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258643	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration%20%28Mormonism%29	Restoration (Mormonism)	In Latter-day Saint belief, the restoration refers to a return of the authentic priesthood power, spiritual gifts, ordinances, living prophets and revelation of the primitive Church of Christ after a long period of apostasy. While in some contexts the term may also refer to the early history of Mormonism, in other contexts the term is used in a way to include the time that has elapsed from the church's earliest beginnings until the present day. Especially in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) "the restoration" is often used also as a term to encompass the corpus of religious messages from its general leaders down to the present. The restoration is associated with a number of events that occurred which are understood to have been necessary to re-establish the early Christian church found in the New Testament, and to prepare the earth for the Second Coming of Jesus. In particular, Latter Day Saints believe that angels appeared to Joseph Smith and others and bestowed various priesthood authorities on them. Apostasy According to the Church, the Great Apostasy in Christianity began not long after the ascension of Jesus Christ. It was marked with the corruption of Christian doctrine by Greek and other philosophies, with followers dividing into different ideological groups, and the martyrdom of the apostles which led to a loss of priesthood authority to administer the church and its ordinances. With all priesthood authorities either martyred, taken from the earth, or teaching impure doctrines, there was a break in apostolic succession, and what remained was a mere fragment of the church established by Jesus. The Christian believers who survived the persecutions took it upon themselves to speak for God, interpret, amend or add to his doctrines and ordinances, and carry out his work without proper authority and divine direction from God. During this time, important doctrines and rites were lost or corrupted. Latter-day Saints specifically reject the early ecumenical councils for what they see as misguided human attempts to decide matters of doctrine without divine assistance, substituting debate and politics for divine revelation. Latter-day Saints have said that various Old Testament and New Testament scriptures, including teachings of Christ himself, prophesy of this "falling away" or "apostasy." Thus, Latter-day Saints refer to the "restitution of all things" mentioned in and claim that a restoration of all the original and primary doctrines and rites of Christianity was necessary. Adherents believe that important historical events such as the Protestant Reformation and the establishment of the United States Constitution, which explicitly allows for freedom of religion in its First Amendment, were necessary antecedents to the restoration. Scholars today view the Latter Day Saint movement as emerging from the spiritual fervor of the restorationism movements spawned by the Second Great Awakening. Restoration of the Gospel Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement who was responsible for organizing the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, originally prayed about which church to join. In a vision in 1820 near Palmyra, New York, two personages (generally believed to be God the Father and Jesus Christ) instructed him not to join any churches, for "all their creeds were an abomination." Smith described another vision in 1823 as being visited in his bedroom by an "angel Moroni", who told him of a record of an ancient people written in an ancient language on golden plates. After repeated visits by this angel in successive years, Smith described receiving and translating this ancient record and publishing the translation as the Book of Mormon. The Book of Mormon provided many teachings about the atonement of Christ that were not as clear in the Bible, as also teachings about the House of Israel and the baptismal covenant. When Smith prayed in May 1829 about the need for baptism, he and Oliver Cowdery were visited by the resurrected John the Baptist, who by the laying on of hands gave them priesthood authority to baptize. Coinciding with the restoration of the priesthood, Mormons believe that Smith received many revelations, visions, and visitations of heavenly messengers to instruct him in order to enable him to fulfill his responsibilities in propounding doctrine and re-establishing ordinances and temple covenants. These instructions came to Smith often in response to specific questions he asked in prayer. The majority of this history is recorded in one of the standard works, the Doctrine and Covenants. Additional details and background of the church in Smith's era is presented in the Church's seven volume History of the Church. In regard to the restoration of priesthood authority, Smith dictated the following passage found in Doctrine and Covenants 128:20–21: In reflecting upon the responsibilities of teaching the constant revelations he received, Smith stated: Personages who appeared to Joseph Smith As part of the process of the restoration, Joseph Smith stated that a number of personages appeared to him to deliver messages, priesthood authority, or other instruction from God. These personages appeared either as resurrected beings or as translated beings. According to H. Donl Peterson, the following 50 personages appeared to Smith: Significance and impact of the Restoration According to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, all priesthood keys necessary to administer Jesus' church were given to Joseph Smith, who re-organized that church, which will continue in perpetuity. Hence, members refer to their church as "The Church of Jesus Christ." The term "Latter-day Saints" refers to the fact that members of early Christianity were originally called "saints", and the church reestablished by Smith is believed to be Christ's church in the last days prior to the second coming of Jesus. Members of the church do not use the term to indicate they are better than others in any way, but rather that they are striving to follow Jesus Christ in their personal daily walks of life. Members of the Church believe that the restored church of Jesus Christ is the "only true and living church upon the face of the Earth" because of the divine authority restored through Joseph Smith. They believe that the Church is the restoration of Jesus' original church, has the authentic priesthood authority, and all doctrines and ordinances of the gospel, fulfilling many of the prophecies of Daniel, Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Malachi in the Old Testament and also the prophesies of Peter, Jesus, and John the Revelator in the New Testament. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints maintain that other religions have a portion of the truth, mingled with inaccuracies. They also maintain that many other religions advance many good causes and do much good among the people insofar as they are led by the light of Christ, "which lighteth every man that cometh into the world" (John 1:9). The Church of Jesus Christ maintains an international humanitarian program and strives to "do good unto all men" (Galatians 6:10). The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ, which faithful members of the Church believe is one of the keystones of their religion, and are encouraged to read alongside with the Bible, teaches that "all men are alike unto God" and that "When ye are in the service of your fellow beings ye are only in the service of your God (Mosiah 2:17)". Missionaries of the Church challenge all people everywhere to read the book for themselves, and pray to God to know if it is true. They believe that the validity of the Book of Mormon is interconnected with the validity of the Church: if the Book of Mormon is true, then the Church is true, and all people everywhere should seek this knowledge for themselves (Moroni 10:3-5). Members of the Church believe that after one gains a knowledge of the truthfulness of the book of Mormon, one should be baptized a member of the Church to follow the example that Jesus Christ has sent. See also Mormonism and Christianity The Restoration of the Fulness of the Gospel of Jesus Christ References Further reading Barker, Margaret (1987; Revised Ed, 2005). The Older Testament: The Survival of Themes from the Ancient Royal Cult in Sectarian Judaism and Early Christianity. London: SPCK; Sheffield Phoenix Press. Barker, Margaret (1991; Revised Ed, 2008). The Gate of Heaven: The History and Symbolism of the Temple in Jerusalem. London: SPCK; Sheffield Phoenix Press. Barker, Margaret (1992). The Great Angel: A Study of Israel's Second God. London: SPCK; Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press. Barker, Margaret (2003). The Great High Priest: The Temple Roots of Christian Liturgy. London & New York: T&T Clark/Continuum. Barker, Margaret (2004). Temple Theology: An Introduction. London: SPCK. Barker, Margaret (2005). 'Joseph Smith and Preexilic Israelite Religion.' Provo, UT: BYU Studies 44:4 (Dec 2005). Barker, Margaret (2007). The Hidden Tradition of the Kingdom of God. London: SPCK. Barker, Margaret (2008). Temple Themes in Christian Worship. London: T&T Clark. Barker, Margaret & Gary N. Anderson, et al (2012). Mormonism and the Temple: Examining an Ancient Religious Tradition. Academy for Temple Studies Conference, 29 Oct 2012. Logan, UT: Utah State University. Barker, James L. (1951, Three volumes; Revised Ed, 1984). Apostasy from the Divine Church. Salt Lake City: Deseret News Press; Bookcraft. Barkun, Michael. (1986). Crucible of the Millennium: The Burned-over District of New York in the 1840s. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Barlow, Philip L. (1991). Mormons and the Bible: The Place of the Latter-day Saints in American Religion. New York: Oxford University Press. Bickmore, Barry R. (1999; Revised Ed, 2013). Restoring the Ancient Church: Joseph Smith and Early Christianity. Redding, CA: FairMormon. Brown, Matthew B. (2009). A Pillar of Light: The History and Message of the First Vision. American Fork, UT: Covenant Communications. Brown, Matthew B. (2000). All Things Restored: Evidences and Witnesses of the Restoration. American Fork, UT: Covenant Communications. Brown, Matthew B. (1999). The Gate of Heaven: Insights on the Doctrines and Symbols of the Temple. American Fork, UT: Covenant Communications. Brown, Matthew B. (1997). Symbols in Stone: Symbolism on the Early Temples of the Restoration. American Fork, UT: Covenant Communications. Bushman, Richard L. (2005). Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling. New York: Knopf. Butler, Jon. (1990). Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Callister, Tad R. (2006). The Inevitable Apostasy and the Promised Restoration. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book. Christensen, Kevin. (2013). 'Prophets and Kings in Lehi’s Jerusalem and Margaret Barker’s Temple Theology.' Provo, UT: Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture 4:177-193. Hansen, Klaus J. (1981). Mormonism and American Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Harper, Steven C. & Andrew H. Hedges, eds. (2004). Prelude to the Restoration: From Apostasy to the Restored Church. 2004 Sidney B. Sperry Symposium. Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University & Deseret Book. Hatch, Nathan O. (1989). The Democratization of American Christianity. New Haven: Yale University Press. Hatch, Nathan O. & Noll, Mark A. (1982). The Bible in America: Essays in Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press. Huchel, Frederick M. (2009). 'Antecedents of the Restoration in the Ancient Temple: Margaret Barker's Temple Themes in Christian Worship.' Provo, UT: FARMS Review 21:1. Hughes, Richard T., ed. (1988). The American Quest for the Primitive Church. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Jackson, Kent P. (1996). From Apostasy to Restoration. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book. Jackson, Kent P., ed. (2011). The King James Bible and the Restoration. Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University & Deseret Book. MacKay, Michael H. (2016). Sacred Space: Exploring the Birthplace of Mormonism. Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University & Deseret Book. Marsh, W. Jeffrey, ed. (2005). Joseph Smith and the Doctrinal Restoration. Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University & Deseret Book. Millet, Robert L. (2016). Precept upon Precept: Joseph Smith and the Restoration of Doctrine. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book. Morrison, Alexander B. (2005). Turning from Truth: A New Look at the Great Apostasy. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book. Nibley, Hugh W. (2001). When the Lights Went Out: Three Studies on the Ancient Apostasy. Provo, UT: Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, Brigham Young University & Deseret Book. Nibley, Hugh W. (1954; 1987). The World and the Prophets (The Collected Works of Hugh Nibley, Volume 3). Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS) & Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, Brigham Young University & Deseret Book. Nibley, Hugh W. (1987). Mormonism and Early Christianity (The Collected Works of Hugh Nibley, Volume 4). Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS) & Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, Brigham Young University & Deseret Book. Nibley, Hugh W. (2004). Apostles and Bishops in Early Christianity (The Collected Works of Hugh Nibley, Volume 15). Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS) & Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, Brigham Young University & Deseret Book. Noll, Mark A. & Luke E. Harlow, eds. (1990; Second Ed, 2007). Religion and American Politics: From the Colonial Period to the Present. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Noll, Mark A. (1992). A History of Christianity in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Ostler, Craig J., ed. (2016). Foundations of the Restoration: Fulfillment of the Covenant Purposes. 2016 Sidney B. Sperry Symposium. Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University & Deseret Book. Petersen, Scott R. (2005). Where Have all the Prophets Gone? Revelation and Rebellion in the Old Testament and the Christian World. Springville, UT: Cedar Fort, Inc. Reynolds, Noel B., eds. (2005). Early Christians in Disarray: Contemporary LDS Perspectives on the Great Apostasy. Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS) & Brigham Young University Press. Roberts, B. H. (1893). Outlines of Ecclesiastical History. Salt Lake City: George Q. Cannon & Sons. Sandeen, Ernest R. (2008) [1970]. The Roots of Fundamentalism: British and American Millenarianism, 1800-1930. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Talmage, James E. (1909). The Great Apostasy: Considered in the Light of Scriptural and Secular History. Salt Lake City: Deseret News. Underwood, Grant (1999) [1993]. The Millenarian World of Early Mormonism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Welch, John W., ed. (2006). The Worlds of Joseph Smith: A Bicentennial Conference at the Library of Congress. Provo, UT: BYU Studies & Brigham Young University Press. 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258647	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipater	Antipater	Antipater (; ; c. 400 BC319 BC) was a Macedonian general and statesman under kings Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, and father of King Cassander. In 320 BC, he became regent of all of Alexander the Great's Empire but died the next year; he had named an officer named Polyperchon as his successor instead of his son Cassander, and a two-year-long power struggle ensued. Career under Philip and Alexander Nothing is known of his early career until 342 BC, when he was appointed by Philip to govern Macedon as his regent while the former left for three years of hard and successful campaigning against Thracian and Scythian tribes, which extended Macedonian rule as far as the Hellespont. In 342 BC, when the Athenians tried to assume control of the Euboean towns and expel the pro-Macedonian rulers, he sent Macedonian troops to stop them. In the autumn of the same year, Antipater went to Delphi, as Philip's representative in the Amphictyonic League, a religious organization to which Macedon had been admitted in 346 BC. After the triumphal Macedonian victory at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, Antipater was sent as ambassador to Athens (337–336 BC) to negotiate a peace treaty and return the bones of the Athenians who had fallen in the battle. He started as a great friend to both the young Alexander and the boy's mother, Olympias, and aided Alexander in the struggle to secure his succession after Philip's death, in 336 BC. He joined Parmenion in advising Alexander the Great not to set out on his Asiatic expedition until he had provided by marriage for the succession to the throne. On the king's departure in 334 BC, he was left regent in Macedonia and made "general (strategos) of Europe", positions he held until 323 BC. The European front was to prove initially quite agitated, and Antipater also had to send reinforcements to the king, as he did while the king was at Gordium in the winter of 334–333 BC. The Persian fleet under Memnon of Rhodes and Pharnabazus was apparently a considerable danger for Antipater, bringing war in the Aegean sea and threatening war in Europe. Luckily for the regent, Memnon died during the siege of Mytilene on the isle of Lesbos and the remaining fleet dispersed in 333 BC, after Alexander's victory at the Battle of Issus. More dangerous enemies were nearer home; tribes in Thrace rebelled in 332 BC, led by Memnon of Thrace, the Macedonian governor of the region, followed shortly by the revolt of Agis III, king of Sparta. The Spartans, who were not members of the League of Corinth and had not participated in Alexander's expedition, saw in the Asian campaign the long-awaited chance to take back control over the Peloponnese after the disastrous defeats at the Battle of Leuctra and Battle of Mantinea. The Persians generously funded Sparta's ambitions, making possible the formation of an army 20,000 strong. After assuming virtual control of Crete, Agis tried to build an anti-Macedonian front. While Athens remained neutral, the Achaeans, Arcadians and Elis became his allies, with the important exception of Megalopolis, the staunchly anti-Spartan capital of Arcadia. In 331 BC Agis started to besiege the city with his entire army, forcing Antipater to act. So to not have two enemies simultaneously, Antipater pardoned Memnon and even let him keep his office in Thrace, while great sums of money were sent to him by Alexander. This helped to create, with Thessalian help and many mercenaries, a force double that of Agis, which Antipater in person led south in 330 BC to confront the Spartans. In the spring of that year, the two armies clashed near Megalopolis. Agis fell with many of his best soldiers, but not without inflicting heavy losses on the Macedonians. Utterly defeated, the Spartans sued for peace; the latter's answer was to negotiate directly with the League of Corinth, but the Spartan emissaries preferred to treat directly with Alexander, who imposed on Sparta's allies a penalty of 120 talents and the entrance of Sparta in the league. Alexander appears to have been quite jealous of Antipater's victory; according to Plutarch, the king wrote in a letter to his viceroy: "It seems, my friends that while we have been conquering Darius here, there has been a battle of mice in Arcadia". Antipater was disliked for supporting oligarchs and tyrants in Greece, but he also worked with the League of Corinth, built by Philip. In addition, his previously close relationship with the ambitious Olympias greatly deteriorated. Whether from jealousy or from the necessity of guarding against the evil consequences of the dissension between Olympias and Antipater, in 324 BC, Alexander ordered the latter to lead fresh troops into Asia, while Craterus, in charge of discharged veterans returning home, was appointed to take over the regency in Macedon. When Alexander suddenly died in Babylon in 323 BC however, Antipater was able to forestall the transfer of power. Some later historians, such as Justin in his Historia Philippicae et Totius Mundi Origines et Terrae Situs blamed Antipater for the death of Alexander, accusing him of murdering him through poison. However, this view is disputed by most historians and Alexander is believed to have died of natural causes. Role in The Lamian and First Diadochi Wars The new regent, Perdiccas, left Antipater in control of Greece. Antipater faced wars with Athens, Aetolia, and Thessaly that made up the Lamian War, in which southern Greeks attempted to re-assert their political autonomy. At the onset of this struggle, the Greeks held an apparently decisive numerical advantage, fielding an army of some 25000 troops. Antipater's levies numbered a meager 13000; drawn from a manpower pool that had been severely diminished by the campaigns of Alexander the Great. Furthermore, the Greek coalition was led by a talented general and one-time mercenary named Leosthenes, who had fought under Alexander and had seen first-hand the functions of the Macedonian war machine. An initial engagement with this coalition around the historic pass of Thermopylae saw Antipater's Thessalian cavalry defect to the opposing side. Already outnumbered and now without a cavalry contingent, Antipater fought a token battle but was ultimately defeated and forced to retreat north to the Thessalian city of Lamia. Behind its stout defenses he endured a siege. By some unknown means he began desperately passing correspondence to would-be allies through the Athenian siege lines. In 322BC he was relieved when Leonnatus, the satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, responded to his call for aid and arrived in southern Thessaly with a force to break the investment. Although Leonnatus fell in the ensuing battle, the Athenian coalition had been forced to use the entirety of its dwindling army (many of the Aetolian and Thessalian contingents having left the siege to tend to the harvest) to face him. Leonnatus' infantry retreated into rough country where the Aetolian and Thessalian cavalry could not pursue them, and survived the debacle largely unscathed. This turn of events allowed Antipater to slip out of the walls of Lamia before striking north for Macedonia, where he awaited the arrival of further reinforcements from Asia. Along the way he assumed control of Leonnatus' infantry corps, absorbing them into the remnants of his initial army. Craterus, another decorated general, had also received Antipater's call for aid and arrived at Pella with a force of 16000 discharged veterans who had marched and fought under Alexander. The two generals made common cause, and to cement this new alliance Antipater married his daughter Phila to Craterus. The two then led a massive, combined force south to fight a final, decisive battle against the Greeks. Antipater defeated them at the Battle of Crannon in 322 BC, with Craterus' help, and broke up the coalition. At a peace treaty in the ruined city of Thebes, Antipater negotiated with an Athenian delegation led by Phocion and Demades. Here he imposed a rule of oligarchy upon Athens and demanded the surrender of Demosthenes and Hypereides (the foremost instigators of the revolt), the former committing suicide to escape capture, while the later was imprisoned before having his tongue ripped from his mouth in a brutal execution. Later in the same year Antipater and Craterus were engaged in a mopping-up campaign against recalcitrant pockets of Aetolian resurgence when they received the news from Antigonus in Asia Minor that Perdiccas contemplated making himself outright ruler of the empire. Antipater and Craterus accordingly concluded peace with the Aetolians (much to the chagrin of future of Macedonian rulers) and went to war against Perdiccas, allying themselves with Ptolemy, the satrap of Egypt. Antipater married another of his daughters (Eurydike) to Ptolemy to strengthen this new alliance. Together with Craterus and his son Cassander, he then crossed over into Asia at the head of a considerable force in 321 BC. While in Phrygia, this army was divided in two; one under Craterus marching east into Cappadocia to face Eumenes, while the later under Antipater struck south to fight Perdiccas. While still in Syria, Antipater received two letters that drastically changed the power dynamic of the successor struggle at that point; firstly that Perdiccas had been murdered by his own soldiers in Egypt, and secondly that in one of the greatest upsets of the Hellenistic age, Craterus had fallen in battle against Eumenes (Diodorus xviii. 25–39). Regent of the Empire In the treaty of Triparadisus (321 BC), Antipater participated in a new division of Alexander's great kingdom. He appointed himself supreme regent of all Alexander's empire and was left in Greece as guardian of Alexander's son Alexander IV and his disabled brother Philip III. Having quelled a mutiny of his troops and commissioned Antigonus to continue the war against Eumenes and the other partisans of Perdiccas, Antipater returned to Macedonia, arriving there in 320 BC (Justin xiii. 6). Soon after, he was seized by an illness which terminated his active career. Death and struggle for succession Antipater died of old age in 319 BC, at the age of 81. By his side was his son Cassander. Controversially, Antipater did not appoint Cassander to succeed him as regent, citing as the reason for his decision Cassander's relative youth (at the time of Antipater's passing, Cassander was 36). Over Cassander, Antipater chose the aged officer Polyperchon as regent. Cassander became indignant at this, believing that he'd earned the right to become regent by virtue of his loyalty and experience. Thus he appealed to general Antigonus to assist him in battling Polyperchon for the position. In 317 BC, after two years of war with Polyperchon, Cassander emerged victorious. Cassander would go on to rule Macedonia for nineteen years, first as regent and later as king, ultimately founding the Antipatrid dynasty. Family Antipater was one of the sons of a Macedonian nobleman called Iollas or Iolaus and his family were distant collateral relatives to the Argead dynasty. Antipater was originally from the Macedonian city of Paliura; had a brother called Cassander; was the paternal uncle of Cassander's child Antigone and was the maternal great uncle of Berenice I of Egypt. Antipater had ten children from various unknown wives. His daughters were: Phila, wife of Balacrus, Craterus and Demetrius I of Macedon. Eurydice, wife of Ptolemy I Soter. Her son Meleager would rule Macedonia for two months in 279 BC. Nicaea, wife of Perdiccas and Lysimachus. His sons were: Iollas Cassander, King of Macedonia Pleistarchus, a general and governor in his brother's service. Phillip, also a military commander under his brother. Nicanor Alexarchus Triparadeisus Literary works Antipater was a student of Aristotle and Aristotle named him as executor-in-charge of his will, when he died in 322 BC. According to Suidas, Antipater left a compilation of letters in 2 books and a history, called The Illyrian Deeds of Perdikkas (Περδίκκου πράξεις Ιλλυριακαί). References Further reading Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Antipater", Boston, (1867) External links Antipater from Livius.org (Jona Lendering) Wiki Classical Dictionary: Antipater 4th-century BC viceregal rulers 4th-century BC Macedonians 4th-century BC Greek people 400s BC births 319 BC deaths Ancient Greek generals Regents of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Ancient Macedonian generals Generals of Alexander the Great Conspirators against Alexander the Great Ancient Macedonian historians Hellenistic-era historians Hellenistic rulers Antipatrid dynasty	[ -0.7054031491279602, -0.12559844553470612, -0.19601629674434662, -0.5185492634773254, -0.6278271079063416, 0.445661723613739, 0.42955678701400757, 0.2986282706260681, -0.3958755135536194, -0.5143920183181763, -0.18604205548763275, 0.09886839985847473, -0.82474684715271, -0.2024628072977066, 0.5456696152687073, 0.38929060101509094, 0.11171148717403412, 0.5355010628700256, 0.12026330083608627, 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258648	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandragupta%20I	Chandragupta I	Chandragupta I (Gupta script: Cha-ndra-gu-pta, r. c. 319-335 or 319-350 CE) was a king of the Gupta dynasty, who ruled in northern India. His title Maharajadhiraja ("great king of kings") suggests that he was the first emperor of the dynasty. It is not certain how he turned his small ancestral kingdom into an empire, although a widely accepted theory among modern historians is that his marriage to the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi helped him extend his political power. Their son Samudragupta further expanded the Gupta empire. Period of reign Chandragupta was a son of the Gupta king Ghatotkacha, and a grandson of the dynasty's founder Gupta, both of whom are called Maharaja ("great king") in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Chandragupta assumed the title Maharajadhiraja ( "great Raja of Rajas") and issued gold coins, which suggests that he was the first imperial ruler of the dynasty. Chandragupta certainly reigned in the first quarter of the 4th century CE, but the exact period of his reign is uncertain. His assumption of the title Maharajadhiraja has led to suggestions that he founded the Gupta calendar era, and that the epoch of this era marks his coronation. Based on this argument, several historians, including V. A. Smith and P. L. Gupta, date Chandragupta's ascension to 319-320 CE, which they believe to be the beginning of the Gupta era. However, this is merely an assumption, and the identity of the founder of the Gupta era is not certain. Some historians, such as D. C. Sircar and R. C. Majumdar, theorize that the Gupta era marks the coronation of his son Samudragupta. S. R. Goyal theorizes that the era was started by the later king Chandragupta II, but its beginning was dated to Samudragupta's ascension. Chandragupta I probably had a long reign, as the Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that he appointed his son as his successor, presumably after reaching an old age. However, the exact period of his reign is debated. Various estimates for Chandragupta's reign include: A. S. Altekar: 305-325 CE S. R. Goyal: 319-350 CE Tej Ram Sharma: 319-353 CE Upinder Singh: 319-335/336 CE CE Marriage to Kumaradevi Chandragupta married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. Lichchhavi is the name of an ancient clan that was headquartered at Vaishali in present-day Bihar during the time of Gautama Buddha. A Lichchhavi kingdom existed in the present-day Nepal in the first millennium CE. However, the identity of Kumaradevi's Lichchhavi kingdom is not certain. An 8th-century inscription of the Lichchhavi dynasty of Nepal claims that their legendary ancestor Supushpa was born in the royal family of Pushpapura, that is, Pataliputra in Magadha. According to some historians, such as V. A. Smith, the Lichchhavis ruled at Pataliputra during Samudragupta's time. However, this inscription states that Supushpa ruled 38 generations before the 5th-century king Manadeva, that is, centuries before Chandragupta's period. Therefore, the claim made in this inscription, even if true, cannot be taken as concrete evidence of the Lichchhavi rule at Pataliputra during Chandragupta's time. The Lichchhavi kingdom of Kumaradevi is unlikely to have been located in present-day Nepal because Samudragupta's Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions Nepala (that is, Nepal) as a distinct, subordinate kingdom. Given the lack of any other evidence, historian R. C. Majumdar assumed that during Chandragupta's time, the Lichchhavis ruled at Vaishali, which is the only other base of the clan known from the historical records. Impact of marriage The gold coins attributed to Chandragupta bear portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi, and the legend Lichchhavayah ("the Lichchhavis"). Their son Samudragupta is described as Lichchhavi-dauhitra ("Lichchhavi daughter's son") in the Gupta inscriptions. Except Kumaradevi, these inscriptions do not mention the paternal family of the dynasty's queens, which suggests that the Gupta family considered Kumaradevi's marriage to Chandragupta an important event. Numismatist John Allan theorized that Chandragupta defeated a Lichchhavi kingdom headquartered at Vaishali, and that Kumaradevi's marriage to him happened as part of a peace treaty. He suggested that the Guptas considered this marriage a prestigious one simply because of the ancient lineage of the Lichchhavis. However, the ancient text Manusamhita regards the Lichchhavis as "unorthodox and impure" (vratya). Therefore, it is unlikely that the Guptas proudly mentioned Samudragupta's Lichchhavi ancestry to increase their social prestige. Also, it is unlikely that the Guptas allowed the name of the Lichchhavis to appear on the dynasty's coins after defeating them. It is more likely that the marriage helped Chandragupta extend his political power and dominions, enabling him to adopt the title Maharajadhiraja. The appearance of the Lichchhavis' name on the coins is probably symbolic of their contribution to the expansion of the Gupta power. After the marriage, Chandragupta probably became the ruler of the Lichchhavi territories. Alternatively, it is possible that the Gupta and the Lichchhavi states formed a union, with Chandragupta and Kumaradevi being regarded as the sovereign rulers of their respective states, until the reign of their son Samudragupta, who became the sole ruler of the united kingdom. Extent of kingdom Little is known about Chandragupta other than his ancestry, his marriage, and his expansion of the Gupta power, as evident from his title Maharajadhiraja. The territorial extent of Chandragupta's kingdom is not known, but it must have been substantially larger than that of the earlier Gupta kings, as Chandragupta bore the title Maharajadhiraja. Modern historians have attempted to determine the extent of his kingdom based on the information from the Puranas and the Allahabad Pillar inscription issued by his son Samudragupta. The Allahabad Pillar inscription names several kings subjugated by Samudragupta. Based on the identity of these kings, several modern historians have tried to determine the extent of the territory that he must have inherited from Chandragupta. For example, since the king of the northern part of the Bengal region is not mentioned among the kings subjugated by Samudragupta, these historians theorize that northern Bengal was a part of Chandragupta's kingdom. However, such conclusions cannot be made with certainty, as the identity of several of the kings subjugated by Samudragupta is a matter of debate. Nevertheless, the information from the inscription can be used to determine the territories that were not a part of Chandragupta's kingdom: In the west, Chandragupta's kingdom probably did not extend much beyond Prayaga (modern Prayagraj), as Samudragupta defeated the kings of present-day western Uttar Pradesh. In the south, Chandragupta's kingdom did not include the Mahakoshal area of Central India, as Samudragupta defeated the kings of the forest region, which is identified with this area. In the east, Chandragupta's kingdom did not include southern Bengal, because the Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions Samatata in that region as a frontier kingdom. Moreover, the Delhi Iron Pillar inscription suggests that Vanga kingdom in that region was conquered by the later king Chandragupta II. In the north, the Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions Nepala (in present-day Nepal) as a frontier kingdom. A passage in the Vayu Purana states that the Guptas ruled over Saketa (modern Ayodhya), Prayaga, and Magadha. Based on this, multiple modern scholars have theorized that Chandragupta ruled over these territories. However, this conclusion is not certain, as the Vayu Purana does not mention the name of a specific ruler. Scholars critical of this theory argue that the passage describes the territories of either the dynasty's founder Gupta or its 6th century rulers who oversaw the kingdom's decline. Critics also point out that the corresponding passage in the Vishnu Purana states that the Guptas and the Magadhas jointly ruled over Prayaga and Magadha, and does not mention Saketa at all. The corresponding passage in the various manuscripts of Bhagavata Purana either does not mention the word "Gupta", or uses it as a common noun meaning "protected" instead of using it as the name of a specific dynasty. Even somes manuscripts of the Vayu Purana use the words "Guhya", "sapta" or "Manidhanyaka" instead of "Gupta". Supporters of the theory dismiss these as scribal mistakes. Historian Ashvini Agrwal argues that the Vayu Purana passage cannot be a reference to the Gupta territories during the empire's period of decline, as it does not mention Bengal, which formed a part of the Gupta kingdom during this period. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, Chandragupta's kingdom may have included the whole of present-day Bihar, and a part of present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bengal. Historian Dilip Kumar Ganguly believes that he ruled a large kingdom extending from Allahabad in the west to the Ganges river in Bengal in the east; the kingdom excluded south-eastern Bengal (Samatata), northern Bengal (Vanga), eastern Bengal, and western Bengal (the kingdom of Chandravarman). Historian Ashvini Agrwal states that his kingdom included central and eastern Uttar Pradesh (including Prayaga and Awadh), and Bihar; but not Bengal. Coinage Gold coins bearing portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi have been discovered at Mathura, Ayodhya, Lucknow, Sitapur, Tanda, Ghazipur, and Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh; Bayana in Rajasthan; and Hajipur in Bihar. The obverse of these coins depicts portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi, with their names in the Gupta script. The reverse shows a goddess seated on a lion, with the legend "Li-ccha-va-yah" (𑁊, "the Lichchhavis"). Various scholars, including numismatist John Allan, have considered that the gold coins bearing the portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi were issued by Samudragupta to commemorate his parents, while others have attributed the issue of these coins to Chandragupta himself, or even suggested that these coins were issued by the Lichchhavis. V. S. Pathak theorized that the coins show the royal couple in the vaivahika (nuptial) pose, but there is no concrete evidence that the coins depict the royal wedding. S.V. Sohoni theorized that the coins depicted Chandragupta taking leave of Kumaradevi while going on a military campaign, but this is doubtful given the lack of a phrase indicative of military prowess (unlike the coins of their son Samudragupta). The coins probably simply depict Chandragupta and Kumaradevi as joint rulers. The identity of the female figure appearing on the reverse of these coins is uncertain. It is unlikely that she was a Gupta queen, as the depiction of a female figure seated on a lion is characteristic of a goddess in historical art of India. Some historians, such as A. S. Altekar, have identified the goddess as Durga. However, although Durga is often represented as seated on a lion, this attribute is not unique to her: Lakshmi has also been depicted as seated on a lion. For example, Hemadri's works mention Simha-vahini ("having lion as her vahana") Lakshmi, and images from Khajuraho depict Simha-vahini Gajalakshmi. Some scholars, such as John Allan, have identified the goddess on the coins as Lakshmi, who is the goddess of fortune and the wife of Vishnu. She may have been featured on the coins as a symbol of the Guptas' royal prosperity, or as a mark of their Vaishnavite affiliation, but this cannot be said with certainty. The goddess may also have been a tutelary goddess of the Lichchhavis, whose name appears below her image, but this cannot be said with certainty either. Successor The Allahabad Pillar inscription and the Eran stone inscription of Samudragupta state that his father Chandragupta selected him as the next king. The Allahabad Pillar inscription states that Chandragupta appointed him to "protect the earth", which suggests that Chandragupta renounced the throne in his old age, and appointed his son as the next king. The discovery of the coins issued by a Gupta ruler named Kacha have led to some debate about Chandragupta's successor. According to one theory, Kacha was another name for Samudragupta. Another theory is that Kacha was the elder brother of Samudragupta, and succeeded their father Chandragupta. The Kaliyuga-raja-vrttanta section of the Bhavishyottara Purana mentions that Kacha was a son of Chandragupta I from a Lichchhavi princess. It describes Kacha as jointly ruling with his father, and states that Samudragupta killed their father. However, these passages (and possibly the entire text) are a modern forgery. 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258650	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghatotkacha	Ghatotkacha	Ghatotkacha (, , literally: "Bald Pot") played a very important character in the story of Mahabharata. His name comes from the fact that his head was hairless (utkacha) and shaped like a ghatam, or a pot. Ghatotkacha was the son of the Pandava Bhima and the demoness Hidimbi. He is the father of Anjanaparvan, Barbarika and Meghavarna. His second son Anjanaparvan participated in the war. His maternal parentage made him half-demon, which granted him several magical abilities such as the ability to fly, to increase or decrease in size and to become invisible. He was an important fighter from the Pandava side in the Kurukshetra war and caused a great deal of destruction to the Kaurava army on the fourteenth night. Ghatotkacha killed many demons like Alambusha, Alayudha and many gigantic Asuras. He was very powerful and fought valiantly from the former in the great war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, and courted a hero’s death in the great war. Birth and the Legends On the burning of the 'Lac Palace', the Pandavas escaped through a tunnel and reached a forest. While they were sleeping on the ground, the demon chief Hidimba in the forest saw the Pandavas from the top of a tree, and he appointed his sister Hidimbi to bring over the Pandavas to him for food. Hidimbi went to the Pandavas in the guise of a beautiful woman. She was attracted to Bhima and prayed for the return of her love, which Bhima refused. Impatient at the delay, Hidimba ran towards the Pandavas, and in a duel between him and Bhima, he was killed by Bhima. Hidimbi then approached Kunti and requested her to ask him to marry Bhima. The Pandavas agreed to the proposal on the condition that Bhima and Hidimbi should enjoy their marital life in the woods for the time a son his born, then Bhima should have to return to them.. Later, Ghatotacha was the son born to Hidimbi and Bhima. Indra, the king of deity bestowed on Ghaṭotkacha prowess enough to be a suitable opponent to Karna. Ghatotkacha grew up and became a good friend of the Pandavas. When Hidimbi and Ghatotkacha bid farewell to him, Kunti said to Ghatotkacha: "You are the eldest son of the Pandavas. You should always be their support." To this Ghatotkacha replied that he would return to them whenever there was a need for it. Ghatotkacha grew up under the care of Hidimbi. Like his father, Ghatotkacha's weapon of choice was the mace. According to folktales, Ahilawati married Ghatotkacha and their sons were Barbarika, Anjanaparva, and Meghavarna. Hidimbi's Sacrifice Request According to a folktale (not mentioned in Mahabharata), one day Hidimbi asked Ghatotkacha to fetch a human to sacrifice to Kali Mata. On his way to do so, he spotted a Brahmin and his wife traveling with their three children. Ghatotkacha approached them and asked which one of them should come with him to be his mother's sacrifice to Kali. The Brahmin offered himself but his wife insisted that she would go. Finally, their second son agreed to go with Ghatotkacha and asked his permission to first bathe in the river Ganga. Bhima comes upon the scene and inquired as to what was the matter. Ghatotkacha then relayed the scenario to Bhima, who agreed to go with him on the condition that Ghatotkacha should defeat him in a fight. Interactions with Bhima During their exile in the forest the Pandavas were too tired to walk further, then Bhima remembered Ghatotkacha, who immediately appeared before the Pandavas, and also brought down many demons at the behest of Bhima. Ghatotkach carrying Panchali on his shoulders, and the demons carrying Pandava brothers on their shoulders went by air to Badrikashrama, where Naranarayana was meditating, landed him there, and then he (Ghatotkach and his companions) bid farewell to the Pandavas. Kurukshetra War In the Mahābhārata, Ghatotkacha was summoned by Bhima to fight on the Pandava side in the Kurukshetra War. In the battle of the first day he fought against Alambusha, Duryodhana and Bhagadatta. Terrified of the terrible course of the battle, the Kauravas deliberately postponed the battle for that day. Invoking his magical powers, he brought great havoc in the Kaurava army using his power of illusion, even scaring away warriors like Duryodhana and Karna. His son Anjanaparvan was brutally killed by Ashwatthama. On the 14th night, Ghatotkacha comes into conflict with Ashwatthama, who was attempting to rally the fleeing soldiers. After dispelling Ghatotkacha's illusion, he managed to knock the demon unconscious. After coming to his senses, Ghatotkacha became furious and fought with Ashwatthama in a long duel. During the fight, both combatants used their celestial weapons, but the mighty asura wasn't able to withstand the attack of the other and was forced to flee. After the death of Jayadratha on the fourteenth day, when the battle continued past sunset, Ghatotkacha truly shined; his powers were at their most effective at night as demons become endued with unlimited prowess, great might, and courage. Along with his asura troops, Ghatotkacha attacked the Kauravas at full power. He killed Alayudha during this time. Eventually, a fight took place between Karna and Ghatotkacha. Upon seeing his efforts against the gigantic asura turn futile, Karna invoked his celestial weapons. Beholding a celestial weapon aimed at him, the foremost of all used his illusion to surround the Kaurava army. Beholding that, all kings with their sons and combatants, fled in fear. Karṇa clashed with Ghaṭotkacha and failing to kill him by any means he (Karṇa) used Vasavi Śakti(dart) as the last resort. This Śakti had been given to him by Indra in exchange for his kavach(armor) and earrings and which was sure to kill the person against whom it would be hurled due to the boon, and Karṇa had been keeping the Śakti in reserve to kill Arjuna. At any rate Karṇa used it against Ghaṭotkacha and he was killed. After killing Ghaṭotkacha the Śakti entered the sphere of the stars. Mortally wounded, Ghatotkacha rose to the sky. In the midst of dying, he managed to enlarge his body, crushing one akshauhini of the Kaurava army by his weight as he fell and before dying he destroyed 0.5 of Kaurava army, so he destroyed 1.5 army of his enemy.The Pandavas were filled with grief at Ghatotkacha's death, while Krishna with the cosmic knowledge smiled as Ghatotkacha lost the demon bhava and reached heaven. Indonesian version The Kurukshetra War in Javanese and also Balinese wayang is usually called by the name Bharatayuddha. The story was adapted and developed from the script Kakawin Bharatayuddha written in 1157 during the time of the Kediri Kingdom (present day East Java, Indonesia). In the wayang puppet version, Ghatotkacha (locally spelled 'Gatotkaca') is very close to his cousin named Abimanyu, son of Arjuna. Abhimanyu married Uttara the daughter of Virata Kingdom, after he claimed he was a virgin. In fact, Abhimanyu was married to Sitisundari, daughter of Krishna. Sitisundari who is entrusted in the palace of Gatotkaca heard the news that her husband had remarried. Gatotkaca's Uncle, named Kalabendana, came to Abhimanyu to take him home (Kalabendana was Arimbi's youngest brother, a dwarf giant but with a plain and noble heart). This have made Uttara jealous, and Abhimanyu was forced to swear that if he indeed had a wife other than Uttara, he would be willing to die beaten by his enemies later on. Kalabendana met with Gatotkaca to report Abhimanyu's attitude. Gatotkaca actually scolded Kalabendana, which he considered presumptuously interfering in his cousin's household affairs. Out of impulse anger, Gatotkaca hit Kalabendana's head, and even though the act was carried out accidentally, Kalabendana was killed instantly. When the Bharatayuddha war broke out, Abhimanyu was actually killed by the Kauravas on the 13th day. On the 14th day, Arjuna managed to avenge his son's death by beheading Jayadratha. Duryodhana was very sad over the death of Jayadratha, his own brother-in-law. He forced Karna to attack the Pandava camp that night. Karna obeyed even though this violates the rules of the war. After learning that the Kauravas launched a night attack, the Pandavas sent Gatotkaca to head off. Gatotkaca was deliberately chosen because Kotang Antrakusuma armor which he wears is able to emit bright light to shine on Kaurava's army. Gatotkaca successfully killed a Kaurava ally named Lembusa. Meanwhile, two of his uncles, Brajalamadan and Brajawikalpa, died at the hands of their enemies, each named Lembusura and Lembusana. Ghatotkacha faced Karna, the wielder of Kontawijaya weapon. He created his twins as many as a thousand people to make Karna feel confused. On the instructions of his father, named Surya, Karna managed to find the original Ghatotkacha. He then released Konta weapon in the direction of Ghatotkacha. Ghatotkacha tried to evade this by flying as high as possible. But the spirit of Kalabendana suddenly appeared to catch Kontawijaya while delivering news from heaven that the death of Ghatotkacha had been set that night. Ghatotkacha surrenders himself to his fate and requests that his body would be used to kill Kaurava's armies. Kalabendana agrees, then stabbed Ghatotkacha's navel using Konta weapon. The weapon merges back into its sheath, which is the mastaba wood still stored in Ghatotkacha's gut. Ghatotkacha dies, and the spirit of Kalabendana threw his body towards Karna which managed to jump to escape death. Karna's chariot was shattered to pieces as a result of being crushed by Ghatotkacha's body, and the fragments of the chariot shot in all directions and killed the Kaurava soldiers who were around it. Lineage Ghatotkacha had 3 sons - Barbarika, Anjanaparvan and Meghavarna. The existence of Barbarika is debated as he is mentioned in the later additions to the Skanda Purana, and not in the official renditions of the Mahabharata. However, Ghatotkacha's Lineage is supposed to have extended longer. The royal family of the Dimasa Kingdom claimed descent from Ghatotkacha. Temples There is a temple built in Champawat, Uttrakhand where it is meant his head fell after he was killed by Karna in the battle of Mahabharata. There is a temple built to honor Ghatotkacha in Manali, Himachal Pradesh near the Hidimba Devi Temple. An ancient 7th Century Hindu temple structure in Dieng Temples complex, Central Java is named as "Ghatotkacha Temple" in honour of the Mahabharata character. In popular culture The folktale of Sasirekha Parinayam (not originally in the Mahabharata) about Abhimanyu's love for Shashirekha/Vatsala (the daughter of Balarama) and Ghatotkacha's help in breaking off Vatsala's engagement with Laxmana Kumar has been filmed numerous times in India. These include: Surekha Haran, a 1921 Indian silent film directed by Baburao Painter. Vatsalaharan, a 1923 Indian silent film directed by Baburao Painter. Maya Bazaar, a 1925 Indian silent film directed by Baburao Painter. Maya Bazaar, a 1932 Indian Hindi film starring Baburao Pendharkar. Maya Bazaar, a 1935 Indian Tamil film directed by R. Padmanabhan. Mayabazar, or Sasirekha Parinayam, a 1936 Indian Telugu-language fantasy film directed by P. V. Das. Maya Bazaar, a 1939 Indian film directed by G. P. Pawar. Maya Bazaar, a 1949 Indian Hindi fantasy film directed by Datta Dharmadhikari. Mayabazar, a 1957 Indian epic fantasy film directed by K. V. Reddy. Maya Bazaar, a 1958 Indian Hindi adventure fantasy film directed by Babubhai Mistry. Maya Bazar, a 1984 Indian Hindi/Gujarati fantasy film directed by Babubhai Mistry. Maya Bazaar, a 1984 Indian Telugu romance drama film directed by Dasari Narayana Rao. Other Indian films about Ghatotkacha include: Veer Ghatotkach, a 1949 Indian Hindi/Marathi mythological film. Veer Ghatotkajan, a 1959 Indian Tamil mythological film directed by Babubhai Mistry. Ghatotkachudu, a 1995 Indian Telugu comedy film directed by S. V. Krishna Reddy. Veer Ghatotkach, a 1970 Indian Hindi mythological adventure film directed by Shantilal Soni. A 2008 Indian animated film Ghatothkach was based on his life. It was directed by Singeetham Srinivas Rao. Ghatotkacha, another Indian animated film released in 2008, directed by Rakesh Prasad. Amar Chitra Katha, an Indian comic book series, published an issue on Ghatotkacha. This was later adapted as an episode in the 2010 animated series of the comics. Razaq Khan (Not comedian Rajaq Khan) played Ghatotkacha in 1988 TV Series Mahabharat. Ketan Karande played Ghatotkacha in 2013 TV Series Mahabharat. Since ancient until current modern Indonesia, Ghatotkacha has become a very popular pop culture figure and wayang puppet character, having its own version of stories told in the Javanese and Balinese version of Mahabharata story. In Javanese wayang, he is known as Gatotkoco with superhero fame and well known for the nickname the "Satria otot kawat balung wesi" ("Wire muscle and Iron bone Warrior"). For Javanese and Balinese, Ghatotkacha is revered as a deity and popularly depicted in artworks and statues, such as the Satria Gatotkaca Park Statue in Kuta major road intersection in Bali. Ghatotkacha has been frequently depicted in Indonesian popular culture, such as music, comics and film, such as the superhero action film Satria Dewa: Gatotkaca (2021). Javanese version of Ghatotkacha, known as Gatotkaca, depicted in Garudayana, an Indonesian comic series, is featured as a playable character in the game Mobile Legends: Bang Bang. See also Ghatotkacha Caves Hanuman Mayabazar Kachari Kingdom References External links Mahābhārata Book 7 Ghatotkacha-vadha Parva Rakshasa in the Mahabharata Asura Rakshasa Characters in the Mahabharata	[ -0.10807131230831146, 0.7435725927352905, -1.0798842906951904, -0.49946945905685425, -0.3708421289920807, 0.4633261263370514, 0.7635738253593445, 0.4661463797092438, -0.3649487793445587, -0.07666932791471481, -0.011920759454369545, 0.39367327094078064, -0.6562028527259827, 0.03033803217113018, -0.26139768958091736, 0.44777458906173706, 0.9959444999694824, 0.13049840927124023, -0.18461842834949493, -0.4274771213531494, 0.38200312852859497, -0.20643548667430878, 0.08774164319038391, 0.11688871681690216, 0.9983702301979065, 0.235074982047081, 0.5049532651901245, 0.5145920515060425, 0.1952720731496811, 0.1877046525478363, -0.16640529036521912, 0.8770973682403564, 0.5313516855239868, -0.25754791498184204, -0.11549951881170273, -0.22966735064983368, 0.06514420360326767, 0.2662064731121063, 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258651	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbsaint	Herbsaint	Herbsaint is a brand name of anise-flavored liqueur originally created as an absinthe-substitute in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1934, and currently produced by the Sazerac Company. It was developed by J. Marion Legendre and Reginald Parker of the city, who had learned how to make absinthe while in France during World War I. It was originally produced under the name "Legendre Absinthe", although it never contained absinthe's essential ingredient, Grande Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium). It first went on sale following the repeal of Prohibition, and was unique in its category as an absinthe substitute, as opposed to a pastis. The Federal Alcohol Control Administration soon objected to Legendre's use of the word "absinthe", so the name was changed to "Legendre Herbsaint", French/Creole for "Herbe Sainte" (Sacred Herb), the Artemisia absinthium. As it happens, "Herbsaint" is a near-anagram of "absinthe". The Sazerac Company bought J.M. Legendre & Co. in June 1949. Herbsaint was originally bottled at 120 proof, but this was later reduced to 100 proof, then changed to a different 90 proof recipe in the mid-1950s. By the early 1970s only the 90 proof remained. In December 2009, the Sazerac Company reintroduced J.M. Legendre's original 100 proof recipe as Herbsaint Original. Cocktails Herbsaint was and still is used in several cocktails, including: Herbsaint Frappé Pour two ounces of Herbsaint into a thin six-ounce glass. Fill the glass three-quarters full with cracked ice. Add a half teaspoon of simple syrup or sugar and two ounces of carbonated or plain water, then fill glass with more cracked ice. Stir, using a long-handled spoon with up and down motion until outside of glass is well frosted. Strain into another glass that has been chilled. Remove the ice from the original glass. Pour back into the well frosted glass and serve. It is also sometimes used in the Sazerac cocktail as a substitute for absinthe. See also Cuisine of New Orleans References External links The History of Legendre Herbsaint 1944 promotional booklet for Legendre Herbsaint — Cocktail recipes and a brief history of Legendre herbsaint and the old absinthe house in New Orleans (1.76MB PDF format) Absinthe Cocktails with absinthe Anise liqueurs and spirits Sazerac Company brands New Orleans cocktails	[ 0.14459890127182007, 0.37240904569625854, 0.0011126840254291892, 0.042178381234407425, 0.2772969901561737, 0.21483749151229858, 0.5918062329292297, 0.006895049475133419, -0.08967617154121399, -0.3079371154308319, 0.021331798285245895, 0.2844089865684509, 0.11367645114660263, 0.43369555473327637, 0.14111463725566864, 0.09524832665920258, 0.6876657605171204, 0.5386680364608765, -0.06233568489551544, -0.05432013422250748, -0.026762234047055244, -0.45321956276893616, 0.37566712498664856, -0.10389168560504913, 0.14136317372322083, 0.6383964419364929, 0.01784818433225155, -0.3298083543777466, 0.0994587242603302, 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258652	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coombs	Coombs	Coombs is an English surname. Notable people with the surname include: Anthony Coombs (politician) (born 1952), British politician Anthony Coombs (Canadian football) (born 1992), Canadian football player Bobby Coombs (1908–1991), American baseball player Clyde Coombs (1912–1988), American psychologist David Coombs (born 1937), British author, historian and teacher Derek Coombs (1931–2014), British politician Doug Coombs (1957–2006), American skier and mountaineer Ernie Coombs (1927–2001), Canadian/American children's entertainer Frank Coombs (1853–1934), American politician H.C. Coombs (1906–1997), Australian economist Jack Coombs (1882–1957), American baseball player James Coombs (1869–1935), American football coach John Coombs (1922–2013), British racing driver and racing team owner Kris Coombs-Roberts, Welsh guitarist Mary Coombs (born 1929), English computer programmer Melvin Coombs (1948–1997), American cultural educator and cultural interpreter Nathan Coombs (1826–1877), American founder of Napa, California Orde M. Coombs (1939–1984), Saint Vincent-born American writer and editor Pat Coombs (1926–2002), English actress Patricia Coombs (born 1926), American children's author and illustrator Peter Coombs (born 1928), English priest Robert Coombs (born 1959), Australian politician Robert Coombs (cricketer) (born 1959), English cricketer Robin Coombs (1921–2006), British immunologist Simon Coombs (born 1947), British politician Stephen Coombs (born 1960), British pianist Ted Coombs (born 1954), American artist, roller skater and forensic scientist W. H. Coombs (1816–1896), English/Australian priest See also Coombe (disambiguation) Combs (disambiguation) Coomes (disambiguation) English-language surnames	[ -0.3070322871208191, 0.7404625415802002, -0.35811761021614075, -1.1073710918426514, -0.11531119048595428, 0.6206252574920654, 0.3945648670196533, 0.44641560316085815, -0.46848270297050476, -0.34105825424194336, -0.3310411870479584, -0.41189736127853394, -0.2382522076368332, 0.8717594146728516, -0.09599700570106506, -0.22097961604595184, -0.22071492671966553, 0.8875221014022827, 0.22638799250125885, -0.8088386058807373, -0.11160001158714294, -0.13016125559806824, -0.46172764897346497, -0.13511165976524353, -0.013987790793180466, -0.17812621593475342, 0.15146365761756897, -0.24190804362297058, 0.42147296667099, -0.1140911653637886, 0.43466466665267944, 0.8096061944961548, 0.2408444583415985, 0.17069299519062042, 0.11949587613344193, -0.1625012457370758, 0.1645001322031021, -0.14846238493919373, 0.08250529319047928, -0.06491277366876602, 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258653	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landgraviate%20of%20Hesse-Kassel	Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel	The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel (), spelled Hesse-Cassel during its entire existence, was a state in the Holy Roman Empire that was directly subject to the Emperor. The state was created in 1567 when the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided upon the death of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. His eldest son William IV inherited the northern half of the Landgraviate and the capital of Kassel. The other sons received the Landgraviate of Hesse-Marburg, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Rheinfels and the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt. During the Napoleonic reorganisation of the Empire in 1803, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel was elevated to an Electorate and Landgrave William IX became an Imperial Elector. Many members of the Hesse-Kassel House served in the Danish military gaining high ranks and power in the Oldenburg realm due to the fact that many Landgraves were married to Danish princesses. Members of the family who are known to have served Denmark-Norway include Prince Frederik of Hesse-Kassel, Prince Frederick of Hesse-Kassel, and Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel. It was later occupied by French troops and became part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, a French satellite state. The Electorate of Hesse was restored at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, though by that time there was no longer an emperor to elect. History The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel was founded by William IV the Wise, the eldest son of Philip I. On his father's death in 1567, the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided into four parts. William IV received about half of the territory, with Kassel as his capital. Hesse-Kassel expanded in 1604 when Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel inherited the Landgraviate of Hesse-Marburg from his childless uncle, Louis IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Marburg (1537–1604). Thirty Years' War In 1605, Maurice became Calvinist and entered the Thirty Years' War on the Protestant side. After being forced to cede some of his territories to Hesse-Darmstadt, Maurice abdicated in 1627 in favour of his son William V. His younger sons received appanages, which created several cadet lines in yet another partition of Hesse. William V allied himself with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and then France, losing most of Hesse-Kassel when Imperial troops invaded. He died in exile in 1637, leaving his widow Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg to act as regent for their eight-year-old son William VI. Amalie Elisabeth vigorously advanced the interests of Hesse-Kassel. After expelling Imperial troops from Hesse-Kassel, she sent troops to take the city of Marburg, which her father-in-law had lost to their Hesse-Darmstadt relatives. At the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Hesse-Kassel was further rewarded with most of the County of Schaumburg and the newly secularized Hersfeld Abbey. Amalie Elisabeth also introduced the rule of primogeniture to prevent Hesse-Kasse from being divided again in the future. However, her health was ruined by the stresses of the war, and she died in 1651. 17th and 18th centuries William VI, who came of age in 1650, was an enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son William VII, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, then an infant, who died in 1670. He was succeeded by his brother Charles I. Charles' chief claim to fame is that he hired out his soldiers to foreign powers as auxiliaries, as a means of improving the finances of his principality. William V was succeeded by Landgraves William VI and William VII. Frederick I of Sweden, the next landgrave, became by marriage King of Sweden. Although the Landgraviate was in personal union with Sweden from 1730 to 1751, the King's younger brother, Prince William, ruled in Kassel as regent until he succeeded his brother as William VIII. On Frederick I's death in 1751, he was succeeded by his brother William VIII, who fought as an ally of Kingdom of Great Britain during the Seven Years' War. His successor, Frederick II, converted to Catholicism after a long line of Protestant Landgraviates. When the American Revolutionary War broke out, Frederick II leased Hessian troops to Great Britain for service in America. End of the landgraviate Following the reorganization of the German states during the German mediatisation of 1803, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel was raised to the Electorate of Hesse and Landgrave William IX was elevated to Imperial Elector, taking the title William I, Elector of Hesse. The principality thus became known as , although still usually referred to as Hesse-Kassel. In 1806, William I was dispossessed by Napoleon Bonaparte for his support of the Kingdom of Prussia. Kassel was designated as the capital of a new Kingdom of Westphalia, where Napoleon appointed his brother Jérôme Bonaparte as king. Following Napoleon's defeat in 1813, the elector was restored. At the Congress of Vienna, a number of Napoleonic electorates were elevated to kingdoms, and William tried to secure recognition as King of the Chatti. However, he was rebuffed by the Great Powers, who listed him as a "Royal Highness" along with the other grand dukes. To secure his pre-eminence over his cousin, the Grand Duke of Hesse in the former Hesse-Darmstadt, William chose to keep his title of Prince-Elector. The rulers of the Electorate of Hesse became the only Prince-Electors in the German Confederation, even though there was no longer a Holy Roman Emperor for them to elect. Hessian troops in foreign service The Landgraves of Hesse-Kassel were famous for renting out their army to European Great Powers during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was a widespread practice at the time for small countries to rent out troops to larger countries in exchange for subsidies. International jurists drew a distinction between mercenaries and auxiliaries (Hilfstruppen). Mercenaries served in foreign armies as individuals, while auxiliaries were sent by their prince to the aid of another prince. Hesse-Kassel took the practice to an extreme, maintaining 5.3% of its population under arms in 1730. This was a higher proportion than even Prussia, a country that was so heavily militarized that it was described as "not a country with an army, but an army with a country". The Hessian army served as a readily available reserve for the Great Powers. During the American War of Independence, 25% of the British army consisted of troops rented from German princes, half of whom came from Hesse-Kassel and nearby Hesse-Hanau. For this reason, Americans refer to all German troops serving with the British army as "Hessians", a form of synecdoche. Namesakes The village of Hessen Cassel, Indiana, near Fort Wayne, founded by German immigrants, is named for the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel. See also New Netherland New Sweden Pennsylvania Dutch Rulers of Hesse Notes References External links Hoeckmann.de: Map of Hesse (Northern part) — in 1789 Hoeckmann.de: Map of Hesse (Southern part) — in 1789 Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel Early Modern history of Germany Counties of the Holy Roman Empire States and territories established in 1567 States and territories disestablished in 1803 1567 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire 1803 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire Hesse-Kassel, Landgraviate of North Hesse	[ 0.04330646991729736, -0.11363568902015686, 0.39808809757232666, 0.35517117381095886, -0.4884890913963318, 0.23987500369548798, 0.2898610830307007, 0.17693455517292023, -0.1129758432507515, -0.29006314277648926, -0.10651769489049911, -0.5839436054229736, -0.018390437588095665, 0.4812220633029938, -0.5559883713722229, 0.39731407165527344, 0.5764393210411072, 0.4248048961162567, -0.35019809007644653, -0.6833046078681946, -0.07300683110952377, 0.27457424998283386, 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258654	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmen%20language	Turkmen language	Turkmen (, , , or , , , ), also referred to as Turkmen-Turkic or Turkmen-Turkish, is a Turkic language spoken by the Turkmens of Central Asia, mainly of Turkmenistan, Iran and Afghanistan. It has an estimated five million native speakers in Turkmenistan, a further 719,000 speakers in Northeastern Iran and 1.5 million people in Northwestern Afghanistan. Turkmen has official status in Turkmenistan, but it does not have official status in Iran or Afghanistan, where big communities of ethnic Turkmens live. Turkmen is also spoken to lesser varying degrees in Turkmen communities of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan and by diaspora communities, primarily in Turkey and Russia. Turkmen is a member of the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages. The standardized form of Turkmen (spoken in Turkmenistan) is based on the Teke dialect, while Iranian Turkmen uses mostly the Yomud dialect, and Afghan Turkmen uses Ersary variety. Turkmen is closely related to Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz, Qashqai and Turkish, sharing varying degrees of mutual intelligibility with each of those languages. Elsewhere in Iran, the Turkmen language comes second after the Azerbaijani language in terms of the number of speakers of Turkic languages of Iran. Iraqi and Syrian "Turkmen" speak dialects that form a continuum between Turkish and Azerbaijani, in both cases heavily influenced by Arabic. These varieties are not Turkmen in the sense of this article. The Turkmen language, unlike other languages of the Oghuz branch, preserved most of the unique and archaic features of the language spoken by the early Oghuz Turks, such as pronouncing vowels longer or shorter according to corresponding words or word characteristics. Classification Turkmen is a member of the East Oghuz branch of the Turkic family of languages; its closest relatives being Turkish and Azerbaijani, with which it shares a relatively high degree of mutual intelligibility. Turkmen has vowel harmony, is agglutinative and has no grammatical gender. Word order is subject–object–verb. Written Turkmen today is based on the Teke (Tekke) dialect. The other dialects are Nohurly, , , Hasarly, Nerezim, , Salyr, Saryk, and .. The Teke dialect is sometimes (especially in Afghanistan) referred to as "Chagatai", but like all Turkmen dialects it reflects only a limited influence from classical Chagatai. Comparison with other Turkic languages Turkmen has dental fricatives and unlike other Oghuz Turkic languages, where these sounds are pronounced as and . The only other Turkic language with a similar feature is Bashkir. However, in Bashkir and are two independent phonemes, distinct from and , whereas in Turkmen [θ] and [ð] are the two main realizations of the common Turkic and . In other words, there are no and phonemes in Turkmen, unlike Bashkir which has both and and and . Turkmen vs. Azerbaijani The 1st person personal pronoun is “men” in Turkmen, just as in Azerbaijani, whereas it is “ben” in Turkish. The same is true for demonstrative pronouns “bu”, where sound “b” is replaced with sound “m”. For example: . In Turkmen, “bu” undergoes some changes just as in: . Here are some words with a different pronunciation in Turkmen and Azerbaijani that mean the same in both languages: Turkmen vs. Turkish Turkey was first to recognize Turkmenistan's independence on 27 October 1991, following the dissolution of the USSR and to open its Embassy in Ashgabat on 29 February 1992. Sharing a common history, religion, language and culture, the two states have balanced special relations based on mutual respect and the principle of “One Nation, Two States”. Turkmen language is very close to Turkish with regard to linguistic properties. However, there are a couple of differences due to regional and historical reasons. Most morphophonetic rules are common in Turkmen and Turkish languages, though they use different alphabets. For instance, both languages show vowel harmony and consonant mutation rules, and have similar suffixes with very close semantics. Here are some words from the Swadesh list in Turkmen and Turkish that mean the same in both languages: Phonology Writing system Turkmen written language was formed in the 13–14th centuries. During this period, the Arabic alphabet was used extensively for writing. Already in the 18th century, there was a rich literature in the Turkmen language. At the same time, the literacy of the population in their native language remained at low levels; book publishing was extremely limited, and the first primer in the Turkmen language appeared only in 1913, while the first newspaper ("Transcaspian native newspaper") was printed in 1914. The Arabic script was not adapted to the phonetic features of the Turkic languages. Thus, it did not have necessary signs to designate specific sounds of the Turkmen language, and at the same time there were many letters to designate Arabic sounds that were not in the Turkmen language. During the first years after the establishment of the Soviet power, the Arabic alphabet of the Turkmens of the USSR was reformed twice, in 1922 and 1925. In the course of the reforms, letters with diacritics were introduced to denote Turkic phonemes; and letters were abolished for sounds that are absent in the Turkmen language. The Turkmens of Afghanistan and Iran continue to use Arabic script. In January 1925, on the pages of the republican newspaper , the question of switching to a new, Latin alphabet was raised. After the first All-Union Turkological Congress in Baku (February–March 1926), the State Academic Council under the People's Commissariat of Education of the Turkmen SSR developed a draft of a new alphabet. On January 3, 1928, the revised new Latin alphabet was approved by the Central Executive Committee of the Turkmen SSR. At the end of the 1930s, the process of the Cyrillization of writing began throughout the USSR. In January 1939, the newspaper "Sowet Türkmenistany" published a letter from teachers in Ashgabat and the Ashgabat region with an initiative to replace the Turkmen (Latin) script with Cyrillic. The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Turkmen SSR instructed the Research Institute of Language and Literature to draw up a draft of a new alphabet. The teachers of the Ashgabat Pedagogical Institute and print workers also took part in the development of the new writing system. In April 1940, the draft alphabet was published. In May 1940, the Council of People's Commissars of the Turkmen SSR adopted a resolution on the transition to a new alphabet of all state and public institutions from July 1, 1940, and on the beginning of teaching the new alphabet in schools from September 1 of the same year. After the dissolution of USSR, in January 1993, a meeting was held at the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan on the issue of replacing the Cyrillic with the Latin alphabet, at which a commission was formed to develop the alphabet. In February, a new version of the alphabet was published in the press. On April 12, 1993, the Mejlis of Turkmenistan approved a presidential decree on the new alphabet. Grammar Turkmen is a highly agglutinative language, in that much of the grammar is expressed by means of suffixes added to nouns and verbs. It is very regular compared with many other languages of non-Turkic group. For example, "from the villages" can be analysed as "village", -lar (plural suffix), -dan (ablative case, meaning "from"); "I am taking" as al "take", (present continuous tense), -yn (1st person singular). Another characteristic of Turkmen is vowel harmony. Most suffixes have two or four different forms, the choice between which depends on the vowel of the word's root or the preceding suffix: for example, the ablative case of is "from the villages" but, the ablative case of "dogs" is "from the dogs". Literature Turkmen literature comprises oral compositions and written texts in Old Oghuz Turkic and Turkmen languages. Turkmens are direct descendants of the Oghuz Turks, who were a western Turkic people that spoke the Oghuz branch of the Turkic language family. The earliest development of the Turkmen literature is closely associated with the literature of the Oghuz Turks. Turkmens have joint claims to a great number of literary works written in Old Oghuz and Persian (by Seljuks in 11-12th centuries) languages with other people of the Oghuz Turkic origin, mainly of Azerbaijan and Turkey. These works include, but are not limited to the Book of Dede Korkut, Gorogly, Layla and Majnun, Yusuf Zulaikha and others. There is general consensus, however, that distinctively modern Turkmen literature originated in the 18th century with the poetry of Magtymguly Pyragy, who is considered the father of the Turkmen literature. Other prominent Turkmen poets of that era are (Magtymguly's father), Nurmuhammet Andalyp, , , and Gurbanally Magrupy. Vocabulary Numbers Note: Numbers are formed identically to other Turkic languages, such as Turkish. So, eleven (11) is "on bir" (ten-one). Two thousand seventeen (2017) is (two-thousand-ten-seven). Colors Basic expressions Example The following is Magtymguly's (of the Turkmen) poem with the text transliterated into Turkmen (Latin) letters, whereas the original language is preserved. Second column is the poem's Turkish translation, third one is the Azerbaijani translation, while the last one is the English translation. Notes Further reading References Bibliography Garrett, Jon, Meena Pallipamu, and Greg Lastowka (1996). "Turkmen Grammar". www.chaihana.com. External links Turkmen grammar and orthography rules (Turkmen) (in Turkmen) Turkmen – English Dictionary with searchable reverse dictionary Turkmen – English / English – Turkmen Dictionary (a) Turkmen – English / English – Turkmen Dictionary (b) Turkmen – English Dictionary Turkmen – English / English – Turkmen Dictionary (Freelang) Omniglot page on Turkmen Turkmen language online transliteration Ajapsozluk.com Ever-growing dictionary of Turkmen language Turkmen<>Turkish dictionary (Pamukkale University) Turkic languages Agglutinative languages Languages of Turkmenistan Turkic languages of Afghanistan Languages of Iran Languages of Russia Languages formerly written in Cyrillic script	[ 0.2700467109680176, 0.33367371559143066, -0.7435307502746582, -0.40492960810661316, -0.11170531064271927, 0.9107566475868225, 0.4735829830169678, 0.654700517654419, -0.3300487697124481, -0.3005875051021576, -0.4318336546421051, 0.11927974969148636, -0.48735466599464417, 0.11431427299976349, 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258656	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmen	Turkmen	Turkmen, Türkmen, Turkoman, or Turkman may refer to: Peoples Historical ethnonym Turkoman (ethnonym), ethnonym used for the Oghuz Turks during the Middle Ages Ethnic groups Turkmen in Anatolia and the Levant (Seljuk and Ottoman-Turkish descendants): Iraqi Turkmen, a Turkish minority living mostly in the Turkmeneli region in northern Iraq Turks in Israel, a Turkish minority living in Israel Turks in Lebanon, a Turkish minority living in Lebanon Syrian Turkmen, a Turkish minority living mostly in northern Syria Yörüks, a semi-nomadic group in Anatolia often referred to as Turkmen in Turkey Anatolian beyliks, small principalities in Anatolia governed by Beys, late 11th–13th centuries Turkmens, a Turkic people native to Central Asia living primarily in Turkmenistan and North Caucasus Iranian Turkmens, Turkmen minority living in Iran Afghan Turkmens, Turkmen minority living in Afghanistan Turkmen in Pakistan, mostly Turkmen refugees from Afghanistan and Turkmenistan living in Pakistan Turkmen tribes, the major modern Turkmen tribes that live in Turkmenistan, Iran and Afghanistan Other uses for people Qarapapaqs or Terekeme, an ethnic minority living in Turkey, Iran and the South Caucasus Oghuz Turks, a large branch of Turkic peoples, historically Muslim nomadic Oghuz Turks (in the 10th–18th centuries) Languages Eastern Oghuz Turkmen language, the official language of Turkmenistan Turkmen alphabet, used for official purposes in Turkmenistan Western Oghuz Iraqi Turkmen/Turkman dialects, a Turkish dialect in Iraq Syrian Turkmen/Turkman dialects, a Turkish dialect in Syria Places Afghanistan Turkman Valley Azerbaijan Türkmən, Barda Türkmən, Goychay Türkmən, Qabala Iran Turkmen Sahra Torkamanchay Torkaman County Central District (Torkaman County) Bandar Torkaman Torkaman, West Azerbaijan Tappeh Torkaman Qarah Tappeh, Torkaman Iraq Turkmeneli Northern Cyprus Kontea, known in Turkish as Türkmenköy Syria Turkmen Mountain Turkey Türkmen, Çüngüş Türkmen, Emirdağ Türkmen, Gölpazarı Türkmen, Keşan Türkmen, Vezirköprü Türkmenakören, Emirdağ Turkmenistan Türkmenabat Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan Surname Doğan Türkmen (fl. 1980), Turkish diplomat attacked by the Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide Ekin Türkmen (born 1984), Turkish actress Elif Doğan Türkmen (born 1962), Turkish politician Emre Turkmen, a member of the London-based music band Years & Years Hüseyin Türkmen, (born 1998) Turkish football player İlter Türkmen (born 1927), Turkish diplomat Muhammed Türkmen (born 1986), Turkish football player Özer Türkmen (born c. 1939), head of the army of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Tayfun Türkmen (born 1978), Turkish football player Culture Music of Turkmenistan Turkmen rug, a type of handmade floor-covering originating in Central Asia Media Türkmen Owazy, a music TV channel in Turkmenistan Türkmeneli TV, a bilingual (Arabic and Turkish) TV channel based in Iraq and Turkey Other uses Animals Hybrid camel, sometimes called a Turkoman Central Asian Shepherd Dog, known as the Turkmen Alabai Turkoman horse, or Turkmene, an extinct breed of horse from Turkmenistan Turkmenian kulan, Equus hemionus kulan, a type of wild ass Turkoman (horse) (born 1982), an American Thoroughbred racehorse Companies Turkmentelecom, a national telecommunications company in Turkmenistan Films Torkaman (film), a 1974 Iranian film See also List of Turkic dynasties and countries Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic Turkmenistan manat, the currency of Turkmenistan Turkoman people (disambiguation) Language and nationality disambiguation pages	[ 0.01890992932021618, 0.1614198088645935, -0.3930690586566925, 0.07201263308525085, -0.3050706386566162, 0.6218618154525757, 0.46072033047676086, 0.3305153548717499, -0.2860930263996124, -0.23891307413578033, -0.8013254404067993, 0.06644778698682785, -0.42163747549057007, 0.48990359902381897, -0.39454376697540283, 0.7554726004600525, 0.17071256041526794, 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258657	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastis	Pastis	Pastis (; , ; or ) is an anise-flavoured spirit and apéritif traditionally from France, typically containing less than 100 g/l sugar and 40–45% ABV (alcohol by volume). Origins Pastis was first commercialized by Paul Ricard in 1932 and enjoys substantial popularity in France, especially in the southeastern regions of the country, mostly Marseille, (Bouches-du-Rhône) and the Var department. Pastis emerged some 17 years after the ban on absinthe, during a time when the French nation was still apprehensive of high-proof anise drinks in the wake of the absinthe debacle. The popularity of pastis may be attributable to a penchant for anise drinks that was cultivated by absinthe decades earlier, but is also part of an old tradition of Mediterranean anise liquors that includes sambuca, ouzo, arak, rakı, and mastika. The name "pastis" may be derived from Occitan "pastís," a mash-up or blend, or French "pastiche," a stylistic imitation. Composition By legal definition, pastis is described as an anise-flavoured spirit that contains additional flavor of liquorice root, contains less than 100 grams per litre of sugar, and is bottled at a minimum of 40% ABV (pastis) or 45% ABV (pastis de Marseille). While pastis was originally artisanally produced from whole herbs like most spirits at the time of its creation, modern versions are typically prepared by mixing base alcohol with commercially prepared flavorings (essences and/or extracts) and caramel coloring. Pastis is oftentimes compared with its historical predecessor, absinthe, yet the two are quite different. Pastis was created years following the prohibition of absinthe, and traditionally does not contain grand wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), the herb from which absinthe derives its name. Also, pastis far more commonly obtains its anise flavour from star anise, an Asian spice, whereas absinthe traditionally obtains its base flavour from a distillation of green anise and fennel, both Mediterranean herbs. Additionally, pastis typically exhibits some degree of flavour derived from liquorice root, which is not traditionally employed for absinthe. Where bottled strength is concerned, traditional absinthes were bottled at 45–74% ABV, while pastis is typically bottled at 40–50% ABV. Finally, whereas traditional absinthe is invariably a dry spirit, pastis may be bottled with sugar. Serving Pastis is normally diluted with water before drinking, generally five volumes of water for one volume of pastis, but often neat pastis is served together with a jug of water for the drinker to blend together according to preference. The resulting decrease in alcohol percentage causes some of the constituents to become insoluble, which changes the liqueur's appearance from dark transparent yellow to milky soft yellow, a phenomenon also present with absinthe and known as the ouzo effect. The drink is consumed cold and considered a refreshment for hot days. Ice cubes can be added (after the water, in order to avoid crystallization of the anethole in the pastis). However, many pastis drinkers decline to add ice, preferring to drink the beverage with cool spring water. Although consumed throughout France, pastis is generally associated with southeastern regions of the country, particularly the city of Marseille, where it is nicknamed Pastaga, and with such clichés of the Provençal lifestyle as pétanque. 130 million litres are sold each year (more than two litres per inhabitant in France). Chemistry Pastis beverages become cloudy when diluted because they are anise-based. Such beverages contain oils called terpenes, which are soluble in an aqueous solution that contains 30% ethanol or more by volume. When the solution is diluted to below 30% ethanol, the terpenes become insoluble; this causes a cloudy precipitate to form in the solution. The same chemistry causes absinthe to go cloudy when diluted. Cocktails Among the better known cocktails using pastis and syrups are: : made with strawberry syrup (French for "tomato"): made with grenadine syrup (French for "parrot"): made with green mint syrup (French for "Moorish"): made with orgeat syrup Feuille morte (French for "dead leaf"): made with grenadine and green mint syrup Violet: made with lavender syrup Rômarino: made with Rosemary syrup Sazerac: made with cognac or rye whiskey; pastis mentioned as a substitute for absinthe in some recipes Momisette: (French for “little mother” or “godmother”) made with orgeat and orange flower water Notable brands Henri Bardouin by Distilleries et Domaines de Provence Ricard by Pernod Ricard See also Absinthe Anisette References Absinthe Anise liqueurs and spirits Cuisine of Provence French liqueurs Liqueurs Occitan cuisine Pernod Ricard brands	[ -0.310275137424469, -0.11260673403739929, -0.14804339408874512, -0.04835142567753792, 0.06505993008613586, 0.8884259462356567, 0.5695058703422546, 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258658	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose%20Valley	Rose Valley	Rose Valley may refer to: Rose Valley, Bulgaria Rose Valley, Saskatchewan, Canada Rose Valley, Chişinău, Moldova Rose Valley, Pennsylvania, United States Rose Valley, Washington, United States	[ 0.290265291929245, -0.19044357538223267, 0.37518471479415894, 0.22010304033756256, 0.15463224053382874, 0.7268890142440796, 0.7958586812019348, 0.7261921167373657, 0.02972632832825184, -0.691785991191864, -0.36199504137039185, -0.6409744024276733, -0.2225618213415146, 0.995895266532898, -0.8798540234565735, 0.39494019746780396, -0.03488193452358246, 0.7845255136489868, 0.6129823923110962, -0.14018701016902924, -0.02732384018599987, -0.5173875689506531, 0.8150710463523865, 0.006599814631044865, 0.009936502203345299, -0.4796183109283447, 0.21626417338848114, 0.08588825166225433, 0.43582576513290405, 0.7360556721687317, -0.5630509257316589, 0.3116188943386078, 0.25526246428489685, -0.5310856699943542, -0.1432252824306488, 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258659	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisette	Anisette	Anisette, or Anis, is an anise-flavored liqueur that is consumed in most Mediterranean countries. It is colorless, and because it contains sugar, is sweeter than dry anise flavoured spirits (e.g. absinthe). The most traditional style of anisette is that produced by means of distilling aniseed, and is differentiated from those produced by simple maceration by the inclusion of the word distilled on the label. And while Pastis is a similar-tasting liqueur that is prepared in similar fashion and sometimes confused with anisette, it employs a combination of both aniseed and licorice root extracts. Sambuca is essentially an anisette of Italian origin that requires a high minimum (350g/l) sugar content. The liqueur is often mixed with water or poured over ice cubes because of its strong flavour. Geographical spread Mediterranean In the Mediterranean Basin, anise-based or liquorice-based spirits include: Spain: Anís del Mono ("the monkey's anisette") has been produced since 1870. The label, with a monkey holding a scroll and a bottle, was designed by Ramon Casas i Carbó. It is the anisette of choice in Malcolm Lowry's Under the Volcano. Characters in Ernest Hemingway's novel The Sun Also Rises and his short story "Hills Like White Elephants" drink and discuss Anís del Toro – "Bull's Anisette." Another type, Aguardiente de Ojén (es), gained fame abroad and is popular in New Orleans, Louisiana, especially during the Mardi Gras festivities. France: Anisette, made by Marie Brizard since 1755 and Pastis, made by Paul Ricard since 1932 Greece: Ouzo Malta: Anisetta, made with anise and a blend of aromatic plants and herbs. It is frequently used in Maltese cooking, usually in desserts or hot drinks such as Maltese coffee. It is also served with ice and water, fruit juice, soda or sparking water. The most popular brand of locally produced anisetta is "Black Eagle". Italy: Sambuca Portugal: Licor Aniz Escarchado (crystallized) Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Albania: Rakı Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, and Egypt: Arak Algeria: Anisette Cristal Latin America Anise-flavoured alcohols from other parts of the world include Aguardiente from Colombia and Mexico. Asia Anise liqueur was also introduced to the Philippines by the Spanish, which developed into the local anisado, an anise-flavored liqueur usually made from distilled sugarcane wine. A notable variant of Filipino anisado with sugar is known as anisado Mallorca, or simply Mallorca. They are commonly used as ingredients in Filipino cuisine. Popular culture In the 1974 epic The Godfather Part II, Johnny Ola asks for anisette when he arrives for a sit-down at Michael Corleone's compound at Lake Tahoe. 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258666	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyuria	Polyuria	Polyuria () is excessive or an abnormally large production or passage of urine (greater than 2.5 L or 3 L over 24 hours in adults). Increased production and passage of urine may also be termed diuresis. Polyuria often appears in conjunction with polydipsia (increased thirst), though it is possible to have one without the other, and the latter may be a cause or an effect. Primary polydipsia may lead to polyuria. Polyuria is usually viewed as a symptom or sign of another disorder (not a disease by itself), but it can be classed as a disorder, at least when its underlying causes are not clear. Causes The most common cause of polyuria in both adults and children is uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, which causes osmotic diuresis, when glucose levels are so high that glucose is excreted in the urine. Water follows the glucose concentration passively, leading to abnormally high urine output. In the absence of diabetes mellitus, the most common causes are decreased secretion of aldosterone due to adrenal cortical tumor, primary polydipsia (excessive fluid drinking), central diabetes insipidus and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Polyuria may also be due to various chemical substances, such as diuretics, caffeine, and ethanol. It may also occur after supraventricular tachycardias, during an onset of atrial fibrillation, childbirth, and the removal of an obstruction within the urinary tract. Diuresis is controlled by antidiuretics such as vasopressin, angiotensin II and aldosterone. Cold diuresis is the occurrence of increased urine production on exposure to cold, which also partially explains immersion diuresis. High-altitude diuresis occurs at altitudes above and is a desirable indicator of adaptation to high altitudes. Mountaineers who are adapting well to high altitudes experience this type of diuresis. Persons who produce less urine even in the presence of adequate fluid intake are probably not adapting well to altitude. List of causes Mechanism Polyuria in osmotic cases, increases flow amount in the distal nephron where flow rates and velocity are low. The significant pressure increase occurring in the distal nephron takes place particularly in the cortical-collecting ducts. One study from 2008 lays out a hypothesis that hyperglycaemic and osmotic polyuria play roles ultimately in diabetic nephropathy. Diagnosis Among the possible tests to diagnose polyuria are: Treatment Depending on the cause of the polyuria, the adequate treatment should be afforded. According to NICE, desmopressin can be considered for nocturnal polyuria, which can be caused by diabetes mellitus, if other medical treatments have failed. The recommendation had no studies that met the criteria for consideration. See also Oliguria References Further reading External links Symptoms and signs: Urinary system	[ 0.45710527896881104, 0.6208615899085999, -0.5025856494903564, 0.06267326325178146, -0.09711112827062607, 0.11987446248531342, 0.6329325437545776, 0.1487799882888794, -0.1864524781703949, -0.9560238718986511, -0.3794597387313843, -0.11965123564004898, -0.5644152164459229, 0.393268883228302, 0.22327682375907898, 0.9306740760803223, 0.5702785849571228, 0.8310043811798096, -0.07399402558803558, 0.053713083267211914, -0.14807292819023132, 0.04056331515312195, 0.2679365873336792, -0.5811354517936707, -0.24257247149944305, -0.0804222971200943, 0.0710178092122078, 0.12023374438285828, -0.16352739930152893, -0.1761275678873062, -0.2159789353609085, 0.729799747467041, 0.8401573300361633, 0.4939119517803192, 0.4251670241355896, 0.3033297061920166, 0.006756197195500135, -0.5013460516929626, 0.0074119591154158115, -0.0688147097826004, -0.041297540068626404, 0.2577996850013733, 0.19068565964698792, 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258669	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samudragupta	Samudragupta	Samudragupta (Gupta script: Sa-mu-dra-gu-pta, r. c. (350-375 CE) was a ruler of the Gupta Empire of Ancient India. As a son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi, he greatly expanded his dynasty's political power. The Allahabad Pillar inscription, a prashasti (eulogy) composed by his courtier Harishena, credits him with extensive military conquests. It suggests that he defeated several kings of northern India, and annexed their territories to his empire. He also marched along the south-eastern coast of India, advancing as far as the Pallava kingdom. In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies. His empire extended from Ravi River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south-west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast were his tributaries. Samudragupta performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to prove his imperial sovereignty, and according to his coins, remained undefeated. His gold coins and inscriptions suggest that he was an accomplished poet, and also played music. His expansionist policy was continued by his son Chandragupta II. Period Modern scholars variously assign the start of Samudragupta's reign from c. 319 CE to c. 350 CE. The inscriptions of the Gupta kings are dated in the Gupta calendar era, whose epoch is generally dated to c. 319 CE. However, the identity of the era's founder is a matter of debate, and scholars variously attribute its establishment to Chandragupta I or Samudragupta. Chandragupta I probably had a long reign, as the Prayag Pillar inscription suggests that he appointed his son as his successor, presumably after reaching an old age. However, the exact period of his reign is uncertain. For these reasons, the beginning of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain. If Samudragupta is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, his ascension can be dated to c. 319-320 CE. On the other hand, if his father Chandragupta I is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, Samudragupta's ascension must be dated to a later date. Samudragupta was a contemporary of king Meghavarna of Anuradhapura Kingdom, but the regnal period of this king is also uncertain. According to the traditional reckoning adopted in Sri Lanka for Buddha's death, he ruled during 304-332 CE; but the modified chronology adopted by modern scholars such as Wilhelm Geiger assigns his reign to 352-379 CE. Accepting the former date would place Samudragupta's ascension to c. 320 CE; accepting the latter date would place it around c. 350 CE. The end of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain. Samudragupta's granddaughter Prabhavatigupta is known to have married during the reign of his son Chandragupta II, in c. 380 CE (assuming c. 319 CE as the epoch of the Gupta era). Therefore, the end of Samudragupta's reign can be placed before this year. Various estimates of Samudragupta's regnal period include: A. S. Altekar: c. 330-370 CE A. L. Basham: c. 335-376 CE S. R. Goyal: c. 350-375 CE Tej Ram Sharma: c. 353-373 CE Ascension Samudragupta was a son of the Gupta king Chandragupta I and queen Kumaradevi, who came from a Licchavi family. His fragmentary Eran stone inscription states that his father selected him as the successor because of his "devotion, righteous conduct, and valour". His Allahabad Pillar inscription similarly describes how Chandragupta called him a noble person in front of the courtiers, and appointed him to "protect the earth". These descriptions suggest that Chandragupta renounced the throne in his old age, and appointed his son as the next king. According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, when Chandragupta appointed him as the next ruler, the faces of other people of "equal birth" bore a "melancholy look". One interpretation suggests that these other people were neighbouring kings, and Samudagupta's ascension to the throne was uncontested. Another theory is that these other people were Gupta princes who made a rival claim to the throne. If Chandragputa I indeed had multiple sons, it is likely that Samudragupta's background as the son of a Lichchhavi princess worked in his favour. The coins of a Gupta ruler named Kacha, whose identity is debated by modern scholars, describe him as "the exterminator of all kings". These coins closely resemble the coins issued by Samudragupta. According to one theory, Kacha was an earlier name of Samudragupta: the king adopted the regnal name Samudra ("Ocean"), after extending his territory up to the ocean. An alternatively theory is that Kacha was a distinct king (possibly a rival claimant to the throne) who flourished before or after Samudragupta. Military career The Gupta inscriptions suggest that Samudragupta had a remarkable military career. The Eran stone inscription of Samudragupta states that he had brought "the whole tribe of kings" under his suzerainty, and that his enemies were terrified when they thought of him in their dreams. The inscription does not name any of the defeated kings (presumably because its primary objective was to record the installation of a Vishnu idol in a temple), but it suggests that Samudragupta had subdued several kings by this time. The later Allahabad Pillar inscription, a panegyric written by Samudragupta's minister and military officer Harishena, credits him with extensive conquests. It gives the most detailed account of Samudragupta's military conquests, listing them in mainly geographical and partly chronological order. It states that Samudragupta fought a hundred battles, acquired a hundred wounds that looked like marks of glory, and earned the title Prakrama (valourous). The Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as an "exterminator of all kings", as someone who had no equally powerful enemy, and as a person whose "fame was tasted by the waters of the four oceans". Modern scholars offer various opinions regarding Samudragupta's possible motivations behind his extensive military campaigns. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that Samudragupta's aim was the unification of the earth (dharani-bandha), which suggests that he may have aspired to become a Chakravartin (a universal ruler). The Ashvamedha performances by the Nagas, whom he defeated, may have influenced him as well. His southern expedition may have been motivated by economic considerations of controlling the trade between India and South-East Asia. Early victories The early portion of the Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that Samudragupta "uprooted" Achyuta, Nagasena, and a ruler whose name is lost in the damaged portion of the inscription. The third name ends in "-ga", and is generally restored as Ganapati-naga, because Achyuta-nandin (presumably same as Achyuta), Nagasena, and Ganapati-naga are once again mentioned in the later part of the inscription, among the kings of Aryavarta (northern India) defeated by Samudragupta. These kings are identified as the rulers of present-day western Uttar Pradesh (see below). According to the inscription, Samudragupta reinstated these rulers after they sought his forgiveness. It is not clear why the names of these three kings is repeated later in the inscription. According to one theory, these three kings were vassal rulers who rebelled against Samudragupta after the death of his father. Samudragupta crushed the rebellion, and reinstated them after they sought his forgiveness. Later, these rulers rebelled once more, and Samudragupta defeated them again. Another possibility is that the author of the inscription thought it necessary to repeat these names while describing Samudragupta's later conquests in Aryavarta, simply because these kings belonged to that region. Samudragupta dispatched an army to capture the scion of the Kota family, whose identity is uncertain. The Kotas may have been the rulers of present-day Punjab, where coins bearing the legend "Kota", and featuring a symbol of Shiva and his bull, have been discovered. The inscription states that the Gupta army captured the Kota ruler, while Samudragupta himself "played" (or pleased himself) in a city called Pushpa (the name Pushpa-pura referred to Pataliputra at Samudragupta's time, although it came to be used for Kanyakubja in the later period). Modern scholars have interpreted the word "played" in various ways: According to one theory, this portion describes Samudragupta's achievements as a prince. An alternative interpretation is that Samudragupta dispatched his army on these campaigns, while he himself stayed at the capital. It is also possible that the poet intended to convey that these campaigns were minor affairs that did not require the king's direct involvement at the battlefront. Southern conquests According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta captured (and later released) the following kings of Dakshinapatha, the southern region: The exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars, but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India. Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day Odisha, and then marched south along the coast of Bay of Bengal. The inscription states that Samudragupta later released these kings, and favoured (anugraha) them. Most modern scholars theorize that Samudragupta reinstated these rulers as his tributaries. M. G. S. Narayanan interprets the word anugraha differently based on its occurrence in the Arthashastra; he theorizes that Samudragupta gave "protection and aid" to these kingdoms in order to secure their alliances. Some scholars, such as J. Dubreuil and B. V. Krishnarao, theorized that Samudragupta only advanced up to the Krishna river, and was forced to retreat without fighting a battle, when the southern kings formed a strong confederacy to oppose him. According to these scholars, the claim that Samudragupta released these kings is an attempt by Samudragupta's courtier to cover up the emperor's failure. However, there is no evidence of the southern kings forming a confederacy against Samudragupta. Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that setting free a captured king is inline with the ancient Indian political ideals. For example, Kautilya defines three types of conquerors: the righteous conqueror (dharma-vijayi), who restores the defeated king in exchange for his acknowledgment of the conqueror's suzerainty; the covetous conqueror (lobha-vijayi), who takes away the possessions of the defeated king but spares his life; and the demoniac conqueror (asura-vijayi), who annexes the territory of the defeated king and kills him. Such political ideals existed in the Gupta period too, as evident from Kalidasa's statement in Raghuvamsha that "the righteous victorious monarch (Raghu) only took away the royal glory of the lord of Mahendra who had been captured and released, but not his kingdom." Therefore, it is likely that Samudragupta acted like a righteous conqueror, and restored the defeated kings as his vassals. Mahendra of Kosala Kosala here refers to Dakshina Kosala, which includes parts of present-day Chhattisgarh and Odisha. One theory identifies Mahendra of Kosala with a Nala king named Mahendraditya. Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara Historian K. P. Jayaswal identifies Mahakantara (literally "great wilderness") as the Bastar-Kanker area in present-day Chhattisgarh. According to another theory, Mahakantara is same as Mahavana, a synonym used as the name for the forest region around present-day Jeypore of Odisha. Earlier historians identified Mahakantara as a region in central India, and identified Vyaghra-raja with the Vakataka feudatory Vyaghra-deva, whose inscriptions have been found at Nachna. However, this identification is now considered incorrect, as Samudragupta is not known to have fought against the Vakatakas. Mantaraja of Kurala The Rawan inscription of the Sharabhapuriya king Narendra, who ruled in the Dakshina Kosala region, mentions an area called Mantaraja-bhukti ("the province of Mantaraja"). Therefore, some historians such as K. D. Bajpai theorize that Mantaraja was a king who ruled in the Dakshina Kosala region. Historian A. M. Shastri disputes this theory, arguing that the ruler of Kosala (that is, Dakshina Kosala) has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Lorenz Franz Kielhorn speculated that Kurala was same as Kaurala (or Kunala) mentioned in the Aihole inscription of the 7th century king Pulakeshin II, and identified it as the area around the Kolleru Lake in present-day Andhra Pradesh. H. C. Raychaudhuri disputes this identification, pointing out that this region was a part of Hastivarman's Vengi kingdom, which has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Other proposed identifications of Kurala include Kolada near Bhanjanagar (former Russelkonda) in Odisha; and Kulula, a region mentioned in the Mahendragiri inscription of the 11th century king Rajendra Chola, and identified with Cherla in present-day Telangana. Mahendragiri of Pishtapura Pishtapura is modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh. The word giri mentions hill in Sanskrit, and therefore, J. F. Fleet speculated that "Mahendragiri" could not have been a person's name: he suggested that the verse (Mahendragiri-Kautturaka-Svamidatta) referred to a king called "Mahendra", and a place called "Kottura on the hill" which was ruled by Svamidatta. However, Fleet's translation is incorrect: the verse clearly mentions Mahendragiri of Pishtapura and Svamidatta of Kottura as two distinct persons. G. Ramdas interpreted the verse to mean Svamidatta was the ruler of Pishtapura and "Kottura near Mahendragiri", while Bhau Daji translated it as "Svamidatta of Pishtapura, Mahendragiri and Kottura". However, these translations are also incorrect. The concern about the king's name is invalid: several historical records mention names ending in the word giri or its synonym adri. Svamidatta of Kottura Svamidatta was probably one of the chiefs who resisted Samudragupta's passage through the Kalinga region. Kottura has been identified with modern Kotturu (or Kothur) in Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh (near Paralakhemundi, Odisha). Alternative proposals identify it with other similarly named places in present-day Andhra Pradesh. Damana of Erandapalla Proposed identifications of Erandapalla include Errandapali near Srikakulam, a town near Mukhalingam, Yendipalli in Visakhapatnam district, and Endipalli in West Godavari district. Vishnugopa of Kanchi Vishnugopa is identified as the Pallava ruler of Kanchipuram: Samudragupta's invasion probably occurred when he acted as a regent for his nephew Skandavarman III. Nilaraja of Avamukta The identity of Avamukta is uncertain. The Brahmanda Purana mentions an area called "Avimukta-kshetra", located on the banks of the Gautami river (that is, Godavari), which may be identified with Avamukta of Samudragupta's inscription. Some historical texts use the name Avamukta-kshetra for the region around Varanasi, but Varanasi is not located in Dakshinapatha, and therefore, was certainly not the Avamukta mentioned in the inscription. Hastivarman of Vengi Hastivarman was the Shalankayana king of Vengi (modern Pedavegi) in Andhra Pradesh. Ugrasena of Palakka J. Dubreuil identified Palakka with the place referred to as Palakkada in several Pallava inscriptions; this location was probably the headquarters of a Pallava viceroyalty. For example, the Uruvapalli grant inscription of Yuva-maharaja (Prince) Vishnugopa-varman was issued from Palakkada. G. Ramdas identified it with Pakkai located between Udayagiri and Venkatagiri in the Nellore district, and theorized that it was same as the place referred to as Paka-nadu, Panka-nadu, or Pakai-nadu in the inscriptions of the 10th century Chola king Rajaraja I. Kubera of Devarashtra According to one theory, Deva-rashtra was located in the historical Kalinga region of present-day northern Andhra Pradesh. The Srungavarapukota inscription of the Vasishtha king Anantavarman, issued from Pishtapura in this area, describes his grandfather Gunavarman as Deva-rashtradhipati ("Lord of Deva-rashtra"). The Kasimkota inscription of the 10th century Vengi Chalukya king Bhima I mentions a vishaya (district) called Deva-rashtra in Kalinga. Based on this, J. Dubreuil identified Devarashtra as a location in the present-day Yelamanchili taluka of Andhra Pradesh. During Samudragupta's period, the Kalinga region appears to have been divided among several small kingdoms, which may have included Kottura, Pishtapura, and Devarashtra. Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura B. V. Krishnarao speculated that Dhananjaya of Samudragupta's inscription may be same as the Dhananjaya from whom the chieftains of Dhanyakataka (modern Dharanikota in Andhra Pradesh) claimed descent. He identified Kusthalapura with modern Kolanupaka (or Kollipak) located on the banks of the Aleru River in present-day Telangana. Another theory identifies Kusthalapura with a tract around the Kushasthali river near Dakshina Kosala. Northern conquests According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta "forcibly uprooted" the following kings of Aryavarta, the northern region: Unlike the southern kings, the inscription does not mention the territories ruled by these kings, which suggests that their kingdoms were annexed to the Gupta empire. The inscription also mentions that Samudragupta defeated some other kings, but does not mention their names, presumably because the poet saw them as unimportant. Rudradeva Rudradeva may be same as a king named Rudra, whose coin has been found at Kaushambi. Another theory identifies Rudradeva with a Western Kshatrapa (Shaka) king of Ujjain, either Rudradaman II or Rudrasena III. Some earlier scholars, such as K. N. Dikshit and K. P. Jayaswal, identified Rudradeva with the Vakataka king Rudrasena I. However, this identification seems to be inaccurate, because Samudragupta's inscription explicitly mentions Rudradeva as a king of the northern region (Aryavarta), while the Vakatakas ruled in the southern region (Dakshinapatha). An argument cited in support of this identification is that Rudrasena bore the title Maharaja ("great king") as opposed to samrat ("emperor"), signifying his subordinate status to Samudragupta. However, multiple sovereign Vakataka kings bore the title Maharaja: only Pravarasena I assumed the title samrat after performing a vajapeya ritual sacrifice. An inscription of Rudrasena's descendant Prithvishena II mentions that the Vakataka kingdom had been prospering for a hundred years, suggesting that the Vakataka rule remained uninterrupted during Rudrasena's reign. Matila The identity of Matila is not certain. Earlier, Matila was identified with Mattila, who is known from a terracotta seal discovered at Bulandshahr. However, there is no evidence that this Mattila was a ruler, and epigraphist Jagannath Agrawal has dated the seal to the 6th century on palaeographic basis. Nagadatta Nagadatta is not known from any other inscriptions or coins, but his name has led to suggestions that he may have been the ruler of a Naga branch. D. C. Sircar theorized that he was an ancestor of a family of Gupta viceroys, whose names ended in -datta. Tej Ram Sharma speculates that he may have been a Naga ruler, whose successors were sent as Gupta viceroys in Bengal after the family accepted the Gupta suzerainty. Chandravarman Chandravarman of Samudragupta's inscription has been identified with Chandravarman, the ruler of Pushkarana (modern Pakhanna) in present-day West Bengal. P. L. Gupta and some earlier scholars have identified this ruler with another Chandravarman, who has been mentioned in an inscription discovered at Mandsaur in present-day Madhya Pradesh. Tej Ram Sharma disputes this identification, arguing that Samudragupta "exterminated" all kings of Aryavarta and annexed their territories, as suggested by the Allahabad Pillar inscription; however, Naravarman - a brother of Chandravarman of Mandsaur - is known to have been ruling as a feudatory in 404 CE. Ganapatinaga Ganapati-naga is identified as a Naga king. Several coins bearing the legend Ganapati have been discovered at Padmavati, Vidisha, and Mathura. Although these coins do not bear the suffix "naga", they are similar to the ones issued by the other Naga kings such as Skanda-naga, Brihaspati-naga, and Deva-naga. Since hundreds of Ganapati's coins have been found at Mathura, it appears that he was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Mathura. Nagasena The 7th century text Harshacharita refers to the Naga king Nagasena, who "met with his doom in Padmavati, as his secret plan was divulged by a sarika bird". Assuming this describes a historical person, it appears that Nagasena was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Padmavati in present-day Madhya Pradesh. Achyuta-nandin Achyuta-nandin seems to be same as Achyuta, who is mentioned earlier in the inscription; his name may have been shortened in the earlier verses for metrical purposes. An alternatively theory identifies Achyuta and Nandin as two distinct kings. Achyuta was the ruler of Ahichchhatra in present-day Uttar Pradesh, where coins attributed to him have been discovered. These coins bear the legend "Achyu", and are similar to the coins issued by the Naga rulers. This has led to suggestions that the Achyuta-nandin defeated by Samudragupta was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Ahichhatra. Balavarman V. V. Mirashi identified Bala-varman (or Balavarma) as a ruler of the Magha dynasty of Kosambi. U. N. Roy suggested that Bala-varman may have been an ancestor of the Maukhari kings, who initially served as Gupta vassals, and whose names ended in -varman. Another theory identifies him with the successor of Shridhara-varman, the Shaka ruler of Eran. Samudragupta may have ended the dynasty of Eran, as suggested by the discovery of his inscription at Eran. K. N. Dikshit identified Balavarman with Balavarman, a ruler of the Varman dynasty of Kamarupa; however, Balavarman was not a contemporary of Samudragupta. Moreover, Kamarupa has been mentioned as a distinct frontier kingdom later on in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Conquests in the forest region According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta reduced all the kings of the forest region (atavika) to subservience. This forest region may have been located in central India: the inscriptions of the Parivrajaka dynasty, which ruled in this area, state that their ancestral kingdom was located within the 18 forest kingdoms. Frontier kings and tribes The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies paid Samudragupta tributes, obeyed his orders, and performed obeisance before him. The inscription explicitly describes the five kingdoms as frontier territories: the areas controlled by the tribes were also probably located at the frontier of Samudrgupta's kingdom. Historian Upinder Singh theorizes that the relationship of these frontier rulers to the Gupta emperor had "certain elements of a feudatory relationship". According to historian R. C. Majumdar, it is likely that Samudragupta's conquests in Aryavarta and Dakshinapatha increased his reputation to such an extent that the frontier rulers and tribes submitted him without a fight. The frontier kingdoms included: Samatata, located in the present-day Bengal. Davaka, located in present-day Assam. Kamarupa, located in present-day Assam. Nepala, located in present-day Nepal. According to one theory, Nepala here refers to the Licchavi kingdom, whose rulers may have been the maternal relatives of Samudragupta. Karttripura, probably located in the present-day Uttarakhand: the inscription appears to name frontier kingdoms in geographical order proceeding from Bengal to Assam to Nepal; Uttarakhand would be next in the sequence. A now-obsolete theory identified Karttripura with Kartarpur in present-day Punjab, but Kartarpur was established much later, in the 16th century, by Guru Arjan. The tribal oligarchies included: Malavas: During Samudragupta's period, they were probably headquartered at Karkota-nagara (present-day Nagar Fort in Rajasthan), where several thousands of their coins have been discovered. Arjunayanas: Their coins have been found in the Mathura region. According to numismatist John Allan, the Arjunayanas resided in the triangle connecting the present-day Delhi, Jaipur and Agra. Yaudheyas: They ruled the area between the Sutlej and the Yamuna rivers after the Kushans. They seem to have become Samudragupta's tributaries. Madrakas: They are generally placed between the Ravi and the Chenab rivers. Abhiras: Epigraphic and literary evidence suggests that they ruled in western India during Samudragupta's period. Sanakanikas: They appear to have ruled the region around Udayagiri in present-day Madhya Pradesh. An inscription found at Udayagiri refers to a Sanakanika chief as a feudatory of Chandragupta II: this chief and his two predecessors are described as "Maharajas", which suggests that Samudragupta allowed the Sanakanika chiefs to rule as his governors after conquering their territory. Kakas: They may have been the rulers of the area around the Sanchi hill, which has been mentioned as Kakanada in ancient inscriptions. Prarjunas They may be identified as the Prarjunakas mentioned in the Arthashastra, but their location is uncertain. Various theories place them in central India, including around the present-day Narsinghpur or Narsinghgarh in Madhya Pradesh. Kharaparikas: They may be same as the "Kharaparas" (literally "thief" or "rogue") mentioned in a 14th-century stone inscription found at Batiyagarh (or Battisgarh) in Damoh district. These Kharaparas are variously identified as an indigenous tribe or freebooters of this region. Some later sources suggest that the Kharaparas were a foreign tribe (possibly Mongols), and the Dingal-language texts use the word "Kharapara" as a synonym for "Muslim", but such an identification is not applicable to Samudragupta's period. There is also some speculation about the Kharaparikas being same as the Gardabhilas mentioned in the Puranas, as the words "Khara" and "Gardabha" both mean "donkey" in Sanskrit. However, very little is known about the Gardabhilas from historical sources. Relations with other rulers Samudragupta's inscription mentions that several kings tried to please him by attending on him personally; offering him their daughters in marriage (or, according to another interpretation, gifting him maidens); and seeking the use of the Garuda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories. These kings included "Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi, Shaka-Murundas, and the rulers of the island countries such as Simhala". Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi Numismatist John Allan theorized that Daivaputra, Shahi, and Shahanushahi were three different states; or alternatively, Shahi-Shahanushahi was a single state. Historian D. R. Bhandarkar argued that Daivaputra ("a descendant of Devaputra") cannot be a stand-alone name, and identified Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi as a single ruler, possibly Kidara I, who had established a new kingdom Gandhara (present-day Afghanistan). According to historian Tej Ram Sharma, Daivaputra refers to a Kushan king (Devaputra being a Kushan title); Shahi refers to a sub-branch of the Kushans; and Shahanushahi refers to the Sasanians. These kings controlled parts of present-day Punjab and Afghanistan. Historian Ashvini Agrwal theorizes that Kidara, who initially ruled as a vassal of the Sasanian king Shapur II, may have formed an alliance with Samudragupta to overthrow his Sasanian overlord. In Raghuvamsha, the Gupta court poet Kalidasa states his hero Raghu defeated the Parasikas (Persians): Agrwal speculates that this description may be inspired from the Kidraite-Gupta victory over the Sasanians. According to Abraham Eraly and others, the expression Devaputra Shāhi Shāhānu Shāhi evidently designates the Kushan princes, being a deformation of the Kushan regnal titles Devaputra, Shao and Shaonanoshao: "Son of God, King, King of Kings". This suggests that by the time of the Allahabad inscription the Kushans still ruled in Punjab, but under the suzerainty of the Gupta Emperor. Shaka-Murundas Some scholars believe that the term "Shaka-Murundas" refers to a single entity. For example, scholars such as Sten Konow assert that "Murunda" is a Shaka title meaning "lord"; the Kushans also used similar titles (for example, Kanishka is titled a "muroda" in his Zeda inscription). Other scholars, such as K. P. Jayaswal, believe that Shakas and Murundas are two different groups of people. According to this theory, Shakas here most probably refers to the Western Kshatrapa rulers of Ujjain. Jayaswal notes that the Puranas mention the rule of 13 Murunda kings, and Hemachandra's Abhidhana-Chintamani describes Murunda as people of Lampaka (in present-day Afghanistan). However, Agrwal points out that these sources are of relatively late origin, and it is possible that a branch of the Shakas had come to be known as "Murundas". The exact location of the Shakas mentioned in Samudragupta's inscription is not certain. V. A. Smith identified them with the Western Kshatrapas, who controlled the western Malwa and Saurashtra regions. D. R. Bhandarkar alternatively identified the Shaka-Murunda ruler with Shridhara-varman, a Shaka ruler whose inscriptions have been discovered at Sanchi (Kanakerha inscription) and Eran. Eran then came under the direct control of Samudragupta, as attested by his Eran inscription. Simhala and other islands According to the Chinese sources, Meghavarna, the king of Simhala (present-day Sri Lanka), sought to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya, for the convenience of the pilgrims from his kingdom. He sent rich presents for this purpose, and Samudragupta sanctioned his request to build the monastery. Using poetic exaggeration, Samudragupta's courtier Harishena appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience. Similarly, the 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuanzang, who visited this monastery, appears to have regarded the rich presents sent by Meghavarna as tribute: he states that Meghavarna "gave in tribute to the king of India all the jewels of his country". The "other islands" may be the Indianized kingdoms of South-East Asia, but there is no evidence that their rulers were subordinate to Samudragupta. They probably sent embassies to the Gupta empire, and maintained friendly relations. The sea ports of the Gupta Empire, such as Tamralipti, were probably connected to these kingdoms through the marine routes. The widespread use of Sanskrit in these kingdoms may have happened as a result of Gupta influence. Extent of the empire Samudragupta's empire included a core territory, located in northern India, which was directly controlled by the emperor. Besides, it comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states. Historian R. C. Majumdar theorizes that Samudragupta directly controlled an area extending from the Ravi River (Punjab) in the west to the Brahmaputra River (Bengal and Assam) in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to the Vindhya hills in the south. The south-western boundary of his territory roughly followed an imaginary line drawn from present-day Karnal to Bhilsa. In the south, Samudragupta's empire definitely included Eran in present-day Madhya Pradesh, where his inscription has been found. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that he advanced up to Kanchipuram in the south. However, since the claims in the Allahabad Pillar inscription are from a royal eulogy, they must be treated with caution. The southern kings were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute. According to historian Kunal Chakrabarti, Samudragupta's military campaigns weakened the tribal republics of present-day Punjab and Rajasthan, but even these kingdoms were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute. Samudragupta's claim of control over other kings is questionable. Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that a gold coin of the Gadahara tribe bears the legend Samudra, which suggests that Samudragupta's control extended up to the Chenab river in the Punjab region. Some earlier scholars, such as J. F. Fleet believed that Samudragupta had also conquered a part of Maharashtra, based on the identification of Devarashtra with Maharashtra, and Erandapalla with Erandol, where some Gupta-era remains have been found. However, this theory is no longer considered correct. Coinage The coinage of the Gupta Empire was initially derived from the coinage of the Kushan Empire, adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests of Samudragupta in the northwest of the subcontinent. The Guptas even adopted from the Kushans the name of Dinara for their coinage, which ultimately came from the Roman name Denarius aureus. The standard coin type of Samudragupta is highly similar to the coinage of the later Kushan rulers, including the sacrificial scene over an altar, the depiction of a halo, while differences include the headdress of the ruler (a close-fitting cap instead of the Kushan pointed hat), the Garuda standard instead of the trident, and Samudragupta's jewelry, which is Indian. The following types of Samudragupta's coins, inscribed with Sanskrit language legends, have been discovered: Standard type Obverse legend: Samara-shata-vitata-vijayo-jita-ripurajito-divam-jayati. Translation: "The unconquered one who has conquered his enemies [and] has continuously attained victories in a hundred battles, wins heaven"; Alternative translation: "The conqueror of the unconquered fortresses of his enemies, whose victory was spread in hundreds of battles, conquers heaven". Reverse legend: Prakramah Archer type Depicts Samudragupta standing fully dressed with a bow on his left hand and an arrow on his right hand. Obverse legend: Apratiratha vijitya kshitim sucharitair (or avnipatir) divam Jayati. Translation: "Unopposed by hostile chariots, conquering the earth, he conquers heaven by his good deeds". Reverse legend: Apratirathah Battle-axe type Obverse legend: Kritanta-parshur-jayatyajitarajajetaji-tah. Translation: "Wielding the axe of Kritanta (the god of death), the unconquered conqueror of unconquered kings is victorious" Reverse legend: Kritanta-parashuh Tiger-slayer type Depicts the king wearing turban and waist-cloth, and trampling a tiger Legend: Vaghra-prakramah. Translation: "Having the prowess of a tiger". Lyrist type Depicts Samudragupta wearing waist-cloth and seated cross-legged on a couch, playing a veena that lies on his knees. Legend: the king's name Ashvamedha type Obverse legend: Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatyahritavaji-medhah ("the overlord of kings, who has performed the horse-sacrifice, having protected the earth, conquers the heaven") on the reverse. Some coins have an alternative legend: Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatya-prativarya-viryah ("the overlord of kings, of irresistible valour, having protected the earth, wins heaven"). Reverse legend: Ashvamedha-prakramah ("possessing the valour to perform the horse-sacrifice") Various scholars, including numismatist John Allan, consider that the gold coins bearing the portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi were issued by Samudragupta to commemorate his parents, while others have attributed the issue of these coins to Chandragupta himself. Inscriptions Two inscriptions from Samudragupta's reign have been discovered: Allahabad Pillar inscription Eran stone inscription Fleet theorized that the Allahabad Pillar inscription was posthumous, and was issued during the reign of Chandragupta II, but modern scholars disagree with this theory. Two other records are attributed to Samudragupta's reign, but the genuineness of these records is disputed: Nalanda inscription, dated to the regnal year 5 Gaya inscription, dated to the regnal year 9 Both these inscriptions state that they were written at the order of the Gupta officer Gopaswamin. Like the Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II, these records describe Samudragupta as the "restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice". It seems suspicious that records issued so early in Samudragupta's reign mention this claim, which does not appear in the later Allahabad Pillar inscription. One possibility is that these records were issued during Samudragupta's reign, and were damaged after some time, because of which they were restored during the reign of Chandragupta II. Eran inscription At Eran, an inscription by Samudragupta seems to succeed that of a local Saka ruler named Sridharavarman, already known from the Kanakerha inscription at Sanchi and another inscription in Eran. Samudragupta may therefore have ousted Sridharavarman in his campaigns to the West. The Eran Inscription of Samudragupta is presently stored in Kolkata Indian Museum. The inscription, in red sandstone, was found not far to the west of the ruined temple of the boar. It reads: Religion Samudragputa's Eran inscription records the installation of a Vishnu idol in a temple. The Nalanda and Gaya inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta explicitly call him a devotee of Vishnu (parama-Bhagavata) He was also tolerant towards Buddhism, and permitted the construction of a Buddhist monastery commissioned by the Anuradhapura king Meghavarna at Bodh Gaya in his territory. The Allahabad Pillar inscription states that Samudragupta was engaged in the performance of the Brahmanical ceremonies of Sattra (Soma sacrifices) and Diksha. It describes him as "the giver of many hundreds of thousands of cows". The Mathura stone inscription of his son Chandragupta II also describes him as the giver of "millions of cows and gold". It appears that Samudragupta donated these cows to the Brahmins who officiated his Sattra and Diksha ceremonies. The Eran inscription states that Samudragupta surpassed Prithu, Raghava and other legendary kings in giving gold. The Allahabad Pillar inscription alludes to his divine kingship, comparing him to the Parama Purusha (supreme being), and also with deities such as Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna, Indra, and Antaka (Yama). The Eran inscription states that he was equal to Kubera and Yama in pleasure and anger respectively. The Mathura stone inscription similarly describes him as equal to the deities Kubera, Varuna, Indra, and Yama. Ashvamedha Samudragupta performed the Ashvamedha ritual, which was used by the ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (see Coinage section) to mark this performance. The copper-plate inscriptions of Samudragupta's granddaughter Prabhavati-Gupta, who was a Vakataka queen, describe him as the performer of multiple horse sacrifices. According to one theory, Samudragupta indeed performed more than one horse sacrifices, as attested by the presence of two different legends on his Ashvamedha coins. Another theory dismisses the claim on Prabhavati-Gupta's inscriptions as an exaggeration or a scribal error since this claim does not appear on the inscriptions of Samudragupta or his successors. The Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as "the restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice that had been long in abeyance" (Smith's translation). This claim also appears in the inscriptions of the subsequent Gupta kings, as well as the spurious Gaya and Nalanda inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta. However, several kings including those from Bharashiva, Vakataka, Shalankayana, and Pallava dynasties had had performed Ashvamedha in the preceding years. Different scholars have attempted to explain this anomaly in different ways: H. C. Raychaudhuri suggests that the Gupta court poet did not know about these kings. According to R. C. Majumdar, Samudragupta was the first king several centuries to perform the sacrifice in the Magadha region. Majumdar also theorizes that the Ashvamedha ceremony performed by Bharashiva, Vakataka, and other near-contemporary kings was "more of a religious nature", while Samudragupta's ceremony actually involved proving his imperial sovereignty. Similarly, scholars such as S. K. Aiyangar and D. R. Bhandarkar, theorize that unlike the other kings, Samudragupta performed a "full-fledged" Ashvamedha ceremony. Others, such as V. S. Pathak and Jagannath Agrawal, interpret the verse to mean that Samudragupta performed the horse-sacrifice that lasted for a long-time. The surviving verses of Samudragupta's own Allahabad Pillar inscription do not mention the Ashvamedha ceremony. According to one theory, this inscription was put up to mark the beginning of the ceremony, as the panegyrics of the sacrificer were an essential part of the Ashvamedha ceremony. It is possible that its first four lines, which are now lost, contained a reference to the ceremony. Personality Samudragupta's coins depict him as a man of tall stature and muscular physique. The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents him as a compassionate ruler, stating that his "mind was engaged in providing relief to the low, the poor, the helpless, and the afflicted". It also mentions that he reinstated many royal families which had lost their kingdoms, including the kings defeated by him. At the same time, it states that he maintained strict administration ("Prachanda shasana"). The inscription states that Samudragupta became famous among the learned people because of his poetical works, and earned the epithet "king of poets". This suggests that he composed some poetical works, but none of these works now survive. The inscription also boasts that Samudragupta put to shame the celestial musician Tumburu and Narada by his lovely performances of music. Samudragupta's musical talents are also corroborated by his gold coins which depict him playing a veena. The inscription praises Samudragupta's wisdom and intellect, stating that he put to shame the preceptor of the Lord of the Gods (that is, Brihaspati) by his sharp intellect. Succession The official records of the Gupta dynasty state that Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta II, who was his son from queen Dattadevi. Based on a reconstruction of the partially-lost Sanskrit play Devichandraguptam, a section of modern historians believe that Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramagupta, who was later dethroned by Chandragupta II. References Bibliography External links Catalogue of Coins of Samudragupta Gupta Empire 4th-century Indian monarchs	[ -0.3792206346988678, 0.7045276165008545, -0.46384158730506897, -0.6889426708221436, -0.5994473695755005, 0.2932533323764801, 0.9640845060348511, -0.1374489814043045, -0.6430771350860596, -0.0014282454503700137, -0.202920600771904, -0.12613090872764587, -0.5081515908241272, -0.18708649277687073, 0.2744196057319641, 0.2662110924720764, 0.3212255835533142, -0.04250578582286835, -0.014142545871436596, 0.23233497142791748, 0.12146850675344467, 0.2699066996574402, 0.4270450174808502, -0.20564469695091248, 0.7952728867530823, 0.20565539598464966, 0.4557890295982361, 0.19516997039318085, -0.124814473092556, -0.3963620662689209, -0.6454268097877502, 0.7800774574279785, 0.18902720510959625, -0.07139500975608826, 0.43563371896743774, 0.17716141045093536, -0.1953240931034088, 0.32068103551864624, -0.16514374315738678, -0.03938382491469383, 0.2105691134929657, -0.021465962752699852, 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258676	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88	Ĉ	Ĉ or ĉ (C circumflex) is a consonant in Esperanto orthography, representing the sound . It is based on the letter c. Esperanto orthography uses a diacritic for all four of its postalveolar consonants, as do the Latin-based Slavic alphabets. Letters and digraphs that are similar to ĉ and represent the same sound include Slovene č, Albanian ç, Polish digraph cz, English and Spanish digraph ch, French trigraph tch, German tetragraph tsch, Hungarian digraph cs, Basque and Catalan digraph tx and Italian c before i or e. Character mappings See also Ĝ Ĥ Ĵ Ŝ Ŭ Esperanto letters with diacritics Latin letters with diacritics	[ 0.10325585305690765, 0.1789965033531189, 0.20455320179462433, -0.0060630920343101025, -0.2512055039405823, 0.3798106610774994, -0.18055987358093262, 0.48291149735450745, -0.2961101830005646, -0.13947048783302307, 0.012433705851435661, 0.4363900125026703, 0.07554358243942261, 0.06177791580557823, 0.2065185010433197, 0.5186848640441895, 0.5210749506950378, 0.3001253306865692, -0.11555615067481995, -0.3193575143814087, -0.42369604110717773, -0.23646079003810883, 0.14787600934505463, 0.1117779016494751, 0.2595967650413513, 0.12845449149608612, -0.4947904050350189, 0.243013396859169, 0.24449452757835388, 0.048377346247434616, 0.18890942633152008, 0.8620612621307373, 0.3357795178890228, 0.10187062621116638, 0.19810537993907928, -0.3972843587398529, -0.339959979057312, -0.28862395882606506, -0.3395724892616272, -0.4722355306148529, -0.3849852681159973, -0.22772151231765747, 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258678	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%9C	Ĝ	Ĝ or ĝ (G circumflex) is a consonant in Esperanto orthography, representing a voiced postalveolar affricate (either palato-alveolar or retroflex), and is equivalent to a voiced postalveolar affricate or a voiced retroflex affricate . While Esperanto orthography uses a diacritic for its four postalveolar consonants, as do the Latin-based Slavic alphabets, the base letters are Romano-Germanic. Ĝ is based on the letter g, which has this sound in English and Italian before the vowels i and e (with some exceptions in English), to better preserve the shape of borrowings from those languages (such as ĝenerala from general) than Slavic đ or dẑ would. Uses of Ĝ in other languages In Haida, a language isolate, the letter ĝ was sometimes used to represent pharyngeal voiced fricative . In Aleut, an Eskimo-Aleut language, ĝ represents a voiced uvular fricative . The corresponding voiceless Aleut sound is represented by x̂. In Dutch, the letter ĝ is used in some phrase books and dictionaries for pronunciation help. It represents a plosive , because g is pronounced as a fricative in Dutch. In some transcriptions of Sumerian, ĝ is used to represent the velar nasal . id:Sirkumfleks#Ĝĝ Character mappings See also Ĉ Ĥ Ĵ Ŝ Ŭ Eskimo–Aleut languages Esperanto letters with diacritics Latin letters with diacritics	[ -0.3812485635280609, 0.0684003084897995, 0.3834686875343323, -0.08806705474853516, -0.45119741559028625, 0.7986403107643127, 0.016404451802372932, 0.34010249376296997, -0.21005094051361084, -0.27367284893989563, -0.23488877713680267, 0.4893885850906372, -0.2500939965248108, -0.1667816936969757, 0.18437780439853668, 0.6907483339309692, 0.6438986659049988, 0.11075468361377716, -0.531970739364624, -0.49073702096939087, 0.06923035532236099, -0.22128808498382568, 0.3979679048061371, -0.02575330063700676, 0.33637675642967224, -0.0457179993391037, -0.23932164907455444, 0.4310718774795532, 0.3059427738189697, 0.371437668800354, 0.07818353921175003, 1.1667436361312866, 0.2340882271528244, 0.5775744915008545, 0.0053015402518212795, -0.16240356862545013, 0.35095396637916565, 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258680	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A4	Ĥ	Ĥ or ĥ is a letter of some extended Latin alphabets, most prominently a consonant in Esperanto orthography, where it represents a voiceless velar fricative or voiceless uvular fricative . Its name in Esperanto is (pronounced ), or in the Kalocsay abecedary. It is also used in the revised Demers/Blanchet/St Onge orthography for Chinook Jargon. In the case of the minuscule, some fonts place the circumflex centered above the entire base letter h, others over the riser of the letter, and others over the shoulder. {\| \| \|- \|ĥ in the fonts Code2000, Sylfaen, Pragmatica Esperanto \|} History "Ĥ" was created by adding a circumflex to an ordinary "H". It first appeared as part of the alphabet of the international language Esperanto, with the publication of the Unua Libro on 26 July 1887 marking the beginning of its wider usage. Like all other non-basic Latin letters in the Esperanto alphabet, it was inspired by Western Slavic Latin alphabets (e.g. Czech), but uses a circumflex instead of a caron — most likely to make the orthography appear more international (i.e. less Slavic) and more compatible with French typewriters, which were in general use at the time and had a dead key for the circumflex, allowing it to be typed over any character. Reported demise ⟨Ĥ⟩ was always the least frequent letter in Esperanto orthography, occuring mostly in words with Greek etymologies, where it represented a Romanized chi (in fact its name in the Kalocsay abecedary, , was most likely inspired by this usage). Since chi is pronounced in most languages, neologistic equivalents soon appeared in which ⟨ĥ⟩ was replaced by ⟨k⟩, such as → ("technology") and → ("chemistry"). Some other replacements followed different patterns, such as → ("Chinese "). These additions and replacements came very early and were in general use by World War I. Since then, the imminent demise of ⟨ĥ⟩ has been often discussed, but has never really happened. In modern times (post-World War II), no new coinages intended to replace words with ⟨ĥ⟩ in them have seen general use, with the notable of exception of for ("chorus"). Some words originally containing a ⟨ĥ⟩ are preferred to existing replacements (old or new), such as vs. ("chaos"). Several words commonly use ⟨ĥ⟩, particularly those not derived from Greek words ( ("khan"), ("jota"), ("Liechtenstein"), etc.) or those in which there is another word that uses "k" in that context. The latter include: ("echo") ≠ ("beginning") ("Czech") ≠ ("bank check") ("chorus") ≠ ("heart") ≠ ("hour") Other uses A 'Ĥ' was used in the stage name of the 1980s Italo disco singer CĤATO. In quantum mechanics, the Hamiltonian of a system is typically denoted by (where the hat indicates that it is an operator), especially in the Wheeler–DeWitt equation. Computing codes See also Ĉ, Ĝ, Ĵ, Ŝ, Ŭ – the other non-basic Latin letters of the Esperanto alphabet Ħ Notes References Esperanto letters with diacritics Latin letters with diacritics	[ -0.34725597500801086, 0.15879172086715698, 0.20392660796642303, -0.0820758268237114, -0.5671821236610413, 0.8378385901451111, 0.3095836043357849, 0.21716372668743134, -0.08917539566755295, -0.6816482543945312, -0.10218220949172974, 0.23845258355140686, 0.056640736758708954, 0.10574828833341599, 0.4040945768356323, 0.3612092435359955, 0.6570584774017334, 0.20867936313152313, -0.3739570677280426, -0.1174289658665657, -0.17749254405498505, -0.08892862498760223, 0.5750045776367188, -0.11661390215158463, 0.49448496103286743, -0.43957585096359253, -0.17815794050693512, 0.044739194214344025, 0.3102041184902191, 0.18031111359596252, -0.02579178474843502, 0.9532368779182434, 0.15799900889396667, 0.25790250301361084, -0.07867064327001572, -0.4015490412712097, 0.09249471127986908, -0.5028606653213501, 0.016735946759581566, -0.14783143997192383, -0.25874045491218567, -0.5003869533538818, -0.04051300883293152, 0.43772172927856445, -0.6560149788856506, -0.3661569356918335, -1.5850410461425781, 0.17833565175533295, -0.24983924627304077, 0.1921650916337967, -0.34198904037475586, 0.08578826487064362, -0.3957156538963318, 0.11904700845479965, -0.236136794090271, 0.3683622181415558, -0.9432174563407898, -0.5046240091323853, 0.5745366811752319, -0.19662681221961975, 0.22693906724452972, -0.6541811227798462, -0.19760750234127045, 0.032505352050065994, 0.3162088394165039, 0.16994741559028625, -0.5340646505355835, -0.044255103915929794, -1.0047974586486816, -0.3850703835487366, -0.3876229226589203, -0.3512220084667206, -0.42709028720855713, -0.17304734885692596, -0.16062244772911072, 0.1913585662841797, -0.422201544046402, -0.007750177290290594, 0.4810419976711273, 0.2506619691848755, -0.09999828040599823, 0.0896151065826416, 0.11584968864917755, 0.2931802272796631, -0.01951504871249199, 0.3612287640571594, -0.4424442648887634, -0.03971703723073006, -0.5098896026611328, 0.34584352374076843, 0.05224921554327011, -0.7218205332756042, 0.16576215624809265, -0.1396319419145584, 0.08757141977548599, 0.3517380356788635, 0.6501296758651733, -0.08355704694986343, 0.36299705505371094, -0.09566786140203476, -0.1971873939037323, -0.12147626280784607, 0.5318818688392639, -0.08054142445325851, -1.2538496255874634, -0.626588761806488, -0.5835404992103577, -0.05633164569735527, -0.027454206719994545, -0.08630924671888351, -0.4817675054073334, 0.013847364112734795, 0.1987570822238922, -0.07984049618244171, -0.18988527357578278, -0.4451129734516144, 0.45442354679107666, 0.12058098614215851, -0.24786899983882904, -0.1443766951560974, -0.25267574191093445, 0.23002247512340546, 0.4541753828525543, 0.037293676286935806, 0.4055982828140259, -0.054838940501213074, 0.4850238561630249, 0.15179291367530823, -0.7156280875205994, -0.07781678438186646, 0.1911003440618515, 0.9052600264549255, 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0.4132889211177826, 0.6211385130882263, -0.42006731033325195, 0.09947525709867477, -0.5293695330619812, 0.21135111153125763, -0.019065460190176964, -0.4726622998714447, 0.06737827509641647, 0.36776214838027954, -0.07457044720649719, 0.2751784324645996, -0.42448940873146057, -0.042072635143995285, 0.07783591002225876, -0.06788083910942078, -0.021100854501128197, 0.5650116205215454, -0.49015605449676514, 0.5625355839729309, 0.0501655749976635, -0.24871663749217987, 0.12994827330112457, 0.08729284256696701, 0.2237008661031723, -0.4724421501159668, -0.3309468626976013, -0.04164090380072594, -0.24930258095264435, 0.625291645526886, 0.3999059498310089, 0.7911100387573242, 0.30859246850013733, 0.12908917665481567, 0.39268311858177185, 0.5482462644577026, -0.33127361536026, -0.19884735345840454, -0.09913516044616699, -0.015831617638468742, -0.2985074520111084, 0.5740649700164795, 0.38683852553367615, 0.05100632831454277, 0.8317326307296753, -0.322037011384964, -0.08288438618183136, 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258681	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B4	Ĵ	Ĵ or ĵ (J circumflex) is a letter in Esperanto orthography representing the sound . While Esperanto orthography uses a diacritic for its four postalveolar consonants, as do the Latin-based Slavic alphabets, the base letters are Romano-Germanic. Ĵ is based on the French pronunciation of the letter j to better preserve the shape of borrowings from that language (such as ĵurnalo from journal) than Slavic ž would. Ĵ is used in the Persian Latin (Rumi) alphabet, equivalent to ژ. Usage In mathematics The letter ĵ is often used to denote a unit vector in mathematics and physics for representing y-vector. 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258682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9C	Ŝ	Ŝ or ŝ (S circumflex) is a consonant in Esperanto orthography, representing the sound . Esperanto orthography uses a diacritic for all four of its postalveolar consonants, as do most Latin-based Slavic alphabets (Polish is the most notable exception). Letters and digraphs that are similar to ŝ (also based on s) and represent the same sound include Czech, Latvian, Lithuanian, Slovak, Slovene, Serbian Latin, and Croatian š, Albanian and English sh, German sch, Polish sz, Azerbaijani, Turkish and Turkmen ş, Romanian ș, Hungarian s, French ch, and Portuguese x and ch. The Cyrillic letter ш represents the same sound. Ŝ is used in ISO 9:1995 (standard of transliteration into Latin characters of Cyrillic characters) for letter Щ. See also Ĉ Ĝ Ĥ Ĵ Ŭ Esperanto letters with diacritics Latin letters with diacritics	[ -0.0868520587682724, -0.0877356231212616, 0.31468620896339417, -0.07571633905172348, -0.5607365965843201, 0.6902216076850891, 0.34968408942222595, 0.14445623755455017, -0.33279895782470703, -0.6050244569778442, -0.1359781175851822, 0.09705512970685959, 0.13588830828666687, -0.07015568763017654, -0.0018915575928986073, 0.33095353841781616, 0.5658493638038635, 0.34327682852745056, -0.23686254024505615, -0.12712322175502777, -0.29201310873031616, -0.024046605452895164, 0.540736734867096, -0.19291390478610992, 0.381422758102417, 0.15531644225120544, -0.3709212839603424, -0.10468930751085281, 0.6701232194900513, 0.4112139940261841, 0.42198216915130615, 1.088680386543274, -0.16332998871803284, 0.41644972562789917, -0.2636833190917969, -0.631003737449646, -0.461667537689209, -0.19250433146953583, -0.09199075400829315, -0.09742691367864609, -0.5449514985084534, -0.19997954368591309, 0.17518843710422516, 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258683	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berat	Berat	Berat (; ) is the ninth most populous city of Albania and the seat of Berat County and Berat Municipality. By air, it is north of Gjirokastër, west of Korçë, south of Tirana, and east of Fier. Berat is located in the south of the country. It is surrounded by mountains and hills, including Tomorr on the east that was declared a national park. The river Osum (total length ) runs through the city before it empties into the Seman within the Myzeqe Plain. The municipality of Berat was formed at the 2015 local government reform by the merger of the former municipalities Berat, Otllak, Roshnik, Sinjë, and Velabisht, that became municipal units. The seat of the municipality is the city Berat. The total population is 60,031 (2011 census), in a total area of . The population of the former municipality at the 2011 census was 32,606. Berat, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008, comprises a unique style of architecture with influences from several civilizations that have managed to coexist for centuries throughout the history. Like many cities in Albania, Berat comprises an old fortified city filled with churches and mosques painted with grandiose wealth of visible murals and frescos. Berat is one of the main cultural centres of the country. Etymology The name Berat has been derived through Albanian sound changes from the Old Slavonic Bělgrad (Бѣлградъ) or Belgrád / Beligrad (Белград / Белиград), meaning "White City". It is believed to have been the site of the ancient city Antipatreia (, "City of Antipater") or Antipatrea in Latin, while during the early Byzantine Empire the name of the town was Pulcheriopolis (Byzantine Greek: Πουλχεριόπολις, "City of Pulcheria"). It was recorded in Medieval Latin as Belogradum, Bellegradum, in Turkish as Belgrad, in Italian as Belgrado, and in Greek as Βελλέγραδα, Bellegrada. In the Republic of Venice the city was known as Belgrado di Romania ("Rumelian Belgrade"), while in the Ottoman Empire it was also known as Belgrad-i Arnavud ("Albanian Belgrade") to distinguish it from Belgrade. History Early development The earliest recorded inhabitants of the city (6th century BC) were either the ancient sub-tribe of the Illyrians, the Dassaretii, or the northernmost sub-tribe of the Chaonians, the Dassaretae or Dexaroi. The region was known as Dessaretis after them. Modern Berat occupies the site of Antipatreia (), which originally was a settlement of the Dexaroi and later a Macedonian stronghold in southern Illyria. The founding date is unknown, although if Cassander is the founder it has been suggested that Antipatreia was founded after he took control of the region around 314 BC. In 200 BC it was captured by the Roman legatus Lucius Apustius, who razed the walls and massacred the male population of the city. The town became part of the unstable frontier of the Byzantine Empire following the fall of the western Roman Empire and, along with much of the rest of the Balkan peninsula, it suffered from repeated invasions by Slavs. During the Roman and early Byzantine period, the city was known as Pulcheriopolis. The First Bulgarian Empire under Presian I captured the town in the 9th century, and the city received the Slavic name Bel[i]grad ("White City"), Belegrada (Βελέγραδα) in Greek, which persisted throughout the medieval period, changing to Berat under Ottoman rule. The town became one of the most important towns in the Bulgarian region Kutmichevitsa. The Bulgarian governor Elemag surrendered the city to the emperor Basil II in 1018, and the city remained in Byzantine hands until the Second Bulgarian Empire retook the city in 1203 during the rule of Kaloyan. During the 13th century, it fell to Michael I Ducas, the ruler of the Despotate of Epirus. Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos sent letters to the Albanian leaders of Berat and Durrës in 1272 asking them to abandon their alliance with Charles I of Naples, leader of the Kingdom of Albania, who had captured and incorporated it at the same period in the Kingdom of Albania. However, they sent the letters to Charles as a sign of their loyalty. In 1274 Michael VIII recaptured Berat and after being joined by Albanians who supported the Byzantine Empire, marched unsuccessfully against the Angevin capital of Durrës. In 1280-1281 the Sicilian forces under Hugh the Red of Sully laid siege to Berat. In March 1281 a relief force from Constantinople under the command of Michael Tarchaneiotes was able to drive off the besieging Sicilian army. Later in the 13th century Berat again fell under the control of the Byzantine Empire. The fortress of Tomorr in the early 14th century is attested as Timoro(n) under Byzantine control. In 1337, the Albanian tribes which lived in the areas of Belegrita (the region of Mt. Tomorr near Berat) and Kanina rose in rebellion, and seized the fortress of Tomorr. There is little detail about the rebellion in primary sources. John VI Kantakouzenos mentions that the Albanians in those areas rebelled despite the privileges which Andronikos III Palaiologos had given them a few years earlier. These events marked the movement of these Albanian tribes into Epirus for the first time. Andronikos led an army mainly composed of Turkish mercenaries, and defeated the Albanians, killing many and taking prisoners. In 1345 (or maybe 1343) the town passed to the Serbian Empire. After its dissolution in 1355 Berat came under suzerainty of its former governor, John Komnenos Asen (1345-1363), Alexander Komnenos Asen (1363-1372) and Zeta of Balša II (1372-1385). In 1385 Berat was captured by the Ottomans, before the Battle of Savra. According to some sources, the Ottomans probably remained in Berat for some time with intention to use it as foothold to capture Valona. By 1396, the Albanian Muzaka family took over control of Berat which became the capital of the Principality of Berat. In 1417 Berat became a part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1455 Skanderbeg, a commander with an Albanian force of 14,000 and small number of Catalan soldiers unsuccessfully tried to capture Berat from an Ottoman force of 40,000. Modern period During the early period of Ottoman rule, Berat fell into severe decline. By the end of the 16th century it had only 710 houses. However, it began to recover by the 17th century, and became a major craft centre specializing in wood carving. During the first part of the sixteenth century, Berat was a Christian city and did not contain any Muslim households. The urban population of this period (1506-1583) increased little, with the addition of 17 houses. Following their expulsion and arrival from Spain, a Jewish community existed in Berat that consisted of 25 families between 1519 and 1520. Toward the latter part of the sixteenth century, Berat contained 461 Muslim houses and another 187 belonged to newcomers from the surrounding villages of Gjeqar, Gjerbës, Tozhar, Fratar, and Dobronik. Conversion to Islam of the local urban population in Berat had increased during this time and part of the newcomer population were also Muslim converts who had Islamic names and Christian surnames. Factors such as tax exemptions for Muslim urban craftsmen in exchange for military service drove many of the incoming rural first generation Muslim population to Berat. Followers of Sabbatai Zevi existed in Berat among Jews during the mid-sixteenth century. The Berat Jewish community took an active role in the welfare of other Jews, such as managing to attain the release of war-related captives present in Durrës in 1596. By the early seventeenth century, urban life in Berat started to resemble Ottoman and Muslim patterns. From 1670 onward, Berat became a Muslim-majority city and of its 30 neighbourhoods, 19 were populated by Muslims. Factors attributed to the change of the urban religious composition in Berat was pressure to covert in some neighbourhoods, and a lack of Christian priests able to provide religious services. In the 18th century, Berat was one of the most important Albanian cities during the Ottoman period. In the early modern era the city was the capital of the Pashalik of Berat founded by Ahmet Kurt Pasha. Berat was incorporated in the Pashalik of Yanina after Ibrahim Pasha of Berat was defeated by Ali Pasha in 1809. In 1867, Berat became a sanjak in Yannina (Yanya) vilayet. Berat replaced a declining Vlorë as centre of the sanjak (province) in the nineteenth century. The sanjak of Berat and the city itself were under the dominance of the Albanian Vrioni family. The Jewish community of Yanina renewed the Jewish community of Berat in the nineteenth century. In 1833 the city was captured by Albanian rebels causing the Ottoman government to abolish taxes and accept the rebel requests. A Greek school was operating in the city already from 1835. In the late Ottoman period, the population of Berat was 10–15,000 inhabitants, with Orthodox Christians numbering some 5,000 people of whom 3,000 spoke the Aromanian language and the rest the Albanian language. During the 19th century, Berat played an important part in the Albanian national revival. Christian merchants in Berat supported the Albanian movement. Berat became a major base of support for the League of Prizren, the late 19th century Albanian nationalist alliance, while the city was also represented in the formation of southern branch of the league in Gjirokastër. In the First World War, a census by Austro-Hungarian occupation forces counted 6745 Orthodox Christians and 20,919 Muslims in the Berat region. 20th and 21st century During the Second World War, Jews were concealed in the homes and basements of 60 families from the Muslim and Christian communities in Berat. Albanian Muslims in the city let Jewish people worship in the local mosque, and a Star of David can still be seen on the walls of the city's main Islamic place of worship. From 23 to 30 October 1944, the second session of the Council of National Liberation of Albania was held in Berat, where the National Liberation Movement-controlled Anti-Fascist National Liberation Committee became the Provisional Democratic Government of Albania, with Enver Hoxha as its prime minister and minister of defence. During the Communist era, Berat became a place of internal exile for those who were deemed public enemies, and their families. Starting in the 1950s, the village served as a political internment center from which the internees could not leave without permission. Each day, internees were required to sign up at the Security Office or the police. In 1963, a Deportation-Internment Commission report indicated that there were 30 interned in Berat, which consisted in part of internees those interned due to risk of escape. The rest are convicted for ordinary causes. In 1967, Albanian author Ismail Kadare was sent to Berat, where he spent two years. Relatives of those who had fled abroad, or sympathized with Titoist Yugoslavia were also deported to Berat. In the modern period, a Romani community numbering 200-300 lives in Berat and its outskirts whereas others in a few nearby villages, at times living in difficult economic circumstances with some seasonally migrating to Greece for work. Some Greek-speakers and Vlach-speakers can be found in the town and nearby villages. Geography Berat lies on the right bank of the river Osum, a short distance from the point where it is joined by the Molisht river. The old city centre consists of three parts: Kalaja (on the castle hill), Mangalem (at the foot of the castle hill) and Gorica (on the left bank of the Osum). It has a number of buildings of architectural and historical interest. The pine forests above the city, on the slopes of the towering Tomorr mountains, provide a backdrop of appropriate grandeur. The Osumi river has cut a 915-metre deep gorge through the limestone rock on the west side of the valley to form a precipitous natural fortress, around which the town was built on several river terraces. According to an Albanian legend, the Tomorr mountain was originally a giant, who fought with another giant (mountain) called Shpirag over a young woman. They killed each other and the girl drowned in her tears, which then became the Osum river. Mount Shpirag, named after the second giant, is on the left bank of the gorge, above the district of Gorica. Berat is known to Albanians as the city of "One above another Windows" (a similar epithet is sometimes applied to Gjirokastra), or The City of Two Thousand Steps. It was proclaimed a 'Museum City' by the dictator Enver Hoxha in June 1961. Climate Berat has a Mediterranean climate (Csa) under the Köppen climate classification. Summers are characterised as hot and dry with a maximum average of in July. Conversely, winter brings mild and wet weather with an average of in January. The lowest minimum temperature recorded in Berat was estimated at and its highest maximum temperature at . Economy By the 18th century the economy and society of Berat was closely connected to the city's craft guilds partly related to various tax exemptions that existed since the late Middle Ages. By 1750 there were twenty-two guilds, the most important of which were the tanners', the cobblers' and other leather-working guilds. Other guilds included metal-working, silver-smithing and silk-making ones. Present-day Berat houses Albania's military industry with the nearby Kuçovë base and Poliçan factory as well as a developing tourist economy as of recent years thanks to its historical sites. Culture Landmarks The coexistence of religious and cultural communities over several centuries, beginning in the 4th century BC into the 18th century is apparent in Berat. The town also bears testimony to the architectural excellence of traditional Balkan housing construction, which date to the late 18th and the 19th centuries. Some of the landmarks of that historical period could be seen in the Berat Castle, churches of the Byzantine era such as the Church of St. Mary of Blaherna (13th century), the Bachelors' Mosque, the National Ethnographic Museum, the Sultan's Mosque (built between 1481 and 1512), Leaden Mosque (built in 1555) and the Gorica Bridge. Berat Castle is built on a rocky hill on the right bank of the river Osum and is accessible only from the south. After being burned down by the Romans in 200 BC the walls were strengthened in the 5th century under Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II, and were rebuilt during the 6th century under the Emperor Justinian I and again in the 13th century under the Despot of Epirus, Michael Komnenos Doukas, cousin of the Byzantine Emperor. The main entrance, on the north side, is defended by a fortified courtyard and there are three smaller entrances. The surface that the fortress encompasses made it possible to house a considerable portion of the town's inhabitants. The buildings inside the fortress were built during the 13th century and because of their characteristic architecture are preserved as cultural monuments. The population of the fortress was Christian, and it had about 20 churches (most built during the 13th century) and only one mosque, for the use of the Muslim garrison, (of which there survives only a few ruins and the base of the minaret). The churches of the fortress have been damaged through the years and only some remain. The Church of St. Mary of Blachernae dating from the 13th century, has 16th century mural paintings by Nikollë Onufri, son of the most important post-medieval Albanian painter, Onufri. In a small tree - planted square, on a hillside inside the walls of the fortress, stands the 14th century Church of the Holy Trinity. It is built in the form of a cross and has Byzantine murals. Outside the ramparts is the Church of St. Michael (Shën Mehill), built in the 13th century. This church is reached by a steep but perfectly safe path. Near the entrance, after a guardhouse, is the little Church of St. Theodore (Shen Todher), which have wall paintings by Onufri himself. The most interesting is the cathedral of St. Nicholas, which has been well restored and is now a museum dedicated to Onufri. Onufri was the greatest of the 16th century painters in Albania. Not only was he a master of the techniques of fresco and icons, but he was the first to introduce a new colour in painting, shiny red, which the French called "Onufri's Red". In addition, Onufri introduced a certain realism and a degree of individuality in facial expression. The first inscription recording Onufri's name was found in 1951, in the Shelqan church. The Kastoria church has a date 23 July 1547 and a reference to Onufri's origin : I am Onufri, and come from the town of Berat. Onufri's style in painting was inherited by his son, Nikolla (Nicholas), though not so successful as his father. In Onufri's museum can be found works of Onufri, his son, Nikolla and other painters'. There are also numbers of icons and some fine examples of religious silversmith's work (sacred vessels, icon casings, covers of Gospel books, etc.). Berat Gospels, which date from the 4th century, are copies (the originals are preserved in the National Archives in Tirana). The church itself has an iconostasis of carved wood, with two icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary. The bishop's throne and the pulpit are also notable. Near the street running down from the fortress is the Bachelors' Mosque (Xhami e Beqareve), built in 1827. This has a portico and external decoration of flowers, plants, and houses. The 'Bachelors' were the young shop-assistants (in practice generally unmarried), whom the merchants in Berat used as their own private militia. The King Mosque (), the oldest in the town built in the reign of Bayazid II (1481–1512), is notable for its fine ceiling. It is museum in the modern period. The Lead Mosque (Xhamia e Plumbit), built in 1555 and so called from the covering of its cupola. This mosque is the centre of the town. The Halveti Tekke (Teqe e Helvetive) is thought to have been built in the 15th century. It was rebuilt by Ahmet Kurt Pasha in 1782. It belongs to the Khalwati Sufi order. It is composed of the prayer hall with a square plan, a small ambience for special religious services and a gracious portico in front of the entrance to the prayer hall. In the prayer hall is a mafil carved in wood and decorated. On the eastern side of the prayer hall is the mihrab decorated with stone stalactites. The inner walls have been decorated with eight frescoes, depicting dwelling houses, Muslim religious buildings and landscapes. The walls below the frescoes are covered by holes that improve the acoustics in the prayer hall. The ceiling of the prayer hall is made of wood and is decorated with paintings. The ceiling has been decorated in the Baroque style adopted in Islamic art and is covered with 14 carat gold plates. The inner decorations were carried out by Master Dush Barka. Attached to the prayer hall is a room in which once was the mausoleum of Ahmet Kurt Pasha and his son. The portico of the tekke has five stone columns which were taken from the ancient Greek city of Apollonia. Above the main door in the portico is an inscription dedicated to the values of the tekke and to Ahmet Kurt Pasha. Monuments dating to the late Ottoman period from the Albanian Vrioni family exist such as the gate to a former palace and a tomb, other monuments are from the Vlora family. Near of tekke is purported to be the grave of Sabbatai Zevi, an Ottoman Jew who was banished to Dulcigno (present day Ulcinj), who created controversy among his followers upon his conversion to Islam. A Jewish history museum named "Solomon Museum" is located in southern Berat, and contains exhibits about the Holocaust in Albania and the survival of Jews during the war in the country. The town is known for its historic architecture and scenery and is known as the "Town of a Thousand Windows", due to the many large windows of the old decorated houses overlooking the town. It is unclear whether it really means "Thousand" (një mijë) or "One over Another" (një mbi një) windows. Indeed, the quarter is built in a very steep place and windows seem to be one over another. Similar views can be seen in Melnik, Bulgaria, Gjirokastër in Albania, as well as Catanzaro in Italy, where an Albanian minority once lived. The Citadel overlooks the river and the modern city as well as the old Christian quarter across the river. It is a well preserved area containing narrow streets, Turkish houses and Orthodox churches. Modern Berat consists of three parts divided by the Osum River: Gorica ("little mountain" in Old Church Slavonic), Mangalem and Kalaja, the latter being a residential quarter within the old Byzantine citadel that overlooks the town. The town also has a 15th-century mosque and a number of churches of the Albanian Orthodox Church, whose autocephaly was proclaimed there in 1922. Several of the churches house works by the renowned 16th century painter Onufri. Berat National Ethnographic Museum opened in 1979. It contains a diversity of everyday objects from throughout Berat's history. The museum contains non-movable furniture which hold a number of household objects, wooden case, wall-closets, as well as chimneys and a well. Near the well is an olive press, wool press and many large ceramic dishes, revealing a glimpse of the historical domestic culture of Berat's citizens. The ground floor has a hall with a model of a medieval street with traditional shops on both sides. On the second floor is an archive, loom, village sitting room, kitchen and sitting room. Gorica Bridge, which connects two parts of Berat, was originally built from wood in 1780 and was rebuilt with stone in the 1920s. The seven-arch bridge is long and wide and is built about above the average water level. According to local legend, the original wooden bridge contained a dungeon in which a girl would be incarcerated and starved to appease the spirits responsible for the safety of the bridge. Education In addition to secondary schools, the city hosted the Albanian University in Berat, a private institution that terminated its programs in 2019. Sports The football (soccer) club is KS Tomori Berat. Twin towns – sister cities Berat is twinned with: Amasya, Turkey Bağcılar, Turkey Bérat, France Fermo, Italy Karmiel, Israel Lovech, Bulgaria Ploiești, Romania Prizren, Kosovo Ulcinj, Montenegro Notable people Omer Pasha Vrioni II – Albanian ruler from one of the most powerful Albanian families of the 19th century Christopher of Albania – Primate of the Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania from 1937 to 1948 Eni Koçi – female singer Sotir Kolea – folklorist, diplomat and activist of the Albanian National Awakening Afërdita Veveçka Priftaj – physicist Myrto Uzuni – professional footballer; winger for the Hungarian club Ferencváros and the Albania national football team Aziz Vrioni – Ottoman-Albanian politician Iliaz Vrioni – politician and land owner; served as Prime Minister of Albania three times Isuf Vrioni – translator, diplomat, and Albanian ambassador to UNESCO Omer Vrioni – Ottoman figure in the Greek War of Independence Sami Bey Vrioni – politician, diplomat, and a delegate Dhimitër Tutulani – lawyer and politician Kasëm Trebeshina – partisan, communist prosecutor, actor, and writer Margarita Tutulani – anti-fascist and hero of Albania during World War II Constantine of Berat - Albanian Poet of the 18th century. Sulejman Naibi - Albanian Poet. See also List of mayors of Berat Codex Beratinus Notes References Bibliography Further reading Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca chapters xviii, xix, xx Plutarch, Parallel Lives, "Demetrius", 18, 31; "Phocion", 31 Franca Landucci Gattinoni: L'arte del potere. Vita e opere di Cassandro di Macedonia. Stuttgart 2003. External links bashkiaberat.gov.al – Official Website Cities in Albania Administrative units of Berat Municipalities in Berat County Illyrian Albania Cities in ancient Illyria Greek colonies in Illyria Archaeology of Illyria Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Albania Hellenistic Albania Antipatrid colonies Aromanian settlements in Albania Ottoman architecture in Albania Populated places established in 2015	[ -0.016058064997196198, 0.13523739576339722, -0.40673404932022095, -0.26948773860931396, -0.5945953130722046, 0.4149360656738281, 0.6448225975036621, 0.12927505373954773, -0.010998966172337532, -0.6744174957275391, -0.6362655162811279, -0.04875724017620087, -1.050286889076233, 0.00687076011672616, -0.5076348185539246, 0.5011603236198425, 0.5140252113342285, 0.33483049273490906, 0.2263537347316742, -0.2843436598777771, -0.2616162598133087, 0.2610985040664673, 0.32682541012763977, 0.133169487118721, 0.14013169705867767, -0.31512922048568726, 0.12025340646505356, 0.4175110161304474, 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258684	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishopric%20of%20Magdeburg	Archbishopric of Magdeburg	The Archbishopric of Magdeburg was a Roman Catholic archdiocese (969–1552) and Prince-Archbishopric (1180–1680) of the Holy Roman Empire centered on the city of Magdeburg on the Elbe River. Planned since 955 and established in 968, the Roman Catholic archdiocese had de facto turned void since 1557, when the last papally confirmed prince-archbishop, the Lutheran Sigismund of Brandenburg came of age and ascended to the see and the Magdeburg Cathedral chapter had adopted Lutheranism in 1567, with most parishioners having preceded in their conversion. All his successors were only administrators of the prince-archbishopric and Lutheran too, except of the Catholic layman Leopold William of Austria (1631–1635). In ecclesiastical respect the remaining Catholics and their parishes and abbeys in the former archdiocese were put under supervision of the Archdiocese of Cologne in 1648 and under the jurisdiction of the Apostolic Vicariate of the Northern Missions in 1670. In political respect the Erzstift, the archiepiscopal and capitular temporalities, had gained imperial immediacy as prince-archbishopric in 1180. Its territory comprised only some parts of the archdiocesan area, such as the city of Magdeburg, the bulk of the Magdeburg Börde, and the Jerichow Land as an integral whole and exclaves comprising about the Saalkreis including Halle upon Saale, Oebisfelde and environs as well as Jüterbog and environs. The prince-archbishopric maintained its statehood as an elective monarchy until 1680. Then Brandenburg-Prussia acquired Magdeburg prince-archbishopric, and after being secularised, transformed it into the Duchy of Magdeburg, a hereditary monarchy in personal union with Brandenburg. The 1994-founded modern Diocese of Magdeburg is a diocese of the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic church located in the German states of Saxony-Anhalt (bulk), Brandenburg and Saxony (smaller fringes each). History After the wars of the years 940 and 954, when the Polabian Slavs, as far as the Oder, the Magyars had advanced so far into Germany, that Augsburg was threatened. At the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 they were defeated and repelled. Immediately in 955 Otto the Great set to work to establish an archbishopric in Magdeburg, for the stabilisation through Christianisation of the eastern territories. He wished to transfer the capital of the diocese from Halberstadt to Magdeburg, and make it an archdiocese. But this was strenuously opposed by the Archbishop of Mainz, who was the metropolitan of Halberstadt. When, in 962, Pope John XII sanctioned the establishment of an archbishopric, Otto seemed to have abandoned his plan of a transfer. The estates belonging to the convents mentioned above (founded in 937) were converted into a mensa for the new archbishopric, and the monks transferred to the Berge Convent. The archiepiscopal church made St. Maurice its patron, and in addition received new donations and grants from Otto. Its ecclesiastical province included the existing dioceses of Brandenburg and Havelberg and the newly founded dioceses of Merseburg, Zeitz, and Meißen. Lebus was added in 1424. The new archdiocese was close to the unsecured border regions of the Holy Roman Empire and Slavic tribes, and was meant to promote Christianity among the many Slavs and others. Then, on 20 April 967, the archbishopric was solemnly established at the Synod of Ravenna in the presence of the pope and the emperor. The first archbishop was Adelbert, a former monk of St. Maximin's at Trier, afterwards missionary bishop to the Ruthenians (Ruthenia), and Abbot of Weissenburg in Alsace. He was elected in the autumn of 968, received the pallium at Rome, and at the end of the year was solemnly enthroned in Magdeburg. The archdiocesan area of Magdeburg was rather small; it comprised the Slavonic districts of Serimunt, Nudizi, Neletici, Nizizi, and half of northern Thuringia, which Halberstadt resigned. The cathedral school especially gained in importance under Adalbert's efficient administration. The scholastic Othrich was considered the most learned man of his times. Many eminent men were educated at Magdeburg. Othrich was chosen archbishop after Adalbert's death (981). Gisiler of Merseburg by bribery and fraud obtained possession of the See of Magdeburg, and also succeeded temporarily in grasping the Bishopric of Merseburg (until 1004). Among successors worthy of mention are the zealous Gero (1012–23); Werner (1063–78), who was killed in battle with Henry IV; St. Norbert, prominent in the 12th century (1126–34), the founder of the Premonstratensian order. Archbishop Wichmann (1152–92) was more important as a sovereign and prince of the Holy Roman Empire than as a bishop. Wichmann sided with the emperor in the Great Saxon Revolt and was rewarded by recognising the archepiscopal and the cathedral capitular temporalities as a state of imperial immediacy within the Holy Roman Empire, thus Wichmann was the first to add the title secular prince to his ecclesiastical archbishop. Albrecht II (1205–32) quarrelled with Otto II, Margrave of Brandenburg (1198–1215), because he had pronounced the pope's ban against the latter and this war greatly damaged the archbishopric. In 1208 he began to build the present Cathedral of Magdeburg, which was only consecrated in 1263, and never entirely finished; Günther I (1277–79) hardly escaped a serious war with the Margrave Otto IV, who was incensed because his brother Eric of Brandenburg had not been elected archbishop. The Brandenburgers succeeded in forcing Günther I and Bernard III (1279–1281) to resign and in making Eric archbishop (1283–1295). Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg (1513–45), on account of his insecure position, as well as being crippled by a perpetual lack of funds, gave some occasion for the spread of Lutheranism in his diocese, although himself opposing the Reformation. It is not true that he became a Lutheran and wished to retain his see as a secular principality, and just as untrue that in the Kalbe Parliament in 1541 he consented to the introduction of the Reformation in order to have his debts paid. His successors were the zealous Catholics John Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1545–1550), who however could accomplish very little, and Frederick IV of Brandenburg, who died in 1552. Administrators who were secular princes now took the place of the archbishop, and they, as well as the majority of the cathedral chapter and the inhabitants of the archdiocese, were usually Protestant. They belonged to the Hohenzollern House of Brandenburg, which had adopted Calvinism in 1613. Christian William was taken prisoner in 1631, and went over to the Catholic Church in Vienna. At the time of the Peace of Prague (1635), the Archbishopric of Magdeburg fell to August, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. In the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), the expectancy to the archbishopric was promised to Brandenburg-Prussia upon the death of August. When the Saxon prince died in 1680, the archbishopric was secularised by Brandenburg and transformed into the Duchy of Magdeburg. The remaining Catholics in the area were under the jurisdiction of the Apostolic Vicariate of the Northern Missions between 1670 and 1709, and again from 1780 to 1821. Between 1709 and 1780 the Apostolic Vicariate of Upper and Lower Saxony was the competent Catholic jurisdiction. In 1821, the area was transferred in Catholic respect to the Diocese of Paderborn. In 1994, the Diocese of Magdeburg was founded in the area. Archbishops and administrators Archbishops of Magdeburg Adalbert 968–981 Giselmar 981–1004 Tagino 1004–1012 Waltaro 1012 Gero 1012–1023 Humfrid 1023–1051 Engelhard 1052–1063 Werner of Steutzlingen 1064–1078 Hartwig of Spanheim 1079–1102 Henry I of Assel 1102–1107 Adalgod of Osterberg 1107–1119 Rudigar of Baltheim 1119–1125 Norbert of Xanten 1126–1134 Conrad I of Querfurt 1134–1142 Frederick of Wettin 1142–1152 Wichmann von Seeburg 1152–1180; prince-archbishop to 1192; Bishop of Naumburg, 1150–54 1180: Gained Imperial immediacy on breakup of duchy of Saxony Prince-archbishops of Magdeburg Wichmann von Seeburg 1180–1192; archbishop from 1152 Ludolf of Koppenstedt 1192–1205 Albert I of Käfernburg 1205–1232 Burkhard I of Woldenberg 1232–1235 Wilbrand of Kasernberg 1235–1254 Rudolf of Dinselstadt 1254–1260 Rupert of Mansfeld 1260–1266 Conrad II of Sternberg 1266–1277 Günther I of Schwalenberg 1277–1279 Bernhard III of Wolpe 1279–1282 Eric of Brandenburg 1282–1295 Burkhard II of Blankenburg 1295–1305 Henry III, Prince of Anhalt-Aschersleben 1305–1307 Burkhard III of Mansfeld-Schrapglau 1307–1325 Heideke of Erssa 1326–1327 Otto of Hesse 1327–1361 Dietrich Kagelwit 1361–1367 Albert II of Sternberg 1367–1372 Peter Gelvto 1372–1381 Louis of Meissen 1381–1382 Frederick II of Hoym 1382 Albert III of Querfurt 1382–1403 Günther II of Schwarzburg 1403–1445 Frederick III of Beichlingen 1445–1464 John II of Palatinate-Simmern 1464–1475 Ernest II of Saxony 1475–1480; prince-archbishop to 1513 1480: Prince-Bishopric of Halberstadt administered by archbishops of Magdeburg Prince-archbishops of Magdeburg, administrators of Halberstadt Ernest II of Saxony 1480–1513; prince-archbishop from 1475 Albert IV of Brandenburg 1513–1545; also archbishop-elector of Mainz from 1514–1545 John Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach 1545–1551 Frederick IV of Brandenburg 1551–1552; Frederick III as administrator of Halberstadt Sigismund of Brandenburg 1552–1566; papally confirmed as archbishop although Lutheran, since the Holy See still expected the new schism to be a temporary phenomenon 1566: Archdiocese ruled by Lutheran administrators Administrators of Magdeburg Joachim Frederick of Brandenburg 1566–1598 Christian William of Brandenburg 1598–1631 Leopold William of Austria, a layman, Catholic administrator, 1631–1638; also administrator of the prince-bishoprics of Passau (1625–1662), of Strasbourg (1626–1662), of Halberstadt (1628–1648), of Olmütz (1632–1662) and of Breslau (1656–1662) and de jure of the prince-archbishopric of Bremen (1635–1645) Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, Count of Barby, 1638–1680 1680: Prince-Archbishopric secularised to duchy Ecclesiastical Province of Magdeburg The archbishop of Magdeburg was the metropolitan of the Ecclesiastical Province of Magdeburg (de facto dissolved in 1648), with the archbishops also holding – besides the archbishop-elector of Mainz – the honorary title Primas Germaniae. The suffragans of Magdeburg were: Diocese of Brandenburg, Lutheran since 1539, the pertaining prince-bishopric secularised and merged into the Electorate of Brandenburg in 1571. Diocese of Havelberg, Lutheran since 1558, the pertaining prince-bishopric secularised and merged into the Electorate of Brandenburg in 1598. Diocese of Lebus since 1424 (before suffragan to Gniezno), Lutheran since 1555, pertaining temporalities (County of Beeskow) secularised and merged into the Electorate of Brandenburg in 1598. Diocese of Merseburg, Lutheran since 1544, the pertaining prince-bishopric secularised and merged into the Electorate of Saxony in 1565 Diocese of Naumburg-Zeitz, Lutheran between 1542 and 1547 and from 1562 on, the pertaining prince-bishopric secularised and merged into the Electorate of Saxony in 1615 Residences Residences of the Archbishops of Magdeburg were: See also Bull of Gniezno References Archbishopric Former states and territories of Saxony-Anhalt 968 establishments 1180s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire 1180 establishments in Europe 1680 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire 960s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire 962 establishments Prince-bishoprics of the Holy Roman Empire in Germany	[ -0.5685335397720337, 0.4461787939071655, 0.6400623321533203, 0.11034359782934189, -0.8697800636291504, 0.37659555673599243, 0.685892641544342, 0.4632302224636078, -0.2275327444076538, -0.46048590540885925, 0.1883322149515152, -0.21069209277629852, -0.08301372081041336, 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258685	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina%20Witt	Katarina Witt	Katarina Witt (, ; born 3 December 1965) is a German former figure skater. A two-time Olympic champion, Witt is regarded as one of the greatest ladies' singles figure skaters of all time. Her Laureus profile states "she is remembered most for her overall athleticism, her charismatic appeal and her glamorous image on the ice." Witt won the first of her two Olympic gold medals for East Germany at the 1984 Sarajevo Olympics, before winning a second at the 1988 Calgary Olympics. She is one of only two skaters to defend a ladies' singles Olympic title, the other being Norwegian Sonja Henie. Witt is a four-time World Champion (1984, 1985, 1987, 1988) and two-time World silver medalist (1982, 1986). She won six consecutive European Championships (1983–1988), a feat only equalled by Sonja Henie among female skaters. Between 1984 and 1988, Witt won ten golds from eleven major international events, making her one of the most successful figure skaters. Retiring from competitive skating after defending her Olympic title in 1988, Witt reappeared at the 1994 Winter Olympics where she represented a reunified Germany while skating a Robin Hood-themed program, a comeback performance which saw her receive the Goldene Kamera award. Since her subsequent retirement, Witt has worked in film and television. Early life Witt was born in Staaken (at that time a district of Falkensee) in East Germany, just outside West Berlin, which is today part of Berlin. Her mother worked in a hospital as a physiotherapist and her father was a farmer. She went to school in Karl-Marx-Stadt (now reverted to its pre-war name Chemnitz). There, she attended the Kinder- und Jugendsportschule, a special school for athletically talented children. Competitive career Witt represented the SC Karl-Marx-Stadt club for East Germany (GDR). Jutta Müller began coaching her in 1977. Witt trained six days a week, sometimes for seven hours a day with three hours spent on compulsory figures. Witt made her first appearance in a major international competition at the 1979 European Championships, finishing 14th at the event. At the 1981 World Championships, she placed 1st in the short, 3rd in the long, and 2nd in the combined free skate, missing a medal due to low placement in figures. She placed on a major podium for the first time in 1982, winning silver at both the European and World Championships. She had a great shot at winning the 1982 World Championships, which she only required winning the long program to do. However, she stepped out of three jumps, including the legendary triple flip, the complex element she was the very first woman to accomplish, and a relatively easy double axel, which cost her the long program win and the overall gold medal. The eventual winner of the competition was Elaine Zayak, who landed six triples. The next season, she won her first European title but finished off the World podium in fourth place, because she was 8th in compulsory figures despite winning the combined free skating. Had she placed 1st in the long program instead of 2nd (on a 5–4 split) to Sumners, she would have jumped to the silver over both Leistner and Vodorezova. Her free skate with a triple flip and five triples was technically superior to Sumners', and many believed she should have taken the crucial 1st place in this phase. In 1984, Witt was voted "GDR Female Athlete of the Year" by the readers of the East German newspaper Junge Welt. She won the 1984 Olympic title in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, with reigning World champion Rosalynn Sumners of the United States in second. Witt and Sumners held the top two spots heading into the Olympic free skate, which was worth fifty percent of the total score. Witt landed three triple jumps in her free skate program, and the judges left room for Sumners to win the event. Sumners scaled back two of her jumps and Witt won the long program by one-tenth of a point on one judge's scorecard. Witt won the gold medal at age of 18 years and 77 days, becoming one of the youngest Olympic figure skating champions. Witt then went on to win her first World title in dominant fashion (without Sumners) winning all three phases of the competition. She said then she planned to continue a while longer but did not see herself likely making it to the 1988 Calgary Olympics. Witt successfully defended her World title in 1985. Here, she was solid and clean in all three phases, placing 3rd to her two main competitors, Kira Ivanova and Tiffany Chin, in the compulsory figures, convincingly winning the short program even over the clean skates of Ivanova and Chin. In the long program, she was put under pressure by Ivanova who made a strong bid for the gold with a clean three-triple long program including a difficult triple loop, but Witt trumped her with a four-triple long program, highlighting her superior artistry to Ivanova's and overtaking her by six judges to three in the long program as well as overall. The judges left room for Chin to win the long program and event, but unfortunately she fell on a double axel and did not complete a triple salchow in her performance, settling for the bronze medal. Witt's longstanding dominance of the sport was finally punctured when in an upset she placed second to American Debi Thomas, the new United States Champion, the following year. At those Worlds, she did win the long program over Thomas's clean skate with identical content, scoring two 6.0s for artistic impression, but a combination miss which left her 4th in the short cost her the gold. This was also the first time since 1980 she would lose the short program phase at a World Championship. To win, she would have needed the final skater, Chin, to place between her and Thomas in the long program, but this did not occur. She had been considering making the 1986 World Championships her final event, but stung by the loss, Witt vowed to regain her title and skate on to Calgary. In 1987, Witt won her third World title. Although Witt finished fifth in compulsory figures, which meant that Thomas could finish second in both the short and long programs and still retain the World title, Thomas' 7th place in the short program (due to a small hand down on her double axel) put the two skaters on a level playing field ahead of the free skate. In fact, five skaters entered the long program in strong contention for the gold: Kira Ivanova, Witt, Thomas, Elizabeth Manley, and Caryn Kadavy, all needing to only win the long program (or win the long program and beat Ivanova by two places in the long program in the case of Manley and Kadavy) to win. Skating last and under immense pressure with both Kadavy and Thomas having earlier turned in brilliant performances, Witt landed five triple jumps, including a clean triple loop jump which was most crucial of all to win. Earlier, Thomas had two footed her triple-loop attempt, and while Kadavy had done two successful triple loops, she had also popped several triple or double-axel attempts. Even on a night of brilliant skating by a majority of the notable competitors, Witt convincingly earned both the best technical and artistic marks of the night, was ranked first by seven of the nine judges, and reclaimed her World title to an appreciative crowd. In 1988, Witt won her sixth consecutive European Championship, equaling the achievement of Sonja Henie as the most-successful skater in ladies' singles at the European Championships. Both Witt's and Henie's number of European titles have since been surpassed by Irina Slutskaya, but Witt retains the record for most consecutive European titles, sharing it with Henie. Both Witt and Thomas were favoured contenders at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Their rivalry was known as the "Battle of the Carmens", as each woman had independently elected to skate her long program to music from Bizet's opera Carmen. They held the top two spots after the compulsory figures and the short program. Witt was third in the compulsories, behind Ivanova and Thomas, before winning the short program with Thomas second. In her long program, Witt landed four triple jumps and downgraded her planned triple-loop jump to a double loop. This left room for Thomas to win the long program, but Thomas missed three of her five planned triple jumps. Canadian skater Elizabeth Manley won the long program convincingly over Witt (seven judges to two), however Witt retained her Olympic title based on her overall scores (she had finished ahead of Manley in both the compulsory figures and the short program). Witt became only the second woman in figure skating history (after Sonja Henie) to defend her Olympic title successfully. Had Manley not narrowly lost second place to Thomas in the short program (by one judge), or Witt not narrowly held onto second place over Ito in the long program (on a 6–3 split), Manley would have defeated Witt for the overall gold medal. To honour Witt and her win in Calgary, North Korea issued miniature sheets with three large pictures of Witt on the ice. Time magazine called her "the most beautiful face of socialism." Witt won a fourth and final World title to end her amateur career at the 1988 World Championships in Budapest, Hungary. She turned in a relatively lackluster long program, popping out of both a planned triple loop and triple salchow, and below the quality of her Olympic performance, but with other top contenders also being mostly subpar and fatigued after the high of the Calgary Games, she won gold with a victory in compulsory figures (just second win in figures in a World or Olympic event, only other instance was 1984 Worlds), 2nd place to Debi Thomas in the short program, and victory in the long program. One of her rivals, silver medalist Elizabeth Manley, later complained about some of what she perceived to be dubious foul play in the event, including Witt's win in the figures where she overcame Manley's lead in the first two figures in the final loop figure, which Manley believed to be her best, and Manley's music not being played properly to start her short program (where Manley had a combination miss and took only 4th place, ending her gold medal chances). On 1 November 1988, in honor of her victory at the Olympics, a block of stamps was released in the DPRK. In 1988, Witt started a professional career – rare for East German athletes. She spent three years on tour in the United States with Brian Boitano, also an Olympic champion. Their show, "Witt and Boitano Skating", was so successful that for the first time in ten years, New York's Madison Square Garden was sold out for an ice show. Later, she continued at Holiday on Ice in the United States and in western Europe. She also became an actress in the film Carmen on Ice (1989), which expanded upon her gold-medal free program in Calgary. In 1990, she received an Emmy Award for her role in this film. As a professional she was never as successful competitively as an amateur, often placing last of four or five women in her appearances at the two biggest professional championships (Challenge of Champions and World Professional Championships in Landover), but continued to receive great acclaim as an entertainer and show skater. In 1994, Witt made a comeback to the competitive-skating scene, coached again by Jutta Müller. She was expected to be in a fierce three-person fight for only two spots on the German Olympic team with both young rising star Tanja Szewczenko and veteran Marina Kielmann, who was almost the same age as Witt. She finished second at the German Championships behind Szewczenko, but above Kielmann. Witt's first international competition for the reunified country of Germany, following eleven years competing for East Germany, was the 1994 European Championships, where she finished eighth, again behind Szewczenko who was fifth, but again ahead of Kielmann who was ninth. She and Szewczenko thus gained the two available spots ahead of Kielmann for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway, where she finished seventh. Particularly pleasing to Witt was her clean and very confident short program, where with some of the contenders with more a difficult jump combination (Lu Chen, Josee Chouinard, Yuka Sato, Tonya Harding) faltering, left her 6th, and an inclusion into the final flight of the long program which few gave her any chance of pre-Games. In a dramatic buildup, she would also draw last to skate, and get to close the show in her final Olympic skate, after the medalists had already been determined. Her free program to the music "Sag mir wo die Blumen sind" (an arrangement of the Pete Seeger folksong "Where Have All the Flowers Gone") included a peace message for the people of Sarajevo, the site of her first Olympic victory. While she had some technical problems, completing only three of her planned five triples, she delivered perhaps the most emotional and moving performance of the whole evening. She received the Golden Camera for her Olympic comeback. Witt's taste in figure-skating costumes sometimes caused debate. At the 1983 European Championships, she skated her Mozart short program in knee breeches instead of a skirt. Her blue, skirtless feather-trimmed 1988 costume for a showgirl-themed short program was considered too theatrical and sexy, and led to a change in the ISU regulations dubbed the "Katarina rule" which required female skaters to wear more modest clothing; skirts were required to cover the buttocks and crotch. In 1994, skating a Robin Hood-themed program, Witt stated, "I wore the Robin Hood – like a man's costume – because I didn't want to be accused of seducing the judges this time." In 1994, Witt published her autobiography Meine Jahre zwischen Pflicht und Kür (My Years between Compulsories and Freestyle). In 1995, Witt was inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame. Her farewell from show skating tour took place in February and March 2008. Post-skating career In 1996, Witt received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 1996, Witt had a cameo appearance in the movie Jerry Maguire and on the television show Everybody Loves Raymond. She also starred in a German-language movie called Princess on Ice, providing the vocals for the theme song, "Skate with Me". She appeared as herself in two episodes of the comedy series Arli$$ that aired in 1997 and 1998. Witt posed nude for Playboy magazine, and the pictures were published months later in the December 1998 issue, which was the second ever sold-out issue of the magazine. (The first sold-out issue was the inaugural one including photos of Marilyn Monroe.) Witt said she did not care for the "cute, pretty, ice princess image" of figure skaters and wanted to "change people's perceptions". In 1998, Witt appeared in the film Ronin in a small supporting role with several lines of dialogue. Around this time, she also played a villain in an episode of the tongue-in-cheek television series, V.I.P. In November 2005, Witt published a novel, Only with Passion, in which she offers advice to a fictional young skater based on her many years of skating. Since October 2006, she has had her own TV show, Stars auf Eis ("Stars on Ice"), on German channel ProSieben. She was invited to Istanbul as an honoured guest for the skating competition TV show called Buzda Dans ("Dance on Ice") on 25 February 2007. On 3 December 2011, Witt was confirmed as a judge on the UK TV show Dancing on Ice, where she made her first appearance on 8 January 2012. On 7 July 2007, Witt was a competitor at the German segment of Live Earth. She headed Munich's unsuccessful bid to host the 2018 Winter Olympics. In January 2013, Witt appeared on German TV in her first leading role, playing a figure skater who is pursued by a stalker. The made-for-television movie Der Feind in meinem Leben ("The enemy in my life") thus has autobiographical elements, as Witt herself had been stalked in the United States 20 years earlier. East German files Following the dissolution of East Germany, Ministerium für Staatssicherheit (Stasi) files were found to show that the secret police had worked hard to keep Witt from defecting by giving her cars, accommodations, and permitted travel. Witt found 3,000 pages on her life from the age of eight. Programs Results See also Sport in Berlin Bibliography Beisteiner, Johanna: Art music in figure skating, synchronized swimming and rhythmic gymnastics / Kunstmusik in Eiskunstlauf, Synchronschwimmen und rhythmischer Gymnastik. PhD thesis by Johanna Beisteiner, Vienna 2005, (German). The PhD thesis contains an extensive description and analysis of Carmen on Ice (Chapter II/2, pages 105–162). Article about the PhD thesis of Johanna Beisteiner in the catalogue of the Austrian Library Network. 2005. (German and English) References External links 1965 births Figure skating commentators Figure skaters from Berlin Figure skaters at the 1984 Winter Olympics Figure skaters at the 1988 Winter Olympics Figure skaters at the 1994 Winter Olympics German female single skaters Living people Olympic figure skaters of Germany Olympic figure skaters of East Germany Olympic gold medalists for East Germany Olympic medalists in figure skating People from East Berlin Recipients of the Olympic Order Recipients of the Patriotic Order of Merit (honor clasp) World Figure Skating Championships medalists European Figure Skating Championships medalists East German figure skaters Medalists at the 1984 Winter Olympics Medalists at the 1988 Winter Olympics 20th-century German women	[ -0.40871700644493103, -0.7391839623451233, 0.07536757737398148, -0.34187787771224976, -0.3482401371002197, 1.1646922826766968, 1.70969557762146, 0.020470233634114265, -0.8844168782234192, 0.35322314500808716, 0.1757676750421524, 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258686	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolpuddle%20Martyrs	Tolpuddle Martyrs	The Tolpuddle Martyrs were six agricultural labourers from the village of Tolpuddle in Dorset, England, who, in 1834, were convicted of swearing a secret oath as members of the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers. They were arrested on charges under an obscure act during a labour dispute against cutting wages before being convicted in R v Loveless and Others and sentenced to penal transportation to Australia. They were pardoned in 1836 after mass protests by sympathisers and support from Lord John Russell and returned to England between 1837 and 1839. The Tolpuddle Martyrs became a popular cause for the early union and workers' rights movements. Historical events Background In 1799 and 1800, the Combination Acts in the Kingdom of Great Britain had outlawed "combining" or organising to gain better working conditions, passed by Parliament because of a political scare following the French Revolution. In 1824, the Combination Acts were repealed due to their unpopularity and replaced with the Combinations of Workmen Act 1825, which legalised trade union organisations but severely restricted their activity. By the start of the 19th century the county of Dorset had become synonymous with poorly paid agricultural labour. In 1815, after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, 13% of the county's population were receiving poor relief, and this worsened in the subsequent agricultural recession. By 1830 conditions were so bad that large numbers of labourers joined the Swing Riots that affected southern England that autumn; more than forty disturbances occurred in the county, involving two thirds of the labouring population in some parishes. A few landowners temporarily increased wages as a concession, but law enforcement was also increased and many labourers were arrested and imprisoned, and within a short time the gains in wages were reversed. In 1833 six men from the village of Tolpuddle founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers as a friendly society to protest against the gradual lowering of agricultural wages. These Tolpuddle labourers refused to work for less than 10 shillings a week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings and were due to be further reduced to six. The Friendly Society's rules show it was clearly structured as a friendly society that operated as a trade-specific benefit society, led by George Loveless, a Methodist local preacher, and meeting in the house of Thomas Standfield. Groups such as the Friendly Society would often use a skeleton painting as part of their initiation process, where the newest member would be blindfolded and made to swear a secret oath of allegiance. The blindfold would then be removed and they would be presented with the skeleton painting to warn them of their own mortality but also to remind them of what happens to those who break their promises. An example of this skeleton painting is on display at the People's History Museum in Manchester. Prosecution and sentencing In 1834, James Frampton, a magistrate and local landowner in Tolpuddle, wrote to Home Secretary Lord Melbourne to complain about the union, who recommended Frampton invoke the Unlawful Oaths Act 1797, an obscure law promulgated in response to the Spithead and Nore mutinies which prohibited the swearing of secret oaths. The Friendly Society's members: James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless, George's brother James Loveless, George's brother in-law Thomas Standfield, and Thomas's son John Standfield, were arrested. They were tried together before the judge Sir John Williams in the case R v Lovelass and Others. All six were found guilty of swearing secret oaths and sentenced to transportation to Australia. When sentenced to seven years' penal transportation, George Loveless wrote on a scrap of paper lines from the union hymn "The Gathering of the Unions": Transportation, pardon, return James Loveless, the two Standfields, Hammett and Brine sailed on the Surry to New South Wales, where they arrived in Sydney on 17 August 1834. George Loveless was delayed due to illness and left later on the William Metcalf to Van Diemen's Land, reaching Hobart on 4 September. Of the five who landed in Sydney, Brine and the Standfields were assigned as farm labourers to free settlers in the Hunter Valley. Hammett was assigned to the Queanbeyan farm of Edward John Eyre, and James Loveless was assigned to a farm at Strathallan. In Hobart, George Loveless was assigned to the viceregal farm of Lieutenant Governor Sir George Arthur. In England they became popular heroes and 800,000 signatures were collected for their release. Their supporters organised a political march, one of the first successful marches in the United Kingdom, and all were eventually pardoned in March 1836 on the condition of good conduct, with the support of Lord John Russell, who had recently become Home Secretary. When the pardon reached George Loveless some delay was caused in his leaving due to no word from his wife as to whether she was to join him in Van Diemen's Land. On 23 December 1836, a letter was received to the effect that she was not coming and Loveless sailed from Van Diemen's Land on 30 January 1837, arrived in England on 13 June 1837. In New South Wales, there were delays in obtaining an early sailing due to tardiness in the authorities confirming good conduct with the convicts' assignees and then getting them released from their assignments. James Loveless, Thomas and John Standfield, and James Brine departed Sydney on the John Barry on 11 September 1837, reaching Plymouth (one of the departure points for convict transport ships) on 17 March 1838. A plaque next to the Mayflower Steps in Plymouth's historical Barbican area commemorates the arrival. Although due to depart with the others, James Hammett was detained in Windsor, charged with an assault, while the others left the colony. It was not until March 1839 that he sailed, arriving in England in August 1839. Later life The Lovelesses, Standfields and Brine first settled on farms near Chipping Ongar, Essex, upon their return from transportation, with the Lovelesses and Brine living at Tudor Cottage in Greensted Green. The five later emigrated to the town of London, Upper Canada (in present-day Ontario), where there is now a monument in their honour and an affordable housing co-op and trade union complex named after them. George Loveless is buried in Siloam Cemetery on Fanshawe Park Road East in London, Ontario. James Brine died in 1902, having lived in nearby Blanshard Township since 1868, and is buried in St. Marys Cemetery, St. Marys, Ontario. Hammett returned to Tolpuddle and died in the Dorchester workhouse in 1891. Museums The Tolpuddle Martyrs Museum in Tolpuddle, Dorset, features displays and interactive exhibits about the martyrs and their effect on trade unionism. The Shire Hall in Dorchester, where the Tolpuddle Martyrs were tried, is now a museum, including material about them. Cultural and historical significance A monument was erected in their honour in Tolpuddle in 1934, and a sculpture of the martyrs, made in 2001, stands in the village in front of the Tolpuddle Martyrs Museum. The annual Tolpuddle Martyrs festival is usually held in the third week of July, organised by the Trades Union Congress (TUC) and featuring a parade of banners from many trade unions, a memorial service, speeches and music. Recent festivals have featured speakers such as Tony Benn (1925–2014), musicians such as Billy Bragg, and local folk singers including Graham Moore, as well as others from all around the world. The courtroom where the martyrs were tried, which has been little altered in 200 years, in Dorchester's Shire Hall, is being preserved as part of a heritage scheme. The story of Tolpuddle has enriched the history of trade unionism, but the significance of the Tolpuddle Martyrs continues to be debated since Sidney and Beatrice Webb wrote the History of Trade Unionism (1894) and continues with such works as Bob James's Craft Trade or Mystery (2001). The following places are named in their honour: Tolpuddle Street, Islington, London Tolpuddle Way, Kirkdale, Liverpool Tolpuddle Vineyard, Richmond, Tasmania In 1984, a mural was created in Edward Square, off Copenhagen Street, Islington, to commemorate the gathering of people organised by the Central Committee of the Metropolitan Trade Unions to demonstrate against the penal transportation of the Tolpuddle Martyrs to Australia. The mural was painted by artist David Bangs. In 1985 a memorial plaque for the Tolpuddle Martyrs was installed in Garema Place in the centre of Australia's capital city Canberra. Comrades is a 1986 British historical drama film directed by Bill Douglas and starring an ensemble cast including James Fox, Robert Stephens and Vanessa Redgrave. Through the pictures of a travelling lanternist, it depicts the story of the Tolpuddle Martyrs. The Tolpuddle Martyrs also find reference in a poem by Daljit Nagra: "Vox Populi, Vox Dei". The men who returned to Plymouth from Australia were commemorated with a plaque made by Clifford Harper at a ceremony in March 2020. Image gallery See also Chartism Convicts in Australia Enclosure Peterloo Massacre Swing Riots UK labour law References Further reading Usherwood, Stephen. "The Tolpuddle Martyrs 1834-37: A Case of Human Rights" History Today (Jan 1968), Vol. 18 Issue 1, pp 14-21; online; covers 1834 to 1840. Tolpuddle Martyrs' Story Tolpuddle Martyrs Museum Trust Sidney Webb and Beatrice Webb, The History of Trade Unionism (1894) ch III, 'The Revolutionary Period', 144 ff on Tolpuddle's Dorchester Labourers Craft Trade or Mystery (2001) Dr Bob James The Book of the Martyrs of Tolpuddle 1834–1934, London : The Trades Union Congress General Council (1934) – Memorial Volume (printed by the Pelican Press) 240 pages. Modern reprint (1999) Tolpuddle Martyrs Memorial Trust, Harris, "Brian, "Injustice", Sutton Publishing. 2006. (An analysis of the trial) Marlow, Joyce, The Tolpuddle Martyrs, London : History Book Club, (1971) and Grafton Books, (1985) Tolpuddle – an historical account through the eyes of George Loveless. Contemporary accounts, letters, documents, etc., compiled by Graham Padden, TUC, 1984, updated 1997. . Geoffrey R. Anderson 2002. A privately published 70-page booklet. Dorset Pioneers: Jack Dwyer: The History Press: 2009: Hollis, Patricia, Class and conflict in nineteenth-century England, 1815–1850, Birth of modern Britain series, International Library of Sociology and Social Reconstruction, Routledge, 1973, Dorset History Centre holds relevant books and original records (including the Dorchester prison register in which the Martyrs are listed) External links The Tolpuddle Martyrs Museum 2009 Commemoration of the 1834 Grand Demonstration in support of the Martyrs History of Dorset British trade unions history British trade unionists Convicts transported to Australia Labour disputes in England Protests in England 19th century in England 19th century in Dorset	[ 0.004386036656796932, 0.32447928190231323, -0.4219368100166321, -0.8453311920166016, -0.3035324215888977, 0.7957552075386047, 0.9271438121795654, 0.009026425890624523, -0.40940234065055847, 0.3981460630893707, -0.1531926691532135, 0.11842257529497147, -0.46502208709716797, 0.35149726271629333, 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258688	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammu%20Siltavuori	Jammu Siltavuori	Antti Veikko Ilmari Siltavuori (October 29, 1926 – March 9, 2012), better known as Jammu Siltavuori or Jammu-setä ("Uncle Jammu"), was a Finnish murderer and sexual offender. Early life Veikko Siltavuori was born in Vaasa, Finland. Information about his early life is very limited. According to some sources his childhood was very hard and complicated, because of his alcoholic father who beat Veikko very much. He was bullied in school and he was called a weasel because of his dirty clothing. Crimes Siltavuori became well known in Finland when he murdered two eight-year-old girls, Päivi-Maria Hopiavuori and Tanja Johanna Pirinen in 1989. He burned the bodies shortly after. He had picked up both girls into his car from Myllypuro, a neighbourhood in Helsinki, on March 3, 1989. Prior to this, he had been convicted of raping a five-year-old girl, sexual harassment, and attempted murder. He was convicted to life imprisonment already in the 1950s or 1960s but he was later paroled. He had also built a self-made jail complete with cells, barred windows and small toilets in Paltamo, Kainuu, but there is no evidence that he built it for keeping the children hostage. Media publicity The murders led to widespread media publicity, during which hundreds of letters to the editor were written about Siltavuori. An interview with Siltavuori was published in the April 1991 issue of Rikosposti, in which he said that he was the most hated person in Finland. There were demands for the death penalty or castration for him. Antti Siltavuori, an industrial designer from Kirkkonummi, was the target of a telephone terror because of his name, and an old man was beaten in a restaurant in Helsinki because he resembled Jammu in appearance. The protesters signs read, among other things: "A sex offender does not get better in prison. Experts in the field of involuntary treatment." Sentences For the two murders in 1989, Veikko Siltavuori was sentenced to 15 years in prison with the possibility of parole after 10 years, because a mental health examination legally found him to be partially insane. If that had not been the case, Siltavuori would have been again sentenced to life imprisonment. After 10 years elapsed, his first and second parole hearings in a Prison Court were unsuccessful. After he served one more year in jail, the Prison Court released him on strictly supervised parole on January 31, 2000, on his third parole hearing. However, he was immediately involuntary committed to the Niuvanniemi mental hospital in Kuopio for criminal-psychiatric reasons. The involuntary commitment was reaffirmed in 2007 by the administrative court of Kuopio, on the basis that if he was released, he would be a serious security risk. Death In Niuvanniemi, there was an attack on Siltavuori, which injured him such that he spent his final years in a wheelchair. He reportedly died in March 2012 at the age of 85 in Kuopio. He was severely demented. References Literature Markkula, Hannes: Kuusi suomalaista murhaa. 1996. 1926 births 2012 deaths People from Vaasa Finnish murderers of children Finnish people convicted of murder People convicted of murder by Finland People convicted of child sexual abuse	[ -0.4862978756427765, 0.10312430560588837, -0.46499103307724, 0.15922226011753082, 0.044757552444934845, 0.43702784180641174, 0.697966456413269, -0.3579311668872833, 0.14533007144927979, 0.6514098048210144, -0.057530052959918976, 0.11479409784078598, -0.4887099862098694, -0.1997944414615631, -0.5468586087226868, 0.27620816230773926, 0.07381638139486313, 0.049990542232990265, -0.21699225902557373, 0.07832464575767517, 0.18529896438121796, -0.21757490932941437, 0.15233547985553741, 0.33893412351608276, 0.16705948114395142, 0.41666117310523987, -0.21663732826709747, -0.02901865541934967, 0.08531155437231064, 0.373348593711853, -0.07575303316116333, 0.21060889959335327, 0.7635751962661743, -0.6073850393295288, -0.8514529466629028, 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258689	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipos	Ipos	In demonology, Ipos is an Earl and powerful Prince of Hell (a Duke to some authors) who has thirty-six legions of demons under his command. He knows and can reveal all things, past, present and future (only the future to some authors, and past and future to others). He can make men witty and valiant. He is commonly depicted with the body of an angel with the head of a lion, the tail of a hare, and the feet of a goose, less frequently in the same shape but with the body of a lion, and rarely as a vulture. Other spellings: Aiperos, Ayperos, Ayporos, Ipes. See also The Lesser Key of Solomon Sources S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: . 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258690	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anyte%20of%20Tegea	Anyte of Tegea	Anyte of Tegea was a Hellenistic poet from Tegea in Arcadia. She is one of the nine outstanding ancient women poets listed by Antipater of Thessalonica in the Palatine Anthology. Anyte was known for her epigrams, and she introduced rural themes to the genre. Life According to Julius Pollux, Anyte was from Tegea in Arcadia. An alternative tradition is recorded in the Greek Anthology, where Anyte is described as being from Mytilene on Lesbos. Her use of a Doric dialect, and mentions in her poem of Tegea and the Arcadian god Pan, suggest that a Tegean origin is more likely, and the story of a Lesbian origin was likely a later invention to link Anyte to Sappho. No reliable information about Anyte's life survives, and she can only be approximately dated by the style of her work. Based on this, and on possible imitations of her works in the second half of the third century BC, she is generally thought to have been active around 300 BC. Only one story about Anyte's life is preserved. Pausanias claims that she was once visited by the god Asclepius while she was asleep, and told to go to Naupactus to visit a certain blind man there. On doing so, the man was cured, and he built a temple to Asclepius. Though little is known about Anyte's life, more of her poetry survives than any other ancient Greek woman, with the exception of Sappho. Poetry Twenty-five epigrams attributed to Anyte in antiquity survive, one quoted by Julius Pollux and the remainder in the Palatine or Planudean Anthology. Of these, nineteen are generally agreed to be by Anyte. Of the remaining six, four are attributed to both Anyte and another author in either the Palatine or Planudean anthology, and two epigrams are attributed to Anyte by the Palatine Anthology, but are included without an author named in the Planudean. Of these six uncertain poems, two (AP 7.190 and 7.232) are considered possibly or probably by Anyte; the others are generally doubted. It is likely that Anyte compiled a book of her poetry from her epigrams. The Greek Anthology twice refers to her as "the lyric poet", and Pausanias mentions her epic poetry, but neither survive. Anyte's poetry is composed in a mixed dialect, with elements of Doric and epic language, as well as some Atticisms. It is often interested in women and children, and Gutzwiller argues that it was deliberately composed in opposition to traditional epigrams, which were by anonymous authors and from a masculine and urban perspective. Accordingly, of five epitaphs written by Anyte which survive, only one marks the death of a young man, as was traditional in the genre; the remaining four all commemorate women who died young. Anyte's poetry make use of Homeric vocabulary in order to write about personal and domestic themes. For instance, Anyte's epigram 6, an epitaph dedicated to the unmarried Antibia, repeatedly echoes phrases from the Iliad and Odyssey. Her work also references archaic Greek lyric and Attic drama, and shows evidence that she was familiar with the epigrams of Simonides of Ceos and Anacreon. Reception Anyte's pastoral poems and epitaphs for pets were important innovations, with both genres becoming standards in Hellenistic poetry. Her pastoral works may have influenced Theocritus, and both Ovid and Marcus Argentarius wrote adaptations of her poems. Antipater of Thessalonica lists her in his canon of nine women poets. According to Tatian, a statue of Anyte was sculpted by Cephisodotus. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Anyte's poetry was highly thought of by the Imagist poets, with Richard Aldington describing her in his translation of Greek and Latin poetry as the "woman-Homer". Modern scholars have been more critical of Anyte's work, considering her subjects frivolous. However, Josephine Balmer describes her poetry as "stunning", and argues that it demonstrates both education and technical skill. Anyte is one of the women included on Judy Chicago's Heritage Floor, and has a crater on Mercury named after her. Notes References Works cited Further reading External links Anyte bio and excerpts Anyte Bibliography Anyte: translation of all surviving epigrams at attalus.org; adapted from W.R.Paton (1916–18) Epigrams by Women from the Greek Anthology, translated with notes by Marilyn B. Skinner. Includes Anyte 15 (AP 9.144). Bibliography for Anyte at A Hellenistic Bibliography, compiled and maintained by Martine Cuypers, Trinity College Dublin. 3rd-century BC Greek people 3rd-century BC Greek women 3rd-century BC poets 3rd-century BC women writers Ancient Arcadian poets Ancient Greek women poets Doric Greek poets Epigrammatists of the Greek Anthology Tegea	[ -0.035702042281627655, 0.5785366892814636, -1.0494530200958252, 0.35098376870155334, -0.8484509587287903, 0.8306509852409363, 0.006564078386873007, 0.45950159430503845, -0.1555398404598236, -0.28914034366607666, 0.08305194973945618, 0.04601956903934479, -0.5848888158798218, -0.3496406376361847, -0.3832719326019287, -0.1707478016614914, 0.17958799004554749, 0.058316245675086975, 0.09015864133834839, -0.7172401547431946, 0.14160145819187164, -0.12376824021339417, 0.5601727366447449, -0.4351551830768585, -0.1902732104063034, -0.03855530172586441, 0.1666703075170517, 0.025660676881670952, 0.29834046959877014, -0.46463942527770996, 0.06443976610898972, 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258692	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caim	Caim	Caim is a Gaelic rendering of biblical 'Cain', who appears in a variation of the fantastical pedigree of Dardanus of Troy that is spun out in Lebor Bretnach, the Middle Irish language recension of the compilation called Historia Brittonum, known in the 9th century version by Nennius. The Lebor Bretnach, greatly modifies the genealogy given in Nennius, making emendations to earlier sources and tracing the line through Ham rather than Japheth with further spurious names: Dardain m. Ioib m. Sadoirn m. Peil m. Palloir m. Zorastres m. Mesraim m. Caim. In the predominantly Welsh-speaking regions of Wales (Gwynedd, Dyfed and Ynys Mon), Cain, Caio, Caim and Cail are commonplace first names for males. These names are derivatives of an ancient Welsh name "Ca" which is recorded in the book of Welsh folklore called the Mabinogion. In demonology Of Cain, originator of murder, consigned to Hell by early Christian writers. In demonology, Caim appears in Ars Goetia, the first part of Lesser Key of Solomon as a great president of Hell, ruling over thirty legions of demons. Much detail is offered: he is a good disputer, gives men the understanding of the voices of birds, bullocks, dogs, and other creatures, and of the noise of the waters too, and gives true answers concerning things to come. He is depicted in 19th and 20th century occultist illustrations as appearing in the form of the black bird called a thrush, but soon he changes his shape into a man that has a sharp sword in his hand. When answering questions he seems to stand on burning ashes or coals. The title 'president' of Hell would suggest a parallel with the presiding officer of a college or convocation, which are the only pre-modern uses of the term. Other authors consider Caim a 'prince' of Hell instead and depict him as a man wearing rich and elegant clothes, and the head and wings of a blackbird. Demonological directories give an etymology from a supposed Latin word 'Chamos', 'Chamus', said to be a name given to Baal Peor, and possibly corrupted from Hebrew 'Chium', an epithet given to several Assyrian and Babylonian gods. Epigraphy does not confirm this etymology. See also The Lesser Key of Solomon Notes Sources S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: . External links 'The Trojans and Gildas Quartus' traces the growth of some mythic genealogies. 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258693	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Swinburne	Richard Swinburne	Richard Granville Swinburne (IPA ) (born 1934) is an English philosopher. He is an Emeritus Professor of Philosophy at the University of Oxford. Over the last 50 years Swinburne has been a proponent of philosophical arguments for the existence of God. His philosophical contributions are primarily in the philosophy of religion and philosophy of science. He aroused much discussion with his early work in the philosophy of religion, a trilogy of books consisting of The Coherence of Theism, The Existence of God, and Faith and Reason. Early life Swinburne was born in Smethwick, Staffordshire, England, on 26 December 1934. His father was a school music teacher, who was himself the son of an off-licence owner in Shoreditch. His mother was a secretary, the daughter of an optician. He is an only child. Swinburne attended a preparatory school and then Charterhouse School. Academic career Swinburne received an open scholarship to study classics at Exeter College, Oxford, but in fact graduated with a first-class Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy, politics, and economics. Swinburne has held various professorships through his career in academia. From 1972 to 1985 he taught at Keele University. During part of this time, he gave the Gifford lectures at Aberdeen from 1982 to 1984, resulting in the book The Evolution of the Soul. From 1985 until his retirement in 2002 he was Nolloth Professor of the Philosophy of the Christian Religion at the University of Oxford (his successor in this chair is Brian Leftow). He has continued to publish regularly since his retirement. Swinburne has been an active author throughout his career, producing a major book every two to three years. He has played a role in recent debate over the mind–body problem, defending a substance dualism that recalls the work of René Descartes in important respects (see The Evolution of the Soul, 1997). His books are primarily very technical works of academic philosophy, but he has written at the popular level as well. Of the non-technical works, his Is There a God? (1996), summarising for a non-specialist audience many of his arguments for the existence of God and plausibility in the belief of that existence, is probably the most popular, and is available in 22 languages. Christian apologetics A member of the Orthodox Church, he is noted as one of the foremost Christian apologists, arguing in his many articles and books that faith in Christianity is rational and coherent in a rigorous philosophical sense. William Hasker writes that his "tetralogy on Christian doctrine, together with his earlier trilogy on the philosophy of theism, is one of the most important apologetic projects of recent times." While Swinburne presents many arguments to advance the belief that God exists, he argues that God is a being whose existence is not logically necessary (see modal logic), but metaphysically necessary in a way he defines in his The Christian God. Other subjects on which Swinburne writes include personal identity (in which he espouses a view based on the concept of a soul), and epistemic justification. He has written in defence of Cartesian dualism and libertarian free will. Although he is best known for his vigorous defence of Christian intellectual commitments, he also has a theory of the nature of passionate faith which is developed in his book Faith and Reason. According to an interview Swinburne did with Foma magazine, he converted from Anglicanism (Church of England) to Eastern Orthodoxy around 1996: I don't think I changed my beliefs in any significant way. I always believed in the Apostolic succession: that the Church has to have its authority dating back to the Apostles, and the general teaching of the Orthodox Church on the saints and the prayers for the departed and so on, these things I have always believed. Swinburne's philosophical method reflects the influence of Thomas Aquinas. He admits that he draws from Aquinas a systematic approach to philosophical theology. Swinburne, like Aquinas, moves from basic philosophical issues (for example, the question of the possibility that God may exist in Swinburne's The Coherence of Theism), to more specific Christian beliefs (for example, the claim in Swinburne's Revelation that God has communicated to human beings propositionally in Jesus Christ). Swinburne moves in his writing program from the philosophical to the theological, building his case and relying on his previous arguments as he defends particular Christian beliefs. He has attempted to reassert classical Christian beliefs with an apologetic method that he believes is compatible with contemporary science. That method relies heavily on inductive logic, seeking to show that his Christian beliefs fit best with the evidence. National Life Stories conducted an oral history interview (C1672/15) with Richard Swinburne in 2015–2016 for its Science and Religion collection held by the British Library. Major books Space and Time, 1968 The Concept of Miracle, 1970, The Coherence of Theism, 1977 (new edition 2016) (part 1 of his trilogy on Theism) The Existence of God, 1979 (new edition 2004, ) (part 2 of his trilogy on Theism) Faith and Reason, 1981 (new edition 2005). (part 3 of his trilogy on Theism) The Evolution of the Soul, 1986, . (1997 edition online) Miracles, 1989 Responsibility and Atonement, 1989 (part 1 of his tetralogy on Christian Doctrines) Revelation, 1991 (part 2 of his tetralogy on Christian Doctrines) The Christian God, 1994 (part 3 of his tetralogy on Christian Doctrines) Is There a God?, 1996, ; revised edition, 2010, Simplicity as Evidence of Truth, The Aquinas Lecture, 1997 Providence and the Problem of Evil, 1998 (part 4 of his tetralogy on Christian Doctrines) Epistemic Justification, 2001 The Resurrection of God Incarnate, 2003 Was Jesus God?, 2008 Free Will and Modern Science, Ed. 2011, Mind, Brain, and Free Will, 2013 Are We Bodies or Souls?, 2019, Spiritual autobiography Richard Swinburne, "Natural Theology and Orthodoxy," in Turning East: Contemporary Philosophers and the Ancient Christian Faith, Rico Vitz, ed. (St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2012), pp. 47–78. Richard Swinburne, "The Vocation of a Natural Theologian," in Philosophers Who Believe, Kelly James Clark, ed. (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993), pp. 179–202. See also James Joyce Award List of scholars on the relationship between religion and science Theodicy References Footnotes Works cited Further reading External links – Includes a curriculum vitae and more complete list of publications Presentation at Gifford lectures Richard Swinburne, Faith and Reason review from Diapsalmata The Moscow Center for Consciousness Studies video interview with Richard Swinburne 31 May 2010. 1934 births Living people 20th-century English philosophers 20th-century English theologians 21st-century English philosophers 21st-century English theologians Academics of Keele University Academics of the University of Hull Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford Analytic philosophers Christian apologists Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Anglicanism Critics of atheism Eastern Orthodox philosophers English Eastern Orthodox Christians Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford Fellows of the British Academy Nolloth Professors of the Philosophy of the Christian Religion Philosophers of 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258695	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%AC	Ŭ	Ŭ or ŭ is a letter in the Esperanto alphabet, based on u. It is also used in the Belarusian language, when written in the 20th-century form of the Belarusian Latin alphabet, and formerly in the Romanian alphabet. The accent mark (diacritic) is known as a breve. This letter should not be confused with u-caron, which is used to indicate u in the third tone of Chinese language pinyin; compare (caron) with (breve). Belarusian The letter ŭ is called non-syllabic u (romanised: u nieskładovaje) in Belarusian because it resembles the vowel u but forms no syllables. It is an allophone of that forms the diphthongs aŭ, eŭ, oŭ and is equivalent to . Its Cyrillic counterpart is ў. Sometimes (as in National Geographic atlases), the Cyrillic letter ў is Romanized as w. Esperanto Ŭ represents a semivowel in the orthography of Esperanto, which is an international auxiliary language publicly presented in 1887. As in Belarusian, Esperanto Ŭ is pronounced as a non-syllabic , primarily in the diphthongs aŭ, eŭ and rarely oŭ. It is thought that ŭ was created by analogy with the Belarusian letter ў (Cyrillic u with breve), which was proposed by P.A. Bessonov in 1870. It may also be considered that the placement of the breve above a vowel letter to turn it into an equivalent semivowel was inspired by the use thereof on the Cyrillic letter й, representing /j/ and formed by placing a breve over the letter и, used most commonly to represent /i/. Ŭ may also be used for [w] in foreign names, such as Ŭaŝingtono for "Washington", although it usually is written with v (Vaŝingtono). It is also used for [w] in onomatopoeias, as in ŭa! "waa!", and uniquely in one native lexical word, ŭo, which is the Esperanto name of the letter ŭ itself. Romanian Ŭ was previously part of the Romanian alphabet. U with breve was used only in the ending of a word. It was essentially a Latin equivalent of the Slavonic back yer found in languages like Russian. Unpronounced in most cases, it served to indicate that the previous consonant was not palatalized, or that the preceding i was the vowel [i] and not a mere marker of palatalization. When ŭ was pronounced, it would follow a stressed vowel and stand in for semivowel u, as in words eŭ, aŭ, and meŭ, all spelled today without the breve. Once frequent, it survives today in author Mateiu Caragiale's name – originally spelled Mateiŭ (it is not specified whether the pronunciation should adopt a version that he himself probably never used, while in many editions he is still credited as Matei). In other names, only the breve was dropped, while preserving the pronunciation of a semivowel u, as is the case of B.P. Hasdeŭ. Romanization of Indic scripts When transcribing Malayalam texts into ISO 15919, usually the final glottal-stop is transcribed as 'ŭ', an epenthetic vowel (a rule called as ). In Tamil, any wordfinal-'u' is always a short-vowel, hence transcribing it as 'ŭ' (a rule called as ). The Kashmiri vowel / is also sometimes transcribed as 'ŭ'. Other uses In some philological transcriptions of Latin, "ŭ" denotes a short U — for example, "fŭgō" (, to chase away), vs "fūmō" (, to smoke). The letter is also commonly used among Slavists to denote the short back closed vowel of Proto-Slavic. The McCune–Reischauer Romanization of Korean uses "ŭ" to signify the close back unrounded vowel in 으. Several schemes for pronunciation of English words have used "ŭ". For example, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language has used "ŭ" for , the vowel in the English word "cut". In Kurrentschrift, an outdated script used in German handwriting, the lower-case letter "u" is adorned with a breve to distinguish it from the otherwise identical letter "n". The script was used for teaching writing in schools; the last variant, known as Sütterlinschrift, as late as 1941. The ingrained habit of writing "ŭ" for "u" persisted for a long time even as people switched to cursive scripts with easily distinguishable shapes for "u" and "n", occasionally leading to confusion between "ŭ" (meaning "u") and "ü" among later generations not brought up with this tick. See also Esperanto orthography Short U (Ў, ў) used in Belarusian and Uzbek Cyrillic alphabet Breve Й Ĉ Ĝ Ĥ Ĵ Ŝ Notes Belarusian language Esperanto letters with diacritics Romanian language Latin letters with diacritics U breve	[ -0.0010434372816234827, -0.005670655053108931, 0.4163210391998291, -0.043702829629182816, -0.5724000930786133, 0.6472654938697815, 0.23517073690891266, 0.21474452316761017, -0.15339221060276031, -0.5189574360847473, -0.06645523756742477, 0.32104966044425964, -0.2811894714832306, 0.19913767278194427, 0.10470171272754669, 0.4211187958717346, 0.27250775694847107, 0.7590081095695496, -0.5931667685508728, -0.31641489267349243, -0.22269728779792786, 0.05885754153132439, 0.3705993890762329, -0.24957501888275146, 0.23780719935894012, -0.18751661479473114, -0.009879733435809612, -0.06033061444759369, 0.127623051404953, 0.554155707359314, -0.041841667145490646, 0.8185166120529175, -0.06173476204276085, 0.34326842427253723, -0.2567450702190399, -0.3607620298862457, 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258696	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forsyth%E2%80%93Edwards%20Notation	Forsyth–Edwards Notation	Forsyth–Edwards Notation (FEN) is a standard notation for describing a particular board position of a chess game. The purpose of FEN is to provide all the necessary information to restart a game from a particular position. FEN is based on a system developed by Scottish newspaper journalist David Forsyth. Forsyth's system became popular in the 19th century; Steven J. Edwards extended it to support use by computers. FEN is defined in the "Portable Game Notation Specification and Implementation Guide". In the Portable Game Notation for chess games, FEN is used to define initial positions other than the standard one. FEN does not provide sufficient information to decide whether a draw by threefold repetition may be legally claimed or a draw offer may be accepted; for that, a different format such as Extended Position Description is needed. Definition A FEN "record" defines a particular game position, all in one text line and using only the ASCII character set. A text file with only FEN data records should have the file extension ".fen". A FEN record contains six fields. The separator between fields is a space. The fields are: Piece placement (from White's perspective). Each rank is described, starting with rank 8 and ending with rank 1; within each rank, the contents of each square are described from file "a" through file "h". Following the Standard Algebraic Notation (SAN), each piece is identified by a single letter taken from the standard English names (pawn = "P", knight = "N", bishop = "B", rook = "R", queen = "Q" and king = "K"). White pieces are designated using upper-case letters ("PNBRQK") while black pieces use lowercase ("pnbrqk"). Empty squares are noted using digits 1 through 8 (the number of empty squares), and "/" separates ranks. Active color. "w" means White moves next, "b" means Black moves next. Castling availability. If neither side can castle, this is "-". Otherwise, this has one or more letters: "K" (White can castle kingside), "Q" (White can castle queenside), "k" (Black can castle kingside), and/or "q" (Black can castle queenside). A move that temporarily prevents castling does not negate this notation. En passant target square in algebraic notation. If there's no en passant target square, this is "-". If a pawn has just made a two-square move, this is the position "behind" the pawn. This is recorded regardless of whether there is a pawn in position to make an en passant capture. Halfmove clock: The number of halfmoves since the last capture or pawn advance, used for the fifty-move rule. Fullmove number: The number of the full move. It starts at 1, and is incremented after Black's move. Examples The following example is from the FEN specification: Here's the FEN for the starting position: rnbqkbnr/pppppppp/8/8/8/8/PPPPPPPP/RNBQKBNR w KQkq - 0 1 And after the move 1.e4: rnbqkbnr/pppppppp/8/8/4P3/8/PPPP1PPP/RNBQKBNR b KQkq e3 0 1 And then after 1...c5: rnbqkbnr/pp1ppppp/8/2p5/4P3/8/PPPP1PPP/RNBQKBNR w KQkq c6 0 2 And then after 2.Nf3: rnbqkbnr/pp1ppppp/8/2p5/4P3/5N2/PPPP1PPP/RNBQKB1R b KQkq - 1 2 FEN adjustment for chess variants like Chess960 FEN is critical for recording games in chess variants such as Chess960 (also known as Fischer Random Chess), where the initial position is not necessarily the traditional initial position. However, the FEN castling availability encoding (KQkq) is inadequate for positions in which there are two rooks on the same side of the king on the back rank, as if only one rook were available for castling it would be ambiguous which rook it was without knowing their initial positions. The solution implemented by chess engines like Shredder and Fritz_9 is to use the letters of the columns on which the rooks began the game. This scheme is sometimes called Shredder-FEN. For the traditional setup, Shredder-FEN would use AHah instead of KQkq. Another solution is offered by X-FEN, which offers more backward compatibility than does Shredder-FEN, but at the cost of more complexity. See also Chess notation Portable Game Notation Extended Position Description References External links Portable Game Notation Specification and Implementation Guide, Steven J. 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258697	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassago	Vassago	Vassago (also Vasago, Usagoo) is a demon described in demonological grimoires such as the Lesser Key of Solomon and the Book of the Office of Spirits. Lesser Key of Solomon He is the third demon in the Lesser Key (including Thomas Rudd's variant) as a prince "of a good nature" and of the "same nature as Agares". He rules twenty-six legions of spirits, and is summoned to tell magicians of past and future events, and locate lost objects. He is one of the few spirits found in the Lesser Key of Solomon but not in Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum. According to Rudd, Vassago is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Sitael. Other works Vassago is mentioned in the Book of the Office of Spirits as Usagoo, appearing as an angel, "just and true in all his doings," with the powers of inciting the love of women and revealing hidden treasures, in addition to ruling twenty spirits. Sloane MS 3824 mentions Vassago in invocations to summon spirits that guard treasure, and in the "Experiment of Vassago" and the "Experiment of Agares," both intended to capture the named spirits in crystals. Murderer and vampire-themed cult leader Rod Ferrell used "Vassago" as a "vampire name" and burned a V representing this alias onto his victims. 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258700	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pet%20adoption	Pet adoption	Pet adoption is the process of transferring responsibility for a pet that was previously owned by another party such as a person, shelter, or rescue organization. Common sources for adoptable pets are animal shelters and rescue groups. Some organizations give adopters ownership of the pet, while others use a guardianship model wherein the organization retains some control over the animal's future use or care. Online pet adoption sites have databases of pets being housed by thousands of animal shelters and rescue groups, and are searchable by the public. People deal with their unwanted pets in many ways. Some people have the pet euthanized (also known as putting down or putting to sleep), although many veterinarians do not consider this to be an ethical use of their resources for young and healthy animals, while others argue that euthanasia is a more humane option than leaving a pet in a cage for very long periods of time. Other people simply release the pet into the wild or otherwise abandon it, with the expectation that it will be able to take care of itself or that it will be found and adopted. More often, these pets succumb to hunger, weather, traffic, or common and treatable health problems. Some people euthanize pets because of terminal illnesses or injuries, while others even do it for common health problems that they cannot, or will not, pay to treat. More responsible owners will take the pet to a shelter, or call a rescue organization, where it will be cared for properly until a home can be found. Another method is rehoming (finding another owner). Reasons for surrendering a pet may be due to allergies, the pet-owner's death, divorce, the birth of a baby, or relocation. Homes cannot always be found, however, and euthanasia is often used for the excess animals to make room for newer pets, unless the organization has a no-kill policy. The Humane Society of the United States estimates that 2.4 million healthy, adoptable cats and dogs are euthanized each year in the US because of a lack of homes. Animal protection advocates campaign for adoption instead of buying animals in order to reduce the number of animals who have to be euthanized. Many shelters and animal rescues encourage the education of spaying or neutering a pet in order to reduce the number of animals euthanized in shelters and to help control the pet population. To help lower the number of animals euthanized each year, some shelters have developed a no-kill policy. Best Friends Animal Society is the largest no-kill shelter in the United States who adopts policies such as "Save Them All". Like this shelter and many others, they strive to keep their animals as long as it takes to find them new homes. City shelters and government funded shelters rarely have this policy because of the large number of animals they receive. No-kill shelters are usually run by groups that have volunteers or individuals with enough space to foster pets until a permanent home can be found. However, many of these groups and individuals have a finite number of spaces available. This means they will not take in new animals unless a space opens up, although they will often take back pets that they have adopted out previously. Sometimes they try to find the animals foster homes, in which the animal is placed in a home temporarily until someone adopts it. Adoption process The central issue in adoption is whether the new adopter can provide a safe, secure, and permanent home for the adopted pet. Responsible shelters, pounds, and rescue organizations refuse to supply pets to people whom they deem ineligible based on assessing their inability to supply the adopted animal with a suitable home. Sometimes, a new owner may face training or behavioral challenges with a pet who has been neglected, abused, or left untrained. In the vast majority of cases, patience, training, persistence and consistency of care will help the pet overcome its past. In Canada, reputable animal shelters or humane societies go through an extensive process to ensure that potential pets and their respective families are well suited and prepared for their lives ahead. Adoption fees include spaying/neutering, veterinary care including all updated vaccinations, micro-chipping, and pet insurance. Phone interviews, written questionnaires and in-person visits gather information on the potential family's history with pets, their lifestyle, habits, and their ability to take on the conditions of the adopted pet. Adult pets can be more difficult to place due to the fact that they may have existing habits or behaviors that are difficult to manage or unwanted. Unknown histories with rescue pets may also complicate their ability to be adopted. Shelters and humane societies remain connected with information packages on why pets are unwanted, what to expect in the first days, week or month of pet adoption, guides, recommendations, specific behavior training requests and follow-up calls to ensure that everyone is satisfied with the adoption. A forever home is the home of an adopter who agrees to be responsible for the animal for its entire life. There are two basic understandings of the concept. A broad interpretation simply says that the adopter of the pet agrees that the animal's well-being is now their personal responsibility for the rest of the animal's life. If the adopter can no longer keep the animal for any reason, they would need to be responsible for finding a healthy and happy home for the animal, and making sure that the people of the new home are taking good care of the animal for the rest of its life. Many animal rescues require adopters to return the animal to the rescue if they can no longer care for the animal. Should the adopter die before the animal, they should have a plan in place for the care of the animal. A more restrictive view that some shelters attempt to integrate as part of the adoption agreement puts conditions on when and why the adopter could arrange to move the animal to a new family. For example, forever home agreements might specify that the adopter will not get rid of the animal for trivial reasons, or that the adopter will always be sure that the animal will be permitted should they move to a new residence. Some agreements might specify allergies or violent behavior on the part of the animal as reasons allowable for an adopter to relinquish the animal. One problem shelters are fighting to overcome is what they term "Big Black Dog syndrome". Big black dogs (BBDs) are consistently the hardest dogs to place—even if they're friendly, well trained, and in perfect health. This may be due to a number of factors, including fear stigma against certain breed types, attraction to ads and the fact that black dogs often do not photograph as well as lighter coated ones, and the fact that black dogs are often portrayed as aggressive in film and on television. Organizations have started campaigns to educate the public about BBD syndrome. Similarly, shelters often have difficulty placing black cats due to common superstitions regarding black cats as bringers or harbingers of bad luck. Some shelters also have policies halting or limiting adoption of black cats immediately prior to Halloween for fear that the animals will be tortured, or used as "living decorations" for the holiday and then abandoned. Rabbits are sometimes treated in the same manner prior to Easter as well, though they are rarely found in regular shelters since they are considered "exotic" (anything not a dog or cat). Another popular fad is using a small dog, pretty white Persian kitten or other small pet as a fashion accessory to "complement an outfit". Such animals may end up discarded, abandoned, or placed in a shelter when no longer needed. Education about and promotion of pet adoption is also done by animal welfare organizations, and by local government animal control agencies. In 2016, the U.S. state of Georgia made the "adoptable dog" its state dog, similar to Colorado's adopted dog. After filling out an application to adopt an animal, there is also an adoption fee that must be paid to adopt an animal. Adoption fees have several purposes that they fulfill. If someone is willing to pay for an animal chances are they will take care of him or her and not abuse or neglect their new pet. Most animals that are of age are spayed or neutered and up to date on all of their shots. Depending on the shelter or organization, some pets may be microchipped which helps locate them if they are lost. The adoption fees are in place to help cover these costs, and also help provide food for the animals left in the shelter. Responsible pet ownership According to the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) (2018), being responsible for a pet requires commitment and should be considered a privilege. Similar to having children, the pet depends on the owner for their needs such as food and shelter, exercise and mental stimulation and veterinary care. When choosing to adopt a pet, the lifestyle of the owner and the pet should be compatible. Once a pet is chosen, the owner should ensure the pet has been spayed or neutered and properly identified. The responsibility to the animal should be a commitment for the lifetime of the pet. If a situation arises that the owner can no longer provide a suitable household for the animal, it should be the owners first priority to re-home the pet. The AVMA presents guidelines for being a responsible pet owner. This guideline is a good resource of what should be considered before becoming a pet owner. Thoughtful consideration should be used to ensure the resources and commitment are present to make the animal - human relationship beneficial for both. Rescue dogs A rescue dog is a dog that has been placed in a new home after being abused, neglected, or abandoned by its previous owner. The term can also apply to dogs that are found as strays, surrendered by owners for a variety of reasons, including relationship breakdowns, moving home where the owner is unable or unwilling to take their pets, or elderly people who are not permitted to take their dog(s) into a nursing home. Many animal rescue organisations exist to rescue, protect, care and re-home dogs from unnecessary euthanasia. Common examples include the RSPCA in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, the ISPCA in Ireland, or the ASPCA in the United States. Many rescue dogs are rehomed quickly, but some wait longer for a home. This may be relevant when the dog is older. Some agencies provide ongoing health care and support for older dogs after they have been placed in a home. There are several charities dedicated to rescuing and rehoming older dogs. The ASPCA estimates that approximately 3.3 million dogs in the United States enter shelters each year. Of these, 1.6 million are adopted, 670,000 are euthanized, and 620,000 are returned to their previous owners. A study conducted by the United States National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy (NCPPSP) in 1998 found that the main reasons for pets being relinquished are: family moving, landlord will not allow pets, too many animals in household, cost of keeping the pet, owner is having personal problems, inadequate facilities, and no homes available for puppies. The study found that 47.7% of dogs turned in to shelters were not altered (spayed or neutered), 33% had not been to a veterinarian, and 96% of dogs had no obedience training. The conclusion of the researchers was that the owners who were relinquishing their pets did not have the knowledge to be responsible dog owners, and that educational programs aimed at present and prospective owners would reduce the number of dogs relinquished to animal shelters. 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258701	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srirangapatna	Srirangapatna	Srirangapatna (also spelled Shrirangapattana; anglicized to Seringapatam during the British Raj) is a town and one of the seven Taluks of Mandya district, in the Indian State of Karnataka. Located near the city of Mysore, it is of religious, cultural and historic importance. The monuments on the island town of Srirangapatna have been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the application is pending on the tentative list of UNESCO. History Srirangapatna has since time immemorial been an urban center and place of pilgrimage. During the Vijayanagar empire, it became the seat of a major viceroyalty, from where several nearby vassal states of the empire, such as Mysore and Talakad, were overseen. When perceiving the decline of the Vijayanagar empire, the rulers of Mysore ventured to assert independence, Srirangapatna was their first target. Raja Wodeyar vanquished Rangaraya, the then viceroy of Srirangapatna, in 1610 and celebrated the Navaratri festival in the town that year. It came to be accepted in time that two things demonstrated control and signified sovereignty over the Kingdom of Mysore by any claimant to the throne, including the successful holding of the 10-day-long Navaratri festival, dedicated to Chamundeshwari, patron goddess of Mysore and control of the fort of Srirangapatna, the fortification nearest to the capital city of Mysore. Srirangapatna remained part of the Kingdom of Mysore from 1610 to after India's independence in 1947; as the fortress closest to the capital city of Mysore, it was the last bastion and defence of the kingdom in case of invasion. Hyder and Tipu Srirangapatna became the capital of Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. When Tipu finally dispensed with the charade of deference to the Wodeyar Maharaja who was actually his captive, and proclaimed the "Khudadad State" under his own kingship, though the then incumbent Wodeyar scion Chamaraja Wodeyar IX was still officially the king of Mysore. During Tipu Sultan's wars against the British, Kodavas, and Malabar rajas; he rounded up entire communities of Nairs, Kodavas, and Mangalorean Catholics in the conquered regions and deported them to Srirangapatna, where they were held in bondage until they received freedom from captivity as a result of Tipu's defeat by the British in 1799. Treaty of Seringapatam, 1792 The Treaty of Seringapatam (also called Srirangapatinam), signed 18 March 1792, ended the Third Anglo-Mysore War. Its signatories included Lord Cornwallis on behalf of the British East India Company, representatives of the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Maratha Empire, and Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore. Battle of Seringapatam, 1799 Srirangapatna was the scene of the last and decisive battle fought between Tipu Sultan and a combined force of 50,000 men provided equally by the Nizam of Hyderabad and the East India Company under the overall command of General George Harris. This battle was the last engagement of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. The Battle of Seringapatam, 1799, was truly momentous in its historic effects. At the battle's climax, Tipu Sultan was killed within the fort of Seringapatam, betrayed by one of his own confidants; the spot where he ultimately fell is marked by a memorial. For the last time in history, Seringapatam had been the scene of political change in the Sultanate of Mysore. The joint forces of the victorious army proceeded to plunder Seringapatam and ransack Tipu's palace. Apart from the usual gold and cash, innumerable valuables and objets d'art, not excepting even the personal effects of Tipoo Sultan, his rich clothes and shoes, sword and firearms, were shipped to England. While most of this is now to be found in the British Royal Collection and in the Victoria and Albert Museum, some articles have occasionally become available at auctions and have been retrieved for their native land. The sword of Tipu Sultan has been acquired by Vijay Mallya, a liquor baron from Karnataka, who purchased the same at a Sotheby's auction. Much of the site of the Battle is still intact including the ramparts, the Water Gate, the place where the Tippu Sultan's body was found, the area where the British prisoners were held and the site of the destroyed palace. Tipu's Tiger, an automaton now in the Victoria & Albert Museum, was captured at the battle. British composer Harriet Wainwright composed a work for chorus ("Seringapatam") about the battle. Location Although situated a mere 15 km from Mysore city, Srirangapatna lies in the neighbouring district of Mandya. The entire town is enclosed by the river Kaveri to form a river island, northern half of which is shown in the adjacent image. While the main river flows on the eastern side of the island, the Paschima Vaahini segment of the same river flows to its west. The town is easily accessible by train from Bengaluru and Mysore and is also well-connected by road, lying as it does just off the Bangalore-Mysore National Highway 275. The highway passes through this town and special care was taken to minimize any impact on the monuments. Religious significance The town takes its name from the celebrated Ranganathaswamy temple which dominates the town, making Srirangapatna one of the most important Vaishnavite centers of pilgrimage in South India. The temple was built by the Ganga dynasty rulers of the area in the 9th century; the structure was strengthened and improved upon architecturally some three centuries later. Thus, the temple is a medley of the Hoysala and Vijayanagar styles of temple architecture. Tradition holds that all the islands formed in the Kaveri River are consecrated to Sri Ranganathaswamy (PrabhaVishnu mentioned in Vishnu SahasraNamah) and large temples have been built in very ancient times dedicated to that deity on the three largest islands. These three towns, which constitute the main pilgrimage centers dedicated to Ranganathaswamy, are: Adi Ranga - at Srirangapatna Madhya Ranga - at Sivasamudram Antya Ranga - at Srirangam The presence of the Kaveri River is in itself considered auspicious and sanctifying. The Paschima Vaahini section of the Kaveri at Srirangapatna is considered especially sacred; the pious come from far and wide to immerse the ashes of the departed and perform obsequies to their ancestors in these waters. Demographics According to the 2011 India Census Data, Srirangapatna had a population of 155,130 persons. Males constitute 50.06% and females constitute 49.93% of the total population. 9.80% of the population are under 6 years of age. Geography Srirangapatna is at . It has an average elevation of 679 metres (2227 feet). Srirangapatna Sangama is the confluence of the three holy streams creating the island. Located 27 km upstream from the town is the spectacular Shivanasamudra Falls, the second biggest waterfall in India and the 16th largest in the world. Places of interest The town is famous for a very ancient temple dedicated to Sri Ranganathaswamy, a form of Lord Vishnu. There is also Kalyani Siddhi Vinayaka Temple in front of the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple. Other temples in Srirangapatna include the Lakshminarasimha Swamy Temple, Jyothi Mahaswara Temple, Bidhcotta Ganesha Temple, Panduranga Swamy Temple, the Sathyanarayana Swamy Temple, the Anjunaya Swamy Temple, the Ayyapa Temple, the Gangadhareswara Swamy Temple, and RaganathaNagara Ganesha Temple, Lakshmi Temple, Sri Raghavendra Swamy Mutt on Old Post Office Road, surrounding Srirangapatna in fort 8 Ganesh & Anjunaya temples. The Karighatta (Black Hill) and its temple of Lord Srinivasa is a few kilometres from the town. The deity is Kari-giri-vasa (one who resides on the black hill). The renowned Nimishambha Temple is about 2 km from the town. Srirangapatna also hosts the summer palace of Tipu Sultan and his mausoleum. Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple The Ranganthaswamy Temple – usually referred to as "Sri Ranganathaswamy" – is dedicated to Ranganatha, a manifestation of Vishnu. It is one of the five important pilgrimage sites along the river Kaveri for devotees of Ranganatha. These five sacred sites are together known as Pancharanga Kshetrams in Southern India. Since Srirangapatna is the first temple starting from upstream, the deity is known as Adi Ranga (lit; "first Ranga"), and the town of Srirangapatna, which derives its name from the temple, is on an island in the river Kaveri. Daria Daulat Bagh The Dariya Daulat Palace (Summer Palace) is set amidst beautiful gardens called Daria Daulat Bagh. Tippu Sultan built this palace in 1784. The palace is built in the Indo-Saracenic style is mostly made of teakwood. The palace has a rectangular plan and is built on a raised platform. Other attractions in Srirangapatna include the Jumma Masjid (a Mosque) and the Daria Daulat Gardens. The mosque has stone Arabic inscriptions which mention the 99 titles given to the Prophet Mohammed, and the Farsi inscriptions which mentions that the Jamia Masjid called Masjid-E-Ala was built in AD 1782 by Tipu Sultan. Tipu Sultan Gumbaz The Gumbaz is an impeccably detailed mausoleum and houses the remains of Tipu Sultan, his father Hyder Ali and his mother Fatima Begum among beautifully manicured gardens. Various tombs of other relatives surround the gumbaz, some with small signs offering guidance on which specific individuals are buried here. The outer gumbaz columns are made of amphibolite, a very dark rock that exudes a somber richness. Handcrafted door frames covered in a deep lacquer finish lead into an inner tomb illuminated only by natural light. All visitors are welcome inside, and even encouraged to enter by the friendly doormen. Wellesley Bridge Wellesley Bridge was erected by Kingdom of Mysore's Dewan, Purnaiah on the Kaveri river in 1804. It was named after the then Governor General Marquis of Wellesley. The bridge is built of stone pillars and stone corbels and surrounded by stone girders. The bridge is very strong and has survived the heavy traffic of many years. Karighatta viewpoint The Karighatta viewpoint gives good panorama of Mysore and Srirangapatna cities from a height of 3,000 feet. Karighatta is a hill a few kilometres outside the 'island' town of Srirangapatna. The name Karighatta translates to "Black Hill" in Kannada. The hill supports the dry scrub jungle and many tamarind and gooseberry trees are found around the temple. A small river, Lokapavani, a tributary of Kaveri flows by the hill. The main entrance to the temple, with huge wooden doors opens into a large quadrangle, which is the main shrine for Vaikunta Srinivasa in black stone, flanked by Yoga Srinivasa (without his consort) and Bhoga Srinivasa idols. The hill may be climbed by stone steps (450 in number). A winding paved road is used for vehicular transport. The stone steps lead to a flat hilltop where the temple stands. The hillock has a superb panoramic view of Srirangapatna and Mysore. The beautiful landscape around the hill and the confluence of the Kaveri and Lokapavani rivers can be seen from atop the hill. Nimishamba Temple The famous Nimishamba (the incarnation of Parvathi, the goddess wife of Lord Shiva) temple is on the bank of the Lokapavani river. This temple too can be clearly seen from the top of the Karighatta hill. It is a belief that Parvathi will clear all the problems and troubles of her devotees within a minute (nimisha in Sanskrit), and hence the name. Garrison Cemetery, Srirangapatna The Garrison Cemetery is located in Srirangapatna, on the banks of the river Cauvery, about 300m from the Bangalore Mysore Highway. It has about 307 graves of the European officers killed in the final assault on Tippu Sultan in 1799, and their family members. Among the graves, there are 80 graves of the officers of the Swiss Regiment de Meuron, and the rest of the graves are their family members. Scott’s Bungalow, Seringapatam The Scott’s Bungalow is located in Seringapatam on the banks of the river Cauvery, at about half a mile from the Mysore Gate of the Seringapatam gate. The bungalow was the residence of Col. Scott, an officer of the Madras Army who took part in the siege of Seringapatam in 1799. The bungalow is associated with the legend and tragedy of Col. Scott. The story of Scott’s Bungalow is lamented in a poem by Walter Yeldham called The Deserted Bungalow, published in 1875. Lord Harris's House Between the Garrison Cemetery and Scott’s Bungalow a path leads to house on the river banks. This house is known as Lord Harris's House or The Doctor's Bungalow or Puraniah's Bungalow. This house was the residence of General Harris, for a short time after the siege of Seringapatam in 1799, and went on to become headquarters of the commanding officer of Seringapatam. In 1809, the house was the scene of a mutiny by officers of the Madras Army, led by Col. Bell, against Sir. George Barlow, the Governor of Madras. Purnaiah, lived in this house after his retirement from service in 1811, and died there on 28 March 1812. A tablet on the wall records the connection of Lord Harris and Puraniah to the house. Srirangapatna Fort The fortress is in the west of the island, and is surrounded by double walls. The point at which the British broke through the walls, and thus Tipu Sultan's troops surprised, is marked by an obelisk. Also highlighted is the place where Tipu Sultan was killed by the British forces. In addition, the dungeon in which the Mysore rulers had imprisoned British soldiers. Colonel Bailey's Dungeon This was the place where Tipu Sultan used to imprison all the British officers. It is near the death place memorial of Tipu Sultan and is surrounded by gardens on all four sides. Bailey was the only British officer who died in that place and could not make it through the tough conditions and so it was later named after him. Another version says that the commanding officer of the British at the Battle of Pollilur (1780), Col. Baillie, was imprisoned here after the defeat of his troops in the First Mysore War. Obelisk Monument Obelisk in Srirangapatna is a memorial erected by the then government of Mysore in memory of the English soldiers died during the siege of Srirangapatna. The Memorial was built during the reign of Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV in 1907, to celebrate the defeat of Tipu in 1799. The inscription on the plaque reads "This monument is erected by the government of Mysore in 1907 in order to commemorate the siege of Seringapatam by the British forces under lieutenant general G. Harris ( George Harris, 1st Baron Harris ) and its final capture by assault on 4 May 1799. As also the names of those gallant officers who fell during the operations." Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary Near the town is the Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary, where several bird species breed, including the painted stork, open-billed stork, black-headed ibis, river tern, great stone plover and Indian shag. In literature Bernard Cornwell's Sharpe's Tiger is a fictionalised account of the Battle of Seringapatam. It concentrates on the exploits of the fictional character of Richard Sharpe, and the historic Arthur Wellesley, later the Duke of Wellington. Wilkie Collins' The Moonstone includes a prologue that takes place during the Battle of Srirangapatna, entitled "The Storming of Seringapatam (1799)," during which a British officer steals a sacred Hindu diamond that becomes the mystery at the centre of the novel. John Forster mentions in The Life of Charles Dickens that in a childhood playground of C.D., "he had been... delivered from the dungeons of Seringapatam, an immense pile ('of haycock'), by the victorious British ('boy next door and his two cousins')..." See pg. 10 of the Everyman edition published in 1969. First published: London; Chapman and Hall, 1872–1874 in 3 volumes. Image gallery See also Karighatta Road Bannur Arakere Kodagahalli References External links Ancient History of Srirangapatna Srirangam Temple - Tamil Nadu Srirangapatna - Mysore Page on Srirangapatna at Kamat.com "The Tiger and the Thistle" Cities and towns in Mandya district Kingdom of Mysore Hindu holy cities Former capital cities in India Landforms of Karnataka Islands of Karnataka Tourist attractions in Mandya district River islands of India Geography of Mandya district	[ 0.034914806485176086, -0.2719080448150635, -0.22905242443084717, -0.2708580791950226, 0.4378865659236908, 0.5433094501495361, 0.9565390348434448, -0.09549970179796219, -0.6021076440811157, 0.15330612659454346, -0.5052266120910645, 0.12391019612550735, -0.41173192858695984, 0.3526291251182556, -0.16553817689418793, 0.6511110663414001, 0.9715985059738159, 0.03258039429783821, 0.5152199268341064, 0.011356353759765625, 0.03822454810142517, 0.13345879316329956, 0.4797302484512329, 0.4424635171890259, 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258706	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balan	Balan	Balan may refer to: Places Bălan, a town in Harghita County, Romania Bălan, Sălaj, a commune in Sălaj County, Romania Bălan (river), a tributary of the Râmnicul Sărat in Vrancea County, Romania Balan, Ain, a French commune Balan, Ardennes, a French commune Balan, Iran (disambiguation), places in Iran People Balan (surname) Balan K. Nair (1933–2000), Indian actor Sir Balan, the brother of Sir Balin in Arthurian legend Other uses Balam (demon), a demon whose name is sometimes spelled "Balan" Balan: Book of Angels Volume 5, a 2006 album by the Cracow Klezmer Band composed by John Zorn Balan, the king of Al-Andalus (Moorish Spain) and father of Fierabras in the chansons de geste Balan (film), the first talkie film in Malayalam Balan Wonderworld, a 2021 video game	[ 0.1451384425163269, 0.6756535768508911, 0.11661893874406815, -0.45233726501464844, 0.002743014134466648, 0.7150723934173584, 0.6086180806159973, 0.09831714630126953, -0.6501938104629517, -0.02958563342690468, -0.5555152297019958, -0.34847021102905273, -0.09852788597345352, 0.6330946683883667, -0.6313942670822144, 0.688159704208374, 0.5984407663345337, 0.4890057146549225, 0.486828476190567, -0.30084681510925293, 0.04450799524784088, 0.07946137338876724, 0.38602593541145325, -0.31506866216659546, -0.34033989906311035, 0.29465252161026, 0.36479100584983826, 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258711	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal%20shelter	Animal shelter	An animal shelter or pound is a place where stray, lost, abandoned or surrendered animals – mostly dogs and cats – are housed. The word "pound" has its origins in the animal pounds of agricultural communities, where stray livestock would be penned or impounded until they were claimed by their owners. While no-kill shelters exist, it is sometimes policy to euthanize animals that are not claimed quickly enough by a previous or new owner. In Europe, of the 30 countries included in a survey, all but six (Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Italy and Poland) permitted euthanizing non-adopted animals. Terminology The shelter industry has terminology for their unique field of work, and though there are no exact standards for consistent definitions, many words have meanings based on their usage. Animal control has the municipal function of picking up stray dogs and cats, and investigating reports of animal abuse, dog bites or animal attacks. It may also be called animal care and control, and earlier was called the dog catcher or rabies control. Stray, lost or abandoned pets picked up off the streets are usually transported to the local animal shelter, or pound. Uncomplicated stray cases are usually kept for a period of time, called stray hold. After the holding period, an animal is considered forfeited by its owner, and may become available for adoption. Animals involved in attacks or bites are placed in quarantine and are not available for adoption until investigations or legal cases are resolved. Animal control's interest is mainly public safety and rabies control. Many shelter policies allow individuals to bring in animals to the shelter, often called owner surrender, or relinquishing an animal. An open admission shelter will accept any animal regardless of reason, and is usually a municipal-run shelter or a private shelter with a contract to operate for a municipality. Municipal shelters may limit incoming animals to those from the area in which they serve. A managed admission shelter requires an appointment and will restrict admission of animals to fit their available resources. Limited admission shelters are usually private or non-profit shelters without municipal contracts, and they may limit their intake to only highly-adoptable and healthy animals. An animal in a shelter has four outcomes: return to owner, adoption, transfer to another shelter or rescue facility, or euthanasia. Return to owner is when a stray animal, that was found and housed at the shelter, is picked up by its owner. Most animal shelters practice adoption, where an animal in their care is given or sold to an individual who will keep it and care for it. Some shelters work with rescue organizations, giving an animal to the rescue rather than adopting it to an individual. Some jurisdictions mandate that shelters cooperate with rescues; some shelters utilize rescues to offload animals with health or behavior problems that they are not equipped to deal with. Many shelters practice some level of euthanasia. Euthanasia is the act of putting an animal to death. A high kill shelter euthanizes many of the animals they take in; a low kill shelter euthanizes few animals and usually operates programs to increase the number of animals that are released alive. A shelter's live release rate is the measure of how many animals leave a shelter alive compared to the number of animals they have taken in. A no kill shelter practices a very strict high live release rate, such as 90%, 95%, or even 100%. Since there is no standard of measurement, some shelters compare live releases to the number of healthy, adoptable animals, while others compare live releases to every animal they took in – as such, the terms high kill, low kill, and no kill are therefore subjective. Shelter partners include rescue groups, fosters and sanctuaries. Rescue groups will often pull dogs from shelters, helping to reduce the number of animals at a shelter. A rescue group often specializes in a specific dog breed, or they pull hard-to-adopt animals such as those with health or behavioral issues with the intention of rehabilitating the animal for a future adoption. Many rescues don't have brick and mortar locations but operate out of a home or with foster partners. A foster will temporarily take animals from the shelter to their home to give them special attention or care, such as a newly whelped litter of puppies, or an animal recovering from an illness. An animal sanctuary is an alternative to euthanasia for difficult-to-adopt animals; it is a permanent placement which may include secure kenneling and care by staff experienced in the handling of animals with serious aggression or permanent behavioral problems, or a home for aged animals that will be cared for until their natural death. Adoption and sending to rescue or sanctuary are permanent placements; fostering is a temporary placement. A retail rescue takes advantage of right-of-first-choice of the free or cheap inventory of animals from shelters to flip shelter-pulled animals under the banner of 'adoption', with little or no retraining or veterinary care in between pulling a dog and selling it. They may also obtain animals cheaply from auctions or puppy mills and command high dollar for their adoptions under the ruse of having 'rescued' the animal. A retail shelter operates like an ordinary animal shelter but with more of the flavor of a pet store than a traditional shelter by selling pet supplies. They may even obtain animals from out of the area to increase their inventory of animals, rather than serving only their geographic service area. Many shelters routinely spay or neuter all their adoptable animals and vaccinate them for rabies and other routine pet diseases. Shelters often offer rabies clinics or spay-neuter clinics to their local public at discount rates. Some shelters participate in trap–neuter–return programs where stray animals are captured, neutered and vaccinated, then returned to the location they were picked up. By country Canada In Quebec, there are two types of animal shelters: SPCA (in French, 'Société pour la prévention de la cruauté envers les animaux') SPA (in French, 'Société protectrice des animaux') Germany Larger cities in Germany have a city shelter (Tierheim) for animals or contract with one of the many non-profit animal organizations in the country, which run their own shelters. Most shelters are populated by dogs, cats, and a variety of small animals like mice, rats, and rabbits. Additionally, there are so-called Gnadenhöfe ("mercy-farms") for larger animals that take cattle or horses from private owners who want to put them down for financial reasons. The Animal Protection Act prohibits killing of vertebrates without a proper reason. Generally, proper reasons are slaughtering or hunting for food production (cats and dogs are excepted from that), control of infectious diseases, painless killing "if continued life would imply uncurable pain or suffering" or if an animal poses a danger to the general public. The latter will be a reason for euthanasia only if an authority concerned with public safety orders it based on an investigation. Because of the ruling, all German animal shelters are practically no-kill shelters. Facilities must be led by a person who is certified in the handling of animals. Most shelters contract veterinarians to provide medical care. India Goshalas are a type of shelter for homeless, unwanted or elderly cattle in India. Cows are venerated by many Hindus and slaughter of cattle is illegal in most places in the country. New Zealand In New Zealand, dog pounds are run by each territorial local authority, which provide animal control services under the Dog Control Act 1996. Poland In Poland, it is allowed to euthanize animals in shelters only because of illness. However, it is permitted to kill blind litters as they are considered dependent. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, animal shelters are more commonly known as rescue or rehoming centres and are run by charitable organizations. The most prominent rescue and rehoming organizations are the RSPCA, Cats Protection and the Dogs Trust. United States In the United States there is no government-run organization that provides oversight or regulation of the various shelters on a national basis. However, many individual states regulate shelters within their jurisdiction. One of the earliest comprehensive measures was the Georgia Animal Protection Act of 1986, a law enacted in response to the inhumane treatment of companion animals by a pet store chain in Atlanta. It provided for the licensing and regulation of pet shops, stables, kennels, and animal shelters, and it established, for the first time, minimum standards of care. The Georgia Department of Agriculture was tasked with licensing animal shelters and enforcing the new law through the Department's newly created Animal Protection Division. An additional provision, added in 1990, was the Humane Euthanasia Act, the first state law to mandate intravenous injection of sodium pentothal in place of gas chambers and other less humane methods. The law was further expanded and strengthened with the Animal Protection Act of 2000. Currently, it is estimated that there are approximately 5,000 independently-run animal shelters operating nationwide. Shelters have redefined their role since the 1990s. No longer serving as a lifelong repository for strays and drop-offs, modern shelters have taken the lead in controlling the pet population, promoting pet adoption and studying shelter animals' health and behavior. To prevent animal euthanization, some shelters offer behavioral assessments of animals and training classes to make them more adoptable to the public. Most shelters also provide medical care that includes spaying and neutering to prevent overpopulation. Shelters and shelter-like volunteer organizations responded to cat overpopulation with trap-neuter-return (TNR) programs, which reduced feral cat populations and reduced the burden on shelters. In the United States, many government-run animal shelters operate in conditions that are far from ideal. In the wake of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, many government shelters ran out of adequate space and financial resources. Shelters unable to raise additional funds to provide for the increased number of incoming animals have no choice but to euthanize them, sometimes within days. In 2012, approximately four million cats and dogs died in U.S. shelters. However, in recent years, there has been a dramatic drop in the number of animals euthanized in shelters, due mainly to a successful push to promote spaying and neutering of pets. 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258714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipes	Ipes	IPES may refer to: Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos Sociais, a Brazilian think tank of the 1960s Inverse photoemission spectroscopy Ipos, an Earl and powerful Prince of Hell in demonology Tabebuia, Ipê trees Lapacho, a medical tea Improved Proposed Encryption Standard	[ -0.014511876739561558, 0.32284024357795715, -0.38460493087768555, 0.6856696009635925, -0.33018454909324646, 0.004098289180546999, 0.27645397186279297, 0.13717782497406006, -0.21763762831687927, 0.19869749248027802, -0.1817072480916977, 0.02433202601969242, -0.03633708506822586, 0.025123313069343567, 0.2516438961029053, -0.1727977842092514, 0.16315732896327972, 0.9310635328292847, -0.24071846902370453, -0.3831423223018646, -0.22505192458629608, -0.16072022914886475, 0.22806867957115173, -0.5640823841094971, 0.09346821904182434, 0.027403317391872406, -0.3636976182460785, -0.431458443403244, -0.31790891289711, -0.001149955322034657, 0.20147722959518433, 0.21649396419525146, 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258715	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark%20Airport%20%28disambiguation%29	Newark Airport (disambiguation)	Newark Liberty International Airport (FAA/IATA: EWR), is an airport in Newark, New Jersey, United States, serving the New York metropolitan area. Newark Airport may also refer to: Newark Liberty International Airport (NJT station), a New Jersey Transit train station serving the airport Newark Airport Interchange, a highway interchange outside of Newark Liberty International Airport Newark Metropolitan Airport Buildings, the original buildings at the New Jersey airport, listed on the National Register of Historic Places Newark-Heath Airport (FAA: VTA), in Newark, Ohio, United States	[ -0.2880936563014984, -0.7591330409049988, -0.1604757457971573, -0.15479865670204163, 1.093599557876587, -0.1990494430065155, 0.06355439871549606, 0.4622844159603119, -0.17464403808116913, -0.49841180443763733, -0.4674377739429474, 0.6541550755500793, -0.7722468376159668, -0.2855840027332306, -0.278251051902771, 0.3377717435359955, 0.19235330820083618, 0.3688868582248688, 0.30276188254356384, -0.6613999009132385, -0.5385425686836243, -0.15292908251285553, 0.21740928292274475, -0.2461603879928589, 0.07230088114738464, -0.7113935351371765, 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258716	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separ	Separ	Separ may refer to: Separ, New Mexico, an unincorporated community and ghost town in the United States Separ, Iran, a village Vepar, a demon Separ, Rapper, rapper from Slovakia (mid-Europe)	[ -0.06322725862264633, 0.45995864272117615, -0.08791161328554153, -0.06987608969211578, -0.40780118107795715, 0.5141405463218689, 0.6137227416038513, -0.001928717945702374, -0.07308970391750336, 0.16261669993400574, -0.839739203453064, -0.24876625835895538, -0.33599334955215454, 0.3383971154689789, -0.3889487087726593, 0.07040097564458847, 0.21480225026607513, 0.5237201452255249, -0.19779589772224426, 0.0856097936630249, -0.28312844038009644, -0.24600525200366974, 0.5425915718078613, 0.004613903351128101, -0.10289833694696426, 0.2881435453891754, -0.12138039618730545, 0.38468584418296814, -0.8834136724472046, 0.35386860370635986, -0.4093659818172455, 0.739409863948822, 0.07749015092849731, -0.3233897387981415, 0.2923765778541565, 0.31080305576324463, 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258719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppy%20mill	Puppy mill	A puppy mill, also known as a puppy farm, is a commercial dog breeding facility characterized by quick breeding and poor conditions. Although no standardized legal definition for "puppy mill" exists, a definition was established in Avenson v. Zegart in 1984 as "a dog breeding operation in which the health of the dogs is disregarded in order to maintain a low overhead and maximize profits". The Veterinary Medical Association of the Humane Society of the United States defines the main characteristics of a puppy mill as "emphasis on quantity over quality, indiscriminate breeding, continuous confinement, lack of human contact and environmental enrichment, poor husbandry, and minimal to no veterinary care." There are an estimated 10,000 licensed and unlicensed puppy mills in the United States, in total selling more than 2,000,000 puppies annually. The term "mill" is also applied to operations involving other animals commercially bred for profit, including cats. For-profit breeding on a smaller scale may be referred to as backyard breeding, although this term may also refer to unplanned or non-commercial breeding. Like "mill", it has negative connotations. The United States Department of Agriculture oversees regulations pertaining to the commercial dog industry. The regulations are similar to those in the livestock industry. Differences in breeding conditions The Kennel Club and the American Kennel Club both state that responsible breeders should raise their animals with the intent to produce healthy dogs and to ensure that all animals are provided responsible homes and socialization. However, there is no way to enforce these wishes or records being kept to prove this is the case. The socialization period in a puppy occurs between the ages of 4 weeks and up to 14 weeks of age. This period is crucial for adult development as almost all adult abilities are learned during this stage. With puppy mills essentially skipping the process of socialization, the result is often social problems when the puppy matures to adulthood. Females in puppy mills are sometimes bred every time they are in heat, regardless of whether they have physically recovered from the last litter. Once a breeding female can no longer be bred, whether from pure exhaustion or from age, the female is usually killed. Puppies are also often weaned from their mothers well before the recommended 8–⁠10 weeks of age. Common problems The ASPCA states that some puppy mills can have up to 1,000 dogs under one roof. Because of the high volume of animals, the mill runner will often resort to housing them in wire cages. This results in the animals having poor locomotion. Keeping dogs in wire kennels can lead to injury and damage to the dogs' paws and legs. It's also fairly common for these kennels to be stacked on top of each other in columns. The conditions in these mills are so unsanitary that the animals are often coated in their own urine and feces, causing mats in their fur. Due to unsanitary conditions, puppies from mills will often have internal parasites, affecting their health. Puppy mills are often unheated and this increases the number of deaths due to cold among the dogs used for breeding. Conversely, the mills can also be too hot in warmer weather leading to hyperthermia. Other common conditions in mills include malnutrition and untreated injuries. Due to the frequently poor breeding conditions in puppy mills, puppies bred there often suffer from health and/or social problems. Puppies raised in a cramped environment shared by many other dogs become poorly socialized to other dogs and to humans. Dogs are then transported over long distances in poor conditions, sometimes resulting in animal stress and death. As the surviving mill dogs grow older, they are more prone to developing respiratory ailments and pneumonia, as well as hereditary defects such as hip dysplasia. In addition, mill dogs are more prone to having problems with their temperament due to lack of socialization, enrichment, and positive human contact. Puppies from mills are usually sold as purebred dogs in an attempt to attract the higher prices associated with purebreds. However, due to the indiscriminate breeding practices of puppy mills, the dog may not actually be a purebred puppy. A high population of puppies from mills are inbred due to uncontrolled breeding. The vast majority of puppy mill animals are sold to pet stores by "dealers" or "brokers". Some puppies are sold by dealers masquerading as authentic breeders. Puppy mills in the US often start with hundreds of female dogs which serve their entire lives in the establishment. The females are bred until they can no longer conceive puppies, and are often euthanized after that. The estimated number of puppies per breeding female per year is 9.4. In most puppy mills, the dogs live in cages that are only larger than the dog on all sides, which is the minimum legal size allowed. Two millions puppies are bred each year in the mills and almost 1.2 million dogs are euthanized in shelters every year. The conditions in puppy mills are considered inhumane because all of the dogs are in a small, dirty area which is confined with disease and bacteria. Because of the poor living conditions, dogs are often sick and malnourished. Food is often found crawling with bugs and feces is almost everywhere. Health issues that are prevalent in puppy mills consist of giardia, mange, heartworm, respiratory infections, and much more. History According to Chanis Major V. publications, puppy mills originated in the post-World War II era. Midwestern farmers looking for an alternative crop reacted to a growing demand for puppies, resulting in the development of the first commercial puppy business. As the industry grew, both small and large retail outlets began to sell puppies through pet departments. At around the same time, the first pet store chains were born. Puppy mill dogs are usually housed in a small, wire cages similar to rabbit hutches and chicken coops. In addition, veterinary care for these puppies was often overlooked because of an inability to pay. As a result, organizations such as the Humane Society of the United States began to investigate breeding kennels, leading to the passage of the Animal Welfare Act of August 24, 1966. Prevalence United States According to the Humane Society of the United States, only about 3,000 of the 10,000 puppy mills in the United States are closely monitored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. This presents the possibility of significant noncompliance with federal law by owners and operators of mill operations. Puppy mills do not only affect the dogs that live in and come from them; purchases from pet stores and breeders lessen the number of adoptions from shelters, where three to four million dogs are euthanized every year. A high concentration of both puppy mills and breeders has been reported in the states of Pennsylvania, Arkansas, Kansas, and Missouri. Pennsylvania, and in particular, Lancaster County, has been labeled the "Puppy Mill Capital of the East" due to its high volume of puppy mills. Missouri has been labeled the "Puppy Mill Capital of the U.S." by animal welfare and consumer protection groups. A study by the Better Business Bureau concluded that the southwest corner of Missouri is the hub of the nation's puppy mill industry, and termed it the "national hot spot of the puppy industry." The state of Missouri has around 1,600 puppy mills as of 2018 Australia Dog breeding is regulated by individual Australian states. There is no available data on the prevalence of puppy farms. In 2010 the RSPCA Australia identified 12 puppy farms in the state of Queensland and estimated a similar prevalence in other Australian states. Hobby breeders The term "puppy mill" has been widely used by animal rights groups in protests against breeders who have substandard breeding conditions. Critics in the breeder community claim that emotional rhetoric, sensationalism and pictures of dirty kennels are used to justify additional legislation or additional restrictive licensing that travels well beyond the initial goal of removing dogs from truly deplorable conditions, or that attempts to legislate puppy mills would put them out of business. They argue the laws requiring additional costs in updating and maintaining their facility and licensing would be detrimental to the dogs in their care. They cite existing lemon laws for puppies as sufficient protection for both dogs and prospective buyers. Media coverage On May 1, 2008, MSNBC aired a report about puppy mills, in which talk show host Oprah Winfrey revealed an industry fraught with problems and apparent cruelty. The broadcast showed puppy mills with small cages, with chicken wire floors, stacked in rows from floor to ceiling, and stated that many dogs spend their entire lives within these tiny cages. Many of these dogs are sold on the internet or by pet retailers to buyers who are unaware of the dogs' background. The report claimed that customers who object to this treatment of puppies are more likely to try to "save" the puppies by purchasing them directly from the puppy mill, unknowingly allowing the industry to thrive. It also pointed out that many of the puppy mill bred dogs suffer long-term health problems. Legislative response United States In the United States, some elements of the dog breeding industry are regulated by the Animal Welfare Act of August 24, 1966. In recent years, state legislatures have passed new laws aimed at eliminating the worst abuses at puppy mills. New laws include limits on the number of breeding females, requirements that facilities be licensed and inspected, and requirements that dogs be given proper veterinary care. Louisiana, Pennsylvania and Virginia passed puppy mill laws in 2008, and 10 states passed laws in 2009 to crack down on abusive puppy mills. In 2010, Missouri voters passed Proposition B, the "Puppy Mill Cruelty Prevention Act", which establishes minimum standards of humane care and limits breeders to 50 intact dogs. A compromise, dubbed the Missouri Solution, was signed by Missouri Governor Jay Nixon. Gov. Jay Nixon, Missouri Attorney General Chris Koster, Missouri Director of Agriculture Jon Hagler and Humane Society of Missouri President Kathy Warnick in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch state that "key provisions of a compromise dog breeding law passed in April will protect animals without putting dog breeders out of business." It retained some of the provisions of Proposition B, and made available some state funding for inspections. Humane Society of Missouri President Kathy Warnick reacted favorably, seeing a step in the right direction for animal welfare. The Missouri Senate has a current bill SB 161 that "modifies provisions relating to agriculture." Section 273.327, under the Animal Care Facilities Act states how there will be fees for dog facilities every year. On the same bill section 273.347, it states that breeders can receive penalties for animal care violations up to $1,000 and receive a class C misdemeanor. Australia Sydney Lord Mayor Clover Moore has responded to the problem of puppy mills in Australia by proposing the Animals Regulation of Sale Bill. It would ban the sale of dogs through pet shops, the internet or newspapers. The aim is to crack down on impulse purchases and shut down unregistered backyard breeders. These breeders should no longer easily profit from the sale of the dogs and the number of unwanted and abandoned animals could drop. Also recently there were a few bold initiatives to fight against puppy mills. Namely RSPCA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) strategy. Oscar's law (The organization's name originates from the story of a dog called Oscar, who was rescued from a puppy factory in central Victoria). and Victorian Labor Party Efforts that restrict the number of dogs per breeding facility and require that pet shop owners keep records of every dog sold. United Kingdom In 1996, Britain passed the Breeding and Sale of Dogs Act which requires annual veterinary inspections for anyone breeding five or more litters in one year. Breeding females are restricted to one litter per year and four per lifetime. Breeders who choose to be members of the UK Kennel Club are required to register purebred puppies for sale with that organization and must certify the conditions under which the puppies were raised. Breeders who sell puppies by misrepresenting these standards may be liable to prosecution under the Sale of Goods Act 1979. Members of the UK public frequently buy puppies and kittens without knowing the conditions under which the animals were reared, the Blue Cross estimates from 40,000 to 80,000 puppies are sold that way per year. To prevent this a new law is planned banning the sale of puppies and kittens below the age of 6 months in England except by licensed breeders and rehoming centres. Paula Boyden, of the Dogs Trust, approves of the ban but advised, "potential loopholes" needed to be addressed. She maintains rehoming organisations need regulation. Lucy's Law, which came into effect in April 2020, is intended to prevent puppy (and kitten) farming by banning third-party sales such as in pet shops. Legal cases Chelsea Vancleve v. Chien Et Chat, Inc. stated, "In 2014, the Animal Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit against Barkworks, a Southern California pet store chain with six locations." Barkworks tricked many puppy buyers into purchasing sick puppies. They were also making illegal breeder licenses, "fabricating breeding certificates and lying about providing veterinary care" The Animal Defense Fund made a complaint in 2015 that could have turned into a class action. The court prevented the case from going any further as a class action but in 2018, the parties agreed on a settlement. "Barkworks had taken down the misleading in-store signs and closed four of its six retail stores, and the California legislature had passed a law banning the sale of dogs from commercial breeders." The Humane Society of the United States sued the USDA on March 21, 2018 "for failing to release information in the Animal Welfare Act records we requested under the Freedom of Information. The following day, Congress urged the USDA to restore the records as part of a report accompanying the agency's 2018 spending bill. But as of April 20, 2018, USDA had still not restored the records." Volar Society v. Animal Kingdom a recent lawsuit, filed on March 5, 2019. The Animals Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit because Animal Kingdom pet store and rescue group Bark Adoptions, located in California were, "engaging in a puppy laundering scheme to unlawfully circumvent the California law that bans the sale of dogs from commercial breeders" Animal Kingdom were selling 8-week-old puppies from Bark Adoptions. Bark Adoptions a rescue group, that was promoting rescuing also was involved in the puppy laundering. 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258721	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabbath%20%28disambiguation%29	Sabbath (disambiguation)	Sabbath is a regular (usually weekly) time of rest, worship or special activity, observed by several religions and traditions. 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258724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political%20system	Political system	In political science, a political system defines the process for making official government decisions. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government influence on its people and economy should be. Definition According to David Easton, "A political system can be designated as the interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society". Anthropological classification Anthropologists generally recognize four kinds of political systems, two of which are uncentralized and two of which are centralized. Uncentralized systems Band society Small family group, no larger than an extended family or clan; it has been defined as consisting of no more than 30 to 50 individuals. A band can cease to exist if only a small group walks out. Tribe Generally larger, consisting of many families. Tribes have more social institutions, such as a chief or elders. More permanent than bands. Many tribes are sub-divided into bands. Centralized governments Chiefdom More complex than a tribe or a band society, and less complex than a state or a civilization Characterized by pervasive inequality and centralization of authority. A single lineage/family of the elite class becomes the ruling elite of the chiefdom Complex chiefdoms have two or even three tiers of political hierarchy. "An autonomous political unit comprising a number of villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount chief" Sovereign state A sovereign state is a state with a permanent population, a defined territory, a government and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. Supranational political systems Supranational political systems are created by independent nations to reach a common goal or gain strength from forming an alliance. Empires Empires are widespread states or communities under a single rule. They are characterized by the ruler's desire for unanimous religious affiliation or posing as a threat to other empires in times of war. Empires - such as the Romans, or British - often made considerable progress in ways of democratic structures, creating and building city infrastructures, and maintaining civility within the diverse communities. Because of the intricate organization of the empires, they were often able to hold a large majority of power on a universal level. Leagues Leagues are international organizations composed of states coming together for a single common purpose. In this way leagues are different from empires, as they only seek to fulfill a single goal. Often leagues are formed on the brink of a military or economic downfall. Meetings and hearings are conducted in a neutral location with representatives of all involved nations present. Sociology The sociological interest in political systems is figuring out who holds power within the relationship of the government and its people and how the government’s power is used. There are three types of political systems that sociologists consider: Authoritarianism In authoritarian governments, the people have no power or representation and it is characterized by absolute or blind obedience to formal authority, as against individual freedom and related to the expectation of unquestioning obedience. The elite leaders handle all economic, military, and foreign relations. A prime example of authoritarianism is a dictatorship. Totalitarianism is the most extreme form of authoritarianism because it controls all aspects of life including the communication between citizens, media censorship, and threatens by the means of terror. Monarchy A monarchy is a government controlled by a king or queen determined by a predisposed line of sovereignty. In other words, it can be seen as an undivided rule or absolute sovereignty by a single person. In the modern world there are two types of monarchies, absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. An absolute monarchy works like a dictatorship in that the king has complete rule over his country. A constitutional monarchy gives the royal family limited powers and usually works in accordance with an elected body of officials. Social revolutions of the 18th, 19th, and 20th century overthrew the majority of existing monarchies in favor of more democratic governments and a rising middle class, as well as of authoritarian regimes like the Soviet Union. Democracy A democracy is a form of government in which the citizens create and vote for laws directly, or indirectly via representatives (democratic republic). The idea of democracy stems back from ancient Greece and the profound works of ancient academics. See also Political structure Polity Systems theory in political science Tractatus Politicus Voting system References Citations Sources Almond, Gabriel A., et al. Comparative Politics Today: A World View (Seventh Edition). 2000. . Ferris, Kerry, and Jill Stein. The Real World An Introduction to Sociology. 3rd ed. New York City: W W Norton & Co, 2012. Print. "political system". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec. 2012. External links For further resources on political theory and the mechanics of political system design, see the Governance and Social Development Resource Centre's topic guide on political systems Political terminology	[ 0.49465981125831604, -0.04283855855464935, -0.34022191166877747, 0.4232556223869324, 0.04649252071976662, 0.16531182825565338, 0.06420326232910156, 0.3582562804222107, -0.4823301136493683, -0.65733402967453, -0.4090726673603058, 0.34641233086586, -0.33676040172576904, 0.3218557834625244, 0.07517732679843903, 0.0911710113286972, 0.25202929973602295, 0.4080056846141815, 0.17986173927783966, 0.13558734953403473, -0.5311341881752014, 0.48158398270606995, -0.11557981371879578, 0.1242319867014885, 0.123720183968544, -0.17646156251430511, 0.24750255048274994, -0.25298500061035156, -0.17945417761802673, 0.07572577893733978, 0.06572273373603821, 0.15104082226753235, -0.24195235967636108, 0.5188357830047607, -0.2950066030025482, -0.3979637324810028, -0.2824016511440277, 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258729	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate%20of%20return%20pricing	Rate of return pricing	Target rate of return pricing is a pricing method used almost exclusively by market leaders or monopolists. You start with a rate of return objective, like 5% of invested capital, or 10% of sales revenue. Then you arrange your price structure so as to achieve these target rates of return. For example, assume a firm invests $100 million in order to produce and market designer snowflakes, and they estimate that with demand for designer snowflakes being what it is, they can sell 2 million flakes per year. Further, from preliminary production data they know that at that level of output their average total cost (ATC) is $50 per flake. Total annual costs would be $100 million (2 million units at $50 each). Next, management decides they want a 20% return on investment (ROI). That works out to be $20 million (20% of a $100 million investment). Profit margin will need to be $10 per flake ($20 million return over 2 million units). So the price must be set at $60 per designer flake ($50 costs plus $10 profit margin). Similar calculations will determine price based on rate of return to sales revenue. An unusual consequence of this pricing model is that to keep the target rate of return constant, the firm will have to continuously be changing its price as the level of demand changes. This can be seen in the diagram below. Based on market demand expectations, the firm estimates it will be operating at 70% capacity. Given its production function and cost structure, it knows its average total costs at that output level will be represented as point A . If its predetermined rate of return requirement is amount A, B, then it will set its price at P. Because profit is equal to (P-ATC)Q, then their total profit will be defined by area P, B, A, P70%. Rate of Return Pricing with Changes in Demand If demand increases such that the firm is now operating at 90% capacity and facing a reduced average total cost of C, then margin will increase to C,D and profit will be P,D,C,P90%. If demand were to decrease so the firm was operating at 60% capacity, margins would be reduced to E,F and the firm would have to increase prices to maintain their desired margin. This is a questionable decision. It is seldom a good strategy to increase prices in the face of falling demand. The net result is usually further reductions in demand. That explains why this strategy is used only by market leaders and monopolists. References Pricing Financial ratios	[ 0.0640842616558075, -0.03038606606423855, 0.16387920081615448, 0.22190895676612854, -0.20964239537715912, 0.0029452897142618895, -0.5096381902694702, 0.1641571819782257, 0.0517730750143528, -0.265534907579422, -0.21866773068904877, 1.3575025796890259, 0.03158567100763321, 0.43512874841690063, 0.1807761937379837, 0.028453759849071503, -0.08641494810581207, -0.07067171484231949, 0.10727405548095703, -0.26282015442848206, -0.7049648761749268, -0.34550684690475464, 0.3168400526046753, -0.5821325778961182, 0.3256478011608124, -0.045276936143636703, 0.41183894872665405, -0.06938058137893677, -0.12933452427387238, -0.001880085445009172, 0.3499795198440552, 1.0781601667404175, -0.15407846868038177, 0.10221404582262039, 0.36622315645217896, 0.030030962079763412, 0.20191216468811035, -0.4324450194835663, -0.5077700018882751, -0.3311642110347748, 0.027025820687413216, 0.2058091163635254, 0.22425785660743713, 0.5002175569534302, -0.11802925169467926, 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258732	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20American%20President	The American President	The American President is a 1995 American romantic comedy-drama film directed and produced by Rob Reiner and written by Aaron Sorkin. The film stars Michael Douglas, Annette Bening, Martin Sheen, Michael J. Fox, and Richard Dreyfuss. In the film, President Andrew Shepherd (Douglas) is a widower who pursues a relationship with environmental lobbyist Sydney Ellen Wade (Bening) – who has just moved to Washington, D.C. – while at the same time attempting to win the passage of a crime control bill during a re-election year. The film grossed $107.9 million on a budget of $62 million and was praised by critics for its performances (especially from Douglas and Bening), musical score, story and screenplay. Composer Marc Shaiman was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score for The American President. The film was nominated for Golden Globes for Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Actor in a Comedy/Musical for Michael Douglas, Best Actress in a Comedy/Musical for Annette Bening, and Best Comedy/Musical. The American Film Institute ranked The American President No. 75 on its list of America's Greatest Love Stories. Plot Popular Democratic President Andrew Shepherd prepares to run for re-election. The president and his staff, led by Chief of Staff and best friend AJ MacInerney, attempt to consolidate the administration's 63% approval rating by passing a moderate crime control bill. However, support for the bill in both parties is tepid: conservatives reject it, and liberals think it is too weak. If passed, however, Shepherd's re-election is presumed to be guaranteed. Shepherd resolves to announce the bill, and have the Congressional support to pass it, by his State of the Union Address. When the unmarried President's cousin, Judith, is sick and unable to act as hostess at a state dinner for the French president, Shepherd realizes his staff's public portrayal of him as lonely widower is true. Soon after, Shepherd meets and is attracted to Sydney Ellen Wade, a lawyer employed by an environmental lobbying firm that is working to pass legislation to substantially reduce carbon dioxide emissions. During a meeting, Shepherd strikes a deal with Wade: if she can secure 24 votes for the environmental bill before his State of the Union Address, he will deliver the last 10 votes. MacInerney believes Wade will fail to obtain enough votes, thus releasing Shepherd from responsibility if the bill fails to pass. Shepherd and Wade begin seeing each other and fall in love. Presidential hopeful Senator Bob Rumson steps up his attacks, focusing on Wade's activist past and maligning Shepherd's ethics and family values. The President's refusal to refute Rumson's aspersions lowers his approval ratings and erodes crucial political support that threatens the crime bill. Wade is dejected after her failed meeting with three Michigan congressmen to discuss the environmental bill. When she tells Shepherd about the meeting, she inadvertently mentions that the congressmen want to defeat both the President's crime bill and Wade's environmental bill. Shepherd and A.J. are conflicted about how they obtained this sensitive information, but are unable to ignore the opportunity to pass the crime bill, even if it means the president going back on his deal with Wade. Eventually, Wade secures enough votes for the environmental bill while Shepherd is three short. He can only obtain them by shelving the environmental bill to solidify the three Michigan congressmen's votes for the crime bill which he agrees to do. Wade's firm fires her for failing to achieve their objectives and for seemingly jeopardizing her political reputation. She goes to see Shepherd to end their relationship and says she has a job opportunity in Hartford, Connecticut. While he defends the crime bill as his top priority, she criticizes it as weakly worded with little chance of preventing crime. Prior to the State of the Union Address, Shepherd makes a surprise appearance in the White House press room and rebukes Rumson's attacks on his values and character, as well as his relentless innuendos that Wade prostituted herself for political favors. He declares he will send the controversial environmental bill to Congress with a massive 20% cut in fossil fuelsfar more than the 10% originally proposed. Furthermore, he is withdrawing the crime bill for a stronger one with significant gun control measures. His passion galvanizes the press and his staff. Shepherd and Wade reconcile, and the President, accompanied by Wade, enters the House chamber to thunderous applause as he is about to deliver the State of the Union Address. Cast Production Originally, actor Robert Redford approached a number of screenwriters with the single-line premise, "the president elopes". Sorkin, on the basis of his treatment, was selected by Redford to write the screenplay with Redford attached to star. Emma Thompson turned down the role of Sydney Wade. When Reiner was brought aboard to direct, Redford dropped out. At the time, in October 1994, with cameras set to roll on November 30 of that year, Redford's publicist attributed his decision to his desire "to do a love story, but (Reiner) wanted to do something that was ultimately about politics". Other sources suggested that Redford and Reiner "didn't get along,...It was a personality thing." In later interviews, writer Aaron Sorkin told TV Guide he wrote the screenplay while high on crack cocaine while he was living at the Four Seasons Hotel in Los Angeles, which is why it took him three years to complete it. An extensive White House set, of both the East and West Wings, was built on the Castle Rock Entertainment lot in Culver City. The set's Oval Office was later reused for the films Nixon and Independence Day. Lawsuit William Richert sued the Writers Guild of America over not being credited on the screenplay of the film. Richert claimed Sorkin's screenplay was a thinly veiled plagiarism of Richert's 1981 screenplay The President Elopes. After Guild arbitration, Sorkin was awarded full credit on The American President. Richert also claimed that the television series The West Wing was derived from part of the same screenplay. Release The American President grossed $60.1 million in the United States, and $47.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $107.9 million. The film grossed $10 million in its opening weekend (finishing third), $9.7 million in its second weekend, and $5.3 million in its third (finishing sixth both times). Reception On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 91% based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 7/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "A charming romantic comedy with political bite, Rob Reiner's The American President features strong lead performances and some poignant observations of politics and media in the 1990s." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 67 out of 100, based on 21 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. It received praise and "Two Thumbs Up" from Siskel and Ebert who were surprised by how good the film was considering Rob Reiner's previous film, North, was both of their selections for the worst movie of the year. Ebert said after detesting North he was very happy and pleased to give Reiner's next film a unanimously positive review. Siskel praised Douglas and Bening for their performances; he did, however, disapprove of Janet Hirshenson and Jane Jenkins' decision to cast Douglas and Sheen in the same film and especially in similar roles within that film, expressing the worry that the similarity between the two actors' appearances would lead audiences to confuse their respective characters. Legacy Influence on The West Wing The screenplay for the film inspired many aspects of Sorkin's later television drama The West Wing. The two productions follow the staff of a largely idealized White House, and like many of Sorkin's projects, share ideologies. Even the set of the Oval Office in The American President was later used in The West Wing. The film's influence can be seen most clearly in early episodes of the series; some dialogue in the two are nearly identical. Sorkin has been known to say that much of the first season was actually taken from material he edited out of the first draft of The American President script. One of the issues touched on in the film and developed in the series relates to gun control bills, developed in "Five Votes Down". While the bill is ultimately withdrawn by President Shepherd because it is ineffectual, on the series President Bartlet and his staff work hard to pass their bill even though it is badly flawed (and end up doubly unhappy when VP John Hoynes, whom the President and senior staff are feuding with, clinches the bill for them by persuading an influential southern Democrat to support it). More significant is the issue of a "proportional response" to military attacks on American assets abroad. In The American President, Andrew Shepherd finds himself in the Situation Room having to order such an attack against Libya's intelligence headquarters after they bombed a missile defense system called "C-STAD" (Capricorn Surface-to-Air Defense) which had been positioned by the U.S. in Israel. He muses for a single line "Someday, someone's gonna have to explain to me the virtue of a proportional response", before giving the order. In "A Proportional Response", President Bartlet finds himself in similar circumstances (Syrian intelligence shot down a U.S. plane in Jordan and killed numerous Americans, including a young Naval officer who the President had decided would be his personal physician) and, seated in the White House Situation Room with his own National Security Council asks: "What is the virtue of a proportional response?" In both cases, the President chooses a military response that is relatively measured, but in the movie President Shepherd never considers a "disproportionate" response while President Bartlet plans such an action to destroy a large civilian airport in Syria; he eventually gives the green light for a strike similar to the one used in the movie. The Global Defense Council, the fictional environmental lobby where Sydney Wade worked, is also featured in the West Wing episode called "The Drop-In", and is often referred to in other episodes. In The American President, Sydney Ellen Wade is ultimately fired from her lobbyist position because the president has brokered a deal that causes her legislative effort to fail. Similarly, in the final episode of the third season of The West Wing, Deputy Chief of Staff Josh Lyman uses the same tactic and ends up getting Amy Gardner fired from her position at the Women's Leadership Conference. Josh and Amy are dating when this takes place, just as the main characters are here. However, on the TV series it is Amy who tries to scuttle a bill (welfare reform) and Josh refuses to accept the demands of three Republican Congressmen because they amount to blackmail. The American President includes mention of a Governor Stackhouse, while there is a Minnesota senator Howard Stackhouse (George Coe) in the two West Wing episodes "The Stackhouse Filibuster" and "The Red Mass". In the same way, the French President attending a state dinner in The American President seems to be the same President d'Astier that is often referred to in the West Wing. Several actors from The American President reappear in The West Wing, including Martin Sheen (whose character in The American President, A.J., is at one point accused by Shepherd of lacking the courage to run for office himself) as President Josiah Bartlet, Anna Deavere Smith as National Security Advisor Dr. Nancy McNally, Joshua Malina as White House Communications Director Will Bailey, Nina Siemaszko as Ellie Bartlet, Ron Canada as Under Secretary of State Theodore Barrow, and Thom Barry as Congressman Mark Richardson. Portrayals of the president as idealistic but indecisive are also similar. In The American President, Shepherd has to be convinced by his staff to stand up to his Republican opponent and pursue gun control and environmental legislation decisively. In The West Wing, Bartlet is sometimes referred to as “Uncle Fluffy” when endorsing moderate views that are more conciliatory and less resolute (for example, in the episodes “Let Bartlet Be Bartlet” and “The Two Bartlets”). More generally, both presidents are former university professors (history in the movie, economics in the show) with no military experience and a low tolerance for political expediency. Other legacy The concept for the television show Spin City was set in motion after the writers had seen Michael J. Fox in The American President playing one of the President's political aides. They wanted him to play a similar character for television. In January 2012, while criticizing then-leader of the opposition Tony Abbott in a speech at the National Press Club in Canberra, Australian Federal Minister Anthony Albanese plagiarised several lines from The American President. In April 2013, New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd drew a sharp contrast between President Obama's unsuccessful effort to secure passage of expanded background-check legislation in the Senate, on one hand, and the all-out vote-gathering effort in The American President. The President responded to the column at the 2013 White House Correspondents' Dinner, noting the criticism and posing a series of rhetorical questions to Michael Douglas, who he said was in the audience, including, "Could it be that you were an actor in an Aaron Sorkin liberal fantasy?" In the 2016 Presidential election candidate Ted Cruz paraphrased a portion of The American President when fellow candidate Donald Trump insulted Cruz's wife. Cruz stated, "...and if Donald wants to get into a character fight, he’s better off sticking with me because Heidi is way out of his league,” referencing the speech President Shepherd made about Rumson's attacks on Sydney Ellen Wade. The film is recognized by the American Film Institute as #75 in its 2002 list of 100 Years...100 Passions. References External links White House Museum – How accurately does the movie portray the actual White House? (Review) 1995 films American films 1990s English-language films 1990s political comedy-drama films 1990s romantic comedy-drama films American political comedy-drama films American romantic comedy-drama films Films scored by Marc Shaiman Films about elections Films about fictional presidents of the United States Films about widowhood Films directed by Rob Reiner Films set in the White House Films set in Washington, D.C. Films shot in Washington, D.C. 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258733	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knuth%27s%20up-arrow%20notation	Knuth's up-arrow notation	In mathematics, Knuth's up-arrow notation is a method of notation for very large integers, introduced by Donald Knuth in 1976. In his 1947 paper, R. L. Goodstein introduced the specific sequence of operations that are now called hyperoperations. Goodstein also suggested the Greek names tetration, pentation, etc., for the extended operations beyond exponentiation. The sequence starts with a unary operation (the successor function with n = 0), and continues with the binary operations of addition (n = 1), multiplication (n = 2), exponentiation (n = 3), tetration (n = 4), pentation (n = 5), etc. Various notations have been used to represent hyperoperations. One such notation is . Another notation is , an infix notation which is convenient for ASCII. The notation is known as 'square bracket notation'. Knuth's up-arrow notation is an alternative notation. It is obtained by replacing in the square bracket notation by arrows. For example: the single arrow represents exponentiation (iterated multiplication) the double arrow represents tetration (iterated exponentiation) the triple arrow represents pentation (iterated tetration) The general definition of the up-arrow notation is as follows (for ): Here, stands for n arrows, so for example Introduction The hyperoperations naturally extend the arithmetical operations of addition and multiplication as follows. Addition by a natural number is defined as iterated incrementation: Multiplication by a natural number is defined as iterated addition: For example, Exponentiation for a natural power is defined as iterated multiplication, which Knuth denoted by a single up-arrow: For example, Tetration is defined as iterated exponentiation, which Knuth denoted by a “double arrow”: For example, Expressions are evaluated from right to left, as the operators are defined to be right-associative. According to this definition, etc. This already leads to some fairly large numbers, but the hyperoperator sequence does not stop here. Pentation, defined as iterated tetration, is represented by the “triple arrow”: Hexation, defined as iterated pentation, is represented by the “quadruple arrow”: and so on. The general rule is that an -arrow operator expands into a right-associative series of ()-arrow operators. Symbolically, Examples: Notation In expressions such as , the notation for exponentiation is usually to write the exponent as a superscript to the base number . But many environments — such as programming languages and plain-text e-mail — do not support superscript typesetting. People have adopted the linear notation for such environments; the up-arrow suggests 'raising to the power of'. If the character set does not contain an up arrow, the caret (^) is used instead. The superscript notation doesn't lend itself well to generalization, which explains why Knuth chose to work from the inline notation instead. is a shorter alternative notation for n uparrows. Thus . Knuth's arrows have become quite popular, maybe because is a stronger logo than for instance . Writing out up-arrow notation in terms of powers Attempting to write using the familiar superscript notation gives a power tower. For example: If b is a variable (or is too large), the power tower might be written using dots and a note indicating the height of the tower. Continuing with this notation, could be written with a stack of such power towers, each describing the size of the one above it. Again, if b is a variable or is too large, the stack might be written using dots and a note indicating its height. Furthermore, might be written using several columns of such stacks of power towers, each column describing the number of power towers in the stack to its left: And more generally: This might be carried out indefinitely to represent as iterated exponentiation of iterated exponentiation for any a, n and b (although it clearly becomes rather cumbersome). Using tetration The Rudy Rucker notation for tetration allows us to make these diagrams slightly simpler while still employing a geometric representation (we could call these tetration towers). Finally, as an example, the fourth Ackermann number could be represented as: Generalizations Some numbers are so large that multiple arrows of Knuth's up-arrow notation become too cumbersome; then an n-arrow operator is useful (and also for descriptions with a variable number of arrows), or equivalently, hyper operators. Some numbers are so large that even that notation is not sufficient. The Conway chained arrow notation can then be used: a chain of three elements is equivalent with the other notations, but a chain of four or more is even more powerful. = , Since = = , Thus the result comes out with = or (Petillion) Even faster-growing functions can be categorized using an ordinal analysis called the fast-growing hierarchy. The fast-growing hierarchy uses successive function iteration and diagonalization to systematically creatte faster-growing functions from some base function . For the standard fast-growing hierarchy using , already exhibits exponential growth, is comparable to tetrational growth and is upper-bounded by a function involving the first four hyperoperators;. Then, is comparable to the Ackermann function, is already beyond the reach of indexed arrows but can be used to approximate Graham's number, and is comparable to arbitrarily-long Conway chained arrow notation. These functions are all computable. Even faster computable functions, such as the Goodstein sequence and the TREE sequence require the usage of large ordinals, may occur in certain combinatorical and proof-theoretic contexts. There exists functions which grow uncomputably fast, such as the Busy Beaver, whose very nature will be completely out of reach from any up-arrow, or even any ordinal-based analysis. Definition Without reference to hyperoperation the up-arrow operators can be formally defined by for all integers with . This definition uses exponentiation as the base case, and tetration as repeated exponentiation. This is equivalent to the hyperoperation sequence except it omits the three more basic operations of succession, addition and multiplication. One can alternatively choose multiplication as the base case and iterate from there. Then exponentiation becomes repeated multiplication. The formal definition would be for all integers with . Note, however, that Knuth did not define the "nil-arrow" (). One could extend the notation to negative indices (n ≥ -2) in such a way as to agree with the entire hyperoperation sequence, except for the lag in the indexing: The up-arrow operation is a right-associative operation, that is, is understood to be , instead of . If ambiguity is not an issue parentheses are sometimes dropped. Tables of values Computing 0↑n b Computing results in 0, when n = 0 1, when n = 1 and b = 0 0, when n = 1 and b > 0 1, when n > 1 and b is even (including 0) 0, when n > 1 and b is odd Computing 2↑n b Computing can be restated in terms of an infinite table. We place the numbers in the top row, and fill the left column with values 2. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left, then look up the required number in the previous row, at the position given by the number just taken. The table is the same as that of the Ackermann function, except for a shift in and , and an addition of 3 to all values. Computing 3↑n b We place the numbers in the top row, and fill the left column with values 3. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left, then look up the required number in the previous row, at the position given by the number just taken. Computing 4↑n b We place the numbers in the top row, and fill the left column with values 4. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left, then look up the required number in the previous row, at the position given by the number just taken. Computing 10↑n b We place the numbers in the top row, and fill the left column with values 10. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left, then look up the required number in the previous row, at the position given by the number just taken. For 2 ≤ b ≤ 9 the numerical order of the numbers is the lexicographical order with n as the most significant number, so for the numbers of these 8 columns the numerical order is simply line-by-line. The same applies for the numbers in the 97 columns with 3 ≤ b ≤ 99, and if we start from n = 1 even for 3 ≤ b ≤ 9,999,999,999. See also Primitive recursion Hyperoperation Busy beaver Cutler's bar notation Tetration Pentation Ackermann function Graham's number Steinhaus–Moser notation Notes References External links Robert Munafo, Large Numbers: Higher hyper operators Mathematical notation Large numbers Donald Knuth 1976 introductions	[ -0.4583536684513092, 0.5478455424308777, 0.47673317790031433, -0.18178591132164001, -0.3105134963989258, 0.6080263257026672, -0.12701117992401123, -0.7473950386047363, -0.46143823862075806, -0.17440274357795715, -0.12274717539548874, -0.25495097041130066, -0.5092604160308838, 0.24105395376682281, 0.1748502552509308, 0.5804053544998169, 0.017287705093622208, 0.04017816111445427, -0.43613386154174805, -0.6220502853393555, 0.18468447029590607, 0.03108772449195385, 0.3324839472770691, -0.45578762888908386, 0.5566136240959167, -0.07143237441778183, -0.36993205547332764, -0.6428472995758057, -0.07059024274349213, 0.678728461265564, -0.06300687044858932, 0.8133835792541504, 0.47147661447525024, -0.18122896552085876, -0.08825734257698059, -0.27557501196861267, 0.17639103531837463, 0.36778756976127625, 0.4154534637928009, -0.40654733777046204, 0.2853819727897644, -0.5558724999427795, 0.30391252040863037, 0.08375909179449081, -0.2284383475780487, -0.6318207383155823, -1.7071287631988525, 0.14974315464496613, -0.5783283710479736, 0.061504583805799484, -0.7053691148757935, 0.35267776250839233, 0.5829966068267822, 0.33519384264945984, -0.1760111004114151, 0.8508410453796387, -0.3176193833351135, 0.039430033415555954, 0.3174416422843933, -0.5846048593521118, 0.4421161711215973, -0.2620442509651184, 0.040455374866724014, 0.41869497299194336, -0.022406945005059242, 0.8920127153396606, -0.10962194949388504, 0.27095577120780945, -0.4477902352809906, -0.1566501408815384, -0.11221452802419662, -0.401115357875824, -0.16496336460113525, 0.6088826656341553, -0.013995357789099216, -0.020665230229496956, -0.3418360650539398, 0.2618023455142975, -0.02967008389532566, 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258736	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Ashbery	John Ashbery	John Lawrence Ashbery (July 28, 1927 – September 3, 2017) was an American poet and art critic. Ashbery is considered the most influential American poet of his time. Oxford University literary critic John Bayley wrote that Ashbery "sounded, in poetry, the standard tones of the age." Langdon Hammer, chair of the English Department at Yale University, wrote in 2008, "No figure looms so large in American poetry over the past 50 years as John Ashbery" and "No American poet has had a larger, more diverse vocabulary, not Whitman, not Pound." Stephanie Burt, a poet and Harvard professor of English, has compared Ashbery to T. S. Eliot, calling Ashbery "the last figure whom half the English-language poets alive thought a great model, and the other half thought incomprehensible". Ashbery published more than 20 volumes of poetry and won nearly every major American award for poetry, including a Pulitzer Prize in 1976 for his collection Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror. Renowned for its postmodern complexity and opacity, his work still proves controversial. Ashbery said he wished his work to be accessible to as many people as possible, not a private dialogue with himself. At the same time, he once joked that some critics still view him as "a harebrained, homegrown surrealist whose poetry defies even the rules and logic of Surrealism." Life Ashbery was born in Rochester, New York, the son of Helen (née Lawrence), a biology teacher, and Chester Frederick Ashbery, a farmer. He was raised on a farm near Lake Ontario; his brother died when they were children. Ashbery was educated at Deerfield Academy, an all-boys school, where he read such poets as W. H. Auden and Dylan Thomas and began writing poetry. Two of his poems were published in Poetry magazine by a classmate who had submitted them under his own name, without Ashbery's knowledge or permission. Ashbery also published a piece of short fiction and a handful of poems—including a sonnet about his frustrated love for a fellow student—in the school newspaper, the Deerfield Scroll. His first ambition was to be a painter: from the age of 11 until he was 15, Ashbery took weekly classes at the art museum in Rochester. Ashbery graduated in 1949 with an A.B., cum laude, from Harvard College, where he was a member of the Harvard Advocate, the university's literary magazine, and the Signet Society. He wrote his senior thesis on the poetry of W. H. Auden. At Harvard he befriended fellow writers Kenneth Koch, Barbara Epstein, V. R. Lang, Frank O'Hara and Edward Gorey, and was a classmate of Robert Creeley, Robert Bly and Peter Davison. Ashbery went on to study briefly at New York University before receiving an M.A. from Columbia University in 1951. After working as a copywriter in New York from 1951 to 1955, from the mid-1950s, when he received a Fulbright Fellowship, through 1965, Ashbery lived in France. He was an editor of the 12 issues of Art and Literature (1964–67) and the New Poetry issue of Harry Mathews' Locus Solus (# 3/4; 1962). To make ends meet he translated French murder mysteries, served as the art editor for the European edition of the New York Herald Tribune and was an art critic for Art International (1960–65) and a Paris correspondent for ARTnews (1963–66), when Thomas Hess took over as editor. During this period he lived with the French poet Pierre Martory, whose books Every Question but One (1990), The Landscape is behind the Door (1994) and The Landscapist he translated (2008), as he did Arthur Rimbaud (Illuminations), Max Jacob (The Dice Cup), Pierre Reverdy (Haunted House), and many titles by Raymond Roussel. After returning to the United States, he continued his career as an art critic for New York and Newsweek magazines while also serving on the editorial board of ARTnews until 1972. Several years later, he began a stint as an editor at Partisan Review, serving from 1976 to 1980. During the fall of 1963, Ashbery became acquainted with Andy Warhol at a scheduled poetry reading at the Literary Theatre in New York. He had previously written favorable reviews of Warhol's art. That same year he reviewed Warhol's Flowers exhibition at Galerie Ileana Sonnabend in Paris, describing Warhol's visit to Paris as "the biggest transatlantic fuss since Oscar Wilde brought culture to Buffalo in the nineties". Ashbery returned to New York near the end of 1965 and was welcomed with a large party at the Factory. He became close friends with poet Gerard Malanga, Warhol's assistant, on whom he had an important influence as a poet. In 1967 his poem Europe was used as the central text in Eric Salzman's Foxes and Hedgehogs as part of the New Image of Sound series at Hunter College, conducted by Dennis Russell Davies. When the poet sent Salzman Three Madrigals in 1968, the composer featured them in the seminal Nude Paper Sermon, released by Nonesuch Records in 1989. In the early 1970s, Ashbery began teaching at Brooklyn College, where his students included poet John Yau. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1983. In the 1980s, he moved to Bard College, where he was the Charles P. Stevenson, Jr., Professor of Languages and Literature, until 2008, when he retired but continued to win awards, present readings, and work with graduate and undergraduates at many other institutions. He was the poet laureate of New York State from 2001 to 2003, and also served for many years as a chancellor of the Academy of American Poets. He served on the contributing editorial board of the literary journal Conjunctions. In 2008 Ashbery was named the first poet laureate of MtvU, a division of MTV broadcast to U.S. college campuses, with excerpts from his poems featured in 18 promotional spots and the works in their entirety on the broadcaster's website. Ashbery was a Millet Writing Fellow at Wesleyan University in 2010, and participated in Wesleyan's Distinguished Writers Series. He was a founding member of The Raymond Roussel Society, with Miquel Barceló, Joan Bofill-Amargós, Michel Butor, Thor Halvorssen and Hermes Salceda. Ashbery lived in New York City and Hudson, New York, with his husband, David Kermani. He died of natural causes on September 3, 2017, at his home in Hudson, at the age of 90. Work Ashbery's long list of awards began with the Yale Younger Poets Prize in 1956. The selection, by W. H. Auden, of Ashbery's first collection, Some Trees, later caused some controversy. The volume was screened out in the contest's early stages and was given to Auden by Chester Kallman after Auden had decided not to award the prize that year because of the poor quality of the volumes he received. Ashbery's early work shows the influence of Auden, along with Wallace Stevens, Boris Pasternak, and many of the French surrealists (his translations from French literature are numerous), though he claimed in a 1956 letter to "hate all modern French poetry, except for Raymond Roussel" and to like his own "wildly inaccurate translations of some of the 20th-century ones, but not the originals". In the late 1950s, John Bernard Myers, co-owner of the Tibor de Nagy Gallery, categorized Ashbery's avant-garde poetry and that of Kenneth Koch, Frank O'Hara, James Schuyler, Barbara Guest, Kenward Elmslie and others as a "New York School", despite their very different styles. In 1953 Myers launched the magazine Semi-Colon, in which New York School poets appeared amid an eclectic mix of authors, such as Auden, James Ingram Merill and Saul Bellow. Ashbery published some work in the avant-garde little magazine Nomad at the beginning of the 1960s. He then wrote two collections while in France, the highly controversial The Tennis Court Oath (1962) and Rivers and Mountains (1966), before returning to New York to write The Double Dream of Spring, published in 1970. Increasing critical recognition in the 1970s transformed Ashbery from an obscure avant-garde experimentalist into one of America's most important poets (though still one of its most controversial). After the publication of Three Poems (1973) came Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror, for which he was awarded the three major American poetry awards: the Pulitzer Prize, the National Book Award, and the National Book Critics Circle Award. The collection's title poem is considered one of the masterpieces of late 20th century American poetic literature. His subsequent collection, the more difficult Houseboat Days (1977), reinforced Ashbery's reputation, as did 1979's As We Know, which contains the long, double-columned poem "Litany." In 1988, his "Bridge Poem" was installed, using metal letters, on the 375-foot-wide Irene Hixon Whitney Bridge in Minneapolis; the poet was selected by the bridge's architect, artist Siah Armajani, and commissioned by the Walker Art Center. By the 1980s and 1990s, Ashbery had become a central figure in American and more broadly English-language poetry, as his number of imitators attested. Ashbery's works are characterized by a free-flowing, often disjunctive syntax; extensive linguistic play, often infused with considerable humor; and a prosaic, sometimes disarmingly flat or parodic tone. The play of the human mind is the subject of a great many of his poems. He once said that his goal was "to produce a poem that the critic cannot even talk about". Formally, the earliest poems show the influence of conventional poetic practice, yet by The Tennis Court Oath a much more revolutionary engagement with form appears. Ashbery returned to something approaching a reconciliation between tradition and innovation with many of the poems in The Double Dream of Spring, though his Three Poems are written in long blocks of prose. Although he never again approached the radical experimentation of The Tennis Court Oath poems or The Skaters and "Into the Dusk-Charged Air" from his collection Rivers and Mountains, syntactic and semantic experimentation, linguistic expressiveness, deft, often abrupt shifts of register, and insistent wit remained consistent elements of his work. Ashbery's art criticism has been collected in the 1989 volume Reported Sightings, Art Chronicles 1957–1987, edited by the poet David Bergman. He wrote one novel, A Nest of Ninnies, with fellow poet James Schuyler, and in his 20s and 30s penned several plays, three of which have been collected in Three Plays (1978). Ashbery's Charles Eliot Norton Lectures at Harvard University were published as Other Traditions in 2000. A larger collection of his prose writings, Selected Prose, appeared in 2005. In 2008, his Collected Poems 1956–1987 was published as part of the Library of America series. This made Ashbery the first living poet to have his work published by the LOA. Awards and honors 1956: Yale Younger Poets Prize, for Some Trees (1956) awarded by W.H. Auden 1962: Ingram Merrill Foundation Fellowship 1972: Ingram Merrill Foundation Fellowship 1976: National Book Award for Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror (1975). 1976: National Book Critics Circle Award for Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror (1975). 1976: Pulitzer Prize in Poetry for Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror (1975). 1984: Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize for A Wave (1984) 1984: Bollingen Prize in Poetry for A Wave (1984) 1985: MacArthur Fellows Program Fellowship 1987: Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement 1995: Robert Frost Medal 2002: Bestowed the rank of Officier de la Légion d'honneur by the Republic of France. 2005: finalist for National Book Award for Where Shall I Wander (2005) 2008: Robert Creeley Award 2008: America Award for a lifetime contribution to international writing 2011 National Humanities Medal 2011: Inducted into the New York Writers Hall of Fame 2011: National Book Foundation Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters 2017: The Raymond Roussel Society Medal Bibliography Poetry Collections Turandot and other poems (1953) Some Trees (1956), winner of the Yale Younger Poets Prize The Tennis Court Oath (1962) Rivers and Mountains (1966) The Double Dream of Spring (1970) Three Poems (1972) The Vermont Notebook (1975), illustrated prose poems Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror (1975), awarded the Pulitzer Prize, the National Book Award and the National Book Critics Circle Award Houseboat Days (1977) As We Know (1979) Shadow Train (1981) A Wave (1984), awarded the Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize and the Bollingen Prize April Galleons (1987) Flow Chart (1991), book-length poem Hotel Lautréamont (1992) And the Stars Were Shining (1994) Can You Hear, Bird? (1995) The Mooring of Starting Out: The First Five Books of Poetry (1997) Wakefulness (1998) Girls on the Run (1999), a book-length poem inspired by the work of Henry Darger Your Name Here (2000) As Umbrellas Follow Rain (2001) Chinese Whispers (2002) Where Shall I Wander (2005) (finalist for the National Book Award) Notes from the Air: Selected Later Poems (2007) (winner of the 2008 International Griffin Poetry Prize) A Worldly Country (2007) Planisphere (2009) Collected Poems 1956–87 (Carcanet Press) (2010), ed. Mark Ford Quick Question (2012) Breezeway (2015) Commotion of the Birds (2016) They Knew What They Wanted: Collages and Poems (2018) Parallel Movement of the Hands: Five Unfinished Longer Works (2021) Poems Prose, plays and translations A Nest of Ninnies (1969), with James Schuyler. (Carcanet Press 1987, Paladin Books 1990) Three Plays (1978). Carcanet Press (1988). The Ice Storm (1987), (32-page pamphlet) Reported Sightings: Art Chronicles, 1957–1987 (1989) (Alfred A. Knopf), ed. David Bergman, Art Criticism and Commentary Other Traditions(2001) 100 Multiple-Choice Questions (2000) (reprint of 1970 experimental pamphlet) Selected Prose 1953–2003 (2005) Martory, Pierre The Landscapist Ashbery (Tr.) Carcanet Press (2008) Rimbaud, Arthur Illuminations Ashbery (Tr.) W. W. Norton & Company (2011) Collected French Translations: Poetry, edited by Rosanne Wasserman and Eugene Richie (2014) Collected French Translations: Prose, edited by Rosanne Wasserman and Eugene Richie (2014) References Further reading Kacper Bartczak, In Search of Communication and Community: the Poetry of John Ashbery (Peter Lang, 2006) Harold Bloom, Figures of Capable Imagination Harold Bloom, ed., Modern Critical Views: John Ashbery (Chelsea House Publishers, 1985) Andrew Dubois, Ashbery's Forms of Attention (University of Alabama Press, 2006) Andrew Epstein, Beautiful Enemies: Friendship and Postwar American Poetry (Oxford University Press, 2006) David Herd, John Ashbery and American Poetry (Manchester University Press, 2000) Ben Hickman, John Ashbery and English Poetry (Edinburgh University Press, 2012) David Lehman, The Last Avant-Garde: The Making of The New York School of Poets (Anchor Books, 1999) David Lehman, ed., Beyond Amazement: New Essays on John Ashbery (Cornell University Press, 1980) David Perkins, A History of Modern Poetry, Volume II, Modernism and After (Harvard University Press, 1987) Laura Quinney, The Poetics of Disappointment: Wordsworth to Ashbery David Shapiro, John Ashbery: An Introduction to the Poetry (Columbia University Press, 1979) John Shoptaw, On the Outside Looking Out: John Ashbery's Poetry (Harvard University Press, 1995) Stephen Shore, Lynne Tillman, The Velvet Years: Warhol's Factory 1965–1967 Susan M. Schultz, ed., The Tribe of John: Ashbery and Contemporary Poetry (The University of Alabama Press, 1995) Mark Silverberg, The New York School Poets and the Neo-Avant-Garde (Ashgate, 2010) Helen Vendler, Soul Says (Harvard University Press, 1996) John Emil Vincent, John Ashbery and You: His Later Books (University of Georgia Press, 2007) External links Ben Lerner on John Ashbery in The New Yorker ‘a serpentine \| Gesture’: The Synthetic Reconstruction of Ashbery’s Poetic Voice in Cordite Poetry Review Poems by John Ashbery at PoetryFoundation.org The Ashbery Resource Center John Ashbery at EPC John Ashbery—the Academy of American Poets Audio recordings from Key West Literary Seminar, 2003: Ashbery reading from Chinese Whispers; Ashbery's 'mini-lecture' on Elizabeth Bishop Audio recordings of John Ashbery, from the Woodberry Poetry Room, Harvard University Carcanet Press – John Ashbery's UK publisher Griffin Poetry Prize biography Griffin Poetry Prize reading, including video clip Modern American Poetry, critical essays on Ashbery's works Bookworm Interviews (Audio) with Michael Silverblatt: May 2007, May 2009, April 2010 John Ashbery by Adam Fitzgerald in BOMB Magazine 1927 births 2017 deaths Poets from New York (state) Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni Writers from Manhattan New York University alumni Harvard College alumni MacArthur Fellows American gay writers Deerfield Academy alumni New York School poets Poets Laureate of New York (state) Wesleyan University people National Book Award winners Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winners Bard College faculty Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Postmodern writers Bollingen Prize recipients American LGBT poets LGBT people from New York (state) The New Yorker people National Humanities Medal recipients American art critics American male poets Harvard Advocate alumni Brooklyn College faculty LGBT academics	[ -0.13732033967971802, 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258737	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolande	Yolande	Yolande or Yolanta may refer to: Royalty and nobility Yolande of Aragon (disambiguation), several people Yolande de Courtenay (c. 1200–1233), wife of Andrew II of Hungary Yolande of Jerusalem or Isabella II of Jerusalem (1212–1228), queen of Jerusalem Yolanda of Vianden (1231–1283), daughter of Count Henry I of Vianden, Luxembourg; prioress of Marienthal from 1258 Yolande de Dreux, Queen of Scotland (1263–1330) Yolande, Duchess of Lorraine (1428–1483) Yolande of Valois (1434–1478), Duchess of Savoy Other people Yolande Dalpé (born 1948), Canadian mycologist Yolande Grisé (born 1944), Canadian historian and writer Yolande Mabika (born 1987), Congolese-born Brazilian judoka Fictional Yolande (Greyhawk), an elven queen in the World of Greyhawk setting of Dungeons & Dragons Yolande Perraudin, a school nurse in the French animated television series Code Lyoko Yolande Trueman, a character in the British soap opera EastEnders See also 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258738	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolanda	Yolanda	Yolanda may refer to: Yolanda (name), a given name derived from the Greek Iolanthe Storms Tropical Storm Yolanda (1992), tropical storm formed during the 1992 Pacific hurricane season Yolanda (storm), a non-tropical system which struck Europe during May 2010 Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda), 2013 storm that caused catastrophic destruction in the Philippines Places Yolanda, California Yolanda Shrine, monument located at Barangay Anibong, Tacloban, Leyte Film Yolanda (film), a 1924 film starring Marion Davies Yolanda and the Thief, a 1945 musical-comedy film Yolanda (1952 film) Yolanda "Honey Bunny", in the 1994 film Pulp Fiction Music Yolanda Be Cool, an Australian band Songs "Yolanda", by Bobby Blue Bland "Yolanda", by Pablo Milanés "Yolanda Hayes", by Fountains of Wayne "Yolanda, You Learn", by Lyle Mays and Pat Metheny Other uses Yolanda, a synonym of the orchid genus Brachionidium Yolanda (ship), a Cypriot cargo ship Yolanda, the Black Corsair's Daughter, 1905 adventure novel by Italian novelist Emilio Salgari See also Iolanthe (disambiguation) Jolanda Jolanta Iolanda Yolandi, a given name Yola (disambiguation) Yolande (disambiguation)	[ 0.11576593667268753, 0.3976144790649414, -0.03519604727625847, 0.1386154741048813, 0.035295017063617706, 0.22028899192810059, 0.2913067936897278, 0.4875638782978058, -1.0944749116897583, 0.46631258726119995, -0.14326614141464233, 0.4294135272502899, -0.00010118821955984458, 0.3995387554168701, -0.6460855603218079, 0.03913202881813049, 0.451250284910202, 0.6678078174591064, 0.07657157629728317, -0.514228343963623, -0.2321537882089615, -0.31570303440093994, 0.49917325377464294, 0.13472461700439453, -0.1577867865562439, 0.1316964477300644, -0.11543235182762146, -0.0019501956412568688, -0.031713977456092834, 0.443137526512146, 0.34239664673805237, 0.5335612893104553, 0.5524154901504517, 0.3428487181663513, -0.328781396150589, 0.07045606523752213, -0.24719758331775665, 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258739	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VNV%20Nation	VNV Nation	VNV Nation is an Irish alternative electronic project led by Ronan Harris in the roles of singer, songwriter, and producer. VNV Nation's sound blends poetic and thought provoking lyrics with a sound that ranges from melodic industrial dance anthems, to haunting ballads and post-classical soundtrack pieces. Their 2015 album Resonance: Music For Orchestra Vol. 1 achieved #4 Classical & #3 Classical Crossover Billboard chart positions in the US. The "VNV" in the name stands for "Victory Not Vengeance", in keeping with the group's motto, "One should strive to achieve, not sit in bitter regret." History Prelude and formation Ronan Harris was born and raised in Dublin, Ireland, where he was exposed to electronic music via radio programmes from which he developed an interest in bands such as Kraftwerk, DAF, and The Human League. In 1983, he joined a band named Die Fabrik, whose punk-inspired noise and synth style was not well received in Dublin. By 1987, Harris moved to London where, in 1989, he began to compose music under the name Nation - a 1984-inspired, electronic orchestral music project. Harris relocated to Toronto, Canada in 1990, but his music output stagnated until 1994 when he revived Nation, modified by his newfound motto: "Victory Not Vengeance" to become VNV Nation. Early years: Advance and Follow (1995) and Praise the Fallen (1998) The group's first release, Advance and Follow, came out in 1995. Advance And Follow featured industrial electronic beats heavily influenced by middle-era EBM acts such as Nitzer Ebb and Front 242, along a mixture of danceable synthesizer melodies, and elements of orchestral music. Although it was the band's first full-length release, Harris regards Advance and Follow more as a set of demos than a proper album. In 2001, it was re-released as Advance and Follow 2.0, with updated production, re-recorded vocals, and five bonus tracks, which include two Front 242 covers. Their next release, Praise the Fallen in 1998, continued largely in this vein, and they began to enjoy a larger degree of commercial success. During that time, Harris also wrote for the online magazine Side-Line, of which he was the webmaster until 1999. Empires (1999) Empires, released in 1999, was their breakthrough album, gaining them widespread commercial success and topping the German DAC charts for seven weeks. Empires expanded on the band's bombastic, melodic synthesizer lines and incorporated tighter song structures. Furthermore, the harsher 'sheet metal instrumentals' of Praise the Fallen were largely gone, and the music as a whole was far more complex with multiple-layered arpeggios and pads. The album was composed using a mix of analog and digital synthesizers, and an Ensoniq ASR-10 sampler. Notable analog synthesizers used on the album included the ARP 2600, which was used for most of the sounds on the tracks "Firstlight", "Arclight" and "Standing", the SCI Pro One, and an Oberheim OB-1. Digital synthesizers used were the Roland JP-8000, Access Virus (used almost exclusively on the track Darkangel), Korg Trinity, the EMU Proteus 2000 and the Roland JV-1080. Futureperfect (2002) Their 2002 album, Futureperfect, while retaining many industrial elements represented a departure in many ways, largely away from EBM and towards trance and synthpop. Some neoclassical instrumental pieces were included in the album. Around this time Ronan Harris and Apoptygma Berzerk's Stefan Groth were credited with coining the term "futurepop" to describe their sound. This shift caused their mainstream popularity to increase still further, but alienated some of their fans who preferred their earlier harsher and darker sound. Notably, the album was produced using only software synthesizers instead of hardware synthesizers. It was the first VNV Nation album made entirely with software synthesizers. The band embarked on a highly successful world tour in support of Futureperfect from 2001 to 2003. Their concerts in Berlin, Washington DC, and the M'era Luna Festival were recorded and edited together for release as the Pastperfect DVD. Matter + Form (2005) Their 2005 album, Matter + Form, expanded on the soundscape established with Futureperfect. Notable for this harder-edged sound was the first single "Chrome". Also of note is the lack of effects applied to the vocals, a departure from previous albums, which allows Harris' voice more space in the mix. There were also several songs with a softer and more pensive theme. Some songs even had a slight "rock" feeling to them, mostly from how drum sequences and bass lines were arranged, the most obvious example being the final song, "Perpetual". The assortment of instruments used in the production was much larger than on previous albums. While mostly composed using software synthesizers, several different analogue modular synthesizers were used, along with an array of vintage effects. This album was also the first time the band used an outside producer. Both Matter + Form and "Chrome" peaked at #1 on the DAC Albums and Singles charts, respectively. Judgement (2007) VNV Nation's next studio album was Judgement, released on 4 April 2007. Containing ten tracks, it continued the evolution of the VNV Nation sound. While written and recorded in VNV Nation's own studio, located in the now defunct Soundfactory Studios in Hamburg, the album production took advantage of the main studio's facilities through the use of its collection of vintage microphones and effects, and mixing the album on the studio's ADT console. On 25 April 2007, at the sold-out show at The Metro in Chicago, Harris stated that the rumours about Judgement being the last album were false and that more was to come and that Judgement was just the beginning. At the alternative electronic music festival Infest in Bradford on 26 August 2007, just after the murder of Sophie Lancaster, Harris dedicated the song "Illusion" to her and contacted the family soon afterwards to offer his condolences. Reformation 1 (2009) Two years after Judgement, the box set Reformation 1 was released in Europe on 24 April 2009. Its US release was on 12 May. Of Faith, Power and Glory (2009) The next album, Of Faith, Power and Glory was mentioned on the band's MySpace blog. Harris confirmed to Side-Line that they were aiming for late April to release the album, which would be titled Of Faith, Power and Glory, or as Harris described it: "The 3 things that people desire and which can make you or destroy you!" Due to the release of "Reformation 1" in mid-April, the release of the album was postponed; it appeared in the US on CD and in the iTunes Store on 23 June 2009, and in Europe on 19 June 2009. Crossing the Divide and Automatic (2010–2011) A remix collection called Crossing The Divide was planned for release on 8 June 2010, but was delayed until May 2012. The update on the official website cited unforeseen circumstances and personal matters for the delay. On 14 May 2012, the EP was announced on the band's Facebook page and made available for free via SoundCloud. There were also plans for a number of extended and enhanced re-releases of previous albums in 2010; however these plans did not materialize. On 16 September 2011, VNV Nation's eighth studio album Automatic, was released for most of Europe, with the physical CD released on 25 October 2011 in the United States. Gothic meets Klassik, Transnational, and Resonance (2012–15) In November 2012, VNV Nation, Blutengel and Staubkind performed at the Gothic meets Klassik festival in Leipzig. On the 10th, they played a standard electronic set, and on the 11th, they performed with Ronan Harris on vocals accompanied by a full symphony orchestra for the first time. The show was recorded for release, but a problem with the recording equipment rendered the audio unusable. As a result, Ronan began to work with the arranger on an album of VNV Nation songs scored for orchestra, which would include the tracks performed at Gothic Meets Klassik as well as additional songs. Ronan also performed a selection of VNV Nation songs with a classical pianist on the 2013 Gothic Cruise. The new album Transnational was released on 11 October (EU), 15 October (NA), and elsewhere on 19 November, preceded by a promotional tour beginning on 2 October 2013. The orchestral album Resonance: Music For Orchestra Vol. 1 was released on 15 May 2015. It consists of tracks selected from their back catalogue reimagined for orchestra. It was recorded in the Babelsberg Studios outside Berlin at the end of February 2015, the same studios where scores for films such as The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 and Part 2 were recorded. The songs "Nova (Largo)" and "Teleconnect, Part 2" were recorded with a piano and string trio ensemble. The album was too long for a single vinyl record, and was released as a limited edition 6 x 10" vinyl box set in addition to standard CD digipack and digital formats. Resonance reached #7 on the official German Album Charts the week of 22 May 2015, and respectively #3 on the US Billboard Classical Crossover Album Charts and #4 on the US Billboard Classical Music Charts for 30 May 2015. Noire (2018) On 16 November 2017 in was announced that Mark Jackson, who had participated as live drummer at concerts since the mid-1990s, had left VNV Nation. Their tenth studio album, Noire, was released on 12 October 2018 as a digital album in all markets, and as a physical CD in non-American markets via Anachron Records. In the American market, the physical CD was distributed by Metropolis Records, with an expected release date of 9 November 2018. Discography Advance and Follow (1995) Praise the Fallen (1998) Empires (1999) Futureperfect (2002) Matter + Form (2005) Judgement (2007) Of Faith, Power and Glory (2009) Automatic (2011) Transnational (2013) Resonance: Music For Orchestra Vol. 1 (2015) Noire (2018) References External links Official VNV Nation website Ronan interview with Strangeways Radio – 5 March 2012 Dieselpunks.org Interview – 19 June 2009 Side-Line Magazine Interview – 2005 VNV Nation at Discogs VNV Nation at Last.fm Interview with DJ Starr – 2006 VNV Nation Gallery on Alberta Stars – 2007 Irish electronic music groups Musical groups from London TVT Records artists Musical groups established in 1990 English electronic music groups Wax Trax! 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258746	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jyv%C3%A4skyl%C3%A4	Jyväskylä	Jyväskylä (; ) is a city and municipality in Finland in the western part of the Finnish Lakeland. It is located about 150 km north-east from Tampere, the third largest city in Finland; and about 270 km north from Helsinki, the capital of Finland. The Jyväskylä sub-region includes Jyväskylä, Hankasalmi, Laukaa, Muurame, Petäjävesi, Toivakka, and Uurainen. Other border municipalities of Jyväskylä are Joutsa, Jämsä and Luhanka. Jyväskylä is the largest city in the region of Central Finland and in the Finnish Lakeland; as of , Jyväskylä had a population of . The city has been one of the fastest-growing cities in Finland during the 20th century, when in 1940, there were only 8,000 inhabitants in Jyväskylä. Elias Lönnrot, the compiler of the Finnish national epic, the Kalevala, gave the city the nickname "Athens of Finland". This nickname refers to the major role of Jyväskylä as an educational centre. The works of the notable Finnish architect, Alvar Aalto, can be seen throughout the city. The city hosts the Neste Oil Rally Finland, which is part of the World Rally Championship. It is also home of the annual Jyväskylä Arts Festival. Etymology The second part of the city's name, kylä, means village. The first part of the city's name, jyväs-, looks like the stem of an adjective *jyvänen, derived from jyvä, "grain" (compare Wiktionary). Alternatively, it has been associated with Taxus, a genus of yews, and the Old Prussian word juwis. It has also been speculated that the word jyväs refers to the sun's reflection of the surface of the water. History In the Jyväskylä region, there are archeological findings from the Stone Age. According to the oldest available taxation documents (maakirja), there were seven estates on the Jyväskylä region in 1539. One of them, the estate of Mattila, alone possessed the areas stretching from the village of Keljo to the villages of Vesanka and Palokka. The oldest estate in Jyväskylä continuously held by the same family is the estate of Lahti, which emerged when the estate of Mattila was split between two brothers in 1600. The history of the estate of Lahti and the family of Lahti have had a significant impact on the development of Jyväskylä region. Lahdenrinne, in the south-west corner of Jyväsjärvi lake, belongs to the old heartland of the estate of Lahti. The City of Jyväskylä was founded on 22 March 1837, when Emperor of Russia and Grand Duke of Finland, Nicholas I of Russia, signed the charter of the city and the infrastructure was essentially built from scratch; before that, Jyväskylä was a village belonging to the larger rural municipality of Laukaa, being the largest village of the whole parish. At the times Finnish military battalion Suomen kaarti participated under his rule in military operations against the Polish November Uprising and later in Hungary, Turkey and Bessarabia (today Moldova). While Nicholas I of Russia abolished many autonomous areas, it has been argued, that the loyalty of Finnish military influenced his approach towards Finnish autonomy. The original town was built between Lake Jyväsjärvi (which is connected to Lake Päijänne) and the Jyväskylä ridge (Harju), and consisted of most of the current grid-style city centre. The establishment of schools in the 1850s and '60s proved to be the most significant step in regards to the later development of Jyväskylä. The first three Finnish-speaking schools in the world were founded in Jyväskylä, the lycée in 1858, the teachers’ college in 1863, and the girls’ school in 1864. Well-trained teaching staff and pupils from different parts of the country changed the atmosphere of Jyväskylä irrevocably. In the early 20th century, the town expanded several times. Most of today's Jyväskylä was built after the Continuation War, when refugees from Karelia and other parts of the country moved to the city, and housing was badly needed. During the 21st century Jyväskylä has grown fast – by over 1,000 inhabitants every year. Säynätsalo was consolidated with Jyväskylä in 1993, and Jyväskylän maalaiskunta and Korpilahti, for their part, on January 1, 2009. Geography Jyväskylä is located on the northern coast of Lake Päijänne, north-east of Tampere, south-west of Kuopio and north of Helsinki. The hilly and forested terrain in Jyväskylä is surrounded by hundreds of lakes. To reach Jyväskylä from the east, one needs to go through or pass the hill Kanavuori, which used to host a military depot full of ammunition and armaments. Jyväskylä is located in the Finnish Lakeland. There are 328 lakes in the city, and lakes and rivers constitute 20,1% (295 km2) of the total area of the city. The city's largest lakes are Päijänne, Leppävesi, Tuomiojärvi, Palokkajärvi, Luonetjärvi, and Alvajärvi-Korttajärvi. The city center is located on the shores of a small Jyväsjärvi. The landscape in Jyväskylä is hilly, forested and full of waters. The architect Alvar Aalto compared the hilly landscape of Jyväskylä to Toscana in Italy: "The slope of Jyväskylä ridge is almost like the mountain vineyards of Fiesole". Climate The defined climate is a subarctic continental (Köppen: Dfc). Because of its northern location, winters are long, snowy, cold, and dark. During midwinter, the city receives daylight for only around five hours. Summers are mild, with the average daily maximum temperature being in July. During the summer, Jyväskylä experiences long daylight and white nights i.e. midnight twilight. Demographics Population Jyväskylä was the fastest growing Finnish city in the 20th century. The population has continued to grow rapidly in the 21st century. Languages 96.7% of the population spoke Finnish as their first language in 2010. The share of Swedish speakers was 0.2%. Other languages made up the remaining 3% of the population. Migration In year 2019, there were about 7,650 foreigners in Jyväskylä. Military Jyväskylä hosts the headquarters of the Finnish Air Force, in Tikkakoski. As a central location, it has traditionally been important base for military operations. Jyväskylä became known as major firearms manufacturer (Tikkakoski) during the world wars, producing machine guns and ammunition. According to reporting in Helsingin Sanomat, since the 1990s Jyväskylä has served as a signals intelligence collection site, primarily targeting military maneuvers around St. Petersburg. Economy Because of excellent connections, Jyväskylä was a busy marketplace even before the first permanent settlements were founded in the current city centre. The establishment of Finland's first three Finnish-speaking schools: the lycée in 1858, the teachers’ college in 1863, and the girls’ school in 1864 proved to be the most significant steps in regards to later development of Jyväskylä. Educational services became the heart of the economic growth of the city. In 1912 Wilhelm Schauman founded a plywood mill on the shores of Jyväsjärvi. Soon other kinds of forest based businesses opened factories and premises in the city. Thus, lumber, pulp, and paper became the second stronghold of the economy in Jyväskylä. Later, the high quality education and paper machinery industry tempted information technology businesses to settle in the city. Nowadays, the main sources of subsistence in Jyväskylä are educational and health care services, paper machinery production, information technology, and renewable energy. The most important private employers are paper machinery producer Metso ltd., retail trade company Keskimaa Cooperative Society, real estate service company ISS, and wind turbine gear manufacturer Moventas. The biggest public employers are the City of Jyväskylä, the Central Finland Health Care District, the University of Jyväskylä, and the Air Force Academy. , only 1% of the labor force works on the primary sector, 21% on the secondary sector, and 78% on the service sector of the economy. In April 2012, the unemployment rate in Jyväskylä was 12.2%, which was higher than average in Finland (9.8% in 1/2012). As of July 2012, there are about 61,000 jobs in Jyväskylä. The average income per income earner was €24,380 in 2010. In 2011, Jyväskylä topped in an image evaluation study among businesses. The city reached the highest score of large Finnish cities in the study, succeeding especially in the availability of skilled work force, on commercial services, on transport connections, and on geographical location. The Gross domestic product per capita in the city of Jyväskylä was €33,688 in 2005. The self-sufficiency in workplaces exceeded 100% in the city, raising the GDP per capita higher than the national average. The GDP per capita of the whole Jyväskylä region was €28,718 in 2007. The regional GDP per capita is lower than the Finnish national average, mainly due to high number of students and a relatively high unemployment rate. Culture Museums The Alvar Aalto Museum and the Museum of Central Finland form a center of culture in the immediate vicinity of the historical campus of the University of Jyväskylä. Both museums are designed by functionalist Alvar Aalto. The Alvar Aalto Museum displays the artist's most important work and design. The Museum of Central Finland specializes in cultural history. It serves both as the town museum of Jyväskylä and the provincial museum of Central Finland. In summer 2015 Alvar Aalto Foundation and the city of Jyväskylä launched an architect competition to connect the two museums. One of architect Aalto's most significant works, Säynätsalo Town Hall, is located in Säynätsalo island. The city hosts the Craft Museum of Finland, which presents a range of different handicraft techniques from across the country, as well as a centre dedicated to the conservation of textiles that serves private customers, museums and organisations. The National Costume Center of Finland forms a part of the museum. The Aviation Museum of Central Finland near the Jyväskylä Airport in Tikkakoski exhibits the aviation history of Finland. The University of Jyväskylä Museum is specialized in the history of the University and diversity of nature in Central Finland. Jyväskylä Art Museum, located the city centre is the regional art museum of Central Finland. In collaboration with the Centre for Creative Photography, the Jyväskylä Art Museum maintains The Ratamo Printmaking and Photography Centre. This centre consists of the Galleria Ratamo along with a printmaking workshop, photography studio and artist workspaces all situated in Jyväskylä's former roundhouse. In addition, historical churches in the city are open for public, most notables of them being the Taulumäki Church and the Jyväskylä City Church. Theaters The biggest theater in the city is the Jyväskylä City Theatre, designed by Alvar Aalto. It stands right in the center of the city. In addition to the City Theatre, more than dozen amateur drama companies serve audiences of all ages. The most popular theatres include: Huoneteatteri (The Room Theatre), Sammonkatu 4 Jyväskylä University Student Theatre, Student Union Building, Keskussairaalantie 2 Jyväskylän kansannäyttämö, Sammonkatu 7 AdAstra Theatre, Koskenharjuntie 8 Teatterikone, Köhniönkatu 31 Jyväskylän teatteriyhdistys Kulissi, Siltakatu 25 Improvisaatioteatteri Ässiä Hatusta, University Campus, Student Union Building, Keskussairaalantie 2 Music In the 2010s, Jyväskylä earned a reputation as one of the most productive and high-quality rap music centers, and Jyväskylä has been titled in the media as the "capital of Finnish rap". Gettomasa, among others, the rap artists from Jyväskylä who deserved their encouragement. Annual events Arctic and Fabulous Film Festival offers different forms and genres of Nordic film in the middle of most freezing winter season in February. Jyväskylä City's Birthday Week (last week of March) offers a number of concerts, theatre, exhibitions and debates around the city. Jyrock in April is an indie and alternative rock and pop festival. Lutakko liekeissä in August is a rock festival held in rock club Tanssisali Lutakko. Yläkaupungin Yö in May is one of the biggest annual street festivals of the city. Sataman Yö is an annual pop music festival organised one week before the midsummer in the harbour of Jyväskylä. Jyväskylä Arts Festival in the middle of July accommodates musicians, bands, contemporary circus, comedians, mimes, physical theatre, storytellers and film makers. It is one of the most well known festivals in Finland. Neste Oil Rally Finland in the end of July is the biggest annually organised event in Nordic countries and a part of the WRC World Rally Championships. Athenis Finlandiae organised in August is a cultural festival combining elements from ancient history, arts and science. Finlandia Marathon in the beginning of September is a marathon festival designed for everybody from a top athlete to an amateur jogger. Time of Dance – the largest annual festival of Finnish contemporary dance is taking place in the end of September. The International Print Triennial Graphica Creativa is organised every three years since 1975. It was the very first international graphic art exhibition in Finland. The latest triennial was organised in 2012. Sports The University of Jyväskylä is the only university in Northern Europe with a faculty of sports. The faculty has been a key player to develop a strong sports culture in the city, which is why Jyväskylä is also dubbed the "capital of Finnish sport". The city hosts the Neste Oil Rally Finland (formerly known as the 1000 Lakes Rally). It is the biggest annually organised public event in the Nordic countries, gathering over 500,000 spectators every year. The rally has been held since 1951, first as a national competition, then from 1959 on as a European Rally Championship event and since the introduction of the World Rally Championship in 1973, as Finland's WRC event. Ice hockey venue Synergia-areena, Hippos Finnish baseball stadium, swimming hall AaltoAlvari, and many other primary sport venues of the city are located in Hippos, two kilometres () away from the city centre. The Matti Nykänen ski jumping hill is located next to the Laajavuori ski resort just few kilometres west from the city centre. The main football stadium lies on the slopes of Harju just next to the city centre. The Killeri hippodrome on the western parts of the city serves different horse racing competitions. At winter time, amateur ice skaters can practice their skills in Viitaniemi or on the lake Jyväsjärvi, which has a long ice skating track. The inventor of Finnish national sport pesäpallo, Lauri "Tahko" Pihkala, studied and lived in Jyväskylä. The Upper secondary school of Jyväskylän Lyseo hosted the historic event of first pesäpallo match in world in September 1920. Sports teams from Jyväskylä include: JYP plays in the top-tier Finnish men's ice hockey league, SM-liiga. The team was the 2009 and 2012 Finnish Champion. The team also won the European Trophy in 2013 and the European Champions Hockey League tournament in 2018. JYP Naiset is a three-time Finnish Champion of the Naisten Liiga, the top-tier Finnish women’s ice hockey league. As of 2021, the team plays in the second-tier Naisten Mestis. JyPK (Jyväskylän Pallokerho) plays in the Kansallinen Liiga, the premier division of Finnish women’s football. FC Vaajakoski plays in Kakkonen, the third tier of the men’s Finnish football league system. FC Blackbird and Jyväskylän Jalkapalloklubi (JJK Jyväskylä) play in Kolmonen, the fourth tier of the men’s Finnish football league system. JJK played in the premier division Veikkausliiga in 2017. Jyväskylän Seudun Palloseura (JPS) plays in the highest bandy division, Bandyliiga, and won the Finnish Championship for the first time in 2019. Their home arena is the Vehkalammen kenttä. Jyväskylä Track and Field Club (JKU) is one of the leading track and field clubs in Finland. Jyväskylän Kiri is the most successful men’s pesäpallo team in history. Currently they play in the top division Superpesis. Jyväskylän Saukot plays in the Finnish men’s women’s water polo top division. Kampuksen Dynamo (KaDy) plays futsal in the Finnish top league. Kirittäret holds fourteen Finnish Championships in women's pesäpallo and plays in the Superpesis. Jyväskylän seudun Jaguaarit plays in the Finnish third-tier American football league, the Amerikkalaisen jalkapallon II-divisioona (2nd Division). Happee plays in the top-tier Finnish floorball leagues, the men's F-liiga and women's F-liiga. Men's Finnish Championship in 2014. Hongikon Nuorisoseuran Urheilijat (HoNsU) plays basketball in the Naisten Korisliiga, the top-tier women’s league, and the men’s Koripallon I-divisioona, the second-tier men’s league. Jyväskylä Freestyle Club is the main freestyle skiing club. Jyväskylä Ski Club (JHS) is one of the most well known cross-country skiing, ski jumping, alpine skiing, snowboarding, Nordic combined, and biathlon clubs in Finland. Meloiloa Canoe Club plays canoe polo and practices whitewater slalom, canoe racing, wildwater canoeing and marathon kayaking. Jyväskylä Rugby Club plays rugby union (rugby) in the Finnish Championship League; former national champions. Jyväskylän Fight Club is the city's most successful martial arts and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu academy. Jigotai is the largest martial arts club in Central Finland (judo, karate, kickboxing, t'ai chi, aikido, taido, etc.) Mukwan is a well-known Taekwondo and martial arts club in Jyväskylä since 1984. Liikunnan Riemu plays futsal in the Finnish top league, the Futsal-Liiga, since 2013. Jyväskylän Liitokiekkoilijat Ry (JyLi Ry) competes in Ultimate, Disc golf and other disc sports. Jaguars Spirit Athletes (JSA) is the primary cheerleading club. Toyota Gazoo Racing WRT, the official Toyota world rally team run by 4-time world champion and Jyväskylä native Tommi Mäkinen. The city hosted the 2006 FIBA Europe Under-16 Championship for Women Division B. Government The city council of Jyväskylä is the main decision making body at the local level. Its 75 members are elected every fourth year in municipal elections. The city council elects the mayor. The current mayor is Timo Koivisto. Seat distribution in the city council The prevalence of the social democratic party can be explained in part by the Vaajakoski, a major industrial center historically that is currently part of Jyväskylä, and its heritage of industrial workers voting social democrats. Jyväskylä was the only place during the 2017 municipal elections where the Green League was the largest party. Administrative division The city of Jyväskylä is divided into fourteen wards (; ), which are further divided into 89 districts. The ward division does not always follow district boundaries. The following is a listing of the 14 wards of Jyväskylä by population, as of November 2010 1. Kantakaupunki (city centre), population 25,149 2. Kuokkala, population 16,904 3. Vaajakoski-Jyskä, population 14,588 4. Palokka-Puuppola, population 14,395 5. Kypärämäki-Kortepohja, population 10,537 6. Huhtasuo, population 8,691 7. Keltinmäki-Myllyjärvi, population 7,524 8. Keljo, population 5,494 9. Halssila, population 5,479 10. Tikkakoski-Nyrölä, population 5,401 11. Korpilahti, population 4,993 12. Lohikoski-Seppälänkangas, population 4,650 13. Säynätsalo, population 3,340 14. Kuohu-Vesanka, population 2,118 Cityscape Jyväskylä was founded in the northern end of the lake Päijänne at the crossroads of three major waterways. Lakes control the cityscape. The city grid plan from 1833 by Jacob Leonard Boringh can be well recognised in the city center. Nevertheless, due to very rapid population growth, the cityscape has gone through one of the most massive changes in all of Finland. Nowadays, Jyväskylä is a city of modern architecture. The city has more buildings designed by one of the best known international functionalist architects Alvar Aalto than any other city in the world. The establishment of schools in the 1850s and 1860s proved to be the most important step from the point of view of the later development of Jyväskylä. The headquarters of the University of Jyväskylä are considered to be Aalto's masterpieces. Later, a modern architect Arto Sipinen, a pupil of Aalto, has influenced the cityscape since the 1970s by designing most of the new university buildings in the city. The outskirts of the city are mainly populated by student apartments and single-family houses. Some of the most important buildings, like Säynätsalo Town Hall, designed by Aalto are located outside the city centre in Säynätsalo and Muuratsalo. Consolidated areas Korpilahti, Jyväskylän maalaiskunta, Säynätsalo and also western parts of Jyväskylä are mainly countryside dominated by hilly forests and lakes. Education Jyväskylä is a traditional centre of education. Including school children, and the students in high schools, vocational schools, the university of applied sciences, and the universities, the number of students and pupils in the city reaches 45,000, boosting Jyväskylä's reputation as a "student city". Over 30% of the city population are students. A number of firsts in Finnish education have taken place in Jyväskylä: Jyväskylä Lyceum (Finnish: Jyväskylän Lyseon lukio) is the world's first junior secondary school with Finnish as the language of instruction. It started its first term on 1 October 1858 and turned 160 years old in 2018. Lyceum still exists and is one of the three upper secondary schools in the city. The first Finnish-medium teacher training college (1863) The first Finnish-medium school for girls (1864) Finland's first Summer University (1912) Due to this, among other things, the city has earned the nickname Athens of Finland. The teacher training college later evolved into the College of Education (1934) and further into the multidisciplinary University of Jyväskylä (1966). The University of Jyväskylä is one of the most popular universities in Finland. Almost 16,000 students are enrolled to study for a bachelor's or master's degree, and the university also offers PhD programs in most of its subjects. Historically, the university has excelled in the study of education, but in the last few decades it has also gained respect in the sciences. It is the only university in Finland offering university-level education in sports, training sports teachers and coaches. Today the University offers also Cyber Security degrees, in close co-operation with the Finnish Defence Forces. According to the Ministry of Employment and the Economy the city has been acknowledged in 2013 as the Cyber Security City, providing a portfolio of Cyber Security related studies and activities. JAMK University of Applied Sciences has 8.000 students. It has four different units: School of Business and Services Management, School of Health and Social Studies, School of Technology and Teacher Education College. HUMAK University of Applied Sciences educates cultural management in Jyväskylä. Transport Jyväskylä railway station is served by VR direct trains to Helsinki, Pieksämäki, Tampere, Turku, Vaasa and many other destinations in Finland. The station was extensively modernised in 2002. Jyväskylä Airport is situated in Tikkakoski, about north of Jyväskylä. It has regular direct flights to Helsinki Airport. The airport serves also as a military and charter airport. The city is on crossroads of many main roads of Finland. Highway 4 (E75) passes the city from south to north, and Highway 9 (E63) from southeast to northwest. Highway 23 between Pori and Joensuu also runs through Jyväskylä. Jyväskylä harbour is home to many passenger ships operating on lake Päijänne. During summer time, there are direct ship connections to Lahti, Jämsä, Suolahti, Viitasaari, and some other cities. The public transportation system of Jyväskylä is managed by the city under the Linkki brand and operated under contract to the city by Jyväskylän liikenne, Länsilinjat and Mennään Bussilla. It is based on bus lines. Former city managers Varma T. Suosalmi 1930–1935 Arvo Haapasalo 1935–1955 Jorma Tuominen 1955–1959 Veli Järvinen 1959–1974 Jaakko Loven 1975–1994 Pekka Kettunen 1994–2004 Markku Andersson 2004–2015 Notable people International relations Twin towns — Sister cities — Friendship cities Jyväskylä is a member city of Eurotowns network and is twinned with: Gallery See also Asteroid 1500 Jyväskylä (named after the town by its Finnish discoverer, Yrjö Väisälä). Finnish national road 4 Jyväskylä sub-region Nokkakivi Amusement Park St. Olaf's Church, Jyväskylä Vaajakoski Motorway References Literature History External links City of Jyväskylä – International version of the official website Map of Jyväskylä Region of Jyväskylä Tourist Information Grand Duchy of Finland Populated lakeshore places in Finland Inland port cities and towns in Finland Rally Finland 1837 establishments in the Russian Empire	[ 0.0377470925450325, 0.28734228014945984, 0.37419480085372925, 0.13481737673282623, 0.24446864426136017, 0.12315750867128372, 0.9400844573974609, 0.15136730670928955, -0.6424239873886108, -0.049824248999357224, -0.16493383049964905, -0.12908801436424255, -0.311555951833725, 0.4174221158027649, -0.7119584679603577, 0.1615116447210312, 0.27854499220848083, 0.5411444902420044, 0.5850639939308167, -0.06337079405784607, -0.025387851521372795, 0.09499620646238327, 0.5748724937438965, 0.6306583285331726, 0.21009503304958344, -0.4082615375518799, 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258756	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evonne%20Goolagong%20Cawley	Evonne Goolagong Cawley	Evonne Fay Goolagong Cawley (née Goolagong; born 31 July 1951) is an Australian former world No. 1 tennis player. Goolagong was one of the world's leading players in the 1970s and early 1980s. At the age of 19, she won the French Open singles and the Australian Open doubles championships (the latter with Margaret Court). She won the womens' singles tournament at Wimbledon in 1971. In 1980, she became the first mother to win Wimbledon in 66 years. Goolagong went on to win 14 Grand Slam tournament titles: seven in singles (four at the Australian Open, two at Wimbledon and one at the French Open), six in women's doubles, and one in mixed doubles. She represented Australia in three Fed Cup competitions, winning the title in 1971, 1973 and 1974, and was Fed Cup captain for three consecutive years. After retiring from professional tennis in 1983, Goolagong played in senior invitational competitions, endorsed a variety of products, worked as a touring professional, and held sports-related leadership roles. Goolagong was named Australian of the Year in 1971. She was appointed as a Member of the Order of the British Empire in 1972 and as an Officer of the Order of Australia in 1982. Goolagong was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1985 and the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1988. She leads the Goolagong National Development Camp for Indigenous boys and girls, which encourages Indigenous youth to stay in school. Early life Evonne is the third of eight children from an Australian Aboriginal (Wiradjuri) family. Her father, Ken Goolagong, was an itinerant sheep shearer and her mother, Melinda, was a homemaker. Evonne was born in Griffith, New South Wales, and grew up in the small country town of Barellan. Despite the widespread disadvantage and prejudice Aboriginal people experienced in Australia, Goolagong was able to play tennis in Barellan from childhood, thanks to an area resident, Bill Kurtzman, who saw her peering through the fence at the local courts and encouraged her to come in and play. In 1965, Vic Edwards, the proprietor of a tennis school in Sydney, was tipped off by two of his assistants, travelled to Barellan to take a look at the young Goolagong, and immediately saw her potential. He persuaded her parents to allow her to move to Sydney, where she attended Willoughby Girls High School. There, she completed her School Certificate in 1968 and, at the same time, lived with the family of Edwards, who had become her legal guardian, coach, and manager. Career and Grand Slam tournament success With seven championships, Goolagong is 12th on the women's list of all-time singles Grand Slam winners, and ended her career with 86 singles titles. She took singles and doubles titles at the Australian Open and Wimbledon and singles and mixed doubles titles at the French Open. She never won the US Open. She won seven Grand Slam singles titles in her career, reaching a total of 18 Grand Slam singles finals. During the 1970s, she played in 17 Grand Slam singles finals, a period record for any player, man or woman. From her first Grand Slam singles final appearance in January 1971, to December 1977 when she won her last Grand Slam title of the 1970s, she played in 21 Grand Slam events. Her only four defeats prior to the finals came at the 1972 US Open in the third round; 1974 Wimbledon, where she was defeated in the quarterfinals; and at the semifinal stage at both Roland Garros and Wimbledon in 1973. To start the decade, she was defeated at the 1970 Australian Open in the quarterfinals and in the second round of the 1970 Wimbledon. In 1971, 1975, 1976 and 1977, Goolagong reached the final of every Grand Slam championship in which she competed. Between 1973 and 1977, she reached the final of almost every Grand Slam singles event she entered. The exceptions were: Roland Garros, where she lost to Margaret Court in the semifinals in 1973; and Wimbledon, where she played in only two finals in that period, 1975 and 1976, losing both; she lost in 1973 to eventual champion Billie Jean King in the semifinals; and in 1974 to Australian Kerry Melville at the quarterfinal stage; she did not enter in 1977, the year her daughter was born. Also in 1974, she teamed up with Peggy Michel to win the ladies' doubles title. She won the women's doubles title at the Australian Open five times and in Roland Garros once, as well as mixed doubles at Roland Garros once. Following her victory at the season-ending WTA Championships in 1976—known at the time as the Virginia Slims Championships—her seventh tournament victory of the year, Goolagong continued to play on the WTA Tour until 1983, but never again played a full season. After her victory over Chris Evert in the WTA Championships, she only played in three competitive tournaments for the remainder of 1976, losing in both finals to Evert (Wimbledon and US Open) and the Sydney quarterfinals in November, which she played while four months pregnant. She focused instead on WTT Team Tennis and exhibition events. Goolagong realised during the 1976 US Open final that she was pregnant and after one more tournament for the year, she did not play again on the regular tour until the summer of 1977, continuing through to Wimbledon 1978. 1976 had been her best season to date, winning seven titles, rising to number one in the world and losing only to Chris Evert, which she did five times and once to Dianne Fromholtz in Sydney, which she played in the second trimester of her pregnancy. No other players were able to score a victory over her in the year. After attempting a comeback in the summer of 1977, Goolagong decided to wait for the Australian season beginning later in the year for a full return. Her return to the tour proper kick-started a highly successful run of play, during which she won ten tournaments including the Australian Open in a run of five consecutive tournament wins and reached the final in two others, including the season-ending WTA Championships, where she lost to Martina Navratilova. At the Virginia Slims of Boston in March 1978, Goolagong beat both Navratilova & Evert back-to-back to win the title. It was her only post pregnancy victory over Navratilova and one of only two she scored over Evert. Prior to her first pregnancy, Goolagong led Navratilova 11–4 in their rivalry, but she lost 11 of their 12 matches after her daughter was born to trail 12–15 at the end of her career. From being un-ranked at the beginning of her return, Goolagong's ranking rose to No. 3 in the world, but during Wimbledon 1978, a career-threatening ankle injury forced her to miss the remainder of 1978, other than the exhibition Emeron Cup event played in December, where she played with her ankle heavily strapped and lost to both Navratilova and Virginia Wade in straight sets. She did not return to competitive play until March 1979, when she won four tournaments and ended the year ranked No. 4 in the world. Injuries and illness at the beginning of 1980 kept her away from the tour for many weeks in the first six months of the year and only reached four finals, but she returned in triumph at Wimbledon, yet only played three further tournaments and the exhibition Lion's Cup for the remainder of the year after her final Grand Slam victory. For her Wimbledon triumph, Goolagong beat four top ten players (Hana Mandlíková #9, Wendy Turnbull #6, Tracy Austin #2 and Chris Evert #3), the only champion in Wimbledon history to do so. She also beat two former Grand Slam finalists in earlier rounds, Sharon Walsh and Betty Stöve, also becoming the first champion to have dropped three sets in the championship. She withdrew from the US Open, where she had been seeded fourth, due to a recurring back injury and the early stages of her second pregnancy, although she did play the Lion's Cup (losing to Evert) and the Australian Open championships at the end of the year, despite being four and five months pregnant respectively. Other players, notably Wendy Turnbull, publicly decried the decision by Tennis Australia to pay Goolagong an appearance fee to compete at the Australian Open from 1980 onwards. Goolagong defended the decision to accept the fees to compete in her later autobiography. Goolagong was then absent for almost all of 1981, returning to tournament play in Australia towards the end of the year and after losing in the first round in Perth, she reached the quarterfinals of the only other two tournaments she played for the year, losing to Evert in Sydney, and at the Australian Open to Navratilova. Her comeback wasn't consistent and she didn't play again until March 1982 when she pushed Evert to three sets and beat reigning French Open champion Hana Mandlikova in the Citizen Cup played on clay in March 1982. Goolagong then lost her first matches of all her next three tournaments; pulling out in the final set of the Family Circle Cup to Joanne Russell; losing to Pam Teeguarden at the Dow Classic and at Wimbledon 1982, where she was given a protected seeding of 16th by the All England Club, losing her only match to Zina Garrison. For the remainder of the year, Cawley played little, but did win two of her three matches in the Federation Cup. Cawley didn't play competitively again until November when she lost in the first round to Sue Barker in Brisbane, but reached her only singles final at Sydney, where after beating world no.3 Andrea Jaeger, she lost in three sets to Navratilova. She followed this with a three-set loss to Candy Reynolds in the last 32 of the Australian Open. Despite the lack of play, Cawley ended the year ranked 17th and was given a spot in the WTA season ending championship, where she lost to Pam Shriver. In 1983, she failed to reach the quarterfinal of any event and played her last Grand Slam singles match at the French Open, were she lost to Evert in the third round. At the Dow Classic in Edgbaston, she lost in the last 16 to Anne White, before withdrawing from Wimbledon. Despite not playing the singles, she partnered Sue Barker in the Wimbledon doubles event, losing in the first round, her last Grand Slam appearance. A brief return to competitive play came in 1985, when in May 1985, Goolagong accepted an invitation to compete at the Australian Indoor Championship, played on carpet. She lost her only match to another Australian veteran, Amanda Tobin Evans. She is the only mother to have won the Wimbledon title since Dorothea Lambert Chambers in 1914. Married to Roger Cawley in 1975, she had a daughter in 1977. Goolagong reached four consecutive US Open singles finals, from 1973 to 1976, but lost them all. She is the only player in U.S. Championships history to have lost four consecutive finals. Goolagong made seven consecutive finals at the Australian Open, winning three titles in a row. Despite reaching the final at her first two appearances in 1971 and 1972, after 1973 Goolagong did not compete at the Roland Garros for a decade. The French Tennis Federation banned all World Team Tennis contracted players from the 1974 event, with the player's unions instigating legal action against the French authorities. As Jimmy Connors and Goolagong were the reigning Australian Open champions, they spearheaded the legal action as they were being deprived of the opportunity to attain the tennis calendar Grand Slam as a result of the decision. Connors admitted this was a huge distraction and later wrote both he and Goolagong were "hung out to dry". Goolagong boycotted the event even after the ban was lifted, but returned in 1983 for her final Grand Slam singles appearance. She lost in the last thirty-two to Chris Evert and did not compete in any further Grand Slam singles events. Her last appearance at Grand Slam level came at the following 1983 Wimbledon Championships when she partnered Sue Barker to a first-round defeat in the doubles, having withdrawn from the singles event earlier. Her career win/loss percentage was 81.0% (704–165). Her win/loss performance in all Grand Slam singles tournaments was 82.1% (133–29), at the French Open 84.2% (16–3), at Wimbledon 83.3% (50–10), at the US Open 81.3% (26–6), and at the Australian Open 80.4% (41–10). Goolagong was ranked No. 1 in the world in women's tennis for two weeks in 1976, but it was not reported at the time because incomplete data was used to calculate the rankings. This was discovered in December 2007, 31 years later. She was the second woman to hold the top spot, but the 16th at the time she was finally recognised. Life after touring Beginning during her playing days, Goolagong endorsed many products and appeared in numerous television and print commercials, extending these further once she retired from competitive play. Her various commercials included KFC (in which she appeared with her husband Roger), Geritol and Sears, where she also promoted her own sports clothing brand 'Go Goolagong'. A one-off return to competitive action came at the 1985 Australian Indoor Championship organised by the ITF, but Goolagong lost her only match. In 1988, she was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. In 1990, Goolagong began to play in senior invitational competitions, returning to Wimbledon to compete in the inaugural ladies senior invitational doubles, alongside compatriot Kerry Melville Reid. Goolagong spent some time as a touring professional at the Hilton Head Racquet Club in South Carolina before returning to Australia. Goolagong was a member of the Board of the Australian Sports Commission from 1995 to 1997 and since 1997 has held the position of Sports Ambassador to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities. She was appointed captain of the Australian Fed Cup team in 2002. In 2003, she was the winner for the Oceania region of the International Olympic Committee's 2003 "Women and Sports Trophy". She also runs an annual "Goolagong National Development Camp", with the aim of encouraging Aboriginal children to stay in school through playing competitive tennis. Awards and recognition Goolagong was awarded Australian of the Year in 1971. She was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in 1972 and made an Officer of the Order of Australia in 1982. In 1985 she was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame. In 1988, Goolagong was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. In 2018, she was advanced to a Companion of the Order of Australia "for eminent service to tennis as a player at the national and international level, as an ambassador, supporter and advocate for the health, education and wellbeing of young Indigenous people through participation in sport, and as a role model". In 1972, she played in a segregated South African tournament. To spare her the discrimination experienced by non-whites, the South African authorities classified her as an honorary white. In 1978 and 1980, she was awarded the WTA Sportsmanship Award. The Evonne Goolagong Cawley Trophy, awarded to the female champion at the Brisbane International, is named in her honour. In 1993, the State Transit Authority named a RiverCat ferry in Sydney after her. This rivercat travels daily from Parramatta to Circular Quay. The National Museum of Australia holds the Evonne Goolagong Cawley collection of memorabilia. This includes her 1971 and 1980 Wimbledon singles trophies, the trophy from her 1974 doubles win and two racquets used in these tournaments. The museum's collection also includes a signed warm-up jacket and a dress with a bolero style top designed by Ted Tinling in the early 1970s. In 2001, Goolagong was inducted into the Victorian Honour Roll of Women for her achievements as a tennis player. A long replica of a tennis racquet used by Goolagong has been built in Evonne Goolagong Park in Goolagong's hometown of Barellan. Goolagong unveiled the exact scale model of the wooden Dunlop racquet during Barellan's centenary celebrations on 3 October 2009. In February 2016, Goolagong and ten other Australian tennis players were honoured by Australia Post as the recipients of the 2016 Australia Post Legends Award and appeared on a postage stamp set named Australian Legends of Singles Tennis. In April 2016, Goolagong was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of South Australia in recognition of her distinguished service to the community. In June 2018, the International Tennis Federation (ITF) presented her with its highest accolade, the Philippe Chatrier Award for her contributions to tennis. Goolagong is generally regarded as one of the all-time greats of women's tennis. Personal life When Victor Edwards became her coach, Goolagong went to live with him and his family. He became her legal guardian as well as her coach and manager. Goolagong later revealed that Edwards made sexual advances to her. When she met former junior British tennis player Roger Cawley in 1971, her relationship with Edwards became strained, but she was legally tied to Edwards, who controlled every aspect of her career and finances until her marriage to Cawley on 19 June 1975. Goolagong severed all contact with Edwards at that point, although he remained her official coach for Wimbledon 1975. During the tournament, Edwards sat on the opposite side of the players' box from Roger Cawley at her matches, and he and his protégée were no longer on speaking terms. Cawley became her coach, hitting partner and manager from the time they married. Following her wedding, she settled in Naples, Florida. Goolagong's father Ken was killed in a car crash in 1974, shortly after Edwards had refused to release any of her money to purchase a new family vehicle when requested. Her mother Melinda died in 1991. Intrigued by meeting so many Indigenous Australian relatives for the first time at the funeral, the Cawleys bought a home in Noosa Heads, Queensland and settled there with their two United States-born children. Her daughter Kelly (born 1977) helps run her tennis camps, and her son Morgan Kiema Cawley (born 1981) was a National Soccer League player. Goolagong is also the maternal great aunt of National Rugby League player Latrell Mitchell, born Latrell Goolagong. Goolagong's brother, Ian, was a gifted amateur tennis player who never pursued the sport professionally, but he partnered Evonne in the mixed doubles tournament at Wimbledon in 1982 (the pair lost their only match). , Ian Goolagong was the president and coach at the Lalor Tennis Club in Victoria. Autobiography Goolagong Cawley, Evonne; Jarrett, Phil (1993). Home! the Evonne Goolagong story. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0731803817. In the arts and popular culture A play based on the life of Goolagong Cawley called Sunshine Super Girl, written and directed by Andrea James, was to have premièred with the Melbourne Theatre Company in 2020, but the event was cancelled owing to the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. Instead, it premiered in Griffith, New South Wales, in October 2020 before a run at the Sydney Festival in January 2021, produced by Performing Lines. Career statistics Grand Slam tournament performance timeline Note: The Australian Open was held twice in 1977, in January and December. Goolagong won the December edition. She was seeded fourth for the 1980 US Open Championships, but withdrew from the tournament before play began. Grand Slam tournament finals Singles: 18 (7–11) Women's doubles: 6 (5–1) Note: The shared women's doubles title at the Australian Open in 1977 (December) isn't traditionally counted in Goolagong's win total because the finals were never played. Otherwise, she would have 14 Grand Slam titles, 6 Grand Slam women's doubles titles, and 7 Grand Slam women's doubles finals. Evonne Cawley is occasionally credited incorrectly with winning the 1977 Ladies Doubles event at Wimbledon, due to the confusion regarding the married name of her compatriot Helen Gourlay who in fact took the trophy. Both women were listed in tournaments as Mrs. R. Cawley (Goolagong was Mrs. R.A.Cawley and Gourlay Mrs. R.L.Cawley). Goolagong Cawley did not participate at Wimbledon 1977. Mixed doubles: 2 (1–1) Records These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis. Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements. Footnotes Margaret Osborne duPont and Althea Gibson also hold these records; however, they attained those in the pre-Open Era. The Australian Open was held twice in 1977, in January and December. Goolagong Cawley did not play in the January edition but made the final in the December tournament. See also List of female tennis players Tennis performance timeline comparisons References External links 1951 births Australian female tennis players Australian Members of the Order of the British Empire Australian Open (tennis) champions Australian Open (tennis) junior champions Companions of the Order of Australia French Open champions Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in mixed doubles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' singles Indigenous Australian tennis players International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees Living people People from Griffith, New South Wales Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees Tennis people from New South Wales Wimbledon champions World No. 1 tennis players Wiradjuri	[ -0.12673349678516388, -0.34389200806617737, -0.6781663298606873, -0.8472164273262024, -0.40321555733680725, 0.6466336250305176, 0.7930720448493958, -0.4434363543987274, -0.7741975784301758, 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258765	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadorna	Tadorna	The shelducks, most species of which are found in the genus Tadorna (except for the Radjah shelduck, which is now found in its own monotypic genus Radjah), are a group of large birds in the Tadorninae subfamily of the Anatidae, the biological family that includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl such as the geese and swans. Biology Shelducks are a group of large, often semi-terrestrial waterfowl, which can be seen as intermediate between geese (Anserinae) and ducks. They are mid-sized (some 50–60 cm) Old World waterfowl. The sexes are colored slightly differently in most species, and all have a characteristic upperwing coloration in flight: the tertiary remiges form a green speculum, the secondaries and primaries are black, and the coverts (forewing) are white. Their diet consists of small shore animals (winkles, crabs etc.) as well as grasses and other plants. They were originally known as "sheldrakes", which remained the most common name until the late 19th century. The word is still sometimes used to refer to a male shelduck and can also occasionally refer to the canvasback (Aythya valisineria) of North America. Systematics The genus Tadorna was introduced by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1822. The type species is the common shelduck. The genus name comes from the French name Tadorne for the common shelduck. It may originally derive from Celtic roots meaning "pied waterfowl", essentially the same as the English "shelduck". A group of them is called a "dopping," taken from the Harley Manuscript. The namesake genus of the Tadorninae, Tadorna is very close to the Egyptian goose and its extinct relatives from the Madagascar region, Alopochen. While the classical shelducks form a group that is obviously monophyletic, the interrelationships of these, the aberrant common and especially Radjah sheducks, and the Egyptian goose were found to be poorly resolved by mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data; this genus may thus be paraphyletic. Ruddy shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) South African shelduck (Tadorna cana) Australian shelduck (Tadorna tadornoides) Paradise shelduck (Tadorna variegata) † Crested shelduck (Tadorna cristata) - possibly extinct (late 20th century?) Common shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) The Radjah sheduck, formerly placed in the genus Tadorna, is now placed in its own monotypic genus: Radjah shelduck (Radjah radjah) Fossil bones from Dorkovo (Bulgaria) described as Balcanas pliocaenica may actually belong to this genus. They have even been proposed to be referable to the common shelduck, but their Early Pliocene age makes this rather unlikely. Phylogeny Based on the Taxonomy in Flux from John Boyd's website. Table of species The following table is based on the HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. 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258767	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitor%20indexing	Competitor indexing	Competitor indexing is a price setting technique used by marketers, in which a firm pegs the prices of its products those of a competitor. This may involve matching competitors' prices, or setting prices at a fixed amount or percentage above or below. This strategy is typically used by fringe firms in industries with one or two dominant companies, and is sometimes referred to as the "follow the leader" strategy. Its main advantage is convenience, as extensive marketing research and statistical analysis are not required. The main disadvantage is that it is purely reactive. Price cannot be used as a variable when constructing a marketing mix: it becomes a constant over which the firm has no control. 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258769	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon%20%28solitaire%29	Yukon (solitaire)	Yukon is a type of patience or solitaire card game using a single deck of playing cards like Klondike, but there is no deck or stock, and manipulation of the tableau works differently. Rules Yukon has the following adjustments to the game-play of standard Klondike solitaire: There are 7 rows of tableau stacks, and 4 foundations that build up in suit (see screenshots to the right) Groups of cards can be moved; the cards below the one to be moved do not need to be in any order, except that the starting and target cards must be built in sequence and in alternate color. For example, a group starting with a Red 3 can be moved on top a Black 4, and the cards below the Red 3 can differ. There is no stock in Yukon. All cards are dealt at the beginning; however, some are face down. Strategy Expose the face down cards as soon as possible, so you can start moving cards around. Moving the Aces to the Foundations as soon as possible is critical to gameplay. Variations Russian Solitaire is a solitaire card game that is very similar in layout and gameplay to Yukon. Its difference from Yukon is that building is by suit. Other Yukon variants remove the usual restriction that only Kings be placed in empty tableau spaces. Also closely related to Yukon are Alaska and Australian Patience. References External Sources Barry, Sheila Anne, World's Best Card Games for One Morehead, Albert H. & Mott-Smith, Geoffrey. The Complete Book of Solitaire & Patience Games Moyse Jr, Alphonse. 150 Ways to play Solitaire Parlett, David. 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258774	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate%20%28comics%29	Hate (comics)	Hate is a comic book by writer-artist Peter Bagge. First published by Fantagraphics in 1990 it ran for 30 issues, and was one of the best-selling alternative comics of the 1990s, at its height selling 30,000 copies an issue. In 2000 Bagge revived the series in Hate Annual, a yearly comic that continues the story after Hate in short stories, and includes writings on libertarianism, culture, and topical cartoons. Hate follows the life of Buddy Bradley, in a continuation of events from Bagge's strip "The Bradleys" from former publications Neat Stuff. It is set for the first half in Seattle and later in suburban New Jersey. Buddy has to deal with the end of adolescence, reluctantly growing up, his relationships with a host of unpleasant acquaintances he has to class as friends, working in dead-end jobs and having no direction in life. Bagge used memories of events from his own life as material. Hate has been referenced by many commentators as an important example of Generation X comic culture and grunge culture in general. Bagge tends to see the parallels with the grunge lifestyle as largely coincidental, as he was referencing events that had happened to him ten years previous. The comic was also released in Europe in the mid-'90s as Spanish, Italian and German language editions, the Spanish Odio proving particularly popular. Publication history First published by Fantagraphics from 1990 to 1998, it ran for 30 issues, and was one of the best-selling alternative comics. The series continues in Hate Annual, (9) yearly collection of comics stories and articles that began in 2000. A major story and format change took place in issue #16, when Buddy moved from Seattle back home to New Jersey, at which point the comic, once in black-and-white, changed to color. With issue #16, Bagge also started using an inker (rather unusual for an alternative comic book), Jim Blanchard. Hates final five issues were 48-page anthologies, featuring a main Buddy Bradley story and then a series of short backup stories by cartoonists such as Rick Altergott, Dame Darcy, and Kevin Scalzo. Characters Main charactersBuddy Bradley Lisa Leavenworth, emotionally unstable, unconfident and sloppy, Lisa had a one-night stand with Buddy before the storyline of Hate began. After Buddy's breakup with Valerie, Lisa became his long term girlfriend and moves back to Jersey with him. She bore his child and is currently his spouse. Supporting characters Leonard "Stinky" Brown, an old friend of Buddy's from New Jersey who was his roommate in Seattle. Probably the most irresponsible, selfish and hopeless of all the characters. Adopts an alternative lifestyle as a means to furthering his sexual conquests. George Cecil Hamilton III, Buddy's other roommate and über geek. Socially awkward, George hardly leaves his bedroom and immerses himself in science fiction and conspiracy theories. Valerie Russo, Buddy's first serious girlfriend, an upper middle class, apparently self-confident feminist with nymphomaniacal and manic depressive tendencies. Jay Spano, an old friend of Buddy's whom he met at a record store. He is a decade older than Buddy and uses heroin from time to time but claims not to be an addict. Buddy goes into business with Jay in collectables and later as scrap metal dealers. Jimmy Foley''', Buddy's next door neighbor in New Jersey, a small-time criminal serving out his probation for selling cocaine. Buddy's family Cultural impact Matthew J. Pustz has called Hate "The ultimate Generation X fable". Bagge managed to create archetypes with whom his audience identified strongly, which contributed to the popularity of the series. There was a great deal of interaction between fans of Hate, Bagge and the characters. In Hate#3, Bagge ran a competition to "Win a Date With Stinky", to which many fans submitted artwork and photographs. Bagge included cartoon depictions of several of the entrants in the issues that followed. In issue # 6, Bagge ran another contest, this time a "Buddy Bradley Look-Alike Contest" which hundreds entered. The winner was featured on the cover of issue 10. Bagge later wrote in an editorial that the winner had got in touch to tell him he was dating a woman named Valerie who was from Paris. Peter Bagge played down the comics position in grunge culture, saying In other mediaHate has been optioned as a movie or TV series numerous times, and in development as an animated series at MTV, HBO and Fox at various times since 1995. So far no pilot version has been completed. International versions A Spanish language edition of Hate, translated to Odio (which means Hatred) was published by Ediciones La Cúpula starting in 1995.Before this Odio was serialised in Spanish magazine El Víbora. According to Gual Oscar and Jose A. Serrano, Odio, taking into account population difference was comparatively more successful in Spain than its USA counterpart (10,000 copies sold per issue in Spain compared to 30,000 copies per issue for the USA.). Benet Roman writing for the 14th annual Barcelona BCN International Comics Fair commented that "Bagge ... knows how to capture some of the spirit of our time, using that most universal, affordable and difficult to produce medium: humor." In Germany The first fifteen issues of Hate were translated for the German market and published by Carlsen Comics under the title Leck Mich! (literal: lick me!, possibly most closely translates to "kiss it!" as in kiss my ass). Later color editions of Hate were issued in 1998 by Jochen Enterprises under the title Krass/Kraß (a slang term, meaning phat, cool or rad – its conventional meaning is crass). It ran for seven issues before Jochen ceased trading. Bagge sanctioned the creation of new Buddy stories for the German edition, by artists such as Philip Taegert and Guido Sieber. Sieber moved the characters of Buddy and Lisa from Seattle to Berlin. Collections Trade paperbacks Hey Buddy! Volume I of The Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from Hate Fantagraphics Books 978-1560971139. (Collects issues 1–5) Buddy The Dreamer: Volume II of the Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from Hate Fantagraphics Books 978-1560971559 (Collects issues 6–10) Fun With Buddy + Lisa: Volume III of the Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from Hate Fantagraphics Books 978-1560971764 (Collects issues 11–15) Buddy Go Home: Volume IV of the Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from Hate 1998, Fantagraphics Books 978-1560972761 (Collects issues 16–20) Buddy's Got Three Moms! Volume V of the Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from Hate Fantagraphics Books 1560973358 (Collects issues 21–25) Buddy Bites the Bullet! Volume VI of the Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from Hate Fantagraphics Books 978-1560974154 (Collects issues 26–30)Buddy Does Seattle: The Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from "Hate" Comics, Vol. I (1990–94) Fantagraphics Books (Collects Hate #1–15) 2005Buddy Does Jersey: The Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from "Hate" Comics, Vol. II (1994–1998) Fantagraphics Books (Collects Hate #16–30) 2007Buddy Buys a Dump: The Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from "Hate" Comics Vol. III (2000–2013) Fantagraphics Books (Collects Hate Annual'' #1–9) 2014 References External links Essay on Hate from Toastyfrog.com 1990 comics debuts Fantagraphics titles Harvey Award winners for Best New Series Punk comics Humor comics Satirical comics Slice of life comics Teen comedy comics Culture of the Pacific Northwest Comics set in Washington (state) Comics set in New York City	[ 0.600231409072876, 0.4844488203525543, -0.19860365986824036, -0.32531610131263733, -0.6121589541435242, 0.03643412888050079, 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258775	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Dos%20Passos	John Dos Passos	John Roderigo Dos Passos (; January 14, 1896 – September 28, 1970) was an American novelist, most notable for his U.S.A. trilogy. Born in Chicago, Dos Passos graduated from Harvard College in 1916. He traveled widely as a young man, visiting Europe and the Middle East, where he learned about literature, art, and architecture. During World War I, he was an ambulance driver for American volunteer groups in Paris and Italy, before joining the U.S. Army Medical Corps. In 1920, his first novel, One Man's Initiation: 1917, was published, and in 1925, his novel Manhattan Transfer became a commercial success. His U.S.A. trilogy, which consists of the novels The 42nd Parallel (1930), 1919 (1932), and The Big Money (1936), was ranked by the Modern Library in 1998 as 23rd of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. Written in experimental, non-linear form, the trilogy blends elements of biography and news reports to paint a landscape of early 20th-century American culture. Beyond his writing, Dos Passos is known for his shift in political views. Following his experiences in World War I, he became interested in socialism and pacifism, which also influenced his early work. In 1928, he traveled to the Soviet Union, curious about its social and political experiment, though he left with mixed impressions. His experiences during the Spanish Civil War led to disillusionment about left-wing politics while also severing his relationship with fellow writer Ernest Hemingway. By the 1950s, his political views had changed dramatically, and he had become more conservative. In the 1960s, he campaigned for presidential candidates Barry Goldwater and Richard Nixon. As an artist, Dos Passos created his own cover art for his books, influenced by modernism in 1920s Paris. He died in Baltimore, Maryland. Spence's Point, his Virginia estate, was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1971. Early life Born in Chicago, Dos Passos was the illegitimate son of John Randolph Dos Passos (1844–1917), a lawyer of half Madeiran Portuguese descent, and Lucy Addison (Sprigg) Madison of Petersburg, Virginia. His father was married at the time and had a son several years older than John. As a child, John traveled extensively with his mother, who was an invalid and preferred Europe. Although John's father married Lucy after the death of his first wife in 1910, when John was 14, he refused to formally acknowledge John for another two years. John Randolph Dos Passos was an authority on trusts, and a staunch supporter of the powerful industrial conglomerates that his son expressly criticized in his fictional works during the 1920s and 1930s. After he returned with his mother to the US, John Dos Passos was enrolled in 1907 at the Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall), a private college-preparatory school in Wallingford, Connecticut, under the name John Roderigo Madison. His parents later arranged for him to travel with a private tutor on a six-month tour of France, England, Italy, Greece, and the Middle East, to study the masters of classical art, architecture, and literature. In 1912, Dos Passos enrolled in Harvard College, where he became friends with classmate E.E. Cummings, who said there was a "foreignness" about Dos Passos, and "no one at Harvard looked less like an American." Following his graduation cum laude in 1916, Dos Passos traveled to Spain to study art and architecture. In July 1917, with World War I raging in Europe, Dos Passos volunteered for the S.S.U. 60 of the Norton-Harjes Ambulance Corps, along with friends Cummings and Robert Hillyer. Later, he also worked as a volunteer ambulance driver with the American Red Cross in north-central Italy. By the late summer of 1918, Dos Passos had completed a draft of his first novel. At the same time, he had to report for duty with the U.S. Army Medical Corps at Camp Crane in Pennsylvania. On Armistice Day, he was stationed in Paris, where the U.S. Army Overseas Education Commission allowed him to study anthropology at the Sorbonne. Three Soldiers, his novel drawn from those experiences, features a character who has virtually the same military career as the author and stays in Paris after the war. Literary career Considered one of the Lost Generation writers, Dos Passos published his first novel in 1920, One Man's Initiation: 1917, which was written in the trenches during World War I. It was followed by the antiwar novel, Three Soldiers, which brought him considerable recognition. His 1925 novel about life in New York City, titled Manhattan Transfer, was a commercial success, and introduced experimental stream-of-consciousness techniques. Those ideas also coalesced into the U.S.A. trilogy, of which the first book appeared in 1930. A social revolutionary, Dos Passos came to see the United States as two nations, one rich and one poor. He wrote admiringly about the Industrial Workers of the World, and the injustice in the criminal convictions of Sacco and Vanzetti, and joined with other notable figures in the United States and Europe in a failed campaign to overturn their death sentences. In 1928, Dos Passos spent several months in Russia studying socialism. He was a leading participant in the April 1935 First Americans Writers Congress, sponsored by the Communist-leaning League of American Writers, but he eventually baulked at the idea that Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union, would have control over creative writers in the United States. In 1936–1937, Dos Passos served on the American Committee for the Defense of Leon Trotsky, commonly known as the "Dewey Commission", with other notable figures such as Sidney Hook, Reinhold Niebuhr, Norman Thomas, Edmund Wilson, and chairman John Dewey. It had been set up following the first of the Moscow "Show Trials" in 1936, part of the massive purges of Soviet party leaders and intellectuals in that period. In the following year, he wrote the screenplay for the film The Devil is a Woman, starring Marlene Dietrich and directed by Josef von Sternberg, both exiles from Nazi Germany. It was adapted from the 1898 novel La Femme et le pantin by Pierre Louÿs. In 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, Dos Passos returned to Spain with writer Ernest Hemingway, whom he had met in Paris in the 1920s. However, his views on the Communist movement had already begun to change. Dos Passos broke with Hemingway and Herbert Matthews over what he considered their cavalier attitude towards the war, and their willingness to lend their names to deceptive Stalinist propaganda efforts, including the cover-up of the Soviet responsibility in the murder of José Robles, Dos Passos's friend and translator of his works into Spanish. (In later years, Hemingway would give Dos Passos the derogatory moniker of "the pilot fish" in his memoir of 1920s Paris, A Moveable Feast.) Of Communism, Dos Passos later wrote: "I have come to think, especially since my trip to Spain, that civil liberties must be protected at every stage. In Spain, I am sure that the introduction of GPU methods by the Communists did as much harm as their tank men, pilots, and experienced military men did good. The trouble with an all-powerful secret police in the hands of fanatics, or of anybody, is that once it gets started, there's no stopping it until it has corrupted the whole body politic. I am afraid that's what's happening in Russia." Dos Passos had attended the 1932 Democratic National Convention and subsequently wrote an article for The New Republic in which he harshly criticized the selection of Franklin Delano Roosevelt as the party's nominee. In the mid-1930s, he wrote a series of scathing articles about Communist political theory. In his novel The Big Money, he features a character who is an idealist Communist gradually worn down and destroyed by groupthink in the party. As a result of socialism gaining popularity in Europe in response to the rise of fascism and Nazism, there was a sharp decline in international sales of his books. Between 1942 and 1945, Dos Passos worked as a journalist and war correspondent, covering American operations in the Pacific and the post-World War II situation in Frankfurt, Berlin, Munich and Vienna. In 1947, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Tragedy struck the same year when an automobile accident killed his wife of 18 years, Katharine Foster Smith, and cost him the sight in one eye. The couple had no children. Dos Passos married Elizabeth Hamlyn Holdridge (1909–1998) in 1949, by whom he had one daughter, Lucy Hamlin Dos Passos (b. 1950). His politics, which had always underpinned his work, moved to the right, and Dos Passos came to have a qualified, and temporary, sympathy for the goals of Joseph McCarthy in the early 1950s. However, his long-time friend journalist John Chamberlain believed that "Dos always remained a libertarian." In the 1950s, Dos Passos also contributed to publications such as the history magazine American Heritage, for which he wrote essays on Thomas Jefferson, the Marquis de Sade, Aaron Burr, and Robert Morris, the libertarian journal The Freeman and the conservative magazine National Review. In the same decade, he published the influential study The Head and Heart of Thomas Jefferson (1954), about which fellow ex-radical Max Eastman wrote: "I think John Dos Passos has done a great service to his country and the free world by lending his talents to this task. He has revived the heart and mind of Jefferson, not by psychoanalytical lucubrations or soulful gush, but in the main by telling story after story of those whose lives and thoughts impinged upon his. And Jefferson's mind and heart are so livingly related to our problems today that the result seems hardly to be history." Recognition for his significant contributions to literature came 30 years later in Europe, when, in 1967, he was invited to Rome to accept the prestigious Antonio Feltrinelli Prize for international distinction in literature. Although Dos Passos's partisans have contended that his later work was ignored because of his changing politics, some critics argue that the quality of his novels declined following U.S.A., largely due to his political evolution and criticism of Marxism. In the 1960s, he actively campaigned for Barry Goldwater's 1964 presidential campaign and Richard M. Nixon's 1960 and 1968 presidential campaigns, and became associated with the group Young Americans for Freedom. He continued to write until his death in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1970. He is interred in Yeocomico Churchyard Cemetery in Cople Parish, Westmoreland County, Virginia, near where he had made his home. Over his long career, Dos Passos wrote 42 novels, as well as numerous poems, essays, and plays, and created more than 400 pieces of art. U.S.A. trilogy Dos Passos's major work is the U.S.A. trilogy, comprising The 42nd Parallel (1930), 1919 (1932), and The Big Money (1936). Dos Passos used experimental techniques in these novels, incorporating newspaper clippings, autobiography, biography, and fictional realism to paint a vast landscape of American culture during the first decades of the 20th century. Though each novel stands on its own, the trilogy is designed to be read as a whole. Dos Passos's political and social reflections in the novel are deeply pessimistic about the political and economic direction of the United States, and few of the characters manage to hold onto their ideals through the First World War. The novel reflects the author's sympathy, at the time of writing, for the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and his outrage at its suppression, for which the book expresses a deep grudge for President Woodrow Wilson. Artistic career Before becoming a leading novelist of his day, John Dos Passos sketched and painted. During the summer of 1922, he studied at Hamilton Easter Field's art colony in Ogunquit, Maine. Many of his books published during the ensuing ten years used jackets and illustrations that Dos Passos created. Influenced by various movements, he merged elements of Impressionism, Expressionism, and Cubism to create his own unique style. And his work evolved with his first exhibition at New York's National Arts Club in 1922 and the following year at Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney's Studio Club in New York City. While Dos Passos never gained recognition as a great artist, he continued to paint throughout his lifetime and his body of work was well respected. His art most often reflected his travels in Spain, Mexico, North Africa, plus the streets and cafés of the Montparnasse Quarter of Paris that he had frequented with good friends Fernand Léger, Ernest Hemingway, Blaise Cendrars, and others. Between 1925 and 1927, Dos Passos wrote plays as well as created posters and set designs for the New Playwrights Theatre in New York City. In his later years, his attention turned to painting scenes around his residences in Maine and Virginia. In early 2001, an exhibition titled The Art of John Dos Passos opened at the Queens Borough Library in New York City. It toured to several locations throughout the United States. Influence Dos Passos's pioneering works of nonlinear fiction were a major influence in the field. In particular Alfred Döblin's Berlin Alexanderplatz and Jean-Paul Sartre's Roads To Freedom trilogy show the influence of his methods. In a 1936 essay, "On John Dos Passos and 1919", Sartre referred to Dos Passos as "the greatest writer of our time." American writer Mary McCarthy said that The 42nd Parallel was among the chief influences on her own work. In the television documentary, The Odyssey of John Dos Passos (1994), writer Norman Mailer said: "Those three volumes of U.S.A. make up the idea of a 'Great American Novel.'" Science fiction writers have also been influenced by Dos Passos's works. John Brunner's "non-novel" Stand on Zanzibar (1968), which won the Hugo Award, features his technique of using fictitious newspaper clippings, television announcements, and other "samples" taken from the news and entertainment media of the year 2010. While influenced by Dos Passos's technique, Brunner's work was also inspired by emerging European literary theory on meta-fiction. Joe Haldeman's novel Mindbridge (2014) also uses the collage technique. His short story, "To Howard Hughes: A Modest Proposal" (1974), explored a wealthy man reacting to the threat of war by wielding the power of private atomic reaction. The British documentary filmmaker Adam Curtis says he has been inspired by Dos Passos and tries to incorporate his technique in film: "Why I love Dos Passos is he tells political stories but at the same time he also lets you know what it feels like to live through them. Most journalism does not acknowledge that people live at least as much in their heads as they do in the world." In a 2018 interview, French director Agnès Varda spoke on her inspirations, "I learned a lot from reading. I learned editing from Dos Passos. I learned the structure of writing from Fontenay. I learned poetry from Prévert. Dos Passos Prize The John Dos Passos Prize is a literary award given annually by the Department of English and Modern Languages at Longwood University. The prize seeks to recognize "American creative writers who have produced a substantial body of significant publication that displays characteristics of John Dos Passos' writing: an intense and original exploration of specifically American themes, an experimental approach to form, and an interest in a wide range of human experiences." Works Literary works One Man's Initiation: 1917 (1920), novel. Reprinted in 1945, under the title First Encounter Three Soldiers (1921), novel A Pushcart at the Curb (1922), poetry collection Rosinante to the Road Again (1922), essay Streets of Night (1923), novel Manhattan Transfer (1925), novel The Garbage Man: a Parade with Shouting (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1926), play Facing the Chair (1927), pamphlet Orient Express (1927), travel memoir U.S.A. (1938). Three-volume set includes The 42nd Parallel (1930), novel Nineteen Nineteen (1932), novel The Big Money (1936), novel Tour of Duty (1946), reportage The Ground We Stand On (1949), history District of Columbia (1952). Three-volume set includes Adventures of a Young Man (1939), novel Number One (1943), novel The Grand Design (1949), novel Chosen Country (1951), novel Most Likely to Succeed (1954), novel The Head and Heart of Thomas Jefferson (1954), biography "The Theme Is Freedom" (1956), collection of essays The Men Who Made the Nation (1957), history The Great Days (1958), novel Prospects of a Golden Age (1959), biography Midcentury (1961), novel Mr. Wilson's War (1962), history Brazil on the Move (1963), history The Best Times: An Informal Memoir (1966), memoir The Shackles of Power (1966), history World in a Glass – A View of Our Century From the Novels of John Dos Passos (1966), collection of prose excerpts The Portugal Story (1969), history Century's Ebb: The Thirteenth Chronicle (1970), novel—incomplete Easter Island: Island of Enigmas (1970), history Lettres à Germaine Lucas Championnière (2007) – only in French Other writings U.S.A.: The 42nd Parallel, 1919, The Big Money (Daniel Aaron and Townsend Ludington, eds.) (Library of America, 1996) . Novels 1920–1925: One Man's Initiation: 1917, Three Soldiers, Manhattan Transfer (Townsend Ludington, ed.) (Library of America, 2003) . Travel Books & Other Writings 1916–1941: Rosinante to the Road Again; Orient Express; In All Countries; A Pushcart to the Curb; Essays, Letters, Diaries (Townsend Ludington, ed.) (Library of America, 2003) . See also José Robles List of ambulance drivers during World War I Notes Further reading Pizer, Donald. Toward a Modernist Style: John Dos Passos. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013. Carr, Virginia Spencer. Dos Passos: A Life. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2004. Hutchinson, Hazel. The War That Used Up Words: American Writers and the First World War. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2015. Ludington, Townsend. John Dos Passos: A Twentieth-Century Odyssey. New York: Carroll & Graf, 1998. Ludington, Townsend, "John Dos Passos, 1896-1970: Modernist Recorder of the American Scene", Virginia Quarterly Review, Autumn 1996 Morris, James McGrath, The Ambulance Drivers: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and a Friendship Made and Lost in War. Boston: Da Capo Books, 2017. George Packer, Review of Stephen Koch, “The Breaking Point: Hemingway, dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles”, The New Yorker, 31 October 2005 External links Papers of John Dos Passos at the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library, University of Virginia The Official John Dos Passos Website (est. Oct. 2013 by the Dos Passos family) Richard Layman collection of John Dos Passos at the University of South Carolina Irvin Department of Rare Books and Special Collections. The John Dos Passos Society Works by John Dos Passos at PSU's Electronic Classics Series. Three Soldiers, text online, American Studies at the University of Virginia. John Dos Passos papers, University of Maryland Libraries 1896 births 1970 deaths 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American painters American Field Service personnel of World War I American libertarians American male novelists American male non-fiction writers American male painters American military personnel of World War I American people of Portuguese descent American people of the Spanish Civil War American war correspondents Choate Rosemary Hall alumni Combat medics Harvard College alumni Illinois Republicans Industrial Workers of the World culture Lost Generation writers Maryland Republicans Military personnel from Illinois Modern painters Modernist writers Novelists from Illinois Novelists from Maryland Old Right (United States) People from Westmoreland County, Virginia People of Madeiran descent United States Army personnel United States Army personnel of World War I United States Army 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258776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman%20Thomas	Norman Thomas	Norman Mattoon Thomas (November 20, 1884 – December 19, 1968) was an American Presbyterian minister who achieved fame as a socialist, pacifist, and six-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America. Early years Thomas was the oldest of six children, born November 20, 1884, in Marion, Ohio, to Emma Williams (née Mattoon) and Weddington Evans Thomas, a Presbyterian minister. Thomas had an uneventful Midwestern childhood and adolescence, helping to put himself through Marion High School as a paper carrier for Warren G. Harding's Marion Daily Star. Like other paper carriers, he reported directly to Florence Kling Harding. "No pennies ever escaped her," said Thomas. The summer after he graduated from high school his father accepted a pastorate at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, which allowed Norman to attend Bucknell University. He left Bucknell after one year to attend Princeton University, the beneficiary of the largesse of a wealthy uncle by marriage. Thomas graduated magna cum laude from Princeton University in 1905. After some settlement house work and a trip around the world, Thomas decided to follow in his father's footsteps and enrolled in Union Theological Seminary. He graduated from the seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1911. After assisting the Rev. Henry Van Dyke at the fashionable Brick Presbyterian Church on Manhattan's Fifth Avenue, Thomas was appointed pastor of the East Harlem Presbyterian Church, ministering to Italian-American Protestants. Union Theological Seminary had been at that time a center of the Social Gospel movement and liberal politics, and as a minister, Thomas preached against American participation in the First World War. This pacifist stance led to his being shunned by many of his fellow alumni from Princeton, and opposed by some of the leadership of the Presbyterian Church in New York. When church funding of the American Parish's social programs was stopped, Thomas resigned his pastorate. Despite his resignation, Thomas did not formally leave the ministry until 1931, after his mother's death. It was Thomas's position as a conscientious objector that drew him to the Socialist Party of America (SPA), a staunchly antimilitarist organization. When SPA leader Morris Hillquit made his campaign for mayor of New York in 1917 on an antiwar platform, Thomas wrote to him expressing his good wishes. To his surprise, Hillquit wrote back, encouraging the young minister to work for his campaign, which Thomas energetically did. Soon thereafter he himself joined the Socialist Party. Thomas was a Christian socialist. Thomas was the secretary (then an unpaid position) of the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation even before the war. When the organization started a magazine called The World Tomorrow in January 1918, Thomas was employed as its paid editor. Together with Devere Allen, Thomas helped to make The World Tomorrow the leading voice of liberal Christian social activism of its day. In 1921, Thomas moved to secular journalism when he was employed as associate editor of The Nation magazine. In 1922 he became co-director of the League for Industrial Democracy. Later, he was one of the founders of the National Civil Liberties Bureau, the precursor of the American Civil Liberties Union. Electoral politics Thomas ran for office five times in quick succession on the Socialist ticket—for governor of New York in 1924, for mayor of New York in 1925, for New York State Senate in 1926, for alderman in 1927, and for mayor of New York again in 1929. In 1934, he ran for the US Senate in New York and polled almost 200,000 votes, then the second-best result for a Socialist candidate in New York state elections; only Charles P. Steinmetz polled more votes, almost 300,000 in 1922 when he ran for State Engineer. Thomas's political activity also included attempts at the US presidency. Following Eugene Debs's death in 1926, there was a leadership vacuum in the Socialist Party. Neither of the party's two top political leaders, Victor L. Berger and Hillquit, was eligible to run for president because of their foreign birth. The third main figure, Daniel Hoan, was occupied as mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Down to approximately 8,000 dues-paying members, the Socialist Party's options were limited, and the little-known minister from New York with oratorial skills and a pedigree in the movement became the choice of the 1928 National Convention of the Socialist Party. The 1928 campaign was the first of Thomas's six consecutive campaigns as the presidential nominee of the Socialist Party. As an articulate and engaging spokesman for democratic socialism, Thomas had considerably greater influence than the typical perennial candidate. Although most upper- and middle-class Americans found socialism unsavory, the well-educated Thomas—who often wore three-piece suits and looked and talked like a president—gained grudging admiration. Thomas frequently spoke on the difference between socialism, the movement he represented, and communism, revolutionary Marxism. His early admiration for the Russian Revolution had turned into energetic anti-Stalinism. (Some revolutionaries thought him no better; Leon Trotsky criticized Thomas on more than one occasion.) He wrote several books, among them his passionate defense of World War I conscientious objectors, Is Conscience a Crime?, and his statement of the 1960s social democratic consensus, Socialism Re-examined. Socialist Party politics At the 1932 Milwaukee Convention, Thomas and his radical pacifist allies in the party joined forces with constructive socialists from Wisconsin and a faction of young Marxist intellectuals called the "Militants" in backing a challenger to National Chairman Morris Hillquit. While Hillquit and his cohort retained control of the organization at this time, this action earned the lasting enmity of Hillquit's New York-based allies of the so-called "Old Guard". The diplomatic party peacemaker Hillquit died of tuberculosis the following year, lessening the stability of his faction. At the 1934 National Convention of the Socialist Party, Thomas's connection with the Militants deepened when he backed a radical Declaration of Principles authored by his longtime associate from the radical pacifist journal The World Tomorrow, Devere Allen. The Militants swept to majority control of the party's governing National Executive Committee at this gathering, and the Old Guard retreated to their New York fortress and formalized their factional organization as the Committee for the Preservation of the Socialist Party, complete with a shadow Provisional Executive Committee and an office in New York City. Thomas favored work to establish a broad Farmer–Labor Party upon the model of the Canadian Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, but remained supportive of the Militants and their vision of an "all-inclusive party", which welcomed members of dissident communist organizations (including Lovestoneites and Trotskyists) and worked together with the Communist Party USA in joint Popular Front activities. The party descended into a maelstrom of factionalism in the interval, with the New York Old Guard leaving to establish themselves as the Social Democratic Federation of America, taking with them control of party property, such as the Yiddish-language The Jewish Daily Forward, the English-language New Leader, the Rand School of Social Science, and the party's summer camp in Pennsylvania. In 1937, Thomas returned from Europe determined to restore order in the Socialist Party. He and his followers in the party teamed up with the Clarity majority of the National Executive Committee and gave the green light to the New York Right Wing to expel the Appeal faction from the organization. These expulsions led to the departure of virtually the whole of the party's youth section, who affiliated to the new Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party. Demoralization set in and the Socialist Party withered, its membership level below that of 1928. Causes Thomas was initially as outspoken in opposing the Second World War as he had been with regard to the First World War. Upon returning from a European tour in 1937, he formed the Keep America Out of War Congress, and spoke against war, thereby sharing a platform with the non-interventionist America First Committee. In the 1940 presidential campaign he said Republican Wendell Willkie was the candidate of "the Wall Street war machine" and that he "would take us to war about as fast and about on the same terms as Mr. Roosevelt". In testimony to Congress in January 1941 he opposed the proposed Lend Lease program of sending military supplies to Great Britain, calling it "a bill to authorize undeclared war in the name of peace, and dictatorship in the name of defending democracy". He said that the survival of the British Empire was not vital to the security of the United States, but added that he favored helping Britain to defend herself against aggression. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, a bitter split took place in the Socialist Party regarding support for the war; Thomas reluctantly supported it, though he thought it could have been honorably avoided. His brother and many others continued their pacifist opposition to all wars. Thomas later wrote self-critically that he had "overemphasized both the sense in which it was a continuance of World War I and the capacity of nonfascist Europe to resist the Nazis". Thomas was one of the few public figures to oppose President Roosevelt's incarceration of Japanese Americans following the attack on Pearl Harbor. He accused the ACLU of "dereliction of duty" when the organization supported the forced mass removal and incarceration. Thomas also campaigned against racial segregation, environmental depletion, and anti-labor laws and practices, and in favor of opening the United States to Jewish victims of Nazi persecution in the 1930s. Thomas was an early proponent of birth control. The birth-control advocate Margaret Sanger recruited him to write "Some Objections to Birth Control Considered" in Religious and Ethical Aspects of Birth Control, edited and published by Sanger in 1926. Thomas accused the Catholic Church of hypocritical opinions on sex, such as requiring priests to be celibate and maintaining that laypeople should have sex only to reproduce. "This doctrine of unrestricted procreation is strangely inconsistent on the lips of men who practice celibacy and preach continence." Thomas also deplored the secular objection to birth control because it originated from "racial and national" group-think. "The white race, we are told, our own nation—whatever that nation may be—is endangered by practicing birth control. Birth control is something like disarmament—a good thing if effected by international agreement, but otherwise dangerous to us in both a military and economic sense. If we are not to be overwhelmed by the 'rising tide of color' we must breed against the world. If our nation is to survive, it must have more cannon and more babies as prospective food for the cannon." Thomas was also very critical of Zionism and of Israel's policies toward the Arabs in the postwar years (especially after the Suez Crisis) and often collaborated with the American Council for Judaism. Later years After 1945, Thomas sought to make the anti-Stalinist left the leader of social reform, in collaboration with labor leaders like Walter Reuther. In 1961, he released an album, The Minority Party in America: Featuring an Interview with Norman Thomas, on Folkways Records, which focused on the role of the third party. Thomas's 80th birthday in 1964 was marked by a well-publicized gala at the Hotel Astor in Manhattan. At the event Thomas called for a cease-fire in Vietnam and read birthday telegrams from Hubert Humphrey, Earl Warren, and Martin Luther King Jr. He also received a check for $17,500 () in donations from supporters. "It won't last long," he said of the check, "because every organization I'm connected with is going bankrupt." In 1966, the conservative journalist and writer William F. Buckley, Jr chose Thomas to be the third guest on Buckley's new television interview show, Firing Line. In 1968, Thomas signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. Also in 1966, Thomas traveled to the Dominican Republic along with future Congressman Allard K. Lowenstein to observe that country's general election. The two were leaders of the "Committee on free elections in the Dominican Republic", an organization based in the United States that monitored the election. In the autumn of that year, Thomas received the second Eugene V. Debs Award for his work in promoting world peace. Personal life In 1910, Thomas married Frances Violet Stewart (1881–1947), the granddaughter of John Aikman Stewart, financial adviser to Presidents Lincoln and Cleveland, and a trustee of Princeton for many years. Together, they had three daughters and two sons: Mary "Polly" Thomas (1914–2010), who married Herbert C. Miller Jr, a professor and chairman of pediatrics at the University of Kansas Frances Thomas (1915–2015), who married John W. Gates, Jr. (died 2006) Rebekah Thomas (1918–1986), who married John D. Friebely William Stewart Thomas (b. 1912) Evan Welling Thomas II (1920–1999), who married Anna Davis (née Robins) in 1943 Evan Welling Thomas III (b. 1951) Death Thomas died at the age of 84 on December 19, 1968, in Cold Spring Harbor, New York, where he had lived for some years. Pursuant to his wishes, he was cremated and his ashes were scattered on Long Island. Legacy The Norman Thomas High School (formerly known as Central Commercial High School) in Manhattan and the Norman Thomas '05 Library at Princeton University's Forbes College are named after him, as is the assembly hall at the Three Arrows Cooperative Society, where he was a frequent visitor. He is also the grandfather of Newsweek columnist Evan Thomas and the great-grandfather of writer Louisa Thomas. A plaque in the Norman Thomas '05 Library reads: Norman M. Thomas, class of 1905. "I am not the champion of lost causes, but the champion of causes not yet won." Works The Conquest of War. New York: Fellowship Press, 1917. War's Heretics : A Plea for the Conscientious Objector. Chicago: American Liberty Defense League, 1917. The case of the Christian Pacifists at Los Angeles, Cal. New York City: National Civil Liberties Bureau 1918 The Conscientious Objector in America. New York: B. W. Huebsch, 1923. The League of Nations and the Imperialist Principle: A Criticism. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1923. What Is Industrial Democracy? New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1925. The Challenge of War: An Economic Interpretation. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1927. Is Conscience a Crime? New York: Vanguard Press, 1927. In the League and Out. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1930. America's Way Out: A Program for Democracy. New York: Macmillan, 1931. Socialism and the Individual. Girard, KS: Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1931. The Socialist Cure for a Sick Society. New York: John Day Company, 1932. As I See It. New York: Macmillan, 1932. Why I Am a Socialist. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1932. What Socialism Is and Is Not. Chicago: Socialist Party of America, 1932. What's the Matter with New York: A National Problem. With Paul Blanshard. New York: Macmillan, 1932. A Socialist Looks at the New Deal. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1933. The New Deal: A Socialist Analysis. Chicago: Committee on Education and Research of the Socialist Party of America, 1934. Human Exploitation in the United States. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1934. The Choice Before Us. New York: Macmillan, 1934. (UK title: Fascism or Socialism?) The Plight of the Share Cropper. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1934. War – No Glory, No Profit, No Need. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1935. War As a Socialist Sees It. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1936. After the New Deal – What? New York: Macmillan, 1936. Debate: Which Road for American Workers – Socialist or Communist? New York: Socialist Call, 1936. Is the New Deal Socialism? An Answer to Al Smith and the American Liberty League. New York: National Office, Socialist Party, n.d. [c. 1936]. Why I Am a Socialist. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1936. Shall labor support Roosevelt? Chicago : Labor League for Thomas and Nelson, 1936. Emancipate youth from toil, old age from fear, Chicago: Socialist Party, 1936. You Can't Cure Tuberculosis with Cough Drops. New York: Socialist Party, n.d. [1936]. – leaflet Democracy versus dictatorship New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1937. Socialism on the Defensive. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938. Justice Triumphs in Spain! A Letter about the Trial of the POUM. With Devere Allen. Chicago: Socialist Party, n.d. [c. 1938]. Collective Security Means War. Chicago: Socialist Party, 1938. Keep America Out of War: A Program. With Bertram D. Wolfe. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1939. Russia: Democracy or Dictatorship? With Joel Seidman. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1939. What's Behind the "Christian Front"? New York: Workers' Defense League, 1939. Stop the Draft : An Appeal to the American People. New York: Socialist National Headquarters, 1940. We Have a Future. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1941. World Federation: What Are the Difficulties? New York: Post War World Council, 1942. Democracy and Japanese Americans. New York: Post War World Council, 1942. Martin Dies and Socialism. New York: Socialist Party, n.d. [c. 1943]. Victory's Victims? The Negro's Future. With A. Philip Randolph. Socialist Party, n.d. [c. 1943]. What Is Our Destiny? Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1944. Conscription: The Test of Peace. New York: Post War World Council, 1944. Russia: Promise and Performance. New York: Socialist Party, 1945. A socialist looks at the United Nations Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1945. An Appeal to the Nations. New York: Socialist Party, 1947. The One Hope of Peace: Universal Disarmament Under International Control. New York: Post War World Council, 1947. Why I am a candidate New York: Socialist Party, 1948. How Can the Socialist Party Best Serve Socialism? An Argument in Support of the Position of the Majority of the National Executive Committee Concerning Electoral Activities. [New York]: [Socialist Party], 1949. A Socialist's Faith. New York: W. W. Norton, 1951. Democratic Socialism: A New Appraisal. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1953. The Test of Freedom. New York: W. W. Norton, 1954. Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen... Reflections on Public Speaking. New York: Hermitage House, 1955. The Prerequisites for Peace. New York: W. W. Norton, 1959. Great Dissenters. New York: W.W. Norton, 1961. Eugene V. Debs in the Light of History. Terre Haute, IN: Eugene V. Debs Foundation, 1964. Socialism Re-Examined. New York: W. W. Norton, 1963. References Further reading Fleischmann, Harry, Norman Thomas: A Biography. New York, Norton & Co., 1964. Hyfler, Robert, Prophets of the Left: American Socialist Thought in the Twentieth Century. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984. Gregory, Raymond F., Norman Thomas: The Great Dissenter. Sanford, NC: Algora Publishing, 2008. Johnpoll, Bernard K., Pacifists Progress: Norman Thomas and the Decline of American Socialism. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1970. Seidler, Murray B., Norman Thomas: Respectable Rebel. Binghamton, New York, Syracuse University Press, 1967. Second Edition. Swanberg, W. A., Norman Thomas: The Last Idealist. New York, Charles Scribner and Sons, 1976. Thomas, Louisa, Conscience: Two Soldiers, Two Pacifists, One Family – A Test of Will and Faith in World War I. New York, The Penguin Press, 2011. Venkataramani, M.S., "Norman Thomas, Arkansas Sharecroppers, and the Roosevelt Agricultural Policies, 1933–1937", Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 47, no. 2 (Sept. 1960), pp. 225–46. . External links Letter from Thomas to Salah Bitar Thomas, Norman. Cuarenta anos de comunismo: promesas y realidades New York: Instituto de Investigaciones Internacionales del Trabajo,1957 Norman Thomas's FBI files, hosted at the Internet Archive: Part 1 Part 1A Part 2 Part 14 Norman Thomas Papers, Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives at New York University Special Collections 1884 births 1968 deaths 19th-century Presbyterians 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American politicians 20th-century Presbyterian ministers American anti-capitalists American anti-war activists American anti–World War I activists American Christian pacifists American Christian socialists American Civil Liberties Union people American conscientious objectors American democratic socialists American male non-fiction writers American pacifists American political writers American Presbyterians American socialists American tax resisters Anti-poverty advocates Anti–World War II activists Candidates in the 1928 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1932 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1936 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1940 United States presidential election Candidates in the 1944 United States presidential 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258777	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Bagge	Peter Bagge	Peter Bagge (pronounced , as in bag; born December 11, 1957) is an American cartoonist whose best-known work includes the comics Hate and Neat Stuff. His stories often use black humor and exaggerated cartooning to dramatize the reduced expectations of middle-class American youth. He won two Harvey Awards in 1991, one for best cartoonist and one for his work on Hate. In recent decades Bagge has done more fact-based comics, everything from biographies to history to comics journalism. Publishers of Bagge's articles, illustrations, and comics include suck.com, MAD Magazine, toonlet, Discover, and the Weekly World News, with the comic strip Adventures of Batboy. He has expressed his libertarian views in features for Reason. Early life Peter Bagge was born in Peekskill, New York, and grew up in the New York City suburbs. Bagge's father was in the military and Bagge has talked about how his Catholic household was the scene of "lots of drunken fights about money. We were the weirdo outcast kids of the neighborhood. I couldn't get away fast enough." Bagge was confirmed as a teenager; his confirmation name is Peter Christian Paul Bagge (with Paul being an homage to Paul McCartney.) Moving to New York City in the mid-1970s, Bagge attended the School of Visual Arts for three semesters in 1977 before dropping out to work on Punk Magazine. Career Comics Early career Bagge began his career in New York City in the early 1980s , contributing comics and illustrations to various underground newspapers and porno magazines. John Holmstrom, Ken Weiner, and Bruce Carleton, J.D. King In 1980, Bagge co-published the all comic tabloid Comical Funnies with former staffers of Punk Magazine. Bagge sent copies of Comical Funnies to underground comics legend Robert Crumb, who published some Bagge strips in the anthology Crumb was editing, Weirdo. In 1983, Crumb passed on the editorial reins of Weirdo to Bagge, who edited it for three years (and one guest issue in 1989). In 1985, Bagge entered into a long professional association with the alternative-comics publisher Fantagraphics, beginning with his first solo series, Neat Stuff. This omnibus introduced such characters as Girly-Girl, Junior, Studs Kirby, The Bradleys, and Buddy Bradley. Neat Stuff ran until 1989. Its sequel series, Hate (1990–1998), is Bagge's best-known. After ending Hate as a regular title, Bagge has produced a series of Hate Annuals between 2000 - 2010. Bagge created and wrote an all-ages comic series for DC Comics called Yeah!, about an all-girl rock band, drawn by Gilbert Hernandez. The series ran nine issues (1999 to 2000). Sweatshop, published by DC Comics in 2003, was produced, unlike early issues of Hate, with the help of an art team. The series ran six issues. Starting in 1998 (in a piece for Details magazine), and really intensely in the years 2000 to 2002, Bagge did a number of comics journalism stories—on such topics as politics, the Miss America Pageant, bar culture, Christian rock, and the Oscars—mostly for Suck.com. In 2002, Bagge did his version of Spider-Man for Marvel Comics. He followed this with a Hulk comic, The Incorrigible Hulk, which was completed but never released due to a management change at Marvel Comics at the time. In August 2009, The Incorrigible Hulk was finally released in serialized form for the Marvel Knights imprint's Strange Tales miniseries. 2005 – present From 2005 to 2007, Bagge worked on Apocalypse Nerd, a comic published by Dark Horse Comics about two average, urban males dealing with the aftermath of a nuclear attack on the Pacific Northwest. Backup stories in Apocalypse Nerd featured historically researched anecdotal tales of America's "founding fathers". The final issue of the six-issue series was published in 2007. A trade paperback collection was released in 2008. Other Lives is a graphic novel written and drawn by Bagge, and published by DC Comics on their Vertigo imprint in 2010. The story revolves around four people, whose real lives—along with their online virtual personas—interact in ultimately disastrous ways. Reset is a four-part, monthly comic-book miniseries written and illustrated by Bagge and published by Dark Horse Comics. The story revolves around a middle-aged, washed-up comic actor who agrees to take part in the development of a computer application that allows him to relive his life in a virtual sense. The first issue was released in April 2012. It was collected into a book that same year. Starting with the February 2009 issue, the popular science and technology magazine Discover has featured a continuing series of History of Science comic strips created by Peter Bagge. Bagge's comics feature key characters and events from scientific history. Bagge is the subject of the first volume of TwoMorrows Publishing's new Comics Introspective series of books, published in 2007. Peter Bagge: Conversations, a collection of interviews with Bagge spanning three decades was published 2015 by the University Press of Mississippi. His graphic-novel biographies include Woman Rebel, about birth control advocate Margaret Sanger, Fire!!, about writer Zora Neale Hurston, and Credo, about author and political theorist Rose Wilder Lane. In 2003, Bagge became a contributing writer with the libertarian magazine Reason in whose pages he has published both prose and comics pieces over the years. 2009 saw the release of a collection of Bagge's Reason work called Everybody Is Stupid Except for Me (And Other Astute Observations). A second edition was released in late 2013. Bagge continues to contribute to Reason. Animation and music Bagge made a series of animated commercials for Round Table Pizza. In 2001 Bagge collaborated with comedian Dana Gould to produce the Macromedia Flash Internet cartoon Murry Wilson: Rock 'N' Roll Dad. The four-episode series premiered on Icebox.com. Bagge also played drums for the Seattle based power pop band The Action Suits, and guitar for another power pop band, Can You Imagine. Art style Bagge's signature elastic, kinetic art style is a product of his love for 1940s Warner Brothers cartoons (especially those directed by Bob Clampett). Bagge has said that he "always wanted to capture that sense of movement and exaggeration in a static format. In retrospect this sounds like a futile thing to attempt, but I think I wound up pulling it off better than I ever thought I would." Personal life Bagge's wife Joanne contributes coloring work to her husband's publications. Bagge has long been openly libertarian in his politics, and many of his comics feature references to this. He opposed the Iraq War and criticized George W. Bush. Bagge voted for Libertarian presidential candidate Harry Browne in 2000 and Democrat John Kerry in 2004 because he "wanted to fire Bush." When asked who he was voting for in the 2008 election, he wrote: "If the polls in my home state are close: Obama (McCain is simply too incompetent these days to be president). If not, I'll make a protest vote for [Bob] Barr." In a follow-up article in Reason, Bagge stated, "I wound up voting for Barr, and I stand by that vote more now than I did then!" Bagge collected his work for Reason expressing his Libertarian views in the book Everybody is Stupid Except Me: and Other Astute Observations. Bagge has continued with his strips covering libertarian issues in Hate Annual. Awards Bagge won the 1991 Harvey Award for Best Cartoonist. In addition, Hate won the 1991 Harvey Award for Best New Series, and has been nominated for various Harvey awards in 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999. Bagge was presented with an Inkpot Award at San Diego Comic-Con International 2010 in recognition of his achievements in comics. Bagge won the 2021 Will Eisner Comic Industry Award for Best Archival Collection/Project: (The Complete Hate {Fantagraphics}) He also was previously nominated for an Eisner Award several times: 1991 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards — Nominee — Best Writer/Artist: (Hate [Fantagraphics]) 1992 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards — Nominee — Best Writer: (Hate [Fantagraphics]) 1993 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards — Nominee — Best Writer: (Hate [Fantagraphics]) 1993 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards — Nominee — Best Writer/Artist: (Hate [Fantagraphics]) 1995 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards — Nominee — Best Colorist: (for Hate [Fantagraphics]) 2010 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards — Nominee — Best Humor publication: (for Everybody Is Stupid Except for Me, And Other Astute Observations [Fantagraphics]) 2014 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards — Nominee — Best Reality-Based Work: (Woman Rebel {Drawn & Quarterly}) 2021 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards - Winner - Best Archival Collecetion/Project: (The Complete Hate [Fantagraphics]) Bagge won the UK Comic Art Award for Best Writer/Artist in 1990 (and was nominated for the same award in 1992 and 1993). In addition, Buddy Bradley from Bagge's Hate won the 1991 UK Comic Art Award for Best Character. Bagge was also the recipient of a 2014 United States Artists award, and was named a Rockefeller Fellow for Literature. Bibliography Comic books The Wacky World of Peter Bagge/Ken Weiner (1982 FlipBook) Martini Baton (Fantagraphics, 1993) with Dave Carrino Neat Stuff (Fantagraphics, 1985–1989) #1-15 Hate (Fantagraphics, 1990–1998) #1-30 The Bradleys (Fantagraphics, 1999–2000) #1–6 — stories about the Bradleys from Neat Stuff and elsewhere Junior and Friends (Fantagraphics, 2000–2001) #1–6 — non-Bradley stories from Neat Stuff and elsewhere Yeah! (DC/Homage, 1999 - 2000) #1-9 — an all-ages series written by Bagge and drawn by Gilbert Hernandez Hate Annual (Fantagraphics, 2001–2011) #1-9 Sweatshop (DC, 2003) #1–6 - Written by Bagge, Art by Bagge, Johnny Ryan, Stephenie Gladden, Jim Blanchard, Bill Wray and Stephen DeStefano Apocalypse Nerd (Dark Horse, 2005–2007) #1–6 Reset (Dark Horse, 2012) # 1-4 Collected editions The Bradleys (Fantagraphics, 1989, ) — collects stories from Neat Stuff Studs Kirby: The Voice of America (Fantagraphics, 1989, ) — collects stories from Neat Stuff Junior and Other Losers (Fantagraphics, 1990, ) — collects stories from Neat Stuff Stupid Comics (Fantagraphics, 1992, ) — collects stories from Neat Stuff Hey, Buddy! (Fantagraphics, 1993, ) — collects Hate #1–5 Buddy the Dreamer (Fantagraphics, 1994, ) — collects Hate #6–10 Fun with Buddy + Lisa: Volume III of the Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from "Hate" (Fantagraphics, 1995, ) — collects Hate #11–#15 Buddy Go Home: "Hate" Collection Volume IV (Fantagraphics, 1998, ) — collects Hate #16–#20 Buddy's Got Three Moms: "Hate" Collection Volume V (Fantagraphics, 1999, ) — collects Hate #21–#25 Buddy Bites the Bullet (Fantagraphics, 2001, ) — collects Hate #26–#30 Buddy Does Seattle: The Complete Buddy Bradley Stories from "Hate" Comics, Vol. I, 1990-94 (Fantagraphics, 2005, ) — collects Hate #1-#15 Buddy Does Jersey (Fantagraphics, 2007, ) — collects Hate #16-#30. Written by Bagge, Art by Bagge and Jim Blanchard Apocalypse Nerd (Dark Horse, 2008, ) Everyone Is Stupid Except for Me and Other Astute Observations: A Decade's Worth of Cartoon Reporting for Reason Magazine (Fantagraphics, 2009, ) - collects strips from Reason Yeah! (Fantagraphics, 2011, ) — collects all 9 issues of the all-ages comic book of the same title. Written by Bagge and illustrated by Gilbert Hernandez Bat Boy: The Complete Weekly World News Comic Strips (IDW, 2011, ) -- collects all 100 Bat Boy comic strips written and drawn by Bagge for the now-defunct Weekly World News in 2004 - '05 Reset (Dark Horse, 2013, ) Buddy Buys a Dump (Fantagraphics, 2013, ) — collects stories from Hate Annual Sweatshop (Fantagraphics, 2015, ) — collects the entire 6 issue run of the Sweatshop comic book series The Complete Neat Stuff (Fantagraphics, 2016, ) — collects all 15 issues of Neat Stuff comic book series The Complete Hate (Fantagraphics, 2020, — collects all 40 issues of both the Hate and Hate Annual series Graphic novels Other Lives (DC/Vertigo Publishing, 2010). Woman Rebel: The Margaret Sanger Story (Drawn & Quarterly, 2013) Fire!!: The Zora Neale Hurston Story (Drawn&Quarterly, 2017). Credo: The Rose Wilder Lane Story (Drawn&Quarterly, 2019). Monographs Irving, Chris. Comics Introspective Volume One: Peter Bagge (TwoMorrows Publishing, 2007). Kent Worchester (Editor). Peter Bagge: Conversations (University Press of Mississippi, 2015, ) - Collects 30 years' worth of interviews with Bagge. References External links Living people American cartoonists American comics artists American comics writers American libertarians American political writers American male non-fiction writers Alternative cartoonists Inkpot Award winners Underground cartoonists People from Peekskill, New York Writers from Seattle School of Visual Arts alumni Harvey Award winners for Best Cartoonist 1957 births	[ 0.6034024953842163, -0.03231213986873627, -0.6318238973617554, -0.17965373396873474, -0.036242105066776276, 0.4041302800178528, 0.06285809725522995, 0.42492663860321045, -0.4135054647922516, -0.12807993590831757, -0.6250113844871521, -0.06422484666109085, -0.8077591061592102, -0.36090537905693054, -0.4712015390396118, 0.2506523132324219, -0.39561182260513306, 0.1668855845928192, -0.6068267822265625, -0.08233420550823212, 0.22644750773906708, -0.6722158193588257, -0.3599347174167633, 0.11220897734165192, 0.06040255352854729, 0.8775380253791809, 0.13577599823474884, -0.16769857704639435, 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258779	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom%20of%20Naples	Kingdom of Naples	The Kingdom of Naples (; ; ), also known as the Kingdom of Sicily, was a state that ruled the part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was established by the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282–1302), when the island of Sicily revolted and was conquered by the Crown of Aragon, becoming a separate kingdom also called the Kingdom of Sicily. In 1816, it reunified with the island of Sicily to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The territory of the Kingdom of Naples, corresponded to the current Italian regions of Campania, Calabria, Apulia, Basilicata, Abruzzo, Molise and also included some areas of today's southern and eastern Lazio. Nomenclature The term "Kingdom of Naples" is in near universal use among historians, but it was not used officially by the government. Since the Angevins remained in power on the Italian peninsula, they kept the original name of the Kingdom of Sicily (regnum Siciliae). At the end of the War of the Vespers, the Peace of Caltabellotta (1302) provided that the name of the island kingdom would be Trinacria (regnum Trinacriae). However, this usage did not become established, and the island kingdom became known as the Kingdom of Sicily. In the late Middle Ages, it was common to distinguish the two Sicilies by noting its location relative to the rest of Italy and the Punta del Faro, i.e., the Strait of Messina. The peninsular kingdom was known as Sicily citra Farum or al di qua del Faro (on this side of Faro), and the island kingdom was known as Sicily ultra Farum or di la del Faro (on the other side of Faro). When both kingdoms came under the rule of Alfonso the Magnanimous in 1442, this usage became official, although Ferdinand I (1458–94) preferred the simple title King of Sicily (rex Sicilie). By the late Middle Ages, the Kingdom of Sicily citra Farum had become known colloquially as the Kingdom of Naples (regnum Neapolitanum or regno di Napoli). It was sometimes even called the regno di Puglia, the kingdom of Apulia. In the 18th century, the Neapolitan intellectual Giuseppe Maria Galanti argued that Apulia was the true "national" name of the kingdom. By the time of Alfonso the Magnanimous, the two kingdoms were sufficiently distinct that they were no longer seen as divisions of a single kingdom. Despite being repeatedly in personal union, they remained administratively separate. In 1816, the two kingdoms finally merged to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. History Background Naples, which was the capital of the Duchy of Naples since the 7th century, surrendered to Roger II of Sicily in 1137, and was annexed to the Kingdom of Sicily. The Normans were the first to bring political unity to southern Italy in the centuries after the failure of the Byzantine effort to reconquer Italy. The Normans established a kingdom that included southern mainland Italy and the island of Sicily that was primarily ruled from Palermo. The title of King of Sicily was established by the Antipope Anacletus II as early as 1130 and subsequently legitimized, in 1139, by Pope Innocent II. Since the royal titles over the State had been assigned to the Normans by Innocent II, the popes, in particular Pope Innocent III and Pope Innocent IV, claimed the feudal rights of the Church State over the Kingdom. After Constance, Queen of Sicily married the Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, the region was inherited by their son Frederick II, as King of Sicily. The region that later became the separate Kingdom of Naples under the Angevins formed part of the Kingdom of Sicily which included the island of Sicily and Apulia. Angevin dynasty Following the rebellion in 1282, King Charles I of Sicily (Charles of Anjou) was forced to leave the island of Sicily by Peter III of Aragon's troops. Charles, however, maintained his possessions on the mainland, customarily known as the "Kingdom of Naples", after its capital city. Charles and his Angevin successors maintained a claim to Sicily, warring against the Aragonese until 1373, when Queen Joan I of Naples formally renounced the claim by the Treaty of Villeneuve. Joan's reign was contested by Louis the Great, the Angevin King of Hungary, who captured the kingdom several times (1348–1352). Queen Joan I also played a part in the ultimate demise of the first Kingdom of Naples. As she was childless, she adopted Louis I, Duke of Anjou, as her heir, in spite of the claims of her cousin, the Prince of Durazzo, effectively setting up a junior Angevin line in competition with the senior line. This led to Joan I's murder at the hands of the Prince of Durazzo in 1382, and his seizing the throne as Charles III of Naples. The two competing Angevin lines contested each other for the possession of the Kingdom of Naples over the following decades. In 1389 Louis II of Anjou son of Louis I managed to seize the throne from Ladislas of Naples son of Charles III, but was expelled by Ladislas in 1399. Charles III's daughter Joan II (r. 1414–1435) adopted Alfonso V of Aragon (whom she later repudiated) and Louis III of Anjou as heirs alternately, finally settling succession on Louis' brother René of Anjou of the junior Angevin line, and he succeeded her in 1435. René of Anjou temporarily united the claims of junior and senior Angevin lines. In 1442, however, Alfonso V conquered the Kingdom of Naples and unified Sicily and Naples once again as dependencies of Aragon. At his death in 1458, the War of the Neapolitan Succession (1458–1462) erupted, after which the kingdom was again separated and Naples was inherited by Ferrante, Alfonso's illegitimate son. Aragonese dynasty When Ferrante died in 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, using as a pretext the Angevin claim to the throne of Naples, which his father had inherited on the death of King René's nephew in 1481. This began the Italian Wars. Charles VIII expelled Alfonso II of Naples from Naples in 1495, but was soon forced to withdraw due to the support of Ferdinand II of Aragon for his cousin, Alfonso II's son Ferrantino. Ferrantino was restored to the throne, but died in 1496, and was succeeded by his uncle, Frederick IV. Charles VIII's successor, Louis XII reiterated the French claim. In 1501, he occupied Naples and partitioned the kingdom with Ferdinand of Aragon, who abandoned his cousin King Frederick. The deal soon fell through, however, and Aragon and France resumed their war over the kingdom, ultimately resulting in an Aragonese victory leaving Ferdinand in control of the kingdom by 1504. The Spanish troops occupying Calabria and Apulia, led by Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordova did not respect the new agreement, and expelled all Frenchmen from the area. The peace treaties that continued were never definitive, but they established at least that the title of King of Naples was reserved for Ferdinand's grandson, the future Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand nevertheless continued in possession of the kingdom, being considered as the legitimate heir of his uncle Alfonso I of Naples and also to the former Kingdom of Sicily (Regnum Utriusque Siciliae). The kingdom continued as a focus of dispute between France and Spain for the next several decades, but French efforts to gain control of it became feebler as the decades went on, and never genuinely endangered Spanish control. The French finally abandoned their claims to Naples by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559. In the Treaty of London (1557), five cities on coast of Tuscany were designated the Stato dei Presidi (State of the Presidi), and part of the Kingdom of Naples. As the most populous holding of the Spanish Empire outside of Castile itself (with 3 million inhabitants in 1600), Naples remained an important source of economic and military power for the Spanish. Heavy taxation was levied upon the kingdom to pay for Spain's wars, especially after 1580. Beyond dispatching troops to fight the Eighty Years War in the Low Countries, Naples also disbursed a third of the military expenditures accruing to Lombardy, and paid for the Spanish garrisons in Tuscany. This all costed them 800,000 ducats annually, or about a third of the kingdom's revenues; moreover the public debt also had a military origin, and interest payments on it devoured 40 percent of all tax income. Naples was rich enough to redeem the debt and pay an attractive ten percent in full to lenders. While the soldiers of Naples were under the command of the Spanish viceroy, Neapolitan nobles enjoyed ascendancy in the assemblies and committees that financed and administered the army. The kingdom would suffer a heavy burden from the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659). From 1631 to 1636 alone, Naples sent 53,500 soldiers and 3.5 million scudi to support the Spanish king. This was actually more than was raised in the same time by Castile, which had a population twice the size. Naples provided and paid for 10,000 troops and 1,000 horses annually from 1630 to 1643, on top of a 1 million ducat annual subsidy for the war effort and more funds and soldiers for the kingdom's garrisons and navy. The kingdom was increasingly forced to revert to borrowing to finance the war as it went on, which it could do due to its good credit. From 1612 to 1646, Neapolitan taxes tripled and the public debt quintupled, and 57 percent of the kingdom's revenue was devoted interest payments. Spain's wars crushed the Neapolitan economy. Furthermore, 90 percent of taxes were collected by state creditors, meaning the state paid an effective interest rate of 70 percent annually on the money it borrowed to fight the war. The kingdom started selling state assets to anyone willing to buy them, which usually ended up being barons; these assets included prisons, forests, buildings, and even royal fortresses, as well as titles. Spanish rule under the Habsburgs and Bourbons After the War of the Spanish Succession in the early 18th century, possession of the kingdom again changed hands. Under the terms of the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714, Naples was given to Charles VI, the Holy Roman Emperor. He also gained control of Sicily in 1720, but Austrian rule did not last long. Both Naples and Sicily were conquered by a Spanish army during the War of the Polish Succession in 1734, and Charles, Duke of Parma, a younger son of King Philip V of Spain, first member of the French House of Bourbon to rule in Spain, was installed as King of Naples and Sicily from 1735. When Charles inherited the Spanish throne from his older half-brother in 1759, he left Naples and Sicily to his younger son, Ferdinand IV. Despite the two Kingdoms being in a personal union under the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasties, they remained constitutionally separate. Being a member of the House of Bourbon, Ferdinand IV was a natural opponent of the French Revolution and Napoleon. On 29 November 1798, he effectively started the War of the Second Coalition by briefly occupying Rome, but was expelled from it by French Revolutionary forces within the year and safely returned home. Soon afterwards, on 23 December 1798, Ferdinand fled Naples to Palermo, Sicily as a French army closed in. In January 1799 the French armies installed a Parthenopaean Republic, but this proved short-lived, and a peasant counter-revolution inspired by the clergy allowed Ferdinand to return to his capital. However, in 1801 Ferdinand was compelled to make important concessions to the French by the Treaty of Florence, which reinforced France's position as the dominant power in mainland Italy. Napoleonic kingdom Ferdinand's decision to ally with the Third Coalition against Napoleon in 1805 proved more damaging. In 1806, following decisive victories over the allied armies at Austerlitz and over the Neapolitans at Campo Tenese, Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph as King of Naples, he conferred the title "Prince of Naples" to be hereditary on his children and grandchildren. When Joseph was sent off to Spain two years later, he was replaced by Napoleon's sister Caroline and his brother-in-law Marshal Joachim Murat, as King of the Two Sicilies. Meanwhile, Ferdinand had fled to Sicily, where he retained his throne, despite successive attempts by Murat to invade the island. The British would defend Sicily for the remainder of the war but despite the Kingdom of Sicily nominally being part of the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Coalitions against Napoleon, Ferdinand and the British were unable to ever challenge French control of the Italian mainland. After Napoleon's defeat in 1814, Murat reached an agreement with Austria and was allowed to retain the throne of Naples, despite the lobbying efforts of Ferdinand and his supporters. However, with most of the other powers, particularly Britain, hostile towards him and dependent on the uncertain support of Austria, Murat's position became less and less secure. Therefore, when Napoleon returned to France for the Hundred Days in 1815, Murat once again sided with him. Realising the Austrians would soon attempt to remove him, Murat gave the Rimini Proclamation in a hope to save his kingdom by allying himself with Italian nationalists. The ensuing Neapolitan War between Murat and the Austrians was short, ending with a decisive victory for the Austrian forces at the Battle of Tolentino. Murat was forced to flee, and Ferdinand IV of Sicily was restored to the throne of Naples. Murat would attempt to regain his throne but was quickly captured and executed by firing squad in Pizzo, Calabria. The next year, 1816, finally saw the formal union of the Kingdom of Naples with the Kingdom of Sicily into the new Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Flags See also History of Naples List of monarchs of Naples References Sources History of Naples Naples Naples 1282 establishments in Europe 13th-century establishments in Italy Italian Renaissance 1816 disestablishments in Italy 1816 disestablishments in Europe States and territories disestablished in 1816 Early Modern period Former monarchies of Europe Former countries	[ -0.24346451461315155, -0.4855339229106903, 0.4468504786491394, 0.04395429044961929, 0.2591916620731354, 0.2675730884075165, -0.24614466726779938, 0.5514093041419983, -0.7180493474006653, 0.05175046995282173, -0.1573755145072937, 0.41729265451431274, -0.09864673763513565, 0.7618004679679871, -0.6589021682739258, 0.3294834792613983, 0.8228018879890442, 0.05877917632460594, 0.21297882497310638, -0.5847107768058777, 0.12558099627494812, 0.3427884578704834, -0.1015748381614685, 0.5632768273353577, 0.1385633498430252, -0.196039080619812, 0.37960296869277954, 0.31957224011421204, 0.49449995160102844, -0.494509756565094, 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258783	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-proclaimed%20monarchy	Self-proclaimed monarchy	A self-proclaimed monarchy is established when a person claims a monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty. The self-proclaimed monarch may be of an established state, such as Zog I of Albania, or of an unrecognised micronation, such as Leonard Casley of Hutt River, Western Australia. Past self-proclaimed monarchies Albania In 1928, Ahmet Zogu, a president of Albania, proclaimed himself "King Zog I". He ruled for 11 years in a constitutional monarchy that was overthrown in the Italian invasion of Albania. Andorra In 1934, Boris Skossyreff declared himself "Boris I, King of Andorra”. After months in power, he was expelled when he declared war on Justí Guitart i Vilardebó, a Spanish co-prince of Andorra. Australia In 1970, after a dispute over wheat production quotas, Leonard Casley proclaimed his wheat farm in Western Australia the "Principality of Hutt River", styling himself as "HRH Prince Leonard I of Hutt". The Australian government did not recognize his claim of independence. Casley abdicated in 2017, passing the principality to his son, "Prince Graeme I". The principality formally dissolved in 2020. Central African Republic In 1976, a short-lived 'Imperial' monarchy, the "Central African Empire", was created when dictator Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the Central African Republic proclaimed himself "Emperor Bokassa I". In 1977, he held a lavish coronation ceremony. Chile In 1860, a French adventurer, Orélie-Antoine de Tounens, proclaimed the "Kingdom of Araucanía" in Chile with the support of local Mapuche chiefs. He called himself "Orélie-Antoine I". In 1862, he was arrested and deported by the Chilean government. China In 1915, the president of China, Yuan Shikai, declared a restoration of the Chinese monarchy, with himself as emperor. The plan failed, and he was forced to step down. Since then, there have been repeated attempts by individuals to declare themselves Chinese emperor or empress. In the 1920s and 1930s, there were several peasant rebels who declared themselves members of House of Zhu and tried to restore the Ming dynasty, such as the self-proclaimed emperors "Chu the Ninth" (1919–1922, backed by the Yellow Way Society), "Wang the Sixth" (1924), and Chu Hung-teng (1925, backed by the Heavenly Gate Society). In course of the Spirit Soldier rebellions (1920–1926), a former farm worker and rebel leader named Yuan declared himself the "Jade Emperor". Following the Chinese Civil War, there have been hundreds of monarchist pretenders who oppose the Chinese Communist Party and often gathered small groups of supporters. Notable self-proclaimed monarchs include: Li Zhu, declared a new dynasty in 1954; Song Yiufang, leader of the Nine Palaces Way (crowned by his followers after sneaking into the Forbidden City in 1961); Yang Xuehua, empress of the Heavenly Palace Sect (arrested in 1976 and executed after allegedly planning a rebellion); Chao Yuhua, empress of the "Great Sage Dynasty" (crowned in 1988 in a factory); Tu Nanting, ex-soldier and emperor (believed in his emperorship after reading several books on prophecies, the arcane, and morals); Yang Zhaogong who attempted to establish a new dynasty with alleged backing of CCCPC members. In general, these self-proclaimed monarchs were not very successful and quickly arrested by security forces. However, one self-proclaimed emperor, Li Guangchang, organized a large sect of supporters and factually governed a small territory in Cangnan County, called the "Zishen Nation", from 1981 to 1986 in de facto independence from China. He was eventually arrested, reportedly after attempting to organize a wider rebellion. Congo Within days of being independent from Belgium, the new Republic of the Congo found itself torn between competing political factions, as well as by foreign interference. As the situation deteriorated, Moise Tshombe declared the independence of Katanga Province as the State of Katanga on 11 July 1960. Albert Kalonji, claiming that the Baluba were being persecuted in the Congo and needed their own state in their traditional Kasai homeland, followed suit shortly afterwards and declared the autonomy of South Kasai on 8 August, with himself as head. On 12 April 1961, Kalonji's father was granted the title Mulopwe (which roughly translates to "emperor" or "god-king"), but he immediately "abdicated" in favor of his son. On 16 July, but retained the title of Mulopwe and changed his name to Albert I Kalonji Ditunga. The move was controversial with members of Kalonji's own party and cost him much support. Shortly thereafter, as preparation for the invasion of Katanga, Congolese government troops invaded and occupied South Kasai, and Kalonji was arrested. He escaped, but South Kasai ultimately returned to the Congo. France In 1736, Theodor Stephan Freiherr von Neuhoff established himself as King of Corsica in an attempt to free the island of Corsica from Genoese rule. In 1804, French Consul Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself "Emperor Napoleon I". Although this imperial regime ended with his fall from power, Napoleon's nephew, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, was elected in 1848 as President of France. In 1852, he declared himself "Emperor Napoleon III"; he was deposed in 1870. Haiti In 1804, in Haiti, the governor general, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, proclaimed himself "Emperor Jacques I". He ruled for two years. In 1811, the president, Henry Christophe proclaimed himself "King Henri I" and ruled until 1820. In 1849, the president, Faustin Soulouque, proclaimed himself "Emperor Faustin I" and ruled until 1859. Iran In 1926, in Iran, the commander in chief, Reza Pahlavi, crowned himself and started the Pahlavi Dynasty. Mexico On 19 May 1822, Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu, was crowned as Emperor of Mexico. He was a Mexican-born general who had served in the Spanish Army, during the Mexican War of Independence, but switched sides and joined the Mexican rebels in 1820. He was proclaimed president of the Regency in 1821. When King Ferdinand VII of Spain refused to become a constitutional monarch, Iturbide was crowned Emperor. He ruled for less than as a year as he abdicated and went into exile during a revolt in March 1823. He returned to Mexico on 14 July 1824 and was executed by the Provisional Government of Mexico. Philippines In 1823, in Manila, Philippines, a regimental captain, Andrés Novales, staged a mutiny and proclaimed himself "Emperor of the Philippines". After one day, Spanish troops from Pampanga and Intramuros removed him. Trinidad In 1893, James Harden-Hickey, an admirer of Napoleon III, crowned himself "James I of the Principality of Trinidad". For two years he tried but failed to assert his claim. United States In 1850, James J. Strang, who claimed to be Joseph Smith's successor as leader of the Latter Day Saint movement, proclaimed himself king of his followers on Beaver Island, Michigan. On 8 July 1850, he was crowned in an elaborate coronation ceremony. Strang evaded Federal government charges of treason and continued to rule until 1856, the year he was assassinated by two disgruntled "Strangites". In 1859, Joshua Abraham Norton declared himself "Norton I, Emperor of the United States" and "Protector of Mexico" in 1863. Current self-proclaimed monarchies Italy The Principality of Seborga (italian: Principato di Seborga) is a micronation that claims a area located in the northwestern Italian Province of Imperia in Liguria, near the French border, and about from Monaco. The principality is in coexistence with, and claims the territory of, the town of Seborga. In the early 1960s, Giorgio Carbone, began promoting the idea that Seborga restore its historic independence as a principality. By 1963 the people of Seborga were sufficiently convinced of these arguments to elect Carbone as their Head of State. He then assumed the style and title His Serene Highness Giorgio I, Prince of Seborga, which he held until his death in 2009. The Principality of Seborga is an elective monarchy and elections are held every seven years. The subsequent monarch was Prince Marcello Menegatto (Prince Marcello I) who ruled from 2010 to 2019. On 23 April 2017, Prince Marcello was re-elected and took office for another seven years, but abdicated the throne in 2019. Nina Menegatto was elected head of state as Princess Nina on 10 November 2019. United Kingdom In 1967, Paddy Roy Bates, a former major in the British Army, took control of Roughs Tower, a Maunsell sea fort situated off the coast of Suffolk and declared it the "Principality of Sealand". Upon his death in 2012, "Prince" Paddy Roy Bates was succeeded by his son, Michael. Canada Romana Didulo, a British Columbian woman, claimed to be the "secret Queen of Canada" in June 2021, and amassed a sizeable following, mainly consisting of right-wing QAnon supporters, being followed by 20,000 users of Telegram, a messaging platform favoured by the far-right and QAnon figures. She and her followers began to hand out "cease and desist" letters, demanding people and businesses stop following Canadian COVID-19 restrictions. In an introductory video on Telegram, Didulo claimed to be “the founder and leader of Canada1st”, a unregistered political party, and “the head of state and commander in chief of Canada, the Republic", and alleged that Canada's actual head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, had been executed secretly and that she had been appointed as Queen by “the same group of people who have helped president Trump”, in an apparent reference to the Capitol riot. 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258789	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple%20sec	Triple sec	Triple sec is an orange-flavoured liqueur that originated in France. It usually contains 20–40% alcohol by volume. Triple sec is rarely consumed neat, but is used in preparing many popular mixed drinks such as margaritas, cosmopolitans, sidecars, Long Island iced teas, and mai tais. Etymology The origin of the name "triple sec" is disputed. Many sources claim it comes from a triple distillation process used to create the liqueur, but some sources contest that a triple distillation is used at all. Several other sources claim that the term is a translation of the French sec, which can mean both "distilled" and "dry". Cointreau claims to have invented the term based on the three different types of orange peels used in the liqueur. History Triple sec has been popular for more than 150 years. The Dutch East India Company created orange liqueurs by steeping dried orange peels from places such as the island of Curaçao. They called this "Curaçao liquor", and unlike triple secs, which contain only the flavor of orange peel, the Dutch version has herbs and spices added, and comes in a variety of colors such as clear, orange, or blue. The Combier distillery claims that Jean-Baptiste Combier and his wife Josephine invented triple sec in 1834, in their kitchen in Saumur, France. Orange liqueur was consistently rising in popularity after the Dutch introduced Curaçao, and the Combiers sought to create a version that would be true to the orange fruit, they wanted it to be crisp and clean, with orange essential oils as the main feature. To achieve this, the Combier family used bitter oranges that were native to Haiti, and sweet Valencia oranges to balance the flavor. The liqueur was made by sun-drying the various orange peels. After at least 48 hours, they would begin distilling this mixture in copper pots. Lastly, they would put them through a third distillation, to purify the flavor. In 1875, Cointreau created its version of triple sec and calls itself one of the most popular brands. Triple sec gained popularity and was widely known by 1878; at the Exposition Universelle of 1878 in Paris, several distillers were offering "Curaço triple sec", as well as "Curaço doux". Production Triple sec is usually made from orange peels steeped in a spirit derived from sugar beet due to its neutral flavor. Oranges are then harvested when their skin is still green and they have not fully ripened, so the essential oils remain in the skin and not the flesh of the fruit. This spirit is then redistilled and mixed with more neutral spirit, water, and powdered beet sugar resulting in the final liqueur. This process creates a spirit that has a very strong and distinct orange flavor. Variances A variant of triple sec is Grand Marnier, which uses brandy as a base, giving it a distinctive heavier and earthy flavoring. See also List of liqueurs References French liqueurs Orange liqueurs	[ -0.1374809890985489, -0.13305282592773438, -0.09396247565746307, -0.06557846069335938, 0.05386820808053017, 0.15212395787239075, 0.2635372579097748, 0.44373011589050293, -0.14985376596450806, -0.02075277827680111, -0.2804831564426422, 0.6252574324607849, -0.1657581925392151, 0.40226414799690247, 0.38744255900382996, 0.10276807099580765, 1.072356104850769, 0.35555118322372437, 0.13925643265247345, -0.5650550723075867, -0.19180743396282196, -0.337444007396698, 0.11149710416793823, -0.3715345859527588, 0.20953255891799927, 0.022202404215931892, -0.4882605969905853, -0.15478453040122986, 0.26418644189834595, 0.44344040751457214, 0.08997088670730591, 0.7801082730293274, 0.2050045132637024, -0.8048609495162964, -0.33747002482414246, 0.29217827320098877, 0.3922201097011566, -0.38881996273994446, -0.10466355830430984, -0.3503250479698181, 0.23455572128295898, -0.36091601848602295, 0.708410382270813, -0.23042772710323334, 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258790	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%20Winter%20Paralympics	2010 Winter Paralympics	The 2010 Winter Paralympics (), or the 10th Paralympic Winter Games, were held in Vancouver and Whistler, Canada from March 12 to 21, 2010. The Opening Ceremony took place in BC Place Stadium in Vancouver and the Closing Ceremony in Whistler Medals Plaza. This was the first time Canada hosted the Winter Paralympic Games and second time it hosted the Paralympics – the first was the 1976 Summer Paralympics in Toronto. On June 7, 2006, Prince Edward, as a member of the Canadian Royal Family and patron of the British Paralympic Association, raised the flag of the Paralympic Games outside Vancouver City Hall. Brian McKeever of Canada became the first athlete to be named in a Winter Paralympics and Winter Olympics team in the same year, although he did not compete in the Olympic Games. (At the 2010 Winter Olympics, he was scheduled to compete in the men's 50 km cross-country race, but the coach replaced him with a skier who did well at an earlier event.) At the Paralympics, he competed in Cross-country skiing and Biathlon. Viviane Forest became the first Paralympian to win a gold in both the Winter and Summer Games, by winning the Women's Downhill for Visually Impaired. She had previously won gold in the 2000 and 2004 Summer Paralympics for women's goalball. Canadian Lauren Woolstencroft won 5 gold medals in alpine skiing, the most gold medals won by any Canadian Winter Paralympian at a single Games. Also German Verena Bentele won 5 gold medals, in biathlon and cross country skiing, and with that number they set the gold medal record for the 2010 Games. Bidding process As part of a formal agreement between the International Paralympic Committee and the International Olympic Committee first established in 2001, the winner of the bid for the 2010 Winter Olympics was also to host the 2010 Winter Paralympics. Following the second and final round of voting at the 115th IOC Session in Prague, Czech Republic, the right to host the 2010 Winter Olympics and Paralympics were awarded to Vancouver. Development and preparation Torch relay The same torch design (silver with Paralympic logo) used for the Olympics was used for the Paralympic Games. On March 3, 2010, the torch began a 10-day journey from Ottawa to Vancouver. The relay involved approximately six hundred runners to carry the torch across ten Canadian cities in three provinces: Ottawa – March 3 Quebec City – March 4 Toronto, Ontario – March 5 Esquimalt, BC and Victoria, BC – March 6 Squamish, BC – March 7 Whistler, BC – March 8 Lytton and Hope, BC – March 9 Vancouver (Riley Park) and Maple Ridge, BC – March 10 Vancouver (University of British Columbia), BC – March 11 Vancouver, BC – March 12 (24-hour relay) Venues Venues for the 2010 Winter Paralympics were shared between Vancouver and Whistler, as with the 2010 Winter Olympics. Competition venues Non-competition venues Marketing When the mascot, Sumi, an animal guardian spirit with the wings of the Thunderbird and legs of a black bear, was introduced, it was the first time the Olympic and Paralympic mascots were introduced at the same time. To commemorate the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games, 17 Canadian coins were issued for general circulation. Two of the circulation coins honour Paralympic sports: wheelchair curling (released on July 11, 2007) and ice sledge hockey (released on March 18, 2010). The circulation quarters omitted a traditional phrase, Dei Gratia Regina, from their obverse side, making them the first godless coins in circulation since 1911. Specifications Details The Games Opening Ceremonies With a theme of "One Inspires Many," the Opening Ceremony featured over 5000 local performers. Fifteen-year-old snowboarder Zach Beaumont, who is an amputee, was the final torch bearer and lit the Games Cauldron. The 2 hours live ceremony was produced by Vancouver-based Patrick Roberge Productions Inc. Participating nations Forty-four National Paralympic Committees (NPCs) entered athletes at the 2010 Winter Paralympics. This was an increase of five from the 39 represented at the 2006 Winter Paralympics. The number in parentheses indicates the number of participants from each NPC. A total of 506 athletes participated in the Games. This is an increase from the 476 athletes who participated in 2006. Argentina and Romania took part in the Winter Paralympic Games for the first time, as did Bosnia and Herzegovina. All three have previously participated in several editions of the Summer Paralympics. Serbia also made its Winter Paralympics début as a distinct NPC, following its split with Montenegro. Despite the overall increase of delegates and athletes, Latvia, which participated in Turin for the 2006 Winter Paralympics, did not send athletes to Vancouver. Sports Five sports were on the 2010 program: Calendar In the following calendar for the 2010 Winter Paralympic Games, each blue box represents an event competition, such as a qualification round, on that day. The yellow boxes represent days during which gold medal finals for a sport are held. Medal count The top ten NPCs by number of gold medals are listed below. The host nation, Canada, is highlighted. Podium sweeps Broadcasters In Canada, the games were broadcast by Canada's Olympic Broadcast Media Consortium, a joint venture between CTVglobemedia and Rogers Media. The networks aired a greater amount of coverage than what had been shown in previous years, a total of 50 hours of coverage. Coverage included including a daily 90-minute highlight program, and live coverage of select sledge hockey matches (games involving Canada, plus the gold medal game) on CTV. The opening ceremony was broadcast live on CTV's Vancouver station CIVT-TV, followed by an encore aired nationally on CTV and Réseau Info Sports the following afternoon. While not originally planned, CTV and RDS also aired live coverage of the closing ceremony. The games were aired on Universal Sports in the United States. Paralympic Sport TV (paralympicsport.tv), the Internet TV channel of the International Paralympic Committee (IPC), offered international free online live and recorded coverage of the games, every day from 9:00 to 22:30 PST. In New Zealand, SKY TV broadcast one hour of highlights each day, and full coverage of New Zealand athletes. In the United Kingdom, BBC broadcast the Games, but only through the red button and online. In Europe, Eurosport broadcast live the medal events in biathlon, alpine and cross-country skiing. In France, France Télévisions provided live coverage on its website. In Italy, Sky Sport provided record coverage with all games live on five dedicated HD channels. In Australia, ABC1 broadcast the games. In Norway, NRK broadcast the games. 30 hours of the Games were broadcast live. NRK-sport were critical to parts of the TV production from Vancouver, an issue they've notified to the EBU. Issues such as showing biathlon without showing the shooting, and in cross-country skiing there were numerous panorama shots of the same mountain area with skiers in the distance, making it hard to follow the progress of the competition. NRK were far more pleased with the production of the ice sledge hockey and wheelchair curling events, which they felt reached the same level as the Olympic Games. Paralympic Media Awards New Zealand's Sky Sport won the best broadcast award for their coverage of the Games. Gary Kingston writing for the Vancouver Sun took the best written category. While Jeff Crow won the best photography category for his picture of Shannon Dallas. Legacy In the winter sports season following the games, there was a notable increase in winter disability sports participation throughout British Columbia. See also Integrated Security Unit Royal Canadian Mint Olympic Coins References External links Paralympic Sport TV, web-TV channel of the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) P 2010 in multi-sport events Paralympics Sports competitions in Vancouver 2010 2010s in Vancouver 2010 in British Columbia March 2010 sports events in Canada Winter multi-sport events in Canada	[ -0.02533738873898983, 0.46179911494255066, 0.30047985911369324, 0.43854907155036926, -1.0317118167877197, 0.5558544397354126, 0.7284465432167053, 1.0212222337722778, -0.8659932017326355, -0.294584184885025, 0.05138656497001648, -0.4153320789337158, -0.5332187414169312, -0.28306204080581665, 0.1837759166955948, 0.8244633078575134, 0.2902725636959076, -0.5516841411590576, 0.6698549389839172, -0.030105173587799072, 0.5531307458877563, -0.4069581627845764, 0.32713228464126587, 0.37292322516441345, 0.1328117549419403, -0.2583710849285126, 1.0605767965316772, 0.378252774477005, 0.03130357712507248, -0.30239877104759216, 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258792	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20China	President of China	President of China may refer to: President of the People's Republic of China, ceremonial figurehead post of Mainland China President of the Republic of China, head of state and commander-in-chief of Taiwan See also List of presidents of China Premier of China (disambiguation) Chairman of China (disambiguation) Paramount leader	[ -0.09849057346582413, 0.2748890519142151, -0.06192763149738312, 0.2662133276462555, -0.22073286771774292, -0.5293556451797485, -0.5093228220939636, 0.5539670586585999, -0.46457532048225403, -0.011092955246567726, -0.7526883482933044, -0.35069993138313293, -0.17847906053066254, 0.3441845774650574, -0.2529160678386688, 0.3826441466808319, 0.6189129948616028, 0.7646921873092651, -0.530123233795166, -0.5199443101882935, -0.27144140005111694, 0.21939769387245178, 0.16537368297576904, -0.26939427852630615, 0.09594989567995071, 0.30647459626197815, 0.8169295191764832, -0.19027653336524963, 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258793	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman%20of%20China%20%28disambiguation%29	Chairman of China (disambiguation)	Chairman of China may refer to: Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China) Chairman of the Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China (1949–54) Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, historical title now called the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Chairperson of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Chairman of the National Government of the Republic of China Chairman of the People's Republic of China, historical title now called the President of the People's Republic of China Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress	[ -0.22674517333507538, 0.49055254459381104, -0.3935667872428894, 0.00040337175596505404, -0.46688908338546753, -0.22462128102779388, -0.3078734278678894, 0.15011918544769287, -0.4274841248989105, 0.32341110706329346, -0.44814828038215637, -0.26146042346954346, 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258795	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong%20Bad	Strong Bad	Strong Bad is a fictional character from Homestar Runner, a series of animated Flash videos, who is inspired by "The Strong Bads" from the video game Tag Team Wrestling. He is voiced by Matt Chapman, the principal voice actor and co-creator of the series. Strong Bad enjoys pranking the other characters of the series, along with his ever-diligent lackey pet named "The Cheat" and his older brother Strong Mad. The main segment that Strong Bad is a part of is Strong Bad Email, in which he answers emails sent to him by fans. The Strong Bad Email series grew to be so popular that seven DVDs featuring the emails have been released, as well as a podcast where emails could be downloaded to digital media players, since its first episode in 2001. The character's face resembles a red lucha libre mask, with four laces in the back and a blue diamond centered between his eyes. The diamond has the power to open bottle caps from "Cold Ones" and remove Homestar's hat, though he has only been seen doing this once. His eyes are green and shiny, and apparently turn grey when he is dead. Usually his mouth is a peach-colored rectangle when not speaking, and can form the shape of an "o" when using words with an "o" sound in them. He lacks a shirt (but wears certain ones on occasion), nipples, and a belly button. Strong Bad also has boxing gloves for hands, though mysteriously he can type with them in his Strong Bad Emails. He also wears black pants, along with red shoes with white soles that curve outward. Strong Bad was originally created to be the main antagonist of the series but, since then, he has become less of a villain and more of a comic relief antihero. However, he is still occasionally referred to as an antagonist, due to the pranks that he, Strong Mad, and The Cheat play on the other characters, and his insulting of his brother Strong Sad. He seems to be a character influenced by the American popular culture trends of the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, such as heavy metal music and the second and third-generations of video games and video game consoles. Since he is one of the site's most popular characters, merchandise has also spun off of Strong Bad, which includes T-shirts and sweatshirts sold by the website. Strong Bad has been one of the most popular characters in the series and has been well received. In an article by National Review Online, Strong Bad was described as "a non-stop braggart, liar, manipulator, and egotist", but also "one of the coolest characters on the Internet and the real star of Homestarrunner.com, which may be the most popular homegrown animation in the world". Segments have been spun off of his emails, including "Teen Girl Squad", a comic drawn by Strong Bad about four teenage friends, and "20X6", an anime-style cartoon featuring Japanese versions of the characters, such as Strong Bad's counterpart, "Stinkoman". Role in Homestar Runner In the beginning of the series, he and Homestar Runner would battle each other in competitions such as a lifting as many grapes as they can, doing tag-team wrestling, and facing off in a jumping jack contest. As the series went on, Strong Bad became less of a villain, although he still hates Homestar, but not so much as an arch rival, mostly viewing Homestar as dumb and irritating. The two have been known to occasionally get along, however. Along with his physically intimidating but mentally limited big brother Strong Mad and his yellow lackey The Cheat, Strong Bad represents the self-proclaimed criminal element in the series. Many shorts concern the various practical jokes and scams that they perpetrate. Although these are usually only slightly malevolent, Strong Bad still acts as if he is a villainous mastermind, and he is highly prone to exaggerating his alluring qualities—especially with regards to women. Strong Bad also "rules" an area of the fictional universe called Strong Badia. It consists of a barren field, a fence, a tire, and a stop sign reading "Pop: Tire" (Pop meaning population) leaning against a cinder block. Strong Bad said in one email he bought the property from Bubs, although he originally said he ruled it since "diaper school". It was once "haunted" by the ghost of the Tandy 400, Strong Bad's first computer. Besides Strong Badia, he and The Cheat enjoy hanging out at a stick known as "The Stick". Strong Bad's main role in the cartoon is in the Strong Bad Email segment, in which he answers emails sent to him from viewers. The Strong Bad Emails began as a small segment in 2001, in which Strong Bad would mock the spelling and grammar of those who wrote to him, usually while typing with boxing gloves on an outdated computer. He has parodied the question of "how do you type with boxing gloves on", which is thought to be one of the most asked questions in the emails he receives. Most of the time a cut-away sequence is used to move the narrative beyond mere typing. Once the events of the email finish unfolding, Strong Bad wraps it up, and then "The Paper" or "New Paper" comes down with a link to Strong Bad's e-mail address. Often, hidden animations (Easter eggs) are displayed when the user clicks on a word or picture either during the email or after it has concluded. As of 2018, there are 208 Strong Bad emails. Although the animations were initially brief, they gradually grew to establish numerous catchphrases and running gags, as well as spin-offs like Trogdor the Burninator, Teen Girl Squad, and even characters like Homsar and Senor Cardgage. An example of a Strong Bad Email reply is his take on techno, where he creates the techno song "The System Is Down". Originally, his most used catchphrase was "Holy Crap!" and other variations on this theme (example: "What the crap?"), though he now parodies even this in his responses to emails. In the older sbemails (see below), his computers are often subject to "flagrant errors", as in the sbemail "50 emails". Several "alternate versions" of Strong Bad exist in other cartoons on the website. One of these is "Stinkoman", a futuristic anime-style Strong Bad that seems to be a parody of Japanese animation. Stinkoman has no thumbs, big robot boots, a mouth that is tiny when closed but "ridiculously huge" when open, blue hair ("Gotta have blue hair!") and big green eyes. Strong Bad designed this character in the email "japanese cartoon", when someone asked what he would look like as a Japanese cartoon. For the "1936" segments on the website, Strong Bad is sometimes referred to as Sir Strong Bad, Uncle Strong Bad, or Old-Timey Strong Bad. He appears in black and white and has hair and a handlebar mustache. His face is less detailed and he has no visible mouth but his mustache moves when he talks. Another version is "Strong Badman", which is basically a tall, muscular, comic book version of Strong Bad, named Strong Badman, often calling out his unseen partner "L'il Stiny" (which was Strong Bad making fun of the name of the writer of the email "superhero name"). Character Creation Strong Bad was based on the "Strong Bads", a Lucha libre–style fighter team from the 1983 arcade video game Tag Team Wrestling, as the cartoon revolves largely around pop culture references. When The Brothers Chaps were asked about this origin, they responded, "Oh yeah, absolutely. The Strong Bads. We were just doing some dumb thing at Kinko's for friends. We weren't planning on all of this happening." Along with most of the main characters of the website, Strong Bad debuted in the Brothers Chaps' children's book entitled The Homestar Runner Enters the Strongest Man in the World Contest. In this story, The Homestar Runner, Strong Bad (with a little help from The Cheat), and Pom Pom enter a strength competition, along with The Robot, Mr. Bland, Señor, and the Grape Fairie as the umpire, some characters that rarely appeared later in the series. The concept for this began in 1996 when both of The Brothers Chaps were looking for children's books. When they did not find any to their liking, they created their own as a parody. After creating a few characters and writing a plot, they made copies of the book and attempted to sell it. This hand-drawn book was the only incarnation of Strong Bad for several years. The concept of a website with Homestar Runner and Pom Pom as the protagonists, and Strong Bad and The Cheat as the antagonists, became a reality in 2000. Development The website was originally meant to revolve around Homestar, but Strong Bad grew in popularity after the first few months of the website, and the Chapman brothers decided to give him his own segment, Strong Bad Email (SBEmail for short). According to Mike Chapman, "...He'd already become everybody's favorite character." In the children's book and very early stages of the website, Strong Bad looked significantly different from his present day character. He had very small hands and a plainly colored red and black lucha libre mask, contrary to the blue and green areas of the mask included in the present version of Strong Bad. In the book, Strong Bad and The Cheat were defined as the main "villains" to Homestar Runner and Pom Pom, who were defined as the main "protagonists". This idea of Strong Bad being an antagonist lasted for a short while in the early toons, but did change, however, as each character developed its own style. Strong Bad also started off with a prominent Mexican accent and a deep voice, which gradually transitioned into a more gruff and less accented voice with more vocal range. Reception Strong Bad has been received well by both critics and viewers of the website. He is considered one of the most popular characters of the website, and his Strong Bad Email segment is one of the most viewed segments of Homestar Runner. In an audio review of Strong Bad and the rest of the Homestar Runner characters, National Public Radio said "There are lots of nasty characters lurking in the shadowy corners of the World Wide Web. But Strong Bad is just awful. And he's awfully funny, too". Peter Wood of National Review Online commented on Strong Bad's personality and his evil-looking appearance. He stated: "Strong Bad is probably not the guy you want to move in next door. The red and black Wrestlemania mask he wears all the time is a clue. As are the boxing gloves, which he keeps on even when he is typing sarcastic e-mails ... He is one of the coolest characters on the Internet and the real star of Homestarrunner.com, which may be the most popular homegrown animation in the world." He added "Strong Bad also dabbles in other media and, like Professor Cornel West, has even recorded his own rap, 'Everybody to the Limit', which builds on the delightful typographic implosion, 'fhqwhgads, and also said "The humor likewise combines the innocence of slapstick with sharp satire of American popular culture. ... At one point, tired of being asked how he types with boxing gloves on, Strong Bad attaches fake fingers: a shrimp, a lit birthday candle, and an action-figure toy." Johnny Dee, a reviewer from The Guardian of the United Kingdom, described the humor of Strong Bad. He wrote: "Like South Park and Modern Toss, Strong Bad isn't exactly beautiful to look at but he's relentlessly funny," and added, "Strong Bad is an animated Mexican wrestler ... and the undoubted star of surreal cartoon site Homestar Runner." Spin-offs Trogdor the Burninator Trogdor the Burninator is an original character created by Strong Bad in SBemail 58. Strong Bad begins by giving a dragon drawing tutorial in which the character is drawn from the letter "S" and features numerous "consummate V's" used in constructing Trogdor's "teeth, spineties [sic], and angry eyebrows". The character is depicted as a dragon with a large, muscled arm, which "looks really good, comin' outta the back of his neck there", who "burninates the countryside", "the peasants", and "their thatched-roof cottages". Trogdor eventually got a Flash game on homestarrunner.com and became very popular, having several pieces of merchandise made featuring him. The Trogdor theme was also featured as a bonus song in Guitar Hero II. He is featured as the main antagonist of the final episode of Strong Bad's Cool Game for Attractive People, 8-Bit is Enough. He later got his own board game, Trogdor!! The Board Game. He is also mentioned in the final episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer as a supposed character in a Dungeons & Dragons-style tabletop game. Trogdor is briefly shown in the 2014 video "Word Crimes", sketched onto a notepad cover. In episode 11 of season 2 of the Syfy original series The Magicians, entitled "The Rattening", the protagonists Quentin Coldwater and Julia Wicker make an uneasy pact with a dragon to enter the Underworld, whom their friend and high king Eliot later refers to disparagingly as "Trogdor". In other media Strong Bad's Cool Game for Attractive People A point-and-click adventure game based on Strong Bad was created by Telltale Games and released for both the Nintendo Wii's WiiWare service and Microsoft Windows. Later on, the game was ported on the PlayStation 3 as a PSN download. It was released in an episodic format for both, with five episodes for its first season. A second season was in discussion if the first season sold well, however with Telltale's collapse in 2018 this will not be coming to fruition. Strong Bad Sings and Other Type Hits Strong Bad Sings (And Other Type Hits), an album featuring songs from Homestar Runner, was released in 2003. The album featured several songs "performed" by other characters. The partner cartoon features Strong Mad forgetting lyrics to his favorite songs. Other media On September 2, 2010, Telltale Games announced a new PC/Mac game called Poker Night at the Inventory. The game features Strong Bad, Tycho from Penny Arcade, Heavy from Team Fortress 2 and Max from Sam & Max. Telltale CEO Dan Connors said, "We've had the idea for some time of exploring the idea of what video characters do when they're not 'on the clock' in the games we play." The game was released on November 22, 2010. Strong Bad makes a guest appearance on at least two records, including The Aquabats 2011 album Hi-Five Soup!, providing vocals on the song "Pink Pants!". Prior to this, he appeared on the Shellac album Excellent Italian Greyhound on the track "Genuine Lulabelle". In 2011, Matt Chapman joined the production team of The Hub series The Aquabats! Super Show! as a writer and director. In the 2012 episode "CobraMan!", co-directed by Chapman, he appears onscreen as a villainous carnival worker named "Carl", who wears a wrestling mask identical to Strong Bad's and speaks in Strong Bad's voice. On July 14, 2012, Chapman appeared onstage at an Aquabats concert in San Diego in character as Strong Bad, joining the band in a performance of "Trogdor". Strong Bad is also mentioned on page 14 of CR Jordan's Basic Fundamentals of Modern Tattoo: "Thanks to Strong Bad, we know that technology is magic." Strong Bad makes an unofficial appearance in the Robot Chicken 2017 episode "Hey I Found Another Sock". On April 10, 2020, Strong Bad's official Twitter account, @StrongBadActual, tweeted the following: "I just dropped 3 volumes, 180 tracks of background music, jingles, and songs from 20 years of http://HomestarRunner.com! Shuffle these nuggets onto your day like croutons on a life salad! Out now on all your fav music streamins!" According to an article published by The A.V. Club, "For now, anyone desperate to live in the past for a while can listen to the first three volumes through a bunch of different platforms, including Spotify, YouTube, and, if you want to buy them, iTunes." The official Twitter page also noted in a subsequent Tweet that the music is not available on Bandcamp. References External links Strong Bad at Homestar Runner Wiki Animated characters Fictional artists Homestar Runner Television characters introduced in 1996 Fictional gamblers Fictional rock musicians Fictional luchadores Fictional singers Internet memes Fictional criminals Male characters in animation Animated human characters Animated villains Fictional boxers	[ -0.32100799679756165, -0.19877368211746216, -0.6490110158920288, -0.017320239916443825, -0.4943690299987793, -0.31059929728507996, 0.398385226726532, 0.5469077825546265, 0.07748214900493622, -0.02785992994904518, -0.30648210644721985, 0.050247590988874435, -0.21613141894340515, 0.22832588851451874, -0.03847035393118858, 0.022673798725008965, -0.29977214336395264, 0.24066659808158875, 0.051578301936388016, -0.13971172273159027, -0.3675713539123535, -0.32254722714424133, 0.3401387333869934, -0.2027669996023178, -0.1449015587568283, 0.26240473985671997, -0.03431510552763939, 0.28026458621025085, -0.37620681524276733, 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258800	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20Party%20of%20Finland	Communist Party of Finland	The Communist Party of Finland (, SKP; ) was a communist political party in Finland. The SKP was a section of Comintern and illegal in Finland until 1944. The SKP was banned by the state from its founding and did not participate in any elections with its own name. Instead, front organisations were used. In the 1920s the communists took part in the Socialist Workers' Party of Finland (1920–1923) and the Socialist Electoral Organisation of Workers and Smallholders (1924–1930). Both of them were also banned. In 1944, a new front, Finnish People's Democratic League was formed. The SKP controlled these fronts but they always had a prominent minority of non-communist socialists. History Early stages In 1918, the Reds lost the Finnish Civil War. The Social Democratic Party of Finland had supported the losing side, and several of its leaders were exiled in Soviet Russia. Some of these exiles founded the Communist Party of Finland in Moscow. The SKP was illegal in Finland until 1944, and members could be imprisoned. After the Continuation War, the SKP dominated the Finnish People's Democratic League, which was founded in 1944 as an umbrella organization of the radical left. Cold War The Cold War era was the high point of Communists in Finland. Between 1944 and 1979 support of the Finnish People's Democratic League was in the range of 17%–24%. Communists participated in several cabinets, but Finland never had a communist Prime Minister or President. In the mid 1960s the U.S. State Department estimated the party membership to be approximately 40 000 (1.44% of the working age population). with the SKP's main rival for domination of the political left being the Social Democratic Party of Finland. The competition was very bitter in trade unions and other leftist organizations. The SKP received substantial financial support from the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Internally, SKP was divided, with a Eurocommunist mainstream and a hardline pro-Moscow minority, called the Taistoists after their leader, Taisto Sinisalo. The word "taisto" also means "battle" or "fight"; the double connotation made this slur, originally launched by the largest Finnish newspaper Helsingin Sanomat, stick. Soviet threats to withdraw support were the main reason why reformists did not expel the Taistoists from the party leadership or membership. Aftermaths of the Prague Spring The events of the Prague Spring followed by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia had strong repercussions on the SKP. With the SKP's leadership strongly denouncing the Soviet intervention, internal disputes became fiercer than ever. While a de facto Eurocommunist majority held sway, the Taistoist minority decisively stood by the Soviet Union and the Brezhnev doctrine. Gradually this led to a disintegration, and in practice, the party now consisted of two parallel structures, and gradually lost ground in terms of public support. The most hardline leader of the party, Markus Kainulainen, led a group that even opposed Soviet policies after the Perestroika had begun. In 1985–1986 a large number of Taistoists, hundreds of party organizations with thousands of members, were expelled. They regrouped as the Communist Party of Finland (Unity) (SKPy) which later evolved into the current Communist Party of Finland (1994). Collapse The dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s led to ideological conflicts: bitter internal disputes plagued the party. Bad stock-market investments made during Aalto's term of office resulted in financial bankruptcy in 1992. The SKP never recovered. A majority of the party members, with other member-organizations of SKDL, formed the Left Alliance in 1990. SKPy, originally the faction of the party expelled in 1985–1986, outlasted its parent and registered itself as the Communist Party of Finland in 1997, but has failed to regain the former Communist Party's parliamentary representation. In the elections of 2007 it won 0.7% of the vote; in April 2011, it won just 0.3%. Youth wing The youth wing of the SKP was the Communist Youth League of Finland (SKNL, 1925–1936). After World War II young communists were active in the SKDL's Democratic Youth League of Finland (SNDL). The SNDL was member of World Federation of Democratic Youth. Leaders See also Kaisu-Mirjami Rydberg List of Communist Party (Finland) breakaway parties List of Social Democratic Party (Finland) breakaway parties References Finland Finland–Soviet Union relations Defunct communist parties Finnish People's Democratic League Political parties established in 1918 Political parties disestablished in 1992 Defunct political parties in Finland Communist parties in Finland Far-left political parties 1918 establishments in Finland Political parties of the Russian Revolution 1992 disestablishments in Finland Formerly banned communist parties	[ -0.0013283840380609035, -0.04323391988873482, -0.5564638376235962, 0.43438974022865295, -0.9297214150428772, 0.34218356013298035, -0.0292085949331522, 0.353259801864624, -0.5993872284889221, 0.27185794711112976, 0.05381982401013374, -0.26427146792411804, -0.5551040768623352, 0.4304119646549225, -0.4095175564289093, -0.0993984192609787, 0.26803743839263916, 0.4612976610660553, -0.3996761739253998, 0.03394006937742233, 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258803	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Napoleon%20%28disambiguation%29	Louis Napoleon (disambiguation)	Louis Napoleon may refer to: Louis Bonaparte or Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, (1778–1846), King Louis I of Holland, brother of Napoleon I Napoléon Louis Bonaparte (1804–1831), King Louis II of Holland, second son of Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846) Napoléon Eugène, Prince Imperial or Napoléon IV, Prince Imperial, often referred to as Louis Napoléon (1856–1879), only child of Napoleon III Prince Louis Napoléon or Napoléon VI, Prince Imperial, (1914–1997), pretender to the French throne Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte or Napoleon III (1808–1873), Emperor of France 1852–1870	[ -0.30696314573287964, 0.5109585523605347, -0.26234474778175354, 0.17887288331985474, -0.026087285950779915, 0.43786200881004333, 0.6487380266189575, 0.011812161654233932, -0.5292181968688965, -0.8221964836120605, -0.25957006216049194, 0.056489478796720505, -0.06540294736623764, 0.6495944857597351, -0.022661851719021797, 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258814	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Thompson%20%28drummer%29	Tony Thompson (drummer)	Anthony Terrence Thompson (November 15, 1954 – November 12, 2003) was an American session drummer best known as the drummer of the Power Station and a member of Chic. Early life and education Thompson was raised in the middle-class community of Springfield Gardens, in Queens, New York, New York. His mother was Trinidadian and father was of Antiguan descent. Music career Chic Thompson first drummed for the group Labelle, and then for a short while was a member of the soul/disco band Ecstasy, Passion & Pain. This was followed by a long tenure with Chic, where he helped create hits such as "Dance, Dance, Dance (Yowsah, Yowsah, Yowsah)," "Le Freak," and "Good Times". He also performed with members of Chic on "We Are Family" and "He's the Greatest Dancer" by Sister Sledge and "Upside Down" and "I'm Coming Out" by Diana Ross. Following the temporary disbanding of Chic in 1983, Chic's former guitarist and bassist, Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards became prolific producers, and Thompson's drumming was much in demand among their clients. Thompson appeared with numerous artists such as Jody Watley, Madonna (on her 1984 album Like a Virgin), Rod Stewart, Robert Palmer and David Bowie. Other bands Thompson was also a member of the band the Power Station along with Robert Palmer, and John Taylor and Andy Taylor of Duran Duran. The Live Aid charity benefit concert in 1985 saw Thompson filling in and playing with the Power Station as well as joining the remaining members of Led Zeppelin on stage (along with Phil Collins) at John F. Kennedy Stadium. Page, Plant and Jones then invited Thompson in England for rehearsals for a Led Zeppelin reunion which was canceled by Jimmy Page after Thompson was badly injured in a car crash. He went on to join groups such as the Distance and Crown of Thorns with Jean Beauvoir (playing on their first album Crown of Thorns before leaving the band and subsequently replaced by Hawk Lopez). Thompson was also a founding member of the band That Hideous Strength. In the mid 1990s he rejoined Power Station for their 1996 reunion album Living in Fear and subsequent tour. Thompson's final project was called Non-Toxic which he formed with bassist Michael Paige (Crown of Thorns) and guitarist Dave Scott; Thompson died before finishing the project's first album. He played with David Bowie on the Serious Moonlight Tour. Death and legacy Three days before his 49th birthday, Thompson died on November 12, 2003, in Los Angeles, within a month of being diagnosed with renal cell carcinoma (kidney cancer), and two months after the death of The Power Station bandmate Robert Palmer from a heart attack. Thompson was a member of the band Non-Toxic at the time of his death. He was survived by his wife, two children, and his sister, Cookie. On September 19, 2005, like his former band member Bernard Edwards, Thompson was honoured posthumously along with the rest of the Chic band members by being inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame. Discography with Chic Chic (1977) C'est Chic (1978) Risqué (1979) Real People (1980) Take It Off (1981) Tongue in Chic (1982) Believer (1983) with Sister Sledge We Are Family (1979) Love Somebody Today (1980) with Diana Ross Diana (1980) with Power Station The Power Station (1985) Living in Fear (1996) with Distance Under the One Sky (1989) with Crown of Thorns The Black CD EP (1991) Crown of Thorns (1994) Guest appearances The Serious Moonlight Tour (performed live with David Bowie) (1983) "Rock and Roll", "Whole Lotta Love", "Stairway to Heaven" (performed live with Led Zeppelin & Phil Collins at Live Aid) (1985) "Lost in You", "The Wild Horse", "Dynamite", "Try a Little Tenderness", "When I Was Your Man" (from the Rod Stewart album, Out of Order) (1988) "I Wanna Take You Higher" (from the Duran Duran album, Thank You) (1995) "What It Takes" (with Bobby Kimball from the compilation album, Tribute to Aerosmith: Let the Tribute Do the Talkin''') (2001) Film appearances Appeared with Distance as the club band in the Whoopi Goldberg movie, Burglar'' (1987) References External links Chictribute.com Allmusic bio ArtistDirect discography Simple Mission - Glass Tiger 1990 1954 births 2003 deaths African-American drummers Deaths from kidney cancer American funk drummers American male drummers The Power Station (band) members Chic (band) members Soul drummers Musicians from Queens, New York Deaths from cancer in California 20th-century American drummers Rhythm and blues drummers American people of Antigua and Barbuda descent American people of Trinidad and Tobago descent 20th-century American male musicians 20th-century African-American musicians 21st-century African-American people	[ -0.11943504214286804, 0.09118348360061646, -0.8038051128387451, -0.11933036893606186, 0.4747745096683502, 0.4116263687610626, 0.19454437494277954, -0.22233448922634125, -0.30274248123168945, 0.05251309648156166, 0.4934634268283844, 0.7463623285293579, -0.556319534778595, -0.4992000162601471, 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258819	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot%20Gossip	Hot Gossip	Hot Gossip (1974–86) were a British dance troupe who made television appearances and in 1978 backed Sarah Brightman on her single "I Lost My Heart to a Starship Trooper". Formation Arlene Phillips moved to London to learn and teach developing American jazz dance routines. Employed as a dance teacher, she taught at locations including the Pineapple Dance Studios and the Italia Conti Stage School. In 1974, Phillips started forming the core of a troupe; Italia Conti student actress Lesley Manville turned her down. Hot Gossip spent two years performing in Munkberry's club in Jermyn Street, London W1, where Phillips and manager/producers Michael Summerton and Iain Burton developed the group's dance act. Phillips, Summerton and Burton continued to work together for eight years, during which time Hot Gossip continued to enjoy wide popularity and success. Career The Kenny Everett Video Show Spotted by the British television director David Mallet, he invited Phillips to make Hot Gossip a regular feature of the 1978 The Kenny Everett Video Show, which he directed for Thames Television on ITV. The show ended in 1981 on ITV. Everett then moved to the BBC for The Kenny Everett Television Show, which did not feature Hot Gossip except in Season 4 in 1986. Music In 1978, during their initial impact period on The Kenny Everett Video Show, Hot Gossip recorded "Making Love on a Phone" and with Sarah Brightman on lead vocals recorded "I Lost My Heart to a Starship Trooper", a disco song written by Jeff Calvert and Geraint Hughes, the men behind the 1975 hit record, "Barbados". "I Lost My Heart to a Starship Trooper" reached number 6 on the UK Singles Chart. They went on to record an album in 1981 titled Geisha Boys and Temple Girls, produced by former Human League and then current Heaven 17/BEF member Martyn Ware. A stand-out track called "I Burn for You" was written by Sting. The Very Hot Gossip Show Produced by Burton and Telecast by Channel 4, the one-hour special was a vehicle for Hot Gossip, fresh from their stint on The Kenny Everett Video Show. The Very Hot Gossip Show was one of the highest rating shows for Channel 4 that year. Style Hot Gossip were noted for the risqué nature of their costumes and the dance routines, all designed and choreographed by Phillips, especially considering the early evening timeslot that the Video Show was broadcast in. The male athletic dancers were handsome and black and the female members were attractive and white, which caused pulses to race for various reasons. It is said that the antics did nothing to improve race relations, but all the same was the height of entertainment. They are often credited as one of the UK's early television dance troupes, continuing a trend which started with the Go-Jo's and Pan's People on Top of the Pops. The group was once spoofed on The Benny Hill Show as Hot Gossamer, with references to the Hot Gossip routines 'Supernature' and 'Walk on the Wild Side'. Some former Hot Gossip dancers appeared on the show, notably Jane Colthorpe and Lorraine Doyle were members of Love Machine. Then later Lorraine Doyle featured heavily in sketches as well as part of the Hill's Angels dance troupe. Original Kenny Everett TV group members Males: Mark Tyme, Roy Gale, Floyd Pearce Females: Dominique Wood, Donna Fielding, Carol Fletcher, Perri Lister, Lyndsey Ward, Sarah Brightman and Lorraine Whitmarsh. Dancers who performed with Hot Gossip Amanda Abbs Heather Alexander Debbie Ash Debbie Astell Bunty Bailey Elvis Baptiste Lee Black Richard Bodkin Sarah Brightman Bonnie Bryg Kathy Burke †† Lindsay Cole Titian Deakin Lorraine Doyle Annie Dunkley Penni Dunlop Sandy Easby Mark Elie Yvonne Evans (Voyd) Donna Fielding Carol Fletcher Alan Forgie Debbie Fox Judey Ford Julia Gale Roy Gayle Donnette Goddard Heavon Grant Virginia Hartley Alison Hierlehy Nicky Hinkley Laura James Lavinia Lang (Hudson) Kim Leeson Perri Lister Richard Lloyd King Madeleine Loftin Erin Lordan Barry Martin Jayne Melville Sarah Miles † Johanna Kate Morley Jane Colthorpe Trudy Pack Floid Pearce Tristan Rafael Sinitta Renet Heather Robbins Wanda Rokicki Heather Seymour Bruno Tonioli Mark Tyme Lyndsey Ward Susie Waring Lorraine Whitmarsh Chrissy Wickham David Wilkins Phillipa Williams Frances Wingate Dominique Wood Penny Kendell Michelle Gail Fellows Libby Rose Cherry B † Not to be confused with the actress of the same name †† Not to be confused with the actress of the same name Sponooch There was a spin-off group from Hot Gossip. Late 1979 Mark Tyme, Dom Wood, Lorraine Whitmarsh, Carol Fletcher, Lyndsey Ward, Donna Fielding, Lee Black left Hot Gossip to set up 'Sponooch'. They were featured in a BBC show called Dancing Girls on 6 January 1982 and they were featured several times on a TV show in 1979 called Friday Night Saturday Morning on BBC One. They also were signed to EMI and recorded two singles, "Crime Buster" and "Lady Dracula". In 1980, Sponooch toured the UK as Rick Wakeman's support act. 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258825	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-breasted%20merganser	Red-breasted merganser	The red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator) is a diving duck, one of the sawbills. The genus name is a Latin word used by Pliny and other Roman authors to refer to an unspecified waterbird, and serrator is a sawyer from Latin serra, "saw". The red-breasted merganser was one of the many bird species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name Mergus serrator. Description The adult red-breasted merganser is long with a wingspan. The red-breasted merganser weight ranges from . It has a spiky crest and long thin red bill with serrated edges. The male has a dark head with a green sheen, a white neck with a rusty breast, a black back, and white underparts. Adult females have a rusty head and a grayish body. Juveniles look similar to females, but lack the white collar and have smaller white wing patches. Voice The call of the female is a rasping prrak prrak, while the male gives a feeble hiccup-and-sneeze display call. Behaviour Food and feeding Red-breasted mergansers dive and swim underwater. They mainly eat small fish, but also aquatic insects, crustaceans, and frogs. Breeding Its breeding habitat is freshwater lakes and rivers across northern North America, Greenland, Europe, and the Palearctic. It nests in sheltered locations on the ground near water. It is migratory and many northern breeders winter in coastal waters further south. Speed record The fastest duck ever recorded was a red-breasted merganser that attained a top airspeed of 100 mph while being pursued by an airplane. This eclipsed the previous speed record held by a canvasback clocked at 72 mph. Conservation The red-breasted merganser is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. References External links Red-breasted Merganser Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Massachusetts Breeding Bird Atlas - Red-breasted Merganser red-breasted merganser Mergansers Holarctic birds Birds of Scandinavia Birds of Iceland Birds of Europe red-breasted merganser red-breasted merganser Extant Pleistocene first appearances	[ -0.47565630078315735, 0.5990750193595886, -0.9714663624763489, -0.22475862503051758, -0.18607337772846222, 0.9501426815986633, 0.27617335319519043, 0.5178807973861694, -0.7728505730628967, -0.3076876103878021, -0.6148740649223328, 0.4219004213809967, -0.21881049871444702, 0.091229148209095, 0.23079420626163483, 1.1648743152618408, 0.12250165641307831, 0.6364742517471313, 0.5224835872650146, -0.35569462180137634, -0.5024552941322327, -0.8365465998649597, 0.05638251453638077, -0.515172004699707, 0.6664687991142273, 0.05407507345080376, 0.4776389002799988, 0.3966860771179199, -0.003281878074631095, 0.5920456647872925, 0.2710493505001068, 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258826	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liveaboard	Liveaboard	Liveaboard can mean: Someone who makes a boat, typically a small yacht in a marina, their primary residence. Powerboats and cruising sailboats are commonly used for living aboard, as well as houseboats which are designed primarily as a residence. A boat designed for people to live aboard it. A boat used for recreational diving expeditions or cruises where the divers live on the boat for the duration of the cruise and use it as a diving support vessel. The liveaboard lifestyle has attractions and downsides. Most boats are much smaller than equivalent cost shoreside residences, they are more exposed to bad weather, and require special maintenance skills. However, they are mobile, provide water access, and allow for integrated recreational, transportation, and housing costs. Where the cost of housing is high, a liveaboard lifestyle may have cost advantages. Although it is sometimes regarded as being a cheaper way to live this is not always the case. Liveaboard boats can be luxury vessels moored in expensive marinas or small vessels in need of restoration. One attraction of the lifestyle is there is something to suit everyone. Because of this, liveaboards are very diverse people coming from many different backgrounds. Scuba diving liveaboards In the recreational scuba diving industry, a liveaboard service offers its guests the opportunity to stay aboard for one or more nights, unlike a day boat operation. This allows time to travel to more distant dive sites. Normally, a liveaboard charter caters for between about ten and thirty passengers. While most liveaboards around the world are usually made with fiber reinforced plastic or steel hulls, in Indonesia, traditional pinisi boats made from teak wood are commonly used. 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258827	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic%20mechanical%20analysis	Dynamic mechanical analysis	Dynamic mechanical analysis (abbreviated DMA) is a technique used to study and characterize materials. It is most useful for studying the viscoelastic behavior of polymers. A sinusoidal stress is applied and the strain in the material is measured, allowing one to determine the complex modulus. The temperature of the sample or the frequency of the stress are often varied, leading to variations in the complex modulus; this approach can be used to locate the glass transition temperature of the material, as well as to identify transitions corresponding to other molecular motions. Theory Viscoelastic properties of materials Polymers composed of long molecular chains have unique viscoelastic properties, which combine the characteristics of elastic solids and Newtonian fluids. The classical theory of elasticity describes the mechanical properties of elastic solid where stress is proportional to strain in small deformations. Such response of stress is independent of strain rate. The classical theory of hydrodynamics describes the properties of viscous fluid, for which the response of stress is dependent on strain rate. This solidlike and liquidlike behavior of polymers can be modeled mechanically with combinations of springs and dashpots. Dynamic moduli of polymers The viscoelastic property of a polymer is studied by dynamic mechanical analysis where a sinusoidal force (stress σ) is applied to a material and the resulting displacement (strain) is measured. For a perfectly elastic solid, the resulting strain and the stress will be perfectly in phase. For a purely viscous fluid, there will be a 90 degree phase lag of strain with respect to stress. Viscoelastic polymers have the characteristics in between where some phase lag will occur during DMA tests. When the strain is applied and the stress lags behind, the following equations hold: Stress: Strain: where is frequency of strain oscillation, is time, is phase lag between stress and strain. Consider the purely elastic case, where stress is proportional to strain given by Young's modulus . We have Now for the purely viscous case, where stress is proportional to strain rate. The storage modulus measures the stored energy, representing the elastic portion, and the loss modulus measures the energy dissipated as heat, representing the viscous portion. The tensile storage and loss moduli are defined as follows: Storage modulus: Loss modulus: Phase angle: Similarly, in the shearing instead of tension case, we also define shear storage and loss moduli, and . Complex variables can be used to express the moduli and as follows: where Derivation of dynamic moduli Shear stress of a finite element in one direction can be expressed with relaxation modulus and strain rate, integrated over all past times up to the current time . With strain rate and substitution one obtains . Application of the trigonometric addition theorem lead to the expression with converging integrals, if for , which depend on frequency but not of time. Extension of with trigonometric identity lead to . Comparison of the two equations lead to the definition of and . Applications Measuring glass transition temperature One important application of DMA is measurement of the glass transition temperature of polymers. Amorphous polymers have different glass transition temperatures, above which the material will have rubbery properties instead of glassy behavior and the stiffness of the material will drop dramatically along with a reduction in its viscosity. At the glass transition, the storage modulus decreases dramatically and the loss modulus reaches a maximum. Temperature-sweeping DMA is often used to characterize the glass transition temperature of a material. Polymer composition Varying the composition of monomers and cross-linking can add or change the functionality of a polymer that can alter the results obtained from DMA. An example of such changes can be seen by blending ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) with styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) and different cross-linking or curing systems. Nair et al. abbreviate blends as E0S, E20S, etc., where E0S equals the weight percent of EPDM in the blend and S denotes sulfur as the curing agent. Increasing the amount of SBR in the blend decreased the storage modulus due to intermolecular and intramolecular interactions that can alter the physical state of the polymer. Within the glassy region, EPDM shows the highest storage modulus due to stronger intermolecular interactions (SBR has more steric hindrance that makes it less crystalline). In the rubbery region, SBR shows the highest storage modulus resulting from its ability to resist intermolecular slippage. When compared to sulfur, the higher storage modulus occurred for blends cured with dicumyl peroxide (DCP) because of the relative strengths of C-C and C-S bonds. Incorporation of reinforcing fillers into the polymer blends also increases the storage modulus at an expense of limiting the loss tangent peak height. DMA can also be used to effectively evaluate the miscibility of polymers. The E40S blend had a much broader transition with a shoulder instead of a steep drop-off in a storage modulus plot of varying blend ratios, indicating that there are areas that are not homogeneous. Instrumentation The instrumentation of a DMA consists of a displacement sensor such as a linear variable differential transformer, which measures a change in voltage as a result of the instrument probe moving through a magnetic core, a temperature control system or furnace, a drive motor (a linear motor for probe loading which provides load for the applied force), a drive shaft support and guidance system to act as a guide for the force from the motor to the sample, and sample clamps in order to hold the sample being tested. Depending on what is being measured, samples will be prepared and handled differently. A general schematic of the primary components of a DMA instrument is shown in figure 3. Types of analyzers There are two main types of DMA analyzers used currently: forced resonance analyzers and free resonance analyzers. Free resonance analyzers measure the free oscillations of damping of the sample being tested by suspending and swinging the sample. A restriction to free resonance analyzers is that it is limited to rod or rectangular shaped samples, but samples that can be woven/braided are also applicable. Forced resonance analyzers are the more common type of analyzers available in instrumentation today. These types of analyzers force the sample to oscillate at a certain frequency and are reliable for performing a temperature sweep. Analyzers are made for both stress (force) and strain (displacement) control. In strain control, the probe is displaced and the resulting stress of the sample is measured by implementing a force balance transducer, which utilizes different shafts. The advantages of strain control include a better short time response for materials of low viscosity and experiments of stress relaxation are done with relative ease. In stress control, a set force is applied to the sample and several other experimental conditions (temperature, frequency, or time) can be varied. Stress control is typically less expensive than strain control because only one shaft is needed, but this also makes it harder to use. Some advantages of stress control include the fact that the structure of the sample is less likely to be destroyed and longer relaxation times/ longer creep studies can be done with much more ease. Characterizing low viscous materials come at a disadvantage of short time responses that are limited by inertia. Stress and strain control analyzers give about the same results as long as characterization is within the linear region of the polymer in question. However, stress control lends a more realistic response because polymers have a tendency to resist a load. Stress and strain can be applied via torsional or axial analyzers. Torsional analyzers are mainly used for liquids or melts but can also be implemented for some solid samples since the force is applied in a twisting motion. The instrument can do creep-recovery, stress–relaxation, and stress–strain experiments. Axial analyzers are used for solid or semisolid materials. It can do flexure, tensile, and compression testing (even shear and liquid specimens if desired). These analyzers can test higher modulus materials than torsional analyzers. The instrument can do thermomechanical analysis (TMA) studies in addition to the experiments that torsional analyzers can do. Figure 4 shows the general difference between the two applications of stress and strain. Changing sample geometry and fixtures can make stress and strain analyzers virtually indifferent of one another except at the extreme ends of sample phases, i.e. really fluid or rigid materials. Common geometries and fixtures for axial analyzers include three-point and four-point bending, dual and single cantilever, parallel plate and variants, bulk, extension/tensile, and shear plates and sandwiches. Geometries and fixtures for torsional analyzers consist of parallel plates, cone-and-plate, couette, and torsional beam and braid. In order to utilize DMA to characterize materials, the fact that small dimensional changes can also lead to large inaccuracies in certain tests needs to be addressed. Inertia and shear heating can affect the results of either forced or free resonance analyzers, especially in fluid samples. Test modes Two major kinds of test modes can be used to probe the viscoelastic properties of polymers: temperature sweep and frequency sweep tests. A third, less commonly studied test mode is dynamic stress–strain testing. Temperature sweep A common test method involves measuring the complex modulus at low constant frequency while varying the sample temperature. A prominent peak in appears at the glass transition temperature of the polymer. Secondary transitions can also be observed, which can be attributed to the temperature-dependent activation of a wide variety of chain motions. In semi-crystalline polymers, separate transitions can be observed for the crystalline and amorphous sections. Similarly, multiple transitions are often found in polymer blends. For instance, blends of polycarbonate and poly(acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) were studied with the intention of developing a polycarbonate-based material without polycarbonate's tendency towards brittle failure. Temperature-sweeping DMA of the blends showed two strong transitions coincident with the glass transition temperatures of PC and PABS, consistent with the finding that the two polymers were immiscible. Frequency sweep A sample can be held to a fixed temperature and can be tested at varying frequency. Peaks in and in E’’ with respect to frequency can be associated with the glass transition, which corresponds to the ability of chains to move past each other. Note that this implies that the glass transition is dependent on strain rate in addition to temperature. Secondary transitions may be observed as well. The Maxwell model provides a convenient, if not strictly accurate, description of viscoelastic materials. Applying a sinusoidal stress to a Maxwell model gives: where is the Maxwell relaxation time. Thus, a peak in E’’ is observed at the frequency . A real polymer may have several different relaxation times associated with different molecular motions. Dynamic stress–strain studies By gradually increasing the amplitude of oscillations, one can perform a dynamic stress–strain measurement. The variation of storage and loss moduli with increasing stress can be used for materials characterization, and to determine the upper bound of the material's linear stress–strain regime. Combined sweep Because glass transitions and secondary transitions are seen in both frequency studies and temperature studies, there is interest in multidimensional studies, where temperature sweeps are conducted at a variety of frequencies or frequency sweeps are conducted at a variety of temperatures. This sort of study provides a rich characterization of the material, and can lend information about the nature of the molecular motion responsible for the transition. For instance, studies of polystyrene (Tg ≈110 °C) have noted a secondary transition near room temperature. Temperature-frequency studies showed that the transition temperature is largely frequency-independent, suggesting that this transition results from a motion of a small number of atoms; it has been suggested that this is the result of the rotation of the phenyl group around the main chain. See also Maxwell material Standard linear solid material Thermomechanical analysis Dielectric thermal analysis Time–temperature superposition Electroactive polymers References External links Dynamical Mechanical Analysis Retrieved May 21, 2019. 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258830	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Eyskens	Mark Eyskens	Marc Maria Frans, viscount Eyskens (born 29 April 1933), known as Mark Eyskens , is a Belgian economist, professor and politician in the Christian People's Party, now called Christian Democratic and Flemish, and briefly served as Prime Minister of Belgium in 1981. Early life He was born in Leuven, the son of Gaston Eyskens, and lived for a time at the International House of New York. When Germany invaded Belgium, Eyskens and his mother fled to France but upon the Belgian capitulation, the family returned to Leuven. Academic career In 1953, Eyskens attained a bachelor's degree in philosophy. In 1956, he became a doctor juris at the University of Leuven. In 1957, he obtained a master of arts in economics at Columbia University. In 1962, he received a doctorate in economic sciences. In 1962, he became a professor at the University of Leuven (1962–1998). From 1971 to 1976, he was chairman of the university. He was a member of the Club of Rome (1972–1978). In 2004, he was chairman of the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts. Political career In 1962, Eyskens started his political career as a counsellor in the cabinet of the Minister of Finance André Dequae. In 1976, Eyskens became Secretary of State for Town and Country Planning and Housing (1976–1977, Tindemans I). Eyskens was first elected to the Belgian Chamber of Representatives in 1977. He was re-elected (elections of 1977, 1981, 1985, 1987, 1991, 1978, 1995, 1999) and served until 2003. He became Secretary of State for the budget and Flemish affairs (1977–1979, Tindemans II & Vanden Boeynants II), Minister of Development Aid (1979–1980, Martens I, Martens II & Martens III) and Minister of Finance (1980–1981, Martens IV). Eyskens became the 45th Prime Minister of Belgium on 6 April 1981, an office his father had held six times. His government quickly collapsed on 17 December, due to disagreements on the financing of the Walloon steel industry. After the fall of his government he served as Minister for Economical Affairs (1981–1985, Martens V) and Minister of Finance (1985–1988, Martens VI & Martens VII). Although originally not a member of the Martens VIII cabinet, on 19 June 1989 he re-entered the government when he replaced Leo Tindemans as Minister of Foreign Affairs (1989–1992, Martens VIII & Martens IX). This was the last government office he held. He served as a backbencher 1992–2003 and retired at the 2003 general election. Later career On 18 November 1998, Eyskens was made a Minister of State. In the 2006 provincial elections Eyskens was elected to the provincial council of Flemish Brabant. He served from 2007 until his resignation in 2009. Eyskens is a member of the Advisory Board of the Global Panel Foundation, a member of the Advisory Board of the Itinera Institute think-tank and as Honorary President of the Olivaint Conference of Belgium. References External links Archives of Mark Eyskens in ODIS - Online Database for Intermediary Structures Official Website of the Global Panel Foundation \|- \|- \|- \|- 1933 births Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968) alumni Columbia University alumni Belgian economists Christian Democratic and Flemish politicians Belgian Ministers of State Foreign ministers of Belgium Finance ministers of Belgium Prime Ministers of Belgium Living people Politicians from Leuven Viscounts of Belgium Children of national leaders Belgian Roman Catholics Members of the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts	[ -0.1124298945069313, 0.3835756182670593, -0.23435534536838531, -0.13076655566692352, 0.23982836306095123, 0.6742557287216187, 0.2627299726009369, -0.17253538966178894, -0.6614503860473633, -0.06650196760892868, 0.3313405513763428, 0.5675411224365234, 0.05068596079945564, 0.3405660390853882, 0.2182861566543579, -0.0605454295873642, 0.2212059497833252, 0.19942842423915863, 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258831	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doofus%20%28comics%29	Doofus (comics)	Doofus is an American alternative comic book character created by Rick Altergott. In the low-brow, scatological strip, Doofus and his sidekick/pal Henry Hotchkiss are two foolish creeps who have adventures in the fictional Flowertown, USA. Fantagraphics Books published two issues of the series from 1994 to 1997. Characterization Doofus is a short, obese grown man with facial stubble and a pageboy haircut, topped by a straw boater. He is a known liar and obnoxious human being, with an affinity for sniffing women's underwear. Publication history Doofus strips first appeared in the alternative weekly The Stranger. Doofus's comic book debut was in Eightball #8 (Fantagraphics, May 1992). From 1995 to 1998, Doofus strips appeared as a backup feature in Peter Bagge's Hate, issues #21–26, and #29–30. The character also appeared in various publications, including Heavy Metal, and other comic books published by Fantagraphics, including Raisin Pie. In 2014, Altergott produced a weekly Doofus-related comic for Vice titled Flowertown USA. List of appearances Eightball #8 (Fantagraphics Books, May 1992) Heavy Metal vol. 17, #4 (Metal Mammoth Inc., September 1993) Doofus #1 (Fantagraphics, December 1994) Hate #21 (Fantagraphics, December 1995) Hate #22 (Fantagraphics, March 1996) Hate #23 (Fantagraphics, June 1996) Hate #24 (Fantagraphics, August 1996) — featuring Stink Hair Stu Hate #25 (Fantagraphics, December 1996) Hate #26 (Fantagraphics, March 1997) Doofus #2 (Fantagraphics, Spring 1997) Hate #29 (Fantagraphics, January 1998) Hate #30 (Fantagraphics, May 1998) Doofus Omnibus (Fantagraphics, October 2002) Raisin Pie #1 (Fantagraphics, October 2002) Legal Action Comics #2 (Dirty Danny Legal Defense Fund, 2003) Kramers Ergot #7 (Buenaventura Press, 2008) — featuring Stink Hair Stu Raisin Pie #2 (Fantagraphics, July 2003) Raisin Pie #3 (Fantagraphics, Spring 2004) Raisin Pie #4 (Fantagraphics, September 2005) Raisin Pie #5 (Fantagraphics, July 2007) Vice (2014) — weekly series References Notes Sources consulted Altergott, Rick. Doofus Omnibus. Fantagraphics, Seattle, Wash.. 2002 External links Doofus comic strips on creator Altergott's website 1994 comics debuts American comics characters American comic strips Adult comics Comics characters introduced in 1992 Fantagraphics titles Male characters in comics Comics set in the United States	[ 0.07708179205656052, 0.5045033097267151, 0.002103167586028576, 0.15008075535297394, -0.12255242466926575, -0.11217433214187622, 0.13309217989444733, 0.506231963634491, 0.1915028840303421, 0.11944801360368729, -0.7329061627388, 0.3640897870063782, -0.607069194316864, -0.2249634861946106, -0.23728281259536743, 0.21393100917339325, 0.06957259774208069, 0.501928985118866, -0.13707122206687927, -0.7202046513557434, -0.37272369861602783, -0.6812968254089355, -0.054424919188022614, -0.538527250289917, -0.08276723325252533, 0.34049075841903687, 0.3836609423160553, 0.3077479898929596, -0.2571803033351898, 0.38917964696884155, 0.283357173204422, 0.7794855237007141, 0.3720037341117859, 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258833	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20analysis	Thermal analysis	Thermal analysis is a branch of materials science where the properties of materials are studied as they change with temperature. Several methods are commonly used – these are distinguished from one another by the property which is measured: Dielectric thermal analysis: dielectric permittivity and loss factor Differential thermal analysis: temperature difference versus temperature or time Differential scanning calorimetry: heat flow changes versus temperature or time Dilatometry: volume changes with temperature change Dynamic mechanical analysis: measures storage modulus (stiffness) and loss modulus (damping) versus temperature, time and frequency Evolved gas analysis: analysis of gases evolved during heating of a material, usually decomposition products Isothermal titration calorimetry Isothermal microcalorimetry Laser flash analysis: thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity Thermogravimetric analysis: mass change versus temperature or time Thermomechanical analysis: dimensional changes versus temperature or time Thermo-optical analysis: optical properties Derivatography: A complex method in thermal analysis Simultaneous thermal analysis generally refers to the simultaneous application of thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry to one and the same sample in a single instrument. The test conditions are perfectly identical for the thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry signals (same atmosphere, gas flow rate, vapor pressure of the sample, heating rate, thermal contact to the sample crucible and sensor, radiation effect, etc.). The information gathered can even be enhanced by coupling the simultaneous thermal analysis instrument to an Evolved Gas Analyzer like Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy or mass spectrometry. Other, less common, methods measure the sound or light emission from a sample, or the electrical discharge from a dielectric material, or the mechanical relaxation in a stressed specimen. The essence of all these techniques is that the sample's response is recorded as a function of temperature (and time). It is usual to control the temperature in a predetermined way – either by a continuous increase or decrease in temperature at a constant rate (linear heating/cooling) or by carrying out a series of determinations at different temperatures (stepwise isothermal measurements). More advanced temperature profiles have been developed which use an oscillating (usually sine or square wave) heating rate (Modulated Temperature Thermal Analysis) or modify the heating rate in response to changes in the system's properties (Sample Controlled Thermal Analysis). In addition to controlling the temperature of the sample, it is also important to control its environment (e.g. atmosphere). Measurements may be carried out in air or under an inert gas (e.g. nitrogen or helium). Reducing or reactive atmospheres have also been used and measurements are even carried out with the sample surrounded by water or other liquids. Inverse gas chromatography is a technique which studies the interaction of gases and vapours with a surface - measurements are often made at different temperatures so that these experiments can be considered to come under the auspices of Thermal Analysis. Atomic force microscopy uses a fine stylus to map the topography and mechanical properties of surfaces to high spatial resolution. By controlling the temperature of the heated tip and/or the sample a form of spatially resolved thermal analysis can be carried out. Thermal analysis is also often used as a term for the study of heat transfer through structures. Many of the basic engineering data for modelling such systems comes from measurements of heat capacity and thermal conductivity. Polymers Polymers represent another large area in which thermal analysis finds strong applications. Thermoplastic polymers are commonly found in everyday packaging and household items, but for the analysis of the raw materials, effects of the many additive used (including stabilisers and colours) and fine-tuning of the moulding or extrusion processing used can be achieved by using differential scanning calorimetry. An example is oxidation induction time by differential scanning calorimetry which can determine the amount of oxidation stabiliser present in a thermoplastic (usually a polyolefin) polymer material. Compositional analysis is often made using thermogravimetric analysis, which can separate fillers, polymer resin and other additives. Thermogravimetric analysis can also give an indication of thermal stability and the effects of additives such as flame retardants Thermal analysis of composite materials, such as carbon fibre composites or glass epoxy composites are often carried out using dynamic mechanical analysis, which can measure the stiffness of materials by determining the modulus and damping (energy absorbing) properties of the material. Aerospace companies often employ these analysers in routine quality control to ensure that products being manufactured meet the required strength specifications. Formula 1 racing car manufacturers also have similar requirements. Differential scanning calorimetry is used to determine the curing properties of the resins used in composite materials, and can also confirm whether a resin can be cured and how much heat is evolved during that process. Application of predictive kinetics analysis can help to fine-tune manufacturing processes. Another example is that thermogravimetric analysis can be used to measure the fibre content of composites by heating a sample to remove the resin by application of heat and then determining the mass remaining. Metals Production of many metals (cast iron, grey iron, ductile iron, compacted graphite iron, 3000 series aluminium alloys, copper alloys, silver, and complex steels) are aided by a production technique also referred to as thermal analysis. A sample of liquid metal is removed from the furnace or ladle and poured into a sample cup with a thermocouple embedded in it. The temperature is then monitored, and the phase diagram arrests (liquidus, eutectic, and solidus) are noted. From this information chemical composition based on the phase diagram can be calculated, or the crystalline structure of the cast sample can be estimated especially for silicon morphology in hypo-eutectic Al-Si cast alloys. Strictly speaking these measurements are cooling curves and a form of sample controlled thermal analysis whereby the cooling rate of the sample is dependent on the cup material (usually bonded sand) and sample volume which is normally a constant due to the use of standard sized sample cups. To detect phase evolution and corresponding characteristic temperatures, cooling curve and its first derivative curve should be considered simultaneously. Examination of cooling and derivative curves is done by using appropriate data analysis software. The process consists of plotting, smoothing and curve fitting as well as identifying the reaction points and characteristic parameters. This procedure is known as Computer-Aided Cooling Curve Thermal Analysis. Advanced techniques use differential curves to locate endothermic inflection points such as gas holes, and shrinkage, or exothermic phases such as carbides, beta crystals, inter crystalline copper, magnesium silicide, iron phosphide's and other phases as they solidify. Detection limits seem to be around 0.01% to 0.03% of volume. In addition, integration of the area between the zero curve and the first derivative is a measure of the specific heat of that part of the solidification which can lead to rough estimates of the percent volume of a phase. (Something has to be either known or assumed about the specific heat of the phase versus the overall specific heat.) In spite of this limitation, this method is better than estimates from two dimensional micro analysis, and a lot faster than chemical dissolution. Foods Most foods are subjected to variations in their temperature during production, transport, storage, preparation and consumption, e.g., pasteurization, sterilization, evaporation, cooking, freezing, chilling, etc. Temperature changes cause alterations in the physical and chemical properties of food components which influence the overall properties of the final product, e.g., taste, appearance, texture and stability. Chemical reactions such as hydrolysis, oxidation or reduction may be promoted, or physical changes, such as evaporation, melting, crystallization, aggregation or gelation may occur. A better understanding of the influence of temperature on the properties of foods enables food manufacturers to optimize processing conditions and improve product quality. It is therefore important for food scientists to have analytical techniques to monitor the changes that occur in foods when their temperature varies. These techniques are often grouped under the general heading of thermal analysis. In principle, most analytical techniques can be used, or easily adapted, to monitor the temperature-dependent properties of foods, e.g., spectroscopic (nuclear magnetic resonance, UV-visible, infrared spectroscopy, fluorescence), scattering (light, X-rays, neutrons), physical (mass, density, rheology, heat capacity) etc. Nevertheless, at present the term thermal analysis is usually reserved for a narrow range of techniques that measure changes in the physical properties of foods with temperature (TG/DTG, differential thermal analysis, differential scanning calorimetry and transition temperature). Printed circuit boards Power dissipation is an important issue in present-day PCB design. Power dissipation will result in temperature difference and pose a thermal problem to a chip. In addition to the issue of reliability, excess heat will also negatively affect electrical performance and safety. The working temperature of an IC should therefore be kept below the maximum allowable limit of the worst case. In general, the temperatures of junction and ambient are 125 °C and 55 °C, respectively. The ever-shrinking chip size causes the heat to concentrate within a small area and leads to high power density. Furthermore, denser transistors gathering in a monolithic chip and higher operating frequency cause a worsening of the power dissipation. Removing the heat effectively becomes the critical issue to be resolved. References Ramos-Sánchez M C, Rey F J, Rodríguez M L, Martín-Gil F J, Martín-Gil J, (1988). "DTG and DTA studies on typical sugars". Thermochimica Acta, 134, 55–60. 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258834	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child%20murder	Child murder	Pedicide, child murder, or child homicide is the homicide of an individual who is a minor. Punishment by jurisdiction United States In 2008, there were 1,494 child homicides in the United States. Of those killed, 1,035 were male and 452 were female. Several U.S. states have included child murder to their list of aggravating factors that may make a murder punishable by the death penalty, but the victim’s age under which the crime is a capital crime varies between them. In 2011, Texas raised this age from six to ten. Child manslaughter can result in an aggravated charge in some jurisdictions such as the State of Florida. United Kingdom Any murder in the United Kingdom carries a mandatory life sentence. In England and Wales, murder of a child involving sexual or sadistic conduct or abduction of the victim can result in a whole life order (i.e. life imprisonment without the possibility of parole) being imposed where the offender is at least 21 years old. Sentencing guidelines state that where the offender is under 21, the starting point is a minimum term of 30 years. By other children In most countries, there are very few cases where children are killed by other young children. According to the U.S. Department of Justice statistics for 1996, one in five murders of children were committed by other children. Several murders by children have gained prominent media exposure. One was the killing on 12 February 1993 of the almost 2-year-old boy James Bulger by two 10-year-old boys in Bootle, Merseyside, UK. He was beaten and stoned before his unconscious body was left on train tracks to give the impression that a train had hit him. Bulger's killers became the youngest convicted murderers in the modern history of the United Kingdom. Another notable case in the UK occurred in 1968 in Newcastle upon Tyne, when 10-year-old Mary Bell was convicted of manslaughter due to diminished responsibility in the deaths of toddlers Martin Brown and Brian Howe. She was released in 1980 at the age of 23. In 1998, 8-year-old Madelyn Clifton was killed by 14-year-old Josh Phillips. Media coverage In 1992, after the fatal shooting of 7-year-old Dantrell Davis as he left the Cabrini–Green public housing project for school, the Chicago Tribune put every child murder on the front page (generally no murders were front-page news). 62 child murders were reported that year. Multiple deaths in one incident, such as the 1999 Columbine High School massacre and the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, tend to gather the most media attention but are statistically scarce. Genocide and child soldiers The military use of children refers to children being placed in harm's way in military actions, in order to protect a location or provide propaganda. This is sometimes referred to as child sacrifice, though not equivalent to the religious variety. It may also refer to the use of children as child soldiers or saboteurs. Red Hand Day on February 12th is an annual commemoration day to draw public attention to the practice of using children as soldiers in wars and armed conflicts. "Muti killings" Medicine murder (often referred to as muti killing) is a practice of human sacrifice and mutilation associated with traditional medicinal practices, such as Muti. Victims of muti killings are often children. Organs and/or body parts are usually taken while the child is still alive. An unknown child (referred to as Adam), whose decapitated torso was found in the River Thames in London in 2002 is believed to have been the victim of a muti killing. Murdered children of royalty Alexander IV of Macedon, 323–309 BC Two sons of Queen Dowager Zhao of Qin and her lover Lao Ai, † 238 BC Hieronymus of Syracuse, 231–214 BC Caesarion, June 23, 47 BC – August 23, 30 BC Julia Drusilla, summer of AD 39 – 24 January 41 Diadumenian, Roman co-emperor (May-June 218), September 14, 208 – June 218 Licinius II, Roman co-emperor (317-324), c. 315 – c. 326 Gisald (son of Sigismund of Burgundy), † 1 May 524 Gondebaud (son of Sigismund of Burgundy), † 1 May 524 Théodebald (son of Chlodomer), c. 521-531 Gunthaire (son of Chlodomer), c. 523-531 Tremorus of Brittany (son or stepson of Conomor) - Legendary (6th century AD) Tiberius (son of East-Roman emperor Maurice), † 27 November 602 Petrus (son of East-Roman emperor Maurice), † 27 November 602 Paulus (son of East-Roman emperor Maurice), † 27 November 602 Justin (son of East-Roman emperor Maurice), † 27 November 602 Justinian (son of East-Roman emperor Maurice), † 27 November 602 Merovech (son of Theudebert II of Austrasia), † 612 Tiberius, Byzantine co-emperor (706-711), 705 – December 711 Edward the Martyr, c. 962 – 18 March 978 Several sons of Harald Kesja, some of which might have been minor, were murdered in 1135 Harald (son of Sigurd Munn & Kristin Sigurdsdatter), killed in the 1160s before the age of majority Alexios II Komnenos, 14 September 1169 – September 1183 Vira Bahu I, King of Polonnaruwa, 1179 – 1196 Conradin, Duke of Swabia & King of Jerusalem, 25 March 1252 – 29 October 1268 Şehzade Halil, probably 1346 – 1362 Thong Lan, king of Ayutthaya, c. 1373/74 – c. 1388/89 Chang of Goryeo, September 6, 1381 – December 31, 1389 Yi Bang-Beon (son of Taejo of Joseon & Queen Sindeok), 1381 – October 6, 1398 Yi Bang-Seok (son of Taejo of Joseon & Queen Sindeok), 1382 – October 6, 1398 Danjong of Joseon, August 9, 1441 – December 24, 1457 Alexios V, Trapezuntine emperor, 1454 – November 1, 1463 Edward V of England, November 2, 1470 – c. 1483 Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, August 17, 1473 – c. 1483 Lê Quang Trị, Emperor of Annam, 1509 – May 1516 (his two brothers was killed along with Quang Trị) Feodor Godunov, 1589 – 10 or 20 June 1605 Louis XVII of France, March 27, 1785 – June 8, 1795 Jacques-Victor Henry, Prince Royal of Haiti, March 3, 1804 – October 18, 1820 Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia, June 18, 1901 – July 17, 1918 Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich of Russia, August 12, 1904 – July 17, 1918 See also Amber Alert Bloody Mary (folklore) Cinderella effect Kidnapping Child abuse List of murdered American children Madam Koi Koi Crime of Gádor References Killings by type	[ -0.0611545704305172, 0.021646687760949135, -0.8639125823974609, 0.264935165643692, 0.24634253978729248, 0.7046410441398621, 0.25903064012527466, 0.3462636172771454, -0.6269975900650024, -0.21340887248516083, 0.13309060037136078, 0.3749701678752899, -0.14499594271183014, 0.43062734603881836, -0.7941189408302307, 0.5403655171394348, 0.29014554619789124, 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258838	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davao%20Gulf	Davao Gulf	Davao Gulf is a gulf situated in the southeastern portion of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has an area of or about 520,000 hectares. Davao Gulf cuts into the island of Mindanao from the Philippine Sea. It is surrounded by all five provinces in the Davao Region. The largest island in the gulf is Samal Island. Davao City, on the gulf's west coast, is the largest and busiest port on the gulf. The Bagobo and the Kaagan / Kalagan, who are the indigenous lumad tribes endemic in Davao, are known inhabitants of the said gulf. Wildlife The gulf water is regarded as one of the most diverse cetacean habitats in the nation, being home for at least 10 species of toothed whales and dolphins such as sperm whales and beaked whales. Also whale sharks and sea cows are seen frequently. Furthermore, several ecological phenomena have been observed in the Davao Gulf such as a previously unknown predator of the crown-of-thorns starfish, new species records, and new species discoveries underlining the uniqueness of the marine resources in the Davao Gulf. References Gulfs of the Philippines Gulfs of the Pacific Ocean Philippine Sea Landforms of Davao Oriental Landforms of Davao de Oro Landforms of Davao del Norte Landforms of Davao del Sur Landforms of Davao Occidental	[ -0.5744985938072205, 0.12102971971035004, 0.20971320569515228, 0.06895355135202408, -0.04010956361889839, 0.02592051774263382, -0.4266998767852783, 0.9338392019271851, -0.2702575623989105, -0.48512905836105347, -0.3627348840236664, 0.9692934155464172, 0.05203517526388168, 0.02160864882171154, 0.0976351648569107, 0.7467546463012695, 0.17459797859191895, 0.4342198669910431, 0.4288349747657776, -0.6575781106948853, -0.06049259379506111, -0.7838836908340454, 0.2889688313007355, 0.10019174218177795, 0.4117962121963501, -0.05427316576242447, 0.20462608337402344, 1.173735499382019, 0.1810465306043625, 0.1560327708721161, 0.1989489495754242, 0.39081987738609314, -0.5506643056869507, 0.2503999173641205, -0.10804331302642822, 0.23711027204990387, 0.30172842741012573, 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258839	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule%20hotel	Capsule hotel	Capsule hotel (), also known in the Western world as a pod hotel, is a type of hotel developed in Japan that features many small bed-sized rooms known as capsules. Capsule hotels provide cheap, basic overnight accommodation for guests who do not require or who cannot afford larger, more expensive rooms offered by more conventional hotels. The first capsule hotel in the world opened in 1979 and was the Capsule Inn Osaka, located in the Umeda district of Osaka, Japan and designed by Kisho Kurokawa. From there, it spread to other cities within Japan. Since then, the concept has further spread to various other territories, including Belgium, China, Hong Kong, Iceland, India, Indonesia, and Poland. Description The guest room is a chamber roughly the length and width of a single bed, with sufficient height for a hotel guest to crawl in and sit up on the bed. The chamber walls may be made of wood, metal or any rigid material, but are often fibreglass or plastic. Amenities within the room generally include a small television, air conditioning, an electronic console, and power sockets. The capsules are stacked side-by-side, two units high, with steps or ladders providing access to the second level rooms, similar to bunk beds. The open end of the capsule can be closed with a curtain or a solid door for privacy, but can be locked from the inside only. Like a hostel, many amenities are communally shared, including toilets, showers, wireless internet, and dining rooms. In Japan, a capsule hotel may have a communal bath and sauna. Some hotels also provide restaurants, snack bars or bars (or at least vending machines), pools, and other entertainment facilities. There may be a lounge with upholstered chairs for relaxing, along with newspapers and reading material. Capsule hotels vary in size, from 50 or so capsules to 700, and primarily cater to men. Some capsule hotels offer separate sections for male and female guests, or even separate floors and elevators. Clothes and shoes are exchanged for a yukata and slippers on entry, and a towel and bathrobe may also be provided. Luggage and valuables are usually stored in lockers or—if available—in-room safes. Guests are asked not to smoke or eat in the capsules. Customer base The benefit of these hotels are their convenience and low price, usually around ¥2000–4000 (USD –) a night. In Japan, capsule hotels have been stereotypically used by Japanese salarymen who may be too drunk to return home safely, have missed the last train of the day to make a return trip home, or are too embarrassed to face their spouses. During the Japanese Recession, some unemployed or underemployed workers who had become homeless during the crisis temporarily rented capsules by the month. As of 2010, these customers made up 30% of visitors at the Capsule Hotel Shinjuku 510 in Tokyo. Criticism and disadvantages Due to the arrangement of capsules, Web Urbanist has compared the beds in capsule hotels to corpse drawers in a morgue. In addition, because of the small interior space, Forbes advised that claustrophobic guests should not use capsule hotels. Some hotels may not provide air conditioning in the capsules, leading to poor air flow, especially with the privacy curtain or door shut; furthermore, due to the close proximity of guests, pods with thin plastic walls easily transmit sounds made by other guests bumping into the walls. Because some capsule hotels are designed for single-night stays, guests intending to stay for more than one day must check out and back in again every day. See also Sleepbox Nap pod Transit hotel Bedspace apartment Shipping container architecture Flophouse References External links A list of capsule hotels Hotel types Hotels in Japan Homelessness Products introduced in 1979	[ 0.16813254356384277, 0.303398460149765, 0.21280135214328766, 0.24190445244312286, 0.6390187740325928, 0.23080769181251526, 0.10740678012371063, 0.2013755738735199, -0.24941998720169067, -0.08470924198627472, -0.6954765319824219, 0.058234840631484985, -0.0008322985959239304, 0.3915635943412781, -0.35604387521743774, -0.2954716682434082, 1.0474836826324463, 0.33769726753234863, -0.03519521653652191, -0.2831934690475464, 0.011980858631432056, -0.4178549647331238, 0.05675530433654785, -0.4292024075984955, -0.5108105540275574, -0.4123537540435791, 0.07836122065782547, 0.4553973078727722, 0.2327190786600113, -0.1646183729171753, 0.09233725816011429, 0.736985445022583, 0.3835611045360565, -0.03679313883185387, 0.08289264142513275, -0.2933536469936371, 0.2231338769197464, 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258843	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamboanga%20Peninsula	Zamboanga Peninsula	Zamboanga Peninsula (; ; ) is an administrative region in the Philippines, designated as Region IX. It consists of three provinces (Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga Sibugay and Zamboanga del Sur) including four cities (Dapitan, Dipolog, Isabela and Pagadian), and the highly urbanized Zamboanga City. The region was previously known as Western Mindanao before the signing of Executive Order No. 36 of 2001. The city of Zamboanga was designated as the regional center until Pagadian was designated as its new regional center, although Zamboanga City remains the region's cultural, economic, and educational center. History Ancient era During the ancient era, the Zamboanga peninsula was a vast territory home to various ethnic groups – the largest of which was the Subanen people. Later on, the southern coastal areas of the region was under the influence of the Javanese Majapahit Empire, although the empire never did conquer the area. Sultanate of Maguindanao In the 14th century, the Sultanate of Sulu ruled the southwestern sections of the peninsula. By the late 15th century and early 16th century, Malay missionaries further spread Islam in the southern Philippines. Sharif Kabungsuwan, a Johore-born missionary of Malay and Arab descent established the Sultanate of Maguindanao, which the entire island of Mindanao is named after. The sultanate also occupied the entire island except present-day Caraga region and eastern portions of Davao region, stretching from the Zamboanga Peninsula to modern-day Davao City, while the Sultanate of Sulu lost its territories in Zamboanga. Magauindanao's sultans provided Mindanao fierce armed resistance against the Spanish occupation, especially under the lead of Muhammad Kudarat. They soon allied themselves with the Sulu sultanate. The Muslim natives of the region were collectively known as Moros by the Spanish, meaning "Moor", though the Iberian Moors and the Philippine Muslims had little cultural connection outside of following Islam. A large chunk of the Spanish–Moro conflict, the war between the Spanish and Mindanao's Muslim natives took place in the Zamboanga Peninsula. Spanish rule In 1569 Zamboanga was chosen as the site of the Spanish settlement and garrison on La Caldera (now called Barrio Recodo). Zamboanga was one of the main strongholds in Mindanao, supporting colonizing efforts in the south of the island and making way for Christian settlements. It also served as a military outpost, protecting the island against foreign invaders and Moro pirates and their Chinese allies. The province, named and centered on Zamboanga City was partly founded by Peruvian soldiers brought by Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera. The Zamboanga Peninsula played a central role in the Spanish–Moro conflict. It was the site of constant battling between Spanish soldiers and Moro pirate raids. While the Spanish successfully established churches in the region, they suffered heavily at the hands of Moro raiders, and had to repeatedly withdraw from the region. While the Spanish achieved a tactical victory by launching several attacks against the Sultanate of Sulu, constant fighting and attacks persisted, giving the Moros a psychological victory. Province of Zamboanga After the United States annexed the Spanish East Indies in 1898, the peninsula hosted a briefly independent state called the Republic of Zamboanga. It was incorporated by the Insular Government into the Moro Province, which consisted of the central and western parts of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. The name and status of Moro Province were changed to the Department of Mindanao and Sulu on August 16, 1916, causing Zamboanga to become a separate province. In 1942, the Zamboanga Peninsula along with the rest of the Philippine Islands was occupied by the Empire of Japan at the beginning of the Second World War. The Peninsula was liberated in 1945 by joint American and Philippine Commonwealth forces fighting against the Imperial Japanese Army. On June 6, 1952, the province was partitioned into Zamboanga del Norte and Zamboanga del Sur, while the chartered city of Zamboanga became part of Zamboanga del Sur. Region Together with the Sulu Archipelago, the provinces that formerly made up Zamboanga Province were re-organised into Region IX by order of Presidential Decree No. 1 as part of the Integrated Reorganization Plan of President Ferdinand Marcos, that was signed on September 24, 1972. From 1975 to 1989, the old Region IX (Western Mindanao) was further divided into two sub-regions by Presidential Decree No. 8233 dated August 21, 1975. Sub-Region IX-A consisted of Basilan, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi with Jolo, Sulu, as the sub-regional center, while Sub-Region IX-B consisted of the provinces of Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur and Zamboanga Sibugay, with the chartered city of Zamboanga City as the sub-regional centre. Present In 2001, Zamboanga Sibugay, was created from the province of Zamboanga del Sur with Ipil as the seat of government with the virtue of Republic Act No. 8973. In the same year, the residents of Basilan opted to join the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) in a plebiscite. However, the citizens of the capital, Isabela, did not want to join so the city remained a part of this region as a result of Executive Order No. 36 last until 2014 only. In 2004, Pagadian officially became the Regional Center for Region XVI- Zamboanga Peninsula, despite opposition from Zamboanga City, the former Regional Center. Regional center issue In 1978, Presidential Decree No. 1555 transferred Region IX's regional center from Jolo, Sulu to Zamboanga City. Executive Order (EO) No. 429 was issued in 1990 by President Corazon Aquino which provided for the reorganization of the administrative regions in Mindanao. It declared that Western Mindanao would comprise Zamboanga City, Lanao del Norte, Misamis Occidental, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, Basilan, and the cities comprising those provinces. It also declared that Pagadian City shall serve as the new regional center. In 1996, President Fidel Ramos issued EO No. 325 which reorganized the Regional Development Councils (RDCs). The Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of EO No. 325 also declared Pagadian City as the regional center in Western Mindanao. In 2001, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo signed EO No. 36 which reorganized and renamed Western Mindanao to Zamboanga Peninsula. It was silent on the issue of regional government centers. Memorandum Circular No. 75, signed in 2004 by Executive Secretary Eduardo Ermita, directed the transfer of regional offices from Zamboanga City to Pagadian citing EO 429 as its legal basis. A moratorium on the transfer under Memorandum Circular No. 11 was issued on December 22, 2010, citing the high economic and social costs that the employees were experiencing in maintaining two residences and in fully transferring to Pagadian. It further directed all regional offices that are already in Pagadian to continue their operations. On March 3, 2011, the Regional Development Council IX endorsed Zamboanga as the regional center of Zamboanga Peninsula. This endorsement remains unacted to date. National Economic and Development Authority Regional Director Arturo Valero stated that “even if Zamboanga City is not the regional center, the city will still grow” and that the city should better focus on being a commercial and industrial center. On June 30, 2020, Malacañang, under President Rodrigo Duterte, lifted Memorandum Circular No. 11 (issued by previous administration), allowing the remaining regional offices to transfer to Pagadian after almost 15 years. However, the departments of Trade and Industry, Tourism, and Labor and Employment will remain in Zamboanga City, being the region's center of commerce and industry. Geography The region is located on the western part of the island of Mindanao, that lies between the Moro Gulf (part of the Celebes Sea) and the Sulu Sea. Along the shores of the peninsula are numerous bays and islands of varying sizes. The peninsula is connected to the rest of Mindanao through an isthmus situated between Panguil Bay and Pagadian Bay. The region consists of the three Zamboanga provinces and the highly urbanized independent city of Zamboanga, and the boundary between the peninsula and mainland is artificially marked by the border between the provinces of Zamboanga del Sur and Lanao del Norte. Administrative divisions Zamboanga Peninsula comprises 3 provinces; 1 independent, chartered and highly urbanized; 1 independent, chartered city; 3 component cities; 67 municipalities and 1,904 barangays. Isabela is a component city and the former capital of the province of Basilan. In 2017, the seat of Basilan's government was moved to Lamitan. Isabela continues to be under the jurisdiction of Basilan for the administration of provincially devolved services and functions, but for the administration of regional services, the city is part of the Zamboanga Peninsula Region while the rest of Basilan is under the authority of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. Isabela was the southernmost outpost of the Spanish in the Philippines until the fall of Jolo in 1878. It hosted Catholic residents since 1637, and a Spanish Fort (destroyed in World War II) since 1848, It also was the primary naval base of the Spanish in Mindanao until 1899. Named after Queen Isabella II, the city is the southernmost predominantly Christian enclave of the Philippines, and serves as an entry point for trade and commerce of Basilan island. Dapitan is also known as the "Shrine City in the Philippines" because it was the place where José Rizal, the National Hero, was exiled. It is also known for the old St. James Parish and the beach resort of Dakak. Dipolog, capital of Zamboanga del Norte, is known for their abundance of orchids, thus it is called "Orchid City of the South" or "Orchid City". They have their nature spots and historical spots, such as Dipolog Cathedral, Dipolog Boulevard, Cogon Park, Japanese Park, Plaza Magsaysay, the Sungkilaw Falls, and the 3,003 steps to Linabo Peak. Pagadian is known as the "Little Hong Kong of the South" because of its topographical feature that is reminiscent of Hong Kong. It also has an affluent Chinese community that officially celebrates the Chinese Lunar New Year. Zamboanga City is the only Independent, chartered city and highly urbanized city in the region. The city is the lone member of BIMP-EAGA in the Zamboanga Peninsula. Zamboanga City generates more than half of the economy of the region. It also has the largest airport and seaport and the city in the region with most investors. Demographics Economy It has the first export-processing zone in Mindanao. Farming and fishing are the main economic activities of the region. It also has rice and corn mills, oil processing, coffee berry processing and processing of latex from rubber. Its home industries include rattan and furniture craft, basket making, weaving and brass work. Dipolog City is home to a number of Bottled Sardines Companies which are being exported abroad. Dakak Park and Beach Resort can be found in Dapitan it is one of the most visited places in the region along with Gloria's Fantasyland the first and only theme park in Vismin. Resources The region has vast forest resources and previously used to export logs, lumber, veneer and plywood. Mineral deposits include gold, chromite, coal, iron, lead, and manganese. Among its non-metallic reserves are coal, silica, salt, marble, silica sand, and gravel. Its fishing grounds are devoted to commercial and municipal fishing. It has also aqua farms for brackish water and freshwater fishes. Area of Growth The economic fulcrum of the region lies at the center of the peninsula that is the area connecting Ipil and Liloy. It has the fastest economic activity of the region. The 50-kilometer link between the north and the south would act as the main artery of economy in the region. Infrastructure Roads and Bridges Zamboanga City By-Pass Road – This by-pass road is a 36.77 km with a 12 meter wide, 2 lane road with slope protection, the route starts at the junction of MCLL National Highway and Barangay Culianan, traversing Barangay Culianan – Sinubong. The project was started on January 9, 2012, and was completed on December 28, 2018. References External links Geography of Mindanao Regions of the Philippines Landforms of the Sulu Sea Peninsulas of the Philippines Landforms of Zamboanga del Norte Landforms of Zamboanga del Sur Landforms of Zamboanga Sibugay	[ -0.5065040588378906, 0.1408657729625702, 0.5361306071281433, 0.11630278825759888, -0.1314883679151535, -0.09859690815210342, -0.22738105058670044, 1.2682119607925415, -0.48732686042785645, -0.7105875611305237, -0.10941652208566666, 0.4981316328048706, 0.2596859037876129, 0.14073099195957184, 0.18270285427570343, 0.4636487364768982, 0.900637149810791, 0.37199458479881287, -0.29701709747314453, -0.3557507395744324, -0.05371469259262085, -0.4970756769180298, 0.4337492287158966, -0.06324545294046402, 0.2748415172100067, -0.14039960503578186, 0.31725195050239563, 0.7369821071624756, 0.29349368810653687, 0.25293800234794617, -0.3892804682254791, 0.25709298253059387, -0.43168631196022034, 0.16917765140533447, -0.09960553050041199, 0.19495554268360138, 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258857	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Limerick	University of Limerick	The University of Limerick (UL) () is a higher education institution in Limerick, Ireland. Founded in 1972 as the National Institute for Higher Education, Limerick, it became a university in 1989 in accordance with the University of Limerick Act 1989. It was the first university established since Irish independence in 1922, followed by the establishment of Dublin City University later the same day. UL's campus lies along both sides of the River Shannon, on a site with on the north bank and on the south bank, from the city centre. It has over 11,000 full-time undergraduate students, including over 2,400 international students, and 1,500 part-time students. There are over 800 research postgraduates and 1,300 postgraduate students receiving instruction at the university. Its co-operative education ("co-op") programme offers students an eight-month work placement as part of their degree; it was Ireland's first such programme. Following founding president Edward M. Walsh, Roger GH Downer, John O'Connor, Don Barry and Des Fitzgerald were presidents of UL from 1998 to August 2020. The current president is Professor Kerstin Mey. History Robert Clive was awarded an Irish peerage in 1762, being created Baron Clive of Plassey, County Clare; he bought lands in County Limerick and County Clare, Ireland, naming part of his lands near Limerick City, Plassey. Following Irish independence, these lands became state property. In the 1970s a technical college, which later became the University of Limerick, was built at Plassey. University campaign According to founding president Edward M. Walsh, the mayor of Limerick applied for a Queen's College in the city in 1845; however, Belfast, Cork and Galway were established instead. In 1908 there was an attempt to link the National University of Ireland and Mungret College, about five kilometres from Limerick. Mungret offered bachelor's- and master's-level courses in the faculty of arts, with degrees conferred by the Royal University of Ireland, from 1888 to 1908. The university was dissolved in 1909 and replaced by the National University of Ireland, marking the end of tertiary education at Mungret. Degrees were awarded to students at Mungret College by the NUI from 1909 to 1912 to accommodate students who had matriculated at the Royal University. The campaign for a university in Limerick began in earnest by the late 1950s. The Limerick University Project Committee was founded in September 1959 by the mayor of Limerick in 1957, Ted Russell. Another supporter, Dermot Kinlen, was a High Court judge and the first state inspector general of prisons and places of detention. Russell and Kinlen received honorary degrees from the university in 2002. National Institute for Higher Education, Limerick Successful economic-development policies during the 1960s led to an influx of foreign investment in Ireland and demand for expertise not met by the existing universities. Ireland established the National Institute for Higher Education (NIHE) at Limerick, modelled on the technological universities of continental Europe, and perhaps the polytechnic approach being developed in the UK. Edward Walsh took office as chairman of the planning board and director of the institute on 1 January 1970. This more twentieth-century and continental approach is illustrated by its use of funding from the World Bank, European Investment Bank and philanthropists. Construction on phase one, for example, used financing from the World Bank. Faculty and staff were recruited internationally, and they — in addition to extensive teaching and research facilities — attracted foreign investment led by Analog Devices (which manufactured Ireland's first silicon chips). The first students were enrolled in 1972, when the institute was opened by Taoiseach Jack Lynch. The European Investment Bank financed the second phase of development. Billionaire philanthropist Chuck Feeney was a major donor to the university. Shannon Development was also an early supporter of the project, supporting the NIHE proposal to establish the National Technological Park as an integrated campus. A change of government resulted in NIHE Limerick applying for recognition as a recognised college of the National University of Ireland, which awarded degrees to its graduates in 1977. After strong opposition by students and others, NIHE Limerick withdrew from the NUI and was established as an independent institution. From 1978 to 1988, the National Council for Educational Awards (NCEA) was the degree-awarding authority for NIHE Limerick. University status In 1989, NIHE Limerick was established by legislation as the University of Limerick and NIHE Dublin was established as Dublin City University, each with the power to award its own degrees. These became the first institutes since Irish independence to be given the title "university". Expansion occurred in 1991, after the incorporation of Thomond College of Education, Limerick. Thomond, sharing a common campus, was founded in 1973 as the National College of Physical Education and became the department of educational and professional studies, focusing on secondary education. Since 1991, degrees from Mary Immaculate College, Limerick have also been awarded by UL. MIC degrees are offered in primary education and arts programmes, and degrees awarded at St. Patrick's College, Thurles have been conferred by UL since 2012. University history under the leadership of founding president Edward M Walsh is profiled in Walsh's 2011 memoir, Upstart: Friends, Foes and Founding a University. Ireland's American university Elements of the US university system were adopted, including cooperative education, grade point average marking and the trimester system. During the 1970s, limited public financing led Walsh and his team to seek World Bank and European Investment Bank funding. Sophisticated private-sector fundraising programmes were later developed, based on US university models and guided by an international leadership board under founding chair Chuck Feeney and Lewis Glucksman. The campus developed primarily as a result of such fundraising activity. The university has been an active participant in the European Union's Erasmus Programme since 1988 and has 207 partner institutions in 24 European countries. In addition, UL students may study at partner universities in the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, China and Singapore. UL allied with NUI Galway in 2010, sharing resources. Presidents Edward M. Walsh, founding president (1972–1998) Roger Downer (1998–2006) John O'Connor (2006–2007) Don Barry (2007–2017) Desmond Fitzgerald (2017–2020) Kerstin Mey (interim from 2020, confirmed 2021) Organisation Governance In accordance with legislation, the University is directed by a policy-making Governing Authority, whose functions are outlined in the National Institute for Higher Education, Limerick, Act, 1980, amended in the University of Limerick Act, 1989, which raised the institution's status to that of a university and provided for related matters. There are several other important acts concerning the college include the Universities Act, 1997, which allows for the creation of University Statutes. The Governing Authority's 29 members are chosen by a wide range of groups and authorities and include members elected by staff (in various classes) and students (ex-officio based on elections of Students Union officers). The university is headed, titularly, by the Chancellor. As of 2019, the Chancellor of the University of Limerick is Mary Harney, Tanaiste for 9 years and the first female leader of an Irish political party. Previous chancellors included Miriam Hederman O'Brien and Seán Donlon. Faculty The university has four faculties: Kemmy Business School (Scoil Ghnó Kemmy) Faculty of Education and Health Sciences (including the Graduate Medical School) Faculty of Science and Engineering Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences Two colleges are linked to the university: Mary Immaculate College and MIC, St. Patrick's Campus, Thurles. Kemmy Business School has four academic departments, which are Accounting & Finance, Economics, Management & Marketing, and Personnel & Employment Relations. The school's courses include accounting, finance, economics, marketing, and risk management among other courses. The Kemmy Business School is the first European university to have a custom-designed campus trading floor, which uses the trading software Bloomberg Professional. Through the Kemmy school, students have the option of completing the Bloomberg certification. Named after the former mayor of Limerick, Jim Kemmy, the business school has both undergraduate and postgraduate courses on offer. Students UL has a students' union, representing the student body. It is presided over by three sabbatical officers: a president, an academic officer and a welfare officer. Policy decisions are made by the sabbatical officers and the class representation council. ULSU is the representative body for the 13,500 UL students. The union operates from their office in the main courtyard, which has been refurbished and provides a place for students to relax throughout the day. ULSU Ents, part of the students' union, organises entertainment for university students throughout the year. Most take place during Freshers Week and Charity Week. The university also has a postgraduate students' union with a full-time, sabbatical postgraduate president representing the postgraduate student body. It is one of two Irish universities with such a position. Clubs and societies UL has over 70 student-run clubs and societies. Clubs are supported by the students' union, the sports department and the arts office. In March 2014, the clubs and societies refused to recognise the Pro-Life Society—the first society not recognised by the student council. Since then, every new club or society must be voted on by the council and undergo a trial period (usually 14 weeks). President's Volunteer Award The President's Volunteer Award (PVA), administered by the university's community-liaison office, was established to harness, acknowledge and support the contributions which students at the University of Limerick make to their communities. It draws on a strong tradition of student volunteerism on and off-campus. The PVA's primary goals are: To sustain and foster a culture of volunteerism, active citizenship and civic engagement among the student population To develop collaborative projects and further existing initiatives between UL and the community To formally acknowledge and support the contributions which UL student volunteers make to the community To promote the development of civic and leadership skills in students. Rankings The university is ranked fourth in attracting students who attain over 500 points on the Leaving Certificate. It is the only college in Ireland to receive a maximum five stars for its sports facilities. UL was ranked 471–480 worldwide in the 2011 QS World University Rankings and 71–80 for universities less than 50 years old. Its highest QS ranking (394) was reached in 2008, and its science and engineering faculty was ranked 364th worldwide. It was the 2015 University of the Year in the Sunday Times Good University Guide because of the university's record in graduate employability, improved academic performance, the €52-million Bernal Project and a strong record in research commercialisation. UL is Ireland's only university to receive five stars for graduate employability and teaching in the 2011–12 QS reports. The school also received five stars for infrastructure, internationalisation, innovation and engagement. Science and engineering The arts UL is home to the Irish World Academy of Music and Dance, a centre for innovation and research in music and dance performance and scholarship, and the Irish Chamber Orchestra (Ireland's leading international chamber orchestra, funded by An Chomhairle Ealaíon (the Irish Arts Council). All three organisations commission and perform new Irish music and dance. The University Concert Hall (UCH) is UL's principal venue for the performing arts. The 1,000-seat hall was Ireland's first purpose-built concert hall. The Bourn Vincent Gallery is UL's principal venue for temporary exhibitions, with an ancillary programme of seminars, lectures and performances. UL's art collection includes outdoor sculpture by international artists, including Michael Warren, Peter Logan, Alexandra Wejchert, James McKenna, Tom Fitzgerald, Antony Gormley and (most recently) Sean Scully. Housing Many housing districts near UL have a majority-student population, especially in the adjacent Castletroy area. In recent years, several large student apartment complexes have been built a 15-20-minute walk from UL with Section 50 tax incentives. Unlike most similar Irish higher education institutes, much housing is on-campus; there are five on-campus student villages, the newest opening in 2006. The oldest is Plassey Village, opposite UL's main gate. Accommodating 424 students in terraced houses with four or eight bedrooms and a kitchen-living area, it is primarily occupied by first-year students. Built from 1987 to 1992 in four phases, it has a village hall and many small gardens. During the summers of 2010 and 2011, the village's residences were renovated. Kilmurry Village, the second-oldest student village, is on the east of the campus. It accommodates 540 students in six- or eight-bedroom terraced houses. It is the closest village to the University Arena, which has an Olympic-standard 50-metre swimming pool. The village was built between 1994 and 1997 in two phases. Minor renovations were made during summer 2011, primarily to the kitchens. Dromroe Village, completed in 2001, is on the south bank of the Shannon. The first high-rise building houses 457 students in six-, four- or two-bedroom ensuite apartments. Thomond Village, which opened for the autumn 2004 semester, were the first university buildings on the north bank of the Shannon in County Clare. It has accommodation for 504 students in six-, four-, two- and one-bedroom apartments. Cappavilla Village, the newest student village, opened in September 2006 on the North Bank near the new Health Sciences Building. An extension of Cappavilla opened in September 2007. Many off-campus student accommodations vary in distance from the campus. Elm Park, College Court, Briarfield and Oaklawns are popular estates with many student residences. Troy Student Village and Courtyard Hall, privately managed student residences slightly further from the campus, are served by a shuttle bus. Sport University Arena The on-campus University Arena is Ireland's largest indoor sports complex. Open since 2002, it consists of the National 50m Swimming Pool. The arena's Indoor Sports Hall has four wooden courts for a variety of sports, a sprint track, an international 400m athletics track and a 200m, three-lane, suspended jogging track. The facility has a cardiovascular and strength-training centre, a weight-training room, team rooms, an aerobics studio and classrooms. The Arena is often used by the Munster rugby team. Its €28 million development was made possible with €7.6 million in government grants, a €6.9 million donation from the University of Limerick Foundation, about €4 million in student contributions and commercial funding. Each year, it accommodates over 500,000 customers and many international athletes and teams. The arena hosted the 2010 Special Olympics Ireland Games, from 9 to 13 June. In one of the year's largest Irish sporting events, 1,900 Special Olympians from throughout Ireland participated in the games. All-weather sports complex UL's €9 million, all-weather sports complex on the North Campus is the largest all-weather sports-field complex in Europe. The multi-purpose, floodlit, artificial turf park has two soccer, one rugby and one GAA pitch. Third-generation all-weather surfaces are similar to natural grass and are designed for full contact. Each full-size pitch can be sub-divided to create smaller playing areas for various sports. The largest artificial-grass development in Ireland to date, it is designed to World Rugby, GAA and FIFA specifications. The synthetic surface reduces the risk of injury caused by hard or uneven surfaces. The Sports Pavilion Building has changing rooms, squad and coaching rooms and bar, restaurant and conference facilities. The complex is funded from a number of sources, including operating income and campus-based commercial activities. The playing pitches opened in July 2011, and the Sports Pavilion was expected to open in November 2011. The facility is available to the general public as well as the campus community. In addition to these facilities, conventional playing fields, tennis courts, an artificial-turf pitch, an outdoor athletics track and the University Boathouse are on the Limerick side of the river. The boathouse has Ireland's only indoor rowing tank, which can accommodate up to 8 rowers simultaneously. The tank can simulate a variety of water conditions, providing training opportunities for rowers to reach international standards. The building also includes a launch jetty into the Shannon, a pontoon and a café. Expansion The university's Foundation Building, including the University Concert Hall (home to the Irish Chamber Orchestra), the library and several others, were built during the 1990s. The Materials & Surface Science Institute (MSSI) building, Dromroe Student Village, a sports arena and swimming pool were built between 2000 and 2004. In 2005, the Engineering Research Building and Millstream Courtyard buildings opened in a complex near the Foundation Building. The Kemmy Business School building was constructed next to the Schuman Building, and will be the world's first business school with a live trading floor. Several new buildings have opened on the north bank of the Shannon. The University Bridge, opened in late 2004, provides road and pedestrian access to the planned North Bank campus. Thomond Village was the first North Bank facility (opening in 2004), followed by the Health Sciences Building in 2005. The Living Bridge, a pedestrian bridge, connects the Millstream Courtyard and the Health Sciences Building. Cappavilla Village was completed in mid-2006 on the North Bank; a building for the Irish World Music Centre (formerly in the Foundation Building basement), began construction in May 2007 and was completed in January 2010. An architectural-faculty building is under construction opposite the CSIS building. The university hopes to expand the North Bank campus to the size of the original campus. Construction timeline 1972 – Physical Education and Sport Sciences Building (originally home to the Thomond College of Education, and renovated in 2012) 1974 – Main Building, phase 1A (Blocks A and B) 1978 – Schrödinger Building 1984 – Main Building, phase 1B (Blocks C—extended in 1996—D and E) 1985–99 – Student Centre (including the Students' Union building) 1992 – Robert Schuman Building 1993 – Foundation Building (with the University Concert Hall) 1996 – Kathleen Lonsdale Building 1997 – Glucksman Library and Information Services Building 1999 – Computer Science Building 2000–01 – University Arena 2002 – MSSI Building 2005 – Engineering Research Building and Millstream Courtyard 2005 – Health Sciences Building 2007 – Living Bridge 2007 – Jim Kemmy Business School 2008 – University of Limerick Boathouse (student-funded, with storage and training space for rowing, kayak, mountain-bike and sub-aqua clubs) 2008 – Irish Chamber Orchestra Building 2009 – Languages Building 2009 – Academy of World Music and Dance 2011 – School of Medicine (graduate) 2011 – Tierney Building 2011 – Lero and IEC Building 2013 – Bernal Building and MSSI extension 2015 – Analog Devices Building 2017 – The Stables Club Renovation 2018 – Glucksman Library Extension 2020 - New Student Centre (delayed indefinitely) - Construction of the €20 million building began in 2019, however, the contractor for the project, Keating Construction, collapsed into liquidation in February 2021 with debts of €30 million. Construction is currently suspended. 2021 - Climbing Wall Centre Limerick 2030 UL has committed to a presence in Limerick city centre as part of the Limerick 2030 plan to help drive renewal of the city centre. All the university's main faculties are presently in Castletroy, about 5 km from the city centre. Former UL president Don Barry outlined his vision of the plan in July 2013: "My dream is that in a few years’ time, there will be hundreds of students of the university participating in the life of the city, learning in the city, recreating in the city and contributing to the revitalisation of the Limerick city centre. Limerick is our city and we are its university." Notable alumni and staff See also University of Limerick Students' Union Education in the Republic of Ireland List of universities in the Republic of Ireland List of public art in Limerick Footnotes External links Official website University of Limerick Writing Center Google Maps hybrid view (low resolution) Enterprise Research Centre Lero 1972 establishments in Ireland Buildings and structures in Limerick (city) Education in Limerick (city) Educational institutions established in 1972 Universities and colleges in the Republic of Ireland Universities using Problem-based learning Universities established in the 1980s	[ 0.05691500008106232, 0.11946447938680649, 0.29950639605522156, -0.6569370627403259, -0.1274740844964981, 0.7188979983329773, 0.7267746925354004, 0.9706941246986389, -0.16837000846862793, -0.5538314580917358, -0.5971076488494873, 0.348704069852829, 0.32087868452072144, 0.3236316442489624, 0.5945661664009094, -0.4464714229106903, 0.4754979610443115, 0.008379277773201466, 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258859	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stafford%20Castle	Stafford Castle	Stafford Castle is an ancient Grade II listed castle situated two miles west of the town of Stafford in Staffordshire, England. From the time of the Norman Conquest and as recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 it was the seat of the powerful Anglo-Norman Stafford family (originally de Tosny, later via a female line de Stafford), feudal barons of Stafford, later Barons Stafford (1299) by writ, Earls of Stafford (1351) and Dukes of Buckingham (1444). The 14th-century stone keep was demolished in 1643, during the Civil War, having been held for the Royalists by Lady Isabel Stafford. The castle was remodeled in the early 19th century by the Jerningham family in the Gothic Revival style, on the foundations of the medieval structure, and incorporates much of the original stonework. Today the A518 Stafford-to-Newport Road passes next to it and it is a prominent local landmark visible from the M6 motorway and from the West Coast inter-city mainline. History A Saxon castle at Stafford The early historian of Staffordshire Robert Plot cited the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (104) for evidence that Æthelflæd, the Saxon warrior-princess and ruler of the Mercians, built a castle at Stafford in the year 913, along with an adjacent burg (meaning a fortified town). However, the exact site of this first castle, probably made of wood, is now unknown. Medieval Saxon Shortly before the castle was built the Saxon Eadric the Wild had led a failed rebellion which culminated in the defeat of the Saxons at the Battle of Stafford in 1069. Norman A wooden castle was built on the site at some time in the 1070s by the Norman magnate Robert de Stafford (c.1039–c.1100) (alias Robert de Tosny/Toeni, etc.) who arrived in England during or shortly after the Norman Conquest of 1066 and was awarded by King William the Conqueror 131 manors in his newly conquered kingdom, predominantly in the county of Staffordshire. Thus he was able to control and extract taxes from the native Anglo-Saxon community and to prepare for the Norman invasion of Wales in 1081. The castle was originally a timber and earth fortification, built on modified glacial deposit. The first castle was built in the usual form of a motte and bailey. Ralph de Stafford, 1st Earl of Stafford, one of the King's leading commanders in the first phases of the Hundred Years' War, sealed a contract with a master mason in 1347, ordering a stone castle to be built on the castle mound. The rectangular stone keep originally had a tower in each corner, but was later adapted, with a fifth tower being added on in the middle of the north wall (actually facing west). Early Modern The stone castle reached its heyday during the time of Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham (1402-1460), who was killed at the Battle of Northampton in 1460. His grandson Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham (1455-1483) had become a ward of the Yorkists and was initially a supporter of Richard III, but later rebelled in favour of the aborted invasion of Henry Tudor (Henry VII) in 1483, and paid with his life. His son Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham (1478-1521) escaped and was later restored to his lands by a grateful King Henry VII. In 1511 the 3rd Duke built himself a further grand residence at Thornbury Castle in Gloucestershire, effectively a fortified manor house. His royal blood made him a threat to Henry VIII, who had him executed in 1521, when the family's estates, including Stafford Castle and its deer parks, escheated to the Crown. The king's auditors commented favourably on the deer to be had in the parks and thought the castle might be a suitable stop-off on one of the King's progresses. Stafford Castle, along with a small parcel of land, was restored to the later Staffords, but they never regained the wealth or status of earlier years. Through lack of maintenance, the keep fell into disrepair and in 1603 Edward Stafford, 3rd Baron Stafford referred in a letter to 'My rotten castle of Stafford.' During the early phases of the Civil War in 1643 it was held by Lady Isabel Stafford (née Isabel Forster), a staunch Roman Catholic and Royalist, the widow of Edward Stafford, 4th Baron Stafford (1572-1625), who had been buried at the Castle Church, Stafford. The Parliamentarians had captured the town of Stafford on 15 May 1643, following a brief siege, but some of its garrison escaped and held Stafford Castle, in the hope of using it as a bridgehead to recapture the town. Colonel William Brereton rode up to the castle with some of his men and called upon Lady Stafford to surrender, to which she refused. In response "some of the poor outhouses were set on fire to try whether these would work their spirits to any relenting. All in vain, for from the castle they shot some of our men and horses which did much enrage and provoke the rest to an act of fierce revenge. Almost all the dwelling houses and outhouses were burnt to the ground." The siege was raised when Colonel Hastings led a relief column which arrived on 5 June. Lady Stafford was eventually persuaded to leave, a small garrison remaining to defend the castle against a renewed siege. Finally, in late June, the Royalist garrison fled, having heard that a large Parliamentarian army was approaching, complete with siege cannon capable of overwhelming the small garrison. The castle then fell into Parliamentarian control and was demolished. On 22 December, not many months after its capture, the "Parliamentarian Committee of Stafford" ordered: "the Castle shall be forthwith demolished." When the traveller and diarist, Celia Fiennes passed through the town of Stafford in 1698, she noted: "...the castle which is now ruinated and there only remains on a hill the fortified trenches that are grown over green." Re-emergence By the 1790s only a single low wall remained to be seen above ground, and that was at risk of falling. Some workmen employed to underpin this wall discovered the buried castle basements and foundations, which ran off from the wall. Realising the likely extent of these basements, and the possibility of treasures within, they brought their discovery to the attention of Sir William Jerningham. Jerningham immediately ordered all the foundations and basements to be uncovered, and the whole mound to be cleared of overgrowth. The castle was partly rebuilt in the Gothic Revival Style from 1813. Yet this work was soon discontinued partly through the lack of funds, and also because the Jerningham family were elevated to the peerage (one of their motives for the restoration project). Dubbed by some as a 'folly', this was never the case, as the Keep was always intended to be lived in, and was occupied well into the 20th century. Post-war In the immediate post-war years, the mature woodland that surrounded the Keep was felled, which may have led to the structure being exposed to high winds. By 1949 large pieces of masonry had begun to fall from the towers, which were declared unsafe. Mr. and Mrs. Stokes, the last caretakers of the castle and its grounds, vacated the building that winter. The site became a target for vandals and in 1961 Lord Stafford gave the Keep to the local authority. In 1978 professional excavations began to reveal the complex archaeology of the site, which had been for generations the seat of one of the most important families in the region. The excavations continued for many years, becoming one of the area's biggest employers of young people during the severe economic depression of the early 1980s. These excavations and establishment of a reconstructed medieval herb garden were documented over many years by the BBC. On the site's official public opening in 1988, a heritage trail was established with signage and interpretation, and new fencing on improved trails. In 1992 a new purpose-built museum and gift/refreshments shop opened on-site below the castle mound. See also Castles in Great Britain and Ireland List of castles in England Listed buildings in Stafford (Outer Area) References External links Stafford Castle and Visitor Centre - official site and visiting information at Stafford Borough Council Stafford Historys article on Stafford Castle (staffordhistory.co.uk/stafford-castle) Stafford Castle (staffordtown.co.uk) Castles in Staffordshire Buildings and structures in Stafford Tourist attractions in Staffordshire Ruins in Staffordshire Grade II listed buildings in Staffordshire Historic house museums in Staffordshire Motte-and-bailey castles	[ -0.45249173045158386, 0.013694380410015583, 0.7292951345443726, -1.1475896835327148, -0.01228608749806881, 0.7165255546569824, 0.9114598035812378, -0.4465702772140503, -0.6112644076347351, -0.08510053902864456, -0.13786526024341583, 0.20029319822788239, -0.351876437664032, 0.13880093395709991, -0.7638294100761414, 0.49721959233283997, 0.247881680727005, 0.5098111629486084, 0.4910249412059784, 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258863	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted%20Kulongoski	Ted Kulongoski	Theodore Ralph Kulongoski ( ; born November 5, 1940) is an American politician, judge, and lawyer who served as the 36th Governor of Oregon from 2003 to 2011. A member of the Democratic Party, he served in both houses of the Oregon Legislative Assembly and also served as the state Insurance Commissioner. He was the Attorney General of Oregon from 1993 to 1997 and an Associate Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court from 1997 to 2001. Kulongoski has served in all three branches of the Oregon state government. Early life and education Kulongoski was born in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1940. He was four years old when his father died, and spent the rest of his childhood in a Catholic boys' home. After High school, Kulongoski served in the Marines. With the help of the G.I. Bill, he obtained an undergraduate and law degree from the University of Missouri in 1970. Career After graduating from law school, Kulongoski moved to Eugene, Oregon, and became a labor lawyer. In 1974, Kulongoski was elected to the Oregon House of Representatives and, in 1978, to the Oregon State Senate. In Oregon's 1980 United States Senate election, he ran an unsuccessful race against Republican Bob Packwood. In 1982, he made his first bid for governor; he was defeated by Republican incumbent Victor G. Atiyeh. At the 1980 Democratic National Convention then-State Senator and U.S. Senate nominee Kulongoski received 8 (0.24%) delegate votes for Vice President of the United States. Kulongoski was not a candidate and incumbent Walter Mondale was easily renominated. In 1987, Oregon Governor Neil Goldschmidt appointed Kulongoski to the post of state insurance commissioner. In that role, Kulongoski reformed the state's workers' compensation insurance system, a move that is widely credited for lowering costs to business. 1992 and 1996 elections In 1992, Kulongoski was elected as Oregon Attorney General, defeating Republican Rich Rodeman. As Attorney General, he focused on reforming the juvenile justice system. In 1996, Kulongoski decided against running for re-election as Attorney General, and instead successfully ran for the Oregon Supreme Court. He resigned from the court in 2001 to run for governor. 2002 gubernatorial election After winning the Democratic party nomination in the 2002 race for governor, Kulongoski's opponent was Republican Kevin Mannix. Kulongoski ran a low-key campaign, emphasizing his reputation as a consensus-builder and problem solver. His television commercials featured such feel-good scenes as the candidate bowling. He argued for a pragmatic approach to solving the state's budget crisis and recession, a marked departure from the more confrontational style of outgoing governor (and fellow Democrat) John Kitzhaber. Mannix argued that the Democratic Party had held the governorship in Oregon too long, and pledged to reduce government spending without cutting vital services. Kulongoski narrowly won the election, winning 618,004 votes (49%), with 581,785 votes (46%) going to Mannix, and 57,760 votes (5%) going to Libertarian candidate Tom Cox. Kulongoski took office on January 13, 2003. He inherited a state facing a massive budget deficit and high unemployment. Furthermore, he faced the task of dealing with problems with the public employees' pension system without angering the labor unions that backed his campaign. As Governor, he was a member of the National Governors Association and the Democratic Governors Association. 2006 gubernatorial election On December 1, 2005, the Eugene Register-Guard reported that former Democratic Governor John Kitzhaber was considering challenging Kulongoski in the Democratic primary. One month later, Kitzhaber announced he would not do so, as did another potential Democratic rival, State Senator Vicki Walker. This left Kulongoski with two challengers: Lane County Commissioner Pete Sorenson, and former State treasurer Jim Hill, both of whom accused Kulongoski of betraying Democratic Party principles. Stated Hill, "From my standpoint, [the Democratic Party primary debate] is a good opportunity to show what a horrible Democrat Ted has been". The Service Employees International Union Local 503 endorsed Jim Hill, and the Multnomah County Democratic Central Committee decided to endorse Kulongoski's rivals but not him at a February 19, 2006 meeting. On May 16, 2006, Kulongoski won the Democratic primary with 54% of the vote. Jim Hill finished second with 25%, Pete Sorenson third with 16% of the vote. Kulongoski faced multiple opponents in the general election: Republican Party candidate Ron Saxton, Constitution Party candidate Mary Starrett, Libertarian Party candidate Richard Morley, and Pacific Green Party candidate Joe Keating. Former Republican Ben Westlund planned on running as independent, but on August 10, 2006, withdrew from the race, stating that "I made a commitment to the people of Oregon that I was in it to win it and that I absolutely would not play a spoiler role". On November 7, 2006, Kulongoski won a second term, 51% to 43% over Ron Saxton. Second term In February 2007, Kulongoski and State Senator Brad Avakian worked to clarify that Oregon recognizes no position of "state climatologist" in response to the use of that title by Oregon State University professor George H. Taylor, who believes that human activities are not the main cause of global climate change. Kulongoski said the state needs a consistent message on reducing greenhouse gases to combat climate change. Beginning the week of April 24, 2007, Kulongoski gained national attention when he joined a campaign, known as the food stamp challenge, that portrays the difficulty living on the average weekly food stamp allotment of $21. Kulongski announced May 8, 2007 that Oregon will join the Climate Registry to track dangerous greenhouse gas emissions. Kulongoski signed two LGBT rights bills into law: a domestic partnership bill and an anti-discrimination bill at a ceremony May 9, 2007. In May 2010, Kulongoski suffered a vitreous hemorrhage in the eye due to fragile, abnormal blood vessels that have grown in the retina of the eye. According to Kulongoski spokeswoman Anna Richter Taylor, he was scheduled for outpatient surgery at Oregon Health & Science University on June 30, 2010, to surgically remove the vitreous gel from the middle of the eye so full vision can be restored. In September 2010, Kulongoski was one of seven governors to receive a grade of F in the Cato Institute's fiscal policy report card. Later life After leaving the governor's office, he was appointed by John Kitzhaber to the Public Safety Commission as part of a review of Oregon's sentencing guidelines. In 2012, Kulongoski joined the faculty at Portland State University in the school's Mark O. Hatfield School of Government. Electoral history References External links Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski (official state site) biography Ted Kulongoski in the Oregon State Voter's Guide, 2006 May primary \|- \|- \|- 1940 births Living people Politicians from St. Louis Oregon Democrats Governors of Oregon Members of the Oregon House of Representatives Oregon Attorneys General Oregon state senators Justices of the Oregon Supreme Court Jewish American state governors of the United States Jews and Judaism in Portland, Oregon United States Marines University of Missouri alumni American politicians of Polish descent Democratic Party state governors of the United States State insurance commissioners of the United States 21st-century American politicians Catholics from Missouri 21st-century American Jews	[ -0.3556123673915863, -0.1723998337984085, -0.5174020528793335, 0.11634142696857452, -0.025390489026904106, 0.4371030330657959, 0.5716941952705383, 0.1531009078025818, -0.491840660572052, -0.032233525067567825, 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258868	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waikikamukau	Waikikamukau	Waikikamukau (, as if saying "Why kick a moo cow") is a generic name for a small rural town or locality in New Zealand. New Zealanders use the name as a placeholder name for "any town" or to denote a non-specific but remote rural town. It has a similar connotation to the New Zealand slang Wop Wops and the Australian term Woop Woop and other appellations such as the "Boondocks" or "Timbuktu". The name is a joking reference to the frequency of New Zealand place names starting with "Wai" (Māori for water, and used in the names of many rivers and nearby towns). Waikikamukau is reputed to specifically refer to the town of Waipukurau in the North Island. The origins are hazy but one account is that the American servicemen stationed in NZ during the Second World War found it difficult to pronounce the place name and thus jokingly called it Waikikamukau. However the name has been in use at least since 1930. It was used as the name of a successful racehorse in the 1990s. Waikikamukau was also used as the setting for a Nickelodeon telemovie, Rocket Power: Race Across New Zealand. 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258870	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riothamus	Riothamus	Riothamus (also spelled Riutimus or Riotimus) was a Romano-British military leader, who was active circa AD 470. He fought against the Goths in alliance with the declining Western Roman Empire. He is called "King of the Britons" by the 6th-century historian Jordanes, but the extent of his realm is unclear. Some Arthurian scholars identify Riothamus as one of the possible sources of the legendary King Arthur. Name Riothamus is a Latinization of the Brythonic Rigotamos, meaning 'Great King', 'Kingliest'. Alternatively, it may come from Brittonic Riotamos, meaning 'Freest" The Brittonic form survived into Old Welsh as Riatav (Modern Welsh Rhiadaf) and Old Breton Riat(h)am. Realm It is not clear whether Jordanes' "Britons" refers to the Britons of Great Britain itself, or of Armorica, which was undergoing significant British settlement and later came to be known as Brittany. The Old Breton name Riatam, which (like Riothamus) is derived from Brittonic *Rigotamos, appears in medieval Breton records (primarily biographies of early Breton saints) as one of the Princes of Domnonée (a coastal region in Brittany which takes its name from Dumnonia in southern Britain). He is identified as a son of Deroch II. For chronological reasons, this Riatam is probably a different individual from Jordanes' Riothamus, who lived earlier. Correspondence with Sidonius Apollinaris More secure information is provided by a letter which has survived that was written to Riothamus from Sidonius Apollinaris, bishop of Clermont, who requested his judgment for "an obscure and humble person" who had had his slaves enticed away by a group of armed Bretons. According to C.E.V. Nixon, the letter is evidence that Armorica at this time was becoming "like a magnet to peasants, coloni, slaves and the hard-pressed" as Roman power weakened. Poorer subjects of Rome with no stake in land ownership found Breton territory to be a safe haven from the Goths. The letter Sidonius Riothamo suo salutem. Servatur nostri consuetudo sermonis: namque miscemus cum salutatione querimoniam, non omnino huic rei studentes, ut stilus noster sit officiosus in titulis, asper in paginis, sed quod ea semper eveniunt, de quibus loci mei aut ordinis hominem constat inconciliari, si loquatur, peccare, si taceat. sed et ipsi sarcinam vestri pudoris inspicimus, cuius haec semper verecundia fuit, ut pro culpis erubesceretis alienis. Gerulus epistularum humilis obscurus despicabilisque etiam usque ad damnum innocentis ignaviae mancipia sua Britannis clam sollicitantibus abducta deplorat. incertum mihi est an sit certa causatio; sed si inter coram positos aequanimiter obiecta discingitis, arbitror hunc laboriosum posse probare quod obicit, si tamen inter argutos armatos tumultuosos, virtute numero contubernio contumaces, poterit ex aequo et bono solus inermis, abiectus rusticus, peregrinus pauper audiri. vale. Translation To his friend Riothamus I will write once more in my usual strain, mingling compliment with grievance. Not that I at all desire to follow up the first words of greeting with disagreeable subjects, but things seem to be always happening which a man of my order and in my position can neither mention without unpleasantness, nor pass over without neglect of duty. Yet I do my best to remember the burdensome and delicate sense of honour which makes you so ready to blush for others' faults. The bearer of this is an obscure and humble person, so harmless, insignificant, and helpless that he seems to invite his own discomfiture; his grievance is that the Bretons are secretly enticing his slaves away. Whether his indictment is a true one, I cannot say; but if you can only confront the parties and decide the matter on its merits, I think the unfortunate man may be able to make good his charge, if indeed a stranger from the country unarmed, abject and impecunious to boot, has ever a chance of a fair or kindly hearing against adversaries with all the advantages he lacks, arms, astuteness, turbulences, and the aggressive spirit of men backed by numerous friends. Farewell. War with the Goths Jordanes states that Riothamus supported the Romans against the Visigoths led by Euric (who lived c. 440 – 484). In The Origin and Deeds of the Goths, he states that Riothamus brought a British army to supplement Roman forces but suffered defeat fighting against overwhelming odds when the Goths intercepted his force: Jordanes, Getica, XLV.237–238 Translation A letter from Sidonius Apollinaris to his friend Vincentius, written circa 468 AD, records that Roman officials intercepted a letter written by the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, Arvandus, to the Visigothic king Euric stating that "the Britons stationed beyond the Loire should be attacked" and that the Visigoths and Burgundians (who were at the time clients of the Romans) should divide Gaul between them; this has led some scholars (such as Geoffrey Ashe) to suggest that Arvandus betrayed Riothamus. This letter does not mention Riothamus by name, however, and (based on the reconstruction of the chronology of Sidonius' letters), it is possible that Riothamus and his forces were not the direct subject of Arvandus' message to Euric, as Arvandus was already under arrest and on his way to Rome before Riothamus had even entered the fray against the Visigoths, sometime between 470 and 472 AD (the latter being the year of emperor Anthemius' death). Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, II.18 Gregory of Tours seems to react to the outcome of the battle between the Visigoths and Britons: Translation Riothamus as King Arthur or Ambrosius Aurelianus Riothamus has been identified as a candidate for the historical King Arthur by several scholars over the centuries, notably the historian Geoffrey Ashe, primarily due to Riothamus's activities in Gaul, which bear a casual resemblance to King Arthur's Gallic campaign as first recorded by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his fictional Historia Regum Britanniae. Geoffrey Ashe has suggested a link between Riothamus' alleged betrayal by Arvandus and Arthur's betrayal by Mordred in the Historia Regum Britanniae, and proposes that Riothamus' last known position was near the Burgundian town of Avallon (not noted by any ancient source mentioning Riothamus), which he suggests is the basis for the Arthurian connection to Avalon. Academic historian Léon Fleuriot argued that Riothamus is identical to Ambrosius Aurelianus, an historical figure in Britain around this time who, in the early narratives containing Arthur, preceded Arthur. Fleuriot suggested that "Riothamus" was Aurelianus' title as overlord of all Brythonic territories. He noted that "Riothamus" and Aurelianus are contemporaneous and that Aurelianus is the only British leader of the time who is identified (much later) as ruling both Brythons and Franks, which could only be the case if he ruled territory in Brittany. He also suggested that the name "Abros" in Breton genealogies is a contraction of "Ambrosius" and that Nennius indicates that Ambrosius was supreme ruler of the Britons, which, Fleuriot argues, would translate as "Riothamus". Fleuriot suggested that Ambrosius led the Britons in the battle against the Goths, but then returned to Britain to continue the war against the Saxons. Notes See also Historicity of King Arthur References (Geoffrey Ashe in Association with Debrett's Peerage.) Primary sources Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae III, 9 Jordanes, Getica 237–8. Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae I, 7, 5. Gregory of Tours, Decem libri historiarum ii, 18. External links Letter to Riothamus from Sidonius Apollinaris, introduction and text from Britannia.com 5th-century births Briton people Celtic warriors Correspondents of Sidonius Apollinaris Historical figures as candidates of King Arthur Geoffrey of Monmouth Kings of Brittany Year of death unknown 5th-century Breton people	[ 0.2399628460407257, -0.5203533172607422, -0.9593034386634827, -0.2184668928384781, -0.5300735831260681, 1.0922898054122925, 0.26890993118286133, -0.037605833262205124, -0.6918285489082336, -0.196869894862175, -0.15277457237243652, 0.5216438174247742, -0.4500070810317993, -0.28539222478866577, 0.13954415917396545, -0.12893474102020264, -0.22638960182666779, -0.3735537528991699, -0.2842775583267212, 0.3721071183681488, 0.3148258328437805, 0.07994595170021057, 0.32912641763687134, -0.1876261681318283, 0.2476419359445572, 0.1579125076532364, 0.27502402663230896, 0.02110919915139675, 0.04411090165376663, -0.543298602104187, -0.3358246386051178, -0.04214824363589287, 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258879	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JB	JB	JB or J.B. may refer to: Literature J.B. (play), a 1958 play by Archibald MacLeish in verse, based on the Book of Job Jerusalem Bible, a 1966 Roman Catholic Bible translation People BlocBoy JB (born 1996), American rapper JB (Swedish musician), Swedish musician Jaffar Byn, Swedish rapper known as JB JB (Canadian rapper), Canadian male rapper JB (South Korean singer) (born 1994), South Korean musician Joe Biden (born 1942), president of the United States Technology and engineering British Rail Class 73 locomotives Jungfraubahn, a rack railway Other uses Johor Bahru, a city in Malaysia J&B RARE Whisky, by Justerini & Brooks JB Hi-Fi, Australia JB Catalogue of Malta Stamps and Postal History Jornal do Brasil, a newspaper Junior branch, members of CISV aged 11-25 Helijet (IATA code JB) See also JB's (disambiguation)	[ -0.11498208343982697, 0.46275946497917175, -0.3809319734573364, -0.5453467965126038, -0.6657037734985352, 0.2114676684141159, 0.6818771958351135, 0.4133867919445038, -0.34827500581741333, -0.4632219970226288, 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258880	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20shelduck	Common shelduck	The common shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) is a waterfowl species of the shelduck genus, Tadorna. It is widespread and common in the Euro-Siberian region of the Palearctic, mainly breeding in temperate and wintering in subtropical regions; in winter, it can also be found in the Maghreb. Fossil bones from Dorkovo (Bulgaria) described as Balcanas pliocaenica may actually belong to this species. More likely, they are an extinct species of Tadorna (if not a distinct genus) due to their Early Pliocene age; the present species is not unequivocally attested from the fossil record until some 2–3 million years later (Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene). Taxonomy The common shelduck was formally named by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Anas tadorna. Linnaeus largely based his description on "The Sheldrake or Burrough-Duck" that had been described and illustrated in 1731 by the English naturalist Eleazar Albin. The specific epithet comes from the French word Tadorne for this species, a name that was used by the French naturalist Pierre Belon in 1555. It may originally derive from Celtic roots meaning "pied waterfowl", essentially the same as the English "shelduck". Linnaeus specified the locality as Europe but restricted this to Sweden in 1761. The common shelduck is now placed in the genus Tadorna that was introduced in 1822 by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie. The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised. Description The common shelduck resembles a small short-necked goose in size and shape. It is a striking bird, with a reddish-pink bill, pink feet, a white body with chestnut patches and a black belly, and a dark green head and neck. The wing coverts are white, the primary remiges black, and the secondaries green (only showing in flight) and chestnut. The underwings are almost entirely white. Sexes are similar, but the female is smaller, with some white facial markings, while the male is particularly crisply coloured in the breeding season, his bill bright red and bearing a prominent knob at the forehead. Ducklings are white, with black cap, hindneck and wing and back patches. Juveniles are similarly coloured, greyish above and mostly white below, but already have the adult's wing pattern. The call is a loud honk. Distribution and habitat This is a bird which breeds in temperate Eurosiberia. Most populations migrate to subtropical areas in winter, but this species is largely resident in westernmost Europe, apart from movements to favoured moulting grounds, such as the Wadden Sea on the north German coast. The common shelduck is common around the coastline of Great Britain and Ireland (where it is simply known as shelduck), where it frequents salt marshes and estuaries. It frequently nests in rabbit burrows. Sightings of this bird are rare in North America and are reported as infrequent visitors to the U.S. and Canada. Behaviour Moulting flocks can be very large (100,000 on the Wadden Sea), since most pairs leave their partially grown young in a crèche with just one or two adults. This species is mainly associated with lakes and rivers in open country, breeding in rabbit burrows, tree holes, haystacks or similar. In winter it is common on suitable estuaries and tidal mudflats as well. This bird is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. The young will dive under water to avoid predators and the adults will fly away from them to act as a decoy. References External links RSPB Birds by Name Ageing and sexing (PDF; 1.2 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze Range map in Iran Tadorna Birds of Asia Birds of Europe Common shelduck Common shelduck	[ -0.6003888845443726, 0.4394780099391937, -1.0054214000701904, -0.33393943309783936, -0.10072463005781174, 0.6241572499275208, 0.8386717438697815, 0.42059195041656494, -0.7334484457969666, -0.1086355671286583, 0.050018128007650375, 0.08923675119876862, -0.22563591599464417, 0.48689672350883484, -0.2842164933681488, 0.40653783082962036, 0.7440043091773987, 0.3812006115913391, 0.9217528104782104, -0.2402890920639038, -0.347095251083374, -0.8069373965263367, 0.4549655318260193, -0.7883105278015137, 0.15400142967700958, 0.33303502202033997, 0.781565248966217, 0.6865114569664001, 0.03535158932209015, 0.12915435433387756, -0.6966220140457153, 1.235503911972046, 0.45328807830810547, -0.04870184138417244, 0.053186722099781036, -0.030486945062875748, -0.37834852933883667, 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258881	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20shelduck	Australian shelduck	The Australian shelduck (Tadorna tadornoides), also known as the chestnut-breasted shelduck or mountain duck, is a shelduck, part of the bird family Anatidae. The genus name Tadorna comes from Celtic roots and means "pied waterfowl". They are protected under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974. Taxonomy and naming William Jardine and Prideaux John Selby described the Australian shelduck in 1828. Description The males are mostly dark, with a chestnut breast. They have white neck collars and dark green heads. The females are similar, but they have white around the eyes and are smaller. Both males and females show a white wing during flight. Distribution and habitat The Australian shelduck mainly breeds in southern Australia and Tasmania and is still fairly common. In the winter, many birds move farther north than the breeding range. As with other shelducks, this species has favourite moulting grounds, such as Lake George, New South Wales, where sizeable concentrations occur. The Australian shelduck's primary habitat is lakes in fairly open country. It is extremely wary. It makes its nest in tree holes, holes in banks, or similar locations. Eight to fifteen eggs are laid, and incubated for between thirty and thirty-three days. 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258884	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayland%20the%20Smith	Wayland the Smith	In Germanic mythology, Wayland the Smith (; , ; Old Frisian: Wela(n)du; ; ; Galans (Galant) in Old French; from , lit. "crafting one") is a master blacksmith originating in Germanic heroic legend, described by Jessie Weston as "the weird and malicious craftsman, Weyland". Wayland's story is most clearly told in the Old Norse sources Völundarkviða (a poem in the Poetic Edda) and Þiðreks saga. In them, Wayland is a smith who is enslaved by a king. Wayland takes revenge by killing the king's sons and then escapes by crafting a winged cloak and flying away. A number of other visual and textual sources clearly allude to similar stories, most prominently the Old English poem Deor and the Franks Casket. Wayland is also mentioned in passing in a wide range of texts, such as the Old English Waldere and Beowulf, as the maker of weapons and armour. He is mentioned in the German poems about Theoderic the Great as the father of Witige. Attestations Earliest evidence The oldest reference known to Wayland the Smith is possibly a gold solidus with a Frisian runic inscription ᚹᛖᛚᚩᛞᚢ wela[n]du 'wayland'. It is not certain whether the coin depicts the legendary smith or bears the name of a moneyer who happened to be called Wayland (perhaps because he had taken the name of the legendary smith as an epithet). The coin was found near Schweindorf, in the region Ostfriesland in north-west Germany, and is dated AD 575–625. Scandinavian references Visual Wayland's legend is depicted on Ardre image stone VIII, and probably on a tenth-century copper mount found in Uppåkra in 2011. A number of other possible visual representations exist in early medieval Scandinavia, but are harder to verify as they do not contain enough distinctive features corresponding to the story of Wayland found in textual sources. Völundarkviða According to Völundarkviða, the king of the Finns (the Old Norse term for the Saami people) had three sons: Völundr (Wayland) and his two brothers Egil and Slagfiðr. In one version of the myth, the three brothers lived with three Valkyries: Ölrún, Hervör alvitr and Hlaðguðr svanhvít. After nine years, the Valkyries left their lovers. Egil and Slagfiðr followed, never to return. In another version, Völundr married the swan maiden Hervör, and they had a son, Heime, but Hervör later left Völundr. In both versions, his love left him with a ring. In the former myth, he forged seven hundred duplicates of this ring. Later, King Niðhad captured Völundr in his sleep in Nerike and ordered him hamstrung and imprisoned on the island of Sævarstöð. There Völundr was forced to forge items for the king. Völundr's wife's ring was given to the king's daughter, Böðvildr. Niðhad wore Völundr's sword. In revenge, Völundr killed the king's sons when they visited him in secret, and fashioned goblets from their skulls, jewels from their eyes, and a brooch from their teeth. He sent the goblets to the king, the jewels to the queen and the brooch to the king's daughter. When Böðvild takes her ring to Völundr for mending, he tricks and seduces her, and gets her pregnant. Later, he flies to Niðhad's hall where he explains how he has murdered the king's sons, fashioned jewelry from their bodies and fathered a child with Böðvild. The crying king laments that his archers and horsemen can't reach Völundr, as the smith flies away never to be seen again. Niðhad summons his daughter, asking her if Völundr's story was true. The poem ends with Böðvild stating that she was unable to protect herself from Völundr as he was too strong for her. Þiðreks saga The Scandinavian Thidrekssaga/Didrikssaga also includes a version of the story of Wayland (). This part of the saga is sometimes called Velents þáttr smiðs. The events described at King Niðung's court (identifiable with Niðhad in the Eddic lay) broadly follow the version in the Poetic Edda (though in the saga his brother, Egil the archer, is present to help him to make his wings and to help Velent escape). However, the rest of the story is different. It tells of how Wayland was the son of a giant named Wade (), and how he was taught to smith by two dwarfs. It also tells of how he came to be with King Nidung, crossing the sea in a hollow log, and how he forged the sword Mimung as part of a bet with the king's smith. And it also tells about the argument that led to Nidung's hamstringing of Wayland, and ultimately to Wayland's revenge: Nidung had promised to give Wayland his daughter in marriage and also half his kingdom, and then went back on this promise. The saga elaborates on the flying contraption he builds using feathers collected by Egil; the contraption was called the flygil which suggests it was a pair of wings () in the original German version, but conceived of as a fjaðrhamr (feather cloak) by the saga-writers. Wayland here also wears a blood-filled bladder as a prop, instructing Egil to aim his arrow at this bag, thus feigning injury and deceiving the king. The saga also tells of the birth of a son, Wideke (), to Wayland and Nidung's daughter. While he was still in captivity, the couple have a conversation, and they vow each other's love; the smith also reveals he has fashioned a weapon () and hidden it in the forge for his unborn son. He settles in his native Sjoland and eventually marries the princess with the blessing of her brother who became the next king after Niðung's death. This son inherits the sword Mimung, and goes on to become one of Thidrek/Didrik's warriors. Other references In Icelandic manuscripts from the fourteenth century onwards, the terms Labyrinth and Domus Daedali ('home of Daedalus') are rendered Vǫlundarhús ('house of Vǫlundr'). This shows that Völundr was seen as equivalent to, or even identical with, the classical hero Daedalus. In Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar, Völundr is the manufacturer of the magic sword Gram (also named Balmung and Nothung) and the magic ring that Þorsteinn retrieves. Old English references Visual The Franks Casket is one of a number of other early English references to Wayland, whose story was evidently well known and popular, although no extended version in Old English has survived. In the front panel of the Franks Casket, incongruously paired with an Adoration of the Magi, Wayland stands at the extreme left in the forge where he is held as a slave by King Niðhad, who has had his hamstrings cut to hobble him. Below the forge is the headless body of Niðhad's son, whom Wayland has killed, making a goblet from his skull; his head is probably the object held in the tongs in Wayland's hand. With his other hand Wayland offers the goblet to Böðvildr, Niðhad's daughter. Another female figure is shown in the centre; perhaps Wayland's helper, brother Egil, or Böðvildr again. To the right of the scene his brother) catches birds, which he then makes wings from with their feathers, so he is able to escape. During the Viking Age in northern England, Wayland is depicted in his smithy, surrounded by his tools, at Halton, Lancashire, and fleeing from his royal captor by clinging to a flying bird, on crosses at Leeds, West Yorkshire, and at Sherburn-in-Elmet and Bedale, both in North Yorkshire. English local tradition placed Wayland's forge in a Neolithic long barrow mound known as Wayland's Smithy, close to the Uffington White Horse in Oxfordshire. If a horse to be shod, or any broken tool, were left with a sixpenny piece at the entrance of the barrow the repairs would be executed. Textual The Old English poem Deor, which recounts the famous sufferings of various figures before turning to those of Deor, its author, begins with "Welund": Welund tasted misery among snakes. The stout-hearted hero endured troubles had sorrow and longing as his companions cruelty cold as winter - he often found woe Once Nithad laid restraints on him, supple sinew-bonds on the better man. That went by; so can this. To Beadohilde, her brothers' death was not so painful to her heart as her own problem which she had readily perceived that she was pregnant; nor could she ever foresee without fear how things would turn out. That went by, so can this. Weland had fashioned the mail shirt worn by Beowulf according to lines 450–455 of the epic poem of the same name: No need then to lament for long or lay out my body. If the battle takes me, send back this breast-webbing that Weland fashioned and Hrethel gave me, to Lord Hygelac. Fate goes ever as fate must. (Heaney trans.) The reference in Waldere is similar to that in Beowulf – the hero's sword was made by Weland – while Alfred the Great in his translation of Boethius asks plaintively: "What now are the bones of Wayland, the goldsmith preeminently wise?" Swords fashioned by Wayland are regular properties of medieval romance. King Rhydderch Hael gave one to Merlin, and Rimenhild made a similar gift to Child Horn. English literature was also aware of the character Wade, whose name is similar to that of Vaði, the father of Wayland in Þiðreks saga. Continental Germanic references Wayland is known by the name Wieland in line 965 of the Latin epic Waltharius, a literary composition based on Old High German oral tradition, as the smith who made the poem's eponymous protagonist's armor: Toponyms and folklore Wayland is associated with Wayland's Smithy, a burial mound in the Berkshire Downs. This was named by the English, but the megalithic mound significantly predates them. It is from this association that the folk belief came about that a horse left there overnight with a small silver coin (groat) would be shod by morning. This belief is mentioned in the first episode of Puck of Pook's Hill by Rudyard Kipling, "Weland's Sword", which narrates the rise and fall of the god. Cultural legacy Sir Walter Scott includes Wayland Smith as a character in his novel Kenilworth set in 1575. 'Weyland Smith' is noted as the possible maker of the sword of Macsen Wledig, found by Myrddin Emrys (Merlin) and hidden for Arthur, who names the sword "Caliburn" in the Merlin Trilogy by Mary Stewart. Both the Austrian composer Siegmund von Hausegger (1904) and the Russian composer Leopold van der Pals (1913) used the Wayland saga as inspiration for symphonic poems. Weland the smith is one of the characters in Puck of Pook's Hill, a fantasy book by Rudyard Kipling. Susan Cooper's The Dark is Rising series of young-adult novels features an important supporting character named Wayland Smith. Anthony Boucher references Wayland in his novella, We Print the Truth. The work features a "tramp printer" named Whalen Smith (although, as that character notes, few of his temporary employers ever get his name right). Whalen is shown to be responsible for fulfilling a number of wishes for his former employers, including the one that precipitates the novella's main plot. He appears to be an amoral character, allowing the good or bad consequences of the wishes he fills to take their course without intervention, although he does at one point display a mild curiosity about how one in particular turned out. Wayland Smith appears as a character in Raymond Feist's 1988 novel Faerie Tale. Wayland the Smith appeared as a character in the 1978 BBC drama The Moon Stallion. Wayland the Smith appeared as an alias of the character Rothgo in "The Calling" episode of the 1981 HTV children's drama, Into the Labyrinth. He was played by Ron Moody. In the HTV series Robin of Sherwood, Wayland is named as the creator of seven magic swords, including Robin's sword, Albion. Wayland also appears as a character in the spin-off gamebook, Robin of Sherwood: The Sword of the Templar. Waylon Joseph Smithers Jr., usually referred to as Mr. Smithers or simply Smithers, is a recurring fictional character in the animated sitcom The Simpsons, voiced by Harry Shearer. In the MMO strategy game "Vikings: War of Clans" one of the ghosts the Shaman can fight is called "Wayland's Bride". Weyland-Yutani appears in the Alien franchise. Weyland is a key antagonist in the audio drama Gods and Monsters, based on the long-running science fiction series Doctor Who. He appears as one of a race of ancient aliens from before time, known as the elder gods. Wayland the Smith appears in the comic series Injection from Warren Ellis and Declan Shalvey. He appears in Wayland's Smithy and is based on the characterisation from Þiðreks saga. 'weland smith' calls on the protagonist 'buccmaster of holland' to rebel against the Norman invasion in Paul Kingsnorth's novel The Wake. One of the epigrams opening Kingsnorth's novel Alexandria is from Alfred the Great's mention of the famous and wise goldsmith Welond, and Wayland is the name of the builder of Alexandria. See also References Citations Bibliography External links Völundarkviða - Heimskringla.no Characters in Norse mythology English legendary characters Germanic gods Germanic legends Legendary Norse people Smithing gods Swordsmiths	[ 0.008340497501194477, 0.1578444242477417, -0.5557737350463867, -0.42928075790405273, -0.09808462113142014, 0.669726550579071, 0.8494997024536133, 0.3967273235321045, -0.1067834198474884, -0.3238726854324341, -0.09122882783412933, 0.27368953824043274, 0.2771540582180023, 0.506523609161377, -0.32583892345428467, 0.5223591923713684, 0.027668112888932228, 0.4833638668060303, -0.37105539441108704, -0.6943874359130859, -0.29378023743629456, -0.08786554634571075, 0.2989529073238373, -0.011169466190040112, 0.3737638592720032, 0.43634194135665894, 0.2574528753757477, -0.7959856986999512, -0.08849829435348511, 0.008085912093520164, 0.2312132716178894, 0.585906982421875, 0.17012953758239746, -0.9421728849411011, -0.4275927245616913, 0.006360454950481653, 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258885	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mythological%20places	List of mythological places	This is a list of mythological places which appear in mythological tales, folklore, and varying religious texts. References Works cited Mythological places Places	[ 0.5319797396659851, 0.6850250959396362, -0.8151468634605408, 0.3086468279361725, -0.2068159282207489, 0.18992285430431366, 0.9749680757522583, 0.747729480266571, -0.9782539010047913, -0.08852092176675797, -0.6471806168556213, -0.407470703125, -0.23862071335315704, 0.7396759390830994, -0.002062760526314378, 0.3691701591014862, 0.1478928029537201, 0.7363570928573608, -0.12116549164056778, -0.29273152351379395, 0.05725529417395592, 0.2541709840297699, 0.45775285363197327, -0.44638943672180176, -0.3492301404476166, 0.2904520630836487, 0.3538020849227905, -0.03459334746003151, -0.3918437659740448, -0.02005154639482498, -0.6180500984191895, 0.9533389210700989, -0.2287931591272354, 0.4434478282928467, -0.05655285343527794, -0.4732332229614258, 0.07724934816360474, -0.47445976734161377, -0.10998769104480743, -0.7495533227920532, 0.44173821806907654, -0.467675119638443, 0.5718214511871338, 0.7448703050613403, -0.6054352521896362, 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258886	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOP	IOP	IOP may refer to: Organizations Inanimate Objects Party, an American joke political party Institute of Optronics, a Pakistani technical organization Institute of Physics, London-based professional association for physicists IOP Publishing, its publishing company Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar, an Indian research institute Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, a school of King's College London, England, previously known as Institute of Psychiatry (IoP) Institute of Play, an American educational corporation Science and technology UGV Interoperability Profile Cromemco IOP, an input/output processor S-100 card Intraocular pressure, the fluid pressure inside the eye Intensive outpatient program, a rehabilitation therapy Other uses Isle of Palms, South Carolina, US IOP, IOC country code for Independent Olympic Participant Italian occult psychedelia, a subgenre of Italian psychedelic music See also Institute of Physics (disambiguation) Institute of Politics (disambiguation) IOPS, input/output operations per second	[ 0.34791383147239685, -0.06469179689884186, -0.06206440180540085, 0.44193291664123535, 0.1299142986536026, 0.33304160833358765, 0.10228411853313446, -0.09154176712036133, -0.732099175453186, -0.30152836441993713, -0.40155643224716187, -0.06234357878565788, -0.4071356952190399, -0.03357965871691704, 0.348246306180954, -0.10737346857786179, 0.7918118834495544, 0.5305995941162109, -0.7670224905014038, 0.05480619892477989, -0.29236090183258057, 0.21191786229610443, -0.027131929993629456, -0.6737934350967407, -0.13273285329341888, 0.2310556322336197, 0.010281063616275787, -0.46646034717559814, -0.12112152576446533, 0.05934068560600281, 0.12996789813041687, 0.1502685248851776, -0.08528356999158859, 0.11302506178617477, 0.0336369164288044, 0.05650995671749115, -0.5917273759841919, 0.0083969347178936, -0.05470302328467369, -0.4719514548778534, 0.10610447078943253, -0.35582178831100464, 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258889	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbie%20Mann	Herbie Mann	Herbert Jay Solomon (April 16, 1930 – July 1, 2003), known professionally by his stage name Herbie Mann, was an American jazz flute player and important early practitioner of world music. Early in his career, he also played tenor saxophone and clarinet (including bass clarinet), but Mann was among the first jazz musicians to specialize on the flute. His most popular single was "Hijack", which was a Billboard No. 1 dance hit for three weeks in 1975. Mann emphasized the groove approach in his music. Mann felt that from his repertoire, the "epitome of a groove record" was Memphis Underground or Push Push, because the "rhythm section locked all in one perception." Biography Herbie Mann was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Jewish parents, Harry C. Solomon (May 30, 1902 – May 31, 1980), who was of Russian descent, and Ruth Rose Solomon (née Brecher) (July 4, 1905 – November 11, 2004), of Romanian descent who was born in Bukovina, Austria-Hungary but immigrated to the United States with her family at the age of 6. Both of his parents were dancers and singers, as well as dance instructors later in life. He attended Lincoln High School in Brighton Beach. His first professional performance was playing the Catskills resorts at age 15. In the 1950s Mann was primarily a bop flutist, playing in combos with artists such as Phil Woods, occasionally playing bass clarinet, tenor saxophone and solo flute. Mann was an early pioneer of the fusion of jazz and world music. In 1959, following a State Department sponsored tour of Africa, he recorded Flautista!, an album of Afro-Cuban jazz. In 1961 Mann toured Brazil, returning to the United States to record with Brazilian musicians, including Antonio Carlos Jobim and guitarist Baden Powell. These albums helped popularize bossa nova in the US and Europe. He often worked with Brazilian themes. In the mid-1960s Mann hired a young Chick Corea to play in some of his bands. In the late 1970s and early 1980s Mann played duets at New York City's The Bottom Line and Village Gate clubs, with Sarod virtuoso Vasant Rai. Following the 1969 hit album Memphis Underground, a number of smooth jazz records influenced by Southern soul, blues rock, reggae, funk and disco elicited criticism from jazz purists but allowed Mann to remain active during a period of declining interest in jazz. The musicians on these recordings are some of the best-known session players in soul and jazz, including singer Cissy Houston (mother of Whitney Houston), guitarists Duane Allman, Larry Coryell, and Sonny Sharrock, bassists Donald "Duck" Dunn, Chuck Rainey, and Miroslav Vitous, and drummers Al Jackson, Jr. and Bernard Purdie. In this period Mann had a number of pop hits — rare for a jazz musician. According to a 1998 interview Mann had made at least 25 albums that were on the Billboard 200 pop charts, success denied most of his jazz peers." Mann provided the music for the 1978 National Film Board of Canada animated short Afterlife, by Ishu Patel. In the early 1970s he founded his own label, Embryo Records, distributed by Cotillion Records, a division of Atlantic Records. Embryo produced jazz albums, such as Ron Carter's Uptown Conversation (1970); Miroslav Vitous' first solo album, Infinite Search (1969); Phil Woods and his European Rhythm Machine at the Frankfurt Jazz Festival (1971); and Dick Morrissey and Jim Mullen's Up (1976), which featured the Average White Band as a rhythm section; and the 730 Series, with a more rock-oriented style, including Zero Time (1971) by TONTO's Expanding Head Band. He later set up Kokopelli Records after difficulty with established labels. In 1996, Mann collaborated with Stereolab on the song "One Note Samba/Surfboard" for the AIDS-Benefit album Red Hot + Rio produced by the Red Hot Organization. Mann also played flutes on the Bee Gees' album Spirits Having Flown. His last appearance was on May 3, 2003, at the New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Festival and he died less than two months later on July 1, 2003, at the age of 73, after a long battle with prostate cancer. He died in his home in Pecos, New Mexico, leaving his wife, Susan Janeal Arison, and four children: Paul Mann, Claudia Mann, Laura Mann-Lepik and Geoffrey Mann. In a review of Mann's Beyond Brooklyn (2004), his final recording (co-led with Phil Woods), critic George Kanzler proposed that Mann's status as an innovator had been overlooked: ...Mann's career, in both its questing nature and embrace of various musical styles, parallels that of Miles Davis. Mann championed Brazilian music even before Stan Getz. When Miles was fusing jazz with rock, Mann was fusing it with Memphis soul and Southern rock. He also was an early exponent of world music. But while Miles was usually hailed as a visionary, Mann was dismissed as just a popularizer selling out. It was a bum rap. Discography References Notes Sources Ginell, Cary, "The Evolution of Mann: Herbie Mann and the Flute in Jazz" - Hal Leonard Books, 2013 External links Herbie Mann on Discogs Herbie Mann Interview allaboutjazz.com National Public Radio's Jazz Profiles: Herbie Mann Herbie Mann Official Website (final July 2008 snapshot on archive.org) 1930 births 2003 deaths American dance musicians American jazz flautists American jazz composers American male jazz composers Bass clarinetists American people of Romanian-Jewish descent American people of Russian-Jewish descent Jewish American jazz composers Musicians from Brooklyn Deaths from prostate cancer Deaths from cancer in New Mexico Atlantic Records artists Savoy Records artists Verve Records artists Jewish jazz musicians Chesky Records artists 20th-century American composers Abraham Lincoln High School (Brooklyn) alumni Jazz musicians from New York (state) 20th-century American male musicians 20th-century jazz composers CTI Records artists 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258890	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unionism%20in%20Ireland	Unionism in Ireland	Unionism in Ireland is a political tradition on the island that professes loyalty to the Crown and constitution of the United Kingdom. Once the overwhelming sentiment of a then-ascendant minority Protestant population, in the decades following Catholic Emancipation (1829) it mobilised to oppose the restoration of an Irish parliament. In the century since Partition (1921), as Ulster Unionism its commitment has been to the retention within the United Kingdom of the six Ulster counties that constitute Northern Ireland. Within the framework of a peace settlement for Northern Ireland, since 1998 unionists have had to accommodate Irish nationalists in a devolved administration, while continuing to rely on the connection with Great Britain to secure their cultural and economic interests. Unionism became an overarching partisan affiliation in Ireland in response to Liberal-minority government concessions to Irish nationalists. Typically Presbyterian agrarian-reform Liberals coalesced with traditionally Anglican Orange Order Conservatives in opposition to the Irish Home Rule Bills of 1886 and 1893. Joined by loyalist labour, on the eve of World War I this broad opposition to Irish self-government concentrated in Belfast and its hinterlands as Ulster Unionism, and prepared an armed resistance—the Ulster Volunteers. Within the partition settlement of 1921 by which the rest of Ireland attained separate statehood, Ulster Unionists accepted a home-rule dispensation for the six north-east counties remaining in the United Kingdom. For the next 50 years the Ulster Unionist Party exercised the devolved powers of the Northern Ireland Parliament with little domestic opposition and outside of the governing party-political system of the United Kingdom. In 1972 the British government suspended this arrangement. Against a background of growing political violence, and citing the need to consider how Catholics in Northern Ireland could be integrated into its civic and political life, it prorogued the parliament in Belfast. Over the ensuing three decades of The Troubles, Unionists divided in their responses to power-sharing proposals presented, in consultation with the Republic of Ireland, by successive British governments. Following the 1998 Belfast Agreement, under which both republican and loyalist paramilitaries committed to permanent ceasefires, unionists accepted principles of joint office and parallel consent in a new Northern Ireland legislature and executive. Renegotiated in 2006, relations within this consociational arrangement remain fraught. Unionists, with diminished electoral strength, charge their nationalist partners in government with pursuing an anti-British cultural agenda and, post-Brexit, with supporting a customs regime (the Northern Ireland Protocol) that conflicts with the Act of Union. Irish Unionism 1800–1904 The Act of Union 1800 In the last decades of the Kingdom of Ireland (1542–1800) Protestants in public life advanced themselves as Irish Patriots. The focus of their patriotism was an Ascendancy parliament in Dublin. Largely confined on a narrow franchise to members of the Anglican communion—he established Church of Ireland—the parliament denied equal protection and public office to Protestant Dissenters (non-Anglican Protestants) and to the Kingdom's dispossessed Roman Catholic majority. The high point of this parliamentary patriotism was the formation during the American War of Independence, of the Irish Volunteers and, as that militia paraded in Dublin, the securing in 1782 of the parliament's legislative independence from the British government in London. In Ulster where, because of their greater numbers, Protestants were less fearful of sharing political rights with Catholics, combinations of Presbyterian tradesmen, merchants, and tenant farmers protested against an unrepresentative parliament and against an executive in Dublin Castle still appointed, through the office of the Lord Lieutenant, by English ministers. Seeing little prospect of further reform and in the hope that they might be assisted by republican France, these United Irishmen sought a revolutionary union of "Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter" (i.e. of Catholics and Protestants of all persuasions). Their resolve was broken with the defeat of their uprising in 1798, and by reports of rebel outrages against Protestant Loyalists in the South. The British government, which had had to deploy its own forces to suppress the rebellion in Ireland and to turn back and defeat French intervention, decided on a union with Great Britain. For the chief of the Castle executive Lord Castlereagh, the principal merit in merging the two kingdoms was a resolution of the Catholic Question. Linked to England, Protestants would have less reason to fear Catholic advancement, while Catholics, reduced to a minority within the United Kingdom, would moderate their demands. However, due to opposition in England, and from the King, George III, a provision for Catholic emancipation was dropped from the Acts of Union. A separate Irish executive in Dublin was retained, but representation, still wholly Protestant, was transferred to Westminster constituted as the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In decades that followed the Act of Union (1800) supporters of the United Irish cause and their descendants were reconciled to the loss of an Irish parliament. Having refused calls for reform—to broaden representation and curb corruption—most saw little cause to regret its passing. In time, and as Protestants, they came to regard the legislative union with Great Britain a source of their relative prosperity and, as the Roman Catholic majority in Ireland began to gather in a new national movement, as a guarantee of their security. Catholic emancipation and "Protestant unity" It took the Union thirty years to deliver on the promise of Catholic emancipation (1829)—to admit Catholics to Parliament—and permit an erosion of the Protestant monopoly on position and influence. An opportunity to integrate Catholics through their re-emerging propertied and professional classes as a minority within the United Kingdom may have passed. In 1830, the leader of the Catholic Association, Daniel O’Connell, invited Protestants to join in a campaign to repeal the Union and restore the Kingdom of Ireland under the Constitution of 1782. In the North, resistance to the call was stiffened by a religious revival. With its emphasis upon "personal witness", the New Reformation appeared to transcend the ecclesiastical differences between the different Protestant denominations At the same time, it launched them into "a far more conscious sense of separateness from the Church of Rome", then undergoing its own devotional revolution. The leading Presbyterian evangelist, Henry Cooke took the occasion to preach Protestant Unity. In 1834, at a mass demonstration hosted upon his estate by the 3rd Marquess of Downshire, Cooke proposed a "Christian marriage" between the two main Protestant denominations (Anglican and Presbyterian). Setting their remaining differences aside, they would cooperate on all "matters of common safety". Presbyterian voters tended to favour reform-minded Whigs or, as they later emerged, tenant-right and free-trade Liberals, over the Conservative and Orange-Order candidates of the landed Ascendancy. But as the Irish party-political successors to O'Connell's Repeal movement gained representation and influence in Westminster, Cooke's call for unity was to be heeded in the progressive emergence of a pan-Protestant unionism. The Irish party challenge at Westminster In December 1885, the Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone announced his conversion to a compromise that had been prepared by O’Connell prior to his death in 1847. Ireland would have a measure of "home rule" within the United Kingdom. Up to, and through, the Great Famine of the 1840s, successive governments, Whig and Tory, had refused political responsibility for agrarian conditions in Ireland. The issues of a low-level tenant-landlord war came to Westminster in 1852 when the all-Ireland Tenant Right League helped return 48 MPs to Westminster where they sat as the Independent Irish Party. What the Young Irelander Gavan Duffy called the League of North and South soon fell apart. In the South the Church approved the Catholic MPs breaking their pledge of independent opposition and accepting government positions. In the North, the Protestant tenant righters, William Sharman Crawford and James MacKnight had their election meetings broken up by Orangemen. For unionism the more momentous challenge lay in the wake of the 1867 Reform Act. In Great Britain it produced an electorate that no longer identified instinctively with an Irish Protestant interest. In Ireland, where it more than doubled in size, in 1874 the electorate returned 59 Members for the Home Rule League who were to sit as the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP). Of these, only two were returned from Ulster (from the border county of Cavan): "Ulster protestants, as a body, were as strongly opposed to home rule as they had been to repeal." Gladstone in his first ministry (1868–1874) attempted conciliation. In 1869 the Church of Ireland was disestablished, and the Landlord and Tenant (Ireland) Act 1870 acknowledged for the first time the call for agrarian reform. But spurred by the collapse of agricultural prices in the Long Depression, the Land War intensified. From 1879 it was organised by the direct-action Irish National Land League, led by the southern Protestant Charles Stewart Parnell. As late as 1881 Gladstone resorted (over a 41-hour filibuster by IPP) to a Coercion Act allowing for arbitrary arrest and detention in protection of person and property. The final and decisive shift in favour of constitutional concessions came in the wake of the Third Reform Act of 1884. The near-universal admission to the suffrage of male heads of household tripled the electorate in Ireland. The 1885 election returned an IPP, now under the leadership of Parnell, of 85 Members (including 17 from Ulster where Conservatives and Liberals split the unionist vote). Gladstone, whose Liberals lost all 15 of their Irish seats, was able to form his second ministry only with their Commons support. Reaction to Gladstone's Home Rule Bills The Government of Ireland Bill that Gladstone tabled in June 1886 incorporated measures intended to reduce the effective Catholic majority. The 200 or so popularly elected members of the Irish Legislative Body would sit in session with 28 Irish Peers and a further 75 Members elected on a highly restrictive property franchise. Ultimate legislative authority would remain with the sovereign Parliament in London where, with no Irish MPs, it would be entirely independent. This would have been a proximate restoration of the constitution of the Kingdom of Ireland as it had existed before 1782: a limited legislature in Dublin with an executive accountable to London through the Lord Lieutenant. But it was with arrangements for representation in Ireland on terms, and in an era, that unionists feared could only march in one direction, toward majority rule and total separation. Together with the more intransigent nationalists, unionists tended to agree that the only "reasonable hope of peace" lay in either "complete union or complete separation". In addition to their fears of Rome Rule—of a Catholic Ascendancy—Protestants believed they had a substantial economic stake in the Union. The upper and middle classes found in Britain and the Empire "a wide range of profitable careers--in the army, in the public services, in commerce--from which they might be shut out if the link between Ireland and Great Britain were weakened or severed". That same link was critical for all those engaged in the great export industries of the North—textiles, engineering, shipbuilding. For these the Irish hinterland was less important than the industrial triangle linking Belfast and region with Clydeside and the north of England. For Protestant workers there was the concern that Home Rule would force accommodation of the growing numbers of Catholics arriving at mill and factory gates from the outlying country and western districts. While the plentiful supply of cheap labour helped attract the English and Scottish capital that employed them, Protestant workers organised to protect "their" jobs. The once largely rural Orange Order was given a renewed lease and mandate. The pattern, in itself, was not unique to Belfast and its satellites. Glasgow, Manchester, Liverpool and other British centres experiencing heavy Irish immigration developed similar nativist, and even Orange, ward and workplace politics, to which northern unionists—organised in the Ulster Loyalist Anti-Repeal Union— made conscious appeal. In February 1886, playing, in his own words, the "Orange card", Lord Randolph Churchill assured a "monster meeting" of the Anti-Repeal Union in Belfast, that English Conservatives would "cast in their lot" with loyalists in resisting Home Rule, and he later coined the phrase that was to become the watchword of northern unionism: "Ulster will fight, and Ulster will be right". Gladstone's own party was split on Home Rule and the House divided against the measure. In 1891 Ulster's Liberal Unionists, part of a larger Liberal break with Gladstone, entered the Irish Unionist Alliance led by the County Cavan landowner Colonel Edward Saunderson, and at Westminster took the Conservative whip. In 1892, despite bitter division over the personally compromised leadership of Parnell, the Nationalists were able to help Gladstone to a third ministry. The result was a second Home Rule bill. It was greeted by an Ulster opposition more highly developed and better organised. A great Ulster Unionist Convention was held in Belfast organised by the Liberal Unionist Thomas Sinclair, whom the press noted had been an outspoken critic of Orangeism. Speakers and observers dwelt on the diversity of creed, class and party represented among the 12,300 delegates attending. As reported by the Northern Whig there were "the old tenant-righters of the 'sixties' . . . the sturdy reformers of Antrim. . . the Unitarians of Down, always progressive in their politics . . . the old-fashioned Tories of the Counties . . . modern Conservatives . . . Orangemen . . . All these various elements--Whig, Liberal, Radical, Presbyterian, Episcopalian, Unitarian and Methodist . . united as one man." While references to Catholics were conciliatory the Convention resolved: to retain unchanged our present position as an integral portion of the United Kingdom, and protest in the most unequivocal manner against the passage of any measure that would rob us of our inheritance in the Imperial Parliament, under the protection of which our capital has been invested and our home and rights safeguarded; that we record out determination to have nothing to do with a Parliament certain to be controlled by men responsible for the crime and outrage of the Land League . . . many of whom have shown themselves the ready instrument of clerical domination. After mammoth parliamentary sessions the bill, which did allow for Irish MPs, was passed by a narrow majority in the Commons but went down to defeat in the overwhelmingly Conservative House of Lords. The Conservatives formed a new ministry. Constructive Unionism The new Prime Minister Lord Salisbury believed his government should "leave Home Rule sleeping the sleep of the unjust". In 1887 Dublin Castle was given standing power to suspend habeas corpus. However, as Chief Secretary for Ireland, Salisbury's nephew Gerald Balfour (with the active support of Horace Plunkett, Unionist MP for South Dublin) determined upon a constructive course, pursuing reforms intended, as some saw it, to kill home rule with “kindness”. For the express purpose of relieving poverty and reducing emigration, in the Congested Districts of the west Balfour initiated a programme not only of public works, but of subsidy for local craft industries. A new Department of Agriculture and Technical instruction broke with the traditions of Irish Boards by announcing that its aim was to "be in touch with public opinion of the classes whom its work concerns, and to rely largely for its success upon their active assistance and co-operation". It supported and encouraged dairy cooperatives, the Creameries, that were to be an important institution in the emergence of a new class of independent smallholders. Greater reform followed when, with the support of the splinter Liberal Unionist Party, Salisbury returned to office in 1895. The Land Act of 1896 introduced for the first time the principle of compulsory sale to tenants, through its application was limited to bankrupt estates. "You would suppose", said Sir Edward Carson, Dublin barrister and the leading spokesman for Irish Conservatives, "that the Government were revolutionists verging on Socialism". Having been first obliged to surrender their hold on local government (transferred at a stroke in 1898 to democratically elected councils), the old landlord class had the terms of their retirement fixed by the Wyndham Land Act of 1903. They had ceased to be an effective social or political influence. "The Ulster Option" 1905–1920 "The democracy of Ulster" In 1905, the Ulster Unionist Council was established to bring together unionists in the north including, with 50 of 200 seats, the Orange Order. Until then, unionism had largely placed itself behind Anglo-Irish aristocrats valued for their high-level connections in Great Britain. The UUC still accorded them a degree of precedence. Castlereagh's descendant and former Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, The 6th Marquess of Londonderry, presided over its executive. The Council also retained the services of Carson, from 1892 MP for Trinity College Dublin and supported him from 1910 as leader of the Irish Unionist parliamentary party. But marshalled by Captain James Craig, a millionaire director of Belfast's Dunville Whiskey, it was northern employers who undertook the real political and organisational work. Unlike the southern landowners who were politically opposed by their Catholic tenants, the manufacturers and merchants of Belfast and neighbouring industrial districts could generally count on voting with the majority of their own workforce. But the loyalty of the Protestant worker was not unconditional. In the mind of many working-class unionists there was no contradiction between the defence of Protestant principle and political radicalism, "indeed, these were often seen as one and the same because it was the wealthy who were most prone to conciliation and treachery". In 1902, the shipyard worker Thomas Sloan, presented as the democratic candidate by the Belfast Protestant Association, defeated the Conservative Party nominee for South Belfast. His campaign was marked by what his opponents considered a classic piece of bigotry. Sloan protested the exemption of Catholic convents from inspection by the Hygiene Commission (the Catholic Church should not be "a state within a state"). But it was also as a trade unionist that Sloan criticised wealthy employers (the "fur-coat brigade") in the leadership of unionism. Together with R. Lindsay Crawford and their Independent Orange Order, Sloan supported dock and linen-mill workers, led by the syndicalist James Larkin, in the great Belfast Lockout of 1907. (Russellite Unionists were another expression of class-related tension. Thomas Russell, MP, the son of an evicted Scottish crofter, broke with the Conservatives in the Irish Unionist Alliance to be returned to Westminster from South Tyrone in 1906 as the champion of the Ulster Farmers and Labourers Union). Loyalist workers resented the idea that they were the retainers of "big-house unionists”. A manifesto signed in the spring of 1914 by two thousand labour men, rejected the suggestion of the radical and socialist press that Ulster was being manipulated by "an aristocratic plot". If Sir Edward Carson led in the battle for the Union it was "because we, the workers, the people, the democracy of Ulster, have chosen him". Chairman of the Boilermakers’ Society, J. Hanna, insisted that it was as the "freemen and as members of the greatest democracy in Great Britain and Ireland, the organised trade unions of the country", that "they would not have Home Rule". A difficulty for those labour leaders, like James Connolly, who believed that class solidarity should draw Protestant workers into the nationalist camp, was that, without having to break political ranks with their employers, workers were benefiting from majorities found in Great Britain for social reform: measures such as the Trade Disputes Act 1906, the National Insurance Act 1911 and the People's Budget 1911. The cause was not helped by nationalists who suggested that collective bargaining, social security and progressive taxation were principles for which majorities would not be as readily found in an Irish Parliament. Unionism and women's suffrage At what was to be the high point of mobilisation in Ulster against Home Rule, the Covenant Campaign of September 1912, the Unionist leadership decided that men alone could not speak for the determination of the Unionist people to defend "their equal citizenship in the United Kingdom". Women were asked to sign, not the Covenant whose commitment to "all means which may be found necessary" implied a readiness to bear arms, but their own Associate Declaration. A total of 234,046 women signed the Ulster Women's Declaration; 237,368 men signed the Solemn League and Covenant. Unionist women had been involved in political campaigning from the time of the first Home Rule Bill in 1886. Some were active suffragettes. Isabella Tod, an anti-Home Rule Liberal and campaigner for girls education, was an early pioneer. Determined lobbying by her North of Ireland Women's Suffrage Society ensured the 1887 Act creating a new city-status municipal franchise for Belfast conferred the vote on persons rather than men. This was eleven years before women elsewhere Ireland gained the vote in local government elections. During the height of the Home Rule crisis in 1912–1913 the WSS held at least 47 open-air meetings in Belfast, and mounted dinner-hour pickets at factory gates to engage working women. Unionist WSS activists were not impressed by the women's Ulster Declaration. Elizabeth McCracken, a regular contributor to The Belfast News Letter, noted the failure Unionist women to formulate "any demand on their own behalf or that of their own sex". The Declaration, nonetheless, was a political affirmation of intent by women, organised and publicly staged by women. Founded in January 1911, with well over 100,000 members the Ulster Women's Unionist Council UWUC was the largest women's political group in Ireland. In 1913 the direct-action Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) in Great Britain appeared to move into the unionist camp. Redmond's nationalists had ignored Christabel Pankhurst's warning that if they helped defeat the 1912 Conciliation bill, which for the first time would have extended the parliamentary vote to women (albeit on a highly restrictive property basis), they would be in "a fight to the death" with the suffragists: "No votes for women, no Home Rule". Pankhurst sent Dorothy Evans as a WSPU organiser to Belfast where, with local militants, she was persuaded not only to press suffragist demands on Unionists, but to follow Unionist example in doing so. On 3 April 1913 police raided the flat in Belfast Evans was sharing with local activist Midge Muir, and found explosives. In court, five days later, the pair created uproar when they demanded to know why James Craig, who at that point had overseen the arming of Unionists with smuggled German munitions, was not appearing on the same charges. When in the spring of 1914, the Unionist leader Edward Carson overruled Craig (who had supported the Conciliation bill) on an earlier Unionist commitment to women's suffrage, Evans (at liberty following a hunger strike) declared an end to "the truce we have held in Ulster". In the months that followed WSPU militants were implicated in a series of arson attacks on Unionist-owned buildings and on male recreational and sports facilities. In July 1914, in a plan hatched with Evans, Lilian Metge bombed the chancel of Lisburn Cathedral. In August 1914, following the directives of Christabel Pankhurst and her mother Emmeline (but over the objections of Evans), the WSPU and other suffragists in Ulster suspended their agitation for the duration of the European war. Their reward was the vote in 1918 and (six years after it was granted in the Irish Free State) equal voting rights in 1928. 1912 Home Rule Crisis In 1911 a Liberal administration was once again dependent on Irish nationalist MPs. In 1912 the Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, introduced the Third Home Rule Bill. A more generous dispensation than the earlier bills, it would, for the first time, have given an Irish parliament an accountable executive. It was carried in the Commons by a majority of ten. As expected, it was defeated in the Lords, but as result of the crisis engendered by the opposition of the peers to the 1909 People's Budget the Lords now only had the power of delay. Home Rule would become law in 1914. There had long been discussion of giving "an option to Ulster". As early as 1843, The Northern Whig reasoned that if differences in ethncity ("race") and interests argue for Ireland's separation from Great Britain, they could as easily argue for a separation of north and south, with Belfast as the capital of its own "distinct kingdom". In response to the First Home rule Bill in 1886, Radical Unionists (Liberals who proposed federalising the relationship between all countries of the United Kingdom) likewise argued that "the Protestant part of Ulster should receive special treatment . . . on grounds identical with those that support the general contention for Home Rule" Northern unionists expressed no interest in a Belfast parliament, but in summarising The Case Against Home Rule (1912), L. S. Amery insisted that "if Irish Nationalism constitutes a nation, then Ulster is a nation too". Faced with the eventual enactment of Home Rule, Carson appeared to press this argument. On 28 September 1912, Ulster Day, he was the first to sign, in Belfast City Hall, Ulster's Solemn League and Covenant. This bound signatories "to stand by one another in defending for ourselves and our children our position of equal citizenship in the United Kingdom, and in using all means which may be found necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule Parliament in Ireland". In January 1913, Carson declared for the exclusion of Ulster and called for the enlistment of up to 100,000 Covenanters as drilled and armed Ulster Volunteers. On 23 September, the second Ulster Day, he accepted Chairmanship of a Provisional Government organised by Craig. If Home Rule were imposed "we will be governed as a conquered community and nothing else". Partition On 4 August 1914, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany. A few weeks later the Home Rule bill received Royal Assent but with implementation suspended for the duration of European hostilities. With the issue of Ulster's exclusion unresolved, leaders on both sides sought favour with the Government and the British public by committing themselves, and their volunteers, to the war effort. The strategy was challenged on the nationalist side. As the militants saw it, contingents of republican Irish Volunteers and Connolly's Citizen Army ensured that while Irishmen, at Redmond's urging, were sacrificing themselves for the sake of Belgium, Britain could be seen on the streets of Dublin in Easter 1916 suppressing an Irish strike for freedom. In the aftermath of the Rising and in the course of a national campaign against military conscription, the IPP's credibility was exhausted. In the Khaki Election of December 1918, the first Westminster poll since 1910 and the first with all adult males, and women from age thirty, eligible to vote (the electorate tripled), the IPP was almost wholly replaced in nationalist constituencies by Sinn Féin. Acting on their mandate, Sinn Féin MPs met in Dublin in January 1919 as the Dáil Éireann, the national assembly, of the Republic declared in 1916 and demanded that the "English garrison" evacuate. In the six north-east counties, Unionists took 22 out of 29 seats. Violence against Catholics in Belfast, driven out of workplaces and attacked in their districts, and a boycott of Belfast goods, accompanied by looting and destruction, in the South, helped consolidate "real partition, spiritual and voluntary" in advance of the constitutional partition. This otherwise uncompromising Republicans recognised was, at least for now, inevitable. In August 1920 Éamon de Valera, President of Dáil, declared in favour of "giving each county power to vote itself out of the Republic if it so wished". In the hope of brokering a compromise that might yet hold Ireland within Westminster's jurisdiction, the Government proceeded with the Government of Ireland Act 1920. This provided for two subordinate parliaments. In Belfast a Northern Ireland parliament would convene for the six rather than nine Ulster counties (in three, Craig conceded, Sinn Féiners would make government "absolutely impossible for us"). The island's remaining twenty-six counties, Southern Ireland, would be represented in Dublin. In a joint Council, the two parliaments would be free to enter into all-Ireland arrangements. In 1921, elections for these parliaments were duly held. But in Southern Ireland this was for parliament which, by British agreement, would now constitute itself as the Dáil Éireann of the Irish Free State. Under the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the twenty-six counties were to have the "same constitutional status in the Community of Nations known as the British Empire as the Dominion of Canada". It was not clear to all parties at the time—civil war ensued—but this was de facto independence. Unionists in Northern Ireland thus found themselves in the unanticipated position of having to work a constitutional arrangement that was the by-product of an attempt by British statesmen to reconcile the determination of the Protestant population of the North to remain without qualification within the United Kingdom with the aspirations of the Nationalist majority in Ireland for Irish unity and independence. Writing to Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Craig did insist that it was only as a sacrifice in the interest of peace that the North had accepted a home-rule arrangement its representatives had not asked for. No regret, however, was evident when addressing Belfast shipyard workers. Once Unionists had their own parliament, Craig assured the workers, "no power on earth would ever be able to touch them". In debating the Government of Ireland Bill, Craig had conceded that, while unionists did not want a separate parliament, having in the six counties "all the paraphernalia of Government" might make it more difficult for future Liberal and/or Labour government to push Northern Ireland against the will of its majority into all-Ireland arrangements This was to become the prevailing attitude, summed up in a 1936 report of the Ulster Unionist Council: "Northern Ireland without a Parliament of her own would be a standing temptation to certain British Politicians to make another bid for a final settlement with the Irish Republic". Unionist majority rule: Northern Ireland 1921–1972 Exclusion from Westminster Politics Unionists have emphasised that their victory in the Home Rule struggle was partial. It was not only that twenty-six of thirty-two Irish counties were lost to the Union, but that within the six retained unionists were "unable to make the British government in London fully acknowledge their full and unequivocal membership of the United Kingdom". Although technically constituted by the decision of the six-county Parliament elected in 1920 to opt out of Irish Free State, the Government of Northern Ireland had some of the formal features of the Canada-style dominion status accorded to the new state in the South. Like Ottawa, Belfast had a two-chamber Parliament, a Cabinet and Prime Minister (Sir James Craig), and the Crown represented by a Governor and advised by a Privy Council. All this was suggestive, not of a devolved administration within the United Kingdom, but of a state constituted under the Crown outside the direct jurisdiction of the Westminster parliament. The impression that Ireland as a whole was being removed from Westminster politics was reinforced by refusal of the parties of Government and Opposition to organise, or canvass for votes, in the six counties. The Conservatives were content that Ulster Unionist Party MPs took their party whip in the House of Commons where, by general agreement, matters within the competence of the Belfast Parliament could not be raised. The Labour Party formed its first (minority) government in 1924 led by a man who in 1905 had been the election agent in North Belfast for the trade-unionist William Walker, Ramsey MacDonald. In 1907 MacDonald's party had held their first party conference in Belfast. Yet, at the height of the Home Rule Crisis in 1913, the British Labour Party had decided not stand against Irish Labour, and the policy of deferring to Irish parties was maintained after 1921. There was little incentive for unionists in Northern Ireland to assume the risks of splitting ranks in order to reproduce the dynamic of Westminster politics. Despite its broad legislative powers, the Belfast Parliament did not, in any case, have the kinds of tax and spending powers that might have engendered that kind of party competition. The principal sources of government revenue, income and corporation taxes, customs and excise, were entirely beyond Belfast's control. Stormont government Until the crisis of the late 1960s, unionism in Northern Ireland was effectively single-party politics. In his 28 years in Stormont (1925–1953) Tommy Henderson, a North Belfast independent, was a one-man unionist opposition. In the 1938 the Ulster Progressive Unionist Party of William John Stewart attempted to join him, averaging 30% of the vote in ten otherwise safe Government seats. After positively endorsing the Union, in 1953 the Northern Ireland Labour Party won three seats. But for the most part Government candidates were returned by unionist voters without contest. The Nationalist Party did not take their seats during the first Stormont parliament (1921–25), and did not accept the role of official Opposition for a further forty years. Proclaimed by Craig a "Protestant parliament", and with a "substantial and assured" Unionist-Party majority the Stormont legislature could not, in any case, play a significant role. Real power "lay with the regional government itself and its administration": a structure "run by a very small number of individuals". Between 1921 and 1939 only twelve people served in cabinet, some continuously. It was in protest that the Progressive Unionists had proposed limited office in government to 8 years or two parliaments. Although they had no positive political programme for a devolved parliament, the Unionist regime did attempt an early reform. Consistent with the obligation under the Government of Ireland Act to neither establish nor endow a religion, a 1923 Education Act provided that in schools religious instruction would only be permitted after school hours and with parental consent. Lord Lord Londonderry, Minister of Education, acknowledged that his ambition was mixed Protestant-Catholic education. A coalition of Protestant clerics, school principals and Orangemen insisted on the imperative of bible teaching. Craig relented, amending the act in 1925. Meanwhile, the Catholic hierarchy refused to transfer any schools, and would not allow male Catholic student teachers to enrol in a common training college with Protestants or women. The school-age segregation of Protestants and Catholics was sustained. At the end of World War II, the Unionist Government under Basil Brooke (Lord Brookeborough) did make two reform commitments. First, it promised a programme of "slum clearance" and public housing construction (in the wake of the Belfast Blitz the authorities acknowledged that much of the housing stock had been "uninhabitable" before the war). Second, the Government accepted an offer from London—understood as a reward for the province's wartime service—to match the parity in taxation between Northern Ireland and Great Britain with parity in the services delivered. What Northern Ireland might loose in autonomy, it was going to gain in a closer, more equal, Union. By the 1960s Unionism was administering something at odds with the general conservatism of those to whom leadership had been conceded in the resistance to Irish Home Rule. Under the impetus of the post-War Labour government in Britain, and thanks to the generosity of British exchequer, Northern Ireland had emerged with an advanced welfare state. The Education Act (NI), 1947, "revolutionised access" to secondary and further education. Health-care provision was expanded and re-organised on the model of the National Health Service in Great Britain to ensure universal access. The Victorian-era Poor Law, sustained after 1921, was replaced with a comprehensive system of social-security. Under the Housing Act (NI) 1945 the public subvention for new home construction was even greater, proportionately, than in England and Wales. 1960s: reform and protest In the 1960s, under premiership of Terence O'Neill, the Stormont administration intensified its efforts to attract outside capital. Investment in new infrastructure, training schemes coordinated with trade unions, and direct grants succeeded in attracting American, British and continental firms. In its own terms, the strategy was a success. While the great Victorian industries continued to decline, the level of manufacturing employment marginally increased. Yet Protestant workers and local Unionist leadership were unsettled. Unlike the established family firms and skilled-trades apprenticeships that had been "a backbone of unionism and protestant privilege", the new companies readily employed Catholics and women. But among Catholics too there was concern over the regional distribution of the new investment. When Derry lost out to Coleraine for siting of the New University of Ulster, and to Lurgan and Portadown for a new urban-industrial development, some sensed a wider conspiracy. Speaking to Labour MPs in London, John Hume suggested that "the plan" was "to develop the strongly Unionist-Belfast-Coleraine-Portadown triangle and to cause a migration from West to East Ulster, redistributing and scattering the minority to that the Unionist Party will not only maintain but strengthen its position". Hume, a teacher from Derry, presented himself as a spokesman for an emerging "third force": a "generation of younger Catholics in the North" who were frustrated with the nationalist policy of non-recognition and abstention. (O'Neill wrote of "a new Catholic intelligentsia", the product, he imagined, of the 1947 Education Act, "unwilling to put up with the deprived status their fathers and grandfathers had taken for granted") Determined to engage the great social problems of housing, unemployment and emigration, they were willing to accept "the Protestant tradition in the North as legitimate" and that Irish unity should be achieved only "by the will of the Northern majority". Although they appeared to meet Unionists half way, Hume and those who joined him in what he proposed would be "the emergence of normal politics" presented the Unionism with a new challenge. Drawing on the civil rights movements in the United States, they spoke a language of universal rights which had a broad appeal for British and international opinion. Since 1964, the Campaign for Social Justice had been collating and publicising evidence of discrimination in employment and housing. From April 1967 the cause was taken up by the Belfast-based Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association, a broad labour and republican grouping with Communist Party veteran Betty Sinclair as chair. Seeking to "challenge . . . by more vigorous action than Parliamentary questions and newspaper controversy", NICRA decided to carry out a programme of marches. In October 1968 Derry Housing Action Committee proposed a march in Derry. When a sectarian confrontation threatened—the Apprentice Boys of Derry announced their intention to march the same route—the NICRA executive was in favour of calling it off. But DHAC pressed ahead with activist Eamon McCann conceding that the "conscious, if unspoken strategy, was to provoke the police into overreaction and thus spark off mass reaction against the authorities". A later official inquiry suggests that, in the event (and as witnessed by three Westminster Labour MPs), all that had been required for police to begin "using their batons indiscriminately" was defiance of the initial order to disperse. The day ended with street battles in Derry's Catholic Bogside area. With this, onset of what is referred to as "The Troubles", Northern Ireland, for the first time in decades, was making British and international headlines, and television news. Opposition to O'Neill In January 1965, at O'Neill personal invitation, Taoiseach Seán Lemass (whose government was pursuing a similar modernising agenda in the South) made an unheralded visit to Stormont. After O'Neill reciprocated with a visit to Dublin, the Nationalists were persuaded, for the first time, to assume the role at Stormont of Her Majesty's Opposition. With this and other conciliatory gestures (unprecedented visits to a Catholic hospitals and schools, flying the Union flag at half mast for the death of Pope John XXIII) O'Neill incurred the wrath of those he understood as "self-styled 'loyalists' who see moderation as treason, and decency as weakness", among these the Reverend Ian Paisley. As Moderator of his own Free Presbyterian Church, and at a time when he believed mainline presbyteries were being led down a "Roman road" by the Irish Council of Churches, Paisley saw himself treading in the path of the "greatest son" of Irish Presbyterianism, Dr. Henry Cooke. Like Cooke, Paisley was alert to ecumenicism "both political and ecclesiastical". After the Lemass meeting, Paisely announced that "the Ecumenists . . . are selling us out", and called on Ulster Protestants to resist a "policy of treachery". Many within his own party were alarmed when in December 1968 O'Neill sacked his hard-line Minister of Home Affairs, William Craig and proceeded with a reform package that addressed many of NICRA's demands. There was to be a needs-based points system for public housing; an ombudsman to investigate citizen grievances; the abolition of the rates-based franchise in council elections (One man, one vote); and The Londonderry Corporation (through which Unionists had administered a predominately nationalist city) was suspended and replaced by Development Commission. The broad security provisions of the Special Powers Act were to be reviewed. At a Downing Street summit on 4 November, Prime Minister Harold Wilson warned O'Neill that if Stormont backtracked on reform, the British government would reconsider its financial support for Northern Ireland. In a television address, O'Neill cautioned Unionists that they could not choose to be part of the United Kingdom merely when it "suits" them, and that "defiance" of the British government would be reckless. Jobs in the shipyards and other major industries, subsidies for farmers, people's pensions: "all these aspects of our life, and many others depend on support from Britain. Is a freedom to pursue the un-Christian path of communal strife and sectarian bitterness really more important to you than all the benefits of the British Welfare state?" With members of his cabinet urging him to call Wilson's "bluff", and facing a Backbencher motion of no-confidence, in January 1969 O'Neill called a general election. The Ulster Unionist Party split. Pro-O'Neill candidates picked up Liberal and Labour votes but won only a plurality of seats. In his own constituency of Bannside, from which he had previously been returned unopposed, the Prime Minister was humiliated by achieving only a narrow victory over Paisely standing as a Protestant Unionist. On 28 April 1969, O'Neill resigned. O'Neill's position had been weakened when, focused on demands not conceded (redrawing of electoral boundaries, immediate repeal of the Special Power Act and disbandment of the Special Constabulary), republicans and left-wing students disregarded appeals from within NICRA and Hume's Derry Citizens Action Committee to suspend protest. On 4 January 1969 People's Democracy marchers en route from Belfast to Derry were ambushed and beaten by loyalists, including off-duty Specials, at Burntollet Bridge That night, there was renewed street fighting in the Bogside. From behind barricades, residents declared "Free Derry", briefly Northern Ireland's first security-force "no-go area". Tensions had been further heightened in the days before O'Neill's resignation when a number of explosions at electricity and water installations were attributed to the IRA. The later Scarman Tribunal established that the "outrages" were "the work of Protestant extremists . . . anxious to undermine confidence" in O'Neill's leadership. (The bombers, styling themselves "the Ulster Volunteer Force", had announced their presence in 1966 with a series of sectarian killings). The IRA did go into action on the night of 20/21 April, bombing ten post offices in Belfast in an attempt to draw the RUC away from Derry where there was again serious violence. Imposition of direct rule To the extent they acknowledge inequities in Unionist rule from Stormont—Paisley was later to allow "it wasn't . . a fair government. It wasn't justice for all"—unionists argue these were a result of insecurity which successive British governments had themselves created by their own divided view on Northern Ireland's place in the United Kingdom. When the tensions to which it had contributed to in Northern Ireland finally exploded, unionists believe British equivocation proved disastrous. Had they regarded Northern Ireland is an integral part of the United Kingdom, the Government's response in 1969–69 would have been "fundamentally different". If they had thought there were social and political grievances which were remediable by law, it would have been the business of Westminster to legislate. But acts of rebellion would have been suppressed and punished as such with the full authority and force of the state. At no point, according to this unionist analysis, would the policy have been one of containment and negotiation. The example of Free Derry was replicated in other nationalist neighbourhoods both in Derry and in Belfast. Sealed off with barricades, the areas were openly policed by the IRA. In what was reported as the biggest British military operation since the Suez Crisis, Operation Motorman, on 31 July 1972, the British Army did eventually act to re-establish control. But this had been preceded in the weeks before by a ceasefire in the course of which Provisional IRA leaders, including Chief of Staff Seán Mac Stíofáin and his lieutenants Martin McGuinness and Gerry Adams, were flown to London for what proved to be unsuccessful negotiations with Northern Ireland Secretary William Whitelaw, acting on behalf of the UK Prime Minister, Edward Heath. The common unionist charge was that Westminster and Whitehall continued to classify Northern Ireland, as it had Ireland before partition, as "something more akin to a colonial than a domestic problem". From the first street deployment of troops in 1969 the impression given was of "a peace-keeping operation in which Her Majesty's Forces are not defending their homeland, but holding at bay two sects and factions as in Imperial India, Mandated Palestine or in Cyprus". This played into the republican narrative that "the insurgence in the housing estates and borderland of Ulster" was something akin to the Third World wars of liberation, and that in Britain's first and last colony "decolonisation will be forced upon her as it was in Aden and elsewhere". With London, Unionist credibility on security did not survive internment, introduced at the insistence of Stormont government under Brian Faulkner. In the early hours of 10 August 1971 342 persons suspected of IRA involvement were arrested without charge or warrant. Many appeared to have no connection with the IRA, and for those that did the link typically was to the left-leaning Officials. Beyond immediate defence of Catholics areas, the Officials had already committed to unarmed political strategy—and on that basis were to declare a ceasefire in May 1972. Leading Provisionals, some of whom were new to the IRA, entirely escaped the net. Unionists blamed the poor intelligence on London's decision to tolerate no-go areas. For the British Government internment proved a public relations disaster, both domestic and international. It was compounded by the interrogation of internees by methods deemed illegal by the UK Government's own commission of inquiry, (and subsequently, in a case brought by the Irish government, ruled "inhuman and degrading" by the European Court of Human Rights), and by the Army's lethal use of live fire against anti-internment protesters, Bloody Sunday in Derry (20 January 1972) being the most notorious incident. In March Heath demanded that Faulkner surrender control of internal security. When, as might have been anticipated, Faulkner resigned rather than comply, Heath in an instant shattered, for unionists, "the theory that the Army was simply in Northern Ireland for the purpose of offering aid to the civil power, of defending legally established institutions against terrorist attack". In what unionists viewed as a victory for violence, the Conservative government prorogued Stormont and imposed direct rule "not merely to restore order but to reshape the Province's system of government". Negotiating the Irish Dimension: 1973–Present Sunningdale Agreement and the Ulster Workers strike In October 1972 the British government brought out a Green Paper, The Future of Northern Ireland. It articulated what were to be the enduring principles of the British approach to a settlement. It is a fact that an element of the minority in Northern Ireland has hitherto seen itself as simply part of the wider Irish community. The problem of accommodating that minority within the political of Northern Ireland has to some extent been an aspect of a wider problem within Ireland as a whole. It is therefore clearly desirable that any new arrangements for Northern Ireland should, whilst meeting the wishes of Northern Ireland and Great Britain, be so far as possible acceptable to accepted by the Republic of Ireland. Northern Ireland must and will remain part of the United Kingdom for as long as that is the wish of a majority of the people, but that status does not preclude the necessary taking into account of what has been described in this paper as the 'Irish Dimension.' A Northern Ireland assembly or authority must be capable of involving all its members constructively in way which satisfy them and those they represent that the whole community has a part to pay in the government of the Province. ... [T]here are strong arguments that the objective of real participation should be achieved by giving minority interests a share in the exercise of executive power . In June 1973 PR elections were held for an Assembly. Following negotiations at Sunningdale in England, attended by the Dublin government, on 1 January 1974 the former Unionist prime minister Brian Faulkner agreed to form an Executive in coalition with Hume's new Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) and the smaller cross-community Alliance Party. Faulkner's later successor as party leader, James Molyneaux, argued that the difficulty for most unionists was not an arrangement in which Protestants and Catholics must consent—that would be comparatively simple. It was that, despite a promise not share power with parties whose primary aim is a united Ireland, Faulkner had committed them to agreement with "Republican Catholics" Having drawn on both the Republican and Northern Ireland, Labour parties, the SDLP had sought to accommodate "progressive Protestants". But with PIRA continuing to draw on public outrage over internment and Bloody Sunday, the SDLP was under pressure to present Sunningdale as a means to achieving the goal of Irish unity. The new Health and Social Service Minister, Paddy Devlin, conceded that "all other issues were governed" by a drive to "get all-Ireland institutions established" that would "produce the dynamic that would lead ultimately to an agreed united Ireland". The Sunningdale Agreement envisaged a Council of Ireland comprising, with equal delegations from Dublin and Belfast, a Council of Ministers with "executive and harmonising functions" and a Consultative Assembly with advisory and review functions. As they would only have a plurality of representation on the Northern side, Unionists feared these created the possibility of their being manoeuvred into a minority position. In retrospect, Devlin regretted the SDLP had not "adopted a two stage approach, by allowing power sharing at Stormont to establish itself", but by the time he and his colleagues recognised the damage they had caused to Faulkner's position by prioritising the Irish Dimension it was too late. Within a week of taking office as First Minister, Faulkner was forced to resign as UUP leader. A surprise Westminster election at the end of February was a triumph for the United Ulster Unionist Coalition, in which the bulk of his old party stood as Official Unionists with William Craig's Ulster Vanguard and Paisley's new Democratic Unionists. Faulkner's pro-Assembly grouping was left with just 13% of the unionist vote. Arguing that they had deprived Faulkner of any semblance of a mandate, the victors called for new Assembly elections. When in May the Assembly affirmed the Sunningdale Agreement, a loyalist coalition, the Ulster Workers' Council (UWC), called a general strike. Within two weeks the UWC, supported by the Ulster Defence Association and UVF paramilitaries, had an effective stranglehold on energy supplies. Concessions sought by Faulkner were blocked by the SDLP. John Hume, then Minister of Commerce, pressed for a British Army enforced fuel-oil plan and for resistance to "a fascist takeover". After Mervyn Rees, the Northern Ireland Secretary refused his final plea for negotiation, Faulkner resigned. Conceding that there was no longer any constitutional basis for the Executive, Rees dissolved the Assembly. Unionism and loyalist para-militarism In inaugurating a prolonged period of Direct Rule, the UWC strike weakened the representative role of the unionist parties. There were to be a number of consultative assemblies and forums in the years that followed, but the only elective offices with administrative responsibilities were in downsized district councils. At Westminster unionist MPs contended with governments that remained committed to the principles of the 1972 Green Paper. The initiative in protesting what unionists often perceived as inadequate political and security responses to republican violence passed to loyalists. Their principal mode of operation was not to be the work stoppage. With Paisley's blessing, in 1977 the UDA and a number of other loyalists groups sought to replicate the UWC success. Stoppages in support of a "unionist wish-list"—essentially a return to Stormont-era majority rule—failed to secure the support of critical workers and broke up in face UUP condemnation and firm police action. Nor was it to be the ballot, although both the UVF and the UDA did establish party-political wings. It was assassination: in the course of the Troubles loyalists are credited with the murder of 1027 individuals (about half the number attributed to republican paramilitaries and 30% of the total killed). Loyalism, of which the once largely rural Orange Order had been the archetypal expression, is generally understood as a strand of unionism. It has been characterised as partisan but not necessarily party-political, and in outlook as more ethnic than consciously British—the perspective of those who are Ulster Protestants first and British second. Loyalism can embrace evangelicals, but the term is consistently associated with the paramilitaries and, on that basis, frequently used as if were synonymous with working-class unionism. The paramilitaries are "thoroughly working class". Their hold, typically, has been upon working-class Protestant neighbourhoods and housing estates where they have compensated for the loss of the confidence they enjoyed as district defenders in early years of the Troubles with racketeering and intimidation. Paisley combined his radically anti-Catholic evangelism early in his career with a foray into physical force loyalism: his formation in 1956 of Ulster Protestant Action (UPA). Ulster Protestant Volunteers implicated Paisely, albeit via supposed intermediaries, in the bombings intended to "blow O'Neill out of office" early in 1969. Leaders of the UVF, however, are adamant that Paisley had nothing to do with them. His rhetoric may have been inspirational, but theirs was a tightly guarded conspiracy. The motivation to kill came largely from secular forces within the Loyalist community. Through the DUP, Paisley ultimately was to lead the bulk of his following into party politics, emerging in the new century as unionism's undisputed leader. The relationship of other, at the time, more mainstream, unionist political figures to loyalist paramilitaries is also a subject of debate. Paramilitaries deny and resent any implication of political string pulling, They suggest, nonetheless, that they could rely on the politicians to deliver their message. The party leaders might condemn loyalist outrages, but inasmuch as they tried to account for them as reactive, as a response to the injury and frustration of the unionist people, they were effectively employing sectarian, frequently random, killings for a common purpose, to extract concessions from the Government: "You know, 'if you don't talk to us, you will have to talk to these armed men". The relationship of unionists to loyalist violence, in this sense, remained "ambiguous". Opposition to the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement In 1985 Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher signed an agreement at Hillsborough with the Irish Taoiseach, Garret FitzGerald. For the first time this appeared to give the Republic a direct role in the government of Northern Ireland. An Anglo-Irish Intergovernmental Conference, with a locally based secretariat, would invite the Irish government to "put forward views on proposals" for major legislation concerning Northern Ireland. Proposals, however, would only be on matters that are "not the responsibility of a devolved administration in Northern Ireland". The implication for unionists was that if they wished to limit Dublin's influence, they would have to climb down from insistence on majority rule and think again as to how nationalists might be accommodated at Stormont. The unionist reaction, Thatcher recalled in her memoirs, was "worse than anyone had predicted to me". The Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) and Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) led an "Ulster says No" campaign against the Anglo-Irish or Hillsborough Agreement, that included strikes, civil disobedience and a mass resignation of unionist MPs from Westminster and suspensions of district council meetings. On 23 November 1985 upwards of a hundred thousand rallied outside Belfast City Hall. "Where do the terrorists return to for sanctuary?" Paisley asked the crowd: "To the Irish Republic and yet Mrs. Thatcher tells us the Republic may have some say in our province. We say, Never! Never! Never! Never!" Irish historian Dr Jonathan Bardon remarks that "Nothing like it had been seen since 1912". Unionists, however, found themselves isolated, opposing a Conservative government and with a Westminster Opposition, Labour, that was sympathetic to Irish unity. With no obvious political leverage, and possibly to preempt initiative passing to the loyalist paramilitaries, in November 1986 Paisley announced his own "third force": the Ulster Resistance Movement (URM) would "take direct action as and when required". Recruitment rallies were held in towns across Northern Ireland and thousands were said to have joined. Despite importing arms, some of which were passed on to the UVF and UDA, for the URM the call for action never came. By the fourth anniversary of the accord, unionist protests against the Anglo-Irish Agreement were drawing only token support. In March 1991, the two unionist parties agreed with the SDLP and Alliance arrangements for political talks on the future of Northern Ireland. In their submission to the inter-party talks in 1992, the Ulster Unionists said they could envisage a range of cross-border bodies so long as these were under the control of the Northern Assembly, did not involve an overarching all-Ireland Council, and were not designed to be developed in the direction of joint authority. While prepared to accommodate an Irish Dimension unionists, at a minimum, were looking for a settlement not an "unsettlement". UK-party unionism As an alternative to devolution with an Irish Dimension, some unionists proposed that Northern Ireland reject special status within the United Kingdom, and return to what they conceived as the original unionist programme of complete legislative and political union. This had been the position of the British and Irish Communist Organisation (B&ICO), a small contrarian left-wing grouping that had come to the attention of unionists through their Two-nations Theory of partition and their critical support for the UWC Strike. The British Labour Party, they argued, had been persuaded that Irish unity was the only left option in Northern Ireland less on its merits than on the superficial appearance of unionism as the six-county Tory Party. Had Labour tested the coalition that was unionism as it began fracture in the late 1960s by itself canvassing for voters in Northern Ireland, the party might have proved the "bridge between Catholics and the state". Disappointed in Labour's response and contending with a unionist split (Democracy Now) led by the only Northern Irish Labour MP (sitting for a London constituency) Kate Hoey, the B&ICO dissolved its Campaign for Labour Representation in 1993. A broader Campaign for Equal Citizenship, in which for a period the B&ICO also participated, to draw all three Westminster parties to Northern Ireland similarly failed to convince. Its president, Robert McCartney did briefly hold together five anti-devolution UK Unionist Party MLAs in the 1998 Assembly. The 2003 Labour Party Conference accepted legal advice that the party could not continue to exclude Northern Ireland residents from party membership. The National Executive Committee, however, maintains a ban on the Labour Party in Northern Ireland contesting elections. Support for the SDLP continues to be party policy. In July 2008, under Reg Empey Ulster Unionists sought to restore the historic link to the Conservative Party, broken in the wake of Sunningdale. With the new Conservative leader David Cameron declaring that "the semi-detached status of Northern Ireland politics needs to end", Empey announced that his party would be running candidates in upcoming Westminster elections as Ulster Conservatives and Unionists – New Force. The move triggered defections, and in 2010 election the party lost their only remaining MP, Sylvia Hermon who campaigned successfully as an independent. The episode confirmed the UUP's eclipse by the Democratic Unionists, a party that mixed social and economic populism with their uncompromising unionism. Northern Ireland Conservatives have since contested elections on their own. Their 4 candidates in the 2019 Westminster election polled a total 5,433 votes. 1998 Good Friday Agreement SDLP leader Seamus Mallon quipped that the 1998 Belfast, or Good Friday, Agreement (GFA) was "Sunningdale for slow learners". This was not the view of David Trimble, with whom Mallon, as joint head of the new power-sharing Executive, shared the Office of First Minister and Deputy First Minister (OFMDFM). Trimble believed that unionism had secured much that had been denied to Faulkner 25 years before. The Council of Ireland, that Mallon's party colleague, Hugh Logue, had referred to as "the vehicle that would trundle Unionists into a united Ireland" was replaced by a North-South Ministerial Council. "Not a supra-national body", and with no "pre-cooked" agenda, the Council was accountable to the Assembly where procedural rules (the Petition of Concern) allowed for cross-community consent, and hence a "unionist veto". For the first time, Dublin formally recognised the border as the limit of its jurisdiction. The Republic amended its Constitution to omit the territorial claim to the whole island of Ireland and to acknowledge that Irish unity could be achieved only by majority consent "democratically expressed, in both jurisdictions in the island". The firm nationalist principle that unionists are a minority within the territory of the state was set aside. In return, however, unionists had to accept that within new framework for power-sharing there could be no escaping the need to secure republican consent. The new Executive would be formed not, as in 1974, by voluntary coalition but by the allocation ministerial posts to the Assembly parties on a proportional basis. This d'Hondt method ensured that unionists would find themselves sitting at the Executive table with those they had persistently labelled IRA-Sinn Fein. In 1998 Sinn Féin, who had been gaining on the SDLP since the eighties, had 18 Assembly seats (to 26 for the SDLP) securing them two of the ten Executive departments. Unionists were concerned that this sharing of office was based on a principle that "rendered dangerously incoherent" the UK government's position in relation to the Union. The Agreement insists on a symmetry between unionism and nationalism, the two "designations" it privileges over "others" through the procedural rules of the new Assembly. Either can insist (through a Petition of Concern) on decision by parallel consent, and they nominate the First and Deputy First Ministers which, despite the distinction in title, are a joint office. "Parity of esteem" is accorded to two diametrically opposed aspirations: one to support and uphold the state, the other to renounce and subvert the state in favour of another. The UK government may have deflected the republican demand that it be a persuader for Irish unity, but at the cost, in the unionist view, of maintaining neutrality with regard to future of Northern Ireland. In the UK's acceptance of Irish unity by consent was not new. It had been there in 1973 at Sunningdale, in the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985 and again in the 1993 Downing Street Declaration in which London had disclaimed any "selfish strategic or economic interest" in the matter. Unionists were nonetheless discomforted by the republican claim that the 1998 Agreement had, in the words of Gerry Adams, "dealt the union a severe blow": "there was now no absolute commitment, no raft of parliamentary acts to back up an absolute claim, only an agreement to stay until the majority decided otherwise". In the May 1998 referendum on the Good Friday Agreement, on a turnout of 81%, 71.1% voted in favour. (A simultaneous referendum held in the Republic of Ireland on a 56% turnout produced a majority in favour of 94.4%). The best estimates indicated that all but 3 or 4% of Catholics/Nationalists voted Yes, but that almost half of Protestants/Unionists (between 47 and 49%) stood with the DUP and voted No. Chief among the DUP's objections was neither the North-South Ministerial Council, although that remained under suspicion, nor the principle of power-sharing as such. When the new Executive was formed, the DUP matched Sinn Féin in taking two ministerial seats. The issue was the continuation of the IRA as an armed and active organisation: the republicans were at the table while retaining, at readiness, the capacity for terrorist action further bolstered by the release of republican prisoners. In an agreement that called parties to use their influence with paramilitaries to achieve disarmament, there was no effective sanction. Martin McGuinness and Gerry Adams were free to insist that the IRA took their own counsel. In October 2002, at a time the IRA had finally agreed but not yet complied with a process for decommissioning their arms, a police raid on Sinn Féin's offices at Stormont suggested that the organisation was still active and collecting intelligence. Trimble led the UUP out of the Executive and the Assembly was suspended. (No charges were brought as a result of the raid at the centre of which was a Sinn Féin staffer, Denis Donaldson, later exposed as a government informer, and a public inquiry was ruled not in the public interest). Democratic Unionists enter government with Sinn Féin In October 2006 the DUP and Sinn Féin found an accommodation in the St Andrews Agreement, paving the way for Ian Paisley and Martin McGuinness to be nominated as First, and Deputy First, Ministers by a restored Assembly. For the UUP's new leader Reg Empey the breakthrough was merely the GFA "for slow learners". But while he acknowledged compromises, Paisley argued that Northern Ireland was "turning a corner". The IRA had disarmed, and from Sinn Féin support had been won "for all the institutions of policing". Northern Ireland had "come to a time of peace". After thirteen months in office Paisley was replaced as First Minister of Northern Ireland by his long-time DUP deputy Peter Robinson Robinson, and Arlene Foster who followed him in office from January 2016, had colder relationships than had Paisley with McGuinness and with his party colleagues and these eventually broke down. Citing "DUP's arrogance" in relation to a range of issues, including management of a financial scandal, in January 2017 McGuinness resigned. Sinn Féin refused to nominate a successor, without whom the devolved institutions were unworkable. Assembly elections followed on 2 March 2017. For the first time in the history of Northern Ireland as a political entity, with 45 of 90 seats unionists failed to secure an overall majority in a parliament of the region. It was not until January 2020 that a deal was brokered (New Decade, New Approach) to restore Assembly, and to persuade Sinn Féin to nominate their new leader in the North Michelle O'Neill as McGuinness's successor. The withdrawal of support within the DUP for Paisley's newly conciliatory leadership was not marked by a lasting split over the DUP decision to go into an Executive with Sinn Féin. In the Assembly, Paisley's former lieutenant, Jim Allister has remained a lone Traditional Unionist Voice protesting an "enforced coalition" that "holds at the heart of government" those determined to subvert the state. Unionism as a minority bloc Brexit Four months before the UK's June 2016 referendum on the future of UK membership in the European Union, Arlene Foster announced that her party had decided, on balance, to campaign for Leave. With equal claim to be a pro-business party with a strong farming support base, the UUP decided that "on balance Northern Ireland is better remaining in the European Union". At a time when Sinn Féin was citing the cross-border, all-island, economic activity facilitated and supported by the EU as a further argument for Irish unity there was a sense that Brexit would restore a measure of "distance" from Dublin. Sinn Féin's immediate response to the announcement of the Leave result in 2016 was to call for a border poll. By a margin of 12% Northern Ireland had voted Remain (with Scotland, the only UK region to do so outside London). The DUP position remained that Leave had been a UK-wide decision. Yet as Brexit negotiations with the EU 27 proceeded Arlene Foster felt the need to insist that a UK-wide mandate to leave could be honoured only by the UK "leaving the European Union as a whole", its "territorial and economic integrity" intact. The DUP's ten MPs enabled Theresa May's Conservative Government to remain in power; following the hung parliament that resulted from the snap general election in 2017. However, divisions within May's Conservative Party limited DUP influence on Brexit policy. Legislation on withdrawal from EU would require a very much broader cross-party coalition. At the end of the year, May returned from Brussels with a proposal that Northern Ireland, alone, continue with the Republic of Ireland under a common EU's trade regime. Coalescing behind the Dublin government, the EU 27 had ruled that the interests of the Northern Ireland peace process are "paramount". To avoid the "step backwards" that would be represented, "symbolically and psychologically", by a "hardening" of the Irish border, Northern Ireland should remain in regulatory alignment with the European Single Market and behind the Customs Union frontier. That would allow necessary physical checks on goods to be removed to air and sea points of entry. Foster protested that the hazards of a no-deal Brexit would be better than this "annexation of Northern Ireland away from the rest of the United Kingdom". She was supported by prominent Brexiteers. Boris Johnson told the 2018 DUP conference that the EU had made Northern Ireland "their indispensable bargaining chip": "if we wanted to do free trade deals, if we wanted to cut tariffs or vary our regulation the we would have to leave Northern Ireland behind as a semi-colony of the EU . . . damaging the fabric of the Union with regulatory checks . . . down the Irish Sea". It would be an "historic mistake". Privately, Johnson complained that the attention to Northern Ireland sensitivities was a case of "the tail wagging the dog" Within three months of replacing May in July 2019, he had amended her withdrawal agreement, stripping the Irish Backstop not of its essential provisions—Northern Ireland would remain a customs point of entry for the EU—but rather of the suggestion that, to avoid singling Northern Ireland out, the UK as a whole might accept an interim regulatory and customs partnership. The DUP acknowledged the sense of "betrayal". Johnson's deal was "the worst of all worlds". Citing free-trade provisions of the Act of Union, past and present unionist leaders pressed for a judicial review. When eventually rendered in June 2021, the ruling of the Belfast High Court was that while there indeed was a conflict with the Act, in approving the implicitly amending Protocol Parliament was sovereign. With the Prime Minister secure in his "Get-Brexit-Done" mandate from the 2019 UK general election, the DUP's last line of defence was themselves to appeal to the international and constitutional status of the Good Friday Agreement. Johnson had made one apparent concession: every four years the Northern Ireland Assembly would be called upon to renew the region's new double-border trade arrangements. However, this was to be by "simple majority vote". The decision could not be subject to a Petition of Concern, and thus to the prospect of a unionist veto. For the DUP this was a violation of the Good Friday Agreement under which any proposal to "diminish the powers of the NI assembly" or to "treat NI differently to the rest of UK" had been on the basis of parallel unionist-nationalist majorities. For unionists, the appeal to the cross-community consent provisions of the Good Friday Agreement was a significant admission. It suggested that they now saw themselves, not in Ireland alone but in Northern Ireland, as a minority, deserving of minority protection. The novel predicament was underscored in the 2019 Westminster election. Although the combined nationalist vote actually fell 3%, Northern Ireland for the first time returned more nationalist MPs than unionist. Unionist demographics Asked to account for the 2019 loss to Sinn Féin's John Finucane of North Belfast, a seat her deputy Nigel Dodds had held for nineteen years and which never previously returned a nationalist MP, Arlene Foster replied "The demography just wasn't there. We worked very hard to get the vote out... but the demography was against us". A Sinn Féin election flyer used in the previous 2015 run against Dodds advertised the changed ratio of Catholics to Protestants in the constituency (46.94 per cent to 45.67 per cent). It had a simple message for Catholic voters, "Make the change". Demography, in this sense, has been a long term concern for unionists. The proportion of people across Northern Ireland identifying as Protestant, or raised Protestant, has fallen from 60% in the 1960s to 48%, while those raised Catholic has increased from 35 to 45%. Only two of the six counties, Antrim and Down, now have "significant Protestant majorities", and only one – Lisburn – of its five official cities. A majority Protestant Northern Ireland "is now restricted to the suburban area surrounding Belfast". Unionist representation has declined. The combined unionist vote, trailing below 50% in elections since 2014, fell to a new low of just 42.3% in the 2019 Westminster poll. Unionism losing, however, has not necessarily meant nationalism winning: overall there has been "no comparable increase in the nationalist vote mirroring the decline in the unionist bloc". With Sinn Fein's victory in North Belfast and a gain for the SDLP in South Belfast (constituencies that once returned Ulster Unionists unopposed), in 2019 nationalist parties did secure nine MPs (the 7 Sinn Féiners, on a policy of Abstention, refusing to take their seats at Westminster) to eight for the unionists (all DUP). But across Northern Ireland the nationalists' overall share of the popular vote, 37.7% was still below the 42.3% unionist turnout, and lower than it had been in 2005, 41.8%. Surveys suggest that more people than ever in Northern Ireland, 50%, say they are neither unionist nor nationalist. The electoral impact of eschewing "tribal labels" (upwards of 17% also refuse a religious designation) is limited since those who do so are younger and less likely to turnout in Northern Ireland's still largely polarised elections. It is still the case that Protestants will not vote for nationalists, and Catholics will not to vote for unionists. But they will vote for others, for parties that decline to make an issue of Northern Ireland's constitutional status. The principal other party has been the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland. In 2019, Alliance more than doubled its vote from 7.1% to 18.5% in the Northern-Ireland wide May European elections, and from 7.9% to 16.8% in the December Westminster election (gaining the seat of the retiring independent unionist, Sylvia Hermon). According to exit polling it is a surge that drew both on past unionist and on past nationalist voters. In the Westminster election, 18% of Alliance's new backers said they voted DUP at the previous contest and 3% for the UUP. 12% had voted for Sinn Fein, and 5% for the-SDLP. The party meanwhile gained a quarter of all non-voters from two years earlier. Alliance is neutral on the constitutional issue, but a January 2020 survey indicates that in a border poll, post-Brexit, twice as many of its voters (47%) would opt for Irish unity as for remaining in the United Kingdom (22%). Since O'Neill, who in the last Stormont parliamentary election personally canvassed Catholic households, there have been calls within unionism for it to break out of its Protestant base. When he was DUP leader, Peter Robinson spoke of not being "prepared to write off over 40 per cent of our population as being out of reach". Surveys had been suggesting that in a border poll between a quarter and a third of Catholics might vote for the Northern Ireland to remain in the UK. While anti-partition sentiment has strengthened post-Brexit, there may be a significant number of Catholics who meet the standard of "functional unionists": voters whose "rejection of the unionist label is more to do with the brand image of unionism than with their constitutional preferences". It remains the case that only one half of one percent of DUP and UUP members identify as Catholics: a handful of individuals. Defence of "unionist culture" In disclaiming any "selfish or strategic" British interest, the 1994 Downing Street Declaration, had effectively ruled that "there could no such thing as disloyalty within Northern Ireland". The conflicting ambitions of nationalism and unionism were of "equal validity". Unionists accused nationalists taking this new "parity of esteem" as a license for a policy of "unrelenting harassment". Trimble spoke of having to reverse an "insidious erosion of the culture and ethnic national identity of the British people of Ulster" systematically pursued by "the Provisional IRA and its fellow travellers"; and Robinson of a "fightback" against the "unrelenting Sinn Féin campaign to promote Irish culture and target British structures and symbols". Unionists alleged a "pan-nationalist [SDLP-Sinn Féin] front" was manipulating public order powers to ban, re-route or otherwise regulate time-hallowed Orange marches. For Trimble the flashpoint was the conflict at Drumcree (1995-2001), for Robinson and Arlene Foster it was the similarly drawn-out Ardoyne shopfronts standoff (2013-2016) in north Belfast. A decision of the once firmly unionist Belfast City Council in 2012 to reduce the number of days the Union Flag was flown from City Hall, was also interpreted as a step in a wider "cultural war" against "Britishness", triggering protest. The greater issue in inter-party talks proved to be language rights. On Good Friday, April 10, 1998, Prime Minister Tony Blair was surprised by a last minute demand for recognition of a "Scottish dialect spoken in some parts of Northern Ireland" that Unionists regarded their "equivalent to the Irish language". In insisting on parity for Ulster Scots or Ullans, Trimble believed he was taking this "cultural war" onto the nationalists' own ground. Unionists argued that nationalists had "weaponised" the Irish language issue as "a tool" with which to "batter the Protestant people". The DUP's first Minister of Culture, Arts and Leisure, Nelson McCausland, argued that privileging Irish through a language act would be an exercise in "ethnic territorial marking". His decision, and that of his party colleagues, to resist Sinn Féin's demand for a stand-alone Irish Language Act, in part by insisting on compensating provisions for Ulster Scots, became one of the principal, publicly acknowledged, sticking points in the three years of on and off again negotiations required to restore the power-sharing executive in 2020. Other unionists object. The "positive ethnic, religious or national special pleading" implicit in the parading, flags and language counteroffensive, they argue, risks defining unionist culture as "subaltern and therefore ripe for absorption into Irish culture as a 'cherished' minor tradition". The 2020 New Decade New Approach agreement promises both the Irish language and Ulster-Scots new Commissioners to "support" and "enhance" their development but does not accord them equal legal status. While the UK government recognise Scots and Ulster Scots as a regional or minority language for the "encouragement" and "facilitation" purposes of Part II of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, for Irish it assumes the more stringent Part III obligations in respect of education, media and administration. Yet New Decade, New Approach does take a step with Ulster Scots that it does not take with Irish speakers: the UK government pledges to "recognise Ulster Scots as a national minority under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities". This is a second Council of Europe treaty whose provisions were previously applied in Northern Ireland to non-white groups, to Irish Travellers and to the Roma. Insofar as unionists are persuaded to identity with Ulster Scots and employ it as a marker (as the reference to "the Ulster Scots / Ulster British tradition in Northern Ireland" in New Decade, New Approach might imply) they define themselves, "in effect", as a scheduled ethnicity. Unionist political parties Commonwealth Labour Party (1942–1947) Conservative Party (UK), officially the Conservative and Unionist Party (1830–present) Democratic Unionist Party (1971–present) Irish Conservative Party (1835–1891) Irish Loyal and Patriotic Union (1885-1891) Irish Unionist Alliance (1891–1922) Liberal Unionist Party (1886–1912) NI21 (2013–2016) Northern Ireland Unionist Party (1999–2008) Progressive Unionist Party (1978–present) Protestant Unionist Party (1966–1971) Traditional Unionist Voice (2007–present) UK Independence Party (UKIP 1993–present) UK Unionist Party (UKUP 1995–2007) Ulster Popular Unionist Party (1980–1995) Ulster (Loyalist) Democratic Party (1982–2001) Ulster Unionist Party (1921–present) Unionist Party of Northern Ireland (1974–1981) United Unionist Coalition (1998–2012) United Ulster Unionist Party (1975–1984) Vanguard Unionist Progressive Party (1973–1978) Volunteer Political Party (1974–1975) References Further reading Alcock, Antony (1995) Understanding Ulster. Belfast: Ulster Society. Arthur, Paul, and Keith Jeffrey (1988), Northern Ireland since 1968. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Beckett, J.C. (1966) The Making of Modern Ireland, 1603-1923. London Faber and Faber. Biggs-Davidson, John (1973) The Hand is Red. London: Johnson. Bruce, Steve (1994) The Edge of the Union: the Ulster Loyalist Political Vision, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Buckland, Patrick (1972) Irish Unionism I: The Anglo-Irish and the New Ireland, 1885–1922, Dublin: Gill & Macmillan. Buckland, Patrick (1973) Irish Unionism II: Ulster Unionism and the Origins of Northern Ireland, 1886–1922, Dublin: Gill & Macmillan. Courtney, Roger (2013) Dissenting Voices: Rediscovering the Irish Progressive Presbyterian Tradition, Belfast: Ulster Historical Foundation. Farrington, C. (2006) Ulster Unionism and the Peace Process in Northern Ireland. Dublin: Palgrave Macmillan. Good, James Winder (1920) Irish Unionism. London: T Fisher Unwin. Harbinson, J. F. (1973). The Ulster Unionist Party 1882–1973. Belfast: Blackstaff. McIntosh, G. (1999) The Force of Culture: Unionist identities in twentieth-century Ireland. Cork University Press. Stewart, A.T.Q. (1967) The Ulster Crisis. London: Faber & Faber. Tonge, Jonathan; Braniff, Máire (2014). The Democratic Unionist Party: From Protest to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Utley, T. E. (1975) Lessons of Ulster. London: J.M.Dent & Sons. Shirlow, P. & McGovern, M. (1997) Who Are The People? Unionism, Protestantism and Loyalism in Northern Ireland. Pluto: London Walker, G. (2004) A History of the Ulster Unionist Party. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Wichert, Sabine (1991). Northern Ireland Since 1945''. London: Longman. 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258893	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disfigurement	Disfigurement	Disfigurement is the state of having one's appearance deeply and persistently harmed medically, such as from a disease, birth defect, or wound. General societal attitudes towards disfigurement have varied greatly across cultures and over time, with cultures possessing strong social stigma against it often causing psychological distress to disfigured individuals. Alternatively, many societies have regarded some forms of disfigurement in a medical, scientific context where someone having ill will against the disfigured is viewed as anathema. In various religious and spiritual contexts, disfigurement has been variously described as being a punishment from the divine for sin (such as Yahweh's defacement of Cain for Abel's murder in Judaism), as being (such as Paul of the New Testament's arguments about Christ's sufferings) caused by supernatural forces of hate and evil against the good and just, which will be later atoned for, or as being without explanation per se with people just having to endure. The topic has been frequently commented on and referred to in a great many forms of fictional media as well. Villainous examples include the iconic fiend The Joker from various DC Comics and the mysterious figure with a "red right hand" from the song of the same name by the band Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds. Heroic examples include Daredevil, a crime-fighter who was rendered blind (from Marvel Comics), and the compassionate character Edward Scissorhands from the film of the same name. Overview Disfigurement, whether caused by a benign or malignant condition, often leads to severe psychosocial problems such as negative body image; depression; difficulties in one's social, sexual, and professional lives; prejudice; and intolerance. This is partly due to how the individual copes with looking 'visibly different', though the extent of the disfigurement rarely correlates with the degree of distress the sufferer feels. An additional factor which affects sufferers of a disfigurement is the reaction they get from other people. The general population responds to people with a disfigurement with less trust and respect, and often try to avoid making contact or having to look at the disfigurement. Disfigurements affecting visible areas, such as the face, arms, and hands, are thought to present greater difficulty for sufferers to cope with than do other disfigurements. Deliberate mutilation resulting in physical disfigurement has also been practiced by many cultures throughout human history for religious or judicial purposes. During the Byzantine Empire, the emperor was considered God's viceregent on Earth, and as such, the physical wholeness of his person was an essential complement to the perfection of Heaven. For this reason, many deposed emperors were blinded, had their noses cut off, or their tongue split by their successors, as these permanent disfigurements disqualified them from ever reclaiming the throne. A case of voluntary disfigurement is that of St. Æbbe the Younger and the nuns of Coldingham Monastery in Scotland. When the monastery was attacked by Vikings and they feared being raped, the nuns and she cut off their own noses and upper lips. In revenge, the Vikings burned down the building with the nuns inside. This is said to be the origin of the phrase "cutting off the nose to spite the face". Causes Conditions that can cause disfigurement include: severe acne acromegaly amniotic band constriction amputation argyria birthmarks burns cancer cataracts circumcision cleft lip eczema elephantiasis erysipelas frostbite gangrene gigantomastia gynecomastia keloids leprosy necrosis McCune–Albright syndrome neurofibromatosis noma paralysis proteus syndrome radiation poisoning scalping scars smallpox severe strabismus synkinesis syphilis vitiligo severe warts Plastic surgery or reconstructive surgery is available in many cases to disfigured people. Some health insurance companies and government health care systems cover plastic surgery for these problems when they do not generally cover plastic surgery for what is labeled as "cosmetic purposes". The term "disfigurement" is sometimes used pejoratively to describe the results of intentional body modification. Scarification and other forms of such modification are sometimes referred to as such by neutral parties or by advocates of the processes, as well. Many types of body modification are subject to strong social debate as such. Society and culture People with disfigurement are often treated poorly. In American fiction [[Image:ChaneyPhantomoftheOpera.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|Lon Chaney's version of "Erik" in the 1925 film The Phantom of the Opera]] had pervasive facial disfigurements, including jagged teeth and sunken-in eyes. In most adaptations (literary, stage, film, or otherwise) of The Phantom of the Opera, the title character (known as "Erik" or "The Phantom") wears either a full- or half-face mask to conceal a disfigurement. Some adaptations infer that his disfigurement was present from birth, such as in the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical, whereas others infer or show it to be the result of a horrible accident such as burning from fire or chemicals. The Phantom's disfigured face is usually described as having caused him anguish and despair, thus influencing him to adopt the enigmatic "phantom" persona. The DC Comics character the Joker, often a foe of Batman, possesses a clown-like grin and a grotesque combination of bleached skin, red lips, and green hair that are typically described or inferred to be the result of injuries and disfigurement in most media. A common origin of his skin and hair colors revolve around chemical burns as the result of the Joker character either falling into, jumping into, or being thrown into a vat of noxious chemicals. In Tim Burton's 1989 film adaptation of Batman, the Joker character, in this version a criminal originally known as "Jack Napier", receives his distinct rictus grin as the result of a botched plastic surgery that he received after a ricocheted bullet that Napier intended to harm Batman badly injured the Joker's face. In most media, the Joker's mania and insanity begin as a result of him seeing his own disfigurement, the 1989 film being an example. Several enemies of fictional British secret agent James Bond have been known for their distinctive facial features. An example is the North Korean criminal and terrorist Zao from the film Die Another Day. Played by Rick Yune, the terrorist has partly translucent skin with thick veins shown on his face and numerous diamonds embedded into his skin. The Punisher, an antihero appearing in various Marvel Comics-related works, has confronted several enemies known for their drastic facial disfigurement. A prominent example is Jigsaw, a sadist and psychopath with incredible stamina, while having no superhuman powers that has a deeply mutilated face somewhat similar to a jigsaw puzzle. Perhaps the Punisher's most iconic nemesis, he was played in 2008's Punisher: War Zone by Dominic West. Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds' popular alternative rock song "Red Right Hand", first released in 1994's Let Love In, describes a nightmarish figure with a blood-red, disfigured hand (as referred to in the title). See also AboutFace – Canadian charitable organization Changing Faces (charity) – British charitable organization Dermatology Face transplant – experimental treatment for severe facial disfigurement Corporal punishment, of which disfigurement is the most permanent type References External links Changing Faces – a British organization for people with facial disfigurements Project Harar – a British organization helping children with facial disfigurements in Africa Let's Face It – an American organization for people with facial disfigurements Unique Face – a Japanese organization for people with facial disfigurements Centre for Appearance Research - Psychological and psychosocial research at the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK Derriford Appearance Scale - a standardised psychological measure of distress and dysfunction in relation to disfigurement and visible difference www.karibuanawim.com – Australian organisation for people with facial disfigurements Injuries	[ 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258899	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm%20Springs%20%28disambiguation%29	Palm Springs (disambiguation)	Palm Springs is a desert city in California. Palm Springs may also refer to: Places Palm Springs, California Palm Springs High School Palm Springs International Airport Palm Springs station, a train station Palm Springs, Florida Coachella Valley, California, also known as the Palm Springs area Entertainment Palm Springs (1936 film), a film directed by Aubrey Scotto Palm Springs (2020 film), an American romantic comedy film See also North Palm Springs, California Palm Springs North, Florida	[ -0.1837712675333023, 0.19517378509044647, -0.12488863617181778, -0.3131982386112213, 0.550601601600647, 0.0023954876232892275, 0.7672658562660217, 0.45438066124916077, -0.10945291072130203, 0.19585706293582916, -0.33370617032051086, 0.1251746416091919, -0.5834872722625732, 0.7835932374000549, -0.5957152843475342, 0.13841058313846588, 0.15445321798324585, 0.466932475566864, 0.8322722315788269, 0.02282586507499218, 0.05275292694568634, -0.2822866141796112, 0.17348816990852356, -0.09220482409000397, -0.3208015263080597, -0.3514721095561981, 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258900	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Dewdney	Christopher Dewdney	Christopher Dewdney (born May 9, 1951) is a prize-winning Canadian poet and essayist. His poetry reflects his interest in natural history. His book Acquainted with the Night, an investigation into darkness was nominated for both the Charles Taylor Prize and the Governor General's Award. Early life and education Dewdney was born and grew up in London, Ontario. He is the son of Canadian artist and author Selwyn Dewdney, brother of Alexander Keewatin Dewdney. He was influenced by London artists Greg Curnoe and Jack Chambers. Dewdney is the long-time partner of writer Barbara Gowdy. Career Dewdney moved to Toronto, Ontario in 1980. In 1988, when he published his book Last Flesh, he was teaching at the McLuhan Institute in Toronto. In 1992 he was writer-in-residence at the University of Western Ontario. In 2002 he published The Natural History, a book-length poem which brings together and interprets several scientific disciplines. In 2007 he was presented with the Harbourfront Prize at the International Festival of Authors. In 2008 he was writer-in-residence at the University of Toronto. Soul of World, Unlocking the Secrets of Time was listed at number 4 in The Globe and Mail′s 100 Books of 2008. Acquainted with the Night was released as a feature documentary in 2010, and in 2011 the film received a Gemini Award. Dewdney appeared in the classic documentary Poetry in Motion. He is currently a professor at the Glendon campus of York University. Poetic style and critical evaluation Dewdney's poetry has been described as post-modern and experimental. He frequently uses poetry to highlight the wonders of science. Author Karl Jirgens praises his ability to "articulate the link...between the empirical and the mystic." In his 1986 book, The Immaculate Perception, Dewdney describes nature as "divine technology," and language as a "cognitive prosthesis". In this same book he refers to language as an "organically derived software downloaded into a child's mind at an early age". He writes that this process leaves a wound, "language acquisition trauma", in the unconscious. His two subsequent non-fiction books, The Secular Grail and Last Flesh, deal with consciousness, media and a possible future evolution of humans. In more recent years his nonfiction have explored the subjects of night and time. Bibliography Poetry A Palaeozoic Geology of London, Ontario (1974), Coach House Press Fovea Centralis (1975), Coach House Press Alter Sublime (1980), Coach House Press Predators of the Adoration, (1983), McClelland and Stewart Permugenesis (1987), Nightwood Editions The Radiant Inventory (1988), McClelland and Stewart Concordat Proviso Ascendant (A Natural History of Southwestern Ontario, book 3) (1991), The Figures, Mass Demon Pond (1994), McClelland and Stewart Signal Fires (including A Natural History of Southwestern Ontario, books 3 and 4 (2000), McClelland and Stewart The Natural History (2002) ECW Press Children of the Outer Dark, the Poetry of Christopher Dewdney (2007), Wilfrid Laurier Press Non-fiction The Immaculate Perception, (1986), House of Anansi Press The Secular Grail (1993), Somerville House Books Last Flesh: Life in the Transhuman Era (1998), HarperCollins Canada Acquainted with the Night (2004), HarperCollins Canada; Bloomsbury, New York; Bloomsbury, London, England; Locus Publishing, Taiwan; YeWon Media, South Korea; Editions Autrement, France; Makri Publications, Greece. Soul of The World: Unlocking the Secrets of Time (2008), HarperCollins Canada; YeWon Media, South Korea. 18 Miles: The Epic Drama of Our Atmosphere and Its Weather (2018), ECW Press, Canada; Bloomsbury/Sigma, London, England. Awards and honours 1983 Finalist, Governor General's Award for Poetry (for Predators of the Adoration) 1986 Winner, CBC Literary Competition for Poetry (for A Natural History of Southwestern Ontario) 1986 Finalist, Governor General's Award for Poetry (for The Immaculate Perception) 1988 Finalist, Governor General's Award for Poetry (for The Radiant Inventory) 2004 Finalist, Governor General's Award for Non-Fiction (for Acquainted with the Night) 2005 Finalist, Charles Taylor Prize (for Acquainted with the Night) 2007 Harbourfront Festival Prize 2019 The Lane Anderson Award for Best Canadian Science Book References External links Christopher Dewdney's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia. 1951 births Living people Writers from London, Ontario 20th-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian male writers Canadian male poets 21st-century Canadian poets Writers from Toronto York University faculty Harbourfront Festival Prize winners Canadian male essayists 20th-century Canadian essayists 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258901	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilation	Mutilation	Mutilation or maiming (from the Latin: mutilus) is cutting off or causing injury to a body part of a person so that the part of the body is permanently damaged, detached or disfigured. Terminology In 2019, Dr. Michael H. Stone, Dr. Gary Brucato and Dr. Ann Burgess proposed formal criteria by which “mutilation” might be systematically distinguished from the act of “dismemberment,” as these terms are commonly used interchangeably. They suggested that dismemberment involves “the entire removal, by any means, of a large section of the body of a living or dead person, specifically, the head (also termed decapitation), arms, hands, torso, pelvic area, legs, or feet.” Mutilation, by contrast, involves “the removal or irreparable disfigurement, by any means, of some smaller portion of one of those larger sections of a living or dead person. The latter would include castration (removal of the testicles), evisceration (removal of the internal organs), and flaying (removal of the skin).” According to these parameters, removing a whole hand would constitute dismemberment, while removing or damaging a finger would be mutilation; decapitation of a full head would be dismemberment, while removing or damaging a part of the face would be mutilation; and removing a whole torso would be dismemberment, while removing or damaging a breast or the organs contained within the torso would be mutilation. Usage Some ethnic groups practice ritual mutilation, e.g. scarification, burning, flagellation, tattooing, or wheeling, as part of a rite of passage. In some cases, the term may apply to treatment of dead bodies, such as soldiers mutilated after they have been killed by an enemy. The traditional Chinese practices of língchí and foot binding are forms of mutilation. One form of mutilation that has captured the imagination of Westerners is the "long-neck" people, a sub-group of the Karen known as the Padaung where women wear brass rings around their neck. The act of tattooing is also considered a form of self-mutilation according to some cultural traditions, such as within Christianity. A joint statement released by the United Nations and numerous other international bodies opposes female circumcision as a form of mutilation. Whether or not male circumcision amounts to mutilation is a subject of academic debate. The Danish Society for General Medicine has declared non-medical male circumcision an ethically unacceptable mutilation while the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has condemned non-medical male circumcision as a "violation of the physical integrity of children". Castration is also a form of mutilation, as are body piercing, some forms of extreme body modification, and some cosmetic surgery. Punishment Maiming, or mutilation which involves the loss of, or incapacity to use, a bodily member, is and has been practiced by many societies with various cultural and religious significance, and is also a customary form of physical punishment, especially applied on the principle of an eye for an eye. The Araucanian warrior Galvarino suffered this punishment as a prisoner during the Spanish conquest of Chile. Maiming has often been a criminal offense; the old law term for a special case of maiming of persons was mayhem, an Anglo-French variant form of the word. Maiming of animals by others than their owners is a particular form of the offense generally grouped as malicious damage. For the purpose of the law as to this offense animals are divided into cattle, which includes pigs and equids, and other animals which are either subjects of larceny at common law or are usually kept in confinement or for domestic purposes. In Britain under the Malicious Damage Act 1861 the punishment for maiming of cattle was three to fourteen years' penal servitude; malicious injury to other animals was a misdemeanor punishable on summary conviction. For a second offense the penalty was imprisonment with hard labor for over twelve months. Today maiming of animals falls under the Cruelty to Animals Acts, while maiming by others is additionally treated as criminal damage. Mutilation as human punishment In times when even judicial physical punishment was still commonly allowed to cause not only intense pain and public humiliation during the administration but also to inflict permanent physical damage, or even deliberately intended to mark the criminal for life by docking or branding, one of the common anatomical target areas not normally under permanent cover of clothing (so particularly merciless in the long term) were the ear(s). In England, for example, various pamphleteers attacking the religious views of the Anglican episcopacy under William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury, had their ears cut off for those writings: in 1630 Dr. Alexander Leighton and in 1637 still other Puritans, John Bastwick, Henry Burton and William Prynne. In Scotland one of the Covenanters, James Gavin of Douglas, Lanarkshire, had his ears cut off for refusing to renounce his religious faith. In Japan, Gonsalo Garcia and his companions were similarly punished. Notably in various jurisdictions of the Thirteen Colonies, even relatively minor crimes, such as hog stealing, were punishable by having one's ears nailed to the pillory and slit loose, or even cropped, a counterfeiter would be branded on top (for that crime, considered lèse-majesté, the older mirror punishment was boiling in oil), which was an example of western mutilation. Independence did not render American justice any less brutal. For example, in the future state of Tennessee, an example of harsh 'frontier law' under the 1780 Cumberland Compact took place in 1793 when Judge John McNairy sentenced Nashville's first horse thief, John McKain Jr., to be fastened to a wooden stock one hour for 39 lashes, have his ears cut off and cheeks branded with the letters "H" and "T". Tongue cutting is also a form of mutilation as this leads to bleeding to death in most cases with choking in the lungs. Nebahne Yohannes, an unsuccessful claimant to the Ethiopian imperial throne who had his ears and nose cut off, yet was then freed. This form of mutilation against unsuccessful claimants to thrones has been in use in middle-eastern regions for thousands of years. To qualify as a king, formerly, one had to exemplify perfection. Obvious physical deformities such as missing noses, ears, or lips, are thereby sufficient disqualifications. The victim in these cases is typically freed alive to act (a) as an example to others, and (b) as no longer a threat. See also Blinding (punishment) Cattle mutilation Decapitation Overview of discretionary invasive procedures on animals References Corporal punishments Violence	[ 0.44077131152153015, 0.12828700244426727, -1.1200429201126099, -0.24114003777503967, -0.2138993740081787, 0.6515358686447144, 0.9702851176261902, 0.6250073909759521, -0.20426465570926666, -0.7361975908279419, -0.6073132157325745, -0.10814103484153748, -0.19460514187812805, 0.7736858129501343, -0.4950510859489441, 0.978103518486023, 0.21384482085704803, 0.3391607403755188, -0.36055228114128113, 0.3891986906528473, -0.22061599791049957, -0.2247994989156723, -0.10484807938337326, -0.0536535307765007, -0.00026762179913930595, -0.2794156074523926, 0.6025495529174805, 0.06494984030723572, -0.7155713438987732, -0.16154177486896515, -0.030169671401381493, 0.2381010204553604, 0.2049739956855774, -0.7006190419197083, -0.24883170425891876, 0.0914953276515007, -0.24943965673446655, -1.0323225259780884, -0.25311702489852905, 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258909	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member%20of%20the%20European%20Parliament	Member of the European Parliament	A Member of the European Parliament (MEP) is a person who has been elected to serve as a popular representative in the European Parliament. When the European Parliament (then known as the Common Assembly of the ECSC) first met in 1952, its members were directly appointed by the governments of member states from among those already sitting in their own national parliaments. Since 1979, however, MEPs have been elected by direct universal suffrage. Earlier European organizations that were a precursor to the European union did not have MEPs. Each member state establishes its own method for electing MEPs – and in some states this has changed over time – but the system chosen must be a form of proportional representation. Some member states elect their MEPs to represent a single national constituency; other states apportion seats to sub-national regions for election. Election From 1 January 2007, when Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU, there were 785 MEPs, but their number was reduced to 736 at the elections in 2009. With effect from the elections held in May 2014 the number had risen to 751. This has been reduced to 705 members after the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union in January 2020, with each member state now having at least six and at most 96 MEPs. Elections are held once every five years, on the basis of universal suffrage. There is no uniform voting system for the election of MEPs; rather, each member state is free to choose its own system, subject to three restrictions: The system must be a form of proportional representation, under either the party list or Single Transferable Vote system. The electoral area may be subdivided if this will not generally affect the proportional nature of the voting system. Any election threshold on the national level must not exceed five per cent. The allocation of seats to each member state is based on the principle of degressive proportionality, so that, while the size of the population of each nation is taken into account, smaller states elect more MEPs than would be strictly justified by their populations alone. As the number of MEPs granted to each member state has arisen from treaty negotiations, there is no precise formula for the apportionment of seats. No change in this configuration can occur without the unanimous consent of all national governments. Length of service The European Parliament has a high turnover of members compared to some national parliaments. For instance, after the 2004 elections, the majority of elected members had not been members in the prior parliamentary session, though that could largely be put down to the recent enlargement. Hans-Gert Pöttering served the longest continuous term from the first elections in 1979 until 2014. MEPs within the Parliament MEPs are organised into seven different cross-nationality political groups, except the 57 non-attached members known as Non-Inscrits. The two largest groups are the European People's Party (EPP) and the Socialists & Democrats (S&D). These two groups have dominated the Parliament for much of its life, continuously holding between 40 and 70 per cent of the seats together. No single group has ever held a majority in Parliament. As a result of being broad alliances of national parties, European groups parties are very decentralised and hence have more in common with parties in federal states like Germany or the United States than unitary states like the majority of the EU states. Although, the European groups, between 2004 and 2009, were actually more cohesive than their US counterparts. Aside from working through their groups, individual members are also guaranteed a number of individual powers and rights within the Parliament: the right to table a motion for resolution the right to put questions to the Council of the European Union, the Commission, and to the leaders of the Parliament the right to table an amendment to any text in committee the right to make explanations of vote the right to raise points of order the right to move the inadmissibility of a matter Job of an MEP Every month except August the Parliament meets in Strasbourg for a four-day plenary session. Six times a year the Parliament meets for two days each in Brussels, where the Parliament's committees, political groups, and other organs also mainly meet. The obligation to spend one week a month in Strasbourg was imposed on Parliament by the member state governments at the 1992 Edinburgh summit. Payment and privileges The total cost of the European Parliament is approximately €1.756 billion per year according to its 2014 budget, about €2.3 million per member of parliament. Salary Until 2009, MEPs were paid (by their own Member State) exactly the same salary as a member of the lower House of their own national parliament. As a result, there was a wide range of salaries in the European Parliament. In 2002, Italian MEPs earned €130,000, while Spanish MEPs earned less than a quarter of that at €32,000. However, in July 2005, the Council agreed to a single statute for all MEPs, following a proposal by the Parliament. Thus, since the 2009 elections, all MEPs receive a monthly pre-tax salary set at 38.5 per cent of that of a judge at the European Court of Justice. As of July 1, 2019, the monthly salary is of , or just over per year. MEPs also receive a general expenditure allowance of per month. The single statute represented a pay cut for MEPs from some member states (e.g. Italy, Germany, and Austria), a rise for others (particularly the low-paid eastern European members) and status quo for those from the United Kingdom, until January 2020 (depending on the euro-pound exchange rate). The much-criticised expenses arrangements were also partially reformed. Financial interests Members declare their financial interests in order to prevent any conflicts of interest. These declarations are published annually in a register and are available on the Internet. Immunities Under the protocol on the privileges and immunities of the European Union, MEPs in their home state receive the same immunities as their own national parliamentarians. In other member states, MEPs are immune from detention and from legal proceedings, except when caught in the act of committing an offense. This immunity may be waived by application to the European Parliament by the authorities of the member state in question. Individual members Members' experience Around a third of MEPs have previously held national parliamentary mandates, and over 10 per cent have ministerial experience at a national level. There are usually a number of former prime ministers and former members of the European Commission. Many other MEPs have held office at a regional or local level in their home states. Current MEPs also include former judges, trade union leaders, media personalities, actors, soldiers, singers, athletes, and political activists. Many outgoing MEPs move into other political office. Several presidents, prime ministers or deputy prime ministers of member states are former MEPs, including former President of France Nicolas Sarkozy, former Deputy PM of the United Kingdom Nick Clegg, former Prime Minister of Italy Silvio Berlusconi, Danish former Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt, and Belgian former PM Elio Di Rupo. Dual mandates The so-called "dual mandate", in which an individual is a member of both his or her national parliament and the European Parliament, was officially discouraged by a growing number of political parties and Member States, and is prohibited as of 2009. In the 2004–2009 Parliament, a small number of members still held a dual mandate. Notably, Ian Paisley and John Hume once held "triple mandates" as MEP, MP in the House of Commons, and MLA in the Northern Ireland Assembly simultaneously. Gender Women are generally under-represented in politics and public life in the EU, as well as in national parliaments, governments and local assemblies. The percentage of women in the EU parliament has increased from 15.2 per cent after the first European Parliament election in 1979 to 41 per cent after 2019 European Parliament election. To reach gender parity, women should hold 50 per cent of seats and positions of power. However, according to the goal set by the European Institute for Gender Equality, a ratio between 40 and 60 per cent is considered acceptable. After the 2014 European Parliament election 11 countries of 28 reached this goal in their own quota of elected candidates. While in nine EU countries there were mechanisms in place to facilitate female representation, only in four of these countries did women exceeded 40 per cent of elected candidates. On the other hand, in eight countries this goal was reached despite the absence of such systems. The FEMM Committee requested a study exploring the results of the election in terms of gender balance. EU institutions have focused on how to achieve a better gender balance (at least 40 per cent) or gender parity (50 per cent) in the next Parliament, and for other high-level posts in other institutions. In the 2019 elections 308 female MEPs were elected (41 per cent). Sweden elected the highest percentage of female MEPs: 55 per cent. Overall, thirteen countries elected 45 to 55 per cent female MEPs, with seven countries reaching exactly 50 per cent. On the other hand, Cyprus has elected zero women, and Slovakia elected only 15 percent. Other Eastern European countries, namely Romania, Greece, Lithuania and Bulgaria, all elected fewer than 30 per cent female MEPs. Eight member states elected a lower number of women in 2019 than in 2014. Malta, Cyprus and Estonia lost the most female representation in the EU parliament, dropping by 17 percentage points, while Slovakia dropped by 16. However, despite the drop, Malta still elected 50 per cent women in 2019. Cyprus dropped from 17 per cent in 2014 to zero women this year, while Estonia dropped from 50 to 33 per cent. Hungary, Lithuania and Luxembourg made the greatest gains (19, 18 and 17 percentage points respectively) when we compare 2019 with 2014, followed by Slovenia and Latvia, both increasing their percentage of women MEPs by 13 points. Luxembourg, Slovenia and Latvia all elected 50 per cent female MEPs. Age , the youngest MEP is Kira Marie Peter-Hansen of Denmark, who was 21 at the start of the July 2019 session, and is additionally the youngest person ever elected to the European Parliament. The oldest MEP is Silvio Berlusconi of Italy, who was 82 at the start of the July 2019 session. Election of non-nationals European citizens are eligible for election in the member state where they reside (subject to the residence requirements of that state); they do not have to be a national of that state. The following citizens have been elected in a state other than their native country; 2009 figures incomplete Observers It is conventional for countries acceding to the European Union to send a number of observers to Parliament in advance. The number of observers and their method of appointment (usually by national parliaments) is laid down in the joining countries' Treaties of Accession. Observers may attend debates and take part by invitation, but they may not vote or exercise other official duties. When the countries then become full member states, these observers become full MEPs for the interim period between accession and the next European elections. From 26 September 2005 to 31 December 2006, Bulgaria had 18 observers in Parliament and Romania 35. These were selected from government and opposition parties as agreed by the countries' national parliaments. Following accession on 1 January 2007, the observers became MEPs (with some personnel changes). Similarly, Croatia had 12 observer members from 17 April 2012, appointed by the Croatian parliament in preparation for its accession in 2013. See also EUobserver Apportionment in the European Parliament :Category:Members of the European Parliament List of current members of the European Parliament References Further reading The European Parliament (eighth edition, 2011, John Harper publishing), by Richard Corbett, Francis Jacobs and Michael Shackleton. 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258910	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Jyv%C3%A4skyl%C3%A4	University of Jyväskylä	The University of Jyväskylä () is a research university in Jyväskylä, Finland. It has its origins in the first Finnish-speaking Teacher Training College (the so-called Teacher Seminary), founded in 1863. Around 14,000 students are currently enrolled in the degree programs of the university. History Founded in 1863, the university has its origins in the first Finnish-speaking teacher training college, the so-called Teacher Seminary. Uno Cygnaeus was enthusiastic to educate the people and created a programme for organising primary school education in Finland. Cygnaeus' plan was realised in 1863, when a teacher seminary was established in Jyväskylä, on the current university campus. Based on the town's central location, the first Finnish-medium secondary schools for boys and girls were also established in Jyväskylä. The foundation of the world-famous school system was created at the University of Jyväskylä. The teacher seminary evolved into the College of Education in 1937, at which time it was given the authority to grant doctorate degrees. In the 1960s, the college started teaching and researching in the sciences and in 1967 was renamed the University of Jyväskylä. Today the University of Jyväskylä is a nationally and internationally significant research university with expertise in education and a focus on human and natural sciences. The university is Finland's leading expert in teacher training and adult education, as well as a major exporter of education. The Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences is the only one of its kind in the country. The university offers a wide range of study programmes for master's degree conducted in English, many of which are unique in Finland. Natural Sciences, Human Sciences, Sports and Health Sciences as well as Teacher education are the university's areas of special expertise. Size The university has 14,000 students in addition to its adult education students, representing nearly 40,000 students in total. Each year around 2,800 new students are admitted and generally only a seventh of applicants are accepted; this makes University of Jyväskylä one of the most popular and selective universities in Finland. Measured according to the number of master's degrees conferred, the University of Jyväskylä is ranked as the second largest university in Finland. Organisation The university offers undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, teacher training programmes and over 120 subject area disciplines. The university is currently divided into six faculties: Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Faculty of Information Technology Faculty of Education and Psychology Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences Faculty of Mathematics and Science Jyväskylä University School of Business and Economics Independent institutes in addition to faculties: Centre for Multilingual Academic Communication, Movi Finnish Institute for Educational Research Kokkola University Consortium Chydenius Open University Open Science Centre \| University Library \| University Museum Excellence in Research Centres of Excellence in Research nominated by the Academy of Finland: 2022-2029 Center of Excellence in Quark Matter, Physics Centre of Excellence in Learning Dynamics and Intervention Research, Psychology and Educational Sciences Centre of Excellence in Music, Mind, Body and Brain, Music Finnish Centre of excellence in Randomness and Structures, Mathematics, coordinated by University of Helsinki 2018-2025 Research on Ageing and Care (Coordinated by Jyväskylä) Inverse Modelling and Imaging (Coordinated by Helsinki) Game Culture Studies (Coordinated by Tampere) University of Jyväskylä in global rankings In the global rankings, research activity at the JYU is among the top two to three percent of all universities. Research funding The university has succeeded well in acquiring competitive research funding - European Research Council funding as an example. Also Academy Professorships are internationally leading-edge researchers and recognised experts in their field. They are expected to have great scientific impact in the scientific community and in society at large. International cooperation in education The University of Jyväskylä aims to offer its students the opportunity to study abroad and internationalisation at home. Therefore, the University of Jyväskylä is active in a variety of international programmes, such as the Lifelong Learning Programme, Nordplus, north–south-South Higher Education Exchange, FIRST and ISEP. The university has also concluded bilateral agreements on student exchange with 25 universities around the world. Altogether, the university is involved in student exchanges with more than 360 universities worldwide. Campuses The faculties and departments are mainly located on three campus areas: the Main Campus area in the city centre - where the original Teacher Seminary has first started - as well as Mattilanniemi and Ylistönrinne Campuses on opposite shores of Lake Jyväsjärvi, united by a bridge, some 10 minutes walk from the Main Campus area. Several buildings in the main campus area were designed by famous Finnish architect Alvar Aalto. Aalto received the commission to design the College of Education campus following a competition held in 1951. Aalto played on the idea of Jyväskylä's image among the town's inhabitants as it being the "Athens of the North", and layout of the campus reflects principles of Greek acropolis layouts. His scheme even included a Greek-style open-air theatre, though executed in minimal form. Buildings in the campus area designed by Alvar Aalto: Teachers Training School 1951-54 Staff housing 1951 (now offices of the Jyväskylä University Museum, Building G) Student's Hall of Residence 1952-54 (Building Philologica, P) Lozzi and Lyhty staff and student refectories (P) Main Building 1954–1956, Building C Swimming Pool 1954–1958, 1964, several alterations (called Aalto-Alvari) Physical Education Building 1971 Library 1957 (now the Aalto Reading Room) In 1969-1970 an architectural competition was arranged for the design of new university campus sites at Mattilanniemi and Ylistönrinne. The competition was won by architect Arto Sipinen, who had previously worked in Aalto's office. Sipinen also designed new buildings for the main campus, including a new main library (1974). The three campus areas of the university - Seminaarinmäki, Mattilanniemi and Ylistönrinne - constitute a multifaceted cultural and natural environment. The Seminaarinmäki area is of particular interest as it depicts over 100 years of history of this institute of higher education. The three distinct eras in the history of the university, first as a Teacher Training College (Seminar) 1863–1937), then as the Jyväskylä College of Education (1934-1966), to its present-day university status (1966-) are reflected in the buildings dating from the different periods. The Teacher Seminary complex comprised five red brick buildings from 1879 to 1883 by architect Constantin Kiseleff. The old Seminar buildings and the college buildings designed by Alvar Aalto are all listed as buildings protected by the law. Because of the need to build more facilities for the university, new buildings have been designed, many of them by architect Arto Sipinen. The Faculty of Education and Psychology has the most recently designed facility, Ruusupuisto ("Rose Park", 2015) by SARC Architects Ltd. The building got its name from a former park from the beginning of the 20th century. It was named after the many luxuriant rosebushes planted on its southern hill. Student Union The Student Union of the University of Jyväskylä (JYY) is the students’ very own organization. The basic task of the Student Union is to represent its members and protect their interests and rights at the university as well as in the surrounding society. All degree and exchange students enrolled in the University of Jyväskylä become members of the Student Union. Accommodation Kortepohja Student Village Kortepohja Student Village is owned by the Student Union of the University of Jyväskylä. Kortepohja, located about 2.5 kilometres from the Main Campus and city centre, housing approximately 1900 students. Central Finland Student Housing Foundation, KOAS KOAS offers ca. 3900 apartments all around the Jyväskylä town area. The apartment buildings are conveniently located in the suburbs of Jyväskylä. Notable people and alumni Alvar Aalto Faina Jyrkilä Seminaarinmäen mieslaulajat Sofi Oksanen Jutta Urpilainen Majaliwa Kassim Majaliwa, prime minister of Tanzania, November 2015 – present. Former rectors Kaarle Oksala 1934–1940 Erik Ahlman 1940–1948 Aarni Penttilä 1948–1962 Martti Takala 1963–1967 Ilppo Simo Louhivaara 1967–1977 Kalevi Heinilä 1977–1982 Martti Takala 1982–1988 Antti Tanskanen 1988–1992 Aino Sallinen 1992–2012 Matti Manninen 2012–2017 Dr. Professor Keijo Hämäläinen from 1 August 2017 See also List of summer schools of nature sciences References External links University of Jyväskylä - Official site Architecture of Jyvaskyla University by Alvar Aalto on Architectuul University of Jyvaskyla Universities and colleges in Finland Educational institutions established in 1863 Buildings and structures in Central Finland 1863 establishments in the Russian Empire	[ 0.3942013084888458, 0.4257599115371704, 0.32504600286483765, 0.09402090311050415, 0.015508158132433891, 0.28386813402175903, 1.101288914680481, 0.6663500070571899, -0.5848529934883118, -0.11291559785604477, -0.290084570646286, -0.16059313714504242, 0.12659825384616852, 0.44035565853118896, 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258911	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Thrale	Henry Thrale	Henry Thrale (1724/1730?–4 April 1781) was a British politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1765 to 1780. He was a close friend of Samuel Johnson. Like his father, he was the proprietor of the large London brewery H. Thrale & Co. Born at the Alehouse in Harrow Corner, Southwark, he was the son of the rich brewer Ralph Thrale (1698–1758) and Mary Thrale. He married Hester Lynch Salusbury on 11 October 1763; they had 12 children, and she outlived him. He was MP for Southwark 23 December 1765 – September 1780, an Alderman, and Sheriff of the City of London: a respected, religious man who was a good hunter and sportsman with a taste for gambling. Education Thrale was educated at Eton College and University College, Oxford, where he matriculated on 4 June 1744. He travelled in Europe with Lord William Henry Lyttleton Westcote (1724–1808). Friendship with Samuel Johnson Johnson first met the Thrales on the 9 or 10 January 1765, and immediately became almost a part of their family. There was much good literary company. When Fanny Burney was admitted to the circle, Samuel Crisp wrote "Where will you find such another set? Oh, Fanny, set this down as the happiest period of your life." Johnson mostly lived with the Thrales at his country house Streatham Park or brewery home for the next 15 years until Henry's death in 1781. Parliamentary and business career On 23 December 1765, Henry Thrale was elected to Parliament. He continued to represent Southwark until his election defeat in 1780. Thrale inherited the Anchor Brewery, Southwark from his father. In 1772 a scheme for brewing beer without malt or hops put the brewery in debt by £130,000 (£13 million today). This almost bankrupted Henry Thrale. Hester Thrale raised money from her mother and other friends and he cleared the debt in nine years. Travels In 1774 Samuel Johnson went with the Thrales on a tour of Wales, during which time they visited Hester's cousin, Sir Robert Cotton at Lleweni Hall in Denbighshire. In September 1775 Hester, Henry and their eldest child Queeney, together with Samuel Johnson and Giuseppe Baretti, went to Paris. On 19 October 1775 the party was admitted to the Court of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette at Fontainebleau, and enjoyed dinner and an evening at the theatre with them. Family life Henry and Hester Thrale had twelve children of whom only four daughters survived to adulthood: Hester Maria (Queeney) (17 September 1764 – 31 March 1857) Frances (27 September 1765 – 6 October 1765) Henry Salusbury (15 February 1766 – 23 March 1776) Anna Maria (1 April 1768 – 21 March 1770) Elizabeth (22 June 1769 – 22 November 1773) Susannah Arabella (23 May 1770 – 5 November 1858) Sophia (23 July 1771 – 8 November 1824) Penelope (15 September 1772 – 15 September 1772) Ralph (8 November 1773 – 13 July 1775) Frances Anna (4 May 1775 – 9 December 1775) Cecelia Margaretta (8 February 1777 – 1 May 1857) Hester Sophia (21 June 1778 – 25 April 1783) Henry and Hester's marriage has misleadingly been described as loveless. While there was no great passion, they loved and respected each other. On their wedding anniversary in 1787 Hester wrote: The speculation that Hester did not love her husband may have originated from the fact that she was of significantly higher social status than Thrale, and often eclipsed him at social events due to her family's pedigree. This, according to all reports, infuriated Thrale at certain times and may have led to an awkward relationship between the two during the public events. Fanny Burney records that Hester's mind was 'cruelly disordered' with grief at Henry's death. Personality In June 1777 his wife wrote in Thraliana ... Illness and death On 1 April 1777 Henry's death was falsely reported in the newspapers, and threw James Boswell into "a state of very uneasy uncertainty". On 8 or 11 June 1779, Thrale went to the house of his sister – Mrs Susannah Nesbitt – to read the will of her husband Arnold Nesbitt, MP for Cricklade. During the meal, Henry had his first stroke. Read more >> The second stroke came on 19 or 21 February 1780; on 10 September he had a third, while canvassing constituents during the 1780 general election campaign. The strokes were largely caused by Henry's voracious appetite for large indulgent meals, accompanied by large quantities of ale. Henry Thrale died in London at 5 a.m. 4 April 1781, with his wife and Johnson by his side. He was buried in the crypt of St. Leonards Church, Streatham. Henry's epitaph was written by Samuel Johnson. Obituaries He also wrote of Thrale: In his Life of Johnson, James Boswell mentions Henry's worthy principles, sound scholarship, business acumen, general intelligence and polished manners. He also added his impressive looks, dignified bearing and generosity towards his wife in his allowance to her for entertaining those guests of her own choosing. Will The executors of Henry Thrale's will were Samuel Johnson, Henry Smith, Joseph Crutchley, John Cator and Hester Thrale. The Anchor Brewhouse was quickly sold to David Barclay, who took Thrale's old manager, John Perkins (1730–1812), into partnership. They became Barclay, Perkins and Company. The sale figure was £135,000 (£13,500,000 or $22,500,000 today). This was all left in trust for Thrale's five daughters who are said to have been left £20,000 each (£2,000,000 today). From other assets his wife was left the interest from £50,000 for life and the contents of Streatham Park (including all Sir Joshua Reynolds paintings) for life. Samuel Johnson famously said, "We are not here to sell a parcel of boilers and vats, but the potentiality of growing rich beyond the dreams of avarice." References External links Henry Thrale's homes Henry Thrale's parliamentary career Anchor Brewery Henry Thrale's death & funeral Henry Thrale's will Henry Thrale at the National Portrait Gallery, London 1724 births 1781 deaths Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies People educated at Eton College Alumni of University College, Oxford English brewers Councilmen and Aldermen of the City of London Brewing in London Samuel Johnson Streathamites Sheriffs of the City of London People from Southwark British MPs 1761–1768 British MPs 1768–1774 British MPs 1774–1780 18th-century English businesspeople	[ -0.3465407192707062, 0.006970225367695093, -0.1353444904088974, -0.44996407628059387, -0.202816903591156, 0.8024773597717285, 0.6375843286514282, -0.4237746298313141, -0.09296154230833054, -0.10180173069238663, 0.2288472056388855, 0.18889053165912628, -0.6215037703514099, 0.07029097527265549, -0.12417425215244293, 0.27138665318489075, -0.0761442705988884, 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258919	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maplewood	Maplewood	Maplewood may refer to: Cities, towns, etc. Maplewood, Indiana Maplewood, Minnesota Maplewood, Missouri Maplewood, New Jersey Maplewood (NJT station), a New Jersey Transit station in Maplewood, New Jersey Maplewood, Ohio Maplewood, Portland, Oregon, a neighborhood Maplewood, Houston, Texas, a neighborhood Maplewood, Fall River, Massachusetts, a neighborhood Maplewood, Nova Scotia Maplewood, Virginia Maplewood, Washington Maplewood, West Virginia Maplewood, Wisconsin Places on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) Maplewood (Pembroke, Kentucky), listed on the NRHP in Christian County, Kentucky Maplewood (Walton, Kentucky), listed on the NRHP in Boone County, Kentucky Maplewood (Columbia, Missouri), NRHP-listed Maplewood Commercial Historic District at Manchester and Sutton, Maplewood, Missouri, listed on the NRHP in St. Louis County, Missouri Maplewood (Montgomery Township, New Jersey), listed on the NRHP in Somerset County, New Jersey Maplewood Historic District, Rochester, New York, NRHP-listed Maplewood (Chesapeake, Ohio), listed on the NRHP in Lawrence County, Ohio Maplewood (Pliny, West Virginia), listed on the NRHP in Mason County, West Virginia Other Maplewood (EP), by Ed Harcourt Maplewood (Milford, New Hampshire), listed on the New Hampshire State Register of Historic Places SS Maplewood, cargo ship sunk during World War I. See also Maplewood Parent Cooperative, a K-8 public school in Edmonds, Washington Maple Woods Community College, a campus of Metropolitan Community College in Kansas City Maplewood Mall, a shopping mall in Maplewood, Minnesota Maplewood Cemetery (Pulaski, Tennessee), a historic cemetery in Pulaski, Tennessee, U.S. Maple (wood)	[ 0.059691231697797775, 0.7360844612121582, -0.6827695965766907, 0.25079262256622314, 0.0807599350810051, 0.3884618878364563, 0.6896823644638062, 1.0404068231582642, -0.4291740953922272, -0.41318145394325256, -0.5271313786506653, -0.39742511510849, -0.3496513366699219, 0.5679739713668823, -0.23863427340984344, 0.6928604245185852, -0.07818444818258286, 1.2086913585662842, 0.27532652020454407, -0.35581791400909424, -0.14131350815296173, -0.34834569692611694, 0.3702912926673889, 0.3527197241783142, 0.5720727443695068, -0.10997401177883148, 0.7900351881980896, -0.18067367374897003, -0.0064374222420156, 0.27486100792884827, -0.8944662809371948, 0.620375394821167, 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258926	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifty-move%20rule	Fifty-move rule	The fifty-move rule in chess states that a player can claim a draw if no has been made and no pawn has been moved in the last fifty moves (for this purpose a "move" consists of a player completing a turn followed by the opponent completing a turn). The purpose of this rule is to prevent a player with no chance of winning from obstinately continuing to play indefinitely or seeking to win by tiring the opponent. All of the basic checkmates can be accomplished in well under 50 moves. However, in the 20th century it was discovered that certain endgame positions are winnable but require more than 50 moves (without a capture or a pawn move). The rule was therefore changed to allow certain exceptions in which 100 moves were allowed with particular material combinations. However, winnable positions that required even more moves were later discovered, and in 1992, FIDE abolished all such exceptions and reinstated the strict 50-move rule. Statement of rule The relevant part of the FIDE laws of chess is quoted below: A claim does not have to be made at the first opportunity – it can be made any time when there have been no captures or pawn moves in the last fifty moves. A game is not automatically declared a draw under the fifty-move rule – the draw must be claimed by the player whose turn it is to move. Therefore, a game can continue beyond a point where a draw could be claimed under the rule. When a draw under the fifty-move rule can be claimed, one of the players is usually happy to claim it . Games drawn under the fifty-move rule before the endgame are rare. One example was the game Filipowicz versus Smederevac, Polanica Zdrój 1966, where no captures had been made in the whole game. The game was drawn after move 70 by Smederevac on draw request by Filipowicz, the last pawn having been moved on move 20 by Smederevac. Seventy-five-move rule If seventy-five moves are made without a pawn move or capture being made, the game is drawn unless the seventy-fifth move delivers a checkmate. No claim needs to be made by either player, as the draw is mandatorily applied by the arbiter. Examples Timman vs. Lutz, 1995 In this 1995 game between Jan Timman and Christopher Lutz, an endgame with a rook and bishop versus a rook occurred. White is striving for the winning Philidor position while Black is employing the drawing Cochrane Defense and the "second-rank defense" (see rook and bishop versus rook endgame). Black was defending well in the difficult defense and could have claimed a draw on the 119th move. Lutz notes that he claimed a draw on move 121, ironically when making a move that gets into a losing position . Karpov vs. Kasparov, 1991 A draw by the fifty-move rule could have been claimed after Black's 112th move in a 1991 game between Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov, but neither player claimed it. The last capture occurred on White's 63rd move (and the last pawn move occurred before that). White could have written his 113th move (which wouldn't have been a capture or pawn move) on his scoresheet and claimed a draw. After White's 113th move, either player could have claimed a draw on his turn to move, without having to write down his next move. Instead, the game continued for several more moves: 113. Ng5 Ra6+ 114. Kf7 Rf6+ ½-½ The players agreed to a draw at this point because after 115.Kxf6 the position is a stalemate . If 115.Ke8 Rxf5 116.Nxf5, and the position is clearly drawn because the two knights cannot force checkmate (see two knights endgame). Lputian vs. Haroutjunian, 2001 An unusual event occurred in a game in the 2001 Armenian Championship between Smbat Lputian (who won the championship) and Gevorg Haroutjunian. The last pawn move was on White's 86th move and no captures occurred after it. (The game was a theoretical draw from before here until Black's 141st move.) Black could have claimed a draw after White's 136th move (or at any of the subsequent moves). Instead, the game continued and Black resigned on his 142nd move after White had achieved a forced winning position – even though the right to claim a draw was still in effect . Nguyễn vs. Vachier-Lagrave, 2008 Another unusual event occurred in the Aeroflot Open of 2008 in a game between Nguyễn Ngọc Trường Sơn and Maxime Vachier-Lagrave. The last capture was on move 71, creating a rook and bishop versus rook endgame. The game was a theoretical draw until Black blundered on his 113th move. White managed to find the win, but could not secure checkmate before the fifty-move rule came into effect, and Black claimed a draw. History The rule has a long history . The purpose of the rule is to prevent someone from playing on indefinitely in a position that cannot be won. A precursor to chess, shatranj, had a seventy-move rule. The fifty-move rule was introduced into chess by Ruy López in his 1561 book. Pietro Carrera (15731647) thought that twenty-four moves was the right number but Bourdonnais (17951840) argued for sixty moves . By 1800, a claim under the rule could be made only in certain specified types of endgame, which varied from one set of rules to another. The move-count started when the request to implement the rule was made (instead of going back to the last capture or pawn move) and a capture or a pawn move did not reset the count. The rules used at the 1883 London tournament reset the count if there was a capture or pawn move, but still started the count when the claim to apply the rule was made instead of going back to the last capture or pawn move . At one time, it was believed that all winnable endgames could be won within fifty moves. However, in the early 20th century, some exceptions were found, including A. A. Troitsky's (1866-1942) analysis of the two knights endgame as well as the endgame of a rook and bishop versus a rook. The rules of chess were revised several times to admit exceptions to the fifty-move rule for certain specific situations. Early on, the fifty-move rule applied to games but not to games . During the time periods when the fifty-move rule admitted exceptions, there were a number of revisions. In 1928 FIDE enacted rules that if an endgame theoretically requires more than 50 moves to force checkmate, twice that number of moves were allowed. For instance, in the rook and bishop versus rook endgame, 132 moves were allowed, since it was twice the 66 moves that were thought to be required at that time . (The actual maximum number of moves needed is 59.) In 1952 FIDE revised the law, allowing for 100 moves in such positions but requiring that players agree to an extension for these positions before the first move is made. This was still in effect in 1960. The positions were not specified in the rules, to allow for the possibility of more positions requiring more than 50 moves to be discovered (which is what happened). The following positions were understood to require more than 50 moves: rook and bishop versus a rook two knights versus a pawn safely blocked by a knight behind the Troitsky line rook and pawn on a2 versus a bishop on black squares and a pawn on a3, plus the equivalent positions in the other corners . (In 1979 it was shown that this endgame can actually be won in just under 50 moves .) Article 12.4 of the 1965 FIDE rules states: The number of moves can be increased for certain positions, provided that this increase in number and these positions have been clearly established before the commencement of the game. Harkness notes that "Some of these unusual positions have been established and accepted by FIDE", including two knights versus a pawn . The 1975 and 1977 versions of the rules included the same wording (not specifying the positions or the number of moves) , . In 1984, the rule was modified and it became Article 10.9. Now 100 moves were explicitly specified and the positions above were listed in the rule . (The wording about the positions and number of moves having to be specified in advance of the game was dropped.) Ken Thompson's investigations in the 1980s using the Belle chess computer discovered numerous endgames winnable in more than 50 moves. However, these often involved seemingly random moves that defied human comprehension or analysis, in situations that would hardly ever occur in real gameplay. In 1989 the rule (still Article 10.9) was changed to 75 moves, and the listed positions were: Rook and bishop versus rook Two knights versus a pawn (no mention of the Troitsky line) A queen and a pawn on the seventh rank versus a queen (see queen and pawn versus queen endgame) Queen versus two knights (see ) Queen versus two bishops Two bishops versus a knight (see ) . The rule was then changed to allow just 50 moves in all positions. Some sources say that the 1989 rule was in effect for only a "year or so" or a "few years" , but one source of the 1992 rules gives the pre-1984 wording: "...increased for certain positions if it was announced in advance" . By 2001 the rule was Article 9.3 and allowed 50 moves for all positions . Research into how many moves are required to win certain endgames continued. Exhaustive retrograde analysis using faster computers to build endgame tablebases has uncovered many more such endgames, often of previously unsuspected length. In 2008, the record was 517 moves (assuming optimal play by both sides) to make a piece capture or exchange that achieves a simpler and more obviously winnable sub-endgame, for a particular position involving a queen and knight versus a rook, bishop, and knight. In 2013, this record was improved to 545 moves. Many of the longest games on record involve the rook and bishop versus rook endgame, when the rule for more moves was in effect. (See pawnless chess endgame and rook and bishop versus rook endgame.) See also Draw (chess) Rules of chess Threefold repetition Notes References Further reading “Chess: the 50-move Rule” by Edward Winter Chess rules he:תיקו (שחמט)#חוק חמישים המסעים	[ -0.5019327998161316, 0.09264608472585678, 0.10081504285335541, -0.43485432863235474, 0.11463752388954163, -0.4562249183654785, -0.02111198566854, -0.5027124285697937, -0.3744879961013794, -0.22491678595542908, -0.3463381230831146, 0.1810654103755951, 0.12901224195957184, 0.4825265109539032, 0.3202894926071167, 0.7725389003753662, 0.4157540202140808, -0.04838888719677925, -0.33914247155189514, -0.9193366169929504, 0.17587216198444366, 0.6464850306510925, 0.17724688351154327, -0.2501682639122009, -0.1472567617893219, -0.4830020070075989, -0.08492550253868103, -0.6072140336036682, -0.26738759875297546, 0.5828777551651001, -0.12037689238786697, 0.3806871473789215, 0.17599020898342133, 0.1927414983510971, 0.19563686847686768, -0.31524330377578735, 0.4942651689052582, 0.0036903731524944305, -0.11309121549129486, 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