Guard, which was at that time led by Harald Hardrada, who later became king of Norway. There were also Norman mercenaries with him, under William de Hauteville, who won his nickname Iron Arm by defeating the emir of Syracuse in single combat. However, he soon ostracized his admiral, Stephen, whose wife was the sister of John the Eunuch, the highest ranking man at court. He then publicly humiliated Arduin, leader of the Lombard contingent, which caused them to desert, along with the Normans and Norsemen. In response, he was recalled by the emperor Michael IV, who was also Stephen's brother-in-law. Although the Arabs soon took the island back, Maniakes' successes there later inspired the Normans to invade Sicily themselves.
The accomplishments of Maniakes in Sicily were largely ignored by the Emperor, and he revolted against Constantine IX in 1042, though he had been appointed catepan of Italy. The individual particularly responsible for antagonizing Maniakes into revolt was one Romanus Sclerus. Sclerus, like Maniakes, was one of the immensely wealthy landowners who owned large areas of Anatolia – his estates neighboured those of Maniakes and the two were rumoured to have attacked each other during a squabble over land. Sclerus owed his influence over the emperor to his famously charming sister Sclerina, who, in most areas was a highly positive influence on Constantine. Finding himself in a position of power, Sclerus used it to poison Constantine against Maniakes – ransacking the latter's house and even seducing his wife, using the charm his family were famed for. Maniakes' response, when faced with Sclerus demanding that he hand command of the empire's forces in Apulia over to him, was to brutally torture the latter to death, after sealing his eyes, ears, nose and mouth with excrement. Maniakes was then proclaimed emperor by his troops (including the Varangians) and marched towards Constantinople. In 1043 his army clashed with troops loyal to Constantine near Thessalonika, and though initially successful, Maniakes was killed during the melee after receiving a fatal wound (according to Psellus' account). Constantine's extravagant punishment of the surviving rebels was to parade them in the Hippodrome, seated backwards on donkeys. With his death, the rebellion ceased. In Sicily, the town of Maniace and the Syracusan fortress of Castello Maniace are both named after him.
References
1043 deaths
Byzantine usurpers
11th-century Byzantine people
11th-century Greek people
11th-century catepans of Italy
Byzantine rebels
Byzantines killed in battle
Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars
Byzantine Sicily
Year of birth unknown
Medieval Upper Mesopotamia
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259119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-plus%20pricing | Cost-plus pricing | Cost-plus pricing is a pricing strategy by which the selling price of a product is determined by adding a specific fixed percentage (a "markup") to the product's unit cost. Essentially, the markup percentage is a method of generating a particular desired rate of return. An alternative pricing method is value-based pricing.
Cost-plus pricing has often been used for government contracts (cost-plus contracts), and has been criticized for reducing incentive for suppliers to control direct costs, indirect costs and fixed costs whether related to the production and sale of the product or service or not.
Companies using this strategy need to record their costs in detail to ensure they have a comprehensive understanding of their overall costs. This information is necessary to generate accurate cost estimates.
Cost-plus pricing is especially common for utilities and single-buyer products that are manufactured to the buyer's specification, such as for military procurement.
Mechanics
The three parts of computing the selling price are computing the total cost, computing the unit cost, and then adding a markup to generate a selling price (refer to Fig 1).
Step 1: Calculating total cost
Total cost = fixed costs + variable costs
Fixed costs do not generally depend on the number of units, while variable costs do.
Step 2: Calculating unit cost
Unit cost = (total cost/number of units)
Step 3a: Calculating markup price
Markup price = (unit cost * markup percentage)
The markup is a percentage that is expected to provide an acceptable rate of return to the manufacturer.[1]
Step 3b: Calculating Selling Price (SP)
Selling Price = unit cost + markup price
Example
A shop selling a vacuum cleaner will be examined since retail stores generally adopt this strategy.
Total cost = $450
Markup percentage = 12%
Markup price = (unit cost * markup percentage)
Markup price = $450 * 0.12
Markup price = $54
SP = unit cost + markup price
SP = $450 + $54
SP = $504
Ultimately, the $54 markup price is the shop's margin of profit.
Rationale
Buyers may perceive that cost-plus pricing is reasonable. In some cases, the markup is mutually agreed upon by buyer and seller. For markets that feature relatively similar production costs, companies do not have a dominant strategy. Therefore, cost-plus pricing can offer competitive stability, decreasing the risk of price competition (such as price wars), if all companies adopt cost-plus pricing. The strategy enables price changes to goods and services relative to increases or decreases in the product cost which are simple to communicate and justify to customers. When there is little market intelligence, the use of a cost-plus pricing strategy compensates for the lack of information by setting prices based on actual costs. This method is generally adopted by retail companies such as grocery or clothing stores.
Cost-based pricing is a way to induce a seller to accept a contract the costs of which represent a large fraction of the seller's revenues, or for which costs are uncertain at contract signing, as for example for research and development.
Economic theory
Cost-plus pricing is not common in markets that are (nearly) perfectly competitive, for which prices and output are such that marginal cost (the cost of producing an additional unit) equals marginal revenue. In the long run, marginal and average costs (as for cost-plus) tend to converge, reducing the difference between the two strategies. It works well when a business is in need of short-term finance.
Elasticity considerations
Although this method of pricing has limited application as mentioned above, it is used commonly for the purpose of ensuring a business covers its costs by "breaking even" and not operating at a loss whilst generating at least a minimum rate of profit. In spite of its ubiquity, economists rightly point out that it has serious flaws. Specifically, the strategy requires little market research hence it does not account for external factors such as consumer demand and competitor's prices when determining an appropriate selling price. There is no way in advance of determining if potential customers will purchase the product at the calculated price. Regardless of which pricing strategy a company chooses, price elasticity (sensitivity of demand to price) is a vital component to examine. To compensate for this, some economists have tried to apply the principles of price elasticity to cost-plus pricing.
We know that:MR = P + ((dP / dQ) * Q)
where: MR = marginal revenue
P = price
(dP / dQ) = the derivative of price with respect to quantity
Q = quantity
Since we know that a profit maximizer sets quantity at the point that marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost (MR = MC), the formula can be written as:MC = P + ((dP / dQ) * Q)
Dividing by P and rearranging yields:MC / P = 1 +((dP / dQ) * (Q / P))
And since (P / MC) is a form of markup, we can calculate the appropriate markup for any given market elasticity by:(P / MC) = (1 / (1 – (1/E))) where:(P / MC) = markup on marginal costsE = price elasticity of demand
In the extreme case where elasticity is infinite:(P / MC) = (1 / (1 – (1/999999999999999))) (P / MC) = (1 / 1)Price is equal to marginal cost. There is no markup.
At the other extreme, where elasticity is equal to unity:(P /MC) = (1 / (1 – (1/1))) (P / MC) = (1 / 0) The markup is infinite.
Most business people do not do marginal cost calculations, but one can arrive at the same conclusion using average variable costs (AVC): (P / AVC) = (1 / (1 – (1/E))) Technically, AVC is a valid substitute for MC only in situations of constant returns to scale (LVC = LAC = LMC).
When business people choose the markup that they apply to costs when doing cost-plus pricing, they should be, and often are, considering the price elasticity of demand, whether consciously or not.
See also
Marketing
Markup (business)
Microeconomics
Outline of industrial organization
Price elasticity of demand
Pricing
References
Pricing | [
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259121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CityRail | CityRail | CityRail was a passenger railway brand operated by the State Rail Authority from 1989 to 2003 and by RailCorp from 2003 to 2013 with services in and around Sydney, Newcastle and Wollongong, the three largest cities in New South Wales, Australia. It was established in January 1989 and abolished in June 2013 when it was superseded by Sydney Trains and NSW TrainLink.
In June 2013, it operated 307 stations and over 2,060 kilometres of track, extending north to the upper Hunter Region, south to the Shoalhaven and Southern Highlands regions and west to Bathurst. In the year ended 30 June 2012, 306 million journeys were made on the network.
History
Structure
CityRail was established pursuant to the , and was first mentioned as an entity distinct from the State Rail Authority in the Parliament of New South Wales by then governor James Rowland on 21 February 1990. CityRail adopted a blue and yellow version of the State Rail Authority L7 logo, to fit into its new blue and yellow colour scheme. This logo continued to be in use until 2010, when it was replaced by the Waratah logo of the NSW Government.
On 1 January 2004, RailCorp assumed all functions of the State Rail Authority, and later the functions of the Rail Infrastructure Corporation and Rail Access Corporation. This resulted in CityRail becoming a subsidiary of RailCorp, along with CountryLink. CityRail became defunct on 1 July 2013, with Sydney Trains taking over suburban services and NSW TrainLink taking over Intercity and regional services.
Operational history
When the CityRail brand was introduced the State Rail Authority was part way through taking delivery of 450 Tangara carriages. With these new carriages in service, the last single deck suburban sets were withdrawn in 1992, and the last U set interurban sets were withdrawn in 1996.
In February 1994, the first of 15 two-carriage Endeavour railcars was delivered. These replaced Class 620/720 railcars, Class 900 railcars and locomotive hauled stock.
In May 2000, the Airport & East Hills line opened. In July 2002, the first of 141 M set carriages entered service. In November 2006, the first of seven two-carriage Hunter railcars entered service.
In December 2006, the first of 221 Oscar carriages entered service on the South Coast Line. In February 2009, the Epping to Chatswood railway line opened with shuttle services and was integrated into the Northern line service later that year.
In July 2011, the first Waratah trains entered service to replace the S sets, although it was announced in 2013 that some S sets would stay. In October 2012, a new service from Bathurst to Sydney commenced.
Operations
Fleet (2013)
At the time of its cessation in June 2013, CityRail operated eight electric multiple unit classes for suburban and interurban working and two diesel multiple unit classes. All CityRail electric trains used 1500 V DC overhead electrification and travel on 1,435mm standard gauge tracks. Double deck rollingstock was first introduced in 1964 and after 1996, all electric multiple units were double deck.
Former fleet
The following table consists of trains that were in the CItyRail fleet which were withdrawn prior to CityRail's demise:
The CityRail network was divided into three sectors, based around three maintenance depots. EMU trainsets were identified by target plates, which are exhibited on the front lower nearside of driving carriages. Target designations and set numbers were used in identifying EMU trainsets. The composition and formations of trainsets, and the target designations were subject to alteration.
All V sets which operated on the Newcastle and Blue Mountains lines, were serviced at Flemington Depot. All M and H sets, which had a green target plate, were serviced at Eveleigh Maintenance Centre.
Ticketing
For most of the brand's life CityRail's ticketing system was the Automated Fare Collection System (AFC). Dating from 1992, it was based on magnetic stripe technology and was interoperable with the Sydney Buses and Sydney Ferries systems. In later years the network was incorporated into the MyZone ticketing system, which retained the AFC technology but extended the validity of multi-modal tickets to private buses and light rail.
Unlike the ticketing systems of other cities in Australia, most of CityRail's ticket prices were calculated on the distance travelled, and were proven to be the most expensive tickets of any major city public transport system.
Performance
According to the 2003 Parry Report, "The interaction of metropolitan, suburban, intercity and freight lines and services has resulted in an overly complex system. This complexity has contributed in part to the organisation being widely criticised for poor reliability and safety. CityRail was also enormously expensive."
On-time running improved after new timetables were introduced in 2005 and 2006. The newly introduced timetable increased station dwell and journey times.
In October 2012, a report published by PricewaterhouseCoopers found CityRail performed poorly compared to many metro services from 27 other major world cities. Sydney was ranked as the fourth-worst public train system while being proven to have the most expensive tickets of any major city public transport system.
Patronage
The following table lists patronage figures for the network during the corresponding financial year. Australia's financial years start on 1 July and end on 30 June. Expansions and contractions of the network and major events that affected the number of journeys made are included as notes.
Network
CityRail operated eleven suburban lines, four intercity services, one regional service, and five connecting bus services, plus a late night bus service across metropolitan Sydney.
Suburban lines
:*In peak hour on the North Shore line, some outer-suburban services run to Gosford and Wyong, and some Western Line services extended to Springwood.
:*Inbound Inner West and South services generally travelled around the City Circle in the clockwise direction. Inbound Airport and East Hills and Bankstown services generally travelled around the City Circle in the anti-clockwise direction.
*Central (i) is a standard abbreviation used on timetables and station screens. It signifies Central's country and intercity platforms [formerly platforms 1-15, now 1-12].
Intercity lines
Some peak services on the Blue Mountains line ran to/from Hornsby
Some peak services and most weekend services on the South Coast line ran to/from Bondi Junction
Some peak services on the Southern Highlands line to/from Central. At other times, a change of train was required at Campbelltown or Macarthur
Regional line
Connecting bus services
CityRail operated several bus routes along corridors where the railway line has been closed to passengers or as a supplement to rail services. These bus services appeared in CityRail timetables and accepted CityRail tickets, but were operated by private sector bus companies contracted by CityRail. Two were CountryLink services that carried CityRail passengers.
CountryLink services, seat reservations required
NightRide
To provide a passenger service between midnight and 05:00 while leaving the tracks clear of trains for maintenance work, parallel bus services were established in 1989. NightRide services operated typically at hourly intervals (some routes depart more frequently on weekends). NightRide services were run by private bus operators, and identified by route numbers beginning with "N". All valid CityRail tickets for a destination (apart from single tickets) were accepted on NightRide services.
Network overview
Most Intercity trains terminated at Central while most suburban (except Carlingford line) services proceeded through the city.
CityRail also operated several Intercity services that terminate at Central station (though some services operated in the metro-style portions of the system in the peak hours). These lines stretched over 200 kilometres from Sydney, as far north as Newcastle, as far west as Bathurst, as far south-west as Goulburn and as far south as Kiama and Port Kembla. Southern Highlands trains required a connection at Campbelltown as they ran into the city during peak hours only.
Regional services operated from the terminus station at Newcastle, with local electric services to the Central Coast and diesel services to Telarah with some extending to Dungog and Scone. Diesel services also operated on the Illawarra line between Kiama and Bomaderry.
The hub of the CityRail system was Central station, where most lines started and ended. Trains coming from the Airport & East Hills Line and Bankstown Line, after travelling anti-clockwise on the City Circle sometimes terminated upon arrival at Central and proceeded to the Macdonaldtown Turnback. However, most trains continued on and become respective outward bound Inner West trains and South Line trains. The reverse applied for trains coming from the Inner West and South Lines, which, if not terminating, became outward bound trains on the Airport & East Hills and Bankstown lines respectively. In the same manner, all trains from the Western Line or Northern line became North Shore line trains once they reach Central.
As well as the Intercity services mentioned above, local services also ran in the Newcastle local area during off-peak times, as part of the Central Coast & Newcastle Line. Local services also ran on the South Coast Line in the Wollongong local area, usually between Thirroul and Port Kembla.
Passenger information systems
Many CityRail stations were equipped with electronic passenger destination indicator boards. These provided information on the current time, next three available services, time due to arrival, destination route and the number of train carriages available.
Due to the many differing types of stations that CityRail serves, their screens varied in form. In station where trains arrived at a higher frequency, 2 or more vertical LED screens were used on each platform to display the destination and arrival time whereas in low frequency areas 1 or 2 dual horizontal LED screens with a larger font were used. Manual destination indicator boards were still used at some lower patronage stations. In regional areas, a station relied on digital voice announcement for information on services. CBSM (Custom Built Sheet Metal) was responsible for the manufacture of many indicator board encasings.
Challenges
The quality of the rail system was a matter of considerable political sensitivity. The performance of the State Rail Authority and RailCorp were questioned in regards to safety, training, a politically motivated focus on punctuality, management and workplace culture, with strong criticism from Justice Peter McInerny in his inquiries into the accidents at Glenbrook and Waterfall. Transport is the third largest area of public expenditure in NSW, after health and education. A newspaper distributed to commuters, mX, and the Sydney Morning Herald's "campaign for Sydney" kept transport at the top of the agenda ahead of the 2007 state election. In his 2003 interim report to the NSW Government, Tom Parry was highly critical of CityRail. "It is hard to believe that taxpayers or the state are getting the best possible value from the large amounts of money being spent each year," he wrote.
Safety
The safety of the CityRail network was called into question by two fatal accidents. The second Glenbrook train disaster in 1999 killed seven people. In 2003, the Waterfall train disaster killed seven. Inquiries were conducted into both accidents. Official findings into the latter accident also blamed an "underdeveloped safety culture." There has been criticism of the way CityRail managed safety issues that arose, resulting in what the NSW Ministry of Transport called "a reactive approach to risk management."
CityRail has launched public information campaigns regarding railway trespassing, prams and strollers, and falling between the platform and the train.
Crime and terrorism
Crime committed on railway property has decreased by 32.9% since 2002, which RailCorp attributes to the deployment of some 600 Transit Officers across the network. All stations, including those that are remote or unstaffed, have emergency "help points" to put passengers in immediate contact with authorities should an incident occur. All stations are covered by closed-circuit television surveillance. However, a large amount of graffiti is still evident on some trains and the depots.
In recent years, concerns over terrorism have played a role in the management of the network. CityRail and other public transport providers participate in an ongoing public terrorism awareness campaign, If you see something, say something, adapted from a similar campaign in New York.
Overloading
In 2008, overloading of trains was found by the Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal (IPART) to be a significant cause of delays. A survey undertaken by RailCorp in September 2011 revealed that 6 of the 13 lines had a maximum load that exceeded 135% (of the seated capacity) during the peak morning commute.
Public perception
One result of CityRail's increasing problems was a sharp rise in public complaints and attacks against staff, with a Boston Consulting Group report claiming staff were actively hiding from irate customers wishing to complain about the service. The highly negative public perception of transit officers acting as ticket inspection officers and charging significant on-the-spot fines has also led to the organisation introducing anti-spitting fines and signage requesting commuters not abuse staff.
See also
List of Sydney railway stations
Railways in Sydney
Commuter rail in Australia
Sydney underground railways
References
Other references
RailCorp 2009–2010 Annual Report
Interim Report of the Ministerial Inquiry into Sustainable Transport in New South Wales
Details and map of Clearways
North West Rail Link
South West Rail Link
Christie Report – Long Term Strategic Plan for Rail.
NSW Audit Office: Managing Disruption to CityRail services.
Defunct railway companies of Australia
Railway companies established in 1989
Railway companies disestablished in 2013
1989 establishments in Australia
2013 disestablishments in Australia | [
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259124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional%20Municipality%20of%20Waterloo | Regional Municipality of Waterloo | The Regional Municipality of Waterloo (Waterloo Region or Region of Waterloo) is a metropolitan area of Southern Ontario, Canada. It contains the cities of Cambridge, Kitchener and Waterloo (KWC or Tri-Cities), and the townships of North Dumfries, Wellesley, Wilmot and Woolwich. Kitchener, the largest city, is the seat of government.
The region is in area. The population was 587,165 at the 2021 Canada census. In 2016, the Cambridge, Kitchener, Waterloo area was rated Canada's third-best area to find full-time employment.
The region was formerly called Waterloo County, created in 1853 and dissolved in 1973. The county consisted of five townships: Woolwich, Wellesley, Wilmot, Waterloo, and North Dumfries.
History
Up to the 17th century, the Attawandaron (Neutral) nation inhabited the Grand River area. European explorers admired their farming practices.
In the wake of a smallpox epidemic and European incursions, the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) and the Wendat (Huron) Confederacies waged war from 1642-1650. Invasion by the Haudenosaunee's Seneca and Mohawk nations ended Attawandaron independence.
In 1784, in recognition of Haudenosaunee support during the American War of Independence and the consequent loss of its land in New York state, the British government granted the Grand River valley to the Confederacy. The latter settled in the lower Grand River Valley, the present Brant County, and sold land in the upper Grand, now part of Waterloo Township, to Loyalist Colonel Richard Beasley. In 1816, William Dickson, a Scottish-born land speculator, acquired along the Grand River, in present North and South Dumfries Townships, and the city of Cambridge.
North and South Dumfries Townships
Dickson planned to divide the tract into lots to sell to Scottish settlers. He and American-born miller, Absalom Shade, chose the confluence of Mill Creek and the Grand River to found Shade's Mills. In 1825, the growing settlement had a post office.
Despite settlers' reluctance, Dickson renamed the settlement Galt in honour of John Galt, a Scottish novelist and Canada Company Commissioner. Galt's visit in 1827 brought wider acceptance to the name change.
Initially serving local farmers, Galt's industrial development in the late 1830s eventually earned it the nickname "The Manchester of Canada". It remained the area's main town until Berlin overtook it at the beginning of the 20th century.
Kitchener-Waterloo
Pre-modern era
According to the City of Waterloo, indigenous people lived in the area, including the Haudenosaunee, Anishinaabe and the Neutral Nation.
One report states that at least two "aboriginal settlements from the 1500s can now be identified near Schneider and Strasburg Creeks" in Kitchener. The finds include the remains of a First Nations village, estimated to be 500 years old, discovered in 2010 in the Strasburg Creek area with "artifacts going back as far as 9,000 years". In 2020, a site at Fischer-Hallman Road was found to include artifacts from a "Late Woodland Iroquois village" that was inhabited circa 1300 to 1600. Archeologists found some 35,000 objects including stone tools and a 4,000 year old arrowhead.
1800 to 1820
Settlement of the later Waterloo Township started in 1800 (in an area that is now Kitchener) by Joseph Schoerg (later called Sherk) and Samuel Betzner, Jr. (brothers-in-law), Mennonites, from Franklin County, Pennsylvania. Joseph Schoerg and his wife settled on Lot No.11, B.F. Beasley Block, S.R., on the bank of the Grand River opposite Doon, and Betzner and his wife settled on the west bank of the Grand River, on a farm near an area that is now the village of Blair.
As of March 2021, the homes built by these families' next generation still stand on Pioneer Tower Road, Kitchener. Built circa 1830, they are listed as historically important: the John Betzner homestead (restored) and the David Schoerg farmstead (not yet restored).
Other settlers followed, mostly from Pennsylvania, and also purchased land in Block Number 2, German Company Tract from Richard Beasley who had acquired a massive territory previously owned by the Six Nations.
The first school opened in 1802 near the village of Blair, then known as Shinglebridge; it became part of Preston, Ontario and then part of Cambridge, Ontario. The first teacher's name was Mr. Rittenhaus.
After 1803, many Pennsylvania pioneers bought lots from the German Company, established by Mennonites from Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. The 60,000-acre section included most of Block 2 of the former Grand River Indian Lands acquired by Beasley and previously owned by the Six Nations Indians. Many farms were 400 or more acres in size.
Most settlers before 1830 were Pennsylvania Mennonites, often called Pennsylvania Dutch (an anglicization of Deutsch) because of the German dialect they spoke from their origins in Germany and Switzerland.
By the early 1800s, a corduroy road had been built along what is now King Street in Waterloo; its remains were unearthed in 2016. The road was probably built by Mennonites using technology acquired in Lancaster County Pennsylvania, between the late 1790s and 1816. The log road was buried in about 1840 and a new road built on top of it. A historian explained that the road had been built for access to the mill but was also "one of the first roads cut through (the woods) so people could start settling the area".
In 1806, Abraham Erb, from Franklin County, bought 900 acres (360 ha) from the German Company in what would be later part of the City of Waterloo. The putative founder of the city, Erb built a sawmill in 1808 and a gristmill in 1816; the latter operated for 111 years and still stands in Waterloo Park.
Benjamin Eby arrived from Lancaster County in 1806. The putative founder of Kitchener, he purchased a large tract in that area. The settlement, Ebytown, was on the south-east side of present-day Queen Street. Ordained a Mennonite pastor in 1809, and later a bishop, Eby oversaw the building of the first church in 1813 and the confession's subsequent growth. Many Mennonite meeting houses, or places of worship, were basic frame buildings, a structure still common among Old Order Mennonites in rural Waterloo Region. Settlers often held a "bee" to help newcomers erect large buildings, a custom that persists today among traditional Mennnonite communities.
In 1806, Joseph Schneider, of south German stock, arrived from Lancaster County. He bought lot 17 of the German Company Tract of block 2. A farmer, he helped build what became "Schneider's Road". By 1816, he had built a sawmill.
In 1807, Pennsylvanians John and Jacob Erb, among others, purchased 45,195 acres (182.9 km2) of Block 3 (Woolwich township).
The War of 1812 interrupted immigration from the United States. The pacifist Mennonite settlers were employed in camps, hospitals and transportation.
Samuel and Elia Schneider arrived in 1816.
A network of small settlements emerged. Abram Weber settled on the corner of later King and Wilmot Streets, and David Weber by the later Grand Trunk Railway station.
Benjamin Eby encouraged manufacturers to move to Ebytown. Jacob Hoffman arrived around 1830 to start the regions's first furniture factory.
1820 to 1852
Immigration continued strongly in the 1820s, driven by a severe agricultural depression in Lancaster County. John Eby, druggist and chemist, arrived from Pennsylvania about 1820 and opened a shop west of present-day Eby Street. In the same year, after clearing a farm and creating a rough road, Joseph Schneider built a frame house on the south side of the future Queen Street ; the renovated home still stands. The settlement around "Schneider's Road" became the nucleus of Berlin.
In 1830, Phineas Varnum established the centre of later Berlin (Kitchener). Leasing land from Joseph Schneider, he opened a blacksmith shop on the site of the later Walper House (now the Walper Hotel). A tavern and store opened there at the same time. Still considered a hamlet, Ebytown became Berlin in 1833.
By 1830, the village of Preston was a thriving business centre under the impulse of Jacob Hespeler, a native of Württemberg. He later moved to the village of New Hope, renamed Hespeler in 1857 in recognition of his enterprise and public service. Jacob Beck, from the Grand Duchy of Baden, founded the village of Baden in Wilmot Township and started a foundry and machine shop. Jacob Beck was the father of Sir Adam Beck, founder of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario.
By 1835, many immigrants were coming to Waterloo County from Germany and the British Isles. The Germans settled in areas like New Germany in the Lower Block of Block Two. In 1835, some 70% of the population was Mennonite; by 1851, that number had declined to 26% of a much larger population.
The county's first newspaper, Canada Museum und Allgemeine Zeitung, came off the press on August 27, 1835. Written mostly in German with some English articles, it was published for five years.
By the 1840s, the growing German-speaking population had made the area a popular choice for German immigrants. They founded communities in the south of the Mennonite area. The largest was Berlin (now Kitchener).
In 1841, the population count was 4,424. Smith's Canadian Gazetteer of 1846 states that the population of Waterloo Township, within Waterloo County, consisted primarily of Pennsylvania Mennonites and German immigrants who had brought money with them. Many spoke no English. There were now eight grist and twenty saw mills in the township. In 1846 the village of Waterloo had a population of 200, "mostly Germans". It had a grist mill, a sawmill and some tradesmen. Berlin (Kitchener) had a population of about 400, also "mostly German", and more tradesmen than the village of Waterloo.
After 1852
Previously part of the United County of Waterloo, Wellington and Grey, Waterloo became a separate entity in 1853, with five townships. Galt and Berlin contended to be the county seat; one requirement was the construction of a courthouse and jail. When local merchant Joseph Gaukel donated a small portion of his land for that purpose at the corner of present current Queen and Weber streets, Berlin was selected. A courthouse and gaol were built within a few months.
The first county council meeting was held in the new facility on 24 January 1853. Both buildings figure in the Canadian Register of Historic Places. The council included 12 members from the five townships and two villages; Dr. John Scott was appointed as the first warden (reeve). In the following years, the region's physical and social infrastructure developed to include roads, bridges, agricultural societies, markets, and schools.
The Grand Trunk railway reached Berlin in 1856, accelerating industrial growth. Over the next decade, comfortable homes replaced the early settlers' log cabins.
House of Industry and Refuge
In 1869, the county built a large "Poorhouse" with an attached farm, the House of Industry and Refuge. It accommodated some 3,200 people before being closed down in 1951 and later demolished. Located on Frederick St. in Kitchener, behind the now Frederick Street Mall, it sought to help indigents and convicts before social welfare programmes became available. A 2009 report by the Toronto Star stated that "pauperism was considered a moral failing that could be erased through order and hard work".
Electric streetcar
A new streetcar system, the Galt, Preston and Hespeler electric railway (later called the Grand River Railway) began operation in 1894, connecting Preston and Galt. In 1911, the line reached Hespeler, Berlin (Kitchener) and Waterloo; by 1916 it had been extended to Brantford/Port Dover. The electric rail system ended passenger services in April, 1955.
German heritage
Some sources estimate that roughly 50,000 European Germans arrived in the Waterloo area from 1830-1860. Unlike the largely German-speaking Mennonites from Pennsylvania, the later arrivals – from Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and present day and Poland, France and Russia, were of other denominations. The first groups were predominantly Roman Catholic; those who arrive later were primarily Lutheran.
In 1862, German-speaking groups held a Sängerfest ("Singer Festival") that attracted an estimated 10,000 people. The festival continued for several years.
By 1863, Berlin's German population exceeded 2,000. the community started the Friedenfest to celebrate the German victory in the Franco-Prussian war. The event continued annual until the start of World War I.
By 1871, nearly 55 percent of the population had German origins, including the Pennsylvania Mennonites and European Germans. This group greatly outnumbered the Scots (18 per cent), the English (12.6 per cent) and the Irish (8 per cent). Berlin, Ontario was a bilingual town, with German being the dominant language spoken. More than one visitor commented on the necessity of speaking German in Berlin.
In 1897, the Canadians with origins in Germany raised funds to erect a large monument, with a bronze bust of Kaiser Wilhelm I, in Victoria Park. The monument would be destroyed by townspeople just after the start of World War I.
By the early 1900s, northern Waterloo County – the Kitchener, Waterloo, Elmira area – exhibited a strong German culture and those of German origin made up a third of the population in 1911. Lutherans were the primary religious group. There were nearly three times as many Lutherans as Mennonites at that time. The latter primarily resided in the rural areas and small communities.
Before and during World War I, there was some anti-German sentiment in Canada and some cultural sanctions on the community, particularly in Berlin, Ontario. However, by 1919 most of the population of what would become Kitchener-Waterloo and Elmira were Canadian by birth; over 95 percent had been born in Ontario.
Those of the Mennonite religion were pacifist, so they could not enlist, while others who were not born in Canada refused to fight against the country of their birth. Anti-German sentiment during World War I was the primary reason for renaming Berlin Kitchener in 1916 to honour British Field Marshal Lord Kitchener, who had died that year when his cruiser was sunk by a German submarine.
The Waterloo Pioneer Memorial Tower built in 1926 commemorates the settlement by the Pennsylvania Dutch (Pennsilfaanisch Deitsch or Pennsylvania German) of the Grand River area in what later became Waterloo County.
The region is still home to the largest population of Old Order Mennonites in Canada, particularly in the areas around St Jacobs and Elmira.
Over time, after WW II, the anti-German sentiment faded. The Kitchener-Waterloo Oktoberfest event, with beer halls and German entertainment, and a large parade, was established in 1969 to honour the Region's German heritage. The events typically attract an average of 700,000 people to the county. During the 2016 Oktoberfest parade, an estimated 150,000 people lined the streets along the route.
In the year 2000, the Government of Ontario declared an annual German Pioneers Day to recognize the achievements of settlers from Germany. Each year since then, the Waterloo Region area honours the current families of several such pioneers who had settled in the area.
The Waterloo region remained predominantly German-speaking until the early 20th century, and its German heritage is reflected in the region's large Lutheran community and the annual Kitchener-Waterloo Oktoberfest.
There are still traditional Mennonite communities located north of Kitchener-Waterloo. While the best known is St. Jacobs, with its very popular thrice-weekly outdoor market, the community of Linwood has attracted increased tourist volume in recent years due to its highly authentic Mennonite lifestyle.
Restructuring
In 1973, the regional municipality style of government was imposed on the county by the provincial government. The cities of Galt, Kitchener, and Waterloo were previously independent single tier municipalities prior to joining the newly formed regional municipality. In that major reorganization, the fifteen towns and townships of the county were reduced to just seven in the new Region of Waterloo. The new city of Cambridge was created through the amalgamation of the City of Galt, the towns of Preston and Hespeler, the Village of Blair, and various parcels of township land. One township vanished when the former Waterloo Township was divided among Woolwich Township and the three cities of Kitchener, Waterloo, and Cambridge. The settlement of Bridgeport was annexed to the city of Kitchener. The settlement of Erbsville was annexed to the city of Waterloo. The former county government was given broader powers as a regional municipality.
Regardless of the resistance, the amalgamation proceeded and became effective 1 January 1973, creating the Region of Waterloo, with Jack A. Young appointed by the provincial government as the first Regional Chair. The region took over many services, including police, waste management, recreation, planning, roads and social services.
Further municipal amalgamation began discussions in the 1990s, with little progress. In late 2005, Kitchener's city council voted to visit the subject again, with the possibility of reducing the seven constituent municipalities into one or more cities. A new proposal in 2010 would study only the merger of Kitchener and Waterloo, with a public referendum on whether the idea should be looked into. Kitchener residents voted 2–1 in favour of studying the merger while Waterloo residents voted 2–1 against. Waterloo city council voted against the study.
Government
The region's governing body is the 16 member Waterloo Regional Council. The council consists of the Regional Chair, the mayors of the seven cities and townships, and eight additional councillors – four from Kitchener and two each from Cambridge and Waterloo.
Beginning in 1978, the Regional Chair was appointed for a 2-year term by the councillors, who were elected by the citizens of Waterloo Region. James E. (Jim) Gray was appointed in 1978. In 1982, the Chair's term was extended to 3 years and Jim Gray was appointed for his third term. He retired in 1985. Ken Seiling held the position of Regional Chair from 1985 to 2018, when he declined to run again for the seat. His successor is Karen Redman.
Beginning with the 1997 election, the citizens of Waterloo Region have directly elected the chair. Of the nine regional municipalities in Ontario, Waterloo Region and the Regional Municipality of Halton are the only ones that allow for direct election of the chair.
Communities
Within the townships are many communities. Some were once independent and had their own reeves and councils but lost this status in amalgamation. These communities include: Ayr, Baden, Bloomingdale, Breslau, Conestogo, Doon, Elmira, Freeport, Heidelberg, Mannheim, Maryhill, New Dundee, New Hamburg, Petersberg, Roseville, St. Agatha, St. Clements, St. Jacobs, Wellesley, West Montrose, and Winterbourne.
Demographics
Historic populations:
Population in 2016: 535,154
Population in 2011: 507,096
Population in 2006: 478,121
Population in 2001: 438,515
Population in 1996: 405,435
Waterloo is one of the fastest growing regions in Southwestern Ontario; by 2031, the region's population is expected to grow to 729,000, This, among other factors, has made new residential construction rates very high; concerns about urban sprawl, with all its effects, continue to be raised.
Waterloo region is known for its status as a Top Tier technology hub.
Immigrants accounted for 22.6% of the region's total population according to the 2016 Canadian Census, while visible minorities accounted for 19.0% of the region's total population.
Education
Waterloo Region is home to the University of Waterloo, Wilfrid Laurier University, and Conestoga College. For a list of all elementary and secondary schools in the area, see the List of Waterloo Region, Ontario schools.
Crime rate
The national average for the crime severity index was 70.96 per 100,000 people in 2016, according to a study published by Maclean's while the rate was much lower for Waterloo Region: 61 per 100,000 people. By comparison, the rate for nearby Guelph (population 132, 350) was 55 per 100,000 people. By comparison, "Canada's most dangerous place", North Battleford, Saskatchewan, had an index of 353.
An updated report by Maclean's in 2019 ranked the Region as the 49th most dangerous community in Canada, with robbery approximately as prevalent as the Canadian average of 60 incidents per 100,000 people. The region has a homicide rate of 0.89 per 100,000, below the Canadian average of 1.68 per 100,000.
Real estate
As of March, 2019, the average (mean) selling price of a detached home sold on the Multiple Listing System of Kitchener and Waterloo was $585,668 (in Canadian dollars), an increase of 0.8 per cent compared to March 2018. The average selling price for an apartment style condominium was $320,857, an increase of 7.5 per cent from March, 2018. These prices are significantly less than prices in Toronto, where the average selling price for a detached home in the 416 area code was $1,267,598 in March, 2019, and the average selling price for an apartment style condominium was $603,969.
Business
Waterloo Region is also experiencing significant commercial growth. The presence of two universities, the University of Waterloo and Wilfrid Laurier University, acts as a catalyst for high-tech growth and innovation. The region is known for its high concentration of tech companies, such as BlackBerry (formerly Research In Motion), OpenText, Kik, and Maplesoft. As such, it has often been referred to as "Canada's Silicon Valley".
Canada's top three fastest growing tech companies are located in the Region: Kitchener's ApplyBoard, Intellijoint Surgical, and Waterloo's Auvik Networks. The list also includes Kitchener's Smile.io, and Vidyard.
Major employers in the region
Waterloo Region District School Board (5,000 employees)
Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada (6,500 employees)
Manulife Financial (3,800 employees)
University of Waterloo (3,500 employees)
Sun Life Financial (3,300 employees)
BlackBerry Ltd (3,000 employees)
Grand River Hospital (2,200 employees)
ATS Automation Tooling Systems (1,800 employees)
City of Kitchener (1,700 employees)
Services
Over time, many services have come to be delegated to the jurisdiction of the municipal government. These include police, emergency medical services, waste management, licensing enforcement, recycling, and the public transit system. The main administration of these services is run from Kitchener, however many service offices may be found in different parts of the Region. For example, from a geographically central location in north Cambridge, maintenance operations and the police headquarters are able to manage operations and provide services to the entire service area.
Health care
Hospital services in the region are provided by Grand River Hospital which includes a Freeport Campus and St. Mary's General Hospital, both located in Kitchener, as well as Cambridge Memorial Hospital. All three were highly ranked for safety in a national comparison study in 2017–2018, particularly the two located in Kitchener, but all would benefit from reduced wait times. Long-term care beds are provided at numerous facilities, including the Village of Winston Park in Kitchener and Saint Luke's Place in Cambridge which were promised additional funding by the province in 2018 for expansion.
Grand River Hospital has a capacity of 574-beds; the Freeport location was merged into it in April 1995. That secondary campus provides complex continuing care, rehabilitation, longer-term specialized mental health and other services. The King St. location is also the home of the Grand River Regional Cancer Centre which opened in 2003. St. Mary's General Hospital is a 150-bed adult acute-care facility and includes the Regional Cardiac Care Centre with two cardiovascular operating rooms, an eight-bed cardiovascular intensive care unit and 45 inpatient beds.
As of late 2018, Cambridge Memorial had 143 beds but was in the midst of a major expansion. The general contractor went into receivership in late 2018 and that stalled the process; the new section was not expected to be completed until approximately 2021. The expansion will eventually add 54 new beds and double the size of the Emergency department.
Family doctors are often in short supply, and a source of great concern among residents. Recruiting efforts over the previous 15 years certainly achieved some success as of September 2018, but needed to be continued.
Announced January 2006, as a new School of Medicine, the Waterloo Regional Campus of McMaster University was completed in 2009. In 2018, the campus included "a complete on-site clinical skills laboratory with 4 skills rooms and 2 observation rooms, classrooms with video-conferencing capabilities and a state-of-the-art anatomy lab that was built in 2013 with a high definition video system", according to the university. Its Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine building includes the Centre for Family Medicine and the University of Waterloo School of Optometry and Vision Science.
Transportation
Public transportation is provided by Grand River Transit, which is an amalgamation of the former Cambridge Transit and Kitchener Transit systems, the latter of which had also served the City of Waterloo for many decades.
In June 2011, regional council approved the plan for a light rail transit (LRT) line from Conestoga Mall in north Waterloo to Fairview Park Mall in south Kitchener, with rapid buses through to Cambridge. In Stage 1, the Ion rapid transit system runs between Waterloo and Kitchener, passing through the downtown/uptown areas. This phase opened in 2019.
Until light rail transit is extended to the downtown Galt area of Cambridge from Kitchener in Stage 2, the rapid transit link will use specially branded buses buses between Fairview Park Mall and the Ainslie Street Transit Terminal. Other stops for this Ion bus are at Hespeler Road at the Delta, Can-Amera, Cambridge Centre, Pinebush, and Sportsworld. The rapid transit bus uses bus-only priority traffic signals at Pinebush, Sportsworld, and other places to minimize slowdowns at times of heavy traffic.
Construction on the light rail system began in August 2014, and the Stage 1 service was expected to begin in late 2017. In 2016, however, the start date was changed to early 2018 because of delays in the manufacture and delivery of the vehicles by Bombardier Transportation. By March 2017 a single sample-only train car had arrived. All trams were eventually delivered by December 2018 and the service started operating on June 21, 2019.
By late February 2017, plans for the Stage 2 (Cambridge section) of the Ion rail service were in the very early stage with public consultations just getting started. (At least one journalist has pointed out the similarity between this plan and the electric Grand River Railway of the early 1900s.) As the original plan to share the CP Rail line had become unworkable since the original route had been planned, a new route between Kitchener and Preston was proposed. Multiple options for the new Stage 2 route were researched and presented to the public, with Regional Council approving the final route and preliminary design on April 22, 2020, and starting the required environmental assessment later in December.
Waterloo Region was the home of the first carsharing organization in Ontario in 1998. Community CarShare Cooperative (previously known as Grand River CarShare) provides access to vehicles on a self-serve, pay-per-use basis. Cars are located in many neighbourhoods around the Region. It is meant to complement other sustainable modes of transportation such as public transit, biking, and carpooling, or act as a transition out of owning a vehicle. Community CarShare has 27 vehicles stationed in the Region of Waterloo.
The region also owns and operates the Region of Waterloo International Airport, near Breslau. The airport is the 20th busiest in Canada as of December 2010 and underwent a major expansion in 2003. GO Transit and Via Rail provide rail services to the region on the Kitchener line.
Media
Notable people
David Bauer, Canadian ice hockey player and coach, educator and Catholic priest, inductee into multiple sports halls of fame
Rich Beddoe is the drummer for the Canadian rock band Finger Eleven. He is from Cambridge, Ontario.
Hockey player Todd Bertuzzi of the Detroit Red Wings makes his offseason home in Kitchener.
Tim Brent is a hockey player from Cambridge, Ontario.
Amanda Burk, artist who grew up in Kitchener-Waterloo.
David Chilton, author of the financial planning guide The Wealthy Barber was born in Kitchener and lives in the region.
Author and journalist Malcolm Gladwell grew up in Elmira, Ontario.
Mike Hoffman, hockey player from Kitchener
David Johnston, former president of the University of Waterloo and Governor General of Canada lives in Wellesley Township.
Lisa LaFlamme, journalist, from Kitchener.
William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canada's longest serving prime minister, was born in Kitchener's predecessor Berlin, Ontario. His boyhood home is now Woodside National Historic Site.
Mike Lazaridis, founder of Research In Motion, came as a student to attend the University of Waterloo.
Boxer Lennox Lewis lived in Kitchener from the age of 12 and began his boxing career there. He maintains a home in Kitchener.
Lois Maxwell, Golden Globe winning actress and the original Miss Moneypenny in the James Bond movies, was born in Kitchener.
Jamal Murray, professional basketball player from Kitchener
Helmut Oberlander, Ukrainian former Canadian who was a member of the Einsatzgruppen death squads of Nazi Germany in the occupied Soviet Union during World War II
Joseph E. Seagram was a partner in 1869, and sole owner in 1883, in the company later known as Seagram.
Donald Shaver created a world leading poultry breeding business.
Dave Sim, creator of the comic book Cerebus the Aardvark, has lived in Kitchener since he was two years old.
Edna Staebler, author and literary journalist, best known for her series of cookbooks, particularly Food That Really Schmecks
Former hockey all-star Scott Stevens of the New Jersey Devils was born in Kitchener and played for the Kitchener Rangers. He also maintains a home there.
Landscape artist Homer Watson was born in the village of Doon (now part of Kitchener).
See also
List of municipalities in Ontario
List of townships in Ontario
Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
Waterloo County, Ontario
List of secondary schools in Ontario#Regional Municipality of Waterloo
References
Notes
External links
Waterloo
Southwestern Ontario | [
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259125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Tire | General Tire | Continental Tire the Americas, LLC, d.b.a. General Tire, is an American manufacturer of tires for motor vehicles. Founded in 1915 in Akron, Ohio by William Francis O'Neil, Winfred E. Fouse, Charles J. Jahant, Robert Iredell, & H.B. Pushee as The General Tire & Rubber Company (also referenced as The General Tire & Rubber Co.; commonly referred to as General Tire starting in the 1960s) using funding from O'Neil's father, Michael, who owned Akron's O'Neil's department store, the company later diversified (in 1984) into a conglomerate (GenCorp) with holdings in tires (General Tire), rubber compounds (DiversiTech General), rocketry and aeronautics (Aerojet), entertainment and news (RKO General), and real estate. The tire division was sold to Germany's Continental in 1987, becoming Continental Tire North America, before its re-incorporation again to its current name. The compounds division was spun off & became OMNOVA Solutions. The rocketry business was kept and expanded, and after a couple company name changes, the parent company is now Aerojet Rocketdyne Holdings.
History
Formation
William Francis O'Neil had a Firestone franchise in Kansas City. He started a small manufacturing facility for tire repair products, and called it The Western Rubber & Supply Company (also referenced as The Western Rubber & Supply Co.) initially, then The Western Tire & Rubber Company (also referenced as The Western Tire & Rubber Co.).
As Firestone grew, it sold additional franchises, reducing the territories of its earlier franchisees. Dissatisfied, O'Neil decided to compete with Firestone instead, using the expertise he had gained with Western Tire and Rubber. He went into partnership with four other men, using funding gained from his father, and formed The General Tire & Rubber Company in 1915 using $200,000 in capital borrowed from the store. O'Neil & his associates hired away some Firestone managers.
Initially, they focused on repair materials, as with Western Tire & Rubber, but in 1916 they expanded into tire manufacturing, focusing on high-end products. Early products included:
General Jumbo, a premium replacement for Ford Model T trucks
Low-pressure General Balloon Jumbo
Dual 90 tires
Growth
Despite the difficult business climate of World War I, in 1917, O'Neil established a dealership network and began an advertising campaign. By 1930, the company had 14 retail stores and about 1.8% of the tire market. During the depression, as competitors failed, The General Tire & Rubber Company bought out Yale Tire and Rubber, and India Tire and Rubber. By 1933, it had increased market share to 2.7%. This was a relatively large number, considering that the company limited its product line.
Conglomeration
Radio, television, and film
Because the Depression was particularly hard on manufacturing, The General Tire & Rubber Company bought several Ohio radio stations on which it advertised. In 1943, it diversified the core business strategy, purchasing the Yankee Network and the radio stations it owned from Boston's Shepard Stores, Inc. Thomas F. O'Neil, son of the founder William F. O'Neil, served as Yankee's chairman with Shepard's John Shepard III serving as president.
The company continued its move into broadcasting by acquiring the Don Lee Broadcasting System, a well-respected regional radio network on the West Coast, in 1950. Among other stations, it added KHJ-AM-FM in Los Angeles and KFRC-AM-FM in San Francisco to its stable from the Yankee acquisition. In 1952, it bought WOR/WOR-FM/WOR-TV in New York City and merged its broadcasting interests into a new division, General Teleradio (purchased from R. H. Macy & Company alongside WOR & Bamberger Broadcasting; named as a result of The General Tire & Rubber Company's increased investment in WOR). RKO/General also added Canadian 50,000 watt power house CKLW in Windsor to the family. The "Big 80" was #1 in the Detroit market
The company's final move into entertainment was the acquisition of RKO Radio Pictures from Howard Hughes in 1955 for $25 million. The General Tire & Rubber Company was interested mainly in using the RKO film library to program its television stations, so it sold the RKO lot at Sunset and Gower in Hollywood to Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz's Desilu Productions in 1956 for $6 million. The remaining assets of RKO were merged with General Teleradio, and the new company became known initially as RKO Teleradio Pictures, then RKO Teleradio, before eventually becoming RKO General. The radio stations became some of the leading broadcasters in the world, but the division was dragged down by unethical conduct at its television stations. This culminated in the longest licensing dispute in television history, eventually forcing RKO General out of the broadcasting business by 1991.
Rocketry
In the late 1930s, the United States Army became interested in rockets. A group of California Institute of Technology engineers won a contract to produce rocket engines to speed airplane liftoff, and formed a company named Aerojet. The group succeeded with liquid-fuel rockets, but needed additional materials science and manufacturing expertise to create more sophisticated solid-fuel rockets. Aerojet went into partnership with The General Tire & Rubber Company, using their capitalization, expertise with rubber binders, and chemical manufacturing facilities. The partnership was renamed Aerojet-General.
Marketing
In its advertising in the 1970s and '80s, General Tire's slogan was: "Sooner or later, you'll own Generals."
The current advertising campaign is "Anywhere is Possible."
The brand sponsors Major League Fishing since before 2016.
Motorsports
General Tire is the official tire supplier of the ARCA Menards Series since 2016, previously it did the same at the NASCAR Whelen Euro Series in 2019 and 2020. The brand also sponsors the Best in the Desert and the Jeep Jamboree. The brand sponsored off-road driver BJ Baldwin from 2009 to 2019.
Reorganization
General Tire re-incorporated itself to General Tire, Inc. & reorganized its holdings into the holding company GenCorp, Inc. in 1984, with General Tire and RKO General as subsidiaries.
GenCorp sold General Tire to German tire maker Continental AG in 1987. General Tire still exists today as part of Continental's American operations.
References
External links
General Tire website
General Tire Moldova
General Tire Club
Continental AG
Aerojet Rocketdyne Holdings
Tire manufacturers of the United States
Defunct automotive companies of the United States
Companies based in Akron, Ohio
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Ohio
American companies established in 1915
Automotive companies established in 1915
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1987
1915 establishments in Ohio
1987 disestablishments in Ohio
1987 mergers and acquisitions | [
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259128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Potter%20and%20the%20Goblet%20of%20Fire | Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire | Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire is a fantasy novel written by British author J. K. Rowling and the fourth novel in the Harry Potter series. It follows Harry Potter, a wizard in his fourth year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, and the mystery surrounding the entry of Harry's name into the Triwizard Tournament, in which he is forced to compete.
The book was published in the United Kingdom by Bloomsbury and in the United States by Scholastic. In both countries, the release date was 8 July 2000. This was the first time a book in the series was published in both countries at the same time. The novel won a Hugo Award, the only Harry Potter novel to do so, in 2001. The book was adapted into a film, released worldwide on 18 November 2005, and a video game by Electronic Arts.
Plot
Background
Throughout the three previous novels in the Harry Potter series, the main character, Harry Potter, has struggled with the difficulties of growing up and the added challenge of being a famed wizard. When Harry was a baby, Lord Voldemort, the most powerful dark wizard in history, killed Harry's parents but was mysteriously defeated after unsuccessfully trying to kill Harry, though his attempt left a lightning-shaped scar on Harry's forehead. This results in Harry's immediate fame and his being placed in the care of his abusive Muggle (non-magical) aunt and uncle, Petunia and Vernon Dursley, who have a son named Dudley.
On Harry's eleventh birthday, he learns he is a wizard from Rubeus Hagrid, Keeper of Keys and Grounds at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, and enrols in Hogwarts. He befriends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger and confronts Lord Voldemort, who is trying to regain power. In Harry's first year, he has to protect the Philosopher's Stone from Voldemort and one of his faithful followers at Hogwarts. After returning to school after summer break, students at Hogwarts are attacked by the legendary monster of the Chamber of Secrets after the Chamber is opened. Harry ends the attacks by killing a Basilisk and thwarting another attempt by Lord Voldemort to return to full strength. The following year, Harry hears he has been targeted by escaped mass murderer Sirius Black. Despite stringent security measures at Hogwarts, Harry encounters Black at the end of his third year and learns Black was framed and is actually Harry's godfather. He also learns that it was his father's old school friend Peter Pettigrew who betrayed his parents.
Overview
In a prologue, which Harry sees through a dream, Frank Bryce, Muggle caretaker of an abandoned mansion known as the Riddle House, is murdered by Lord Voldemort after stumbling upon him and Wormtail. Harry is awoken by his scar hurting.
The Weasleys invite Harry and Hermione Granger to the Quidditch World Cup, to which they travel using a Portkey. After the match, masked Death Eaters, followers of Voldemort, attack the camping site. The Dark Mark is fired into the sky, causing mass panic. Harry discovers his wand is missing. It is later found in the possession of Winky, Barty Crouch's house elf, and was used to cast the Dark Mark. Barty Crouch fires Winky.
At Hogwarts, Professor Dumbledore announces that Alastor "Mad-Eye" Moody is the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher. Dumbledore also announces that Hogwarts will host the Triwizard Tournament, in which a Hogwarts' champion will compete against champions from other wizarding schools. The Goblet of Fire will choose the champions from names dropped into it. Only students 17 years old and above can enter. Harry is under the age of majority in the wizarding world, and barred from entering. The Goblet of Fire picks Fleur Delacour from Beauxbatons Academy, Viktor Krum from Durmstrang Institute and Cedric Diggory from Hogwarts. Unexpectedly, it chooses Harry as a fourth champion, forcing him to compete. Many students, including Ron, believe Harry cheated to enter solely because he wants more fame. A rift develops between Harry and Ron.
Hagrid covertly reveals to Harry that the first task involves getting past a dragon and retrieving a golden egg. Harry struggles with how to accomplish this until Moody suggests flying. Hermione helps him perfect a Summoning Charm, which he uses to summon his Firebolt broomstick and fly past the dragon to retrieve the egg. The egg contains a clue to the next task, but when opened it shrieks loudly. Following Cedric's tip, Harry discovers he must recover something valuable from Merpeople at the bottom of the lake in the castle grounds.
In the weeks before the second task, Harry does little to prepare and has no idea how to survive underwater. On the day of the task, Dobby, who now works at Hogwarts, gives him Gillyweed to breathe underwater, having heard about it from Moody. Harry finds Ron at the bottom of the lake. However, he refuses to leave the other "hostages" behind. Krum retrieves Hermione, but when Fleur fails to appear, Harry also takes her sister, Gabrielle. Harry finishes last, but is awarded high marks for 'moral fibre'.
While talking near the Forbidden Forest, Harry and Krum encounter Crouch, who had stopped appearing at work. Seeming insane, he claims to have done something terrible, and begs for Dumbledore. Leaving Krum with Crouch, Harry fetches Dumbledore but returns to find Krum stunned and Crouch gone. Moody tries and fails to find Crouch. Harry later has a dream involving Voldemort punishing Wormtail for a mistake. Harry goes to tell Dumbledore about it. While waiting, he stumbles upon a Pensieve in Dumbledore's office. With it, he discovers that Crouch's son, Barty Jr. was a Death Eater and sentenced to Azkaban, where he supposedly died.
Harry prepares for the final task, a hedge maze filled with dangerous obstacles, the goal being to reach the Triwizard Cup at the centre. Inside the maze, Harry and Cedric reach the Cup, and agree to touch it simultaneously. However, it is a Portkey that transports them to a graveyard. There, Wormtail appears, kills Cedric on Voldemort's orders, and performs a ritual involving Harry to restore Lord Voldemort to a body.
Voldemort summons his Death Eaters, berates them for believing him dead, and mentions that he has a servant at Hogwarts, who has led Harry there. He tortures Harry, then challenges him to a duel. However, when he and Harry fire spells at each other, their wands' streams connect, as they share a core, causing echoes of Voldemort's previous spells to appear, including manifestations of Cedric and Harry's parents. These echoes help Harry escape with Cedric's body to the Cup and return to Hogwarts.
Amid the panic caused by Harry's sudden arrival, Moody takes Harry to his office. He reveals himself to be Voldemort's servant, having put Harry's name into the Goblet, and guided him throughout the tournament to ensure he would touch the Cup. As Moody prepares to kill Harry, Dumbledore, McGonagall, and Snape intervene and stun Moody. Moody is revealed to be impersonated by Barty Crouch Jr., Crouch Sr.'s son who was presumed dead, via Polyjuice Potion. Using Veritaserum, they learn that Crouch Sr. had rescued his son to fulfill his dying wife's wish. Crouch Jr. was kept at home until Winky convinced Crouch Sr. to allow him to attend the Quidditch Cup, where he escaped, stole Harry's wand, and conjured the Dark Mark. Voldemort discovered Crouch Jr. and plotted to install him at Hogwarts, abducting the real Moody. Crouch Sr. was imprisoned by Wormtail, and when he escaped to Hogwarts, Crouch Jr. killed him.
Dumbledore announces Voldemort's return to the school. However, many people, including Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge, refuse to believe it. The Dementor's Kiss is performed on Crouch Jr., rendering him unable to testify for Voldemort's return. Dumbledore puts plans against Voldemort into action. Not wanting his tournament winnings, Harry gives them to Fred and George to start a joke shop, and returns to the Dursleys for the summer.
Development
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire is the fourth book in the Harry Potter series. The first, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, was published by Bloomsbury on 26 June 1997. The second, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was published on 2 July 1998. The third, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, followed on 8 July 1999. Goblet of Fire is almost twice the size of the first three books (the paperback edition was 636 pages). Rowling stated that she "knew from the beginning it would be the biggest of the first four." She said there needed to be a "proper run-up" for the conclusion and rushing the "complex plot" could confuse readers. She also stated that "everything is on a bigger scale," which was symbolic, as Harry's horizons widened both literally and metaphorically as he grew up. She also wanted to explore more of the magical world.
Until the official title's announcement on 27 June 2000, the book was called by its working title, 'Harry Potter IV.' Previously, in April, the publisher had listed it as Harry Potter and the Doomspell Tournament. However, J. K. Rowling expressed her indecision about the title in an Entertainment Weekly interview.
"I changed my mind twice on what [the title] was. The working title had got out — Harry Potter and the Doomspell Tournament. Then I changed Doomspell to Triwizard Tournament. Then I was teetering between Goblet of Fire and Triwizard Tournament. In the end, I preferred Goblet of Fire because it's got that kind of cup of destiny feel about it, which is the theme of the book."
Rowling mentioned that she originally wrote a Weasley relative named Malfalda, who, according to Rowling, "was the daughter of the 'second cousin who's a stockbroker' mentioned in Philosopher's Stone. This stockbroker had been very rude to Mr. and Mrs. Weasley in the past, but now he and his (Muggle) wife had inconveniently produced a witch, they came back to the Weasleys asking for their help in introducing her to wizarding society before she starts at Hogwarts." Malfalda was supposed to be a Slytherin and was to fill in the Rita Skeeter subplot, but she was eventually removed because "there were obvious limitations to what an eleven year old closeted at school could discover." Rowling considered Rita Skeeter to be "much more flexible." Rowling also admitted that the fourth book was the most difficult to write at the time because she noticed a giant plot hole halfway through writing. In particular, Rowling had trouble with the ninth chapter, "The Dark Mark," which she rewrote 13 times.
Themes
Jeff Jensen, who interviewed Rowling for Entertainment Weekly in 2000, pointed out that bigotry is a big theme in the Harry Potter novels and Goblet of Fire in particular. He mentioned how Voldemort and his followers are prejudiced against Muggles and how, in Goblet of Fire, Hermione forms a group to liberate Hogwarts' house-elves who have "been indentured servants so long they lack desire for anything else." When asked why she explored this theme, Rowling replied,
She also commented that she did not feel this was too "heavy" for children, as it was one of those things that a "huge number of children at that age start to think about."
Publication and reception
UK/US release
Goblet of Fire was the first book in the Harry Potter series to be released in the United States on the same date as the United Kingdom, on 8 July 2000, strategically on a Saturday so children did not have to worry about school conflicting with buying the book. It had a combined first-printing of over five million copies. It was given a record-breaking print run of 3.9 million. Three million copies of the book were sold over the first weekend in the US alone. FedEx dispatched more than 9,000 trucks and 100 planes to fulfil book deliveries. The pressure in editing caused a mistake which shows Harry's father emerging first from Voldemort's wand; however, as confirmed in Prisoner of Azkaban, James died first, so then Harry's mother ought to have come out first. This was corrected in later editions.
Launch publicity
To publicise the book, a special train named Hogwarts Express was organised by Bloomsbury, and run from King's Cross to Perth, carrying J.K. Rowling, a consignment of books for her to sign and sell, also representatives of Bloomsbury and the press. The book was launched on 8 July 2000, on platform 1 at King's Cross – which had been given "Platform " signs for the occasion – following which the train departed. En route it called at Didcot Railway Centre, , the Severn Valley Railway, (overnight stop), Manchester, Bradford, , the National Railway Museum (overnight stop), Newcastle, Edinburgh, arriving at Perth on 11 July. The locomotive was West Country class steam locomotive no. 34027 Taw Valley, which was specially repainted red for the tour; it later returned to its normal green livery (the repaints were requested and paid for by Bloomsbury). The coaches of the train included a sleeping car. A Diesel locomotive was coupled at the other end, for use when reversals were necessary, such as the first stage of the journey as far as Ferme Park, just south of . The tour generated considerably more press interest than the launch of the film Thomas and the Magic Railroad which was premiered in London the same weekend.
Critical reception
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire has received mostly positive reviews. In The New York Times Book Review, author Stephen King stated the Goblet of Fire was "every bit as good as Potters 1 through 3" and praised the humour and subplots, although he commented that "there's also a moderately tiresome amount of adolescent squabbling...it's a teenage thing". Kirkus Reviews called it "another grand tale of magic and mystery...and clicking along so smoothly that it seems shorter than it is". However, they commented that it did tend to lag, especially at the end where two "bad guys" stopped the action to give extended explanations, and that the issues to be resolved in sequels would leave "many readers, particularly American ones, uncomfortable". For The Horn Book Magazine, Martha V. Parravano gave a mixed review, saying "some will find [it] wide-ranging, compellingly written, and absorbing; others, long, rambling, and tortuously fraught with adverbs". A Publishers Weekly review praised the book's "red herrings, the artful clues and tricky surprises that disarm the most attentive audience" and saying it "might be her most thrilling yet." Writing for The New Yorker, Joan Acocella noted that "where the prior volumes moved like lightning, here the pace is slower, the energy more dispersed. At the same time, the tone becomes more grim."
Kristin Lemmerman of CNN said that it is not great literature: 'Her prose has more in common with your typical beach-blanket fare and the beginning contained too much recap to introduce characters to new readers, although Rowling quickly gets back on track, introducing readers to a host of well-drawn new characters.' Writing for Salon.com, Charles Taylor was generally positive about the change of mood and development of characters. Entertainment Weekly reviewer Kristen Baldwin gave Goblet of Fire the grade of A-, praising the development of the characters as well as the many themes presented. However, she did worry that a shocking climax may be a "nightmare factory" for young readers.
In 2012 it was ranked number 98 on a list of the top 100 children's novels published by School Library Journal.
Awards and honours
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire won several awards, including the 2001 Hugo Award for Best Novel. It won the 2002 Indian Paintbrush Book Award, the third after Philosopher's Stone and Prisoner of Azkaban. The novel also won an Oppenheim Toy Portfolio Platinum Award for one of the best books, who claimed it was "more intense than the first three books". In addition, Entertainment Weekly listed Goblet of Fire in second place on their list of The New Classics: Books – The 100 best reads from 1983 to 2008. The Guardian ranked Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire #97 in its list of 100 Best Books of the 21st Century.
Adaptations
Film
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was adapted into a film, released worldwide on 18 November 2005, which was directed by Mike Newell and written by Steve Kloves. The film grossed $102.7 million for the opening weekend, and eventually grossed $896 million worldwide. The film was also nominated for Best Art Direction at the 78th Academy Awards.
Video game
It was also made into a video game for PC, PlayStation 2, Nintendo DS, Nintendo GameCube, Xbox, Game Boy Advance, and PlayStation Portable by Electronic Arts. It was released just before the film.
References
External links
2000 British novels
2000 children's books
2000 fantasy novels
Bloomsbury Publishing books
British novels adapted into films
Fiction set in 1994
Fiction set in 1995
04
Hugo Award for Best Novel-winning works
Patricide in fiction
Sequel novels
Scholastic Corporation books
Children's fantasy novels | [
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259130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20A.%20Dale | Alan A. Dale | Alan A. Dale was a cargo ship that served under United States control during World War II. Originally the Danish ship Nordvest, she was requisitioned in 1941, and sunk off the Netherlands in late 1944.
Ship history
The ship was built in 1938 at the Nakskov Skibsværft A/S yard at Nakskov, Denmark. Under the name Nordvest she was owned and operated by D/S Norden of Copenhagen. After the outbreak of World War II she remained in port in the United States and was one of the 84 foreign ships seized by the U.S. Maritime Commission under the Ship Requisition Act (Executive Order No. 8771), signed on June 6, 1941. She was subsequently reflagged under Panama and operated by the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand. As well as her civilian crew she carried a contingent from the USN Armed Guard.
Alan A. Dale sailed independently for Tocopilla, Chile, arriving there in October 1941, then returned via the Panama Canal to Baltimore in early December. On December 15, 1941, she sailed from Halifax to Belfast as part of Convoy HX 165, returning to the United States as part of Convoy ON 59 in January 1942. After another Atlantic crossing, (Convoys HX 179 and ON 89), she sailed alone from Hampton Roads on June 1, 1942, to the Indian Ocean, calling at Cape Town, Abadan, Bahrain and Bombay, before returning via Durban, Trinidad and Guantánamo Bay, and arriving at New York City, on November 2.
Alan A. Dale then took part in operations following Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of North Africa, sailing between Hampton Roads and Oran three times between December 1942 and July 1943. The ship then returned to Atlantic crossings, making four more return voyages between the East Coast of the United States and ports in Britain between August 1943 and June 1944.
In July 1944, after sailing from New York to Liverpool, she moved to the south coast of England, crossing the English Channel to the Bay of the Seine following the Normandy landings, and returning to New York in September 1944. She sailed once more between New York and Liverpool and back in October–November 1944, before sailing from New York in October to the Solent. From there, on December 21, she sailed as part of Convoy TAM 26, bound for Antwerp.
The Alan A. Dale was sunk by a German Biber midget submarine in the Westerschelde off Terneuzen on 24 December 1944 at position . All 65 men on board survived the attack. The wreck was lifted in June 2003 as part of an operation to improve shipping access to Antwerp.
References
External links
1938 ships
Ships built in Denmark
World War II merchant ships of Denmark
World War II merchant ships of New Zealand
World War II merchant ships of the United States
Shipwrecks of the Netherlands
Shipwrecks in rivers
World War II shipwrecks in the North Sea
Maritime incidents in December 1944
Ships sunk by German submarines in World War II | [
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259136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20Minister%20of%20Albania | Prime Minister of Albania | The Prime Minister of Albania (), officially styled Prime Minister of the Republic of Albania (), is the head of government of the Republic of Albania and the most powerful and influential person in Albanian politics. The prime minister holds the executive power of the nation and represents the Council of Ministers and chairs its meetings.
The prime minister is appointed by the president of Albania after each general election and must have the confidence of the Parliament of Albania to stay in office. The Council is responsible for carrying out both foreign and domestic policies. It directs and controls the activities of the ministries and other state organs. The prime minister is elected on the basis of universal suffrage, through a secret ballot, for a four-year term. The Constitution of Albania sets no limit as to office terms of the prime minister.
The 33rd and current officeholder is Edi Rama of the Socialist Party who was elected on 23 June 2013 and started his first four-year-term on 15 September 2013.
Powers, duties and responsibilities
The prime minister of the Albania, officially styled Prime Minister of the Republic of Albania, is the most powerful and influential state officeholder in the Albanian system of government.
One important role of the president is to designate a candidate for the office of prime minister who, in the opinion of the president, is best able to command a majority of the members of the Parliament. As head of government, the prime minister is charged with directing the internal policy of the country and leads the public administration. In this regard, the government cooperates with other interested social actors. If the prime minister is temporarily absent or incapable of exercising its executive power, the deputy prime minister takes over his functions, such as chairing the cabinet and the council of ministers.
The Constitution states that the prime minister represents the council of ministers and chairs its meetings, outlines and presents the principal general policies of the state and is responsible for them, assures the implementation of legislation and policies approved by the Council of Ministers, coordinates and supervises the work of the members of the Council of Ministers and other institutions of the central state administration, performs other duties contemplated in the Constitution and laws, resolves disagreements among ministers, and issues orders in the exercise of his powers. The prime minister can also initiate a proceeding of the Constitutional Court of Albania.
Oath
Before assuming duty, the prime minister-elect is required to take an oath of office before the President, swearing loyalty to the Constitution. The text of the oath in its Albanian form is sensitive to gender and all nouns always retain a neutral form. The prime minister-elect takes the following oath of office, specified by the Constitution:
Office and residence
The Prime Minister's Office () is the official office and residence of the prime minister. It provides secretarial assistance to the prime minister. The prime minister through his office coordinates with all ministers in the central union cabinet, minister of independent charges and governors and ministers of state government. Furthermore informal meetings between the prime minister and other government or foreign officials takes place in the Office. It also consists of the immediate staff of the prime minister of Albania, as well as multiple levels of support staff reporting to the prime minister. Since 1941, the building serves as the office and residence of the prime minister. The building is in the capital city of Tirana at the Dëshmorët e Kombit Boulevard, near the Mother Teresa Square.
The building was planned by the Italian architects Florestano Di Fausto and Gherardo Bosio, and constructed together with the Dëshmorët e Kombit Boulevard, the Mother Teresa Square and all the buildings located on these squares, during the Italian occupation of Albania in 1939 to 1941, in a Rationalist style.
List of prime ministers (1912–present)
See also
List of Albanian monarchs
List of heads of state of Albania
Deputy Prime Minister of Albania
References
Politics of Albania
Government of Albania
Albania | [
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259138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRP | TRP | TRP or Trp may refer to:
Target rating point, for TV rating
TransCanada Corporation
Science and health
Total radiated power, related to antenna gain
Tryptophan, an amino acid
Transient receptor potential channel or TRP channel of a biological cell
Culture
Theatre in the Round Players, Minneapolis, Minnesota, US
Time Reading Program, Time Life, 1960s
Other
Transition relevance place in conversation analysis
TRP Vision, the sister channel to Blackpool Grime Media | [
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259145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%27Hondt%20method | D'Hondt method | The D'Hondt method, also called the Jefferson method or the greatest divisors method, is a method for allocating seats in parliaments among federal states, or in party-list proportional representation systems. It belongs to the class of highest-averages methods.
The method was first described in 1792 by future U.S. president Thomas Jefferson. It was re-invented independently in 1878 by Belgian mathematician Victor D'Hondt, which is the reason for its two different names.
Motivation
Proportional representation systems aim to allocate seats to parties approximately in proportion to the number of votes received. For example, if a party wins one-third of the votes then it should gain about one-third of the seats. In general, exact proportionality is not possible because these divisions produce fractional numbers of seats. As a result, several methods, of which the D'Hondt method is one, have been devised which ensure that the parties' seat allocations, which are of whole numbers, are as proportional as possible.
Although all of these methods approximate proportionality, they do so by minimizing different kinds of disproportionality.
The D'Hondt method minimizes the number of votes that need to be left aside so that the remaining votes are represented exactly proportionally. Only the D'Hondt method (and methods equivalent to it) minimizes this disproportionality. Empirical studies based on other, more popular concepts of disproportionality show that the D'Hondt method is one of the least proportional among the proportional representation methods. The D'Hondt slightly favours large parties and coalitions over scattered small parties. In comparison, the Webster/Sainte-Laguë method, a different divisor method, reduces the reward to large parties, and it generally has benefited middle-size parties at the expense of both large and small parties.
The axiomatic properties of the D'Hondt method were studied and they proved that the D'Hondt method is the unique consistent, monotone, stable, and balanced method that encourages coalitions. A method is consistent if it treats parties that received tied vote equally. By monotonicity, the number of seats provided to any state or party will not decrease if the house size increases. A method is stable if two merged parties would neither gain nor lose more than one seat. By coalition encouragement of the D'Hondt method, any alliance cannot lose the seat.
Usage
Legislatures using this system include those of Åland, Albania, Angola, Argentina, Armenia, Aruba, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Burundi, Cambodia, Cape Verde, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Denmark, the Dominican Republic, East Timor, Ecuador, Estonia, Fiji, Finland, Greenland, Guatemala, Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Japan, Luxembourg, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Mozambique, Netherlands, Nicaragua, North Macedonia, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, Uruguay and Venezuela.
The system is used for the "top-up" seats in the Scottish Parliament, the Senedd (Welsh Parliament) and the London Assembly; in some countries for elections to the European Parliament; and was used during the 1997 Constitution era to allocate party-list parliamentary seats in Thailand. A modified form was used for elections in the Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly, but this was abandoned in favour of the Hare–Clark electoral system. The system is also used in practice for the allocation between political groups of numerous posts (Vice Presidents, committee chairmen and vice-chairmen, delegation chairmen and vice-chairmen) in the European Parliament and for the allocation of ministers in the Northern Ireland Assembly. It is also used to calculate the results in German and Austrian works council elections.
Procedure
After all the votes have been tallied, successive quotients are calculated for each party. The party with the largest quotient wins one seat, and its quotient is recalculated. This is repeated until the required number of seats is filled. The formula for the quotient is
where:
V is the total number of votes that party received, and
s is the number of seats that party has been allocated so far, initially 0 for all parties.
The total votes cast for each party in the electoral district is divided, first by 1, then by 2, then 3, up to the total number of seats to be allocated for the district/constituency. Say there are p parties and s seats. Then a grid of numbers can be created, with p rows and s columns, where the entry in the ith row and jth column is the number of votes won by the ith party, divided by j. The s winning entries are the s highest numbers in the whole grid; each party is given as many seats as there are winning entries in its row.
Example
In this example, 230,000 voters decide the disposition of 8 seats among 4 parties. Since 8 seats are to be allocated, each party's total votes are divided by 1, then by 2, 3, and 4 (and then, if necessary, by 5, 6, 7, and so on). The 8 highest entries, marked with asterisks, range from 100,000 down to 25,000. For each, the corresponding party gets a seat. Note that in Round 1, the quotient shown in the table, as derived from the formula, is precisely the number of votes returned in the ballot.
The chart below shows an easy way to perform the calculation. Each party's vote is divided by 1, 2 3, or 4 in consecutive columns, then the 8 highest values resulting are selected. The quantity of highest values in each row is the number of seats won.
For comparison, the "True proportion" column shows the exact fractional numbers of seats due, calculated in proportion to the number of votes received. (For example, 100,000/230,000 × 8 = 3.48) The slight favouring of the largest party over the smallest is apparent.
Further examples
A worked-through example for non-experts relating to the 2019 elections in the UK for the European Parliament written by Christina Pagel is available as an online article with the institute UK in a Changing Europe.
A more mathematically detailed example has been written by British mathematician Professor Helen Wilson.
Approximate proportionality under D'Hondt
The D'Hondt method approximates proportionality by minimizing the largest seats-to-votes ratio among all parties.
This ratio is also known as the advantage ratio.
For party , where is the overall number of parties, the advantage ratio is
where
– the seat share of party , ,
– the vote share of party , .
The largest advantage ratio,
captures how over-represented is the most over-represented party.
The D'Hondt method assigns seats so that this ratio attains its smallest possible value,
,
where is a seat allocation
from the set of all allowed seat allocations .
Thanks to this, as shown by Juraj Medzihorsky, the D'Hondt method
splits the votes into exactly proportionally represented ones and residual ones, minimizing the overall amount of the residuals in the process. The overall fraction of residual votes is
.
The residuals of party are
.
For illustration, continue with the above example of four parties. The advantage ratios of the four parties are 1.2 for A, 1.1 for B, 1 for C, and 0 for D. The reciprocal of the largest advantage ratio is
. The residuals as shares of the total vote are
0% for A, 2.2% for B, 2.2% for C, and 8.7% for party D. Their sum is 13%, i.e.,. The decomposition of the votes into represented and residual ones is shown in the table below.
Jefferson and D'Hondt
The method was first described in 1792 by Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to George Washington regarding the apportionment of seats in the United States House of Representatives: "For representatives there can be no such common ratio, or divisor which ... will divide them exactly without a remainder or fraction. I answer then . .. that representatives [must be divided] as nearly as the nearest ratio will admit; and the fractions must be neglected". It was invented independently in 1878 in Europe, by Belgian mathematician Victor D'Hondt, who wrote: "to allocate discrete entities proportionally among several numbers, it is necessary to divide these numbers by a common divisor, producing quotients whose sum is equal to the number of entities to be allocated". The Jefferson and the D'Hondt methods are equivalent. They always give the same results, but the methods of presenting the calculation are different. George Washington exercised his first veto power on a bill that introduced a new plan for dividing seats in the House of Representatives that would have increased the number of seats for northern states. Ten days after the veto, Congress passed a new method of apportionment, now known as Jefferson's Method. Statesman and future US President Thomas Jefferson devised the method in 1792 for the U.S. congressional apportionment pursuant to the First United States Census. It was used to achieve the proportional distribution of seats in the House of Representatives among the states until 1842.
Victor D'Hondt presented his method in his publication , published in Brussels in 1882.
The system can be used both for distributing seats in a legislature among states pursuant to populations or among parties pursuant to an election result. The tasks are mathematically equivalent, putting states in the place of parties and population in place of votes. In some countries, the Jefferson system is known by the names of local politicians or experts who introduced them locally. For example, it is known in Israel as the Bader–Ofer system.
Jefferson's method uses a quota (called a divisor), as in the largest remainder method. The divisor is chosen as necessary so that the resulting quotients, disregarding any fractional remainders, sum to the required total; in other words, pick a number so that there is no need to examine the remainders. Any number in one range of quotas will accomplish this, with the highest number in the range always being the same as the lowest number used by the D'Hondt method to award a seat (if it is used rather than the Jefferson method), and the lowest number in the range being the smallest number larger than the next number which would award a seat in the D'Hondt calculations.
Applied to the above example of party lists, this range extends as integers from 20,001 to 25,000. More precisely, any number n for which 20,000 < n ≤ 25,000 can be used.
Threshold
In some cases, a threshold or barrage is set, and any list which does not achieve that threshold will not have any seats allocated to it, even if it received enough votes to have otherwise been rewarded with a seat. Examples of countries using the D'Hondt method with a threshold are Albania (3% for single parties, 5% for coalitions of two or more parties, 1% for independent individuals); Denmark (2%); East Timor, Spain, Serbia, and Montenegro (3%); Israel (3.25%); Slovenia and Bulgaria (4%); Croatia, Fiji, Romania, Russia and Tanzania (5%); Turkey (10%); Poland (5%, or 8% for coalitions; but does not apply for ethnic-minority parties), Hungary (5% for single party, 10% for two-party coalitions, 15% for coalitions of 3 or more parties) and Belgium (5%, on regional basis). In the Netherlands, a party must win enough votes for one strictly proportional full seat (note that this is not necessary in plain D'Hondt), which with 150 seats in the lower chamber gives an effective threshold of 0.67%. In Estonia, candidates receiving the simple quota in their electoral districts are considered elected, but in the second (district level) and third round of counting (nationwide, modified D'Hondt method) mandates are awarded only to candidate lists receiving more than the threshold of 5% of the votes nationally. The vote threshold simplifies the process of seat allocation and discourages fringe parties (those that are likely to gain very few votes) from competing in the elections. Obviously, the higher the vote threshold, the fewer the parties that will be represented in parliament.
The method can cause a hidden threshold. It depends on the number of seats that are allocated with the D'Hondt method. In Finland's parliamentary elections, there is no official threshold, but the effective threshold is gaining one seat. The country is divided into districts with different numbers of representatives, so there is a hidden threshold, different in each district. The largest district, Uusimaa with 33 representatives, has a hidden threshold of 3%, while the smallest district, South Savo with 6 representatives, has a hidden threshold of 14%. This favors large parties in the small districts.
In Croatia, the official threshold is 5% for parties and coalitions. However, since the country is divided into 10 voting districts with 14 elected representatives each, sometimes the threshold can be higher, depending on the number of votes of "fallen lists" (lists that do not receive at least 5%). If many votes are lost in this manner, a list that gets 5% will still get a seat, whereas if there is a small number votes for parties that do not pass the threshold, the actual ("natural") threshold is close to 7.15%.
Some systems allow parties to associate their lists together into a single "cartel" in order to overcome the threshold, while some systems set a separate threshold for such cartels. Smaller parties often form pre-election coalitions to make sure they get past the election threshold creating a coalition government. In the Netherlands, cartels (lijstverbindingen) (until 2017, when they were abolished) could not be used to overcome the threshold, but they do influence the distribution of remainder seats; thus, smaller parties can use them to get a chance which is more like that of the big parties.
In French municipal and regional elections, the D'Hondt method is used to attribute a number of council seats; however, a fixed proportion of them (50% for municipal elections, 25% for regional elections) is automatically given to the list with the greatest number of votes, to ensure that it has a working majority: this is called the "majority bonus" (prime à la majorité), and only the remainder of the seats are distributed proportionally (including to the list which has already received the majority bonus). In Italian local elections a similar system is used, where the party or coalition of parties linked to the elected mayor automatically receives 60% of seats; unlike the French model though the remainder of the seats are not distributed again to the largest party.
Variations
The D'Hondt method can also be used in conjunction with a quota formula to allocate most seats, applying the D'Hondt method to allocate any remaining seats to get a result identical to that achieved by the standard D'Hondt formula. This variation is known as the Hagenbach-Bischoff System, and is the formula frequently used when a country's electoral system is referred to simply as 'D'Hondt'.
In the election of Legislative Assembly of Macau, a modified D'Hondt method is used. The formula for the quotient in this system is .
In some cases such as the Czech regional elections, the first divisor (when the party has no seats so far, which is normally 1) was raised to favour larger parties and eliminate small ones. In the Czech case, it is set to 1.42 (approximately , termed the Koudelka coefficient after the politician who introduced it).
The term "modified D'Hondt" has also been given to the use of the D'Hondt method in the additional member system used for the Scottish Parliament, Senedd (Welsh Parliament), and London Assembly, in which after constituency seats have been allocated to parties by first-past-the-post, D'Hondt is applied for the allocation of list seats taking into account for each party the number of constituency seats it has won. When the seats allocated by D'hondt to a party are insufficient for the constituency seats that party has one, the extra seats are taken from list seats available to other parties. This gives a seat bonus to the large party and a seat reduction for other parties, so distorting proportionality. This effect can be seen in the 2021 results for Scotland and Wales with disproportionately high seats numbers for the dominant party in each case. The advantage of this is that no extra 'overhang' seats are needed.
In 1989 and 1992, ACT Legislative Assembly elections were conducted by the Australian Electoral Commission using the "modified d'Hondt" electoral system. The electoral system consisted of the d'Hondt system, the Australian Senate system of proportional representation, and various methods for preferential voting for candidates and parties, both within and across party lines. The process involves 8 stages of scrutiny. ABC elections analyst Antony Green has described the modified d'Hondt system used in the ACT as a "monster ... that few understood, even electoral officials who had to wrestle with its intricacies while spending several weeks counting the votes".
Some systems allow parties to associate their lists together into a single kartel in order to overcome the threshold, while some systems set a separate threshold for cartels. In a system of proportional representation in which the country is divided in multiple electoral districts, such as Belgium the threshold to obtain one seat can be very high (5% of votes since 2003), which also favors larger parties. Therefore, some parties pool their voters in order to gain more (or any) seats.
Regional D'Hondt
In most countries, seats for the national assembly are divided on a regional or even a provincial level. This means that seats are first divided between individual regions (or provinces) and are then allocated to the parties in each region separately (based on only the votes cast in the given region). The votes for parties that have not gained a seat at the regional level are thus discarded, so they do not aggregate at a national level. This means that parties which would have gained seats in a national distribution of seats may still end up with no seats as they did not gain enough votes in any region. This may also lead to skewed seat allocation at a national level, such as in Spain in 2011 where the People's Party gained an absolute majority in the Congress of Deputies with only 44% of the national vote. It may also skew results for small parties with broad appeal at a national level compared to small parties with a local appeal (e.g. nationalist parties). For instance, in the 2008 Spanish general election, United Left (Spain) gained 1 seat for 969,946 votes, whereas Convergence and Union (Catalonia) gained 10 seats for 779,425 votes. However, it must be noted that this is not D'Hondt method's fault but rather the division between regions, at it happens with first-past-the-post. Even then, D'Hondt method is fairer than first-past-the-post.
Notes
References
External links
Simulator Election calculus simulator based on the modified D'Hondt system
Calculations using the pure d'Hondt method
PHP Implementation of D'Hondt system
Java D'Hondt, Saint-Lague and Hare-Niemeyer calculator
SciencesPo, R package for performing seats allocation based on the D'Hondt system
Downloadable Excel calculator for the D'Hondt method
Apportionment methods
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259149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintagel%20Castle | Tintagel Castle | Tintagel Castle () is a medieval fortification located on the peninsula of Tintagel Island adjacent to the village of Tintagel (Trevena), North Cornwall in the United Kingdom. The site was possibly occupied in the Romano-British period, as an array of artefacts dating from this period have been found on the peninsula, but as yet no Roman-era structure has been proven to have existed there. It was settled during the early medieval period, when it was probably one of the seasonal residences of the regional king of Dumnonia. A castle was built on the site by Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall in the 13th century, during the High Middle Ages. It later fell into disrepair and ruin.
Archaeological investigation into the site began in the 19th century as it became a tourist attraction, with visitors coming to see the ruins of Richard's castle. In the 1930s, excavations revealed significant traces of a much earlier high status settlement, which had trading links with the Mediterranean world during the Late Roman period. Two digs in 2016 and 2017 at Tintagel Castle uncovered the outlines of a palace from the 5th or early 6th century (the early medieval period), with evidence of writing and of articles brought in from Spain and from the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. The Cornwall Archaeological Unit has a five-year project at this site, with a final report expected in 2021. The items found in the digs have spurred interest before this final report, with two television programmes initially aired in 2018 or 2019, one in the UK by the BBC and another in the US by PBS.
The castle has a long association with legends related to King Arthur. This was first recorded in the 12th century when Geoffrey of Monmouth described Tintagel as the place of Arthur's conception in his mythological account of British history, Historia Regum Britanniae. Geoffrey told the story that Arthur's father, King Uther Pendragon, was disguised by Merlin's sorcery to look like Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall, the husband of Igraine, Arthur's mother.
Tintagel Castle has been a tourist destination since the mid-19th century. Owned by Charles, Prince of Wales as part of the landholdings of the Duchy of Cornwall, the site is managed by English Heritage.
History
Romano-British period
In the 1st century AD, southern Britain was invaded and occupied by the Roman Empire. The territory of modern Cornwall was assigned to the Roman administrative region of civitas Dumnoniorum, named after the local British tribal group whom the Romans called the Dumnonii. At the time, this south-westerly point of Britain was "remote, under-populated ... and therefore also unimportant [to the Roman authorities] until, during the 3rd century AD, the local tin-streaming industry attracted attention." Archaeologists know of five milestones or route-markers in Cornwall erected in the Romano-British period. Two of these are in the vicinity of Tintagel, indicating that a road passed through the locality.
Cornish historian and archaeologist Charles Thomas noted in 1993: "So far, no structure excavated on Tintagel Island... can be put forward as a Roman-period settlement, native-peasant or otherwise." Despite this, a quantity of apparently Romano-British pottery has been unearthed on the site, as has a Roman-style drawstring leather purse containing ten low denomination Roman coins dating between the reigns of Tetricus I (270–272) and Constantius II (337–361). This suggests that "at face-value ... either the Island or the landward area of the later Castle (or both...) formed the scene of third-fourth century habitation" even if no evidence has been found of any buildings dating from this period. Thomas also noted that some of the post-Roman finds in the excavations of 1933-38 were close to the wall known as the Iron Gate which guards access to the plateau from the adjacent cove. He suggests that the vessels bringing such goods might have come to unload at this cove rather than on the dangerous beach of Tintagel Haven.
Early medieval period
Roman control collapsed in southern Britain following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the early 5th century and it split into various different kingdoms, each with its own respective chief or king. The former Roman district of civitas Dumnoniorum apparently became the Kingdom of Dumnonia, which would have been ruled over by its own monarchy during this early medieval period between the 5th and 8th centuries. It was in this regional background that settlement continued at Tintagel Castle, with the creation of what is known by archaeologists as Period II of the site. However, there has been some dispute amongst archaeologists as to what the site of Tintagel Island was used for in this period. In the mid-20th century, it was typically thought that there was a Celtic Christian monastery on the site, but "since about 1980... [this] thesis... has... had to be abandoned", with archaeologists now believing that it was instead an elite settlement inhabited by a powerful local warlord or even Dumnonian royalty.
The Devon archaeologist Ralegh Radford excavated at the site from 1933 through to 1938, and he pioneered the hypothesis that Tintagel Castle had been a monastery during Period II. He came to this conclusion based upon some similarities in the structures of the early medieval elements of Tintagel Castle and the 7th-century monastery at the site of Whitby Abbey in Yorkshire.
Archaeologists no longer accept this viewpoint, however. Instead, they now believe that this was an elite settlement in the early medieval period that was inhabited by Dumnonian royalty and their entourage. Archaeologist and historian Charles Thomas believed that they did not stay at Tintagel year-round but that they moved around: "A typical king with his family, relatives, dependants, resident hostages, officials and court-followers, and a private militia or war-band—in all, probably between a hundred and three hundred souls at least—moved around with his cumbersome entourage; at least, when not busy with inter-tribal campaigning or in repelling invaders and raiders." The site was also made more defensible during this period with a large ditch at the entrance to the peninsula, leaving only a narrow trackway that had to be traversed by anyone approaching the peninsula.
Various luxury items dating from this period have been found at the site, namely African and Phocaean red slip, which had been traded all the way from the Mediterranean. Examining this pottery, Charles Thomas remarked that "the quantity of imported pottery from Tintagel [was]... dramatically greater than that from any other single site dated to about 450–600 in either Britain or Ireland". Carrying on from this, he noted that the quantity of imported pottery from Tintagel was "larger than the combined total of all such pottery from all known sites [of this period in Britain and Ireland]; and, given that only about 5 per cent of the Island's accessible surface has been excavated or examined, the original total of imports may well have been on a scale of one or more complete shiploads, with individual ships perhaps carrying a cargo of six or seven hundred amphorae." This evidence led him to believe that Tintagel was a site where ships docked to deposit their cargo from southern Europe in the early medieval period.
Archaeological digs by the Cornwall Archaeological Unit funded by English Heritage in 2016 and 2017 at Tintagel Castle uncovered the outlines of a palace from the 5th or 6th century, more amphora shards, and slate with writing on it, dispelling notions that no one knew how to read and write in this era following the collapse of the Roman Empire. The five-year project expects to finish and publish a report in 2021. One find is described briefly in an article; it has been put on display at the site by English Heritage. The findings have stirred much interest for their implications about the Dark Ages in Cornwall after the Roman Empire collapsed. The dig site is described in a television programme with new theories about Early medieval Britain that first aired in the US in 2019. A list of the programme's episodes from 2019 is found in Secrets of the Dead#Season 17 (2017-19). BBC Two aired a documentary in 2018 about the findings at this dig site.
Late medieval period and early modern periods
In 1225, Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall traded with Gervase de Tintagel, swapping the land of Merthen (originally part of the manor of Winnianton) for Tintagel Castle. A castle was built on the site by Earl Richard in 1233 to establish a connection with the Arthurian legends that were associated by Geoffrey of Monmouth with the area and because it was seen as the traditional place for Cornish kings. The castle was built in a more old-fashioned style for the time to make it appear more ancient. However, the dating to the period of Earl Richard has superseded Ralegh Radford's interpretation which attributed the earliest elements of the castle to Earl Reginald de Dunstanville and later elements to Earl Richard. Sidney Toy suggests an earlier period of construction in Castles: a short history of fortifications from 1600 B.C. to A. D. 1600 (London: Heinemann, 1939).
John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter was appointed constable of Tintagel Castle in 1389. After Richard, the following Earls of Cornwall were not interested in the castle, and it was left to the High Sheriff of Cornwall. Parts of the accommodation were used as a prison and the land was let as pasture. The castle became more dilapidated, and the roof was removed from the Great Hall in the 1330s. Thereafter, the castle became more and more ruinous and there was progressive damage from the erosion of the isthmus that joined the castle to the mainland. John Leland visited in the early 1540s and found that a makeshift bridge of tree trunks gave access to the Island. England was threatened with invasion from Spain in the 1580s, and the defences were strengthened at the Iron Gate. The manor of Tintagel was among those seized by the Commonwealth government of the 1650s as Duchy of Cornwall property, returning to the Duchy upon the Restoration of 1660. The letting for sheep pasture continued until the 19th century.
19th and 20th centuries
There was a fascination with the Arthurian legends during the Victorian era, and the ruins of the castle became a tourist destination. The modern day village of Tintagel was known as Trevena until the 1850s when it was found convenient by the Post Office to use the name of the parish rather than the name of the village. Tintagel is only the name of the headland; Tintagel Head itself is the extreme southwest point of Castle Island and the castle ruins are partly on the 'island' and partly on the adjoining mainland. The head of the island pointing out to sea is Pen Diu ( "Black Head").
The Rev. R. B. Kinsman (d. 1894) was honorary constable and built the courtyard wall and a guide was employed to conduct visitors into the castle. Until his time, the steps were unsafe on either side of the isthmus, though the plateau could be reached by those who grazed sheep there. From 1870, a lead mine was worked for a short time near Merlin's Cave. In the 20th century, the site was maintained by the Office of Works and its successors (from 1929 onwards). In 1975, the access across the isthmus was improved by the installation of a wooden bridge.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, nothing had been excavated except the chapel, and so ideas were given currency such as the garden being a cemetery and King Arthur's Footprint being a place for King Arthur to leap to the mainland. "King Arthur's Footprint" is a hollow in the rock at the highest point of Tintagel Island's southern side. It is not entirely natural, having been shaped by human hands at some stage. It may have been used for the inauguration of kings or chieftains, as the site has a long history stretching back to the Dark Ages.
In 1999 there was some controversy regarding Tintagel Castle and other sites in Cornwall under the management of English Heritage. Members of the pressure group Revived Cornish Stannary Parliament removed several signs because they objected to the use of the name "English Heritage", stating that Cornwall is rightfully a nation on its own. Three men involved in removing the signs were bound over for a year for £500 each and to pay English Heritage £4,500 compensation.
21st century
Over three months in 2015–16, artist Peter Graham carved a foot-high bearded face representing Merlin into a rock near a cave known as Merlin's Cave (after its mention in Tennyson's Idylls of the King). This was done as part of a project by English Heritage to "reimagine Tintagel's history and legends across the island site". The project also includes a compass sculpture referencing the Round Table and a larger-than-life statue called Gallos, by Rubin Eynon. Gallos is Cornish for power and its meaning is deliberately ambiguous as the statue could represent King Arthur or Tintagel's older royal past. A local councillor accused English Heritage of degrading the site's archaeology and landscape, although many local people are content with the image. Plans for a cantilevered steel footbridge to link Tintagel Island and the mainland, designed (by Ney & Partners and William Matthews Associates) to evoke Arthur's sword, were approved in 2017, and the bridge was opened to the public on 11 August 2019.
Tintagel is one of English Heritage's top five attractions, with around 200,000 visitors a year and up to 3000 a day in the peak summer season. According to figures released by the Association of Leading Visitor Attractions, 154,996 people visited Tintagel Castle in 2019.
Arthurian legends
The castle has a long association with the Arthurian legends; it was first associated with King Arthur by Welshman Geoffrey of Monmouth in his book Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain'"), written around 1135–38, which includes a detailed account of the legend. According to Geoffrey and the legend, Arthur's father was Uther Pendragon, the king of all Britain. He goes to war against Gorlois, the Duke of Cornwall, to capture Gorlois' wife Igraine, with whom Uther has fallen in love. Gorlois defends himself against Uther's armies at his fort of Dimilioc, but he sends Igraine to stay safely within Tintagel Castle which is his most secure refuge, according to the legend and Historia Regum Britanniae. Uther besieges Dimilioc, telling his friend Ulfin how he loves Igraine, but Ulfin replies that it would be impossible to take Tintagel, for "it is right by the sea, and surrounded by the sea on all sides; and there is no other way into it, except that provided by a narrow rocky passage—and there, three armed warriors could forbid all entry, even if you took up your stand with the whole of Britain behind you." Geoffrey of Monmouth's story goes on to explain how the wizard Merlin is summoned and magically changes Uther's appearance to that of Gorlois to help get them into Tintagel Castle, while also changing his own and Ulfin's appearances to those of two of Gorlois' companions. Disguised thus, they are able to enter Tintagel where Uther goes to Igraine, and "in that night was the most famous of men, Arthur, conceived."
Geoffrey's History mentions Tintagel Castle as the site of Arthur's conception, but "it nowhere claims that Arthur was born at Tintagel, or that he ever visited the place in later life, or that in any sense the stronghold became his property when he was king." However, the legend and the book continued to become hugely popular, spreading across Britain in the Late Medieval period, when more Arthurian texts were produced, many of them continuing to propagate the idea that Arthur himself was actually born at Tintagel. There is now a footpath from the site to Cadbury Castle in Somerset called Arthur's Way.
However, many continue to argue against these legends. For example, archaeologist C.A. Ralegh Radford refused to believe in the legend and all of the associations, declaring in 1935 that "no concrete evidence whatsoever has yet been found to support the legendary connection of the Castle with King Arthur". Charles Thomas, a specialist in Cornish history, was unable to find solid links, mainly because legends and stories would have been handed down only orally during this period. Thomas stated in 1993 that "there simply is no independently attested connection in early Cornish folklore locating Arthur, at any age or in any capacity, at Tintagel." Many others disagree, maintaining that the legendary figure would essentially have been an Early Medieval British leader, involved in fighting the migrating Anglo-Saxons who were settling in Britain at that time. The Artognou stone was found at Tintagel bearing the inscription PATERN[--] COLI AVI FICIT ARTOGNOU , and it has been claimed by some to provide evidence for a historical Arthur, but most historians reject this view.
Tintagel is used as a locus for the Arthurian mythos by the poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson in the poem Idylls of the King. Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem A Legend of Tintagel Castle (1832) is another variation on the story of Lancelot and Elaine. Algernon Charles Swinburne's Tristram of Lyonesse is a literary version of the Tristan and Iseult legend in which some events are set at Tintagel. Thomas Hardy's The Famous Tragedy of the Queen of Cornwall at Tintagel in Lyonnesse, a one-act play which was published in 1923, is another version of the same legend with events set at Tintagel (the book includes an imaginary drawing of Tintagel Castle at the period).
Excavations
In the 1930s, it was decided to begin a major archaeological excavation at the site, and so HM Office of Works employed Devon archaeologist Courtenay Arthur Ralegh Radford (1900–1999) to work as site director. He had been employed as the Inspector of Ancient Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire from 1929 and 1934, and from 1936 was Director of the British School at Rome. Excavation began in 1933, and in 1935 Ralegh Radford wrote an interim report and a guidebook entitled Tintagel Castle, published by HM Stationery Office. The excavators employed former quarry workers (the last Tintagel cliff quarry was closed in 1937) who worked under a trained foreman. They were instructed to clear the land on the island, following and exposing any walling that they came across and keeping any finds. Excavation ceased in 1939 due to the outbreak of the Second World War. Radford was required to take part in the war effort abroad, and many of the original site reports were destroyed when his house in Exeter was bombed by the Luftwaffe during the conflict.
In the mid-1980s, a fire on Tintagel Island led to considerable erosion of the topsoil, and many more building foundations could be seen than those recorded by Ralegh Radford. In 1998, the "Artognou stone", a slate stone bearing an incised inscription in Latin, was discovered on there, demonstrating that Latin literacy survived in this region after the collapse of Roman Britain.
Excavations during the summers of 2016 and 2017 found the remains of various structures from the Dark Ages, including well-constructed buildings of relatively large size dated to the 5th and 6th centuries, with pottery and glass finds indicating that the people who lived at Tintagel were of an upper class status, drinking wine imported from the eastern Mediterranean and using food vessels from North Africa and Gaul. In 2017, archaeologists discovered at the castle a 7th century slate window ledge inscribed with a mixture of Latin, Greek, and Celtic words, names, and symbols.
See also
Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
List of castles in England
References
Bibliography
Henderson, Charles (1925). In: Cornish Church Guide. Truro: Blackford; p. 203–205
Pearce, Susan M. (1978). The Kingdom of Dumnonia. Padstow: Lodenek Press. pp. 76–80, 151–155. The monastic site; Tristan, Mark and Isolt.
A reassessment of the evidence proposing a Celtic royal history for the site.
External links
Visiting information for Tintagel Castle: English Heritage
Information for teachers: English Heritage
Tintagel | The Camelot Project
Castles in Cornwall
Dumnonia
English Heritage sites in Cornwall
History of Cornwall
Locations associated with Arthurian legend
Ruins in Cornwall
Tintagel
Tourist attractions in Cornwall
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259151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Colonization%20Society | American Colonization Society | American Colonization Society (ACS), originally known as the Society for the Colonization of Free People of Color of America until 1837, was founded in 1816 by Robert Finley to encourage and support the migration of free African Americans to the continent of Africa.
The American Colonization Society was founded in response to what was seen as a growing social problem: what to do with free Blacks. The number of free people of color grew steadily following the American Revolutionary War, from 60,000 in 1790 to 300,000 by 1830. Slaveowners feared that these free Blacks might help their slaves to escape or rebel. In addition, most white Americans saw African Americans as an inferior race, a type of farm animal, whose brains were unable to understand abstractions like "democracy". To these whites, "amalgamation," or integration, of African Americans with mainstream American culture—giving them citizenship—was undesirable, if not impossible altogether. There was little prospect of changing these views. African Americans, therefore, should be relocated somewhere they could live in peace, free of prejudice, where they could be citizens.
The African-American community and abolitionist movement overwhelmingly opposed the project. In most cases, African Americans' families had lived in the United States for generations, and their prevailing sentiment was that they were no more African than white Americans were European. Contrary to stated claims that emigration was voluntary, many African Americans, both free and enslaved, were pressured into emigrating. Indeed, enslavers sometimes manumitted their slaves on condition that the freedmen leave the country immediately.
According to historian Marc Leepson, "Colonization proved to be a giant failure, doing nothing to stem the forces that brought the nation to Civil War." Between 1821 and 1847, only a few thousand African Americans, out of millions in the US, emigrated to what would become Liberia. Close to half of them died from tropical diseases. In addition, the transportation of the emigrants to the African continent, including the provisioning of requisite tools and supplies, proved very expensive.
Starting in the 1830s, the Society was met with great hostility from white abolitionists, led by Gerrit Smith, who had supported the Society financially, and William Lloyd Garrison, author of Thoughts on African Colonization (1832), in which he proclaimed the Society a fraud. According to Garrison and his many followers, the Society was not a solution to the problem of American slavery—it actually was helping, and was intended to help, to preserve it.
Background
Growth of slavery in the South
After the invention of the cotton gin in the 1790s, the growth and export of cotton became a highly profitable business. Central to the business was the setting up of plantations, staffed by enslaved laborers. Due to the increased demand, imports of African slaves grew until legal importation was barred in 1808, after which time Maryland and Virginia openly bred slaves, "producing" children for sale "South", through brokers such as Franklin and Armfield, to plantation owners. This resulted in the forcible relocation of about one million enslaved people to the Deep South. The Africans and African Americans became well established and had children, and the total number of the enslaved reached four million by the mid-19th century.
Growth in the number of free blacks
Due in part to manumission efforts sparked by revolutionary ideals, Protestant preachers, and the abolitionist movement, there was an expansion in the number of free blacks, many of them born free. Even in the North, where slavery was being abolished, discrimination against free blacks was rampant and often legal. Few states extended citizenship rights to free blacks prior to the 1860s and the Federal government, largely controlled by Slave Power, never showed any inclination to challenge the racial status quo. Even in the North, free blacks were often seen as unwelcome immigrants, taking jobs away because they would work for cheap.
Some slave owners decided to support emigration following an aborted slave rebellion headed by Gabriel Prosser in 1800, and a rapid increase in the number of free African Americans in the United States in the first two decades after the Revolutionary War, which they perceived as threatening. Although the ratio of whites to blacks overall was 4:1 between 1790 and 1800, in some Southern counties blacks were the majority. Slaveholders feared that free blacks destabilized their slave society and created a political threat. From 1790 to 1800, the number of free blacks increased from 59,467 to 108,398, and by 1810 there were 186,446 free blacks.
Early colonization in Africa
In 1786, a British organization, the Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor, launched its efforts to establish the Sierra Leone Province of Freedom, a colony in West Africa for London's "black poor." This enterprise gained the support of the British government, which also offered relocation to Black Loyalists who had been resettled in Nova Scotia, where they were subject to harsh weather and discrimination from some white Nova Scotians. Jamaica maroons were also deported to the colony, alongside former slaves freed by the Royal Navy after the Atlantic slave trade was abolished by Britain in 1807.
Paul Cuffe
Paul Cuffe or Cuffee (1759–1817) was a successful Quaker ship owner and activist in Boston. His parents were of Ashanti (African) and Wampanoag (Native American) heritage. He advocated settling freed American slaves in Africa and gained support from the British government, free Black leaders in the United States, and members of Congress to take emigrants to the British colony of Sierra Leone. In 1815, he financed a trip himself. The following year, Cuffe took 38 American blacks to Freetown, Sierra Leone. He died in 1817 before undertaking other voyages. Cuffe laid the groundwork for the American Colonization Society.
Efforts to relocate free blacks other than to Africa
Although little remembered as ultimately nothing came of them, there were a number of other proposals for relocating former slaves to somewhere much closer. One option discussed was settling them in the new, sparsely-populated Western territories acquired with the Louisiana Purchase, or on the Pacific coast: creating a Black reservation, similar to an Indian reservation. Haiti was open to them, and there was an unsuccessful attempt to create an agricultural community of former American slaves on Île-à-Vache, Haiti. Abraham Lincoln's plan was to settle them in what is today Panama (see Linconia). Even Florida Governor Napoleon Bonaparte Broward proposed, in 1907, sending Blacks to a land the federal government would purchase, there to live permanently, in isolation from whites.
Early history of the ACS
Founding
The ACS had its origins in 1816, when Charles Fenton Mercer, a Federalist member of the Virginia General Assembly, discovered accounts of earlier legislative debates on black colonization in the wake of Gabriel Prosser's rebellion. Mercer pushed the state to support the idea. One of his political contacts in Washington City, John Caldwell, in turn contacted the Reverend Robert Finley, his brother-in-law and a Presbyterian minister, who endorsed the plan.
On December 21, 1816, the society was officially established at the Davis Hotel in Washington, D.C. Among the Society's supporters were Charles Fenton Mercer (from Virginia), Henry Clay (Kentucky), John Randolph (Virginia), Richard Bland Lee (Virginia), and Bushrod Washington (Virginia). Slaveholders in the Virginia Piedmont region in the 1820s and 1830s comprised many of its most prominent members; slave-owning United States presidents Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, and James Madison were among its supporters. Madison served as the Society's president in the early 1830s.
At the inaugural meeting of the Society, Reverend Finley suggested that a colony be established in Africa to take free people of color, most of whom had been born free, away from the United States. Finley meant to colonize "(with their consent) the free people of color residing in our country, in Africa, or such other place as Congress may deem most expedient". The organization established branches throughout the United States, mostly in Southern states. It was instrumental in establishing the colony of Liberia.
The ACS was founded by groups otherwise opposed to each other on the issue of slavery. Slaveholders, such as those in the Maryland branch and elsewhere, believed that so-called repatriation was a way to remove free blacks from slave societies and avoid slave rebellions. Free blacks, many of whom had been in the United States for generations, also encouraged and assisted slaves to escape, and depressing their value. ("Every attempt by the South to aid the Colonization Society, to send free colored people to Africa, enhances the value of the slave left on the soil.") The Society appeared to hold contradictory ideas: free blacks should be removed because they could not benefit America; on the other hand, free blacks would prosper and thrive under their own leadership in another land.
On the other hand, a coalition made up mostly of evangelicals, Quakers, philanthropists, and abolitionists supported abolition of slavery. They wanted slaves to be free and believed blacks would face better chances for freedom in Africa than in the United States, since they were not welcome in the South or North. The two opposed groups found common ground in support of what they called "repatriation".
Leadership
The presidents of the ACS tended to be Southerners. The first president was Bushrod Washington, the nephew of U.S. President George Washington and an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. From 1836 to 1849 the statesman Henry Clay of Kentucky, a planter and slaveholder, was ACS president. John H. B. Latrobe served as president of the ACS from 1853 until his death in 1891.
Goals
The colonization project, which had multiple American Colonization Society chapters in every state, had three goals. One was to provide a place for former slaves, freedmen, and their descendants to live, where they would be free and not subject to racism. Another goal was to ensure that the colony had what it needed to succeed, such as fertile soil to grow crops. A third goal was to suppress attempts to engage in the Atlantic slave trade, such as by monitoring ship traffic on the coast. Presbyterian clergyman Lyman Beecher proposed another goal: the Christianization of Africa.
Fundraising
The Society raised money by selling memberships. The Society's members pressured Congress and the President for support. In 1819, they received $100,000 from Congress, and on February 6, 1820, the first ship, the Elizabeth, sailed from New York for West Africa with three white ACS agents and 88 African-American emigrants aboard. The approaches for selecting people and funding travel to Africa varied by state.
Opposition to colonization
According to Benjamin Quarles, the colonization movement "originated abolitionism", by arousing the free Blacks and other opponents of slavery.
Originally, colonization "had been pushed with diligence and paraded as the cure for the evils of slavery, and its benevolence was assumed on all hands. Everybody of consequence belonged to it." The following summary by Judge James Hall, editor of the Cincinnati-based Western Monthly Magazine, is from May 1834:
(As Hall refused to publish Theodore Weld's lengthy reply, he did so in the Cincinnati Journal. It became known nationally because Garrison devoted almost the entire front page of The Liberator'''s June 14 issue to it.)
Opposition from blacks
From the beginning, "the majority of black Americans regarded the Society [with] enormous disdain." Black activist James Forten immediately rejected the ACS, writing in 1817 that "we have no wish to separate from our present homes for any purpose whatever". As soon as they heard about it, 3,000 blacks packed a church in Philadelphia, "the bellwether city for free blacks," and "bitterly and unanimously" denounced it. Frederick Douglass condemned colonization: "Shame upon the guilty wretches that dare propose, and all that countenance such a proposition. We live here—have lived here—have a right to live here, and mean to live here." Martin Delany, who believed that Black Americans deserved "a new country, a new beginning", called Liberia a "miserable mockery" of an independent republic, a "racist scheme of the ACS to rid the United States of free blacks." He proposed instead Central and South America as "the ultimate destination and future home of the colored race on this continent" (see Linconia). A recent (2014) writer on Connecticut African Americans summarizes the attitude amongst them:
While claiming to aid African Americans, in some cases, to stimulate emigration, it made conditions for them worse. For example, "the Society assumed the task of resuscitating the Ohio Black Codes of 1804 and 1807. ...Between 1,000 and 1,200 free blacks were forced from Cincinnati." A meeting was held in Cincinnati on January 17, 1832 to discuss colonization, which resulted in a series of resolutions. First, they had a right to freedom and equality. They felt honor-bound to protect the country, the "land of their birth", and the Constitution. They were not familiar with Africa, and should have the right to make their own decisions about where they lived. They recommended that if black people wish to leave the United States, they consider Canada or Mexico, where they would have civil rights and a climate that is similar to what they are accustomed. The United States was large enough to accommodate a colony, and would be much cheaper to implement. They question the motives of ACS members who cite Christianity as a reason for removing blacks from America. Since there were no attempts to improve the conditions of black people who lived in the United States, it is unlikely that white people would watch out for their interests thousands of miles away.
Opposition from whites
William Lloyd Garrison
William Lloyd Garrison began publication of his abolitionist newspaper, The Liberator, in 1831, followed in 1832 by his Thoughts on African Colonization. According to President Lincoln, it was “the logic and moral power of Garrison and the antislavery people of the country” that put emancipation on the country’s political agenda. Garrison himself joined it in good faith." All the important white future abolitionists supported the Society: besides Garrison, Gerrit Smith, the Tappans, and many others, as can be seen in the pages of the Society's magazine, the African Repository. Garrison objected to the colonization scheme because rather than eliminating slavery, its key goal, as he saw it, was to remove free black people from America, thereby avoiding slave rebellions. Besides not improving the lot of enslaved Africans, the colonization had made enemies of native people of Africa. Both he and Gerrit Smith were horrified when they learned that alcohol was being sold in Liberia. He questioned the wisdom of sending African Americans, along with white missionaries and agents, to such an unhealthy place. In addition, it meant that fewer slaves achieved their freedom: "it hinders the manumission of slaves by throwing their emancipation upon its own scheme, which in fifteen years has occasioned the manumission of less than four hundred slaves, while before its existence and operations during a less time thousands were set free."
In the second number of The Liberator, Garrison reprinted this commentary from the Boston Statesman:
Gerrit Smith
The philanthropist Gerrit Smith had been, as put by Society Vice-President Henry Clay, "among the most munificent patrons of this Society."
This support changed to furious and bitter rejection when he realized, in the early 1830s, that the society was "quite as much an Anti-Abolition, as Colonization Society". "This Colonization Society had, by an invisible process, half conscious, half unconscious, been transformed into a serviceable organ and member of the Slave Power." It was "an extreme case of sham reform". In November 1835, he sent the Society a letter with a check, to conclude his existing commitments, and said there would not be any more from him, because:
Colony of Liberia
In 1821, Lt. Robert Stockton had pointed a pistol to the head of King Peter, which allowed Stockton to persuade King Peter to sell Cape Montserrado (or Mesurado) and to establish Monrovia. In 1825 and 1826, Jehudi Ashmun, Stockton's successor, took steps to lease, annex, or buy tribal lands in Africa along the coast and along major rivers leading inland in Africa to establish an American colony. Stockton's actions inspired Ashmun to use aggressive tactics in his negotiations with King Peter and in May 1825, King Peter and other native kings agreed to a treaty with Ashmun. The treaty negotiated land to Ashmun and in return, the natives received three barrels of rum, five casks of powder, five umbrellas, ten pairs of shoes, ten iron posts, and 500 bars of tobacco, as well as other items.
Of the 4,571 emigrants who arrived in Liberia between 1820 and 1843, only 1,819—40%—were alive in 1843. The ACS knew of the high death rate, but continued to send more people to the colony.
It is an oversimplication to say simply that the American Colonization Society founded Liberia. Much of what would become Liberia was a collection of settlements sponsored by state colonization societies: Mississippi in Africa, Kentucky in Africa, the Republic of Maryland, and several others. The most developed of these, the Republic of Maryland, had its own constitution, statutes, and flag. These separate colonies were eventually united into Liberia, but the process was not completed until 1857.
Publications
Beginning in 1825, the Society published the African Repository and Colonial Journal. Ralph Randolph Gurley (1797–1872), who headed the Society until 1844, edited the journal, which in 1850 simplified its title to African Repository. The journal promoted both colonization and Liberia. Included were articles about Africa, lists of donors, letters of praise, information about emigrants, and official dispatches that espoused the prosperity and continued growth of the colony. After 1919, the society essentially ended, but it did not formally dissolve until 1964, when it transferred its papers to the Library of Congress.
Civil War and emancipation
Since the 1840s, Lincoln, an admirer of Clay, had been an advocate of the ACS program of colonizing blacks in Liberia. Early in his presidency, Abraham Lincoln tried repeatedly to arrange resettlement of the kind the ACS supported, but each arrangement failed.
The ACS continued to operate during the American Civil War, and colonized 168 blacks during the conflict. It sent 2,492 people of African descent to Liberia in the five years following the war. The federal government provided a small amount of support for these operations through the Freedmen's Bureau.
Some scholars believe that Lincoln abandoned the idea by 1863, following the use of black troops. Biographer Stephen B. Oates has observed that Lincoln thought it immoral to ask black soldiers to fight for the U.S. and then to remove them to Africa after their military service. Others, such as the historian Michael Lind, believe that as late as 1864, Lincoln continued to hold out hope for colonization, noting that he allegedly asked Attorney General Edward Bates if the Reverend James Mitchell could stay on as "your assistant or aid in the matter of executing the several acts of Congress relating to the emigration or colonizing of the freed Blacks". Mitchell, a former state director of the ACS in Indiana, had been appointed by Lincoln in 1862 to oversee the government's colonization programs.
By late into his first term as president, Lincoln had publicly abandoned the idea of colonization after speaking about it with Frederick Douglass, who objected harshly to it. On April 11, 1865, with the war drawing to a close, Lincoln gave a public speech at the White House supporting suffrage for blacks, a speech that led actor John Wilkes Booth, who was vigorously opposed to emancipation and black suffrage, to assassinate him.
Decline and dissolution
Colonizing proved expensive; under the leadership of Henry Clay the ACS spent many years unsuccessfully trying to persuade the U.S. Congress to fund emigration. The ACS did have some success, in the 1850s, with state legislatures, such as those of Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. In 1850, the state of Virginia set aside $30,000 annually for five years to aid and support emigration. The Society, in its Thirty-fourth Annual Report, acclaimed the news as "a great Moral demonstration of the propriety and necessity of state action!" During the 1850s, the Society also received several thousand dollars from the New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Missouri, and Maryland legislatures. Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Mississippi set up their own state societies and colonies on the coast next to Liberia. However, the funds that ACS took in were inadequate to meet the Society's stated goals. "For the fourteen years preceding 1834, the receipts of that society, needing millions for its proposed operations, had averaged only about twenty-one thousand dollars a year. It had never obtained the confidence of the American people".
Three of the reasons the movement never became very successful were lack of interest by free blacks, opposition by some abolitionists, and the scale and costs of moving many people (there were 4 million freedmen in the South after the Civil War). There were millions of black slaves in the United States, but colonization only transported a few thousand free blacks.
Following the outbreak of the First World War, the ACS sent a cablegram to President Daniel Howard of Liberia, warning him that any involvement in the war could lead to Liberia's territorial integrity being violated regardless of which side might come out on top.
In 1913, and again at its formal dissolution in 1964, the Society donated its records to the U.S. Library of Congress. The donated materials contain a wealth of information about the founding of the society, its role in establishing Liberia, efforts to manage and defend the colony, fundraising, recruitment of settlers, conditions for black citizens of the American South, and the way in which black settlers built and led the new nation.
In Liberia, the Society maintained offices at the junction of Ashmun and Buchanan Streets at the heart of Monrovia's commercial district, next to the True Whig Party headquarters in the Edward J. Roye Building. Its offices at the site closed in 1956 when the government demolished all the buildings at the intersection for the purpose of constructing new public buildings there. Nevertheless, the land officially remained the property of the Society into the 1980s, amassing large amounts of back taxes because the Ministry of Finance could not find an address to which to send property tax bills.
Viewed through the perspective of racism
In the 1950s, racism was an increasingly important issue and by the late 1960s and 1970s it had been forced to the forefront of public consciousness by the civil rights movement. The prevalence of racism invited a revaluation of the Society's motives, prompting historians to examine the ACS in terms of racism more than its stance on slavery. By the 1980s and 1990s, historians were going even further in reimagining the ACS. Not only were they focusing on the racist rhetoric of the Society's members and publications, but some also depicted the Society as proslavery organization. Recently however, some scholars have retreated from an analysis of the ACS as proslavery, and with some characterizing it as an antislavery organization again.
See also
Abolitionism in the United States
African Civilization Society
African Repository and Colonial Journal
Colonization Societies
Haitian emigration
Samaná Americans
History of Liberia
Kentucky in Africa
Loring D. Dewey, agent of ACS who promoted free blacks' emigration to Haiti in the 1820s
Lott Carey, of Richmond, Virginia, the first American missionary to Liberia
Maryland State Colonization Society
Mississippi-in-Africa
Nova Scotian Settlers of the Freetown Colony in what is now Sierra Leone
Republic of Maryland
Samuel Wilkeson, in 1838, he became general agent of the Society
Notes
References
Sources
Barton, Seth, "Remarks on the colonization of the western coast of Africa", Cornell University Library, 1850.
Boley, G.E. Saigbe, "Liberia: The Rise and Fall of the First Republic", Macmillan Publishers, London, 1983.
Burin, Eric. Slavery and the Peculiar Solution: A History of the American Colonization Society. University Press of Florida, 2005.
Cassell, Dr. C. Abayomi, "Liberia: History of the First African Republic", Fountainhead Publishers Inc., New York, 1970.
Egerton, Douglas R. Charles Fenton Mercer and the Trial of National Conservatism. University Press of Mississippi, 1989.
Finley, Rev. Robert, "Thoughts on the Colonization of Free Blacks" , Washington D.C., 1816 (Rev. Finley's founding document).
Jenkins, David, "Black Zion: The Return of Afro-Americans and West Indians to Africa", Wildwood House, London, 1975.
Johnson, Charles S., "Bitter Canaan: The Story of the Negro Republic", Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ, 1987.
Liebenow, J. Gus, "Liberia: The Evolution of Privilege", Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1969.
Miller, Floyd J., "The Search for a Black Nationality: Black Emigration and Colonization, 1787–1863", University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1975.
Newman, Richard S, "Freedom's prophet", NYU Press, New York, 2008.
Oubre, Claude F. Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Land Ownership. Louisiana State University Press, 1978.
Power-Green, Ousmane, "Against Wind and Tide: The African American Struggle against the Colonization Movement," New York University Press, 2014.
Thomas, Lamont D. Paul Cuffe: Black Entrepreneur and Pan-Africanist (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988)
Tomek, Beverly C. "Colonization and Its Discontents: Emancipation, Emigration and Antislavery in Antebellum Pennsylvania," (New York: New York University Press, 2011).
West, Richard, "Back to Africa", Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., New York, 1970.
Yarema, Allan E., "American Colonization Society: an avenue to freedom?", University Press of America, 2006.
Further reading
Falola, Toyin, and Raphael Chijioke Njoku. "President James Monroe and the Colonization Society: From Monrovia to Liberia." in United States and Africa Relations, 1400s to the Present'' (Yale University Press, 2020) pp. 84–104.
Primary sources
History of racism in the United States
History of colonialism
1816 establishments in the United States
1964 disestablishments in the United States
African-American history
19th century in Liberia
Abolitionism in the United States
Repatriated Africans
Repatriated slaves
People of Liberated African descent
African diaspora history
Pre-emancipation African-American history
American colonization movement
Recipients of aid from Gerrit Smith
African-American repatriation organizations | [
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259152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Taiwan | Governor of Taiwan | Governor of Taiwan may refer to:
Governor of Formosa, appointed during the Dutch rule period
Grand coordinator and provincial governor of Fujian-Taiwan (), appointed during the late Qing rule period
Governor-General of Taiwan, appointed during the Japanese rule period
Governor of Taiwan Province, appointed during the Republic of China period
A hypothetical Governor of Taiwan Provincial People's Government claimed by the People's Republic of China | [
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259154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel%20College%2C%20Gateshead | Emmanuel College, Gateshead | Emmanuel College is a secondary school based in Gateshead, England. It was founded in 1990 as a City Technology College, i.e. a secondary school which is partly funded by donations from business donors who remain involved in management of the college. Emmanuel is currently one of the three remaining City Technology Colleges in England as the remainder have converted to academies. Emmanuel has up to 1,350 students aged between 11 and 19, and over 160 staff. It is part of Emmanuel Schools Foundation and in each of its four Ofsted inspections it has achieved a status of "Outstanding School".
Students come from a wide variety of socio-economic backgrounds but predominantly from the urban areas within Gateshead and Central and West Newcastle upon Tyne.
Intake policy
The college was described by The Guardian in 2002 as achieving "consistently outstanding academic results", having received a "glowing" Ofsted report.
By law, the school must admit pupils of mixed ability, according to a normal distribution representative of the whole population. In common with other City Technology Colleges, Emmanuel College uses non-verbal reasoning tests set and marked by the National Foundation for Educational Research, a leading independent research organisation, to assess general intelligence, as opposed to prowess in literacy or mathematics. After marking, the NFER places test results into nine separate categories, and informs the school how many are to be taken from each category.
Another condition is that two-thirds of places are given to students considered to be from the most socio-economically deprived wards within its catchment area, with the other third coming from other areas of the catchment area, ensuring a mix not only academically but socially too.
In terms of Sixth Form admission, a reduced number of places available (130) are offered, with preference to the school's own Year 11 students.
Controversies
Creationism
The school was at the centre of protests from scientists and educationalists when it was revealed that some members of the management team, including both the principal and the head of science, were sympathetic to Young Earth creationism and had allowed its hall to be rented by Answers in Genesis, an organisation which promotes such views. The school includes evolutionary science in its curriculum, but presents evolution as a theory complemented by the theory of creationism (taught in RE lessons). This led to allegations by Richard Dawkins, John Polkinghorne, and others in 2002 that the school taught creationism in science lessons. In 2002, the Liberal Democrat MP Jenny Tonge asked Prime Minister Tony Blair if he was "happy to allow the teaching of creationism alongside Darwin's theory of evolution in state schools". Tony Blair replied that he supported a "diverse school system", and praised the teachers at Emmanuel College for their commitments to "deliver[ing] better results for our children".
However, after re-inspecting the material used to teach science at Emmanuel College, Ofsted decided that the matter did not need to be pursued further.
The next Ofsted inspection in 2006 described the school as 'Outstanding' and found no problem with its science provision.
Some allegations centred on the school's former Head of Science Steven Layfield who had in 2000, prior to his taking up the post, publicly advocated the teaching of Intelligent Design in schools.
Gross Misconduct Allegation
In the academic year 2013–2014 former teacher of history Mr Daniel McQuoid (son of former principal Nigel McQuoid) engaged in gross misconduct with an 18-year-old student who had left the school and as a result he resigned in 2014. It was subsequently investigated by both the police and the National College for Teaching and Leadership, which found that there was no evidence of matters serious enough for either police prosecution or for him having any limitations on his ability to teach again.
Authoritarian Ethos
In 2003 former teacher of music Cormack O'Duffy painted a negative picture of the college during a discussion with TES journalist Michael Shaw. O'Duffy was discharged of his position for disobeying an order from the then principal Nigel McQuoid for vocally voicing his concerns about the school; however O'Duffy's union provided legal support and the case against him was dropped. During the interview O'Duffy described the school as a place of 'eerie silence' and an institution of immense regulation: "With its quiet atmosphere, you might easily think you had entered the set of a James Bond movie where all the workers at the plant are focused on a task and have no time for frivolity." Furthermore, O'Duffy placed concerns about the nature of the Christian ethos claiming an over-emphasis on hell.
Student misconduct
On the 31st of May 2002 the school's head boy Jonathon Noble assaulted a female peer at a post exam student party. Noble, aged 18, broke fellow student Gillian Weatherstone's arm and as a direct result pleaded guilty to assault. Subsequently Noble received a one thousand pound fine and sixty days community service, however a charge of grievous bodily harm was dropped. Noble went on to study at Peterhouse College, Cambridge.
Notable alumni
Michelle Heaton, pop singer, former member of Liberty X
Sean Tomes, former Rugby Union player for Newcastle Falcons
Jonny Rowell, professional footballer who has played in the Belgian Pro League
Benjamin Satterley, professional wrestler currently signed to All Elite Wrestling and previously with WWE
Jay Gardner, reality TV star formerly of Geordie Shore
Other Emmanuel Schools
References
External links
Emmanuel College, official website
Department for Children, Schools and Families – EduBase2 – Emmanuel College
City technology colleges in England
Secondary schools in Gateshead
Educational institutions established in 1990
1990 establishments in England
Emmanuel Schools Foundation | [
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259155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasagh | Jasagh | A jasagh ( засаг, or засаг ноён; lit. Power, Authority) was the head of a Mongol banner or khoshun during the Qing dynasty (1636-1911) and Mongolia Boghda Khanate. The term is rendered zhasake () in contemporary Chinese documents. The position was held by hereditary succession by certain Mongol princes, most of whom were descendants of Genghis Khan. The princes who did not serve as Jasagh were known as sula ( - empty vacant free, loose) or hohi taiji ().
List of jasaghs
The list only include major jasaghs under Prince title.
Inner jasaghs
Aohan Tribes
Leaders of Aohan league held a title of the Prince of the Second Rank. Only the last jasagh was promoted to the Prince of the First Rank.
Ordos Tribes
Harqin Tribes
Khorchin Tribes
Jasagh of the Khorchin banner held a title of Prince Bodlogtoi of the First Rank. Some jasaghs made a huge contribution to the Qing Dynasty by settling a military merit. Leaders of Khorchin league also became prince consorts by the tradition of diplomatic marriages between Khorchin Mongols and Manchus
Another title held by the jasagh of the Khorchin banner was Prince Darhan of the First Rank. The lineage was more prestigious than previous one. Most holders of the title were prince consorts and relatives of Qing Dynasty most prominent imperial consorts.
Prince Zhuoliketu of the First Rank was one of the titles reserved for jasaghs of the Khorchin league
Outer jasaghs
Khalkha Tribes
Leaders of the Khalkha league held a title of the Prince of the First Rank. The title of Prince Darhan of the First Rank was demoted to the Prince of the Third Rank and subsequently recovered.
Sayin Noyan league
Sayin Noyan was a part of Khalkha valley. Jasagh of Sayin Noyan league held a title of Prince of the First Rank. Jasaghs of Sayin Noyan were treated like leaders of Khalkha league.
Oriat Tribes
Altishahr
Altishahr (Turki Muslim major area in Xinjiang), which also the same Jasagh rulers, two of six had “Wang”(king) title.
Kumul Khanate- Muslim banner, held a title of Prince of the First Rank.
Turpan- Muslim banner, held a title of Prince of the Second Rank.
References
Mongolia under Qing rule | [
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259159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Frawley | William Frawley | William Clement Frawley (February 26, 1887 – March 3, 1966) was an American vaudevillian and actor best remembered for playing landlord Fred Mertz in the American television sitcom I Love Lucy and "Bub" O'Casey in the television comedy series My Three Sons.
Frawley began his career in vaudeville in 1914 with his wife, Edna Louise Broedt. Their comedy act, known as "Frawley and Louise", continued until their divorce in 1927. Frawley performed on Broadway multiple times and signed with Paramount Studios in 1916 to play in silent films. He appeared in more than 100 films over 35 years.
Early life
William Clement Frawley was born in 1887 in Burlington, Iowa, the second son of four children of Michael A. Frawley (1857–1907) and Mary E. (Brady) Frawley (1859–1921). He attended Catholic schools and sang in the choir at St. Paul's Catholic Church. As he got older, he played small roles in local theater productions at the Burlington Opera House, and performed in amateur shows, though his mother, a highly religious woman, discouraged such activities.
Frawley's first job was as a stenographer in an office of the Union Pacific Railroad in Omaha, Nebraska. After two years working in that position, he relocated to Chicago, where he found a job as a court reporter. Not long after that move, and against his mother's wishes, he obtained a singing part in a musical comedy, The Flirting Princess. To appease his mother, Frawley relocated to St. Louis, Missouri, to work for another railroad company.
Feeling unfulfilled in that job, as well, he continued to hope he would one day be a professional entertainer. He finally decided to act on that desire by forming a vaudeville act with his brother Paul (1889–1973), but six months later, Frawley's mother told Paul to return to Iowa. Meanwhile, William wrote and sold a script titled Fun in a Vaudeville Agency, earning more than $500 for his efforts.
After his initial success as a scriptwriter, Frawley decided to relocate yet again, this time to the West, settling in Denver, where he was hired as a singer at a café and teamed with pianist Franz Rath. The duo soon moved to San Francisco with their act, "A Man, a Piano, and a Nut". During his vaudeville career, Frawley introduced and helped popularize the songs "My Mammy", "My Melancholy Baby", and "Carolina in the Morning". Many years later, in 1958, he recorded a selection of his old stage songs on an LP, Bill Frawley Sings the Old Ones.
Early career
Frawley began performing in Broadway theater. His first such show was the musical comedy, Merry, Merry, in 1925. He later made his first dramatic role in 1932, playing press agent Owen O'Malley in the original production of Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur's Twentieth Century. He continued to be a dramatic actor at various locales until 1933.
In 1916, Frawley had appeared in two short subject silent films. He performed subsequently in three other short films, but he had not decided to develop a cinematic career until 1933, beginning with short comedy films and the feature musical Moonlight and Pretzels (Universal Studios, 1933). He relocated to Los Angeles, where he signed a seven-year contract with Paramount Pictures.
Finding much work as a character actor, he had roles in many different genres of films — comedies, dramas, musicals, Westerns, and romances. He appeared in Miracle on 34th Street (1947), portraying Judge Harper's political adviser, who warns his client in great detail of the dire political consequences if he rules that there is no Santa Claus. Some of his other memorable film roles were as the baseball manager in Joe E. Brown's Alibi Ike (1935), as the wedding host in Charlie Chaplin's Monsieur Verdoux (1947), and as a hard-nosed insurance investigator in My Home in San Antone, with Roy Acuff and Lloyd Corrigan.
Television
I Love Lucy
By 1951, the 64-year-old Frawley had appeared in over 100 movies, but was starting to find film role offers becoming fewer. When he heard that Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball were casting a new television situation comedy, he applied eagerly to play the role of the cantankerous, miserly landlord Fred Mertz. One evening, he telephoned Lucille Ball, asking her what his chances were. Ball was surprised to hear from him, a man she barely knew. Both Ball and Arnaz agreed it would be great to have Frawley, a motion-picture veteran, appear as Fred Mertz. Less enthusiastic were CBS executives, who were wary of Frawley's well-known frequent drinking and instability. Arnaz warned Frawley about the network's concerns, telling him that if he was late to work, arrived drunk, or was unable to perform because of something other than legitimate illness more than once, he would be written out of the show. In one version of this conversation, Arnaz told Frawley he would get three chances. The first screw-up would be tolerated, the second would result in a severe reprimand, and the third would result in his being fired. Contrary to the network's concerns, Frawley never arrived at work drunk, and mastered his lines after only one reading. Arnaz eventually became one of Frawley's few close friends.
Before each episode, Frawley would read the script with the rest of the cast, then would take out the sheets with only his lines and discard the rest of the script to study only his part.
I Love Lucy debuted October 15, 1951, on CBS, and was a huge success. The series was broadcast for six years as half-hour episodes, later changing to hour-long specials from 1957 to 1960 titled The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show (later retitled The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour).
Vivian Vance played Ethel Mertz, Frawley's on-screen wife. Although the two actors worked well together, they greatly disliked each other. Most attribute their mutual hatred to Vance's vocal resentment of having to play wife to a man 22 years her senior. Frawley reportedly overheard Vance complaining; he took offense and never forgave her. "She's one of the finest girls to come out of Kansas", he once observed, "But I often wish she'd go back there."
An avid New York Yankees baseball fan, Frawley had it written into his I Love Lucy contract that he did not have to work during the World Series if the Yankees were playing. The Yankees were in every World Series during that time except for 1954 and 1959. He did not appear in two episodes of the show as a result.
For his work on the show, Frawley was Emmy-nominated five consecutive times (1953–1957) for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a comedy series. In 1957, at the end of I Love Lucy, Ball and Arnaz gave Frawley and Vance the opportunity to have their own Fred and Ethel spin-off series for Desilu Studios. Despite his animosity towards her, Frawley saw a lucrative opportunity and accepted. Vance declined, having no desire to work with Frawley again and also feeling that Ethel and Fred would be unsuccessful without the Ricardos.
My Three Sons
Frawley next joined the cast of the ABC (later CBS) situation comedy My Three Sons, playing live-in grandfather and housekeeper Michael Francis (sometimes, as in "What's Cooking?", William Francis), then "Bub" O'Casey beginning in 1960. Featuring Fred MacMurray, the series was about a widower raising his three sons. Frawley was originally slated to be the series lead before MacMurray joined the cast, relegating Frawley to supporting player.
Frawley reportedly never felt comfortable with the out-of-sequence filming method used for My Three Sons after doing I Love Lucy in sequence for years. Each season was arranged so that main actor Fred MacMurray could film all of his scenes during two separate intensive blocks of filming for a total of 65 working days on the set; Frawley and the other actors worked around the absent MacMurray for the remainder of the year's production schedule.
Personal life
In 1914, Frawley married fellow vaudevillian Edna Louise Bloedt. They developed an act, "Frawley and Louise", which they performed all across the country. Their act was described as "light comedy, with singing, dancing, and patter." The couple separated in 1921 (later divorcing in 1927). They had no children. His brother Paul Frawley (1889–1973) also was an actor on Broadway with relatively few appearances in motion pictures.
Frawley had a reputation for being cantankerous and difficult, likely exacerbated by a drinking problem. In 1928, he was fired from the Broadway show That's My Baby for punching actor Clifton Webb in the nose.
Final years and death
Frawley made two television appearances the year before his death. His appearance on the panel show I've Got a Secret on May 3, 1965, consisted of contestants guessing Frawley's "secret", which was that he was the first performer ever to sing "My Melancholy Baby", in 1912. He had performed that song previously on television, as Fred Mertz, in the 1958 episode "Lucy Goes to Sun Valley" on the Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour.
Frawley's final on-camera performance was on October 25, 1965, with a brief cameo appearance in Lucille Ball's second television sitcom, The Lucy Show, in the episode "Lucy and the Countess Have a Horse Guest". Frawley plays a horse trainer and Lucy comments: "You know, he reminds me of someone I used to know." (Vivian Vance, who by then had left The Lucy Show except for an occasional guest appearance, does not appear in the episode.)
Frawley suffered a fatal heart attack while walking on Hollywood Boulevard on March 3, 1966, five days after his 79th birthday. Upon learning of his death, Desi Arnaz immediately took out a full-page ad in all the trade papers, with the words: "Buenas noches, amigo." Arnaz, Fred MacMurray, and My Three Sons executive producer Don Fedderson were pallbearers at his funeral. Lucille Ball said: "I've lost one of my dearest friends and show business has lost one of the greatest character actors of all time. Those of us who knew him and loved him will miss him."
Legacy
William Frawley is buried in the San Fernando Mission Cemetery in Mission Hills, Los Angeles. For his achievements in the field of motion pictures, he was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, at 6322 Hollywood Blvd, on February 8, 1960. He is memorialized, as well, in the Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Center in Jamestown, New York, which also contains his "Hippity-Hoppity" (frog) costume from an episode of I Love Lucy. Both Frawley and Vivian Vance were inducted into the Television Academy Hall of Fame in March 2012.
The story of how Desi Arnaz hired Frawley to play Fred Mertz in I Love Lucy is told in I Love Lucy: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom, a comedy that had its world premiere in Los Angeles on July, 2018. The play, from Gregg Oppenheimer (son of I Love Lucy creator-producer-head writer Jess Oppenheimer), was recorded in front of a live audience for nationwide public radio broadcast and online distribution, and starred Sarah Drew as Lucille Ball and Oscar Nuñez as Desi Arnaz. BBC Radio 4 broadcast a serialized version of the play in the UK in August 2020, as Lucy Loves Desi: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom, in which Stacy Keach portrayed Frawley, Anne Heche played Lucille Ball, and Wilmer Valderrama played Desi Arnaz.
Frawley appears as a supporting character in the 2021 film Being the Ricardos, portrayed by J. K. Simmons, who received an Academy Award nomination for his role.
Filmography
Lord Loveland Discovers America (1916) as Tony Kidd
Persistent Percival (1916, Short) as Billy
Should Husbands Be Watched? (1925, Short) as Beat Cop
Ventriloquist (1927, short subject listed in BFI Database) as 'Hoak' salesman
Turkey for Two (1929, Short) as Convict
Fancy That (1929, Short) as Percy
Moonlight and Pretzels (1933) as Mac
Hell and High Water (1933) as Milton J. Bunsey
Miss Fane's Baby Is Stolen (1934) as Captain Murphy
Bolero (1934) as Mike DeBaere
The Crime Doctor (1934) as Fraser
The Witching Hour (1934) as Jury foreman
Shoot the Works (1934) as Larry Hale
The Lemon Drop Kid (1934) as William Dunhill
Here Is My Heart (1934) as James Smith
Car 99 (1935) as Sergeant Barrel
Hold 'Em Yale (1935) as Sunshine Joe
Alibi Ike (1935) as Cap
College Scandal (1935) as Chief of Police Magoun
Welcome Home (1935) as Painless
Harmony Lane (1935) as Edwin P. 'Ed' Christy
It's a Great Life (1935) as Lt. McNulty
Ship Cafe (1935) as Briney O'Brien
Strike Me Pink (1936) as Mr. Copple
Desire (1936) as Mr. Gibson
F-Man (1936) as Detective Rogan
The Princess Comes Across (1936) as Benton
Three Cheers for Love (1936) as Milton Shakespeare
The General Died at Dawn (1936) as Brighton
Three Married Men (1936) as Bill Mullins
Rose Bowl (1936) as Soapy Moreland
High, Wide, and Handsome (1937) as Mac
Double or Nothing (1937) as John Pederson
Something to Sing About (1937) as Hank Meyers
Blossoms on Broadway (1937) as Frances X. Rush
Mad About Music (1938) as Dusty Turner
Professor Beware (1938) as Snoop Donlan
Sons of the Legion (1938) as Uncle Willie Lee
Touchdown, Army (1938) as Jack Heffernan
Ambush (1939) as Inspector J.L. Weber
St. Louis Blues (1939) as Maj. Martingale
Persons in Hiding (1939) as Alec Inglis
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1939) as The 'Duke'
Rose of Washington Square (1939) as Harry Long
Ex-Champ (1939) as Mushy Harrington
Grand Jury Secrets (1939) as Bright Eyes
Night Work (1939) as Bruiser Brown
Stop, Look and Love (1939) as Joe Haller
The Farmer's Daughter (1940) as Scoop Trimble
Opened by Mistake (1940) as Matt Kingsley
Those Were the Days! (1940) as Prisoner (uncredited)
Untamed (1940) as Les Woodbury
Golden Gloves (1940) as Emory Balzar
Rhythm on the River (1940) as Mr. Westlake
The Quarterback (1940) as Coach
One Night in the Tropics (1940) as Roscoe
Dancing on a Dime (1940) as Mac
Sandy Gets Her Man (1940) as Police Chief J. A. O'Hara
Six Lessons from Madame La Zonga (1941) as Chauncey Beheegan
Footsteps in the Dark (1941) as Hopkins
Blondie in Society (1941) as Waldo Pincus
The Bride Came C.O.D. (1941) as Sheriff McGee
Cracked Nuts (1941) as James Mitchell
Public Enemies (1941) as Bang
Treat 'Em Rough (1942) as 'Hotfoot'
Roxie Hart (1942) as O'Malley
It Happened in Flatbush (1942) as Sam Sloan
Give Out, Sisters (1942) as Harrison
Wildcat (1942) as Oliver Westbrook
Moonlight in Havana (1942) as Barney Crane
Gentleman Jim (1942) as Billy Delaney
We've Never Been Licked (1943) as Traveling Salesman
Larceny with Music (1943) as Mike Simms
Whistling in Brooklyn (1943) as Detective Ramsey
The Fighting Seabees (1944) as Eddie Powers
Going My Way (1944) as Max Dolan – the Publisher (uncredited)
Minstrel Man (1944)
Lake Placid Serenade (1944) as Jiggers
Flame of Barbary Coast (1945) as 'Smooth' Wylie
Hitchhike to Happiness (1945) as Sandy Hill
Lady on a Train (1945) as Police Sergeant Christie
Ziegfeld Follies (1946) as Martin ('A Sweepstakes Ticket')
The Virginian (1946) as Honey Wiggen
Rendezvous with Annie (1946) as Gen. Trent
The Inner Circle (1946) as Det. Lt. Webb
Crime Doctor's Man Hunt (1946) as Inspector Harry B. Manning
Hit Parade of 1947 (1947) as Harry Holmes
Monsieur Verdoux (1947) as Jean La Salle
Miracle on 34th Street (1947) as Charlie Halloran
I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now (1947) as Jim Mason
Mother Wore Tights (1947) as Mr. Schneider
Down to Earth (1947) as Police Lieutenant
Blondie's Anniversary (1947) as Sharkey, the Loan Shark
My Wild Irish Rose (1947) as William Scanlon
Texas, Brooklyn & Heaven (1948) as Agent
The Babe Ruth Story (1948) as Jack Dunn
Good Sam (1948) as Tom Moore
Joe Palooka in Winner Take All (1948) as Knobby Walsh
The Girl from Manhattan (1948) as Mr. Bernouti
Chicken Every Sunday (1949) as George Kirby
The Lone Wolf and His Lady (1949) as Inspector J.D. Crane
Home in San Antone (1949) as O'Fleery
Red Light (1949) as Hotel Clerk
The Lady Takes a Sailor (1949) as Oliver Harker
East Side, West Side (1949) as Bill the Bartender
Blondie's Hero (1950) as Marty Greer
Kill the Umpire (1950) as Jimmy O'Brien
Kiss Tomorrow Goodbye (1950) as Byers
Pretty Baby (1950) as Corcoran
Abbott and Costello Meet the Invisible Man (1951) as Detective Roberts
The Lemon Drop Kid (1951) as Gloomy Willie
Rhubarb (1951) as Len Sickles
Rancho Notorious (1952) as Baldy Gunder
I Love Lucy (1953, unreleased feature) as Fred Mertz / Himself
The Dirty Look (1954, Short)
Better Football (1954, Short) as Himself
Safe at Home! (1962) as Bill Turner
Selected television (actor)
I Love Lucy (1951–1957)
The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Show (1957–1960)
The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford(December 5, 1957)
My Three Sons (1960–1965)
The Lucy Show (1965 cameo, one episode)
Broadway credits
Merry, Merry (1925–1926)
Bye, Bye, Bonnie (1927)
She's My Baby (1928)
Here's Howe (1928)
Sons O' Guns (1929–1930)
She Lived Next to the Firehouse (1931)
Tell Her the Truth (1932)
Twentieth Century (1932–1933)
The Ghost Writer (1933)
Discography
Albums
Bill Frawley Sings the Old Ones (1958) Dot DLP-3061
References
External links
1887 births
1966 deaths
American male film actors
American male musical theatre actors
American male television actors
American male silent film actors
Vaudeville performers
Dot Records artists
Male actors from Iowa
People from Burlington, Iowa
Burials at San Fernando Mission Cemetery
20th-century American male actors
Catholics from Iowa
20th-century American singers
20th-century American male singers | [
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259160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20Technology%20College | City Technology College | In England, a City Technology College (CTC) is a state-funded all-ability secondary school that charges no fees but is independent of local authority control, being overseen directly by the Department for Education.
One fifth of the capital costs are met by private business sponsors, who also own or lease the buildings.
The rest of the capital costs, and all running costs, are met by the Department.
City Technology Colleges teach the National Curriculum, but specialise in mainly technology-based subjects such as technology, science and mathematics.
Like maintained schools, they are regularly inspected by the Office for Standards in Education.
CTCs also forge close links with businesses and industry (mainly through their sponsors), and often their governors are directors of local or national businesses that are supporting or have supported the colleges. The programme has been successful in the long term with all the CTCs being considered strong establishments with consistently high academic results.
The CTC programme was established in the late 1980s by the Conservative government under the terms of the Education Reform Act 1988 and the Colleges themselves opened in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The first City Technology College opened was The City Technology College, Kingshurst in 1988, which was later converted to an academy in 2008.
The original intention was to improve education inside cities, but the programme was hampered by the refusal of local authorities in the targeted areas to provide suitable school sites.
Building entirely new schools was much more expensive, requiring a greater contribution from the government, and the resulting schools tended to be on the outskirts of cities.
After the programme was abandoned, the government embarked on the more modest aim of designating some existing schools as Technology Colleges, the first non-CTC specialist schools.
The Learning and Skills Act 2000 introduced a similar type of school, the City Academy, later renamed Academy.
Differences from CTCs include halving the financial commitment of the sponsor, and being bound by the Schools Admissions Code.
The Labour government encouraged CTCs to convert into academies.
In all, 15 City Technology Colleges were created, of which all but three have converted to academies:
See also
Academy (English school)
State-funded schools (England)
University Technical College
References
Secondary schools in England
Public education in the United Kingdom
State schools in the United Kingdom
School types | [
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259162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade%20%28slope%29 | Grade (slope) | The grade (also called slope, incline, gradient, mainfall, pitch or rise) of a physical feature, landform or constructed line refers to the tangent of the angle of that surface to the horizontal. It is a special case of the slope, where zero indicates horizontality. A larger number indicates higher or steeper degree of "tilt". Often slope is calculated as a ratio of "rise" to "run", or as a fraction ("rise over run") in which run is the horizontal distance (not the distance along the slope) and rise is the vertical distance.
Slopes of existing physical features such as canyons and hillsides, stream and river banks and beds are often described as grades, but typically grades are used for human-made surfaces such as roads, landscape grading, roof pitches, railroads, aqueducts, and pedestrian or bicycle routes. The grade may refer to the longitudinal slope or the perpendicular cross slope.
Nomenclature
There are several ways to express slope:
as an angle of inclination to the horizontal. (This is the angle opposite the "rise" side of a triangle with a right angle between vertical rise and horizontal run.)
as a percentage, the formula for which is which is equivalent to the tangent of the angle of inclination times 100. In Europe and the U.S. percentage "grade" is the most commonly used figure for describing slopes.
as a per mille figure (‰), the formula for which is which could also be expressed as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 1000. This is commonly used in Europe to denote the incline of a railway.
as a ratio of one part rise to so many parts run. For example, a slope that has a rise of 5 feet for every 1000 feet of run would have a slope ratio of 1 in 200. (The word "in" is normally used rather than the mathematical ratio notation of "1:200".) This is generally the method used to describe railway grades in Australia and the UK. It is used for roads in Hong Kong, and was used for roads in the UK until the 1970s.
as a ratio of many parts run to one part rise, which is the inverse of the previous expression (depending on the country and the industry standards). For example, "slopes are expressed as ratios such as 4:1. This means that for every 4 units (feet or metres) of horizontal distance there is a 1 unit (foot or metre) vertical change either up or down."
Any of these may be used. Grade is usually expressed as a percentage, but this is easily converted to the angle by taking the inverse tangent of the standard mathematical slope, which is rise / run or the grade / 100. If one looks at red numbers on the chart specifying grade, one can see the quirkiness of using the grade to specify slope; the numbers go from 0 for flat, to 100% at 45 degrees, to infinity as it approaches vertical.
Slope may still be expressed when the horizontal run is not known: the rise can be divided by the hypotenuse (the slope length). This is not the usual way to specify slope; this nonstandard expression follows the sine function rather than the tangent function, so it calls a 45 degree slope a 71 percent grade instead of a 100 percent. But in practice the usual way to calculate slope is to measure the distance along the slope and the vertical rise, and calculate the horizontal run from that, in order to calculate the grade (100% × rise/run) or standard slope (rise/run). When the angle of inclination is small, using the slope length rather than the horizontal displacement (i.e., using the sine of the angle rather than the tangent) makes only an insignificant difference and can then be used as an approximation. Railway gradients are often expressed in terms of the rise in relation to the distance along the track as a practical measure. In cases where the difference between sin and tan is significant, the tangent is used. In either case, the following identity holds for all inclinations up to 90 degrees:
. Or more simply, one can calculate the horizontal run by using the Pythagorean theorem, after which it is trivial to calculate the (standard math) slope or the grade (percentage).
In Europe, road gradients are signed as a percentage.
Equations
Grades are related using the following equations with symbols from the figure at top.
Tangent as a ratio
The slope expressed as a percentage can similarly be determined from the tangent of the angle:
Angle from a tangent gradient
If the tangent is expressed as a percentage, the angle can be determined as:
If the angle is expressed as a ratio (1 in n) then:
Roads
In vehicular engineering, various land-based designs (automobiles, sport utility vehicles, trucks, trains, etc.) are rated for their ability to ascend terrain. Trains typically rate much lower than automobiles. The highest grade a vehicle can ascend while maintaining a particular speed is sometimes termed that vehicle's "gradeability" (or, less often, "grade ability"). The lateral slopes of a highway geometry are sometimes called fills or cuts where these techniques have been used to create them.
In the United States, maximum grade for Federally funded highways is specified in a design table based on terrain and design speeds, with up to 6% generally allowed in mountainous areas and hilly urban areas with exceptions for up to 7% grades on mountainous roads with speed limits below .
The steepest roads in the world are Baldwin Street in Dunedin, New Zealand, Ffordd Pen Llech in Harlech, Wales and Canton Avenue in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The Guinness World Record once again lists Baldwin Street as the steepest street in the world, with a 34.8% grade (1 in 2.87) after a successful appeal against the ruling that handed the title, briefly, to Ffordd Pen Llech. The Pittsburgh Department of Engineering and Construction recorded a grade of 37% (20°) for Canton Avenue. The street has formed part of a bicycle race since 1983.
The San Francisco Municipal Railway operates bus service among the city's hills. The steepest grade for bus operations is 23.1% by the 67-Bernal Heights on Alabama Street between Ripley and Esmeralda Streets.
Environmental design
Grade, pitch, and slope are important components in landscape design, garden design, landscape architecture, and architecture; for engineering and aesthetic design factors. Drainage, slope stability, circulation of people and vehicles, complying with building codes, and design integration are all aspects of slope considerations in environmental design.
Railways
Ruling gradients limit the load that a locomotive can haul, including the weight of the locomotive itself. On a 1% gradient (1 in 100) a locomotive can pull half (or less) of the load that it can pull on level track. (A heavily loaded train rolling at 20 km/h on heavy rail may require ten times the pull on a 1% upgrade that it does on the level at that speed.)
Early railways in the United Kingdom were laid out with very gentle gradients, such as 0.07575% (1 in 1320) and 0.1515% (1 in 660) on the Great Western main line, nicknamed Brunel's Billiard Table, because the early locomotives (and their brakes) were feeble. Steep gradients were concentrated in short sections of lines where it was convenient to employ assistant engines or cable haulage, such as the section from Euston to Camden Town.
Extremely steep gradients require the use of cables (such as the Scenic Railway at Katoomba Scenic World, Australia, with a maximum grade of 122% (52°), claimed to be the world's steepest passenger-carrying funicular) or some kind of rack railway (such as the Pilatus railway in Switzerland, with a maximum grade of 48% (26°), claimed to be the world's steepest rack railway) to help the train ascend or descend.
Gradients can be expressed as an angle, as feet per mile, feet per chain, 1 in , % or per mille. Since designers like round figures, the method of expression can affect the gradients selected.
The steepest railway lines that do not use a rack system include:
13.5% (1 in 7.40) – Lisbon tram, Portugal
11.6% (1 in 8.62) – Pöstlingbergbahn, Linz, Austria
11.0% (1 in 9.09) – Cass Scenic Railway, US (former logging line)
9.0% (1 in 11.11) – Ligne de Saint Gervais – Vallorcine, France
9.0% (1 in 11.11) – Muni Metro J Church, San Francisco, US
8.8% (1 in 11.4) – Iași tram, Romania
8.65% (1 in 11.95) – Portland Streetcar, Oregon, US
8.33%(1 in 12) – Nilgiri Mountain Railway Tamil Nadu, India
8.0% (1 in 12.5) – Just outside the Tobstone Jct. Station in the Tombstone Junction Theme Park, Kentucky, US. The railroad line there had a ruling grade of 6% (1 in 16.7).
7.1% (1 in 14.08) – Erzberg Railway, Austria
7.0% (1 in 14.28) – Bernina Railway, Switzerland
6.5% (1 in 15.4) – Incline from the Causeway Street Tunnel up to the Lechmere Viaduct on the Green Line (MBTA), Boston, Massachusetts, US. This incline is the "steepest grade of tracks in the T system."
6.0% (1 in 16.7) – Arica, Chile to La Paz, Bolivia
6.0% (1 in 16.6) – Docklands Light Railway, London, UK
6.0% (1 in 16.6) – Ferrovia Centrale Umbra, Italy
6.0% (1 in 16.6) - Link Light Rail, Seattle, US
5.89% (1 in 16.97) – Madison, Indiana, US
5.6% (1 in 18) – Flåm Line, Norway
5.3% (1 in 19) – Foxfield Railway, Staffordshire, UK
5.1% (1 in 19.6) – Saluda Grade, North Carolina, US
5.0% (1 in 20) – Khyber Pass Railway, Pakistan
4.5% (1 in 22.2) – The Canadian Pacific Railway's Big Hill, British Columbia, Canada (prior to the construction of the Spiral Tunnels)
4.0% (1 in 25) – Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line, Germany
4.0% (1 in 25) – Bolan Pass Railway, Pakistan
4.0% (1 in 25) – ( per ) – Tarana – Oberon branch, New South Wales, Australia.
4.0% (1 in 25) – Matheran Light Railway, India
4.0% (1 in 26) – Rewanui Incline, New Zealand. Fitted with Fell center rail but was not used for motive power, but only braking
3.6% (1 in 27) – Ecclesbourne Valley Railway, Heritage Line, Wirksworth, Derbyshire, UK
3.6% (1 in 28) – The Westmere Bank, New Zealand has a ruling gradient of 1 in 35, however peaks at 1 in 28
3.33% (1 in 30) – Umgeni Steam Railway, South Africa
3.0% (1 in 33) – several sections of the Main Western line between Valley Heights and Katoomba in the Blue Mountains Australia.
3.0% (1 in 33) – The entire Newmarket Line in central Auckland, New Zealand
3.0% (1 in 33) – Otira Tunnel, New Zealand, which is equipped with extraction fans to reduce chance of overheating and low visibility
3.0% (1 in 33) – The approaches to the George L. Anderson Memorial Bridge crossing the Neponset River, Boston, Massachusetts, US. The Ruling Gradient of the Braintree Branch of the Red Line (MBTA).
2.7% (1 in 37) – Braganza Ghats, Bhor Ghat and Thull ghat sections in Indian Railways, India
2.7% (1 in 37) – Exeter Central to Exeter St Davids, UK (see Exeter Central railway station#Description)
2.7% (1 in 37) – Picton- Elevation, New Zealand
2.65% (1 in 37.7) – Lickey Incline, UK
2.6% (1 in 38) – A slope near Halden on Østfold Line, Norway – Ok for passenger multiple units, but an obstacle for freight trains which must keep their weight down on this international mainline because of the slope. Freight traffic has mainly shifted to road.
2.3% (1 in 43.5) – Schiefe Ebene, Germany
2.2% (1 in 45.5) – The Canadian Pacific Railway's Big Hill, British Columbia, Canada (after the construction of the Spiral Tunnels)
2.0% (1 in 48) – Beasdale Bank (West Coast Scotland mainline), UK
2.0% (1 in 50) – Numerous locations on New Zealand's railway network, New Zealand
1.51% (1 in 66) – ( per ) New South Wales Government Railways, Australia, part of Main South line.
1.25% (1 in 80) – Wellington Bank, Somerset, UK
1.25% (1 in 80) – Rudgwick, UK (West Sussex) platform before regrading – too steep if a train is not provided with continuous brakes.
0.77% (1 in 130) – Rudgwick, UK platform after regrading – not too steep if a train is not provided with continuous brakes.
Compensation for curvature
Gradients on sharp curves are effectively a bit steeper than the same gradient on straight track, so to compensate for this and make the ruling grade uniform throughout, the gradient on those sharp curves should be reduced slightly.
Continuous brakes
In the era before they were provided with continuous brakes, whether air brakes or vacuum brakes, steep gradients made it extremely difficult for trains to stop safely. In those days, for example, an inspector insisted that Rudgwick railway station in West Sussex be regraded. He would not allow it to open until the gradient through the platform was eased from 1 in 80 to 1 in 130.
See also
Aspect (geography)
Civil engineering
Construction surveying
Grading (engineering)
Cut-and-cover
Cut and fill
Cut (earthmoving)
Embankment (transportation)
Grade separation
Inclined plane
List of steepest gradients on adhesion railways.
Percentage
Per mille
Rake
Roof pitch
Ruling gradient
Slope
Slope stability
Slope stability analysis
Surface gradient
Surveying
Trench
Tunnel
Wheelchair ramp
References
External links
Physical geography
Construction
Transportation engineering
Landscape architecture
Horticulture
Environmental design
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259163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth%20E.%20Iverson | Kenneth E. Iverson | Kenneth Eugene Iverson (17 December 1920 – 19 October 2004) was a Canadian computer scientist noted for the development of the programming language APL. He was honored with the Turing Award in 1979 "for his pioneering effort in programming languages and mathematical notation resulting in what the computing field now knows as APL; for his contributions to the implementation of interactive systems, to educational uses of APL, and to programming language theory and practice".
Life
Ken Iverson was born on 17 December 1920 near Camrose, a town in central Alberta, Canada. His parents were farmers who came to Alberta from North Dakota; his ancestors came from Trondheim, Norway.
During World War II, he served first in the Canadian Army and then in the Royal Canadian Air Force. He received a B.A. degree from Queen's University and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from Harvard University. In his career, he worked for Harvard, IBM, I. P. Sharp Associates, and Jsoftware Inc. (née Iverson Software Inc.).
Iverson suffered a stroke while working at the computer on a new J lab on 16 October 2004, and died on 19 October 2004 at the age of 83.
Education
Iverson began school on 1 April 1926 in a one-room school, initially in Grade 1, promoted to Grade 2 after 3 months and to Grade 4 by the end of June 1927.
He left school after Grade 9 because it was the depths of the Great Depression and there was work to do on the family farm, and because he thought further schooling only led to becoming a schoolteacher and he had no desire to become one. At age 17, while still out of school, he enrolled in a correspondence course on radios with De Forest Training in Chicago, and learned calculus by self-study from a textbook.
During World War II, while serving in the Royal Canadian Air Force, he took correspondence courses toward a high school diploma.
After the war, Iverson enrolled in Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, taking advantage of government support for ex-servicemen and under threat from an Air Force buddy who said he would "beat his brains out if he did not grasp the opportunity". He graduated in 1950 as the top student with a Bachelor's degree in mathematics and physics.
Continuing his education at Harvard University, he began in the Department of Mathematics and received a Master's degree in 1951. He then switched to the Department of Engineering and Applied Physics, working with Howard Aiken and Wassily Leontief.
Howard Aiken had developed the Harvard Mark I, one of the first large-scale digital computers, while Wassily Leontief was an economist who was developing the input–output model of economic analysis, work for which he would later receive the Nobel prize. Leontief's model required large matrices and Iverson worked on programs that could evaluate these matrices on the Harvard Mark IV computer. Iverson received a Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics in 1954 with a dissertation based on this work.
At Harvard, Iverson met Eoin Whitney, a 2-time Putnam Fellow and fellow graduate student from Alberta. This had future ramifications.
Work
Harvard (1955–1960)
Iverson stayed on at Harvard as an assistant professor to implement the world's first graduate program in "automatic data processing".
It was in this period that Iverson developed notation for describing and analyzing various topics in data processing, for teaching classes, and for writing (with Brooks) Automatic Data Processing. He was "appalled" to find that conventional mathematical notation failed to fill his needs, and began work on extensions to the notation that were more suitable. In particular, he adopted the matrix algebra used in his thesis work, the systematic use of matrices and higher-dimensional arrays in tensor analysis, and operators in the sense of Heaviside in his treatment of Maxwell's equations, higher-order functions on function argument(s) with a function result. The notation was also field-tested in the business world in 1957 during a 6-month sabbatical spent at McKinsey & Company. The first published paper using the notation was The Description of Finite Sequential Processes, initially Report Number 23 to Bell Labs and later revised and presented at the Fourth London Symposium on Information Theory in August 1960.
Iverson stayed at Harvard for five years but failed to get tenure, because "[he hadn't] published anything but the one little book".
IBM (1960–1980)
Iverson joined IBM Research in 1960 (and doubled his salary). He was preceded to IBM by Fred Brooks, who advised him to "stick to whatever [he] really wanted to do, because management was so starved for ideas that anything not clearly crazy would find support." In particular, he was allowed to finish and publish A Programming Language and (with Brooks) Automatic Data Processing, two books that described and used the notation developed at Harvard. (Automatic Data Processing and A Programming Language began as one book "but the material grew in both magnitude and level until a separation proved wise".)
At IBM, Iverson soon met Adin Falkoff, and they worked together for the next twenty years. Chapter 2 of A Programming Language used Iverson's notation to describe the IBM 7090 computer. In early 1963 Falkoff, later joined by Iverson and Ed Sussenguth, proceeded to use the notation to produce a formal description of the IBM System/360 computer then under design. The result was published in 1964 in a double issue of the IBM Systems Journal, thereafter known as the "grey book" or "grey manual". The book was used in a course on computer systems design at the IBM Systems Research Institute. A consequence of the formal description was that it attracted the interest of bright young minds. One hotbed of interest was at Stanford University which included Larry Breed, Phil Abrams, Roger Moore, Charles Brenner, and Mike Jenkins, all of whom later made contributions to APL. Donald McIntyre, head of geology at Pomona College which had the first general customer installation of a 360 system, used the formal description to become more expert than the IBM systems engineer assigned to Pomona.
With the completion of the formal description Falkoff and Iverson turned their attention to implementation. This work was brought to rapid fruition in 1965 when Larry Breed and Phil Abrams joined the project. They produced a FORTRAN-based implementation on the 7090 called IVSYS (for Iverson system) by autumn 1965, first in batch mode and later, in early 1966, in time-shared interactive mode. Subsequently, Breed, Dick Lathwell (ex University of Alberta), and Roger Moore (of I. P. Sharp Associates) produced the System/360 implementation; the three received the Grace Murray Hopper Award in 1973 "for their work in the design and implementation of APL\360, setting new standards in simplicity, efficiency, reliability and response time for interactive systems." While the 360 implementation work was underway "Iverson notation" was renamed "APL", by Falkoff. The workspace "1 cleanspace" was saved at 1966-11-27 22.53.58 UTC. APL\360 service began within IBM several weeks before that and outside IBM in 1968. Additional information on the implementation of APL\360 can be found in the Acknowledgements of the APL\360 User's Manual and in "Appendix. Chronology of APL development" of The Design of APL.
The formal description and especially the implementation drove the evolution of the language, a process of consolidation and regularization in typography, linearization, syntax, and function definition described in APL\360 History, The Design of APL, and The Evolution of APL. Two treatises from this period, Conventions Governing the Order of Evaluation and Algebra as a Language, are apologias of APL notation.
The notation was used by Falkoff and Iverson to teach various topics at various universities and at the IBM Systems Research Institute. In 1964 Iverson used the notation in a one-semester course for seniors at the Fox Lane High School, and later in Swarthmore High School. After APL became available its first application was to teach formal methods in systems design at NASA Goddard. It was also used at the Hotchkiss School, Lower Canada College, Scotch Plains High School, Atlanta public schools, among others. In one school the students became so eager that they broke into the school after hours to get more APL computer time; in another the APL enthusiasts steered newbies to BASIC so as to maximize their own APL time.
In 1969, Iverson and the APL group inaugurated the IBM Philadelphia Scientific Center. In 1970 he was named IBM Fellow. He used the funding that came with being an IBM Fellow to bring in visiting teachers and professors from various fields, including Donald McIntyre from Pomona and Jeff Shallit as a summer student. For a period of several months the visitors would start using APL for expositions in their own fields, and the hope was that later they would continue their use of APL at their home institutions. Iverson's work at this time centered in several disciplines, including collaborative projects in circuit theory, genetics, geology, and calculus. When the PSC closed in 1974, some of the group transferred to California while others including Iverson remained in the East, later transferring back to IBM Research. Iverson received the Turing Award in 1979.
The following table lists the publications which Iverson authored or co-authored while he was at IBM. They reflect the two main strands of his work.
Education
Automatic Data Processing
Elementary Functions: An Algorithmic Treatment
The Use of APL in Teaching
Using the Computer to Compute
Algebra: An Algorithmic Treatment
APL in Exposition
An Introduction to APL for Scientists and Engineers
Introducing APL to Teachers
Elementary Analysis
Programming Style in APL
Language design & implementation
A Programming Language
A Programming Language
A Common Language for Hardware, Software, and Applications
Programming Notation in System Design
Formalism in Programming Languages
A Method of Syntax Specification
A Formal Description of System/360
APL\360 User's Manual
Communication in APL Systems
The Design of APL
APL as an Analytic Notation
APLSV User's Manual
APL Language
Two Combinatoric Operators
The Evolution of APL
Operators and Functions
The Role of Operators in APL
The Derivative Operator
Operators
Notation as a Tool of Thought
I. P. Sharp Associates (1980–1987)
In 1980, Iverson left IBM for I. P. Sharp Associates, an APL time-sharing company. He was preceded there by his IBM colleagues Paul Berry, Joey Tuttle, Dick Lathwell, and Eugene McDonnell. At IPSA, the APL language and systems group was managed by Eric Iverson (Ken Iverson's son); Roger Moore, one of the APL\360 implementers, was a vice president.
Iverson worked to develop and extend APL on the lines presented in Operators and Functions. The language work gained impetus in 1981 when Arthur Whitney and Iverson produced a model of APL written in APL at the same time they were working on IPSA's OAG database. (Iverson introduced Arthur Whitney, son of Eoin Whitney, to APL when he was 11-years-old and in 1974 recommended him for a summer student position at IPSA Calgary.) In the model, the APL syntax was driven by an 11-by-5 table. Whitney also invented the rank operator in the process. The language design was further simplified and extended in Rationalized APL in January 1983, multiple editions of A Dictionary of the APL Language between 1984 and 1987, and A Dictionary of APL in September 1987. Within IPSA, the phrase "dictionary APL" came into use to denote the APL specified by A Dictionary of APL, itself referred to as "the dictionary". In the dictionary, APL syntax is controlled by a 9-by-6 table and the parsing process was precisely and succinctly described in Table 2, and there is a primitive (monadic ⊥, modeled in APL) for word formation (lexing).
In the 1970s and 1980s, the main APL vendors were IBM, STSC, and IPSA, and all three were active in developing and extending the language. IBM had APL2, based on the work of Jim Brown. Work on APL2 proceeded intermittently for 15 years, with actual coding starting in 1971 and APL2 becoming available as an IUP (Installed User Program, an IBM product classification) in 1982. STSC had an experimental APL system called NARS, designed and implemented by Bob Smith. NARS and APL2 differed in fundamental respects from dictionary APL, and differed from each other.
I.P. Sharp implemented the new APL ideas in stages: complex numbers, enclosed (boxed) arrays, match, and composition operators in 1981, the determinant operator in 1982, and the rank operator, link, and the left and right identity functions in 1983. However, the domains of operators were still restricted to the primitive functions or subsets thereof. In 1986, IPSA developed SAX, SHARP APL/Unix, written in C and based on an implementation by STSC. The language was as specified in the dictionary with no restrictions on the domains of operators. An alpha version of SAX became available within I.P. Sharp around December 1986 or early 1987.
In education, Iverson developed A SHARP APL Minicourse used to teach IPSA clients in the use of APL, and Applied Mathematics for Programmers and Mathematics and Programming which were used in computer science courses at T.H. Twente.
Publications which Iverson authored or co-authored while he was at I. P. Sharp Associates:
Education
The Inductive Method of Introducing APL
A SHARP APL Minicourse
Applied Mathematics for Programmers
Mathematics and Programming
Language design & implementation
Operators and Enclosed Arrays
Direct Definition
Composition and Enclosure
A Function Definition Operator
Determinant-Like Functions Produced by the Dot-Operator
Practical Uses of a Model of APL
Rationalized APL
APL Syntax and Semantics
Language Extensions of May 1983
An Operator Calculus
APL87
A Dictionary of APL
Processing Natural Language: Syntactic and Semantic Mechanisms
Jsoftware (1990–2004)
Iverson retired from I. P. Sharp Associates in 1987. He kept busy while "between jobs". Regarding language design, the most significant of his activities in this period was the invention of "fork" in 1988. For years, he had struggled to find a way to write f+g as in calculus, from the "scalar operators" in 1978, through the "til" operator in 1982, the catenation and reshape operators in 1984, the union and intersection operators in 1987, "yoke" in 1988, and finally forks in 1988. Forks are defined as follows:
Moreover, (f g p q r) ←→ (f g (p q r)). Thus to write f+g as in calculus, one can write f+g in APL. Iverson and Eugene McDonnell worked out the details on the long plane rides to the APL88 conference in Sydney, Australia, with Iverson coming up with the initial idea on waking up from a nap.
Iverson presented the rationale for his work post 1987 as follows:
Roger Hui described the final impetus that got J started in Appendix A of An Implementation of J:
Hui, a classmate of Whitney at the University of Alberta, had studied A Dictionary of the APL Language when he was between jobs, modelled the parsing process in at least two different ways, and investigated uses of dictionary APL in diverse applications. As well, from January 1987 to August 1989 he had access to SAX, and in the later part of that period used it on a daily basis.
J initially took A Dictionary of APL as the specification, and the J interpreter was built around Table 2 of the dictionary. The C data and program structures were designed so that the parse table in C corresponded directly to the parse table in the dictionary. In retrospect, Iverson's APL87 paper APL87, in five pages, prescribed all the essential steps in writing an APL interpreter, in particular the sections on word formation and parsing. Arthur Whitney, in addition to the "one-page thing", contributed to J development by suggesting that primitives be oriented on the leading axis, that agreement (a generalization of scalar extension) should be prefix instead of suffix, and that a total array ordering be defined.
One of the objectives was to implement fork. This turned out to be rather straightforward, by the inclusion of one additional row in the parse table. The choice to implement forks was fortuitous and fortunate. It was realized only later that forks made tacit expressions (operator expressions) complete in the following sense: any sentence involving one or two arguments that did not use its arguments as an operand, can be written tacitly with fork, compose, the left and right identity functions, and constant functions.
Two obvious differences between J and other APL dialects are: (a) its use of terms from natural languages instead of from mathematics or computer science (the practice began with A Dictionary of APL): noun, verb, adverbs, alphabet, word formation, sentence, ... instead of array, function, operator, character set, lexing, expression, ... ; and (b) its use of 7-bit ASCII characters instead of special symbols. Other differences between J and APL are described in J for the APL Programmer and APL and J.
The J source code is available from Jsoftware under the GNU General Public License version 3 (GPL3), or a commercial alternative.
Eric Iverson founded Iverson Software Inc., in February 1990 to provide an improved SHARP APL/PC product. It quickly became obvious that there were shared interests and goals, and in May 1990 Iverson and Hui joined Iverson Software Inc.; later joined by Chris Burke. The company soon became J only. The name was changed to Jsoftware Inc., in April 2000.
Publications which Iverson authored or co-authored while he was at Iverson Software Inc. and Jsoftware Inc.:
Education
Tangible Math
Programming in J
Arithmetic
Calculus
Concrete Math Companion
Exploring Math
J Phrases
ICFP '98 Contest Winners
Math for the Layman
Language design & implementation
A Commentary on APL Development
Phrasal Forms
APL/?
Tacit Definition
A Personal View of APL
J Introduction and Dictionary
Revisiting Rough Spots
Computers and Mathematical Notation
Mathematical Roots of J
APL in the New Millennium
Awards and honors
IBM Fellow, IBM, 1970
Harry H. Goode Memorial Award, IEEE Computer Society, 1975
Member, National Academy of Engineering (USA), 1979
Turing Award, Association for Computing Machinery, 1979
Computer Pioneer Award (Charter recipient), IEEE Computer Society, 1982
Honorary doctorate, York University, 1998
See also
Iverson Award
Iverson bracket
Floor and ceiling functions
List of pioneers in computer science
References
External links
A Celebration of the Life of Kenneth Eugene Iverson
Collected Eulogies
Iverson Examprogramming competition at the University of Alberta for high school students
Ken Iverson Quotations and Anecdotesillustrations of what Iverson was like as a person, what he was like to work with, the milieu in which he studied and worked, his outlook on life, his sense of humor, etc.
APL Quotations and Anecdotessketches of Iverson, his colleagues, and his intellectual descendants
1920 births
2004 deaths
Canadian Army personnel
Canadian computer scientists
Canadian people of Norwegian descent
Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences alumni
Harvard University faculty
IBM employees
IBM Fellows
IBM Research computer scientists
I. P. Sharp Associates employees
McKinsey & Company people
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
People from Camrose, Alberta
Programming language designers
Queen's University at Kingston alumni
Royal Canadian Air Force personnel
Turing Award laureates
Canadian expatriates in the United States | [
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259165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRW%20Inc. | TRW Inc. | TRW Inc., was an American corporation involved in a variety of businesses, mainly aerospace, automotive, and credit reporting. It was a pioneer in multiple fields including electronic components, integrated circuits, computers, software and systems engineering. TRW built many spacecraft, including Pioneer 1, Pioneer 10, and several space-based observatories. It was #57 on the 1986 Fortune 500 list, and had 122,258 employees. The company was called Thompson Ramo Wooldridge Inc., after the 1958 merger of the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation and Thompson Products. This was later shortened to TRW.
The company was founded in 1901 and lasted for just over a century until being acquired by Northrop Grumman in 2002. It spawned a variety of corporations, including Pacific Semiconductors, The Aerospace Corporation, Bunker-Ramo and Experian. Its automotive businesses were sold off by Northrop Grumman as TRW Automotive, which is now part of ZF Friedrichshafen. TRW veterans were instrumental in the founding of corporations like SpaceX.
In 1953, the company was recruited to lead the development of the United States' first ICBM. Starting with the initial design by Convair, the multi-corporate team launched Atlas in 1957. It flew its full range in 1958 and was then adapted to fly the Mercury astronauts into orbit. TRW also led development of the Titan missile, which was later adapted to fly the Gemini missions. The company served the U.S. Air Force as systems engineers on all subsequent ICBM development efforts but TRW never produced any missile hardware because of the conflict of interest. In 1960, Congress spurred the formation of the non-profit Aerospace Corporation to provide systems engineering support to the U.S. government but TRW continued to guide the ICBM efforts.
History
TRW originated in 1901 with the Cleveland Cap Screw Company, founded by David Kurtz and four other Cleveland residents. Their initial products were bolts with heads electrically welded to the shafts. In 1904, a welder named Charles E. Thompson adapted their process to making automobile engine valves and by 1915, the company was the largest valve producer in the United States. Charles Thompson was named general manager of the company, which became Thompson Products in 1926. Their experimental hollow sodium-cooled valves aided Charles Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic.
In 1937, Thompson Motor Products bought J.A. Drake and Sons (JADSON). The company made high-performance valves that were used in many racing engines of the day, including the Miller Offy. Dale Drake (son of J.A. Drake) bought the Offy engine design with his partner Louis Meyer in 1946 and won the Indianapolis 500 twenty-seven times, more than any other engine design.
During the period leading up to World War II, through the end of the Korean war, Thompson Products was a key manufacturer of component parts for aircraft engines, including cylinder valves. The TAPCO plant, owned by the U.S. government but operated by Thompson Products, extended for almost a mile along Cleveland's Euclid Avenue. It employed over 16,000 workers at the peak of WW II production. As jet aircraft replaced piston-engined aircraft, Thompson Products became a major manufacturer of turbine blades for jet engines
In 1950, Simon Ramo and Dean Wooldridge while working for Hughes Aircraft, led the development of the Falcon radar-guided missile, among other projects. They grew frustrated with Howard Hughes' management, and formed the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation in September 1953, with the financial support of Thompson Products. The detonation of a thermonuclear bomb by the Soviet Union spurred Trevor Gardner to form the Teapot Committee in October 1953. Chaired by John von Neumann, its purpose was to study the development of ballistic missiles, including ICBMs. Ramo and Wooldridge were committee members, and Ramo-Wooldridge Corp. became the lead contractor of the resulting ICBM development effort, reporting to the United States Air Force.
With continued backing from Thompson Products, Ramo-Wooldridge diversified into computers and electronic components, founding Pacific Semiconductors in 1954. They also produced scientific spacecraft such as Pioneer 1. Thompson Products and Ramo-Wooldridge merged in October 1958 to form Thompson Ramo Wooldridge Inc., unofficially known as "TRW". In February 1959, Jimmy Doolittle became chairman of the board of Space Technology Laboratories (STL), the division which continued to support the Air Force ICBM efforts.
Other aerospace companies believed TRW's Air Force advisory role granted it unfair access to their technologies and in September 1959, Congress issued a report recommending that STL be converted to a non-profit organization. With nearly half of STL's employees, The Aerospace Corporation was formed in June 1960. It headed the Atlas conversion for Mercury, Titan conversion for Gemini, and provided ongoing systems engineering support for the government. The Air Force continued its ICBM work with TRW.
Dean Wooldridge retired in January 1962 to become a professor at California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Simon Ramo became president of the Bunker-Ramo Corporation in January 1964, jointly owned by TRW and Martin Marietta for the production of computers and monitors. Thompson Ramo Wooldridge officially became TRW Inc. in July 1965. Free of anti-competitive restrictions short of ICBM hardware, STL was renamed TRW Systems Group that same month. In 1968, the company entered the credit reporting industry by purchasing Credit Data Corporation and renaming it TRW Information Systems and Services Inc. The Credit Data group was formed in 1970 to compete with Dun & Bradstreet, from the combination of TRWISS and ESL Incorporated to specialize in technical strategic reconnaissance. TRW Information Systems and Services Division (Credit Data) was spun off in 1996 to form Experian. TRW acquired LucasVarity in 1999, then selling Lucas Diesel Systems to Delphi Automotive and Lucas Aerospace (then called TRW Aeronautical Systems) to Goodrich Corporation.
The company was 57th on the Fortune 500 list of highest revenue American companies in 1986 and had 122,258 employees in 2000. It operated in 25 countries.
On 3 February 1986, the TRW plant in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, burned to the ground in an eight-alarm fire. The damage was estimated to be greater than US$10 million and was the most serious fire to date in the area.
In February 2002, Northrop Grumman launched a US$5.9 billion hostile bid for TRW. Northrop Grumman, BAE Systems, and General Dynamics contended for the company with Northrop's increased bid of US$7.8 billion ultimately being accepted on July 1, 2002. Soon afterward, the automotive assets of LucasVarity and TRW's own automotive group were sold to The Blackstone Group as TRW Automotive.
Much of TRW's Lyndhurst campus is now home to the Cleveland Clinic Wellness Center.
Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft, says that he got "his first big break" at age fifteen, debugging energy-grid control software for TRW. "It was kind of scary", Gates said, realizing the things the program was going to help operate. "This thing needs to work".
Aerospace
TRW Inc. was active in the development of missile systems and spacecraft, notably, the early development of the U.S. ICBM program under the leadership of the Teapot Committee led by John von Neumann. TRW pioneered systems engineering, creating the ubiquitous N2 chart and the modern functional flow block diagram. It served as the primary source of systems engineering for the United States Air Force ballistic missile programs.
Space exploration
Space Technology Laboratories (STL), then a division of Ramo-Wooldridge Corp., designed and produced the identical payloads for Pioneer 0, Pioneer 1 and Pioneer 2. These were intended to orbit and photograph the Moon, but launch vehicle problems prevented this. NASA launched Pioneer 1 as its first spacecraft on 11 October 1958. It set a distance record from Earth, and provided data on the extent of Earth's radiation belts.
Pioneer 10 and 11 were nearly identical spacecraft, designed and fabricated by TRW Systems Group. They were optimized for ruggedness since they were the first man-made objects to pass through the asteroid belt and Jupiter's radiation belt. Simplicity, redundancy, and use of proven components were essential. As NASA's first all-atomic powered spacecraft, these used plutonium-238 units developed by Teledyne Isotopes. Pioneer 10 carried eleven instruments and Pioneer 11 carried twelve for investigating Jupiter and Saturn, respectively. Data was transmitted back to Earth at 8 watts, 128 bytes/s at Jupiter, and 1 byte/s from further out. Pioneer 10 was the first man-made object to pass the planetary orbits and its last telemetry was received in 2002, thirty years after launch.
TRW Systems Group designed and built the instrument package which performed the Martian biological experiments, searching for life aboard the two Viking Landers launched in 1975. The system performed four experiments on Martian soil using a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) and a combined biological instrument.
Space-based observatories
TRW designed and built the following space observatories:
HEAO 1, 2, and 3, with HEAO 2 being the Einstein Observatory, the first fully imaging X-ray telescope put into space
Compton Gamma Ray Observatory which is the second of four among NASA's Great Observatories program
Chandra X-ray Observatory is the third of NASA's Great Observatories
The teams developing the following observatories continued their work as part of Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems:
SIM Lite space telescope which would have searched for Earth-sized planets in the habitable zones around nearby stars (project canceled)
James Webb Space Telescope which will be the successor to the Hubble Space Telescope
Satellites
TRW Systems Group designed and manufactured the Vela series of nuclear detection satellites which monitored the 1963 establishment of the nuclear Partial Test Ban Treaty. Subsequently, they produced the Advanced Vela series, first launched in 1967, which could detect nuclear air bursts using instruments actually called bhangmeters. It had the first dual-spin attitude control system with the total system momentum controlled to zero. The Vela and Advanced Vela satellites were the first to alert astronomers to the presence of gamma-ray bursts. They also reported a mysterious apparent nuclear test now called the Vela incident.
First launched in 1970, the company built all twenty-three reconnaissance satellites in the Defense Support Program (DSP), which are the principal components of the Satellite Early Warning System currently used by the United States. These are operated by the Air Force Space Command, and they detect missile or spacecraft launches and nuclear explosions using sensors that detect the infrared emissions from these intense sources of heat. During Desert Storm, for example, DSP satellites were able to detect the launches of Iraqi Scud missiles and provide timely warnings to civilians and military forces in Israel and Saudi Arabia.
The initial seven Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) were built by TRW to improve communication coverage for the Space Shuttle, International Space Station (ISS), and U.S. military satellites. When first launched in 1983, the TDRS satellites were the largest, most sophisticated communications satellites built at the time. The seventh vehicle in the series was ordered as a replacement when TDRS-B was lost in the Challenger accident.
Launched in 2002, TRW produced the Aqua spacecraft based on their modular standardized satellite bus. A joint project of the U.S. Global Change Research Program (NASA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and National Institute for Space Research (INPE), Brazil, Aqua delivers 750 Gigabytes per day detailing the Earth's water cycle in the oceans, lakes, atmosphere, polar ice caps, and vegetation.
Rocket engines
TRW designed and built the descent engine or (LMDE) for the Apollo lunar lander. Due to the need for a soft landing on the Moon, it was the first throttleable engine for crewed space flight. This, and the requirements for high thrust, low weight, and crushability (in case of landing on a large rock), earned surprising praise from NASA's history pages, considering the complexity of the lunar missions: "The lunar module descent engine probably was the biggest challenge and the most outstanding technical development of Apollo". This engine was used on Apollo 13 to achieve free return trajectory and make a minor course correction after damage to the Service Module.
After the Apollo program moon landings, the LMDE was further developed into the TRW TR-201 engine. This engine was used in the second stage Delta-P of the Delta launch vehicle for 77 launches between 1972–1988.
Defense
At the turn of 1964-65, the United States started the ambitious Bushmaster program to create small-caliber assault guns for arming promising infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) of the American Army. The result of this program was the creation of a whole series of automatic cannons with an external automatic drive in caliber from 25 to 40 mm, which received their own general name Bushmaster. But that will be much later. At the time of the mid-60s, the Americans were still in the search for solutions to the implementation of the problem of obtaining a light, rapid-fire and compact system.
At the early stage of American research, TRW was one of the companies involved in the development of automatic guns of the Bushmaster program, where, under the leadership of engineer Eugene Stoner, the author of the famous M16 rifle, a 25 mm automatic cannon was developed under the internal designation TRW model 6425, an ordinary system with automatic gas venting and locking the barrel with a rotary bolt is enough.
The TRW-6425 design was later bought from Oerlikon-Bührle, it was improved and manufactured as the Oerlikon KBA 25 mm.
Semiconductors and computers
The Ramo-Wooldridge Corp formed Pacific Semiconductors in June 1954, under the leadership of Harper North who had been head of electronics R+D at Hughes Aircraft Company. The funding for this endeavor from Thompson Products was about ten times their initial investment in Ramo-Wooldridge. The original goal was to produce the recently invented transistor for commercial sales.
In 1957, Howard Sachar and Sanford "Sandy" Barnes invented the Varicap electronic component (also known as the varactor diode) at Pacific Semiconductors. This device reduced the physical size of radio tuners and eliminated the need for moving mechanical parts. This simplified the implementation of remote control TV tuners. Sachar and Barnes were awarded an Emmy in 2007.
The company manufactured the RW-300 for sales in 1959, one of the first "all-transistor" computers with a power supply that used vacuum tubes. The computer was targeted at industrial control applications, with 1024 analog inputs multiplexed to a 1.9K sample/s 10-bit analog-to-digital converter which was transparent to the programmer. It weighed about . The real-time operating system was written by John Neblett, and was the intellectual precursor of the RSX-11 operating system for the PDP-11.
The TRW-130 computer was introduced in 1961, and designated the AN/UYK-1 by the U.S. Navy as part of its pre-GPS TRANSIT (NAVSAT) satellite-based location system. It used Doppler shifts to compute a location in about 15 minutes, and had rounded corners to allow installation in submarines.
The Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) logic gate, which was the electronics industry standard for two decades, was invented by TRW's James L. Buie in 1961.
In 1965, engineers Don Nelson and Dick Pick at TRW developed the Generalized Information Retrieval Language and System, for use by the U.S. Army to control the inventory of Cheyenne helicopter parts. This developed into the Pick Database Management System which is still in use as of 2016.
TRW LSI Products, Inc. was a wholly owned subsidiary formed to commercialize the integrated circuit technology the company had developed in support of its aerospace business. They produced some of the first commercially available digital signal processing ICs including the TDC1008 multiplier-accumulator. They also made the first 8-bit flash ADC IC, the TDC1007, resulting in an Emmy Award for analog/digital video conversion technology. TRW also pioneered gallium arsenide (GaAs) chip applications for local multipoint distribution service (LMDS) systems, radios, and satellite communications.
Music
Bel Canto Stereophonic Recordings, a TRW subsidiary, was a record label active from the mid-1950s to the early 1960s.
In the media
Christopher John Boyce was a TRW employee convicted of selling security secrets to the Soviet Union via the Soviet embassy in Mexico City in the mid-1970s. Boyce and his accomplice, Andrew Daulton Lee, were the subjects of the best-selling 1979 Robert Lindsey book The Falcon and the Snowman, and the 1985 film of the same title.
Representatives from Space Technology Laboratories (STL) present their ICBM expertise to Don and Pete in Mad Men season 2 episode "The Jet Set".
The Star Trek: The Original Series season 1 episode "Operation: Annihilate!" (13 April 1967) was filmed on the campus-like TRW grounds in Redondo Beach, California. The two sets of stairs shown are those leading to the Cafeteria of Building S.
The TRW building is supposedly one of the credit company buildings demolished in the 1999 film Fight Club. This is because at the time the book was written, TRW was in the business of credit reporting. However, there is no TRW building in Delaware, where the demolition purportedly happens.
Awards
1974 - Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Award to TRW Systems Group with NASA Ames Research Center for Pioneer 10
1978 - Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Award for HEAO Program
1988-1989 - Emmy Award for analog/digital video conversion technology to TRW LSI Products
1990 - Goddard Award for Quality and Productivity to Space and Technology Group
1992 - Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Award to Space and Technology Group with NASA for Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
1997 - TRW Systems Integration Group receives an award for the successful development, deployment and operation of one of the nation's most vital space systems
2001 - Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Award to TRW Systems Group with NASA Marshall Space Flight Center for Chandra X-ray Observatory
2004 - Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Award to Northrop Grumman (formerly TRW) Space Technology Sector with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for TDRSS
2007 - Emmy Award for Varicap to Sycom (formerly Pacific Semiconductors)
See also
References
External links
Northrop Grumman.com: TRW Heritage webpage
Astronautix.com: TRW webpage
TRW Automotive website
TRW Conekt Automotive Research, Test and Development website
Defunct engineering companies of the United States
Defunct technology companies of the United States
Conglomerate companies of the United States
Auto parts suppliers of the United States
Avionics companies
Credit rating agencies
Electronics companies of the United States
Rocket engine manufacturers of the United States
Spacecraft manufacturers
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct semiconductor companies of the United States
Defunct companies based in Cleveland
Defunct companies based in Greater Los Angeles
American companies established in 1901
Manufacturing companies established in 1901
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 2002
Technology companies disestablished in 2002
1901 establishments in Indiana
2002 disestablishments in Indiana
Manufacturing companies based in Indiana
Manufacturing companies based in Los Angeles
Superfund sites in California
Technology companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Northrop Grumman
2002 mergers and acquisitions
American companies disestablished in 2002 | [
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259169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRW | TRW | TRW may refer to:
TRW Inc., former US aerospace and automotive company, purchased by Northrop Grumman
TRW Automotive, spun off from TRW Inc., later ZF TRW Automotive Holdings Corp.
The Real World (TV series), an American reality television show
TRW Information Systems, later Experian
IATA airport code for Bonriki International Airport of South Tarawa, Kiribati | [
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259172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethel%20%28CDP%29%2C%20Connecticut | Bethel (CDP), Connecticut | Bethel is a census-designated place (CDP) in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. It comprises the primary village and surrounding residential land within the town of Bethel. As of the 2010 census, the population of the CDP was 9,549, out of 18,584 in the entire town.
Geography
The Bethel CDP is in the western part of the town of Bethel, and is bordered to the west by the city of Danbury. The CDP extends north to East Swamp Brook and east to Wolf Pit Brook. The southern border of the CDP follows (from east to west) parts of Putnam Park Road, Hoyts Hill, Governors Lane, Whippoorwill Road, Winthrop Road, Spring Hill Lane, Whippoorwill Road again, Chestnut Ridge Road, Nashville Road Exd, Nashville Road, Turkey Plain Road, Grassy Plain Street, 2nd Lane, Francis J Clarke Circle and an unnamed brook back to the Danbury border.
Connecticut Route 53 passes through the west side of the community, leading north into downtown Danbury and south to Weston. Connecticut Route 302 runs east-west through the center of town, following Greenwood Avenue and part of Milwaukee Avenue. It continues east to Newtown. Connecticut Route 58 has its northern terminus at Route 302 in the eastern part of the CDP, and leads southeast to Fairfield at the Bridgeport border.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the Bethel CDP has an area of , all of it recorded as land. Brooks in the community flow north to the Still River in Danbury, a north-flowing tributary of the Housatonic River.
Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 9,549 people, 3,903 households, and 2,451 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 2,335 inhabitants per square mile (901.4/km²). There were 4,168 housing units, of which 265, or 6.4%, were vacant. The racial makeup of the CDP was 84.8% White, 2.6% African American, 0.1% Native American or Alaska Native, 5.8% Asian, 4.4% some other race, and 2.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.4% of the population.
Of the 3,903 households in the community, 32.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.4% were headed by married couples living together, 11.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.2% were non-families. 31.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.2% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44, and the average family size was 3.09.
22.4% of the CDP population were under the age of 18, 7.8% were from 18 to 24, 28.9% were from 25 to 44, 29.5% were from 45 to 64, and 11.7% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.6 males.
For the period 2013-17, the estimated median annual income for a household in the CDP was $76,636, and the median income for a family was $100,938. Per capita income was $41,813. Male full-time workers had a median income of $52,050 versus $31,458 for females. About 1.9% of families and 2.9% of the population were living below the poverty line, including 2.3% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 and over.
References
Bethel, Connecticut
Villages in Fairfield County, Connecticut
Census-designated places in Fairfield County, Connecticut | [
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259176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridgefield%20%28CDP%29%2C%20Connecticut | Ridgefield (CDP), Connecticut | Ridgefield is a census-designated place (CDP) in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. It consists of the primary central village in the town of Ridgefield and surrounding residential areas. As of the 2010 census, the population of the CDP was 7,645, out of 24,638 in the entire town.
Geography
The CDP is in the southern part of the town of Ridgefield and extends south to the border with the town of Wilton. To the east the CDP border follows Nod Road, Branchville Road, Cooper Hill Road, Harvey Road, Ridgewood Road, Florida Hill Road, and Ridgefield Brook. The northern boundary of the CDP follows Copps Hill Road, Maple Shade Road, Saw Mill Hill Road, Mulberry Street, Ramapoo Road, and a short section of Barry Avenue. To the west the CDP boundary follows Peaceable Ridge Road, Peaceable Hill Road, Peaceable Street, Golf Lane, and Silver Spring Road.
Connecticut Route 33 is Ridgefield's Main Street and continues south through the CDP as Wilton Road, leading to Wilton Center and to Westport. Connecticut Route 35 leads west from the southern part of the town center to the New York state border and continues west another as New York State Route 35 to Katonah, New York. CT 35 also leads north to U.S. Route 7 near the southern border of Danbury. Connecticut Route 102 (Branchville Road) leads east from Main Street to US 7 at Branchville. Connecticut Route 116 (North Salem Road) leads northwest from the north end of Main Street in Ridgefield to the New York border and continues further as NY 116 to the center of North Salem, New York.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the Ridgefield CDP has an area of , of which , or 0.11%, are water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 7,645 people, 3,046 households, and 2,018 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,195 inhabitants per square mile (461.5/km²). There were 3,321 housing units, of which 275, or 8.3%, were vacant. The racial makeup of the CDP was 93.6% White, 1.0% African American, 0.1% Native American or Alaska Native, 3.0% Asian, 0.03% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 0.8% some other race, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.2% of the population.
Of the 3,046 households in the community, 36.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.8% were headed by married couples living together, 7.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.7% were non-families. 30.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.0% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51, and the average family size was 3.17.
27.8% of the CDP population were under the age of 18, 4.3% were from 18 to 24, 20.5% were from 25 to 44, 31.7% were from 45 to 64, and 15.4% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.0 males.
For the period 2013-17, the estimated median annual income for a household in the CDP was $125,595, and the median income for a family was $165,333. The per capita income was $74,017. Male full-time workers had a median income of $112,273 versus $40,132 for females. About 0.9% of families and 2.5% of the population were living below the poverty line, including 2.9% of those under age 18 and 4.0% of those age 65 and over.
References
Ridgefield, Connecticut
Villages in Fairfield County, Connecticut
Census-designated places in Fairfield County, Connecticut | [
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259182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Milford%20%28CDP%29%2C%20Connecticut | New Milford (CDP), Connecticut | New Milford is a census-designated place (CDP) in Litchfield County, Connecticut, United States. It comprises the main population center within the town of New Milford. As of the 2010 census, the population of New Milford was 6,523, out of 28,142 in the entire town of New Milford.
Geography
The New Milford CDP is in the center of the town of New Milford, in the valley of the Housatonic River. The western edge of the CDP follows the Housatonic and a tributary, the East Aspetuck River. The CDP extends north to Paper Mill Road and south to Hine Hill Road, while the eastern edge of the CDP follows Prospect Hill Road (Connecticut Route 67), Mallett Lane, Heacock Crossbrook Road, and Park Lane Road (U.S. Route 202) north to Paper Mill Road.
U.S. Route 202 passes through the center of the community, leading northeast to Litchfield and south to Danbury. Route 67 leads southeast out of Milford to Roxbury.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the New Milford CDP has a total area of , of which , or 0.79%, are water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 6,523 people, 2,818 households, and 1,563 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,927 inhabitants per square mile (744.0/km²). There were 3,120 housing units, of which 302, or 9.7%, were vacant. The racial makeup of the CDP was 88.7% White, 2.6% African American, 0.4% Native American, 3.1% Asian, 0.03% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 3.1% some other race, and 2.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.6% of the population.
Of the 2,818 households in the community, 28.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.3% were headed by married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.5% were non-families. 35.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.1% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28, and the average family size was 3.02.
21.2% of the CDP population were under the age of 18, 7.6% were from 18 to 24, 29.5% were from 25 to 44, 28.1% were from 45 to 64, and 13.7% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.8 males.
For the period 2013-17, the estimated median income for a household in the CDP was $57,768, and the median income for a family was $72,786. The per capita income for the CDP was $30,798. 8.6% of families and 11.0% of the total population were living below the poverty line, including 15.6% of people under 18 and 7.5% of those over 64.
References
New Milford, Connecticut
Villages in Litchfield County, Connecticut
Census-designated places in Litchfield County, Connecticut | [
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259184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton%20%28CDP%29%2C%20Connecticut | Clinton (CDP), Connecticut | Clinton is a census-designated place (CDP) comprising the primary village in the town of Clinton, Middlesex County, Connecticut, United States. It is in the southwest corner of the town, bordered to the west, across the Hammonasset River, by the town of Madison in New Haven County, to the north by Interstate 95, and to the south by Clinton Harbor, an inlet of Long Island Sound. As of the 2010 census, the CDP had a population of 3,368, out of 13,260 in the entire town of Clinton.
The Clinton Village Historic District occupies at the center of the village.
References
Census-designated places in Middlesex County, Connecticut
Census-designated places in Connecticut | [
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259186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham%20%28CDP%29%2C%20Connecticut | Durham (CDP), Connecticut | Durham is a census-designated place (CDP) comprising the primary village and surrounding development in the town of Durham, Middlesex County, Connecticut, United States. It is in the central and northeastern portions of the town, bordered to the north by the town of Middlefield and the city of Middletown. As of the 2010 census, the CDP had a population of 2,933, out of 7,388 in the entire town of Durham.
The Main Street Historic District occupies at the center of the community.
References
Census-designated places in Middlesex County, Connecticut
Census-designated places in Connecticut | [
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259188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Hampton%20%28CDP%29%2C%20Connecticut | East Hampton (CDP), Connecticut | East Hampton is a census-designated place (CDP) comprising the primary village and adjacent residential and rural land in the town of East Hampton, Middlesex County, Connecticut, United States. It is in the central and eastern portions of the town, bordered to the north by the East Hampton community of Lake Pocotopaug and to the east by the town of Colchester in New London County and the town of Marlborough in Hartford County. As of the 2010 census, the CDP had a population of 2,691, out of 12,959 in the entire town of East Hampton.
References
Census-designated places in Middlesex County, Connecticut
Census-designated places in Connecticut | [
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259190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland%20%28CDP%29%2C%20Connecticut | Portland (CDP), Connecticut | Portland is a census-designated place (CDP) comprising the primary village and adjacent residential land in the town of Portland, Middlesex County, Connecticut, United States. It is in the southwest part of the town, bordered to the west and south by the Connecticut River, which forms the border with Cromwell to the west and Middletown to the south. The Portland CDP extends north along Main Street (Connecticut Route 17A) to its junction with Gospel Lane (Connecticut Route 17) at Fogelmarks Corners, and the eastern extent of the CDP is at Rose Hill Road and Collins Hill Road. The CDP includes the neighborhood of Gildersleeve in the north.
As of the 2010 census, the CDP had a population of 5,862, out of 9,508 in the entire town of Portland.
References
Census-designated places in Middlesex County, Connecticut
Census-designated places in Connecticut | [
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259206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder%20Lake%20%28CDP%29%2C%20Illinois | Wonder Lake (CDP), Illinois | Wonder Lake is a former census-designated place (CDP) in McHenry County, Illinois, United States. The population was 7,463 at the 2000 census. The CDP has been annexed by the village of Wonder Lake.
Geography
Wonder Lake is located at (42.384504, -88.349505).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 7.2 square miles (18.7 km2), of which, 6.2 square miles (16.2 km2) of it is land and 1.0 square miles (2.5 km2) of it (13.45%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 7,463 people, 2,674 households, and 1,986 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,194.6 people per square mile (461.0/km2). There were 2,997 housing units at an average density of 479.7/sq mi (185.1/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 96.22% White, 0.28% Black or African American, 0.21% Native American, 0.59% Asian, 1.38% from other races, and 1.31% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.09% of the population.
There were 2,674 households, out of which 40.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.6% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.7% were non-families. 19.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.79 and the average family size was 3.23.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 29.0% under the age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 35.1% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 8.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.8 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $51,698, and the median income for a family was $56,705. Males had a median income of $38,984 versus $26,597 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $21,352. About 0.8% of families and 3.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.2% of those under age 18 and 4.2% of those age 65 or over.
References
Former census-designated places in Illinois
Neighborhoods in Illinois
Populated places in McHenry County, Illinois
Chicago metropolitan area | [
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259217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houlton%20%28CDP%29%2C%20Maine | Houlton (CDP), Maine | Houlton is a census-designated place (CDP) comprising the main village within the town of Houlton in Aroostook County, Maine, United States. The population of the CDP was 4,856 at the 2010 census, out of a population of 6,123 for the entire town. Houlton is the county seat of Aroostook County. The northern terminus of Interstate 95 and eastern terminus of U.S. Route 2 are just east of the CDP at the Canada–United States border.
Geography
The Houlton CDP is located near the center of the town of Houlton, along the Meduxnekeag River. U.S. Route 1 and U.S. Route 2 intersect at the center of the CDP, and Interstate 95 passes along the northern edge, with access at Exit 302 (Route 1). It is north along Route 1 to Presque Isle, southwest along I-95 to Bangor, southeast along Route 1 to Calais and east along I-95 and New Brunswick Route 95 to Woodstock, New Brunswick.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , all land.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 5,270 people, 2,203 households, and 1,310 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 687.3 people per square mile (265.3/km2). There were 2,472 housing units at an average density of 124.4 persons/km2 (322.4 persons/sq mi). The racial makeup of the CDP was 95.48% White, 0.34% African American, 2.81% Native American, 0.53% Asian, 0.09% Pacific Islander, 0.11% from other races, and 0.63% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.49% of the population.
There were 2,203 households, out of which 28.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.0% were married couples living together, 11.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.5% were non-families. 36.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.92.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 23.1% under the age of 18, 7.4% from 18 to 24, 25.1% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 22.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.1 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $25,162, and the median income for a family was $33,864. Males had a median income of $27,534 versus $21,778 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $13,875. About 1.31% of families and 17.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.3% of those under the age of 18 and 16.0% ages 65 or older.
References
Census-designated places in Maine
Census-designated places in Aroostook County, Maine | [
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259218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houlton%2C%20Maine | Houlton, Maine | Houlton is a town in Aroostook County, Maine, on the Canada–US border, located at . As of the 2020 census, the town's population was 6,055. It is perhaps best known for being at the northern terminus of Interstate 95 and as the birthplace of Samantha Smith, a goodwill ambassador as a child during the Cold War. The town hosts the annual Houlton Agricultural Fair.
Houlton is the county seat of Aroostook County, and as such its nickname is the "Shire Town". The Houlton High School sports teams are named "The Shiretowners". The Meduxnekeag River flows through the heart of the town, and the border with the Canadian province of New Brunswick is east of the town's center. Houlton was the home of Ricker College, which closed in 1978.
The primary settlement and center of the town is designated as a CDP with the same name. The headquarters of the federally recognized Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians is based here.
History
The area was occupied for thousands of years by varying cultures of indigenous peoples. In historic times, these were the Algonquian-speaking Maliseet people. When Maine was part of Massachusetts, parcels of land were dealt out to schools and colleges. The area that was to become Houlton was deeded to the Academy of New Salem, Massachusetts. Thirteen men from New Salem bought the land from the Academy though only three settled there.
Decades after the American Revolutionary War, Anglo-American pioneers Aaron Putnam and Joseph Houlton started a village. They named it for Houlton, who had moved to Maine in 1807 from the more populated part of Massachusetts. Maine separated from Massachusetts in 1820 and became an independent state.
In 1828 the United States government established Hancock Barracks, a military post, in the area. Houlton officially incorporated as a town in 1831. When the Aroostook War flared in 1839 over the border with Canada, three companies of the 1st Artillery Regiment manned Hancock Barracks under Major R. M. Kirby. Major Kirby helped to restrain the twelve companies of militia that Maine sent there from starting a shooting war. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty settled the boundary dispute in 1842, and the Army abandoned Hancock Barracks in 1847.
The U.S. Army installed its first transatlantic Radio Intelligence Station 1.5 miles east of the town center of Houlton, Maine, during World War I. The Houlton Radio Intelligence Station intercepted German diplomatic communications, primarily from its Nauen Transmitter Station. MI-8 created the Radio Intelligence Service, using selected Signal Corps personnel for the sole purpose of supporting strategic intelligence through radio intercepts during World War I. The United States intelligence services built Houlton as the first unit of its type, and its success helped to lay the foundation for many more United States long-range radio-intercept stations.
On January 7, 1927, AT&T initiated the first transatlantic commercial telephone service, linking New York and London. The AT&T Transoceanic Receiver Station was located at the end of Hand Lane, , two miles west of the town center. The massive receiving antenna, over three miles long and two miles wide, straddled what is now Interstate 95 in Maine four miles west of the center of Houlton. The receiver station worked with the large long-wave transmitting facility of AT&T located at RCA in Rocky Point, New York. The receiver station received the longwave telephone signal from the British General Post Office Rugby transmitting station near Rugby, England. The Rugby Radio Station ceased operations in 2007. On its site is a new large scale housing development, also called Houlton.
The US Army established Houlton Army Air Base in 1941 immediately adjacent to the Canada–US border. Prior to the United States' entry into World War II, American army pilots flew planes to the base. They could not fly the planes directly into Canada, a member of the British Commonwealth, because that would violate the official United States position of neutrality. Local farmers used their tractors to tow the planes into Canada, where the Canadians closed the Woodstock highway so that aircraft could use it as a runway.
A Royal New Zealand Air Force pilot, officer George Newall Harrison, died on December 5, 1942, when he crashed 500 yards south of the runway while ferrying a Hudson Bomber to Britain. Survivors buried his body in the Evergreen Cemetery plot for veterans. Few other New Zealand casualties from World War II were buried in the United States of America. His 19-year-old radio operator, Sergeant Henry Bordewick, also died and was buried there; he was from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The American Legion post in Houlton maintains both these Commonwealth War Graves.
Houlton Army Air Base closed in July 1944. In 1944, the Army adapted a major part of the Houlton Army Air Base for use as prisoner of war internment in Camp Houlton. At its peak, the internment camp held 3,700 German prisoners of war. Forcing prisoners of war to work violated the Geneva Convention; however, they could volunteer to work. Camp Houlton provided laborers for local farms to harvest peas, pick potatoes, and do other labor. For security reasons, the government did not allow every prisoner of war to work on the farms. Most prisoners selected to work did not want to harm their captors or cause trouble. Many farmers came to consider the prisoners of war who worked their fields as good laborers rather than enemy soldiers. They paid the prisoners $1/day in scrip, which the prisoners could spend at the post exchange, the base store, to buy toiletries, tobacco, chocolate, or beer. After the prisoners repatriated, the Army closed Camp Houlton in 1946. The site was redeveloped as Houlton International Airport.
Geography and climate
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Houlton is drained by the Meduxnekeag River.
Interstate 95 has its northernmost two exits in Houlton. The Houlton/Woodstock Border Crossing, located to the east of downtown Houlton, marks the northern terminus of Interstate 95. The town is also crossed by U.S. Route 1 and U.S. Route 2, which have a brief concurrency in the center of town.
Typically for Maine, Houlton has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with warm summers and cold, snowy winters comparable to Fargo or St. Petersburg. The coldest month between 1971 and 2000 was January 1994 with a mean temperature of , though data from nearby stations suggest the Januaries of 1920 and 1925 were equally cold. Snow depth typically reaches in February, and has been as high as at the close of January 1998. Temperature extremes range from -41 °F (-41 °C) on January 4, 1981, up to 99 °F (37° C) on August 2, 1975.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 6,123 people, 2,556 households, and 1,563 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 2,822 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 91.0% White, 0.7% African American, 5.8% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.4% from other races, and 1.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.1% of the population.
There were 2,556 households, of which 30.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.2% were married couples living together, 13.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.8% were non-families. 33.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.87.
The median age in the town was 43.2 years. 22.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.9% were from 25 to 44; 27.6% were from 45 to 64; and 19.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 46.4% male and 53.6% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 6,476 people, 2,677 households, and 1,654 families residing in the town. The population density was 176.2 people per square mile (68.0/km2). There were 2,994 housing units at an average density of 31.5 persons/km2 (81.5 persons/sq mi). The racial makeup of the town was 94.19% White, 0.29% African American, 4.23% Native American, 0.48% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.09% from other races, and 0.63% from two or more races. 0.43% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 1,677 households, out of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.4% were married couples living together, 11.0% have a woman whose husband does not live with her, and 38.2% were non-families. 34.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.94.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 23.7% under the age of 18, 7.1% from 18 to 24, 26.0% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 21.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.4 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $26,212, and the median income for a family was $34,812. Males had a median income of $27,623 versus $20,991 for females. The per capita income for the town was $14,007. 17.7% of the population and 13.5% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 21.0% are under the age of 18 and 15.8% are 65 or older.
Sites of interest
Amazeen House, built in 1882 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places
Aroostook County Courthouse and Jail
Aroostook County Historical & Art Museum
Blackhawk Putnam Tavern
Cary Library
Edward L. Cleveland House
Unitarian Church of Houlton
Walter P. Mansur House
Notable people
Ralph Botting, pitcher for the California Angels
Michael E. Carpenter, Maine Attorney General and state legislator
Shepard Cary, US congressman
Marcus Davis, mixed martial arts fighter with the Ultimate Fighting Championship
William Dufris, original voice of Bob the Builder in North America
Ira G. Hersey, US congressman
Stan Hindman, defensive lineman for the San Francisco 49ers
Debra Lee Hovey, Connecticut State Representative
Jean E. Howard, George Delacorte Professor of the Humanities at Columbia University
Colonel Frank M. Hume, commanding officer of the 103rd Infantry, 26th Division during World War I
Happy Iott, Major League Baseball outfielder
Natalie Kalmus, influence Technicolor engineer
Alton Kelley, psychedelic poster artist
Lester D. Mallory, diplomat
Henry Clay Merriam (1837–1912), Civil War-era general, awarded the Medal of Honor
Bern Porter (1911-2004), artist, writer, and scientist
Samantha Smith (1972-1985), child peace activist
Danny Wilde (musician), guitarist, singer, and founding member of pop group The Rembrandts.
Eliza Tupper Wilkes (1844-1917), Unitarian Universalist minister, suffragist
References
External links
Town of Houlton, Maine
Greater Houlton Chamber of Commerce
Historical photographs of Houlton at the Maine Historical Society's Maine Memory Network
County seats in Maine
Populated places established in 1807
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259228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunswick%2C%20Maine | Brunswick, Maine | Brunswick is a town in Cumberland County, Maine, United States. The population was 21,756 at the 2020 United States Census. Part of the Portland-South Portland-Biddeford metropolitan area, Brunswick is home to Bowdoin College, the Bowdoin International Music Festival, the Bowdoin College Museum of Art, the Peary-MacMillan Arctic Museum, and the Maine State Music Theatre. It was formerly home to the U.S. Naval Air Station Brunswick, which was permanently closed on May 31, 2011, and has since been partially released to redevelopment as "Brunswick Landing".
History
Settled in 1628 by Thomas Purchase and other fishermen, the area was called by its Indian name, Pejepscot, meaning "the long, rocky rapids part [of the river]". In 1639, Purchase placed his settlement under protection of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. During King Philip's War in 1676, Pejepscot was burned and abandoned, although a garrison called Fort Andros was built on the ruins during King William's War. During the war, in Major Benjamin Church's second expedition a year later, he arrived on 11 September 1690 with 300 men at Casco Bay. He went up the Androscoggin River to the English Fort Pejepscot (present day Brunswick, Maine). From there he went up-river and attacked a native village. Three or four native men were shot in retreat; when Church discovered five English captives in the wigwams, six or seven prisoners were butchered as an example; and nine prisoners were taken. A few days later, in retaliation, the natives attacked Church at Cape Elizabeth on Purpooduc Point, killing seven of his men and wounding 24 others. On September 26, Church returned to Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
The 1713 Treaty of Portsmouth brought peace to the region between the Abenaki Indians and the English colonists.
In 1714, a consortium from Boston and Portsmouth bought the land, thereafter called the Pejepscot Purchase. The Massachusetts General Court constituted the township in 1717, naming it "Brunswick" in honor of the House of Brunswick and its scion, King George I. A stone fort called Fort George was built in 1715 near the falls. But during Dummer's War on July 13, 1722, Abenaki warriors from Norridgewock burned the village. Consequently, Governor Samuel Shute declared war on the Abenakis. In 1724, 208 English troops left Fort Richmond and sacked Norridgewock during Dummer's War. Brunswick was rebuilt again in 1727, and in 1739 incorporated as a town. It became a prosperous seaport, where Bowdoin College was chartered in 1794.
The Androscoggin River falls in three successive stages for a total vertical drop of , providing water power for industry. Brunswick became a major producer of lumber, with as many as 25 sawmills. Some of the lumber went into shipbuilding. Other firms produced paper, soap, flour, marble and granite work, carriages and harness, plows, furniture, shoes and confections. The town was site of the first cotton mill in Maine, the Brunswick Cotton Manufactory Company, built in 1809 to make yarn. Purchased in 1812, the mill was enlarged by the Maine Cotton & Woolen Factory Company. In 1857, the Cabot Manufacturing Company was established to make cotton textiles. It bought the failed Worumbo Mill and expanded the brick factory along the falls. Needing even more room, the company in 1890 persuaded the town to move Maine Street.
Today, Brunswick has a number of historic districts recognized on the National Register of Historic Places, including the Pennellville Historic District preserving shipbuilders' and sea captains' mansions built in the Federal, Greek Revival and Italianate architectural styles. Principal employers for Brunswick include L.L. Bean, Bath Iron Works, as well as companies that produce fiberglass construction material and electrical switches. A number of health services providers serving Maine's mid-coast area are located in Brunswick. The former Naval Air Station Brunswick was a major employer in Brunswick prior to its closure.
In popular culture
The book Uncle Tom's Cabin was written by Harriet Beecher Stowe while she was living in Brunswick, during the time that her husband was a professor at Bowdoin. She got a key vision for the book in the First Parish Church.
A scene in the 1993 movie The Man Without a Face was filmed in the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Brunswick is located at the north end of Casco Bay, as well as the head of tide and head of navigation on the Androscoggin River.
Climate
Neighboring cities and towns
Demographics
As of 2000, the median income for a household in the town was $40,402; and the median income for a family was $49,088. Males had a median income of $32,141 versus $24,927 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,322. About 5.0% of families and 8.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.6% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 15,175 people, 7,183 households, and 6,498 families residing in the census-designated place of Brunswick. The population density was . There were 9,599 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 93.0% White, 1.7% African American, 0.3% Native American, 2.1% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.9% of the population.
There were 8,469 households, of which 25.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them; 44.7% were married couples living together; 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present; 3.3% had a male householder with no wife present; and 42.3% were non-families. 35.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.83.
The median age in the town was 41.4 years. 19.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 14.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20.8% were from 25 to 44; 27.6% were from 45 to 64; and 18.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 47.1% male and 52.9% female.
Education
The Brunswick School Department operates public schools, including:
Brunswick High School
Brunswick Junior High School
Kate Furbish Elementary School
Harriet Beecher Stowe Elementary School
REAL School
Region 10 Technical High School
Other educational institutions include:
Children's School of Arts & Science
Saint John's Catholic School
Bowdoin College
Southern Maine Community College Midcoast Campus
Sites of interest
Androscoggin Pedestrian Swinging Bridge
Bowdoin College Museum of Art
Pejepscot Historical Society
Pejepscot Museum
Joshua L. Chamberlain Museum
Skolfield-Whittier House
Infrastructure
Transportation
The town is served by Interstate 295, U.S. Routes 1 and 201, and Maine State Route 24, Maine State Route 123 and Maine State Route 196.
Amtrak's Downeaster train service terminates at Brunswick Maine Street Station and connects the town to the Portland Transportation Center and Boston's North Station.
Metro Greater Portland Transit District provides several trips a day between the Portland Transportation Center and Brunswick Maine Street Station with its Breez bus service.
Notable people
John Stevens Cabot Abbott, clergyman and author
Dale Arnold, sportscaster, co-host of the WEEI-FM Dale & Holley (with Keefe) Show and the Boston Bruins pre and postgame shows on NESN, resided in Brunswick
Josh Casaubon, actor
Fanny Chamberlain, wife of Joshua Chamberlain
Joshua Chamberlain, Civil War era general and 32nd governor of Maine
Walter Christie, author
Robert P. T. Coffin, poet
Alexander Cornell du Houx, state legislator
Scott Cowger, state legislator
Elizabeth W. Crandall, environmental and women's rights activist
Robert P. Dunlap, congressman, 11th governor of Maine
Charles Carroll Everett, theologian
Stanley Gerzofsky, state legislator
John Gould, reporter, columnist
Frederic Aldin Hall, professor, school chancellor
Joshua Herrick, congressman
Graeme K., musician
Angus King, US Senator, 72nd governor of Maine
Lady Lamb, musician
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, poet
Cynthia Lord, children's author
Stump Merrill, baseball player
Karen Mills, Administrator for Small Business Administration, cabinet-level position
Ralph Mims, basketball player
Benjamin Orr, congressman
Alpheus Spring Packard, professor
George Palmer Putnam, publisher
Luke Rathborne, musician
John Rankin Rogers, third Governor of the state of Washington
Mark Rogers, pitcher for the Milwaukee Brewers
Patricia E. Ryan, human rights advocate and women's rights lobbyist
Arthur A. Small, Iowa state legislator and lawyer
Harriet Beecher Stowe, abolitionist, author
Brigadier Samuel Thompson, Revolutionary War soldier
Dan Walters, baseball player and police officer
Robert Zildjian, founder of Sabian cymbals
References
Further reading
History of the Town Commons, Brunswick, Maine
History of Brunswick, Topsham, and Harpswell, Maine Including Ancient Pejebscot. By George Augustus Wheeler and Henry Warren Wheeler. Published 1878. Full image at books.google.
External links
Town of Brunswick official website
Curtis Memorial Library
New Meadows Watershed Partnership
Gallery
Populated places established in 1628
Portland metropolitan area, Maine
Towns in Cumberland County, Maine
1628 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Towns in Maine
Populated coastal places in Maine | [
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