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260737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spooner%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Spooner (town), Wisconsin | Spooner is a town in Washburn County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 677 at the 2000 census. The City of Spooner is located mostly within the southwest corner of the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 20.8 square miles (53.9 km2), of which, 18.9 square miles (48.8 km2) of it is land and 2.0 square miles (5.1 km2) of it (9.41%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 677 people, 259 households, and 203 families residing in the town. The population density was 35.9 people per square mile (13.9/km2). There were 383 housing units at an average density of 20.3 per square mile (7.8/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 96.31% White, 0.74% Black or African American, 1.18% Native American, 0.59% Asian, and 1.18% from two or more races. 1.03% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 259 households, out of which 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.3% were married couples living together, 8.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.6% were non-families. 18.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 2.94.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.7% under the age of 18, 5.6% from 18 to 24, 24.4% from 25 to 44, 30.4% from 45 to 64, and 13.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 113.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106.1 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $41,458, and the median income for a family was $44,375. Males had a median income of $31,136 versus $21,667 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,133. About 5.2% of families and 4.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.4% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over.
References
Towns in Washburn County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spooner%2C%20Wisconsin | Spooner, Wisconsin | Spooner is a city in Washburn County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 2,682 at the 2010 census. The city is located mostly within the southwest corner of the Town of Spooner, with a small portion extending into the Town of Beaver Brook on the south, the Town of Bashaw on the southwest, and the Town of Evergreen on the west. The city's nickname, Crossroads of the North, is a reference to the city's location at the junction of two U.S. highways, 53 and 63, and State Highways 70 and 253.
History
Originally a town in the year 1889, and thereafter officially incorporated a city in the year 1909, Spooner's history is closely interlaced with that of railroad history. In the year 1879, the North Wisconsin Railway was constructed due north of the present-day city of Spooner. Following that, the operations of that railroad were moved south where it then joined the Chicago and Northwestern at what was then coined as Chicago Junction.
The community, then initially only a station, was named by the general superintendent for the Chicago and Northwestern, Edwin W. Winter, for John Coit Spooner (1843 - 1919), who at the time was a distinguished railroad attorney from what is now the city of Hudson in St. Croix County, northwestern Wisconsin. Spooner would later serve in the Wisconsin State Assembly and represent Wisconsin in the United States Senate (1885-1891, 1897-1907). He was a well favoured politician of his time and even served as advisors to U.S. Presidents Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt.
Eventually, the lines were absorbed by the Chicago & North Western Railroad. Passenger service ended in the early 1960s under the CNW ownership. In 1992, the Wisconsin Great Northern Railroad was incorporated, to serve as a freight hauler from Spooner to Trego, a nearby town, with a connection to the CNW. Although the freight idea didn't work out, they began operating successful passenger excursion trains in 1997 (following the example of the nearby Duluth & Northern Minnesota Railroad which began passenger excursions in Duluth only a few years before), and were an instant success. The passenger trains were very successful, and after the 1995 takeover of the CNW by the Union Pacific, UP in 1998 announced intentions to abandon the line from Hayward Junction where it connected to the Wisconsin Central to the north through Spooner all of the way down to Chippewa Falls. The company bought the portion of the line between Spooner and Hayward Jct in 1999, which greatly expanded passenger operations. To this day they run very popular robbery, western style, cowboy, and buffet style as well as more formal dinner trains. More recently, the Great Pumpkin train nearly sold out and now runs annually around the time of Halloween. The old CNW Spooner Railroad Depot now serves as the town's Railroad Memories Museum.
The city was also once the hub of the Omaha Railroad Line. Its economy was once centered on the railroad and the two main lines that joined there.
Geography
Spooner is located at (45.825941, −91.891116).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.
Climate
Spooner has a Humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb), typical of northern Wisconsin with warm, humid summers and relatively long, cold winters.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 2,682 people, 1,180 households, and 666 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 1,302 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 95.1% White, 0.3% African American, 1.9% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 0.1% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.3% of the population.
There were 1,180 households, of which 28.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.2% were married couples living together, 13.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.6% were non-families. 38.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.84.
The median age in the city was 41.6 years. 23.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.5% were from 25 to 44; 25.3% were from 45 to 64; and 21.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 45.6% male and 54.4% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,653 people, 1,148 households, and 662 families residing in the city. The population density was 875.9 people per square mile (338.1/km2). There were 1,249 housing units at an average density of 412.4 per square mile (159.2/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 95.97% White, 0.41% Black or African American, 2.04% Native American, 0.04% Asian, 0.38% from other races, and 1.17% from two or more races. 1.21% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 1,148 households, out of which 27.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.4% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.3% were non-families. 37.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.90.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.0% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 22.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $27,768, and the median income for a family was $39,677. The median income of its residents was $16,390. About 7.6% of families and 11.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.7% of those under age 18 and 10.5% of those age 65 or over.
Attractions
The Wisconsin Canoe Heritage Museum, a museum dedicated to the preservation and interpretation of the cultural heritage of canoes and canoeing in North America, has displays of canoes and canoe-related ephemera.
Since 1954, each summer in July, Spooner has hosted the Heart of the North Rodeo, which draws thousands of fans to the area. In addition to the rodeo each evening, there is a Saturday afternoon parade, live music every night, and the cowboy church service on Sunday morning, held outdoors at the rodeo arena.
The Jack Pine Savage Days is a local festival that features live bands, an annual fun run, a 3 on 3 basketball tournament, a horseshoe tournament, and a volleyball tournament.
Jack O' Lantern Fest is an October festival that revolves around giving back to kids and families. Multiple inflatables, fundraising walk, pumpkin roll, pet costume contest, carnival games, baking contest, pumpkin carving contest and more.
Notable people
Guy Benson, mayor and legislator
Frank Hammill, farmer, mayor, and legislator
Travis Randall, actor, musician, and director
Holger Rasmusen, mayor and legislator
References
External links
Spooner, Wisconsin
Spooner Area Chamber of Commerce
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1909 1917
Cities in Wisconsin
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260739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germantown%2C%20Washington%20County%2C%20Wisconsin | Germantown, Washington County, Wisconsin | Germantown is a town in Washington County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 278 at the 2000 census. It is surrounded by the village of Germantown.
History
The land that became Germantown was originally inhabited by Native Americans, including the Potawatomi tribe. The Potawatomi surrendered the land that became Germantown the United States Federal Government in 1833 through the Treaty of Chicago, which required them to leave Wisconsin by 1838. While many Native people moved west of the Mississippi River to Kansas, some chose to remain, and were referred to as "strolling Potawatomi" in contemporary documents because many of them were migrants who subsisted by squatting on their ancestral lands, which were now owned by white settlers. Eventually the Native Americans who evaded forced removal gathered in northern Wisconsin, where they formed the Forest County Potawatomi Community.
The community was originally designated as the Wisconsin Territory's "Town Nine," making it the oldest settlement in Washington County. Beginning in the 1840s, many German immigrants—particularly from the region of Hesse—settled in the area, which led to it being named "Germantown."
The territorial legislature created the Town of Germantown on January 21, 1846, and the first town meeting was on April 7 of the same year. The town included the then-unincorporated communities of Dheinsville, Goldenthal, Kuhberg (later known as Victory Center), Meeker Hill, Rockfield, South Germantown, and Willow Creek.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Germantown's economy relied heavily on agriculture, including dairy farming. The southern part of Germantown is rich in Silurian limestone, which was quarried beginning in the 1870s, particularly in the Rockfield and South Germantown areas. South Germantown was a stop on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul starting in the late 19th century, and the hamlet grew and prospered because of its rail connects to other communities.
In 1927, South Germantown incorporated as the Village of Germantown out of some of the town's land but was significantly smaller than it is in the 21st century.
From July 1944 until January 1946, the hamlet of Rockfield — then in the Town of Germantown — was the site of Camp Rockfield, an Allied prisoner of war camp that held 500 German prisoners of war, including captured members of the Afrika Korps and many soldiers captured at the Battle of Cherbourg. The prisoners had originally been held at Fort Sheridan, north of Chicago, but were transferred camps in rural Wisconsin, such as the one at Rockfield, to work in agriculture. The prisoners lived in a barracks that had originally been built as a warehouse for the local Rockfield Canning Company, where many prisoners worked as pea packers. Other POWs were transported to work sites throughout Ozaukee and Washington counties, including the Pick Manufacturing Company in West Bend and the Fromm Bros., Nieman & Co. Fox Ranch in northern Mequon.
In 1963, Milwaukee annexed a small parcel in the southeastern part of the Town of Germantown to expand a landfill. Residents feared that Milwaukee would soon annex more of the town. As a defensive measure, the Village of Germantown annexed all of the surrounding unincorporated hamlets, which encompassed most of the town's territory. At the time of the 1963 annexation, the Village of Germantown grew to an area of approximately 24 square miles. The village annexed more land in 1965 and 1976, reducing the town four non-contiguous parcels with a total area of 1.7 square miles.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.7 square miles (4.5 km2), all of it land.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 278 people, 89 households, and 76 families residing in the town. The population density was 160.2 people per square mile (61.7/km2). There were 94 housing units at an average density of 54.2 per square mile (20.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 99.28% White and 0.72% Black or African American. 0.00% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 89 households, out of which 47.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 75.3% were married couples living together, 6.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 13.5% were non-families. 11.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.12 and the average family size was 3.40.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 30.2% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 28.4% from 25 to 44, 22.7% from 45 to 64, and 11.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.0 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $75,000, and the median income for a family was $75,159. Males had a median income of $53,750 versus $27,750 for females. The per capita income for the town was $25,694. About 2.2% of families and 3.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.3% of those under the age of eighteen and none of those 65 or over.
Education
The town is served by the Germantown School District, which has four elementary schools, one middle school, and one high school. Enrollment was 3,939 as of October 20, 2008. Jeff Holmes is the superintendent.
Elementary schools
Amy Belle Elementary
County Line Elementary
MacArthur Elementary
Rockfield Elementary
Bethlehem Lutheran School
Middle school
Kennedy Middle School
High school
Germantown High School
References
External links
Town of Germantown
Town of Germantown information from Washington County website
Towns in Washington County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germantown%2C%20Wisconsin | Germantown, Wisconsin | Germantown is a village in Washington County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 19,749 at the 2010 census. The village surrounds the Town of Germantown. In July 2007, Germantown was ranked the 30th most appealing place to live in the United States by Money Magazine.
Geography
Germantown is located at (43.223206, -88.120433).
According to Wisconsin First Nations (a Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction resource), Germantown is located on Potawatomi treaty land. The village also falls within the lands of the Peoria, Menominee, Miami, and Sioux Indigenous peoples, as shown by Canadian not-for-profit organization Native Land Digital.
The United States Census Bureau indicates Germantown has a total area of , of which, of it is land and is water.
History
The land that became Germantown was originally inhabited by Native Americans, including the Potawatomi tribe. The Potawatomi surrendered the land that became Germantown to the United States Federal Government in 1833 through the Treaty of Chicago, which required them to leave Wisconsin by 1838. While many Native people moved west of the Mississippi River to Kansas, some chose to remain or return after temporarily settling in the west, and were referred to as "strolling Potawatomi" in contemporary documents because many of them were migrants who subsisted by squatting on their ancestral lands, which were now owned by White settlers. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Potawatomi who evaded forced removal gathered in northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan where many worked in the timber industry and formed the Forest County Potawatomi Community.
The community was originally designated as the Wisconsin Territory's "Town Nine," making it the oldest settlement in Washington County. Beginning in the 1840s, many German immigrants—particularly from the regions of Bavaria, Hessen, Rheinland, Pommern, and Prussia —settled in the area, which led to it being named "Germantown."
The territorial legislature created the Town of Germantown on January 21, 1846, and the first town meeting was on April 7 of the same year. The town included the then-unincorporated communities of Dheinsville, Goldenthal, Kuhberg (later known as Victory Center), Meeker Hill, Rockfield, South Germantown, and Willow Creek.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Germantown's economy relied heavily on agriculture, including dairy farming. The southern part of Germantown is rich in Silurian limestone, which was quarried beginning in the 1870s, particularly in the Rockfield and South Germantown areas. South Germantown was a stop on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul starting in the late 19th century, and the hamlet grew and prospered because of its rail connects to other communities.
In 1927, South Germantown incorporated as the Village of Germantown out of some of the town's land but was significantly smaller than it is in the 21st century.
From July 1944 until January 1946, the hamlet of Rockfield in present-day Germantown was the site of Camp Rockfield, an Allied prisoner of war camp that held 500 German prisoners of war, including captured members of the Afrika Korps and many soldiers captured at the Battle of Cherbourg. The prisoners had originally been held at Fort Sheridan, north of Chicago, but were transferred to camps in rural Wisconsin, such as the one at Rockfield, to work in agriculture. The prisoners lived in a barracks that had originally been built as a warehouse for the local Rockfield Canning Company, where many prisoners worked as pea packers. Other POWs were transported to work sites throughout Ozaukee and Washington counties, including the Pick Manufacturing Company in West Bend and the Fromm Bros., Nieman & Co. Fox Ranch in northern Mequon.
In 1963, Milwaukee annexed a small parcel in the southeastern part of the Town of Germantown to expand a landfill. Residents feared that Milwaukee would soon annex more of the town. As a defensive measure, the Village of Germantown annexed all of the surrounding unincorporated hamlets, which became neighborhoods of the village. At the time of the 1963 annexation, Germantown grew to an area of approximately 24 square miles. The village has subsequently annexed most of the town's land, and now has an area of over 34 square miles.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 19,749 people, 7,766 households, and 5,501 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 8,092 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 92.6% White, 2.2% African American, 0.2% Native American, 3.1% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 1.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.0% of the population.
There were 7,766 households, of which 35.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.5% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29.2% were non-families. 24.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.03.
The median age in the village was 41.7 years. 25.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24% were from 25 to 44; 30.7% were from 45 to 64; and 13.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 18,260 people, 6,904 households, and 5,129 families living in the village. The population density was 530.5 people per square mile (204.8/km2). There were 7,075 housing units at an average density of 205.5 per square mile (79.4/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 95.83% White, 1.35% Black or African American, 0.25% Native American, 1.60% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.34% from other races, and 0.60% from two or more races. 1.12% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 6,904 households, out of which 37.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.9% were married couples living together, 7.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.7% were non-families. 20.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.08.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 27.1% under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 33.7% from 25 to 44, 23.5% from 45 to 64, and 9.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.3 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $60,742, and the median income for a family was $68,975. Males had a median income of $47,123 versus $31,400 for females. The per capita income for the village was $25,358. About 1.9% of families and 2.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.5% of those under age 18 and 4.7% of those age 65 or over.
Education
Germantown schools are operated by the Germantown School District. The district comprises four elementary schools, one middle school, and one high school, and has about 3,019 students as of October 20, 2008.
High school
Germantown High School
Middle school
Kennedy Middle School
Elementary schools
Amy Belle Elementary
County Line Elementary
MacArthur Elementary
Rockfield Elementary
Bethlehem Lutheran School, a grade school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, has their North Campus in Germantown.
Notable people
Jesse Kremer, politician and firefighter
Jacob Leicht, politician and farmer
John F. Schwalbach, politician and businessman
Jesse Thielke, Greco-Roman Wrestler at the 2016 Summer Olympics
References
External links
Official website
German-American history
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Washington County, Wisconsin | [
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260741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson%2C%20Washington%20County%2C%20Wisconsin | Jackson, Washington County, Wisconsin | Jackson is a town in Washington County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 3,516 at the 2000 census. The Village of Jackson is located partially within the town. The unincorporated community of Kirchhayn is also located in the town.
Geography
The 2,312-acre Jackson Marsh Wildlife Area, which is maintained by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, is located in the town and contains undeveloped forested wetlands. Cedar Creek, a tributary of the Milwaukee River runs also through the town.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 34.4 square miles (89.0 km2), of which, 34.2 square miles (88.7 km2) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.3 km2) of it (0.32%) is water.
History
The first white settlers arrived in the Jackson area in 1843. The Wisconsin territorial legislature created the Town of Jackson on January 21, 1846, naming the settlement for former-president Andrew Jackson, who had died several months earlier.
Early settlements in the town included the hamlet of Kirchhayn, which formed around David's Star Lutheran Church in the 1840s, as well as the hamlet of Riceville, which later become the Village of Jackson. In the 1800s, the town's economy relied heavily on agricultural, and including dairy farming. Some of the earliest businesses in the community were cheese factories and creameries.
In 1872, the Chicago and North Western Railway built a line from Milwaukee to Fond du Lac with a station in Riceville. Entrepreneurs took advantage of the transportation link, and built businesses and industries on the formerly agricultural land around the railway station. Riceville incorporated from the town's land as the Village of Jackson on March 14, 1912.
The village experienced a population boom in the early 1970s and has continued to grow into the early 2000s. Between 1970 and 1975, the population more than tripled from 561 to 1,895. To accommodate the new population, the village annexed more land from the town for new residential subdivisions and commercial developments. The annexations created tax losses for the town. In 1999, the town and the village created an agreement setting the village's maximum potential boundaries and outlining how the town would be compensated for future annexations. Jackson was the first community in Wisconsin to create such an agreement.
On July 17, 2012, a petroleum product pipeline spilled an estimated 54,600 gallons of gasoline in the Town of Jackson. Thirty-seven private wells contaminated by the spill were ordered abandoned by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. The West Shore Pipe Line Company, which owned the pipeline, paid the costs to extend water services from the Village of Jackson to a large part of the Town of Jackson.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,516 people, 1,201 households, and 1,012 families residing in the town. The population density was 102.7 people per square mile (39.6/km2). There were 1,230 housing units at an average density of 35.9 per square mile (13.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.95% White, 0.03% Black or African American, 0.06% Native American, 0.34% Asian, and 0.63% from two or more races. 0.34% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 1,201 households, out of which 40.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 78.2% were married couples living together, 3.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 15.7% were non-families. 13.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.93 and the average family size was 3.22.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 28.1% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 28.8% from 25 to 44, 28.1% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.8 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $64,070, and the median income for a family was $66,410. Males had a median income of $45,536 versus $26,972 for females. The per capita income for the town was $22,045. None of the families and 0.5% of the population were living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 1.8% of those over 64.
Government
The Town of Jackson is administered by an elected board consisting of four supervisors and a chair.
Education
Jackson Elementary School is the public elementary school in Jackson. Kettle Moraine Lutheran High School is a high school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Jackson.
Notable people
James Fagan (farmer-politician), farmer and politician
John G. Frank, politician
William Froehlich, politician
Elmer J. Schowalter, politician
Henry O. Schowalter, politician
References
External links
Town of Jackson
Towns in Washington County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson%20%28village%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Jackson (village), Wisconsin | Jackson is a village in Washington County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 7,185 at the 2020 census. The village is adjacent to the Town of Jackson.
Geography
Cedar Creek, a tributary of the Milwaukee River runs also through the southeastern part of the Village of Jackson. Hasmer Lake is located on the west side of the village, near U.S. Route 45. The 2,312-acre Jackson Marsh Wildlife Area, which is maintained by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, is located in the Town of Jackson, near the village's eastern boundary.
Jackson is located at (43.323188, -88.171273). According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which, of it is land and is water.
History
The first white settlers arrived in the Jackson area in 1843. The Wisconsin territorial legislature created the Town of Jackson on January 21, 1846, naming the settlement for former-president Andrew Jackson, who had died several months earlier.
The settlement that would become the Village of Jackson was originally known as Riceville, after an English misspelling of town founder Franz Reis's name. In its early years, the settlement's economy relied heavily on agricultural, and including dairy farming. Some of the earliest businesses in the community were cheese factories and creameries.
In 1872, the Chicago and North Western Railway built a line from Milwaukee to Fond du Lac with a station in Riceville. Reis capitalized on the new source of transportation by building a general store, a grain elevator, and a saloon. Other entrepreneurs followed suit, and a village began to take shape around the railway station.
Riceville incorporated as the Village of Jackson on March 14, 1912.
The village population remained between 300 and 500 people in the early to mid-20th century, before experiencing a population boom in the early 1970s. Between 1970 and 1975, the population more than tripled from 561 to 1,895. As the population continued to grow, the village annexed land from the Town of Jackson for new residential subdivisions and commercial developments. The annexations created tax losses for the town. In 1999, the town and the village created an agreement setting the village's maximum potential boundaries and outlining how the town would be compensated for future annexations. Jackson was the first community in Wisconsin to create such an agreement.
On July 17, 2012, a petroleum product pipeline spilled an estimated 54,600 gallons of gasoline in the Town of Jackson. Thirty-seven private wells contaminated by the spill were ordered abandoned by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. The West Shore Pipe Line Company, which owned the pipeline, paid the costs to extend water services from the Village of Jackson to a large part of the Town of Jackson.
Demographics
2020 census
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 6,753 people, 2,870 households, and 1,866 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 3,061 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 96.9% White, 0.5% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.2% of the population.
There were 2,870 households, of which 31.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.4% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.0% were non-families. 29.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.92.
The median age in the village was 39 years. 24.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30.7% were from 25 to 44; 26.9% were from 45 to 64; and 12.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48.7% male and 51.3% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 4,938 people, 1,949 households, and 1,393 families living in the village. The population density was 1,959.5 people per square mile (756.6/km2). There were 2,011 housing units at an average density of 798.0/sq mi (308.1/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 98.52% White, 0.08% Black or African American, 0.24% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 0.32% from other races, and 0.63% from two or more races. 1.24% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 1,949 households, out of which 36.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.4% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.5% were non-families. 22.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.00.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 27.4% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 38.9% from 25 to 44, 18.1% from 45 to 64, and 9.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.6 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $53,990, and the median income for a family was $60,991. Males had a median income of $41,632 versus $26,319 for females. The per capita income for the village was $23,450. About 3.3% of families and 4.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.7% of those under age 18 and 3.3% of those age 65 or over.
Culture
Jackson holds a traditional community wide rummage sale every year. The event is held the first Saturday after Mother's Day.
References
External links
Village of Jackson
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Washington County, Wisconsin | [
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260743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kewaskum%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Kewaskum (town), Wisconsin | Kewaskum is a town in Washington County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,119 at the 2000 census. The incorporated community of Village of Kewaskum is surrounded geographically by the Town of Kewaskum. The unincorporated community of Saint Michaels is located partially in the town.
Toponymy
Kewaskum was the leader of a group of Potawatomi Native Americans who lived in Washington County in the 1840s. He was friendly with the early settlers, including future Wisconsin state senator Densmore Maxon. He died sometime between 1847 and 1850. In 1849, the early settlers named the Town of Kewaskum (and later the village) in his honor. In the Potawatomi language, Kewaskum means "turning back on his tracks" or "retracing his steps."
History
In the early 19th century, the Kewaskum area was home to Potawatomi Native Americans, who surrendered the land the United States Federal Government in 1833 through the Treaty of Chicago, which required them to leave Wisconsin by 1838. While many Potawatomis moved west of the Mississippi River to Kansas, some chose to remain, and were referred to as "strolling Potawatomi" in contemporary documents because many of them were migrants who subsisted by squatting on their ancestral lands, which were now owned by white settlers. One band of Potawatomis travelled through Dodge, Jefferson, and Washington counties, and was led by Chief Kewaskum, who had a camp on Pike Lake. The chief was friendly with the white settlers who began arriving in the 1840s. He died sometime between 1847 and 1850, but itinerant Native people lived in Washington County into the late 19th century, when many of them gathered in northern Wisconsin to form the Forest County Potawatomi Community.
The first settlers in the area were the Barnes family, who arrived in 1844. In 1847, the Wisconsin Territorial Legislature created the Town of North Bend from land that had previously been part of the Town of West Bend, and the community's first post office was established. In 1849, the residents changed their community's name to the Town of Kewaskum to distinguish it from neighboring West Bend.
While the first settlers were primarily farmers, the businesses soon followed to serve to early settlers. In 1852, J. H. Myer settled on a horseshoe bend in the Milwaukee River and built a sawmill and a gristmill. The settlement, which was originally known as "Myer's Mill" before it became the Village of Kewaskum, soon became a market town with a general store and a blacksmith shop serving the local farmers. The first religious services were held in private homes, and in 1862 the Catholic settlers constructed a church. A German Methodist church was built in 1866 and a Lutheran church was built in 1868. In 1873, the Chicago and North Western Railway completed a line from Milwaukee to Fond du Lac with a station in the future Village of Kewaskum. The community's rail connections caused the local economy to grow and prosper as new businesses, including hotels, stores, and grain elevators opened around the station. The Village of Kewaskum incorporated in 1895.
The village's population boomed during the post–World War II economic expansion, doubling between 1950 and 1990, leading the village to annex land from the Town of Kewaskum for new commercial and residential developments. The village first annexed land in 1959 and again in 1960, 1962, 1965, 1966, 1973, 1976, 1978, 1982, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1996, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 22.8 square miles (59.0 km2), of which, 22.8 square miles (59.0 km2) of it is land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km2) of it (0.09%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,119 people, 394 households, and 327 families residing in the town. The population density was 49.2 people per square mile (19.0/km2). There were 404 housing units at an average density of 17.7 per square mile (6.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 99.55% White, 0.27% Native American, 0.18% from other races. 0.18% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 394 households, out of which 36.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 76.1% were married couples living together, 4.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.0% were non-families. 14.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.84 and the average family size was 3.14.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.0% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 29.1% from 25 to 44, 26.2% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.1 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $59,500, and the median income for a family was $65,060. Males had a median income of $39,833 versus $26,121 for females. The per capita income for the town was $22,802. About 3.5% of families and 4.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.3% of those under age 18 and 4.8% of those age 65 or over.
References
External links
Town of Kewaskum
Towns in Washington County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kewaskum%2C%20Wisconsin | Kewaskum, Wisconsin | Kewaskum is a village in Washington and Fond du Lac counties in Wisconsin, United States. The population was 4,004 at the 2010 census. All of this population resided in the Washington County portion of the village. The village is mostly surrounded by the Town of Kewaskum.
Toponymy
Kewaskum was the leader of a group of Potawatomi Native Americans who lived in Washington County in the 1840s. He was friendly with the early settlers, including future Wisconsin state senator Densmore Maxon. He died sometime between 1847 and 1850. In 1849, the early settlers named the Town of Kewaskum (and later the village) in his honor. In the Potawatomi language, Kewaskum means "turning back on his tracks" or "retracing his steps."
History
In the early 19th century, the Kewaskum area was home to Potawatomi Native Americans, who surrendered the land the United States Federal Government in 1833 through the Treaty of Chicago, which required them to leave Wisconsin by 1838. While many Potawatomis moved west of the Mississippi River to Kansas, some chose to remain, and were referred to as "strolling Potawatomi" in contemporary documents because many of them were migrants who subsisted by squatting on their ancestral lands, which were now owned by white settlers. One band of strolling Potawatomi travelled through Dodge, Jefferson, and Washington counties, and was led by Chief Kewaskum, who had a camp on Pike Lake. The chief was friendly with the white settlers who began arriving in the 1840s. He died sometime between 1847 and 1850, but itinerant Potawatomis lived in Washington County into the late 19th century, when many of them gathered in northern Wisconsin to form the Forest County Potawatomi Community.
The first settlers in the area were the Barnes family, who arrived in 1844 and began farming near the future village. In 1847, the Wisconsin Territorial Legislature created the Town of North Bend from land that had previously been part of the Town of West Bend, and the community's first post office was established. In 1849, the residents changed their community's name to the "Town of Kewaskum" to distinguish it from neighboring West Bend.
While the first settlers were primarily farmers, the village of Kewaskum traces its origins to J. H. Myer, who settled on a horseshoe bend in the Milwaukee River in 1852 and later built a sawmill and a gristmill. The settlement, which was originally known as "Myer's Mill" and later as "Kewaskum Center," soon became a market town with a general store and a blacksmith shop serving the local farmers. The first religious services were held in private homes, and in 1862 the Catholic villagers constructed a church. A German Methodist church was built in 1866 and a Lutheran church was built in 1868. In 1873, the Chicago and North Western Railway completed a line from Milwaukee to Fond du Lac with a station in Kewaskum. The community's rail connections caused the local economy to grow and prosper as new businesses, including hotels, stores, and grain elevators opened around the station. The Village of Kewaskum incorporated in 1895.
While the village economy was primarily agricultural in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Kewaskum became increasingly industrialized throughout the 1900s. In 1919, Adolph J. Rosenheimer founded the Kewaskum Aluminum Company in the village to manufacture aluminum cookware. During World War II, the company made aluminum products for military use, before being acquired by Enterprise Aluminum Company of Ohio in 1945. The company was renamed Regal Ware in 1951, and through acquisitions of aluminum companies in Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio, and Mississippi, moved into the international high-end consumer cookware market.
The community's population grew during the post–World War II economic expansion, leading the village to annex land from the Town of Kewaskum for new commercial and residential developments. The village first annexed land in 1959 and again in twenty of the next forty-six years. Additionally, Kewaskum annexed a noncontiguous parcel of land in the Town of Auburn in Fond du Lac County in 1963.
Geography
The primary north–south highway serving Kewaskum is U.S. Route 45, and the primary east–west highway is Wisconsin Highway 28. Kewaskum is located in the 262 Area Code of south-eastern Wisconsin, with Prefix 626.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all of it land.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 4,004 people, 1,581 households, and 1,148 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 1,698 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 96.0% White, 0.5% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 1.2% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.9% of the population.
There were 1,581 households, of which 35.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.9% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 27.4% were non-families. 21.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 2.92.
The median age in the village was 36.8 years. 25.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29.7% were from 25 to 44; 24.9% were from 45 to 64; and 12.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,274 people, 1,212 households, and 895 families living in the village. The population density was 2,217.3 people per square mile (854.1/km2). There were 1,264 housing units at an average density of 856.0 per square mile (329.8/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 97.95% White, 0.27% Black or African American, 0.18% Native American, 0.37% Asian, 0.37% from other races, and 0.86% from two or more races. 0.92% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 1,212 households, out of which 37.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.8% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.1% were non-families. 21.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.09.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 27.4% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 12.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.8 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $49,861, and the median income for a family was $55,144. Males had a median income of $37,639 versus $25,806 for females. The per capita income for the village was $20,509. About 4.0% of families and 5.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.0% of those under age 18 and 8.7% of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
Louis D. Guth, Wisconsin State Representative and businessman, lived in Kewaskum.
Kenneth William Haebig, Wisconsin State Representative and lawyer, lived in Kewaskum.
Einar H. Ingman Jr., Medal of Honor recipient, lived in Kewaskum.
Glenway Wescott, noted American author, was born in Kewaskum in 1901. He lived abroad, wrote poetry, novels, and criticism, returned to the United States, and died in 1987.
See also
List of villages in Wisconsin
References
External links
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1894 1900 1910
Villages in Washington County, Wisconsin
Villages in Fond du Lac County, Wisconsin
Villages in Wisconsin | [
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260745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Bend%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | West Bend (town), Wisconsin | West Bend is a town in Washington County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 4,834 at the 2000 census. The City of West Bend is located partially within the town. The unincorporated community of Nabob is located in the town.
History
Northeastern Washington County's earliest known inhabitants were pre-Columbian Mound Builders, who constructed effigy mounds in the area sometime between 650 CE and 1300 CE. They were semi-nomadic and survived by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants. They made pottery and constructed tools from bone, wood, stone, and occasionally copper. They built effigy mounds shaped like mammals, reptiles, birds and other creatures, both real and mythical, as well as conical, oval, and linear mounds, some of which contain human burials. Some mounds in the West Bend area were destroyed by white settlers to create farm fields, but several dozen survive and are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Washington County "Island" Effigy Mound District, which includes the Lizard Mound County Park site in nearby Farmington as well as several privately owned sites.
In the early 19th century when the first white settlers arrived in Southeastern Wisconsin, the Potawatomi and Menominee Indians inhabited the land now occupied by the Town of West Bend. In 1831, the Menominee surrendered their claims to the land to the United States Federal Government through the Treaty of Washington. The Potawatomi surrendered their land claims in 1833 through the Treaty of Chicago, which required them to leave the area by 1838. While many Native people moved west of the Mississippi River to Kansas, some chose to remain, and were referred to as "strolling Potawatomi" in contemporary documents because many of them were migrants who subsisted by squatting on their ancestral lands, which were now owned by white settlers. In the mid-1800s, there was a large Native American village on the shore of Silver Lake in the Town of West Bend. Eventually the Potawatomi who evaded forced removal gathered in northern Wisconsin, where they formed the Forest County Potawatomi Community.
In 1845, the Wisconsin Territorial Legislature authorized the construction of a road to connect Fond du Lac and Milwaukee with a new settlement near the halfway point to provide provisions and overnight accommodations for travelers. Byron Kilbourn, James Kneeland, and Erastus B. Wolcott were the commissioners tasked with constructing the new settlement, and they decided to locate it on a westward bend in the Milwaukee River—the present-day location of the City of West Bend—because of the river's potential as a power source for mills. By the end of 1845, they had purchased eight eighty-acre tracts of land along the river, and invited local landowner E. N. Higgins to join their venture as well. In 1846, Wolcott constructed a dam and a sawmill in the new community, and in 1848, he constructed a gristmill.
The Wisconsin Territorial legislature created the Town of West Bend on January 20, 1846. At the time, the town included land that is now part of the City of West Bend, as well as the neighboring towns of Barton, Farmington, Kewaskum, and Trenton.
In the 1840s and early 1850s, Washington County included the land along Lake Michigan that is now Ozaukee County, Wisconsin. Port Washington served as the county seat, which was controversial at the time. West Bend, Cedarburg, and Grafton vied for position of Washington County seat and the material advantages it would entail. In 1850, the Wisconsin legislature voted to bisected Washington County into northern and southern counties, with Port Washington and Cedarburg as the county seats, respectively. County residents failed to ratify the bill, because there were voting irregularities in some communities. In 1853 the legislature instead bisected the county into eastern and western sections, creating Ozaukee County. Port Washington became the seat of the new county, and the Washington County seat moved to the town of West Bend. The bisection was controversial. When Washington County officials from West Bend arrived in Port Washington to collect relevant county records, they were run out of town, and Ozaukee County officials refused to hand over the records for several months.
A railroad station was constructed in West Bend in 1873, bringing new residents, businesses and economic connections into the community. The future City of West Bend's location on the river, its status as the seat of county government, and its rail connections caused the city to grow and expand in the 1870s and 1880s. In March 1885, the City of West Bend incorporated from some of the town's land.
The City of West Bend experienced dramatic population growth during the post–World War II economic expansion. As automobiles became more commonplace, more people moved to the city and commuted for work, taking advantage of new roads such as U.S. Route 45, which connected the West Bend area to Milwaukee. Between 1950 and 1990 the population more than tripled from 6,849 to 23,916, and the city annexed land from the Town of West Bend, as well as the neighboring towns of Barton and Trenton.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 18.1 square miles (47.0 km2), of which, 16.1 square miles (41.8 km2) of it is land and 2.0 square miles (5.2 km2) of it (10.98%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 4,834 people, 1,611 households, and 1,314 families residing in the town. The population density was 299.5 people per square mile (115.6/km2). There were 1,975 housing units at an average density of 122.4 per square mile (47.2/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.97% White, 0.02% Black or African American, 0.19% Native American, 0.27% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.04% from other races, and 0.46% from two or more races. 0.56% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 1,611 households, out of which 36.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 76.4% were married couples living together, 3.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.4% were non-families. 16.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.74 and the average family size was 3.07.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.0% under the age of 18, 4.9% from 18 to 24, 25.4% from 25 to 44, 26.9% from 45 to 64, and 18.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.8 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $73,333, and the median income for a family was $79,728. Males had a median income of $51,757 versus $28,371 for females. The per capita income for the town was $33,097. About 1.7% of families and 1.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.0% of those under age 18 and 2.4% of those age 65 or over.
See also
Cedar Community, West Bend, Wisconsin.
References
External links
Town of West Bend
Towns in Washington County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Bend%2C%20Wisconsin | West Bend, Wisconsin | West Bend is the county seat of Washington County, Wisconsin, United States, in southeastern Wisconsin. As of the 2010 census, the population was 31,078.
History
Early history and settlement
Northeastern Washington County's earliest known inhabitants were pre-Columbian Mound Builders, who constructed effigy mounds in the area sometime between 650 CE and 1300 CE. They were semi-nomadic and survived by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants. They made pottery and constructed tools from bone, wood, stone, and occasionally copper. They built effigy mounds shaped like mammals, reptiles, birds and other creatures, both real and mythical, as well as conical, oval, and linear mounds, some of which contain human burials. Some mounds in the West Bend area were destroyed by settlers to create farm fields, but several dozen survive and are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Washington County "Island" Effigy Mound District, which includes the Lizard Mound County Park site in nearby Farmington as well as several privately owned sites.
In the early 19th century when the first White settlers arrived in Southeastern Wisconsin, the Potawatomi and Menominee Indians inhabited the land now occupied by the City of West Bend. In 1831, the Menominee surrendered their claims to the land to the United States Federal Government through the Treaty of Washington. The Potawatomi surrendered their land claims in 1833 through the Treaty of Chicago, which required them to leave the area by 1838. While many Native people moved west of the Mississippi River to Kansas, some chose to remain, and were referred to as "strolling Potawatomi" in contemporary documents because many of them were migrants who subsisted by squatting on their ancestral lands, which were now owned by settlers. In the mid-1800s, there was a large Native American village on the shore of Silver Lake, southwest of the modern-day City of West Bend. Eventually the Potawatomi who evaded forced removal gathered in northern Wisconsin, where they formed the Forest County Potawatomi Community.
The present-day city traces its origins to two communities that formed when the first White settlers arrived in the mid-1840s. One community was West Bend, and the other was the now-defunct Village of Barton. In 1845, the Wisconsin Territorial Legislature authorized the construction of a road to connect Fond du Lac and Milwaukee with a new settlement near the halfway point to provide provisions and overnight accommodations for travelers. Byron Kilbourn, James Kneeland, and Erastus B. Wolcott were the commissioners tasked with constructing the new settlement, and they decided to locate it on a westward bend in the Milwaukee River—the present-day location of the City of West Bend—because of the river's potential as a power source for mills. By the end of 1845, they had purchased eight eighty-acre tracts of land along the river, and invited local landowner E. N. Higgins to join their venture as well. In 1846, Wolcott constructed a dam and a sawmill in the new community, and in 1848, he constructed a gristmill.
In 1845, land surveyor and early settler Barton Salisbury built a sawmill on the river north of West Bend. The community that grew around the mill was known as Salisbury's Mills before to the name was changed to Barton in 1853. Additional sawmills and gristmills sprang up on the river in the community's early years, and by 1855, Barton's population was over 1,000, making it larger than neighboring West Bend. Despite its early growth, however, Barton would be overshadowed by West Bend in the coming decades.
19th century politics and growth
The Wisconsin Territorial legislature created the Town of West Bend on January 20, 1846. At the time, the town included land that is now part of the City of West Bend, as well as the neighboring towns of Barton, Farmington, Kewaskum, and Trenton.
In the 1840s and early 1850s, Washington County included the land along Lake Michigan that is now Ozaukee County, Wisconsin. Port Washington served as the county seat, which was controversial at the time. West Bend, Cedarburg, and Grafton vied for position of Washington County seat and the material advantages it would entail. In 1850, the Wisconsin legislature voted to bisected Washington County into northern and southern counties, with Port Washington and Cedarburg as the county seats, respectively. County residents failed to ratify the bill, because there were voting irregularities in some communities. In 1853 the legislature instead bisected the county into eastern and western sections, creating Ozaukee County. Port Washington became the seat of the new county, and the Washington County seat moved to West Bend. The bisection was controversial. When Washington County officials from West Bend arrived in Port Washington to collect relevant county records, they were run out of town, and Ozaukee County officials refused to hand over the records for several months.
On November 25, 1853, the County Board of Supervisors attempted to change the name of West Bend to Lamartine City. However, this change was not well-received and the name was changed back 18 hours later.
In November 1862 during the American Civil War, the draft was unpopular with some Washington County residents, including German immigrants who had experienced or fled conscription in their homelands. On the day that men from the nearby Town of Trenton were being drafted at the courthouse in West Bend, a mob disrupted the proceedings and forced the draft commissioner to flee to Milwaukee. On November 22, 1862, the commissioner returned to West Bend with six companies of the 30th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment to prevent further disruptions.
A railroad station was constructed in West Bend in 1873, bringing new residents, businesses and economic connections into the community. The community had previously only been located on the western bank of the Milwaukee River, but in the 1870s residents began to develop property on the river's eastern bank as well. In March 1885, West Bend incorporated as a city.
Industrialization and post-war growth
In the 1890s, West Bend's economy began to transition being a rural market town to being an industrial community. Early manufacturers included the Schmidt and Stork Wagon Company; the Enger-Kress Pocketbook Company, which moved its operations to West Bend in 1884; the West Bend Aluminum Company, which began manufacturing low-cost aluminum utensils in 1911; and Amity Leather, which was founded in West Bend in 1915 and was once the world's largest manufacturer of leather billfolds. Other 20th century manufacturers in West Bend included Pick Manufacturing Company, which fabricated automotive parts; Gehl Brothers Manufacturing Company, which produced construction and agricultural equipment; and West Bend Concrete Products.
Barton also benefited from West Bend's growth in the early 20th century, and the community incorporated as the Village of Barton in 1925. However, the village existed for fewer than four decades before being annexed by the City of West Bend on November 1, 1961.
During World War II, West Bend experienced labor shortages because many local men had been conscripted into the military. In 1944 and 1945, Pick Manufacturing Company and the West Bend Canning Company addressed labor shortages by contracting German prisoners of war from local POW camps in Little Kohler and Rockfield.
West Bend experienced dramatic population growth during the post–World War II economic expansion. As automobiles became more commonplace, more people moved to West Bend and commuted for work, taking advantage of new roads such as U.S. Route 45, which connected West Bend to Milwaukee. Between 1950 and 1990 the population more than tripled from 6,849 to 23,916, and the city annexed land from the surrounding towns as well as the Village of Barton.
The West Bend tornado on April 4, 1981, struck the city, killing three people and injuring over 100 more. There is a monument at a park near Green Tree Elementary School.
Library controversy
In 2009, a controversy arose after a local couple complained to the West Bend Community Memorial Library about the presence of "sexually explicit books" and "books for youth on homosexuality" in the young adult section of the library. A petition called on the library to label the identified books as explicit, move them to the adult section of the library, install Internet content filters on the library's computers, and "adopt a policy to attain balance in the viewpoints of selections (both affirming and opposing) that the libraries carry in issues sufficiently controversial within the West Bend community (i.e. homosexuality). Specifically, we request faith-based and/or ex-gay books affirming traditional heterosexual perspectives be added to the library."
The West Bend Common Council refused to reappoint four library trustees whose terms were ending. One councilman complained that the library board was stonewalling the complaint, while another asserted that the library trustees were not serving the interests of the community “with their ideology.” The council's actions were widely criticized, and local citizens unsuccessfully sought to have the vote rescinded. After a public hearing on the petition in June 2009, the library board voted to reject any restrictions on young adults' access to books in the library.
Four Wisconsin men belonging to the Christian Civil Liberties Union filed a claim against the West Bend library, asking for $30,000 apiece for "emotional distress", and that Francesca Lia Block's book Baby Be-Bop be "burned or destroyed."
Historic sites
The Washington County Historical Society operates four distinct museums located in West Bend. Buildings and sites that have been deemed historic by official bodies include:
Old Courthouse Museum
Old Sheriff's Residence and Jail
West Bend Company/Regal Ware Museum
Father Rehrl's Rectory at St. Agnes Historic Site
Downtown West Bend has a movie theater which originally opened in 1929. The theater was last renovated in 1992 to house a total of three movie screens. The theater was closed and listed for sale in January 2012, with a purchase occurring in May 2012.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.
West Bend is in the Kettle Moraine region, and its topography is varied. The glacial activity has formed many kettles and hills throughout the region.
Climate
The average temperature in West Bend ranges from a high of (July) to a low average temperature of (January). Record high and low temperatures are and , respectively. The average annual rainfall is . The average annual snow measures .
Demographics
As of the census of 2020, there were 31,630 people, 12,769 households, and 8,250 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 13,546 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 94.77% White, 1.61% African American, 0.05% Native American, 0.83%Asian, 1.38% from other races, and 1.35% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.9% of the population.
There were 12,769 households, of which 32.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.1% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.4% were non-families. 29.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.96.
The median age in the city was 37 years. 24.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28.9% were from 25 to 44; 24.3% were from 45 to 64; and 14.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.3% male and 51.7% female.
Economy
Although many current residents of West Bend work in neighboring communities, the city's economy has been historically based in manufacturing and financial services. West Bend Mutual Insurance Company was founded in the city in 1894 and West Bend Savings Bank (now Westbury Bank) in 1926. The West Bend Aluminum Company (later the West Bend Company) was founded in 1911 by Bernhardt C. Ziegler, and remained in West Bend until 2003. Ziegler had previously founded the securities brokerage company B.C. Ziegler & Co. in 1902.
In 1915, Robert H. Rolfs founded Amity Leather in downtown West Bend, which eventually became the world's largest manufacturer of leather billfolds. Amity leather left the city in 1996. The strong economy in West Bend in the 1930s led Ripley's Believe it or Not to claim that West Bend was the only city in the United States that did not enter the Great Depression. In 1949, the printing company Serigraph, Inc. was founded in a garage in West Bend and went on to employ people all over the world. The Gehl Company is also located in West Bend.
Military
The Army National Guard operates an armory near the airport, at 125 Chopper Drive, West Bend.
Recreation and tourism
A paved riverwalk snakes through the city along the banks of the Milwaukee River. The Eisenbahn State Trail, a Rails to Trails project, has added another trail for walking, running, biking, and roller skating. The 1,000-mile National Ice Age Trail crosses through West Bend. West Bend also has over 1,200 acres of parks and green space.
Just north of downtown is Regner Park, which offers a wooded area for hiking, a baseball diamond, a community swimming pond with a beach, a fishing pond, and several softball and soccer fields. On the southeast side of the city is Quaas Creek Park, home to the Roman "Doc" Gonring Athletic Complex and Quaas Creek Trail. This facility includes scenic bike/pedestrian trails, a canoe launch, three softball fields with two concession stands, and a children's play area. Lac Lawrann Conservancy, offers a 137-acre nature preserve and 5 miles of trails.
A farmers' market is held in Downtown West Bend on Saturday mornings from May through October each year. The market is one of the largest in Southeastern Wisconsin. It includes entertainment from various sources and boasts over 65 vendors, selling produce, fruits, meats, eggs, maple syrup, bakery items, spices, soaps, herbal products, prepared foods and more. It was listed as a favorite farmers' market in Vogue magazine.
Entertainment on Thursday nights in the summer is provided by Music on Main. The street in Downtown West Bend is closed to traffic and a different band takes the stage at Old Settler's Park each week. One local restaurant is designated each week to provide food and beverages for purchase.
Maxwell Street Days and German Fest are two summer events held in the downtown. Riverfest (formerly Seafood Fest) is held every year at Regner Park on the first weekend in June. A more recent annual event in Riverside Park is JazzFest.
West Bend has been branded the “Geocaching Capital of the Midwest™,“ boasting over 1,200 caches within a 10-mile radius of the city. An annual "Cache Ba$h" has been sponsored by the West Bend Area Chamber of Commerce since 2008.
A holiday light show, Enchantment in the Park, was moved to Regner Park in West Bend in 2012 (previously it was hosted at the Washington County Fair Park). The event accepts donations to support local food pantries. The event also includes an opportunity to visit Santa and ice skating on the pond at Regner Park.
West Bend is also home of the Museum of Wisconsin Art, an art museum dedicated to showing the works of Wisconsin artists.
The Washington County Fair Park and Conference Center is located five miles south of the city. Numerous events are held throughout the year, including the Washington County Fair. The facility was built in 1999 and has a 24,000 sq. ft. pavilion, Agricultural and Equestrian Complexes and theater entertainment areas.
Government
The city is governed by the City Council, consisting of the mayor and eight alderpersons.
Education
The city is served by the West Bend School District. The public schools in the district include six elementary schools, two middle schools, and two high schools that share the same building.
A public charter school, Pathways, was created in the 2014–2015 school year, serving grades 7–10. The school began serving grades 7-12 during the 2016–2017 school year. Pathways Charter School closed permanently on June 30, 2019.
The two high schools, West Bend East and West Bend West, are housed in a single building. The schools share facilities, but are operated as independent schools. Each school has its own sports teams and mascot.
Rolf's Educational Center provides Head Start, Title I, and Early childhood education programs.
The district also operates an alternative school, the West Bend Online Learning Academy.
Post-secondary schools in West Bend include University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee at Washington County (UWM-WC) and Moraine Park Technical College.
There are also a number of Pre-K and K-8 private schools in West Bend.
Lutheran schools include Good Shepherd Lutheran School, of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, Trinity Lutheran School, of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod, and St. John's Lutheran School, of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod.
Roman Catholic schools include St. Frances Cabrini School and Holy Angels School.
Media
West Bend has a country music station, WMBZ (92.5 FM) and a classic hits station, WIBD (1470 AM). The official newspaper of the City of West Bend is the West Bend Daily News.
The West Bend Booster is an independent, family-owned newspaper covering the area and has an office in West Bend. In 2020, due to COVID-19, The Booster's parent company, Booster Publications, announced that they would permanently close.
The city of West Bend and the West Bend School District maintain their own separate public, educational, and government access channels, carried by both Spectrum and AT&T U-verse throughout the region and also online.
Transportation
The West Bend Municipal Airport is a city-owned, public-use airport located three nautical miles (6 km) east of the central business district of West Bend.
The options for public transportation within West Bend include the city and county taxi programs. The Washington County Commuter Express provides bus service to and from the city of Milwaukee.
The city of West Bend is served by US 45 as a freeway bypass west of Downtown, Wis 33, and Wis 144.
Notable people
William Arnemann, Wisconsin State Representative
Samuel S. Barney, judge
Zack Baun, football player
Mathias J. Berres, farmer and Wisconsin State Representative
Andrea Boehlke, television host and reality television star
Bill B. Bruhy, Wisconsin State Representative
Ward Christensen, computer scientist
James Davison, Wisconsin State Representative
John DeMerit, baseball player
Almah Jane Frisby, physician and professor
Leander F. Frisby, lawyer
Bob Gannon, Wisconsin State Representative
Kenneth William Haebig, Wisconsin State Representative
Fred H. Hildebrandt, U.S. Representative
Theodore Holtebeck, Wisconsin State Representative
George F. Hunt, Wisconsin State Senator and physician
Ken Jungels, baseball player
Florian Lampert, U.S. Representative
Scott May, baseball player
Stephen F. Mayer, Wisconsin state senator
Willie Mueller, baseball player
Andrew P. O'Meara, United States Army officer
B. S. Potter, Wisconsin State Representative
Ryan Rohlinger, baseball player
John W. Salter, Wisconsin State Representative
Frederick C. Schroeder, Wisconsin State Representative
Dick Smith, software engineer and computer consultant
Dave Steckel, hockey player
Patricia Strachota, Wisconsin State Representative
Frank Weddig, Colorado State Legislator
Viola S. Wendt, poet
Morgan White (born 1983), gymnast
Sister cities
Aisho, Shiga, Japan
Heppenheim, Hesse, Germany
Pazardzhik, Bulgaria
References
Sources
External links
City of West Bend
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1884 1892 1900 1910 1919
Cities in Wisconsin
Cities in Washington County, Wisconsin
County seats in Wisconsin | [
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260747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookfield%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Brookfield (town), Wisconsin | Brookfield is a town in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 6,390 at the 2000 census. The unincorporated community of Goerke's Corners is located in the town.
History
In 1954, the city of Brookfield, Wisconsin was formed from the town of Brookfield. On March 26, 2012, the town of Brookfield filed a petition to incorporate to become a village.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 5.5 square miles (14.3 km), all of it land.
Demographics
At the 2000 census there were 6,390 people, 2,762 households, and 1,762 families in the town. The population density was 1,160.3 people per square mile (447.8/km). There were 2,863 housing units at an average density of 519.8 per square mile (200.6/km). The racial makeup of the town was 94.63% White, 0.83% Black or African American, 0.03% Native American, 3.19% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.42% from other races, and 0.88% from two or more races. 1.25% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Of the 2,762 households 24.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.5% were married couples living together, 4.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.2% were non-families. 32.3% of households were one person and 22.4% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.93.
The age distribution was 22.0% under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 24.8% from 25 to 44, 24.3% from 45 to 64, and 24.7% 65 or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.5 males.
The median household income was $65,417 and the median family income was $83,036. Males had a median income of $63,661 versus $47,591 for females. The per capita income for the town was $38,608. About 2.1% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.3% of those under age 18 and 4.1% of those age 65 or over.
Religion
The town is the home of Elmbrook Church, the largest church in Wisconsin and one of the 100-largest in the United States.
Notable people
Caroline Ingalls (1839–1923), mother of Laura Ingalls Wilder, was born in the then Town of Brookfield, currently City of Brookfield. She was descended from pioneers who could trace their ancestry to the Mayflower. There is a description of her life, Little House in Brookfield, patterned after the highly successful Little House on the Prairie. Quiner's birthplace stood near today's intersection of Davidson Road and Brookfield Road, in the southwestern part of the city.
Katrina Kozar, MasterChef (U.S. season 6) contestant, lived in the Town at the time of her TV appearance.
William H. Steele, Wisconsin State Representative and farmer, was born in the town.
References
External links
Town of Brookfield website
Towns in Waukesha County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookfield%2C%20Wisconsin | Brookfield, Wisconsin | Brookfield is a city located in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States in the Milwaukee metropolitan area. It had a population of 37,920 in the 2010 census. Brookfield is the third largest city in Waukesha County. The city is adjacent to the Town of Brookfield.
History
Brookfield is west of Milwaukee in Waukesha County in an area originally inhabited by Potawatomi Indians. The first white settler, William Howe, arrived in 1820 with a Presidential Land Grant giving him title to the area. Soon after, Robert Curren bought a claim in 1836, and established a tavern and inn.
In May 1838, Jacques View Jr., with a large party of white settlers, led the local Potawatomi west. By 1839, the population needed a school house, as the 1840 census showed a population of 148. In these 1840s, George Gebhardt started trading with the surrounding Potawatomi and Menominee neighbors. 1843 is when the first church was built, by the Irish Catholic congregation, named St. Dominic. 1848 was when telegraph lines were laid through Brookfield, towards Waukesha. Communication was made easier due to this. In 1849, cholera reached Brookfield, and one Laura Grover recalls, "The death-like stillness was appalling; nothing was seen but the death carts rolling round the streets gathering the recent dead... I believe there were fifty deaths from cholera that day." The same year, 64 Brookfield residents voted in favor of giving suffrage to black residents, and 0 the other way. In 1850, cholera again went through Brookfield, and according to one Earl Thayer, "The cholera returned... more terrible than the year before. People literally died walking along the streets. Official reports put the toll at over 300."
In 1850, the Milwaukee and Mississippi Railroad (now the Canadian Pacific Rail) built a railroad through the town, which in 1853 erected a depot, forming the Brookfield Junction. In the year 1850, the Town of Brookfield had 1,944 inhabitants and in land area covered 36 square miles. The town slowly grew over following years, with the economy being mostly agricultural, with Brookfield Junction serving as a commercial center for the surrounding farms. The Civil War had little effect on this town, despite the severe losses of members serving from the state. "More than 12,000 died: 3,802 were killed in action or died of wounds and 8,499 died from disease, exposure, and other causes.""> In 1867, a second rail depot was constructed, which still stands.
In the 1900s, Brookfield gained a new reputation. Waukesha County was called Cow County, U.S.A., as according to advertisers, they claimed that in the county there were more cows than people. This was, of course, fantastical, although there were cows. This did help cement Wisconsin's dairy reputation. WWI, one of the biggest wars in history, also didn't have too much of an effect on Brookfield and how we know it today. The so-called Spanish flu, however, did kill many people, but not as many as cholera had in the past. On May 31, 1914, a tornado hit, devastating the farmers and the rural area.
This quiet, rural atmosphere attracted one notorious resident, Al Capone, as he established an area to live and a distillery on Brookfield Road. In 1928, the first suburban development, Kinsey's Garvendale, a residential subdivision, was created. Early subdivisions grew slowly due to the Great Depression hitting a year later, affecting its growth and killing demand.
Development in Brookfield began to increase after the Second World War. Suburban development was encouraged by a lack of housing, the baby boom, and government sponsored building programs, which further grew the town, and after several annexations of neighboring communities, an incorporation drive started. The City of Brookfield was incorporated from the town of Brookfield, a portion of which still survives along the city's western edge, on August 14, 1954. The first mayor was Franklin Wirth, and he oversaw the new city, which at the time had a population of 7,900 and covered an area of 17.5 square miles. Much of the land was still in agricultural use, so the city's founders encouraged orderly development of office and industrial areas to cause the community to function with strong industrial and commercial base.
Today, Brookfield covers 27.66 square miles, and numbers 37,920 residents.
Geography and climate
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. The sub-continental divide passes through Brookfield; on the eastern side of this divide, easily marked by the crest at Calhoun Road and Capitol Drive, water flows to Lake Michigan on its way to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence; on the western side of this divide, water flows to the Fox River of Illinois and Wisconsin on its way to the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico.
There is a heron rookery on a site northwest of Capitol Drive and Brookfield Road.
The Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as humid continental (Dfa).
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 37,920 people, 14,576 households, and 10,999 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 15,317 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 90.0% White, 1.2% African American, 0.2% Native American, 6.7% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 1.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.2% of the population.
There were 14,576 households, of which 31.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.4% were married couples living together, 5.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 24.5% were non-families. 21.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.01.
The median age in the city was 46.7 years. 23.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 18.5% were from 25 to 44; 33% were from 45 to 64; and 19.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.5% male and 51.5% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 38,649 people, 13,891 households, and 11,223 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,421.1 people per square mile (548.6/km2). There were 14,208 housing units at an average density of 522.4 per square mile (201.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 94.20 percent White, 3.83 percent Asian, 0.83 percent Black or African American, 0.09 percent Native American, 0.02 percent Pacific Islander, 0.23 percent from other races, and 0.81 percent from two or more races. 1.17 percent of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 13,891 households, out of which 36.1 percent had children under age 18 living with them, 73.1 percent were married couples living together, 5.5 percent had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.2 percent were non-families. 16.7 percent of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.0 percent had someone living alone who was 65 years old or older. The average household size was 2.74 people and the average family size was 3.09 people.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.8 percent under age 18, 4.6 percent from 18 years old to 24 years old, 23.2 percent from 25 years old to 44 years old, 27.8 percent from 45 years old to 64 years old, and 17.6 percent who were 65 years old or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $76,225, and the median income for a family was $83,691. Males had a median income of $62,351 versus $37,589 for females. The per capita income for the city was $37,292. 2.2 percent of the population and 1.4 percent of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 2.4 percent of those under age 18 and 3.4 percent of those 65 years old and older were living below the poverty line.
Economy
Fiserv is headquartered in Brookfield. The firm provides financial services technology (software, for the most part) for banks, thrifts, credit unions, securities broker dealers, leasing and finance companies, and retailers, among others. Its 2016 revenue was approximately $5.5 billion.
Fedex's SmartPost business unit is also headquartered in Brookfield.
Transportation
Capitol Airport (02C) serves the city and surrounding communities.
Government
Brookfield has a mayor–council government. The mayor is elected to a four-year term. On April 1, 2014, incumbent mayor Steve Ponto again defeated former two-term Mayor Jeff Speaker by a vote of 4,512 to 2,539. On April 3, 2018, incumbent mayor Steve Ponto ran unopposed for mayor.
Brookfield is represented by Scott Fitzgerald (R) in the United States House of Representatives, and by Ron Johnson (R) and Tammy Baldwin (D) in the United States Senate. Brookfield is represented by Dale Kooyenga (R) in the Wisconsin State Senate and Sara Rodriguez (D) and Robyn Beckley Vining (D) in the Wisconsin State Assembly.
Common Council
The Common Council is composed of 14 aldermen, with two representing each of seven districts. They serve four-year terms, with one member from each district up for election every other year. The aldermen set policy and have extensive financial control, but are not engaged in daily operational management.
Education
The Elmbrook School District serves residents of Brookfield excluding a small section of southwest Brookfield, which is in the Waukesha School District. Private schools include St. Dominic Catholic School, St. John Vianney Catholic Church, St. Luke Catholic School, St. Joseph's Catholic School, Elm Grove Lutheran School, Brookfield Christian School, and Brookfield Academy. Private high schools located within the Brookfield city limits include Brookfield Academy and Heritage Christian School, West Suburban Christian Academy.
Tourism
Brookfield offers shopping, fine dining, outdoor golf and parks. Brookfield's concert hall is the Sharon Lynne Wilson Center for the Arts located in Mitchell Park. Brookfield's main beach is located at Fox Brook Park where hiking in natural preserves, sailing, biking and golfing are also available.
Brookfield Square is the main shopping mall for the city and also serves as a commercial anchor to the Bluemound Road shopping district serving the western suburbs of Milwaukee and Waukesha County. Brookfield has off-road bike paths throughout the city.
Brookfield Days is held annually in June, at Wirth Park supported by the local community. A farmer's market runs on weekends in summer months at the Brookfield City Hall.
The Elmbrook Historical Society hosts several events annually celebrating the lives of early Brookfield settlers, including Caroline Ingalls, who was born in the Brookfield area. The city is often visited by fans of her daughter, Laura, author of the Little House on the Prairie book series.
Notable people
John Anderson, NFL player
Ken Anderson, pro wrestler known as Mr. Kennedy
Al Capone, noted Chicago mobster, owned a Brookfield home where moonshine was made
Bill Carollo, NFL official
Kip Carpenter, 2002, 2006 Olympian, bronze medalist in speedskating
Henry J. Clasen, Wisconsin State Representative and businessman
Tom Dougherty, MLB player
Arpad Elo, inventor of Elo rating system for chess, professor at Marquette
Susan Engeleiter, former administrator of the Small Business Administration
Herman Finger, entrepreneurial lumberman
Aubrey Foard, Charlotte Symphony Orchestra principal tuba.
Troy Grosenick, professional ice hockey goaltender for the Nashville Predators
Doc Hamann, MLB player
Merle Harmon, Hall of Fame broadcaster and entrepreneur
Kenny Harrison, world champion track and field athlete, Olympic gold medalist
Nathan Hatch (1757-1847), soldier in American Revolutionary War and War of 1812; farmed in Brookfield from 1842 to 1847 and interred in Brookfield's Oak Hill Cemetery
Caroline Ingalls (1839–1924), born in what is today the city of Brookfield (then Town of Brookfield), mother of Laura Ingalls Wilder
Ken Jungels, MLB player
Ted Kanavas (1961-2017), Wisconsin State Senate
Matt Katula, NFL player
Joe Kuether, professional poker player
Robert Andrew "Bob" Long, wide receiver for Green Bay Packers during Vince Lombardi era
Arie Luyendyk, two-time Indianapolis 500 winner
Eddie Mathews, baseball player (lived in Brookfield during career)
Al McGuire, former NCAA basketball coach and commentator (lived in Brookfield toward the end of his life)
Fritz Mollwitz, MLB player
Zane Navratil, pickleball player
Brad Nortman, NFL punter
Leslie Osborne, member of Women's Professional Soccer team Boston Breakers and the U.S. national team
Joe Panos, football player for Philadelphia Eagles, Buffalo Bills
James Kerr Proudfit, U.S. Army general
Martin P. Robinson, puppeteer for Telly Monster, Mr. Snuffleupagus and Slimey on Sesame Street since 1980; graduate of Brookfield East High School
Herman Schatz, Wisconsin State Representative and blacksmith
Molly Seidel, 2020 Tokyo Olympic Bronze Medal marathon winner
Richie Sexson, retired MLB player (lived here when he played for Milwaukee Brewers)
Paul Spaeth, noted composer and musician
Adam Stockhausen, Oscar-winning production designer
John Patten Story, U.S. Army major general
Joe Thomas, football player for Cleveland Browns
Frank Urban, Wisconsin State Assembly
John M. Young, Wisconsin State Assembly
Sister city
Brookfield has one sister city:
Seligenstadt, Hesse, Germany
See also
2012 Azana Spa shooting
2005 Living Church of God shooting
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corporation
References
External links
Official website
Cities in Wisconsin
Cities in Waukesha County, Wisconsin
1954 establishments in Wisconsin | [
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260750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delafield%2C%20Wisconsin | Delafield, Wisconsin | Delafield is a city in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, along the Bark River. The population was 7,085 at the 2010 census.
The city of Delafield is a separate municipality from the Town of Delafield, both of which are situated in township 7 North Range 18 East.
History
Delafield was established in 1837, named after Dr. Charles Delafield of Milwaukee. It was the hometown of the Cushing brothers, who served the Union cause during the American Civil War - Alonzo (killed during Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg), William (led the raid on ), and Howard (an Indian fighter killed fighting the Apache in Arizona after the war). Cushing Memorial Park is named after them, and is home to a war memorial in their honor.
Recently a poll was done in the city of Delafield about the legalization of recreational marijuana. The poll showed that 40% approved legalization, 40% did not want legalzation, and 20% were undecided.
Since 1927, a culinary event known as the "Coon Feed" has taken place in Delafield.
Geography
Delafield is located in the Lake Country area of Waukesha County.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 7,085 people, 2,776 households, and 1,858 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 2,974 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 96.4% White, 0.8% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.3% Asian, 0.4% from other races, and 0.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.2% of the population.
There were 2,776 households, of which 29.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.3% were married couples living together, 7.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.1% were non-families. Some 26.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.92.
The median age in the city was 41.8 years. Around 25.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.8% were from 25 to 44; 32.4% were from 45 to 64; and 13% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.9% male and 49.1% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 6,472 people, 2,553 households, and 1,856 families living in the city. The population density was 680.2 people per square mile (262.5/km2). There were 2,685 housing units at an average density of 282.2 per square mile (108.9/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.74% White, 9% Black or African American, 0.31% Native American, 0.57% Asian, 0.32% from other races, and 0.96% from two or more races. Some 1.47% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 2,553 households, out of which 35.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them. Around 61.7% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.3% were non-families. About 22.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 2.97.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.6% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 29.8% from 25 to 44, 27.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.3 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $61,938, and the median income for a family was $71,955. Males had a median income of $51,656 versus $30,253 for females. The per capita income for the city was $31,602. About 2.3% of families and 3.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.3% of those under age 18 and 1.4% of those age 65 or over.
Education
The Kettle Moraine School District serves most of Delafield. Cushing Elementary provides education for children in grades K-5. St. John's Northwestern Military Academy, a private Episcopal military school for 7th through 12th grade, is also located in Delafield.
Notable people
Chuck Wepfer, Lead Guitarist of Blacktop Mojo, National recording artist.
Alonzo Cushing, U.S. Army, Medal of Honor recipient
William B. Cushing, U.S. Navy, Recipient of Thanks of Congress
Cindi Duchow, Wisconsin State Assembly
Monte Merkel, NFL player
Sankar Montoute, NFL player
Alex Moyer, NFL player
James Kerr Proudfit, Adjutant General of Wisconsin
Alex Rigsby, woman's ice hockey player
Ralph H. Spanjer, U.S. Marine Corps Major General
George Wilson, NFL player, assistant coach and head coach
References
External links
City of Delafield
Sanborn fire insurance map: 1903
Cities in Wisconsin
Cities in Waukesha County, Wisconsin | [
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260751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delafield%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Delafield (town), Wisconsin | Delafield is a town in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 7,820 at the 2000 census. The City of Delafield is adjacent to the town. The unincorporated community of Buena Vista is located in the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 20.8 square miles (53.7 km2), of which, 18.6 square miles (48.3 km2) of it is land and 2.1 square miles (5.5 km2) of it (10.22%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 7,820 people, 2,521 households, and 2,137 families residing in the town. The population density was 419.7 people per square mile (162.1/km2). There were 2,625 housing units at an average density of 140.9 per square mile (54.4/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 93.94% White, 3.47% Black or African American, 0.24% Native American, 0.77% Asian, 0.50% from other races, and 1.09% from two or more races. Some 1.78% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 2,521 households, out of which 42.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 79.5% were married couples living together, 3.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 15.2% were non-families. About 11.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.93 and the average family size was 3.19.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 32.4% under the age of 18, 5.6% from 18 to 24, 24.7% from 25 to 44, 30.7% from 45 to 64, and 6.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 112.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.9 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $98,779, and the median income for a family was $107,486. Males had a median income of $70,136 versus $35,216 for females. The per capita income for the town was $41,391. About 1.9% of families and 3.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.5% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.
References
External links
The Town of Delafield website
Towns in Waukesha County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle%2C%20Wisconsin | Eagle, Wisconsin | Eagle is a village in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States. At the 2010 census, the population was 1,950. The village is located within the Town of Eagle.
History
The town's name comes from an 1836 incident when pioneer Thomas Sugden and two companions, exploring the area, spotted what was described as "a monster bald-headed eagle... hovering and curving over a large mound" in the midst of the prairie.
The village was struck by an EF2 tornado on the night of June 21, 2010. Tornado alert sirens in the area failed to sound prior to the strike. There were no fatalities, but there were several minor injuries. At least 2 homes were leveled to the ground by the tornado and several other homes had major damage.
Geography
Eagle is located at (42.877595, -88.471918).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all of it land.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,950 people, 684 households, and 536 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 704 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 98.3% White, 0.1% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.4% Asian, 1.0% from other races, and 0.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.1% of the population.
There were 684 households, of which 45.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.0% were married couples living together, 6.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 21.6% were non-families. 18.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.25.
The median age in the village was 35.3 years. 30.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 31.3% were from 25 to 44; 24.8% were from 45 to 64; and 7.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 50.8% male and 49.2% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,707 people, 592 households, and 468 families living in the village. The population density was 1,346.5 people per square mile (519.0/km2). There were 605 housing units at an average density of 477.2 per square mile (183.9/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 96.49% White, 0.23% Black or African American, 0.53% Native American, 0.29% Asian, 1.35% from other races, and 1.11% from two or more races. 3.05% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 592 households, out of which 46.5% had children under the age of 30 living with them, 71.3% were married couples living together, 4.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.8% were non-families. 17.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.88 and the average family size was 3.28.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 31.6% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 38.0% from 25 to 44, 17.6% from 45 to 64, and 6.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.1 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $58,207, and the median income for a family was $62,500. Males had a median income of $41,711 versus $27,500 for females. The per capita income for the village was $21,975. About 1.4% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.3% of those under age 18 and 2.8% of those age 65 or over.
Education
Eagle is part of the Palmyra-Eagle Area School District. The schools serving Eagle include Eagle Elementary School, Palmyra-Eagle Middle/High School. On July 1, 2019, the school board of the Palmyra-Eagle School District voted to dissolve the district. The district cited a lack of funding necessary to continue operations past the 2019–2020 school year. Whether the district will be allowed to dissolve will be determined by the School District Boundary Appeal Board by January 15, 2020.
Images
References
External links
Village of Eagle
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1894 1900
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Waukesha County, Wisconsin | [
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260753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Eagle (town), Wisconsin | Eagle is a town in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 3,117 at the 2000 census. The U.S. Census Bureau estimates a population of 3,680 for the year 2008. The Village of Eagle is located within the town. The unincorporated community of Eagleville is also located in the town.
History
The town's name comes from an 1836 incident when pioneer Thomas Sugden and two companions, exploring the area, spotted what was described as "a monster bald-headed eagle... hovering and curving over a large mound" in the midst of the prairie.
On June 21, 2010, a tornado wreaking major damage passed through the town, and the storm that prompted the tornado then prompted warnings for Racine and Milwaukee counties.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 35.1 square miles (90.8 km2), of which, 34.6 square miles (89.7 km2) of it is land and 0.4 square miles (1.1 km2) of it (1.23%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,117 people, 1,049 households, and 904 families residing in the town. The population density was 90.0 people per square mile (34.8/km2). There were 1,118 housing units at an average density of 32.3 per square mile (12.5/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.85% White, 0.51% Black or African American, 0.16% Native American, 0.38% Asian, 0.38% from other races, and 0.71% from two or more races. 0.58% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 1,049 households, out of which 43.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 79.8% were married couples living together, 3.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 13.8% were non-families. 9.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.97 and the average family size was 3.18.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 29.0% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 25.6% from 45 to 64, and 6.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.4 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $69,071, and the median income for a family was $73,611. Males had a median income of $51,607 versus $32,500 for females. The per capita income for the town was $26,354. About 2.8% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.1% of those under age 18 and 5.9% of those age 65 or over.
Culture
Old World Wisconsin, an open-air museum re-creating the working farmsteads and settlements of European immigrants, is in Eagle. The museum demonstrates teams of oxen and horses working in the fields, farm folk preparing meals over wood-burning stoves, and heirloom plants in gardens.
Notable people
Chellsie Memmel, gymnast and 2008 Olympic silver meadlist
Matthias J. Regan, Wisconsin State Representative
Charles A. Snover, Wisconsin State Senator
References
Towns in Waukesha County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merton%20%28village%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Merton (village), Wisconsin | Merton is a village in Waukesha County, Wisconsin. The population was 3,441 at the 2020 census. It is partially within the Town of Merton.
Geography
Merton is at 43°8'28" North, 88°18'34" West (43.141308, -88.309613)
in the Lake Country area of Waukesha County. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which is land and is water.
Demographics
As of 2011, the population was 3,353.
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 3,346 people, 1,020 households, and 934 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 1,054 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 95.5% White, 0.7% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.5% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.2% of the population.
There were 1,020 households, of which 55.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 83.1% were married couples living together, 5.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 8.4% were non-families. 6.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 1.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.28 and the average family size was 3.44.
The median age in the village was 37.8 years. 34.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.5% were from 25 to 44; 28.6% were from 45 to 64; and 5.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 51.9% male and 48.1% female.
2000 census
The census of 2000 recorded that there were 1,926 people, 591 households, and 527 families living in the village. The population density was 730.7 people per square mile (281.7/km2). There were 598 housing units at an average density of 226.9 per square mile (87.5/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 98.65% White, 0.42% Black or African American, 0.21% Native American, 0.21% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.00% from other races, and 0.52% from two or more races. 0.73% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 591 households, out of which 56.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 80.2% were married couples living together, 4.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 10.7% were non-families. 8.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 2.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.26 and the average family size was 3.47.
In the village, the population age-spread was: 36.2% under the age of 18, 5.0% from 18 to 24, 32.9% from 25 to 44, 22.0% from 45 to 64, and 3.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.8 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $71,509, and the median income for a family was $75,000. Males had a median income of $50,402 as against $30,380 for females. The per capita income for the village was $24,927. 1.6% of the population and 1.6% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 1.9% of those under the age of 18 and 2.6% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
Education
Merton is served by Merton Primary School (grades 4K to 4) and Merton Intermediate School (grades 5-8). Merton Intermediate students are then enrolled at Arrowhead High School.
Notable people
Judson Hall, Wisconsin State Representative, lived in Merton; he served as village president of Hartland.
References
External links
Village of Merton
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Waukesha County, Wisconsin | [
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260755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merton%2C%20Wisconsin | Merton, Wisconsin | Merton is a town in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States; before Wisconsin statehood, it was called Warren. The population was 7,988 at the 2000 census. The town surrounds the villages of Chenequa and Merton. The unincorporated communities of Camp Whitcomb, Monches, and North Lake are in the town and the unincorporated community of Stone Bank is partially in the town. The pioneer Swedish-American settlement of New Upsala was also at one time located within Merton.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 28.3 square miles (73.2 km2) of which 25.7 square miles (66.7 km2) is land and 2.5 square miles (6.5 km2) (8.88%) is water.
Located in the Lake Country area of Waukesha County.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 7,988 people, 2,706 households, and 2,278 families residing in the town. The population density was 310.3 people per square mile (119.8/km2). There were 2,932 housing units at an average density of 113.9 per square mile (44.0/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.65% White, 0.15% Black or African American, 0.13% Native American, 0.50% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 0.20% from other races, and 0.33% from two or more races. 1.01% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 2,706 households, of which 43.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 77.9% were married couples living together, 4.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 15.8% were non-families. 13.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.95 and the average family size was 3.26.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 30.6% under the age of 18, 5.3% from 18 to 24, 28.5% from 25 to 44, 27.0% from 45 to 64, and 8.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.7 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $78,937, and the median income for a family was $83,331. Males had a median income of $54,438 versus $35,672 for females. The per capita income for the town was $34,633. About 1.0% of families and 1.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.3% of those under age 18 and 2.2% of those aged 65 or over.
Notable people
Ephraim Beaumont, Wisconsin State Representative, lived in the Town of Merton.
Chester Dempsey, Wisconsin State Senator, was born in the Town of Merton.
Judson Hall, Wisconsin State Representative, was born in the Town of Merton.
James Barney Marsh, bridge designer, was born in the Town of Merton.
References
External links
Town of Merton government website
Towns in Waukesha County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oconomowoc%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Oconomowoc (town), Wisconsin | Oconomowoc is a town in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 7,451 at the 2000 census. The City of Oconomowoc and the Villages of Chenequa and Lac La Belle are located partially in the town. The unincorporated communities of Mapleton, Monterey, and Okauchee Lake, are located in the town. The unincorporated community of Stone Bank is located partially in the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 32.6 square miles (84.4 km2), of which, 29.3 square miles (75.9 km2) of it is land and 3.3 square miles (8.6 km2) of it (10.18%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 7,451 people, 2,765 households, and 2,140 families residing in the town. The population density was 254.4 people per square mile (98.2/km2). There were 3,045 housing units at an average density of 104.0 per square mile (40.1/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.74% White, 0.13% Black or African American, 0.13% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.19% from other races, and 0.59% from two or more races. 0.52% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 2,765 households, out of which 34.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.1% were married couples living together, 4.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.6% were non-families. 17.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.69 and the average family size was 3.07.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.4% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 29.4% from 25 to 44, 29.2% from 45 to 64, and 9.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.9 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $68,676, and the median income for a family was $75,200. Males had a median income of $50,153 versus $29,921 for females. The per capita income for the town was $37,244. About 2.0% of families and 2.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.6% of those under age 18 and 10.0% of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
Jonas Swenholt (1855-1923), Wisconsin State Representative, was born in the town.
References
External links
Town of Oconomowoc, Wisconsin website
Town of Oconomowoc Police Department
Towns in Waukesha County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oconomowoc%2C%20Wisconsin | Oconomowoc, Wisconsin | Oconomowoc ( ) is a city in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States. The name was derived from Coo-no-mo-wauk, the Potawatomi term for "waterfall." The population was 15,712 at the 2010 census. The city is partially adjacent to the Town of Oconomowoc and near the village of Oconomowoc Lake, Wisconsin.
History
Before 1700, this region was inhabited by Potawatomi peoples descended from Woodland Indians known as "mound builders". There are also reports that the Sauk Indian chief Black Hawk had a campsite on Oconomowoc Lake.
The first white person recorded in the area was Amable (sometimes spelled "Aumable") Vicau, brother-in-law of Solomon Juneau, one of the founders of Milwaukee. Vicau established a trading post in 1827. White settlers soon followed, beginning in 1830.
In April 1837, New York native Charles Sheldon staked a 160-acre claim on the eastern shore of what is now Fowler Lake, registering it with the Land Bank of Milwaukee on April 21, 1837. A few days later, H.W. Blanchard acquired a claim adjacent to that of Sheldon on the other side of the lake, which he later sold off to Philo Brewer. Brewer constructed what some consider to be the first residence within Oconomowoc's current legal limits, a site located at what is now 517 N. Lake Road, between La Belle and Fowler lakes. The first recorded birth was that of Eliza Jane Dewey on January 19, 1840, in the lodgings above a chair factory located at 116 N. Walnut. The first recorded death was that of Jerusha Foster, who died somewhere between the ages of 30 and 36 on March 19, 1841. Initially buried at Zion Church point, she was eventually re-interred at Nashotah Mission.
Oconomowoc was incorporated as a town in 1844, although residents had to go to Summit to get their mail until 1845. Travel and communication links between the new town and nearby cities were quickly established. The Watertown Plank Road was extended to connect Oconomowoc to the nearby towns of Milwaukee, Waukesha, Pewaukee, and Watertown in 1850. Such infrastructure encouraged further settlement, and by 1853 the town grew to a population of 250, with ten stores, three hotels, one gristmill, and one sawmill (both located near the present Lake Road bridge), and a schoolhouse. The first passenger train from Milwaukee arrived in Oconomowoc on December 14, 1854, as part of the Milwaukee and Watertown Railroad Company's rapidly expanding Milwaukee & Mississippi line.
In the 1870s, Oconomowoc started to become a summer resort town for wealthy families from the Midwest. Large houses were established around the town's lakes, particularly Oconomowoc Lake and Lac La Belle. The population grew so much that Oconomowoc incorporated as a city in 1865, and by 1880 it had a population of 3,000. In August 1899 a professional golf tournament hosted by the Oconomowoc Country Club was won by Harry Turpie.
In 2003, Oconomowoc acquired Pabst Farms from the Town of Summit. Pabst Farms, which had previously been owned by the Pabst family, is being developed as a mixture of commercial and residential property. On April 2, 2008, a gas line exploded just west of downtown, destroying the First Baptist Church on West Wisconsin Avenue. The church, which was built in 1913, was completely destroyed, except for the frame of its bell tower, which later had to be torn down as it was at risk of collapse. The source of the explosion was an old gas line that had been capped off sometime in 1972–73; it ruptured after having been struck by a backhoe as utility work was being done on Wisconsin Avenue in preparation for reconstruction of the street.
On October 11, 2012 at around 3:15 p.m. an Oconomowoc woman crashed into a local bookstore, causing major cosmetic damage to the exterior brick wall and dislodging several shelves inside. The building was evacuated for around an hour and the store's owner described the lack of injuries as "a fluke". The woman was cited for inattentive driving.
Geography and climate
Oconomowoc is located at (43.108814, −88.497019). It is located in the Lake Country area of Waukesha County. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 15,759 people, 6,256 households, and 4,270 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 6,662 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 96.0% White, 0.5% African American, 0.2% Native American, 1.0% Asian, 1.1% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.5% of the population.
There were 6,256 households, of which 34.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.7% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 31.7% were non-families. Of all households, 27.0% were made up of individuals, and 11.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.04.
The median age in the city was 38.6 years. 26.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28% were from 25 to 44; 25.5% were from 45 to 64; and 14.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.7% male and 52.3% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 12,382 people, 4,968 households, and 3,293 families living in the city. The population density was 1,845.5 people per square mile (712.5/km2). There were 5,239 housing units at an average density of 780.9 per square mile (301.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.71% White, 0.31% Black or African American, 0.28% Native American, 0.53% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.47% from other races, and 0.69% from two or more races. About 1.65% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Approximately 30.7% of households had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.7% were married couples living together, 8.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.7% were non-families. Some 28.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 2.98.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.7% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 16.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $71,162, and the median income for a family was $89,233. Males had a median earnings of $60,998 versus $41,389 for females. The per capita income for the city was $33,418. About 1.0% of families and 2.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.8% of those under age 18 and 4.9% of those age 65 or over.
Education
Oconomowoc schools are served by the Oconomowoc Area School District (OASD). Elementary schools (grades pre-K through 4th) include: Greenland Elementary, Summit Elementary, Park Lawn Elementary, Meadow View Elementary, and Ixonia Elementary. Oconomowoc has two middle schools, Silver Lake and Nature Hill Intermediate school, which serve students in 5th through 8th grades. These opened for the 2008–2009 year, replacing the older Oconomowoc Middle School. As of the 2018–2019 school year, Oconomowoc High School had 1,715 students.
St. Matthew's Lutheran School is a Christian 3K–8 grade school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Oconomowoc.
Holy Trinity Lutheran School is a Christian 2K–8 grade school of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Oconomowoc.
Transportation
Primary automobile transportation is provided by highways 16, 67, and I-94. Highway 16 runs from Pewaukee to La Crosse. The original route passes through downtown Oconomowoc; however, a bypass was built which goes around Lac La Belle to the north. Highway 67 runs from Beloit to Chillton. Interstate 94 provides access to Madison and Milwaukee.
Rail
Amtrak's Empire Builder passenger train passes through, but does not stop in Oconomowoc. The nearest Amtrak train station is Milwaukee Intermodal. Freight rail service is provided by the Soo Line Railroad, an American in-name-only division of the Canadian Pacific Railway.
Bus
Bus routes 904 and 905, operated by Waukesha County Transit, has its western terminus at the Collins & Cross Parking Lot station. The service offers daily rides between Oconomowoc and Milwaukee.
In popular culture
The Wizard of Oz premiered at the Strand Theatre in Oconomowoc on August 12, 1939.
La Belle Cemetery
La Belle Cemetery was the first cemetery in Oconomowoc. Originally called Henshall Place, it opened in 1851 on land that is now part of Fowler Park. It later moved to Walnut Street. When the grounds became overcrowded, Charles Sheldon donated land for a new cemetery, and in 1864 the Wisconsin Legislature approved the transfer of burials from Walnut Street to the current La Belle Cemetery grounds on Grove Street.
Sister cities
Dietzenbach, Hesse, Germany
Historic landmarks
Milwaukee Road Depot
Notable people
Henry M. Ackley – Wisconsin State Senator
John M. Alberts – Wisconsin State Representative
Jill Briscoe – Evangelical author and speaker
Stuart Briscoe – Evangelical author and speaker; former senior pastor of Elmbrook Church, the largest church in Wisconsin
Timothy T. Cronin – U.S. Attorney
Dirk J. Debbink – U.S. Navy Vice Admiral, Chief of Navy Reserve
Glenn Derby – NFL player
John Derby – NFL player
Steven Foti – Wisconsin politician
Byron L. Johnson – U.S. Representative from Colorado
Frank Tenney Johnson – painter of the Old American West
Lucille Kailer – operatic soprano
John Kaiser – NFL player
Jacki Lyden – former NPR reporter and author
Rebecca Kleefisch – former WISN-TV news anchor and Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin (2011-2019); wife of Joel Kleefisch
Curtis Mann – Wisconsin State Senator and businessman
Dorothea Rudnick – embryologist
Harry G. Snyder – Wisconsin State Representative and Wisconsin Court of Appeals Judge
Andy Thompson – MLB player
Jane Wiedlin – rhythm guitarist of The Go-Go's, actress
See also
Oconomowoc Lake Club
References
External links
City of Oconomowoc
Oconomowoc Area Chamber of Commerce
Cities in Waukesha County, Wisconsin
Cities in Wisconsin
Populated places established in 1837 | [
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260758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pewaukee%20%28village%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Pewaukee (village), Wisconsin | Pewaukee is a village in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 8,166 at the 2010 census. The village is nearly surrounded by the City of Pewaukee. The village was incorporated from what was formerly the Town of Pewaukee, and the remainder of the town later incorporated as a city.
History
The present-day village of Pewaukee was settled in about 1837 by the Deacon Asa Clark of Lunenburg, Vermont, when he erected a hotel, sawmill, and church in this location. Pewaukee became a town in the year 1840, and then a village later in 1876.
Pewaukee is constructed upon aki or (w)aukee, which means "land" or "location" in several Algonquian languages. The significance and outright etymology of the initial syllable of the name is uncertain. Sources in Ojibwe nibiwaki "watery (i.e., swampy) place", Potawatomi pee-wauk-ee-wee-nick "the dusty water" or "lake of shells", and Menominee pee-wau-nau-kee "place of flint" have been suggested, as well as rather less unclear attributed meanings such as "snail lake," "flinty place," and "clean land".
Geography
Pewaukee is located at (43.082659, -88.252842).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which, of it is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 8,166 people, 3,903 households, and 2,043 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 4,160 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 92.4% White, 1.1% African American, 0.2% Native American, 3.9% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.1% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.5% of the population.
There were 3,903 households, of which 24.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.0% were married couples living together, 8.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47.7% were non-families. 41.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.08 and the average family size was 2.87.
The median age in the village was 41.4 years. 20.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.8% were from 25 to 44; 28.5% were from 45 to 64; and 16.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 47.1% male and 52.9% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 8,170 people, 3,635 households, and 2,079 families living in the village. The population density was 1,986.2 people per square mile (767.5/km2). There were 3,761 housing units at an average density of 914.3/sq mi (353.3/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 96.19% White, 0.58% Black or African American, 0.22% Native American, 1.80% Asian, 0.35% from other races, and 0.86% from two or more races. 1.21% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 3,635 households, out of which 28.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.8% were non-families. 35.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.89.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 22.2% under the age of 18, 7.1% from 18 to 24, 37.3% from 25 to 44, 21.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.6 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $53,874, and the median income for a family was $66,940. Males had a median income of $43,284 versus $31,477 for females. The per capita income for the village was $26,656. About 1.2% of families and 2.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.5% of those under age 18 and 3.0% of those age 65 or over.
Business
The village of Pewaukee is home to one of the three locations of Dynex/Rivett Inc., a manufacturer of hydraulic components and systems. It was also home to Necco Stark, formerly Stark Candy Co. The Pewaukee candy location closed on May 30, 2008. Pewaukee is also the home of Logic Design Corporation, the developers of Global Edge Engineering and Manufacturing Software. Another business located in Pewaukee is PM Plastics, a custom injection molding company.
The village is home to the Old Main Street building on Wisconsin Avenue. Opened in 2002 across from the beach on Pewaukee Lake, Old Main Street replicates the charm of a late 1800s building with modern up to date facilities. It is the home of small businesses that include restaurants (Seesters and The Chocolate Factory), a salon, a bakery, a pilates/yoga/barre studio, a bead shop, a home builder, a construction management firm, a recruitment firm (Joel Frank & Associates), and a software company (Logic Design Corporation).
Education
Pewaukee School District serves both the village and the city of Pewaukee, Wisconsin.
The district includes four separate buildings all contained in a single-campus environment. The school buildings serve early childhood through 2nd grades, 3rd through 5th, 6th through 8th, and 9th through 12th grades.
WCTC's main campus is located in the village of Pewaukee, Wisconsin. The technical college is part of the 16 technical colleges that make up the Wisconsin Technical College System (WTCS). WCTC has a small but modern campus in Pewaukee within the heart of the lake country area. While Pewaukee is the main campus for WCTC it also has other location sites in Menomonee Falls and Waukesha, as well as about 15 center schools in the Waukesha County area.
See also
List of villages in Wisconsin
References
External links
Pewaukee School District official site
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1894 1899 1914
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Waukesha County, Wisconsin | [
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260759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pewaukee%2C%20Wisconsin | Pewaukee, Wisconsin | Pewaukee is a city in Waukesha County, Wisconsin. The population was 13,195 at the 2010 census. The Village of Pewaukee, which was incorporated out of the town before it incorporated as a city, is surrounded by the city.
The name of the city of Pewaukee comes from that of the name of the village, which is rather unclear in itself. Many names are given as to the etymology of the name.
History
The city of Pewaukee was incorporated in 1999, from the parts of the former Town of Pewaukee not included in the Village of Pewaukee.
The town had been established by an act of the Wisconsin Territorial Legislature approved January 13, 1840, eight years before Wisconsin gained statehood.
When voting took place to decide the county seat for Waukesha County, Waukesha beat out Pewaukee by two votes.
Geography
Pewaukee is located at (43.0614, -88.2495). It is located in the Lake Country area of Waukesha County.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 13,195 people, 5,410 households, and 3,883 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 5,767 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 94.3% White, 1.1% African American, 0.3% Native American, 2.6% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.1% of the population.
There were 5,410 households, of which 28.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.7% were married couples living together, 5.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 28.2% were non-families. 23.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.87.
The median age in the city was 45.3 years. 21.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 4.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23% were from 25 to 44; 34.2% were from 45 to 64; and 16.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.6% male and 51.4% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 11,783 people, 4,553 households, and 3,496 families residing in the city. The population density was 541.3 people per square mile (209.0/km2). There were 4,761 housing units at an average density of 218.7 per square mile (84.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.22% White, 0.35% Black or African American, 0.08% Native American, 1.07% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.44% from other races, and 0.84% from two or more races. Some 1.30% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Approximately 31.5% of households had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.2% were living together, 5.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.2% were non-families. About 17.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 2.93.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 23.1% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 29.6% from 25 to 44, 30.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $75,589, and the median income for a family was $80,163. Males had a median income of $55,810 versus $35,320 for females. The per capita income for the city was $34,851. About 0.6% of families and 1.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.0% of those under age 18 and 2.3% of those age 65 or over.
Business
Pewaukee is the world headquarters of Harken, Inc., a manufacturer of sailboat and yacht gear sold worldwide, especially in the racing segment.
Education
Made up of four separate schools on one campus that encompass early childhood to the 12th grade, Pewaukee Schools surround a central parking lot ornamented with trees and grass. There are two gymnasiums in the high school, two in Horizon Elementary, and one in each of the other school buildings. The district has one football field with a track surrounding it and a soccer field. Pewaukee Lake Elementary school serves students from early childhood to 2nd grade. Horizon Elementary encompasses grades 3 through 5. Asa Clark Middle School educates the 6th through 8th grades. Pewaukee High School (PHS) is the high school, serving grades 9 through 12.
Pewaukee is also home to one Roman Catholic grade school: St. Anthony on the Lake. This educational institution serves students in kindergarten through 8th grade.
Waukesha County Technical College (WCTC), part of the Wisconsin Technical College System (WTCS), has a main campus located in Pewaukee.
Religion
The city is home to one of the largest churches in the Milwaukee area, Spring Creek Church. The Hindu Temple of Wisconsin is also located in the Village of Pewaukee. Other churches include Christ Evangelical Lutheran Church, Shepherd of the Hills Lutheran Church, Fox River Congregational Church, St. Anthony on the Lake Catholic Church, Gethsemane United Methodist Church, Crossroads Church, Galilee Lutheran Church, St. Bartholomew Episcopal Church, Joy Christian Fellowship Church, and Queen of Apostles Catholic Church.
Pewaukee Area Historical Society
The Clark House Museum, located in the Village of Pewaukee, was originally a stage coach inn on the Watertown Plank Road that ran from Milwaukee to Watertown. The inn was built by Mosely Clark, the son of Pewaukee's first settler, Asa Clark. The Clark House remained in the Clark family until the death of Marietta Clark Larson, great-granddaughter of Asa, in 1984. In 1992 the Pewaukee Area Historical Society purchased the property.
The museum displays include an exhibits on Native American settlement with emphasis on the Potawatomi and Waukesha Beach, a popular amusement park on the shore of Pewaukee Lake. Pictures and artifacts portray a way of life from the early 1900s in the village and city. The exhibit building on the Clark House grounds, opened in 2007, houses larger artifacts, including farm machinery and a mail wagon.
Notable people
James R. Barnett, Wisconsin legislator
Walter G. Caldwell, Wisconsin legislator
Howard Engle (1919–2009), physician and lead plaintiff in a landmark lawsuit against the tobacco industry
Elihu Enos, Wisconsin educator and legislator
Margaret Farrow, Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin
Ody J. Fish, Chairman of the Republican Party of Wisconsin
Benjamin F. Goss, legislator
Chauncey G. Heath, Wisconsin legislator
David Koepp, filmmaker
Chris McIntosh NFL player
Charles Henry Morgan, U.S. Representative from Missouri
Adam Neylon, Wisconsin legislator and business owner
Jessica Powers, Carmelite nun and author
Alvin J. Redford, Wisconsin legislator and sheriff
John C. Schafer, U.S. Representative
Kevin R. Slates, U.S. Navy admiral
William Henry Washburn, Wisconsin legislator
Derek Watt, fullback for the Pittsburgh Steelers
J. J. Watt, defensive end for the Arizona Cardinals
T. J. Watt, linebacker for the Pittsburgh Steelers
Media
Pewaukee, Wisconsin was referenced on the season 5 premiere of House M.D., "Dying Changes Everything". The powerful autoregressive language model AI GPT-3 has determined that "Sleeping in the rafters of a converted bus in Pewaukee Wisconsin," is an excellent April-Fool's Day prank.
See also
List of cities in Wisconsin
References
External links
Around the Corner with John McGivern -- Pewaukee Video produced by Milwaukee PBS
Cities in Wisconsin
Cities in Waukesha County, Wisconsin
Populated places established in 1999
1999 establishments in Wisconsin
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260760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waukesha%20%28village%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Waukesha (village), Wisconsin | Waukesha is a village in Waukesha County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 9,133 at the 2010 census. The City of Waukesha is located adjacent to the village.
History
Originally part of the Town of Muskego, the Town of Prairie Village (soon renamed Prairieville) was named after the Native American settlement in that area. The town was renamed in 1847, soon after the new Waukesha County was created from the western portion of Milwaukee County. On January 10, 1852, the settled area once known as Prairieville was separated from the Town of Waukesha, and incorporated as the village (later the city) of Waukesha. The remainder of the town continued to bear the name as well (as is customary in Wisconsin).
On May 12, 2020, the former town of Waukesha incorporated as a village following a referendum where residents voted 9-to-1 in favor of incorporation. The City of Waukesha sued, challenging the legality of the incorporation.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 23.0 square miles (59.5 km2), of which, 22.9 square miles (59.3 km2) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.3 km2) of it (0.44%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 8,596 people, 2,891 households, and 2,494 families residing in the town. The population density was 375.8 people per square mile (145.1/km2). There were 2,945 housing units at an average density of 128.7 per square mile (49.7/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.17% White, 0.28% Black or African American, 0.12% Native American, 1.12% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.70% from other races, and 0.56% from two or more races. 2.00% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 2,891 households, out of which 42.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 79.2% were married couples living together, 5.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 13.7% were non-families. 11.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.97 and the average family size was 3.23.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 29.6% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 28.1% from 25 to 44, 28.0% from 45 to 64, and 8.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.9 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $73,984, and the median income for a family was $77,762. Males had a median income of $54,202 versus $31,968 for females. The per capita income for the town was $27,861. About 0.5% of families and 0.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.1% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
Silas Barber, Wisconsin State Representative.
Paul Hamm and Morgan Hamm, Olympic gymnasts, who were born in Washburn, Wisconsin, grew up in the village.
Joe Schobert, linebacker for the Cleveland Browns.
References
External links
Village of Waukesha website
Villages in Waukesha County, Wisconsin
Villages in Wisconsin | [
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260762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremont%2C%20Waupaca%20County%2C%20Wisconsin | Fremont, Waupaca County, Wisconsin | Fremont is a town in Waupaca County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 632 at the 2000 census. The village of Fremont is located within the town. The unincorporated community of Red Banks is located in the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 20.1 square miles (52.0 km). 19.1 square miles (49.4 km) of it is land and 1.0 square miles (2.6 km) of it (4.94%) is water.
Demographics
At the 2000 census there were 632 people, 238 households, and 182 families in the town. The population density was 33.1 inhabitants per square mile (12.8/km). There were 278 housing units at an average density of 14.6 per square mile (5.6/km). The racial makeup of the town was 99.84% White and 0.16% Native American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.32%.
Of the 238 households 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.3% were married couples living together, 2.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.5% were non-families. 17.2% of households were one person and 9.2% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.01.
The age distribution was 24.2% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 26.1% from 25 to 44, 26.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.0% 65 or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106.5 males.
The median household income was $43,472 and the median family income was $49,000. Males had a median income of $40,139 versus $25,000 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,028. About 2.3% of families and 6.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.2% of those under age 18 and 6.7% of those age 65 or over.
References
External links
Waupaca County History and Genealogical Website
Towns in Waupaca County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremont%2C%20Wisconsin | Fremont, Wisconsin | Fremont is a village in Waupaca County, Wisconsin, United States. It is surrounded by Town of Fremont. The population was 679 at the 2010 census. Fremont has been referred to as the "White Bass Capital of the World."
History
This area is of the traditional home of the Menominee and Potawatomi peoples. In the Menominee language it is known as Penāēwīkoh, "partridge place". It was ceded by the Menominee to the United States in the 1836 Treaty of the Cedars, following years of negotiations between the Menominee, Ho-Chunk, and United States over how to accommodate the Oneida, Stockbridge-Munsee, and Brothertown peoples who were being removed from New York to Wisconsin. The Potawatomi had been forced to cede all of their lands in Wisconsin in 1833 due to poverty and in spite of their support of the United States in the Black Hawk War.
Now that the United States owned the land, white American settlement could begin in Penāēwīkoh. The Town of Fremont was first settled in the spring of 1849 by D. Gordon. The first paper published was the Fremont Pioneer in 1857. The first church (Presbyterian) was built in 1873. The village of Fremont was organized in 1888.
The story of the "Death of Wau-Ke-John", a war chief of the Menominee, takes place in the summer of 1852 as reported by W. A. Springer "who was in the neighborhood ... and was present at the funeral".
Geography
Fremont is located at (44.261991, -88.870059).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which, of it is land and is water.
Wolf River
The Wolf River flows through the middle of the village, with Partridge Lake just upriver. A spawning run of white bass, or sand bass (Morone chrysops), not to be confused with its larger cousin the "striped bass," occurs twice a year - in May around Mother's Day and in late September to early October. Lake sturgeon from Lake Winnebago travel upriver to the Fremont area in spring to spawn. Fremont is known as "the white bass capital of the world".
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 679 people, 305 households, and 200 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 408 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 98.7% White, 0.1% African American, 0.4% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.1% from other races, and 0.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.1% of the population.
There were 305 households, of which 27.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.1% were married couples living together, 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.4% were non-families. 29.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.72.
The median age in the village was 43.2 years. 20.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.3% were from 25 to 44; 29.7% were from 45 to 64; and 19.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 51.0% male and 49.0% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 666 people, 302 households, and 189 families living in the village. The population density was 637.2 people per square mile (244.9/km2). There were 406 housing units at an average density of 388.4 per square mile (149.3/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 98.80% White, 0.15% Black or African American, 0.15% Native American, 0.15% from other races, and 0.75% from two or more races. 1.05% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 302 households, out of which 22.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.6% were married couples living together, 5.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% were non-families. 30.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.76.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 18.9% under the age of 18, 8.4% from 18 to 24, 29.7% from 25 to 44, 24.8% from 45 to 64, and 18.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.8 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $41,250, and the median income for a family was $51,111. Males had a median income of $37,019 versus $24,375 for females. The per capita income for the village was $20,430. About 5.0% of families and 7.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.0% of those under age 18 and 13.8% of those age 65 or over.
Education
The Fremont Elementary School, which serves grades PreK-5, on immediately east of the U.S. Post Office, is part of the Weyauwega-Fremont School District.
St. John’s Lutheran School is a Christian school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Fremont.
Notable people
Emil H. Steiger, Wisconsin State Representative and businessman, was born in Fremont.
References
External links
Waupaca County History and Genealogical Website
Fremont Area Chamber of Commerce
Villages in Wisconsin
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260764 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iola%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Iola (town), Wisconsin | Iola is a town in Waupaca County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 818 at the 2000 census. The Village of Iola is located partially within the town. The ghost town of Petersville was also located in the town.
Every Wednesday though Saturday after fourth of July weekend Iola has a car show. Over 12,000 people go.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 34.5 square miles (89.3 km2), of which 33.6 square miles (87.1 km2) is land and 0.8 square miles (2.2 km2; 2.44%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 818 people, 328 households, and 245 families residing in the town. The population density was 24.3 people per square mile (9.4/km2). There were 455 housing units at an average density of 13.5 per square mile (5.2/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.53% White, 0.12% Native American, 0.12% Asian, 0.24% of other races, and 0.98% of two or more races. 1.10% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 328 households, out of which 30.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.2% were married couples living together, 4.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.3% were non-families. 21.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.91.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.2% under the age of 18, 3.2% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 28.6% from 45 to 64, and 14.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.0 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $44,375, and the median income for a family was $52,031. Males had a median income of $39,773 versus $23,875 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,952. None of the families and 1.7% of the population were living below the poverty line, including no people under eighteen and 8.9% of those over 64.
References
Towns in Waupaca County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iola%2C%20Wisconsin | Iola, Wisconsin | Iola is a village in Waupaca County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,301 at the 2010 census. The village is bordered by the towns of Iola and Scandinavia. The community was named after a Potawatomi girl.
Geography
Iola is located at (44.507951, -89.128661).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,301 people, 590 households, and 341 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 677 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 98.5% White, 0.2% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.2% of other races, and 0.7% of two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.2% of the population.
There were 590 households, of which 23.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.7% were married couples living together, 12.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 42.2% were non-families. 37.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.77.
The median age in the village was 46.8 years. 19.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.1% were from 25 to 44; 25.9% were from 45 to 64; and 26.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 46.3% male and 53.7% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,298 people, 567 households, and 329 families living in the village. The population density was 757.1 people per square mile (293.1/km2). There were 618 housing units at an average density of 360.5 per square mile (139.5/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 98.07% White, 0.23% Black or African American, 0.08% Native American, 0.23% Asian, 0.23% of other races, and 1.16% of two or more races. 1.31% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 567 households, out of which 25.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.9% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.8% were non-families. 36.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.87.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 22.7% under the age of 18, 5.1% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 21.2% from 45 to 64, and 25.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 82.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.3 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $32,829, and the median income for a family was $45,859. Males had a median income of $32,424 versus $22,031 for females. The per capita income for the village was $17,778. About 4.0% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.0% of those under age 18 and 8.5% of those age 65 or over.
Transportation
Economy
Iola hosts the annual Iola Old Car Show.
For years Iola was the home of Krause Publications, a company that has published books for numismatics and other hobbies since March 1972. The Sports Collectors Digest is also published in Iola. Krause Publications was purchased by F + W Publications, which continued to operate it in Iola under the F + W name until the spring of 2018, when F + W Publications moved to Stevens Point, Wis.
Notable residents
Dave Krieg, NFL quarterback; born in Iola
Austen Lane, National Football League defensive end; born in Iola
Joseph Leean, Wisconsin State Senator; born in Iola
Albert L. Osborn, Wisconsin State Representative; born in Iola
Barney S. Peterson, Wisconsin State Representative; lived in Iola
Herman J. Severson, Wisconsin State Senator and jurist; lived in Iola
Chester L. Krause, founder of Krause Publications
Clifford Mishler, numismatist and author, former American Numismatic Association President
Tim Polasek, football coach; born in Iola
Kristian Welch, National Football League linebacker; born in Iola
References
External links
Iola-Scandinavia Chamber of Commerce
Iola Public Library
Sanborn fire insurance map: 1911
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Waupaca County, Wisconsin | [
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260766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia%2C%20Wisconsin | Scandinavia, Wisconsin | Scandinavia is a village in the Town of Scandinavia in Waupaca County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 328 at the 2010 census.
Geography
Scandinavia is located at (44.461513, -89.148659).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which, of it is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 363 people, 147 households, and 97 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 166 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 97.2% White, 0.6% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.7% from other races, and 0.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.2% of the population.
There were 147 households, of which 32.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.6% were married couples living together, 13.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.0% were non-families. 27.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 2.97.
The median age in the village was 36.5 years. 25.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.4% were from 25 to 44; 25.9% were from 45 to 64; and 13.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 349 people, 137 households, and 90 families living in the village. The population density was 404.8 people per square mile (156.7/km2). There were 152 housing units at an average density of 176.3 per square mile (68.2/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 98.57% White, 0.29% Black or African American and 1.15% Native American. 0.00% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 137 households, out of which 35.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.2% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.6% were non-families. 29.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.16.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 29.5% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 32.4% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.2 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $42,500, and the median income for a family was $48,125. Males had a median income of $36,339 versus $19,821 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,730. About 10.1% of families and 9.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.1% of those under age 18 and 24.5% of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
Theodore Holtebeck, Wisconsin State Representative and businessman, lived in Scandinavia before moving to West Bend, Wisconsin.
Jonas Swenholt, Wisconsin State Representative and businessman, lived in Scandivania.
References
External links
Scandinavia Public Library-Village of Scandinavia information
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Waupaca County, Wisconsin | [
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260767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Scandinavia (town), Wisconsin | Scandinavia is a town in Waupaca County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,075 at the 2000 census. The Village of Scandinavia is located within the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 34.2 square miles (88.7 km2), of which, 33.8 square miles (87.5 km2) of it is land and 0.4 square miles (1.2 km2) of it (1.31%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,075 people, 394 households, and 312 families residing in the town. The population density was 31.8 people per square mile (12.3/km2). There were 479 housing units at an average density of 14.2 per square mile (5.5/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.14% White, 0.19% Native American, 0.28% Asian, 0.09% Pacific Islander, 0.09% from other races, and 1.21% from two or more races. 0.47% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 394 households, out of which 35.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.3% were married couples living together, 5.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.6% were non-families. 15.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.72 and the average family size was 3.02.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.0% under the age of 18, 5.1% from 18 to 24, 26.6% from 25 to 44, 29.7% from 45 to 64, and 12.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 109.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106.0 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $50,882, and the median income for a family was $54,861. Males had a median income of $44,271 versus $21,288 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,166. About 1.6% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 9.7% of those age 65 or over.
References
Towns in Waupaca County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waupaca%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Waupaca (town), Wisconsin | Waupaca is a town in Waupaca County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,155 at the 2000 census. The City of Waupaca is located mostly within the town, though it is politically independent. The ghost town of Granite Quarry was also located partially in the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 30.9 square miles (79.9 km2), of which 30.8 square miles (79.7 km2) is land and 0.1 square miles (0.2 km2) (0.29%) is water.
Demographics
At the 2000 census, there were 1,155 people, 417 households and 328 families residing in the town. The population density was 37.5 per square mile (14.5/km2). There were 448 housing units at an average density of 14.6 per square mile (5.6/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.01% White, 0.09% Black or African American, 0.52% Native American, 0.26% Asian, 0.09% Pacific Islander, 0.17% from other races, and 0.87% from two or more races. 0.52% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 417 households, of which 36.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 71.9% were married couples living together, 3.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.3% were non-families. 15.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.11.
28.1% of the population were under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 28.5% from 25 to 44, 26.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 111.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.9 males.
The median household income was $46,667 and the median family income was $52,222. Males had a median income of $31,534 and females $22,450. The per capita income was $19,843. About 4.7% of families and 6.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.1% of those under age 18 and 1.4% of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
Gerald K. Anderson- Wisconsin State Assembly legislator
Annie Burgstede, actress
Arthur J. Plowman, farmer and politician, was born in the town.
References
Towns in Waupaca County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waupaca%2C%20Wisconsin | Waupaca, Wisconsin | Waupaca is a city in and the county seat of Waupaca County in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. The population was 6,069 at the 2010 census.
The city is located mostly within the Town of Waupaca, and it is politically independent of the town. A portion extends west into the adjacent Town of Farmington, and there is also a noncontiguous area of the city in the Town of Lind to the south. The city is divided into natural areas, city areas, and industrial areas.
History
Native American mound builders lived in the area prior to European settlement. At one time there were 72 earthwork mounds in the area, some of them ancient prehistoric works.
“Waupaca” is an Menominee word, Wāpahkoh, which means Place of Tomorrow Seen Clearly. For more than 10,000 years, the Menominee occupied about 10 million acres, including Waupaca and the Chain O’Lakes area. The Menominee in the Waupaca area moved between large villages on Taylor and Otter Lakes and camps along the falls on the Waupaca River.
In a series of seven treaties, the Menominee ceded their lands to the United States. The final treaty, in 1848, relinquished the last of the Menominee’s land, which included Waupaca.
The first white settlers, five men from Vermont, came to Waupaca looking for “the falls” in 1849. The settlers made camp near the end of what is now North Main Street with plans to harness the power of the falls and establish a community.
By 1852, a post office had been established and the settlement was officially named Waupaca. Waupaca was incorporated as a village on May 4, 1857 by an act of the Wisconsin State Legislature. This act was repealed on April 7, 1862, but revived on June 17 of the same year. Waupaca was incorporated as a city by the legislature on March 5, 1875.
Beginning in the 1960s and continuing to the present, the city has expanded its population and area through annexation.
Geography
Waupaca is located at (44.354922, -89.081775).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.
Transportation
From 1899 to 1926, streetcar service was provided by the Waupaca Electric Light and Railway Company.
Airport
KPCZ - Waupaca Municipal Airport
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 6,069 people, 2,702 households, and 1,356 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 2,996 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 96.6% White, 0.9% African American, 0.7% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 1.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.3% of the population.
There were 2,702 households, of which 25.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.9% were married couples living together, 10.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 49.8% were non-families. 42.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.10 and the average family size was 2.92.
The median age in the city was 40.1 years. 22.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.7% were from 25 to 44; 24.6% were from 45 to 64; and 20.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.5% male and 52.5% female.
2000 census
At the 2000 census, there were 5,676 people, 2,364 households and 1,302 families residing in the city. The population density was 947.0 per square mile (365.9/km2). There were 2,543 housing units at an average density of 424.3 per square mile (163.9/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.26% White, 0.33% Black or African American, 0.86% Native American, 0.25% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.39% from other races, and 0.88% from two or more races. 3.42% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 2,364 households, of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.5% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.9% were non-families. 38.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 3.01.
Age distribution was 25.4% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 27.0% from 25 to 44, 17.9% from 45 to 64, and 20.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.9 males.
The median household income was $31,095, and the median family income was $45,128. Males had a median income of $32,488 versus $21,651 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,890. About 7.1% of families and 10.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.9% of those under age 18 and 12.0% of those age 65 or over.
Business and industry
Waupaca Foundry is the largest employer in the city, employing over 1500 workers in three plants in or around the city. Most of the employees live within of the city. Gusmer Enterprises, Inc., with a manufacturing plant on Ware Street, produces products for the food and beverage, industrial and pharmaceutical markets.
Notable people
Edward E. Browne, United States Representative
Edward L. Browne, legislator
Daniel F. Burnham, legislator
George H. Calkins, legislator and physician
Clarence Ekstrom, U.S. Navy Vice Admiral
Fred R. Fisher, legislator
Robert Frederick Froehlke, lawyer and government official
Edwin J. Larson, legislator
Alfred R. Lea, legislator
Reid F. Murray, United States Representative
Clay Perry, writer, coined the word "spelunker"
Kevin David Petersen, legislator
Richard E. Peterson, legislator, lawyer
Myron Reed, legislator, lawyer
Lyall Schwarzkopf, Minnesota state legislator
Milan H. Sessions, legislator, lawyer
Joseph H. Woodnorth, legislator
Sister cities
Waupaca has two sister cities:
Hochheim am Main, Germany
Mitoyo, Japan
Images
See also
Waupaca Railroad Depot
References
Further reading
Dewey, Freeman Dana. Early History of Waupaca, Wis.. 1887.
External links
Waupaca Historical Society
City of Waupaca
Waupaca Area Chamber of Commerce
Waupaca Area Public Library
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1885 1891 1895 1901 1909
Cities in Wisconsin
Cities in Waupaca County, Wisconsin
County seats in Wisconsin | [
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260770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyauwega%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Weyauwega (town), Wisconsin | Weyauwega is a town in Waupaca County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 627 at the 2000 census. The City of Weyauwega is located mostly within the town, though it is politically independent. The unincorporated communities of Evanswood and Gills Landing are also located in the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 21.8 square miles (56.4 km2), of which, 19.9 square miles (51.5 km2) of it is land and 1.9 square miles (4.9 km2) of it (8.72%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 627 people, 226 households, and 185 families residing in the town. The population density was 31.5 people per square mile (12.2/km2). There were 262 housing units at an average density of 13.2 per square mile (5.1/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.61% White, 0.16% Black or African American, 0.80% Native American, 0.16% Pacific Islander, and 1.28% from two or more races. 0.80% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 226 households, out of which 41.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.9% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.1% were non-families. 15.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.09.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 29.2% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 28.1% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 12.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.0 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $46,442, and the median income for a family was $48,875. Males had a median income of $36,250 versus $23,333 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,844. About 3.8% of families and 4.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.1% of those under age 18 and 9.8% of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
Robert Bloch, writer
Louis Bostedo, politician
Eliada W. Brown, politician
Olin B. Lewis, politician
Lorenzo L. Post, politician
See also
Weyauwega derailment (railroad accident) of March 4, 1996
References
Towns in Waupaca County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260771 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyauwega%2C%20Wisconsin | Weyauwega, Wisconsin | Weyauwega is a city in Waupaca County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,900 at the 2010 census. The city is located mostly within the Town of Weyauwega, though it is politically independent of the town. Small portions extend north into the adjacent Town of Royalton. The city is commonly referred to as "Wega" by local residents. The name "Weyauwega" ( ) means "Here we rest" because the town's origin was a stopping/resting point between two rivers when Native Americans had to portage their canoes. A fur trader built a small building at the location, from which the town later grew.
Geography
Weyauwega is located at (44.322, -88.933).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,900 people, 746 households, and 473 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 815 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 96.4% White, 0.3% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.6% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.1% of the population.
There were 746 households, of which 33.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.4% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 7.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36.6% were non-families. 29.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.98.
The median age in the city was 38.2 years. 25.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.9% were from 25 to 44; 23.7% were from 45 to 64; and 17.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.7% male and 50.3% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,806 people, 720 households, and 460 families living in the city. The population density was 1,201.7 people per square mile (464.9/km2). There were 763 housing units at an average density of 507.7 per square mile (196.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.84% White, 0.39% Black or African American, 0.22% Native American, 0.17% Asian, 0.28% from other races, and 1.11% from two or more races. 0.94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 720 households, out of which 31.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.4% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.0% were non-families. 29.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.98.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.3% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 29.0% from 25 to 44, 18.9% from 45 to 64, and 19.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $34,556, and the median income for a family was $42,067. Males had a median income of $32,073 versus $22,609 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,755. About 3.8% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.7% of those under age 18 and 11.5% of those age 65 or over.
Transportation
Weyauwega is located on Wisconsin Highway 110. U.S. Route 10 and Wisconsin Highway 49 are located just south and west of the city. The Yellowstone Trail ran through the city, and its former route is denoted by signs through the downtown and northern portions of the city.
Education
Weyauwega is served by the Weyauwega-Fremont School District, which has an enrollment of about 963 students. The district has a high school, a middle school, and two elementary schools, one in Weyauwega and another in nearby Fremont, Wisconsin.
St. Peter Lutheran School is a 3K-8 grade school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Weyauwega.
History
Weyauwega has been host to the annual event Horse and Buggy Days since 1961. The event celebrates the past significance of the horse and buggy in the community. The event is presented by the Weyauwega Chamber of Commerce and features a parade, music and other activities.
The Waupaca County Fair has been held in Weyauwega since 1874 at the Waupaca County Fairgrounds at the East end of the City of Weyauwega.
Notable people
Albert V. Balch, Wisconsin State Representative
Lyman E. Barnes, U.S. Representative from Wisconsin
Benjamin P. Birdsall, U.S. Representative from Iowa
Robert Bloch, Author of the 1959 novel Psycho
Mark Block, Chief of Staff for the Herman Cain 2012 presidential campaign
Eliada W. Brown, member of the Wisconsin State Assembly
George de Rue Meiklejohn, U.S. Representative from Nebraska
Sona (Hunter) Mehring, Founder of CaringBridge
George S. Merry, South Dakota State Representative
William E. Merry, South Dakota state legislator
Hallie H. Rowe, member of the Wisconsin State Assembly
See also
Weyauwega derailment (railroad accident) of March 4, 1996
References
External links
Weyauwega Chamber of Commerce
Weyauwega Public Library
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1894 1901 1909 1917
Cities in Wisconsin
Cities in Waupaca County, Wisconsin | [
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260772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloma%2C%20Wisconsin | Coloma, Wisconsin | Coloma is a village in Waushara County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 450 at the 2010 census. The village is located within the Town of Coloma. Coloma is home of the annual Coloma Chicken Chew, held at the end of June.
History
The Coloma area was first settled in 1849 by John Drake and a man named Stowe. Stowe stole lumber Drake left in the area when Drake had to leave due to a family illness. Stowe built a tavern with the timber, leaving Drake to build his tavern out of rough hewn logs.
By 1875, the area was known as Ross Corners, after the local postmaster. A railroad between Stevens Point and Portage was soon built, coming through four miles to the east at a spot called Coloma Station. The post office was moved from Ross Corners to Coloma Station, and Ross Corners soon became known as Coloma Corners.
Geography
Coloma is located at (44.033421, -89.521077).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all of it land.
Glover Bluff crater, a meteor crater, is located about 4 miles south of Coloma.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 450 people, 184 households, and 120 families residing in the village. The population density was . There were 214 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 100.0% White. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.9% of the population.
There were 184 households, of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 8.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.8% were non-families. 29.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 2.94.
The median age in the village was 39.6 years. 26% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.9% were from 25 to 44; 25.1% were from 45 to 64; and 19.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 50.2% male and 49.8% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 461 people, 185 households, and 128 families residing in the village. The population density was 433.7 people per square mile (167.9/km2). There were 197 housing units at an average density of 185.3 per square mile (71.8/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 99.35% White, 0.22% Pacific Islander, 0.22% from other races, and 0.22% from two or more races. 3.04% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 185 households, out of which 31.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.8% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.8% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.95.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 24.1% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 21.3% from 45 to 64, and 20.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.6 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $33,295, and the median income for a family was $38,542. Males had a median income of $30,350 versus $18,214 for females. The per capita income for the village was $14,766. About 11.9% of families and 16.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.5% of those under age 18 and 18.2% of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
Hellen M. Brooks, educator and Wisconsin State Representative, lived in Coloma.
Thomas Fearne, farmer and Wisconsin State Senator, lived in Coloma.
Frank Ploetz, farmer, businessman, and Wisconsin State Representative, lived in Coloma.
Hiram W. Roblier, Wisconsin State Representative, lived in Coloma.
Images
References
External links
Visit Coloma
Coloma Public Library website
Coloma Area Historical Society
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Waushara County, Wisconsin | [
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260773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloma%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Coloma (town), Wisconsin | Coloma is a town in Waushara County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 748 at the 2000 census. The Village of Coloma is located within the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 33.3 square miles (86.2 km2), of which, 33.1 square miles (85.7 km2) of it is land and 0.2 square miles (0.5 km2) of it (0.60%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 748 people, 254 households, and 195 families residing in the town. The population density was 22.6 people per square mile (8.7/km2). There were 500 housing units at an average density of 15.1 per square mile (5.8/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.59% White, 0.13% Black or African American, 1.20% from other races, and 1.07% from two or more races. 3.61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 254 households, out of which 25.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.9% were married couples living together, 5.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.2% were non-families. 19.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.88.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 19.8% under the age of 18, 4.4% from 18 to 24, 20.6% from 25 to 44, 29.8% from 45 to 64, and 25.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.9 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $36,406, and the median income for a family was $39,118. Males had a median income of $35,069 versus $21,786 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,290. About 3.3% of families and 12.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.9% of those under age 18 and 21.2% of those age 65 or over.
References
Towns in Waushara County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hancock%2C%20Wisconsin | Hancock, Wisconsin | Hancock is a village in Waushara County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 417 at the 2010 census. The village is located within the Town of Hancock.
Geography
Hancock is located at (44.132203, -89.515344).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which of it is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 417 people, 186 households, and 107 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 251 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 94.2% White, 0.5% African American, 0.2% Asian, 4.1% from other races, and 1.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11.0% of the population.
There were 186 households, of which 26.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.0% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 42.5% were non-families. 33.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.88.
The median age in the village was 45.2 years. 20.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.1% were from 25 to 44; 30% were from 45 to 64; and 20.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 463 people, 193 households, and 121 families living in the village. The population density was 423.3 people per square mile (164.0/km2). There were 254 housing units at an average density of 232.2 per square mile (90.0/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 92.22% White, 1.08% Native American, 0.22% Asian, 4.32% from other races, and 2.16% from two or more races. 8.64% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 193 households, out of which 30.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.7% were married couples living together, 8.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.8% were non-families. 30.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.01.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 26.8% under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 20.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.0 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $35,341, and the median income for a family was $36,250. Males had a median income of $31,250 versus $21,500 for females. The per capita income for the village was $14,889. About 5.7% of families and 9.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.4% of those under age 18 and 15.5% of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
Eleanor Fitzgerald, editor and theater professional.
Flora E. Lowry (1879–1933), American anthologist
James Franklin Wiley, Wisconsin State Senator.
References
External links
Hancock Public Library
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Waushara County, Wisconsin | [
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260776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hancock%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Hancock (town), Wisconsin | Hancock founded in 1850 is a town in Waushara County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 531 at the 2000 census. The Village of Hancock is located within the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 33.8 square miles (87.4 km2), of which, 33.5 square miles (86.6 km2) of it is land and 0.3 square miles (0.8 km2) of it (0.89%) is water. Hancock lies off of Interstate 39 on County Highway V.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 531 people, 211 households, and 147 families residing in the town. The population density was 15.9 people per square mile (6.1/km2). There were 384 housing units at an average density of 11.5 per square mile (4.4/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 96.80% White, 0.38% Native American, 0.38% Asian, 2.26% from other races, and 0.19% from two or more races. 4.71% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 211 households, out of which 23.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.6% were married couples living together, 4.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.9% were non-families. 24.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.04.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.2% under the age of 18, 4.1% from 18 to 24, 23.2% from 25 to 44, 32.2% from 45 to 64, and 15.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 109.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.6 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $43,889, and the median income for a family was $45,556. Males had a median income of $32,250 versus $20,500 for females. The per capita income for the town was $18,345. None of the families and 3.7% of the population were living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 8.1% of those over 64.
References
External links
Fish Lake Management District
Towns in Waushara County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainfield%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Plainfield (town), Wisconsin | Plainfield is a town in Waushara County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 533 at the 2000 census. The village of Plainfield is surrounded by the town. The ghost town of West Plainfield (still the present day site of the Town of Plainfield town hall) is located in the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 34.0 square miles (88.0 km2), of which, 34.0 square miles (87.9 km2) of it is land and 0.03% is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 533 people, 198 households, and 146 families residing in the town. The population density was 15.7 people per square mile (6.1/km2). There were 230 housing units at an average density of 6.8 per square mile (2.6/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 96.62% White, 0.19% Asian, 3.00% from other races, and 0.19% from two or more races. 9.76% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 198 households, out of which 34.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.6% were married couples living together, 6.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.8% were non-families. 19.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.69 and the average family size was 3.10.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 28.1% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 26.6% from 25 to 44, 25.1% from 45 to 64, and 12.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 115.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.3 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $38,462, and the median income for a family was $41,406. Males had a median income of $32,000 versus $19,861 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,432. About 9.1% of families and 11.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.5% of those under age 18 and 5.2% of those age 65 or over.
References
Towns in Waushara County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainfield%2C%20Wisconsin | Plainfield, Wisconsin | Plainfield is a village in Waushara County, Wisconsin, United States. The village is located almost entirely within the Town of Plainfield. A tiny portion extends into adjacent Town of Oasis. The population was 897 at the 2010 census.
History
When first settled in 1848, the area was called Norwich. Elijah C. Waterman laid out the village in 1849, building mills and attracting new settlers by offering free lots. Waterman later became the village's first postmaster, and changed the name to honor his hometown of Plainfield, Vermont.
Geography
Plainfield is located at (44.211943, -89.492803). According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all of it land.
Demographics
2010 census
At the 2010 census there were 862 people, 315 households, and 223 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 371 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 90.5% White, 0.3% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 7.3% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 18.0%.
Of the 315 households 39.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.2% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29.2% were non-families. 26.7% of households were one person and 12.1% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.74 and the average family size was 3.35.
The median age in the village was 34.4 years. 29.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.2% were from 25 to 44; 24.2% were from 45 to 64; and 12.1% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.
2000 census
At the 2000 census there were 899 people, 342 households, and 230 families living in the village. The population density was 692.9 people per square mile (267.0/km). There were 373 housing units at an average density of 287.5 per square mile (110.8/km). The racial makup of the village was 92.21% White, 0.11% Black or African American, 1.11% Asian, 6.23% from other races, and 0.33% from two or more races. Some 17.91% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Of the 342 households 34.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.3% were married couples living together, 12.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.5% were non-families. About 28.7% of households were one person and 14.6% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.19.
The age distribution was 28.9% under the age of 18, 9.0% from 18 to 24, 28.4% from 25 to 44, 18.7% from 45 to 64, and 15.0% 65 or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.6 males.
The median household income was $36,328 and the median family income was $43,977. Males had a median income of $29,688 versus $19,750 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,563. About 8.0% of families and 11.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.2% of those under age 18 and 14.0% of those age 65 or over.
Culture
Parts of the Werner Herzog film Stroszek were shot nearby.
Notable people
Sherman Bardwell, Wisconsin State Assembly
Charles A. Beggs, Wisconsin State assembly
Lyall Beggs, Wisconsin State Assembly
Ed Gein, murderer and body snatcher, lived in Plainfield.
Frances Hamerstrom, naturalist and author, lived in Plainfield.
Byron Storm, Wisconsin State Assembly
John Youngs, Wisconsin State Assembly
See also
List of villages in Wisconsin
References
External links
The Plainfield, Wisconsin Public Library
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1894 1901 1908 1914
Villages in Wisconsin
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260779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wautoma%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Wautoma (town), Wisconsin | Wautoma is a town in Waushara County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,312 at the 2000 census.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 34.1 square miles (88.3 km2), of which, 33.9 square miles (87.9 km2) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.4 km2) of it (0.41%) is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,312 people, 523 households, and 380 families residing in the town. The population density was 38.7 people per square mile (14.9/km2). There were 603 housing units at an average density of 17.8 per square mile (6.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 96.95% White, 0.30% Black or African American, 0.15% Native American, 0.84% Asian, 1.07% from other races, and 0.69% from two or more races. 2.82% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 523 households, out of which 27.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.1% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.3% were non-families. 22.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 2.88.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 22.5% under the age of 18, 5.6% from 18 to 24, 25.0% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 19.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.4 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $39,185, and the median income for a family was $44,063. Males had a median income of $36,012 versus $23,500 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,981. About 5.3% of families and 9.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.6% of those under age 18 and 19.3% of those age 65 or over.
References
Further reading
Gruhlke, Verna King. Small Town Wisconsin. Wisconsin House, LTD: Madison, Wisconsin. 1977.
Towns in Waushara County, Wisconsin
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260780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wautoma%2C%20Wisconsin | Wautoma, Wisconsin | Wautoma is a city in Waushara County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 2,218 at the 2010 census. Wautoma is the county seat of Waushara County.
The city consists of three noncontiguous areas: one is entirely within the Town of Wautoma, the second is entirely within the Town of Dakota, and the third straddles the boundary between the two towns.
Wautoma calls itself the "Christmas tree capital of the world". The Kirk Company of Tacoma, Washington, operated the "Wautoma plantation" of more than of Christmas trees, beginning in 1953.
On August 29, 1992, the town was struck by a half-mile wide F-3 tornado, killing 2 people, injuring 30 others, and causing over $5 million in damage.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 2,218 people, 945 households, and 487 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 1,061 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 88.3% White, 1.4% African American, 0.7% Native American, 0.4% Asian, 6.3% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15.8% of the population.
There were 945 households, of which 28.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.6% were married couples living together, 14.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 48.5% were non-families. 44.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 3.13.
The median age in the city was 35.4 years. 25.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.2% were from 25 to 44; 22.8% were from 45 to 64; and 17.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.5% male and 49.5% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,998 people, 806 households, and 429 families living in the city. The population density was 800.8 people per square mile (308.6/km2). There were 877 housing units at an average density of 351.5 per square mile (135.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 94.04% White, 1.10% Black or African American, 0.70% Native American, 0.85% Asian, 2.00% from other races, and 1.30% from two or more races. 7.21% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 806 households, out of which 27.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.7% were married couples living together, 11.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.7% were non-families. 40.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 3.04.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.0% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 25.5% from 25 to 44, 17.6% from 45 to 64, and 23.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $31,723, and the median income for a family was $37,500. Males had a median income of $27,546 versus $19,648 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,006. About 5.2% of families and 11.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.7% of those under age 18 and 18.3% of those age 65 or over.
Transportation
Wautoma is served by the Wautoma Municipal Airport .
Media
News media
The Waushara Argus is the weekly newspaper.
Radio
WAUH radio broadcasts at 102.3 FM.
High school sports
Wautoma High School has won five state championships, three in boys' track and field, one in boys' basketball, and one in football. In 1980, Wautoma High School won the Class B State Basketball Championship.
Notable people
Jared Abbrederis, Green Bay Packers, Detroit Lions, and Wisconsin Badgers wide receiver
Robert E. Behnke, Wisconsin State Representative
William Belter, Wisconsin State Representative
Robyn J. Blader, U.S. National Guard general
George M. Byse, Wisconsin State Representative
Boyd A. Clark, Wisconsin State Representative and jurist
Richard W. Hubbell, Wisconsin State Representative
Edward F. Kileen, Wisconsin State Senator
Robert L. D. Potter, Wisconsin State Senator
June Wandrey, World War II veteran, writer
William C. Webb, Wisconsin and Kansas politician and jurist
Images
See also
List of cities in Wisconsin
References
External links
Wautoma Public Library
Wautoma Farmer's Union
Sanborn fire insurance map: 1911
Cities in Waushara County, Wisconsin
Cities in Wisconsin
County seats in Wisconsin | [
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260781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neenah%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Neenah (town), Wisconsin | Neenah is a town in Winnebago County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 3,237 at the 2010 census. The City of Neenah is adjacent to the town, but is politically independent. The unincorporated communities of Adella Beach, Ricker Bay, Snells, and Sunrise Bay are located in the town.
History
After having a portion of land set to be the future site of Neenah High School annexed by Fox Crossing, Wisconsin in early 2020, town leaders asked the city of Neenah to annex high-value lands, including a power plant, in order to keep some of the revenue going to the town and to avoid aggressive annexing by Fox Crossing.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 55.51%, is water, consisting of a portion of Lake Winnebago.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,657 people, 976 households, and 797 families residing in the town. The population density was 295.0 people per square mile (113.9/km2). There were 1,010 housing units at an average density of 112.1 per square mile (43.3/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.19% White, 0.04% Black or African American, 0.30% Native American, 0.98% Asian, 0.23% from other races, and 0.26% from two or more races. 0.75% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 976 households, out of which 35.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 74.5% were married couples living together, 5.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.3% were non-families. 15.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.72 and the average family size was 3.04.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.5% under the age of 18, 5.1% from 18 to 24, 27.7% from 25 to 44, 29.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.3 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $57,083, and the median income for a family was $61,865. Males had a median income of $42,404 versus $30,365 for females. The per capita income for the town was $30,260. About 0.7% of families and 1.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.1% of those under age 18 and 4.0% of those age 65 or over.
Public safety
The Town of Neenah operates a fire department with a fleet of two engines, one tender, and a UTV for off-road firefighting and medical emergencies. The town is served by the Winnebago County Sheriff's Office, which provides for all law enforcement needs in the town. It contracts with Gold Cross Ambulance Service for ambulance coverage.
References
External links
Town of Neenah official website
Towns in Winnebago County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin
Appleton–Fox Cities metropolitan area | [
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260782 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neenah%2C%20Wisconsin | Neenah, Wisconsin | Neenah () is a city in Winnebago County, Wisconsin, in the north central United States. It is situated on the banks of Lake Winnebago, Little Lake Butte des Morts, and the Fox River, approximately forty miles (60 km) southwest of Green Bay. Neenah's population was 27,319 at the 2020 census.
Neenah is bordered by the Town of Neenah. The city is the southwesternmost of the Fox Cities of northeast Wisconsin. It is the smaller of the two principal cities of the Oshkosh-Neenah Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is included in the Appleton-Oshkosh-Neenah Combined Statistical Area. It is sometimes referred to as a twin city with Menasha, with which it shares Doty Island.
History
Neenah was named by Governor James Duane Doty from the Hoocąk word for "water" or "running water". It was the site of a Ho-Chunk village in the late 18th century. It is Nįįňą in the Hoocąk language.
The government initially designated this area in 1835 as an industrial and agricultural mission to the Menominee Indians of the area. Early settlement by European Americans began a few years later, stimulated in large part by the proximity of the area to the Fox River.
Kimberly-Clark corporation was formed here in 1872. It founded a major paper mill here in 1873, as the region had become a center of lumbering. Profits from lumber stimulated the development of businesses and a variety of professions. Some people relocated to Neenah after the disastrous fire in Oshkosh in 1875.
Geography
Neenah is located at (44.174035, −88.468508).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.
Climate
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 25,501 people, 10,694 households, and 6,700 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 11,313 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 93.7% White, 1.3% African American, 0.7% Native American, 1.4% Asian, 1.3% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.8% of the population.
There were 10,694 households, of which 32.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.6% were married couples living together, 10.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 37.3% were non-families. 30.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.96.
The median age in the city was 37.1 years. 25% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.6% were from 25 to 44; 27% were from 45 to 64; and 12.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 24,507 people, 9,834 households and 6,578 families living in the city. The population density was 2,971.7 people per square mile (1,146.9/km2). There were 10,198 housing units at an average density of 1,236.6 per square mile (477.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.08% White, 0.34% Black or African American, 0.55% Native American, 0.96% Asian, 0.86% from other races, and 1.20% from two or more races. 2.02% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Thirty-five percent of the households had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.8% were married couples living together, 9.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.1% were non-families. 27.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.03.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 27.5% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 32.0% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $45,773, and the median income for a family was $55,329. Males had a median income of $39,140 versus $25,666 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,280. About 3.3% of families and 5.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.4% of those under age 18 and 7.2% of those age 65 or over.
Transportation
Interstate 41 runs north to south through the center of the city. Bus service is operated by Valley Transit. Brennand Airport provides general aviation service for the city. Appleton International Airport provides commercial airline service for the city.
Economy
Neenah hosts significant steel and paper industries. Some paper companies include Clearwater Paper, Essity, Kimberly-Clark and Neenah Paper. Kimberly-Clark was founded in Neenah and maintains significant operations there, though its headquarters moved to Irving, Texas in the 1980s. Manhole covers manufactured at Neenah Foundry can be found throughout the central and southern United States and parts of Europe.
Neenah is the headquarters of Plexus, a developer and manufacturer of electronic products, which also has engineering and manufacturing operations in the city. Also headquartered here are Cobblestone Hotel Group, J. J. Keller & Associates, Miron Construction, Menasha Corporation, Theda Clark Hospital, NM Transfer, and Checker Logistics.
Culture
Founded in 1959, Neenah's Bergstrom-Mahler Museum has a collection of glass art comprising over 3,000 pieces. It concentrates in historic paperweights and Germanic glasswork.
Notable people
Jack Ankerson, NFL player
William Arnemann, politician
Havilah Babcock, businessman and a founder of Kimberly Clark
James R. Barnett, politician
George Bergstrom, designer of The Pentagon
Robert D. Bohn, U.S. Marine Corps major general
John A. Bryan, U.S. diplomat
Elmer J. Burr, Medal of Honor recipient
Merritt L. Campbell, politician
Charles B. Clark, U.S. Representative and a founder of Kimberly-Clark
Laura Coenen, basketball all-American, 3-time Olympian – team handball
Kenneth John Conant, architectural historian, professor at Harvard University
Samuel A. Cook, U.S. Representative
Philip Daly, Edmonton, Alberta Alderman
George Danielson, politician
Julius H. Dennhardt, politician
William Draheim, politician
A. D. Eldridge, politician
Michael Ellis, politician
James C. Fritzen, politician
Robert Frederick Froehlke, businessman and government official
Jim Hall, professional boxer
Marcus Lee Hansen, historian and Pulitzer Prize winner, born in Neenah
William C. Hansen, educator and politician
Howard Hawks, film director, Rio Bravo, Red River, The Big Sleep
William Hawks, film producer
Christopher T. Hill, author and theoretical physicist
Zuhdi Jasser, medical doctor, activist, policy board member
Dick Jorgensen, NFL referee, Super Bowl XXIV
Frank Bateman Keefe, U.S. Representative
Kris Kelderman, MLS player and assistant coach
John A. Kimberly, a founder of Kimberly-Clark
Judith Klusman, politician
Peter Konz, NFL Player
Wayne Kreklow, NBA player, head coach of the Missouri Tigers women's volleyball team
Nels Larson, politician and businessman
Henry Leavens, politician
Rich Loiselle, MLB player
Ernst Mahler, chemist and business leader
David Martin, politician
Azel W. Patten, businessman and politician
Charles H. Pfennig, politician
Roger Ream, educator
Reid Ribble, politician
Nathaniel S. Robinson, physician and politician
Mike Rohrkaste, politician and businessman
John Schneller, NFL player
Richard J. Steffens, politician
John Stevens, inventor of the roller flour mill
John Strange, lieutenant governor of Wisconsin
Kenneth E. Stumpf, Medal of Honor recipient
Konrad Tuchscherer, professor
Ryan G. Van Cleave, author and educator
Edwin Wheeler, politician and jurist
John Whitlinger, tennis player, born in Neenah
Tami Whitlinger, WTA player
Edwin A. Williams, legislator, educator, businessman, mayor
Timothy Bishop, Internet Personality, Youtuber, Commentator
Images
References
External links
City of Neenah
Neenah Public Library Local History Collection at the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections center
Sanborn fire insurance maps at the Wisconsin Historical Society
Trade Worries Led Wisconsin Mill Town to Trump. It's Still Uneasy – The New York Times
Cities in Wisconsin
Cities in Winnebago County, Wisconsin
Appleton–Fox Cities metropolitan area | [
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260783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omro%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Omro (town), Wisconsin | Omro is a town in Winnebago County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 2,116 at the 2010 census. The City of Omro is located within the town. The unincorporated communities of Harbor Springs, Reighmoor, Rivermoor, and Zion are located in the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 8.67%, is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,875 people, 706 households, and 556 families residing in the town. The population density was 57.0 people per square mile (22.0/km2). There were 776 housing units at an average density of 23.6 per square mile (9.1/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.35% White, 0.16% Black or African American, 0.16% Native American, 0.53% Asian, 0.27% from other races, and 0.53% from two or more races. 0.75% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 706 households, out of which 33.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.0% were married couples living together, 4.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.2% were non-families. 18.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.01.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.7% under the age of 18, 5.5% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 27.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.5 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $43,750, and the median income for a family was $48,988. Males had a median income of $35,083 versus $25,625 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,702. About 4.4% of families and 5.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.6% of those under age 18 and 16.2% of those age 65 or over.
References
Towns in Winnebago County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omro%2C%20Wisconsin | Omro, Wisconsin | Omro is a city in Winnebago County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 3,517 at the 2010 census. The city is located along the Fox River, approximately 10 miles west of Oshkosh, Wisconsin.
History
1853 description
OMRO, P. V., on section 17 and 18, in town of Bloomingdale, Winnebago county, at the junction of the Manitowoc and Menasha, (extended), and the Waupun and Liberty Prairie plank roads. It is pleasantly situated on the south side of the Neenah [Fox] river, 11 miles west from Oshkosh, and 75 miles northeast from Madison. It has a heavy body of timber on the north, with a rich soil of openings and prairie on the south, and has excellent facilities by water for obtaining pine logs from the immense pinery of Wolf river, a great quantity of which is here manufactured into lumber. Population 600, with 100 dwellings, 5 stores, 2 hotels, 3 mills, and 4 religious denominations. A Company has been organized and is now completing the proper buildings for the manufacture of glass.
History of Omro
The area encompassing present day Omro was Winnebago Indian Territory when it was first visited by French explorers in 1639. Omro's location gave it two advantages from the beginning, which were a position on one of the few natural transportation and communications routes of the time and an abundant amount of water for industrial use. The first modern settlers visited in 1847. There are at least three differing accounts of how the town was named. One widely held version is that it was named for Charles Amereau, a French trader and blacksmith who started a fur trading post there. By 1880, Omro was a stop on the railroad line and was home to the county fairgrounds, several mills, a glass factory, carriage factories, several machine works, and had a population greater than 2,000. Eventually most of the manufacturers either relocated to nearby Oshkosh, or faded away. Since Omro began a revitalization process in 1986, it has seen growth. Several projects pay respects to Omro's past, including a historical walking tour, the Scott park pavilion project, and the designation of a historic downtown district.
Geography
Omro is located at (44.038959, -88.74014).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 3,517 people, 1,419 households, and 937 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 1,537 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 96.6% White, 0.7% African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 1.5% from other races, and 0.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.3% of the population.
There were 1,419 households, of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.9% were married couples living together, 10.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.0% were non-families. 28.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.98.
The median age in the city was 38.8 years. 25.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.4% were from 25 to 44; 25.9% were from 45 to 64; and 14.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.5% male and 50.5% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,177 people, 1,236 households, and 847 families living in the city. The population density was 1,420.0 people per square mile (547.6/km2). There were 1,297 housing units at an average density of 579.7 per square mile (223.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.99% White, 0.19% Black or African American, 0.22% Native American, 0.13% Asian, 0.82% from other races, and 0.66% from two or more races. 2.77% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 1,236 households, out of which 34.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.5% were married couples living together, 9.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.4% were non-families. 26.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.03.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.2% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 29.7% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 16.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $45,208, and the median income for a family was $52,143. Males had a median income of $35,701 versus $21,549 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,332. About 1.5% of families and 3.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.4% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over.
Religion
Messiah Evangelical Lutheran Church is a member of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Omro.
Notable people
Nelson F. Beckwith, politician
Gordon R. Bradley, politician
Merritt L. Campbell, politician
Frank Challoner, politician
Leroy S. Chase, politician
Walter G. Hollander, politician
Andy Jorgensen, politician
Alvin B. Koeneman, Chief of Chaplains of the United States Navy
Louis Leroy, MLB player
Olin B. Lewis, politician
Sharon Metz, politician
Alvin E. O'Konski, politician
Delbert Philpott, soldier and scientist
Roland W. Reed, artist and photographer
Thomas A. Roycraft, politician
Reuben Gold Thwaites, historian
Frank T. Tucker, politician
Images
References
External links
City of Omro
Strolling through Omro's Past
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1887 1892 1895 1900 1913
Cities in Wisconsin
Cities in Winnebago County, Wisconsin
Populated places established in 1842
1842 establishments in Wisconsin Territory | [
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260786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oshkosh%2C%20Wisconsin | Oshkosh, Wisconsin | Oshkosh is a city in Winnebago County, Wisconsin, of which it is the county seat. The city had an estimated population of 67,004 in 2019, making it the ninth-largest city in Wisconsin. It is also adjacent to the Town of Oshkosh.
History
Oshkosh was named for Menominee Chief Oshkosh, whose name meant "claw" (cf. Ojibwe oshkanzh, "the claw"). Although the fur trade attracted the first European settlers to the area as early as 1818, it never became a major player in the fur trade. The 1820s mining boom in southwest Wisconsin along with the opening of the Erie Canal shifted commercial activity away from the Fox River Valley and Green Bay. Soon after 1830, much of the trade moved west, as there had been over-trapping in the region. Following the publicity caused by the Black Hawk War in 1832, there was increased interest in settling Wisconsin by whites from the East Coast, especially New York, Indiana, and Virginia, and by 1836 the cities of Milwaukee, Madison, Janesville, Beloit, and Fond du Lac were founded, with Madison the capital of a new territorial government, setting the stage for the economic and political importance of the southern part of the state. However, Oshkosh would continue to be one of Wisconsin's top five largest cities into the twentieth century.
The establishment and growth of the wood industry in the area spurred development of Oshkosh. Already designated as the county seat, Oshkosh was incorporated as a city in 1853. It had a population of nearly 2,800.
The lumber industry became well established as businessmen took advantage of navigable waterways to provide access to both markets and northern pineries. The 1859 arrival of rail transportation expanded the industry's ability to meet the demands of a rapidly growing construction market. At one time, Oshkosh was known as the "Sawdust Capital of the World" due to the number of lumber mills in the city, 11 by 1860.
During the Civil War, the 21st Regiment, Wisconsin Infantry, of the Union Wisconsin Volunteers was organized at Oshkosh, taking in many new recruits. This was one of two units organized in the state; the other was the 6th Regiment, Wisconsin Infantry, organized at Camp Randall, Madison. The 21st mustered on September 5, 1862, marching to Ohio and Louisville, Kentucky, where it participated in the fortification of Louisville later that year. It was attached to the Army of the Ohio and later to the Army of the Cumberland.
By 1870, Oshkosh had become the third-largest city in Wisconsin, with a population of more than 12,000. The community attracted a range of professional teachers, attorneys, doctors, businessmen, and others who helped it flourish. The Oshkosh Daily Northwestern newspaper (now the Oshkosh Northwestern) was founded around this time, as was the Oshkosh State Normal School (now the University of Wisconsin Oshkosh). Lumber continued as the mainstay of the city. By 1874, it had 47 sawmills and 15 shingle mills.
On April 28, 1875, Oshkosh had a "Great Fire" that consumed homes and businesses along Main Street north of the Fox River. The fire engulfed 70 stores, 40 factories, and 500 homes, costing nearly $2.5 million (or $51.2 million in 2010 money) in damage.
Around 1900 Oshkosh was home of the Oshkosh Brewing Company, which coined the marketing slogan "By Gosh It's Good." Its Chief Oshkosh brand became a nationally distributed beer.
The population of the city in 1910 was 33,062, making it the state's fourth largest city, ahead of Madison and Green Bay.
The Oshkosh All-Stars played in the National Basketball League from 1937 to 1949, before the NBL and the Basketball Association of America merged to become the NBA. Oshkosh reached the NBL's championship finals five times.
Historic districts
The city has a total of 33 listings on the National Register of Historic Places. Some area entrepreneurs and businessmen made their fortunes in the lumber industry. Many made significant contributions to the community, in both politics and supporting philanthropic organizations. Following devastating fires in the mid-1870s, new buildings were commissioned in Oshkosh that expressed a range of good design: for residential, commercial, civic and religious use.
The many structures which make up the city's historic areas are largely a result of the capital and materials generated by the lumber and associated wood manufacturing industries. Oshkosh had six historic districts as of October 2011. They include the Algoma Boulevard, Irving/Church, North Main Street, Oshkosh State Normal School on the University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh campus, Paine Lumber Company, and Washington Avenue historic districts.
The city had 27 historic buildings and sites individually listed on the NRHP as of October 2011. Eleven are houses, four are churches, and the remainder include schools, colleges, a bank, a fire house, an observatory, the county courthouse, and a cemetery where many of the entrepreneurs are buried.
Geography
Oshkosh is located at (44.024983, −88.551336).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.
Climate
In the most recent climatological normal has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfa) near the 22 °C threshold (the average of the hottest month is 22.2 °C). Summer days are warm to hot with cool to mild nights. Winters are cold and long with moderate snowfall. Precipitation peaks from late spring to early fall.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 66,083 people, 26,138 households, and 13,836 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 28,179 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 90.5% White, 3.1% African American, 0.8% Native American, 3.2% Asian, 0.7% from other races, and 1.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.7% of the population.
There were 26,138 households, of which 25.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.7% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47.1% were non-families. Of all households, 34.4% were made up of individuals, and 11.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.90.
The median age in the city was 33.5 years. 18.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 18.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.7% were from 25 to 44; 23% were from 45 to 64; and 12.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.2% male and 48.8% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 62,916 people, 24,082 households, and 13,654 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,662.2 people per square mile (1,028.0/km2). There were 25,420 housing units at an average density of 1,075.6 per square mile (415.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 92.73% White, 2.19% Black or African American, 0.52% Native American, 3.03% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.53% from other races, and 0.98% from two or more races. 1.69% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 52.2% were of German and 6.3% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000.
There were 24,082 households, out of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.3% were married couples living together, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.3% were non-families. Of all households, 32.4% were made up of individuals, and 11.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 2.95.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.7% under the age of 18, 18.1% from 18 to 24, 29.7% from 25 to 44, 18.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.7 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $37,636, and the median income for a family was $48,843. Males had a median income of $33,750 versus $24,154 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,964. About 5.2% of families and 10.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.6% of those under age 18 and 6.9% of those age 65 or over.
Transportation
Major highways
Highway 110?
Bus
Oshkosh is also served by the GO Transit (formerly Oshkosh Transit System), which runs nine fixed-route bus routes throughout the city from 6:15 am until 6:45 pm Monday through Saturday. One of these routes also connects Oshkosh with Neenah, Wisconsin, and the Fox Cities' transit system, Valley Transit.
Airport
Oshkosh's airport, Wittman Field or Wittman Regional Airport (KOSH), opened in 1927 as Oshkosh Airport Inc. The airport had commercial traffic starting in 1928 when Northwest Airways delivered mail to Oshkosh and the Fox Cities. In 1972, the airport was renamed after race pilot Steve Wittman, who was the airport manager for 38 years.
Wittman Field had commercial service on a number of airlines until 2003. Wittman was served at various times by Wisconsin Central Airlines, North Central, Republic, Air Wisconsin, American Central, Midstate Airlines, Northwest Airlink, United Express, Midway Connection, Skyway, and Great Lakes. Service on the final carrier, Great Lakes, was terminated in 2003 following the FAA's termination of a federal subsidy.
In the 21st century, Wittman Field continues to host the EAA AirVenture Air Show and Expo (formerly the EAA Annual Convention and Fly-In up to 1998). The EAA was founded in 1953 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, by Paul Poberezny. The event was first held at Timmerman Field. In 1959, it was moved to Rockford, Illinois. By 1969, the EAA had grown too big for Rockford Municipal Airport, and the convention voted on moving to Oshkosh. During the Airshow, Wittman Regional Airport becomes the busiest airport in the world: more than 500,000 people and 10,000 airplanes attend AirVenture each year.
The closest airport with commercial service is Appleton International Airport in Appleton, Wisconsin.
Government and infrastructure
Oshkosh Correctional Institution, a Wisconsin Department of Corrections prison, is located in Oshkosh.
Oshkosh is represented by Glenn Grothman (R) in the United States House of Representatives, and by Ron Johnson (R) and Tammy Baldwin (D) in the United States Senate. Dan Feyen (R) represents Oshkosh in the Wisconsin State Senate, and Michael Schraa (R) and Gordon Hintz (D) represent Oshkosh in the Wisconsin State Assembly.
Business and industry
Oshkosh Corporation is headquartered in Oshkosh. Oshkosh Corporation, formerly Oshkosh Truck, is the leading manufacturer and marketer of specialty vehicles and bodies in four primary business groups: Access Equipment, Defense, Fire & Emergency, and Commercial. Plastic packaging is also a major industry, with Amcor, formerly Bemis, as a major employer. There are two well known chocolate companies located in Oshkosh, Hughes and Oaks.
Oshkosh is known for OshKosh B'Gosh, a manufacturer of overalls and children's clothing founded in the city in 1895. Originally a small-town manufacturer of adult work clothing, it became best known for its children's lines. The original children's overalls, dating from the early twentieth century, were intended to help children dress like their fathers. According to the company, sales increased dramatically when Miles Kimball, an Oshkosh-based mail-order catalog, featured a pair of the overalls in its national catalog. As a result, OshKosh B'Gosh began to sell their products through department stores and expanded their children's line. Their office is now based in Atlanta, Georgia.
Oshkosh is the home of EAA AirVenture Oshkosh, "The World's Greatest Aviation Celebration" held by the Experimental Aircraft Association, Inc. ("EAA"). AirVenture is the world's largest airshow. During AirVenture, air traffic at Wittman Regional Airport exceeds that of any other airport in the world. EAA is a non-profit member organization, dedicated to home-built aircraft, restored aircraft, and Light-sport Aircraft, and fostering an interest in flying in children 8–18 years old through its Young Eagles program.
Tourism and events are part of the local economy. Recreational fishing and boating on Lake Winnebago includes many active fishing tournaments, an annual sturgeon spearing season, and frequent yacht and boat races. Music festivals include the summer-long WaterFest downtown and major summer music festivals for country, Christian, and rock music. December features a drive-through lights show that brings in visitors from the surrounding area.
Oshkosh is also home to two regional hospitals and the Winnebago Mental Health Institute located in nearby Winnebago, Wisconsin.
Education
Oshkosh has 14 public elementary schools, five public middle schools, and two high schools operated by the Oshkosh Area School District. The high schools in the Oshkosh Area School District are Oshkosh North High School and Oshkosh West High School.
Private schools in the city include Grace Lutheran School (pre-K to 8th grade) and Martin Luther School (pre-K to 8th grade) of the WELS, Lourdes High School, and Valley Christian School (pre-k to 12)
The University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh, the third-largest university in the state, is located in Oshkosh. The downtown campus serves approximately 15,000 students and employs 1,700 staff. Higher education is also served by a campus of the Fox Valley Technical College.
Culture and entertainment
Oshkosh has seen a recent resurgence in its cultural and entertainment options.
A downtown redevelopment plan led to the construction of the outdoor Leach Amphitheater on the Fox River. It hosts the weekly Waterfest concert series during the summer, as well as national touring musical acts and local community events. Also in downtown Oshkosh is the Grand Opera House, a performing arts center. Downtown Oshkosh has a Farmers Market on Saturdays in the summer.
The Downtown Oshkosh Gallery Walk, held every first Saturday of the month year-round, surged in attendance through the warmer months of 2006. A number of downtown Oshkosh music venues have opened, and existing venues have tended to expand their schedules, following the trend of the area at large. The Jambalaya Art Cooperative and Art Space Collective have been long standing anchors of the Gallery Walk. In 2010, Chicago Magazine said The Jambalaya Cooperative, 413 N. Main St., was a "must see" destination when visiting Oshkosh.
Long-running community festivals, such as Sawdust Days in Menominee Park, was a popular event but discontinued in 2019. Menominee Park is also the site of the Menominee Park Zoo. "Country USA" is an annual three-day festival in June that features entertainment from dozens of country music acts. "Rock USA" features many rock music acts as well.
A most unpopular event, the now defunct Pub Crawl, happens twice a year, once in the fall and once in the spring on the second weekend of April and October. Supposedly, according to the organizers, it was the largest and longest running college pub crawl. It is not officially sanctioned by the city, but it used to attract students across the state to the university area. Many area bars and restaurants reported an uptick in sales, though with the raised revenue also came higher incident rates for local police. The local university put in measures to keep students safe and control how people move throughout the campus.
From 1999 to 2019, the Seventh-day Adventist-hosted International Pathfinder Camporee was held in Oshkosh, gathering tens of thousands youth and adults from all over the world every 5 years. The most recent Camporee in 2019 gathered over 56,000 Pathfinders, and is considered the largest Adventist youth event in history, with over 1,000 people being baptized. One of the main highlights of the camporees were the evening programs, specifically the plays which reenacted the stories of famous characters and stories from the Bible onstage. They were held in campgrounds close to the EAA Aviation Museum, with some of the hangars being renovated to make room for booths where Pathfinders would get multiple honors. In 2021, it was announced that the International Pathfinder Camporee would be hosted in Gillette, Wyoming, in 2024.
Sports
The Milwaukee Bucks NBA basketball team placed their development team, the Wisconsin Herd, in Oshkosh beginning with the 2017–18 season. The team plays basketball at Oshkosh Arena.
Other points of interest include:
EAA Aviation Museum
Jambalaya Art Cooperative
Military Veterans Museum
Oshkosh Airshow
Grand Opera House
Oshkosh Public Museum
Paine Art Center and Gardens
Oshkosh Public Library
University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh
The southern terminus of the Wiouwash State Trail.
Notable people
References
External links
City of Oshkosh
Oshkosh Chamber of Commerce
Oshkosh Convention & Visitors Bureau
1853 establishments in Wisconsin
Cities in Winnebago County, Wisconsin
Cities in Wisconsin
County seats in Wisconsin
Logging communities in the United States
Populated places established in 1853 | [
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260787 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winneconne%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Winneconne (town), Wisconsin | Winneconne is a town in Winnebago County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 2,350 at the 2010 census. The Village of Winneconne is located within the town, on both sides of the Wolf River. The unincorporated community of Butte des Morts, named for a French and Native American trading war, is also located in the town. The town's water resources of rivers and lakes makes it a center of hunting and fishing, including winter ice fishing.
History
The name is a word derived from the Menominee language meaning "place of skulls". It refers to a battle site of the French colonial era, in which the Sauk and Fox fought against the French, Menominee and Chippewa for control over the regional fur trade and other resources. It also refers to a nearby prehistoric indigenous burial mound, the namesake for Lake Butte des Morts.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 36.02%, is water. This is the area of the Wolf Chain, a series of connected lakes along the river.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,145 people, 838 households, and 666 families residing in the town. The population density was 97.6 people per square mile (37.7/km2). There were 1,020 housing units at an average density of 46.4 per square mile (17.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 99.44% White, 0.23% Native American, 0.19% Asian, and 0.14% from two or more races. 0.19% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 838 households, out of which 30.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 71.5% were married couples living together, 4.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.5% were non-families. 16.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 2.87.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 23.2% under the age of 18, 5.4% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 30.3% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.6 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $60,385, and the median income for a family was $65,893. Males had a median income of $42,566 versus $27,692 for females. The per capita income for the town was $27,274. About 0.3% of families and 2.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.3% of those under age 18 and 8.8% of those age 65 or over.
20th-century Secession
In 1967, the town name was inadvertently left off the official Wisconsin road map. When residents noticed, they formed a secret committee and formulated a plan to secede from Wisconsin, set up toll gates on local roads and begin annexation of nearby communities (starting with the city of Oshkosh) to form a Sovereign State of Winneconne. As an alternative plan, they intended to seek annexation by another state, preferably one with better weather. The deadline for secession was 21 July 1967. A proclamation was issued, naming village president "James Coughlin to be president of the new state of Winneconne; Vera Kitchen to be prime minister and custodian of Vera's Kitchen Cabinet." Wisconsin Governor Warren Knowles entered into negotiations with the former village officials; as a result, Winneconne rejoined the State of Wisconsin at 12:01 AM on 22 July 1967. An annual Sovereign State Days celebration commemorates the event.
References
External links
Town of Winneconne official website
Towns in Winnebago County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winneconne%2C%20Wisconsin | Winneconne, Wisconsin | Winneconne is a village in Winnebago County, Wisconsin. The population was 2,383 at the time of the 2010 census. The village is located within the Town of Winneconne. Developed along the Wolf River, the city is in the middle of the Wolf Chain of lakes, including Poygan, Winneconne, and Butte des Morts. It is host to numerous bass fishing tournaments.
History
This area was originally occupied by succeeding cultures of indigenous peoples. The historic Menominee people were settled in the area at the time of European encounter. French fur traders from Quebec were among the first to interact with them, followed by Catholic Jesuit missionaries. The area was ruled by Great Britain as part of the Province of Quebec and then acquired by the United States.
Winneconne's European-American settlement began in the mid-19th century with Yankees who migrated from New England and the Northern Tier, added to by waves of immigrants: Irish, Germans, and Norwegians. Originally, Winneconne had many different spellings: Winneconnah, Winnekonah, Wau-nau-ko, and Winnikning, which were transliterations from the Menominee and other Indian names for the site. The Indian meanings of these names ranged from "land of dirty water" to "land of skull and bones", referring to a prehistoric burial mound known as Butte des Morts by the French. In 1851 the recently constituted village board officially settled the spelling of the name as Winneconne.
Joseph Edwards (1809-1902) was the first postmaster. He was a migrant from Hopewell, Bedford County, Pennsylvania via 15 years farming in Richland County, Ohio. He first settled with his family in Winneconne in 1849, building the first frame house in the village. After living here a few years, he moved to Dayton, Waupaca County, Wisconsin for more farming. He and his wife Mary (Wright) Edwards returned to this village in 1886. She died in 1895; and four of their nine children survived him: Mrs. D.C. Reed was still living in the village; son Oscar A. Edwards lived in Rhinelander, and two married daughters lived in Tacoma, Washington.
After the Treaty of Poygan in 1852, by which the Menominee ceded more land in this area to the United States, Winneconne expanded its land west of the Wolf River. Chief Oshkosh negotiated with the President to keep other lands in this area, as more than 2500 of his people refused to move to Minnesota, as was desired by the federal government. The Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin is federally recognized.
Because of the expansion of the village, people needed to cross the river more frequently. Initially the Menominee would transport people and goods by canoe. In 1853, settler J.D. Rush built a float bridge, and set up toll stations to recover his costs. Since then a total of four bridges have been built, including the current one.
In Winneconne's early years, mills were built along the river as the first industries, to process lumber, grain, and operate tanneries. Commercial fishing was also a thriving business. The many shipyards built and repaired fleets then made up primarily of wooden boats and ships.
With its many rivers and lakes, Winneconne has been known as a "hunting and fishing paradise." Some resort housing has been built in the area.
Improvements continue in the area. The Wolf River Bridge, carrying WIS 116, was built in 1934 during the Great Depression with support from the federal government, under President Franklin D. Roosevelt's WPA projects for investment in infrastructure. This non-redundant bascule bridge is now functionally obsolete because of its narrow deck width and aging materials. As it is very important to the Main Street of the village, and connections to other cities in the region, the state has approved a new bridge to carry WIS 116. A new bridge will also have fishing platforms, as does the current one.
Secession
In 1967, as a result of the town name being inadvertently left off the official Wisconsin road map, a secret committee led by Vera Wentzel-Kitchen of the Arrowhead Restaurant formulated a plan to secede from Wisconsin, set up toll gates on local roads, and begin annexation of nearby communities, starting with the city of Oshkosh, to form a Sovereign State of Winneconne. As an alternative plan, they sought annexation by another state, preferably one with better weather. The deadline for secession was July 21, 1967. A proclamation was issued, naming village president "James Coughlin to be president of the new state of Winneconne; Vera Kitchen to be prime minister and custodian of Vera’s Kitchen Cabinet". The secession was not recognized by any formal government and was merely a gesture indicative of the villages displeasure with state officials. Wisconsin Governor Warren P. Knowles met with village officials; as a result, Winneconne reconciled with the state of Wisconsin on July 22, 1967. An annual Sovereign State Days celebration commemorates the event, and a logo showing poison ivy, a skunk, a sheepshead, and a dodo bird is displayed throughout the town.
Geography
Winneconne is located at 44°6'39" North, 88°42'51" West (44.111029, -88.714311).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which, of it is land and is water.
The city was built along the banks of the Wolf Chain, which includes Lake Poygan, Lake Winneconne, and Lake Butte des Morts. Many bass fishing tournaments are based in Winneconne due to its central location on the chain.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 2,383 people, 1,027 households, and 678 families residing in the village. The population density was . There were 1,198 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 97.5% White, 0.2% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.8% from other races, and 0.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.3% of the population.
There were 1,027 households, of which 29.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.3% were married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.0% were non-families. 28.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.87.
The median age in the village was 43.7 years. 22.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.5% were from 25 to 44; 31.1% were from 45 to 64; and 16.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49.1% male and 50.9% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,401 people, 945 households, and 687 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,503.4 people per square mile (579.4/km2). There were 1,060 housing units at an average density of 663.7 per square mile (255.8/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 98.75% White, 0.00% Black or African American, 0.50% Native American, 0.12% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.08% from other races, and 0.54% from two or more races. 0.62% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 945 households, out of which 36.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.4% were married couples living together, 9.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.2% were non-families. 23.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.01.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 27.1% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 27.9% from 25 to 44, 23.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $44,886, and the median income for a family was $53,477. Males had a median income of $41,047 versus $24,688 for females. The per capita income for the village was $20,316. 4.7% of the population and 3.4% of families were below the poverty line. 3.6% of those under the age of 18 and 9.8% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
Winneconne Public Library
The Winneconne Public Library, located at 31 South 2nd Street in the heart of the village, offers Internet access, adult book discussion groups, children's programs, lending books and other media. The library has 35,000 holdings, approximately 30,000 of which are books and the balance consisting of video, audio, and other materials in electronic format. The library hosts the Winneconne Vital Records Database, where genealogists can search for birth, marriage and death records from Winneconne newspapers. The Winneconne Library belongs to the Winnefox Library System, which serves a population of over 300,000 from Fond du Lac, Green Lake, Marquette, Waushara, and Winnebago counties.
Images
References
External links
Winneconne, Wisconsin village website
Winneconne Area Chamber of Commerce
Winneconne Public Library
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1893 1898 1904 1913
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Winnebago County, Wisconsin
Separatism in the United States
Secessionist towns and cities | [
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260789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpin%2C%20Wisconsin | Arpin, Wisconsin | Arpin is a village in Wood County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 333 at the 2010 census.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all of it land.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 333 people, 143 households, and 81 families residing in the village. The population density was . There were 153 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 96.7% White, 0.3% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.6% of the population.
There were 143 households, of which 26.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.8% were married couples living together, 5.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.4% were non-families. 33.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.98.
The median age in the village was 38.8 years. 23.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.6% were from 25 to 44; 29.7% were from 45 to 64; and 13.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49.5% male and 50.5% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 337 people, 139 households, and 93 families residing in the village. The population density was 397.3 people per square mile (153.1/km2). There were 148 housing units at an average density of 67.2 persons/km2 (174.5 persons/sq mi). The racial makeup of the village was 98.81% White, 0.00% African American, 0.89% Native American, 0.00% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.00% from other races, and 0.30% from two or more races. 1.19% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 139 households, out of which 33.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.7% were married couples living together, 8.6% have a woman whose husband does not live with her, and 32.4% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.96.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 26.7% under the age of 18, 5.3% from 18 to 24, 33.5% from 25 to 44, 16.0% from 45 to 64, and 18.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.0 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $31,563, and the median income for a family was $43,125. Males had a median income of $32,019 versus $21,964 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,812. 4.3% of the population and 2.0% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 2.1% are under the age of 18 and 13.0% are 65 or older.
History
The first village of Arpin was started around 1890 when the John Arpin Lumber Company built a sawmill a mile east of the present village, on Little Hemlock Creek. John Baptiste Arpin and his twin brother Antoine came from Quebec and had been logging in this part of Wisconsin since the 1860s. By 1890 they were working with John's sons. To give an idea of their scale of operations, John Arpin's house built in 1889 still stands in Wisconsin Rapids, the beautiful Queen Anne-styled house on First Street facing the river. Back in that first Arpin, a store, a post office, some homes, a Presbyterian church, and a creamery grew up near the sawmill. The first postmaster was John's son, J. Z.
Also in 1890, the Port Edwards, Centralia & Northern Railway (later acquired by the Wisconsin Central) built its line from Rapids to Marshfield a mile to the west of the first village. Martin Pfyle started another little village a mile south on the rail line. It had a store, a cheese factory, a saloon, and homes. However, the railroad had built its depot where it crossed the road that is now County N - not at the sawmill or the second village - but where the current village is. Near that depot a store started, and a saloon, and a blacksmith's shop. Gradually the businesses and most of the homes shifted from the other two villages to cluster around the depot.
Around 1891 the Wood County Railroad built a spur to the mill from Vesper and in 1892 the John Edwards Manufacturing Company built a logging spur NE out of Arpin, three miles into its timber holdings. The Arpin planing mill burned in 1893 and the sawmill in June 1894, but the Arpins still had lumber to cut, so they rebuilt. In 1902 the Chicago & Northwestern built another rail line alongside the first, also running from Rapids to Marshfield.
Arpin in these days was an interesting cultural mix. Through all this time, a community of Potawatomi and other Indians lived at Skunk Hill, four miles to the southwest, welcoming outsiders to some of their dances. And then there was the Jewish settlement.
Arpin was the site of an early twentieth century agricultural settlement of Jewish families from Europe. The German philanthropist Baron Maurice de Hirsch had become concerned about the plight of European Jews who were migrating in increasing numbers to large cities. He established the Industrial Removal Office to settle Jewish families into what were seen as more healthy environments. The Milwaukee branch of the office was the Milwaukee Jewish Industrial Aid Society, headed by Adolph Walter Rich, Milwaukee merchant, manufacturer, and philanthropist. As the trees near Arpin were cut and the sawmill ceased operations, both houses and land were available. The society purchased of land just north of town, and Rich eventually added additional acres. Each family was to be assigned a tract with livestock, implements, a suitable dwelling, and funds to cover incidental expenses. A foreman was to be appointed to supervise the settlement. It was to be "a true Zion" in Wisconsin "on a moderate scale."
On December 1, 1901 the first five families arrived. More followed. Many of the new settlers were from Russia. By May 1906 the new settlers had cleared an average of each and had begun to produce crops of corn and vegetables and to cut cord wood. With the money from these crops the settlers were able to begin payment of interest owed to the society. Rich made frequent trips to Arpin. In 1915 a Jewish house of worship was built. A strong feeling of community developed among the settlers and they got along well with their Christian neighbors. The number of people in the settlement was never large, about seventy or eighty people at most, almost of all of whom were engaged in agriculture. In the 1920s people began to drift away; bitterly cold winters, better paying jobs in nearby cities, and the difficulties of anyone in Wisconsin trying to making a living on small farms were all factors in the slow decline of the colony. In 2008 Wisconsin Public Television produced a program, Chosen Towns, which features interviews with people remembering Arpin and other similar settlements.
By the 1920s dairying had surpassed lumbering. Four cheese factories were operating near the village. The Dairyman's State Bank had started in 1914. The town had also added various churches, a hardware store, a meat market, a boot and shoe store, a lumber yard, a garage, a restaurant, and a hotel and livery and taxicab stable.
Notable people
Adolph Walter Rich, businessman and philanthropist
Byron Whittingham, Wisconsin State Representative
See also
List of villages in Wisconsin
References
External links
Lester Public Library of Arpin
1909 plat map of Arpin
1928 plat map
Villages in Wisconsin
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260790 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpin%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Arpin (town), Wisconsin | Arpin is a town in Wood County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 786 at the 2000 census.
History
In 1851 the square which later became the town of Arpin was surveyed by crews working for the U.S. government. They found the section corners with chain and compass and marked them. When done, the deputy surveyors filed these general descriptions:
The soil in this Township is generally a dark loam and is very (?), the surface is generally level, except in the South western part which is Rolling and somewhat stony - the stone are a Blue Flint - The Timber in the South West Part is mostly Sugar (?) Ironwood & Butternut with very little or no undergrowth. The Eastern and Northern Part is heavily timbered also the Timber being mostly Birch Oak Pine Soft Maple with some undergrowth of Blue Beech along the Border of the streams. We usually find alder thickets caused by the overflowing of the Bottom Lands in times of high water & from Beaver Dams. The streams are mostly fed by the swamps and are subject to (?) sudden rise and fall.
This may be considered a valuable district of which a considerable portion would command a ready rate, if in market at the present time. There is no settlement upon it. A few small rough log cabins, occupied in the winter season by the shingle makers, comprise all the improvements on it.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , all of it land.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 786 people, 267 households, and 213 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 280 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 97.84% White, 0.13% Black or African American, 0.13% Native American, 0.25% Asian, 0.25% from other races, and 1.40% from two or more races. 1.15% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 267 households, out of which 42.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.8% were married couples living together, 3.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.2% were non-families. 15.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.94 and the average family size was 3.31.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 30.7% under the age of 18, 7.4% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 23.8% from 45 to 64, and 7.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 114.6 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $42,115, and the median income for a family was $45,313. Males had a median income of $27,679 versus $23,864 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,750. About 7.7% of families and 8.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.3% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.
References
External links
Lester Public Library of Arpin
1852 plat map covering town of Arpin
1879 plat map of Arpin
1896 plat map
1909 plat map
1928 plat map
1956 plat map
Towns in Wood County, Wisconsin
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260791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auburndale%2C%20Wisconsin | Auburndale, Wisconsin | Auburndale is a village in Wood County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 703 at the 2010 census.
History
Auburndale was established in 1872 by John Connor and his brother Robert Connor, father of William D. Connor, the Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin, and named after the auburn hair of the Connor children. Another tradition maintains the name is a transfer from Auburndale, Massachusetts.
Auburndale's WLBL (AM) is one of the oldest radio stations in the United States (1923). It was the second station in the Wisconsin Public Radio Network, relaying programs of WHA (AM) Madison for northern Wisconsin listeners. They are still the only two AM stations on the network.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all of it land.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 703 people, 291 households, and 216 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 315 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 98.7% White, 0.3% African American, and 1.0% from other races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.4% of the population.
There were 291 households, of which 32.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.8% were married couples living together, 8.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 25.8% were non-families. 22.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.81.
The median age in the village was 39.7 years. 23.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27% were from 25 to 44; 28.8% were from 45 to 64; and 14.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 51.4% male and 48.6% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 738 people, 284 households, and 207 families living in the village. The population density was 352.3 people per square mile (136.3/km2). There were 297 housing units at an average density of 54.9 persons/km2 (141.8 persons/sq mi). The racial makeup of the village was 100.00% White, and none are from two or more races. None of the population is Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 284 households, out of which 37.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.0% were married couples living together, 7.7% have women whose husband does not live with women, and 26.8% were non-families. 22.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.07.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 25.2% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 31.6% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.7 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $41,103, and the median income for a family was $49,792. Males had a median income of $28,700 versus $23,125 for females. The per capita income for the village was $18,347. 4.4% of the population and 2.0% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 2.8% are under the age of 18 and 12.8% are 65 or older.
Notable people
Robert Connor, member of the Wisconsin State Assembly
William D. Connor, Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin
Mark Tauscher, former football player for the Green Bay Packers
Jordan Zimmermann, baseball player for the Milwaukee Brewers
Images
References
External links
Village of Auburndale, official website
The School District of Auburndale
Auburndale High School
1909 plat map of Auburndale
1928 plat map
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Wood County, Wisconsin
Populated places established in 1872
1872 establishments in Wisconsin | [
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260792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auburndale%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Auburndale (town), Wisconsin | Auburndale is a town in Wood County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 829 at the 2000 census. The Village of Auburndale is located within the town.
Geography
Auburndale is roughly a square, six miles north to south and 5.75 miles east to west. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 32.2 square miles (83.5 km2), all of it land.
History
The six mile square that would become Auburndale was first surveyed in the summer of 1851 by a crew working for the U.S. government. In November and December 1852 another crew marked its section corners, walking through the woods and wading the streams, measuring with chain and compass. When done, the deputy surveyor filed this general description:
This Township contains no Marshes. It is generally heavily timbered chiefly with Hemlock, Sugar Yellow Birch, and Rock Elm. White Pine abounds on Mill Creek and some of the head Branches of the Little O'Plane. The surface is generally level about half is hardwood land where the soil is first and second rate. Mill Creek runs across the southwest corner of the Township and the north branch of the Little O'Plane rises in this township and runs out on the north side. They are both rapid streams but all the banks are too low for Mill purposes. Local attraction exists nearly all over the Township, but is strongest near the center. There are no improvements in the Township.
The Town of Auburndale was established in 1874, taking its name from Auburndale.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 829 people, 299 households, and 235 families residing in the town. The population density was 25.7 people per square mile (9.9/km2). There were 309 housing units at an average density of 9.6 per square mile (3.7/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 99.28% White, 0.12% Black or African American, 0.24% Native American, and 0.36% from two or more races. None of the population is Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 299 households, out of which 37.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.6% were married couples living together, 3.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.4% were non-families. 17.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.16.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.4% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 32.2% from 25 to 44, 20.5% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 115.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 110.3 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $40,815, and the median income for a family was $42,426. Males had a median income of $27,097 versus $22,500 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,588. About 4.8% of families and 6.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.9% of those under age 18 and 11.3% of those age 65 or over.
References
External links
1853 plat map covering town of Auburndale
1879 plat map
1896 plat map
1909 plat map
1928 plat map
1956 plat map
Towns in Wood County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin | [
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260793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%20Edwards%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Port Edwards (town), Wisconsin | Port Edwards is a town in Wood County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,446 at the 2000 census. The village of Port Edwards is located to the northeast of and adjacent to the town. The town contains the Ho-Chunk community of Ceex Haci.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 39.2 square miles (101.6 km2), of which, 38.6 square miles (100.0 km2) of it is land and 0.6 square miles (1.6 km2) of it (1.58%) is water.
History
The part of the town of Port Edwards within three miles of the Wisconsin River was in the "Indian strip," sold by the Menominee to the U.S. government in the 1836 Treaty of the Cedars. As such, it was logged and surveyed early. In 1839 a crew working for the U.S. government surveyed what would become parts of Port Edwards, walking through the woods and crossing the river, measuring with chain and compass. In 1851 a different crew surveyed the section lines. For the six mile square that now contains Nekoosa and the village of Port Edwards, they gave this general description:
The character of the Soil in this town is very uniform. The Uplands are all pine barrens on a light Sandy Soil. the timber nearly all burned off by the yearly Indian fires. The large pines, valuable for lumber, are all gone. The bottom lands tho somewhat better, are sandy & not sufficiently large to make them valuable. Inhabitants are very scarce thin(?) being a Single house at Pt. Bausse, a noted(?) place for refitting rafts after passing the rapids before their final departure for the Mississippi, & a French hamlet on Section 1. On the whole it may be said of this town that for soil or timber it is nearly worthless. The Islands in the river are all overflowed & are neither valuable for size, soil, or timber & were therefore not meandered.
Port Edwards was established in 1874, taking its name from the village of the same name within its borders.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,446 people, 526 households, and 399 families residing in the town. The population density was 37.4 people per square mile (14.5/km2). There were 555 housing units at an average density of 14.4 per square mile (5.5/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 91.01% White, 0.14% Black or African American, 5.26% Native American, 0.83% Asian, 2.07% from other races, and 0.69% from two or more races. 4.56% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 526 households, out of which 35.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.1% were married couples living together, 8.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.1% were non-families. 20.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.17.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 30.7% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 29.4% from 25 to 44, 23.9% from 45 to 64, and 10.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.4 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $43,804, and the median income for a family was $52,604. Males had a median income of $41,736 versus $26,250 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,020. About 4.2% of families and 6.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.8% of those under age 18 and 11.7% of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
John Edwards, lumberman and politician
References
External links
1852 plat map of the six mile square that covers eastern Port Edwards and western Saratoga
1879 plat map of same
1896 plat map of same
1909 plat map
1928 plat map
1956 plat map of the six mile square that covers eastern Port Edwards and western Saratoga
For other plats of western Port Edwards, see external links under Cranmoor.
Towns in Wood County, Wisconsin
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260794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%20Edwards%2C%20Wisconsin | Port Edwards, Wisconsin | Port Edwards is a village in Wood County, Wisconsin, United States. The village is located northeast and adjacent to the Town of Port Edwards. The population was 1,818 at the 2010 census.
History
Port Edwards was known as "Frenchtown" until 1869, when it was renamed in honor of John Edwards, a local mill owner.
The settlement formed around a sawmill built about 1829. It was first owned by Messrs. Grignon and Merrill, who partnered in the mill for some time. It then passed on to Merrill and Whitney in 1836. In 1840 the mill was bought by John Edwards Sr. and his partner, Henry Clinton. It was then that the sawmill business, known as the Edwards and Clinton Company, began to prosper. The partnership didn't last. Because of Clinton's financial troubles, he had to transfer portions of his equity to Edwards throughout the years. By 1862 Edwards owned 100 percent of the business and changed the name to John Edwards and Company. A few years later, active management was given over to his son, John Jr. The senior Edwards died In 1871.
Mrs. Edwards wrote of the community in the 1860s, "the settlement was small only consisting of a store, a blacksmith shop, a school, two boarding houses and a number of white houses." With his success in the sawmill business, Edwards decided to run for the Wisconsin legislature as a Representative in 1890. After his election, he moved to Madison in 1891, leaving his business to be managed by his son-in-law, Lewis M. Alexander.
By the end of the 19th century most sawmills in central Wisconsin had gone out of business. Alexander decided to take a risk and convert the sawmill company into a paper mill company, completing the conversion in 1896. Although the change proved economically challenging, the company eventually succeeded, although it experienced ups and downs reflecting the overall economy.
Port Edwards incorporated as a village in 1902.
With the town heavily dependent on the mill, it slowly grew to become the community it is today. Today the village consists of a small cluster of 1890s to 1940s homes that have been preserved and refurbished. The mill shut down in 2008. The village named the high school in honor of John Edwards. The house belonging to Lewis M. Alexander's son, John, still stands.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which, of it is land and is water.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,818 people, 711 households, and 499 families residing in the village. The population density was . There were 750 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 94.9% White, 0.9% African American, 1.3% Native American, 1.1% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.7% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.3% of the population.
There were 711 households, of which 32.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.4% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29.8% were non-families. 24.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 2.90.
The median age in the village was 43.5 years. 23.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.6% were from 25 to 44; 25.6% were from 45 to 64; and 22% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 47.6% male and 52.4% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,944 people, 706 households, and 518 families residing in the village. The population density was 322.1 people per square mile (124.3/km2). There were 737 housing units at an average density of 122.1 per square mile (47.1/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 93.31% White, 0.57% Black or African American, 1.08% Native American, 3.86% Asian, 0.15% from other races, and 1.03% from two or more races. 0.93% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 706 households, out of which 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.8% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.5% were non-families. 23.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.04.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 26.7% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 21.1% from 45 to 64, and 21.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.5 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $48,850, and the median income for a family was $54,801. Males had a median income of $46,250 versus $26,106 for females. The per capita income for the village was $20,750. About 5.5% of families and 7.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.3% of those under age 18 and 5.1% of those age 65 or over.
Economy
Employment in Port Edwards has long been dominated by paper making. The primary employer, Domtar Inc., closed its mill in mid-2008.
References
External links
Official Port Edwards Website
Port Edwards Public Schools
Port Edwards Community Website including municipal information
1909 plat map of Port Edwards
1928 plat map
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Wood County, Wisconsin | [
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260795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph%2C%20Wisconsin | Rudolph, Wisconsin | Rudolph is a village in Wood County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 439 at the 2010 census. The village is located within the Town of Rudolph.
History
Rudolph derives its name from Rudolph township, which in turn was named after Rudolph Hecox, the first white child born within the town's borders. The town was incorporated in 1960. The crossroads community is anchored by the Dairy State Cheese factory.
Geography
Rudolph is located at (44.497202, -89.801896).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all of it land.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 439 people, 179 households, and 126 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 197 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 97.3% White, 0.2% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 1.4% from other races, and 0.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.8% of the population.
There were 179 households, of which 30.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.1% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29.6% were non-families. 24.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.85.
The median age in the village was 40.9 years. 23.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.7% were from 25 to 44; 27% were from 45 to 64; and 16.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 51.3% male and 48.7% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 423 people, 170 households, and 122 families living in the village. The population density was 388.3 people per square mile (149.8/km2). There were 177 housing units at an average density of 162.5 per square mile (62.7/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 95.04% White, 0.24% Black or African American, 0.71% Native American, 2.36% Asian, and 1.65% from two or more races. 1.42% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 170 households, out of which 33.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.9% were married couples living together, 4.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.2% were non-families. 24.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.99.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 26.0% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 29.8% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.3 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $41,125, and the median income for a family was $50,625. Males had a median income of $40,500 versus $28,750 for females. The per capita income for the village was $18,895. None of the families and 3.0% of the population was living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 10.9% of those over 64.
Attractions
Wonder Cave
Thousands of holiday greetings are sent each year to the Rudolph postmaster for a special Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer postmark.
Notable residents
Jim Delsing, MLB player
Bryan Reffner, NASCAR driver
Dick Trickle, 1989 NASCAR Rookie of the Year
References
External links
Rudolph,Wisconsin
Rudolph Grotto and Wonder Cave
1928 plat map of Rudolph
Villages in Wisconsin
Villages in Wood County, Wisconsin | [
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260796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph%20%28town%29%2C%20Wisconsin | Rudolph (town), Wisconsin | Rudolph is a town in Wood County, Wisconsin, in the United States. As of the 2000 census, the town population was 1,161. The Village of Rudolph is located within the town.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 29.7 square miles (77.0 km2), of which, 29.7 square miles (76.9 km2) of it is land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km2) of it (0.13%) is water.
History
The part of Rudolph within three miles of the Wisconsin River was in the "Indian strip," sold by the Menominees to the U.S. government in the 1836 Treaty of the Cedars. As such, it was logged and surveyed early. In 1840 a crew working for the U.S. government surveyed that southern half of the six mile square that would become Rudolph, walking through the woods and crossing the river, measuring with chain and compass. When done, the deputy surveyor filed this general description:
Considerable good land on the North East part of this Fractional Township. Extensive(?) Lumbering Establishment of Draper Faytte(?) on sec 34. Apparently Extensive Bog iron ore bed on same section a short distance above said milling Establishment - specimen appears very rich & heavy.
The mill and bog iron were actually on the south side of the river, in what would become Biron.
In 1851 another crew surveyed the section lines of the north half of what would become Rudolph, producing this general description:
Maple & Oak are the prevailing Kinds of Timber in this Township although there is some Pine The creeks & streams of water are mostly fed by swamps and are not durable. the soil is a dark loam with clay sub-soil; there is a great deal of stone in this Township. which decreases its value for farming purposes, the Surface is generally Rolling. though it is not hilly
Rudolph township was established in 1856, and named after Frederick Rudolph Hecox, the first white child born within its borders.
Notable people
D. D. Conway, lawyer and politician, was born in the town of Rudolph.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,161 people, 423 households, and 342 families residing in the town. The population density was 39.1 people per square mile (15.1/km2). There were 438 housing units at an average density of 14.8 per square mile (5.7/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 96.90% White, 0.26% Black or African American, 2.50% Asian, and 0.34% from two or more races. 0.43% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 423 households, out of which 33.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 71.6% were married couples living together, 4.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.1% were non-families. 16.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.74 and the average family size was 3.08.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.1% under the age of 18, 7.8% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 26.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.8 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $50,852, and the median income for a family was $53,958. Males had a median income of $41,250 versus $25,833 for females. The per capita income for the town was $20,284. About 4.2% of families and 6.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.2% of those under age 18 and 10.1% of those age 65 or over.
References
External links
1840 sketch map covering the town of Rudolph, and showing that 1840 surveyors had a sense of whimsy, or whiskey
1840 plat map covering southern half of township
1852 plat map, covering northern half of township
1879 plat map
1896 plat map
1909 plat map
1928 plat map
1956 plat map
Towns in Wood County, Wisconsin
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260798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%20and%20breweries%20by%20region | Beer and breweries by region | This is a list of articles and categories dealing with beer and breweries by region: the breweries and beers in various regions. Beer is the world's most widely consumed alcoholic drink, and is the third-most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented drink. A brewery is a dedicated building for the making of beer, though beer can be made at home, and has been for much of beer's history. A company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. The diversity of size in breweries is matched by the diversity of processes, degrees of automation, and kinds of beer produced in breweries. A brewery is typically divided into distinct sections, with each section reserved for one part of the brewing process.
List
Africa
Botswana
Kgalagadi Breweries Limited
Cape Verde
Egypt
Ethiopia
Kenya
Morocco
Nigeria
South Africa
Tanzania
Asia
Armenia
Beer has been brewed by Armenians since ancient times. One of the first confirmed written evidences of ancient beer production is Xenophon's reference to "wine made from barley" in one of the ancient Armenia villages, as described in his 5th century B.C. work Anabasis: "There were stores within of wheat and barley and vegetables, and wine made from barley in great big bowls; the grains of barley malt lay floating in the drink up to the lip of the vessel, and reeds lay in them, some longer, some shorter, without joints; when you were thirsty you must take one of these into your mouth, and suck. The drink without admixture of water was very strong, and of a delicious flavour to certain palates, but the taste must be acquired."
Currently there are six local brewing companies throughout the country producing a variety of beer types:
Beer of Yerevan Brewery in Yerevan: around 15 types of beer are served by the brewery, mainly under the brand Kilikia (named after a historic Armenian kingdom at the Mediterranean coast) as well as some other brands.
Gyumri Beer Brewery in Gyumri: the company produces a variety of lager beer under 3 brands: Gyumri, Aleksandrapol and Ararat.
Kotayk Brewery in Abovyan: a variety of lager beer under the brand Kotayk (named after the Armenian Kotayk Province), as well as Erebuni and Urartu.
Lihnitis Sevan Brewery in Sevan: the company produces the Kellers beer.
Hayasy Group in Voskevaz village, Aragatsotn Province: currently producing under the brand Hayasy.
Dilijan Brewery in Dilijan: producing under the brand Dilijan.
In addition to brewing factories, the country is also home to 8 microbreweries/brewpubs, that produce and serve draught/unfiltered beer in Armenia.
China
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia
Israel
Japan
Malaysia
Myanmar
The dominant brewery in Myanmar, with an approximately 80% share of the market, is Myanmar Brewery, which is 45% owned by Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings Limited. Myanmar Brewery's beers include Myanmar Beer, Double Strong Beer, Andaman Gold (Red) and Andaman Gold (Blue). In 2015 Myanmar Brewery entered into a joint venture with Kirin Brewery to produce and distribute its beers in the country. In 2013 the Carlsberg Group signed an agreement with Myanmar Golden Star, establishing Myanmar Carlsberg Company Ltd. Myanmar Carlsberg Company opened a $75 million brewery in May 2015 which now produces Carlsberg and Turborg locally, together with a new beer, Yoma. In July 2015 Heineken International opened a $60 million brewery in Yangon, in a joint venture with a local company, Alliance Brewery Company. The brewery produces Tiger, Heineken, ABC stout and a new rice beer, Regal Seven.
North Korea
North Korea has at least ten major breweries and many microbreweries that supply a wide range of beer products. The top brand is the light lager Taedonggang which is internationally known for its quality.
The country's problems with goods distribution and power output has forced North Korean brewers to innovate. To minimize distribution, many restaurants and hotels maintain their own microbreweries. Because unreliable power supply makes it difficult to refrigerate beer, North Koreans have developed their own steam beer, an originally American beer style brewed in higher than normal temperatures, that is widely available.
Although the Korean liquor soju is preferred, beer comes second when it comes to consumption. Since the 1980s, beer has been within reach of ordinary North Koreans, though it is still rationed. Tourists, on the other hand, enjoy inexpensive beer without such limitations.
Philippines
Singapore
South Korea
Sri Lanka
Syria
Taiwan
Thailand
Turkey
Vietnam
Europe
Europe's largest single brewery and single malting facility in terms of installed capacity currently are the Obolon CJSC's production facility in Kyiv, Ukraine, and malting facility in Chemerivtsi, Khmelnytskyi Oblast, Ukraine, respectively
Albania
The best known beer in Albania is Birra Tirana. Also well-known beer brands are Birra Korça, Birra Kaon, Birra Puka and Birra Stela.
Austria
Belgium
Croatia
Czech Republic
Denmark
France
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Beer is a historic traditions in Latvia and is known to have been made before the Northern Crusades in the 13th century. Today, the most popular brand in Latvia is Aldaris (based in Riga).
Lithuania
This Baltic state has a major beer scene in the northern part of the country, centred around the towns of Pasvalys, Pakruojis, Kupiškis and Biržai. The farmhouse brews of the region are highly distinctive, using local ingredients and techniques from pre-Soviet times.
The biggest commercial breweries are located in towns Utena (Utenos alus'''), Panevėžys (Kalnapilis), Klaipėda (Švyturys), Kaunas (Ragutis) and Vilnius (Tauras).
Macedonia
The best-known beer in Macedonia is Skopsko. There are also Silver Moon, Zlaten Dab, Bitolsko, Gorsko etc.
Netherlands
Norway
In addition to the major breweries that mostly brew pilsner beer, there are a number of microbreweries brewing a variety of other types of beer.
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Serbia
Slovakia
The most famous brands in Slovakia are Šariš, Smädný mních (Thirsty Monk) and Zlatý Bažant (Golden pheasant'').
There are 15 breweries in Slovakia:
Pivovar Bytča (K. K. Company) - Martiner, Popper, Palatín
Pivovar Corgoň (Heineken Slovensko a.s.) - Corgoň, Maurus, Stup
Pivovar a sladovňa Gemer a.s. (Heineken Slovensko a.s.) - Gemer, Zuzana
Pivovar Horden (Esperia a.s.) - Horden
Pivovar Hurbanovo (Heineken Slovensko a.s.) - Zlatý Bažant, Heineken
Pivovar Ilava (K. K. Company) - Richtár, Vartáš
Pivovar Martiner (Heineken Slovensko a.s.) - Martiner, Martinský zdroj
Minipivovar M.K. Unipol Trnava
Steiger (Eduard Rada s.r.o.) - Steiger, Sitňan, Hell, Kachelmann
Pivovar Stein a.s. - Stein, Pressburger, Premium Pils, Dominik
Minipivovar Svätý Jur
Spain
Some known Spanish beers are Mahou-San Miguel (known as Mahou before the acquisition by San Miguel company), Estrella Damm, Alhambra, Estrella Galicia, Estrella Levante, Cruzcampo, Reina, Dorada and La Zaragozana (Ambar).
Sweden
United Kingdom
North America
Canada
Mexico
Beer in Mexico has a long history. Mesoamerican cultures knew of fermented alcoholic drinks, including a corn beer. Only two corporations, Grupo Modelo (owned by Anheuser-Busch InBev) and FEMSA (owned by Heineken International) control the majority of the Mexican beer market. Beer is a major export for the country, with most going to the United States, but is available in over 150 countries in the world.
United States
Oceania
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tahiti
Vanuatu
South America
Argentina
With almost 80% of the Argentine market, Cerveza Quilmes is the most popular Argentine beer. Third in the market is Schneider. The most consumed foreign beers are Heineken and Budweiser.
Brazil
Colombia
With almost 90% of the Colombia market, Bavaria is the most popular Colombian beer.
Peru
The consumption per capita in Peru is 22 liters per year.
Three local producers are:
Sab Miller, with the local brands: Cusqueña, Cristal, Pilsen, Arequipeña and the Honduran but local-made Barena;
AmBev, with the Brazilian, but also local made, Brahma;
Ajeper, with the all new Franca. This is a Peruvian company.
Also, there is a selection of imported beers such as Erdinger and Flensburger from Germany, Strong Suffolk and Abbot from the UK, Corona from Mexico, Heineken from the Netherlands, Sapporo from Japan, Stella Artois (the Belgian brand, but made in Argentina), Quilmes also from Argentina, etc.
There are also small local producers of standard beer and many producers of the ancient beer named Chicha, normally made of a local corn named Jora in the traditional "Chicherías".
Venezuela
Beer consumption per capita
See also
List of countries by alcohol consumption
List of microbreweries
List of national drinks
Alcohol belts of Europe – Beer belt
References
Works cited
External links
Alcohol-related lists
Lists of breweries
Lists of companies by country and industry
World cuisine | [
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260799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20National%20Railway | Canadian National Railway | The Canadian National Railway Company () is a Canadian Class I freight railway headquartered in Montreal, Quebec, which serves Canada and the Midwestern and Southern United States.
CN is Canada's largest railway, in terms of both revenue and the physical size of its rail network, spanning Canada from the Atlantic coast in Nova Scotia to the Pacific coast in British Columbia across approximately of track. In the late 20th century, CN gained extensive capacity in the United States by taking over such railroads as the Illinois Central.
CN is a public company with 24,000 employees, and it has a market cap of approximately CA$90 billion. CN was government-owned, having been a Canadian Crown corporation from its founding in 1919 until being privatized in 1995. , Bill Gates is the largest single shareholder of CN stock, owning a 10.04% interest through Cascade Investment and his own Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
From 1919 to 1960, the railway was referred to as "Canadian National Railways" (CNR).
History
The Canadian National Railways (CNR) was incorporated on June 6, 1919, comprising several railways that had become bankrupt and fallen into Government of Canada hands, along with some railways already owned by the government. Primarily a freight railway, CN also operated passenger services until 1978, when they were assumed by Via Rail. The only passenger services run by CN after 1978 were several mixed trains (freight and passenger) in Newfoundland, and several commuter trains both on CN's electrified routes and towards the South Shore in the Montreal area (the latter lasted without any public subsidy until 1986). The Newfoundland mixed trains lasted until 1988, while the Montreal commuter trains are now operated by Montreal's EXO.
On November 17, 1995, the Government of Canada privatized CN. Over the next decade, the company expanded significantly into the United States, purchasing Illinois Central Railroad and Wisconsin Central Transportation, among others.
Creation of the company, 1918–1923
The excessive construction of railway lines in Canada led to significant financial difficulties striking many of them, in the years leading up to 1920:
In response to public concerns, the Government of Canada assumed majority ownership of the near bankrupt Canadian Northern Railway (CNoR) on September 6, 1918, and appointed a "Board of Management" to oversee the company. At the same time, CNoR was also directed to assume management of Canadian Government Railways (CGR), a system mainly comprising the Intercolonial Railway of Canada (IRC), National Transcontinental Railway (NTR), Prince Edward Island Railway (PEIR), and the Hudson Bay Railway (HBR).
On December 20, 1918, the Government of Canada created the Canadian National Railways (CNR) – a body with no corporate powers – through Order in Council as a means to simplify the funding and operation of the various railway companies. The absorption of the Intercolonial Railway would see CNR adopt that system's slogan, The People's Railway.
Another Canadian railway, the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway (GTPR), encountered financial difficulty on March 7, 1919, when its parent company Grand Trunk Railway (GTR) defaulted on repayment of construction loans to the Government of Canada.
The Canadian National Railway Company then evolved through the following steps:
the "railways, works and undertakings of the Companies comprised in the Canadian Northern System" were vested in the newly incorporated Company in June 1919, with provision for the later inclusion of any of the Government Railways
vesting of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway System in the Minister of Railways and Canals, acting as Government Receiver, in March 1919
acquisition of the Grand Trunk Railway System in November 1919, implemented in May 1920
GTR management and shareholders opposed to nationalization took legal action, but after several years of arbitration, the GTR was finally absorbed into the CNR on January 30, 1923. Although several smaller independent railways would be added to the CNR in subsequent years as they went bankrupt or it became politically expedient to do so, the system was more or less finalized at that point. However, certain related lawsuits were not resolved until as late as 1936.
Canadian National Railways was born out of both wartime and domestic urgency. Until the rise of the personal automobile and creation of taxpayer-funded all-weather highways, railways were the only viable long-distance land transportation available in Canada. As such, their operation consumed a great deal of public and political attention. Canada was one of many nations to engage in railway nationalization in order to safeguard critical transportation infrastructure during the First World War.
In the early 20th century, many governments were taking a more interventionist role in the economy, foreshadowing the influence of economists like John Maynard Keynes. This political trend, combined with broader geo-political events, made nationalization an appealing choice for Canada. The Winnipeg General Strike of 1919 and allied involvement in the Russian Revolution seemed to validate the continuing process. The need for a viable rail system was paramount in a time of civil unrest and foreign military action.
Canadian National's Acquisitions
Savage Alberta Railway
On December 1, 2006, CN announced that it had purchased Savage Alberta Railway for $25 million and that it had begun operating the railway the same day.
Mackenzie Northern Railway
In 2006, CN acquired Mackenzie Northern Railway, previously purchased by RailAmerica. This purchase allowed CN to increase their network footprint and hold the northernmost trackage of the contiguous North American railway network. Since being purchased by CN in 2006, it has been officially known as the Meander River Subdivision.
Wisconsin Central Railroad
In January 2001, CN acquired the WC for $800 million.
Duluth Missabe & Iron Range Railroad
The DM&IR was purchased by Great Lakes Transportation and in 2011 the DM&IR was merged into CN's Wisconsin Central Subsidiary. The DM&IR was acquired at the same time as the Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad.
Duluth Winnipeg & Pacific Railroad
The DWP was nationalized with CN in 1918 and became a part of CN's Grand Trunk Corporation in 1971. In 2011 the DWP was merged into the larger Wisconsin Central Subsidiary of CN.
Elgin Joliet & Eastern Railroad
In 2007 CN acquired the EJ&E to assist with traffic congestion in Chicago and the surrounding area. In 2013 EJ&E was merged into the greater Wisconsin Central Subsidiary of CN.
Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad
The B&LE was acquired with the purchase of Great Lakes Transportation and the DM&IR.
Grand Trunk Western Railroad
The GTW was merged with Central Vermont in 1971 with the creation of the Grand Trunk Corporation. In 1991 the GTW was merged with CN under the "North America" consolidation program. Many of GTWs locomotives and rolling stock would be repainted and the motive power would get the new CN scheme.
Central Vermont Railway
Central Vermont was nationalized in 1918 and consolidated into the Grand Trunk Western in 1971 with the creation of the Grand Trunk Corporation.
British Columbia Railway
In 2003, BCOL sold to Canadian National and leased the railroad to CN for 990 years.
Illinois Central Railroad
In 1998 IC was purchased by CN and CN also acquired the Chicago Central in the deal.
Pros and cons of nationalization
Regardless of the political and economic importance of railway transportation in Canada, there were many critics of the Canadian government's policies in maintaining CNR as a Crown corporation from its inception in 1918 until its privatization in 1995. Some of the most scathing criticism came from the railway industry itself—namely the commercially successful Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), which argued its taxes should not be used to fund a competitor.
As a result of history and geography, the CPR served larger population centres in the southern Prairies, while the CNR's merged system served as a de facto government colonization railway to serve remote and underdeveloped regions of Western Canada, northern Ontario and Quebec, and the Maritimes.
CN was also disadvantaged by being formed from a collection of insolvent rail systems that were not intrinsically viable, as they seldom had the shortest route between any major cities or industrial centres; to this day, CN has many division points far from significant industries or traffic sources. The only notable exception is the former Grand Trunk mainline between Montreal and Chicago.
The company was also used as an instrument of Government of Canada policy, from the operation of ferries in Atlantic Canada, to assuming the operation of the narrow-gauge Newfoundland Railway following that province's entry into Confederation, and the partnership with CPR in purchasing and operating the Northern Alberta Railways.
CNR as a social and economic tool
CNR was considered competitive with CPR in several areas, notably in Central Canada, prior to the age of the automobile and the dense highway network that grew in Ontario and Quebec. The former GTR's superior track network in the Montreal–Chicago corridor has always been a more direct route with higher capacity than CPR's. CNR was also considered a railway industry leader throughout its time as a Crown corporation in terms of research and development into railway safety systems, logistics management, and in terms of its relationship with labour unions.
Deregulation and recapitalization
From the creation of CNR in 1918 until its recapitalization in 1978, whenever the company posted a deficit, the Government of Canada would assume those costs in the government budget. The result of various governments using CNR as a vehicle for various social and economic policies was a subsidization running into billions of dollars over successive decades. Following its 1978 recapitalization and changes in management, CN (name changed to Canadian National Railway, using the shortened acronym CN in 1960) started to operate much more efficiently, by assuming its own debt, improving accounting practices to allow depreciation of assets and to access financial markets for further capital. Now operating as a for-profit Crown corporation, CN reported a profit in 11 of the 15 years from 1978 to 1992, paying million in cash dividends (profit) to the Government of Canada in this time.
Cutbacks and refocusing
CN's rise to profitability was assisted when the company started to remove itself from non-core freight rail transportation starting in 1977 when subsidiary Air Canada (created in 1937 as Trans-Canada Air Lines) became a separate federal Crown corporation. That same year saw CN move its ferry operations into a separate Crown corporation named CN Marine, followed similarly by the grouping of passenger rail services (for marketing purposes) under the name Via-CN. The following year (1978), the Government of Canada decided to create Via Rail as a separate Crown corporation to take over passenger services previously offered by both CN and CPR, including CN's flagship transcontinental train the Super Continental and its eastern counterpart the Ocean. CN Marine was renamed Marine Atlantic in 1986 to remove any references to its former parent organization. CN also grouped its money-losing Newfoundland operations into a separate subsidiary called Terra Transport so federal subsidies for this service would be more visible in company statements.
CN also divested itself in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s of several non-rail transportation activities such as trucking subsidiaries, a hotel chain (sold to CPR), real estate, and telecommunications companies. The biggest telecommunications property was a company co-owned by CN and CP (CNCP Telecommunications) that originated from a joint venture involving the railways' respective telegraph services. On its sale in the 1980s, it was successively renamed Unitel (United Telecommunications), AT&T Canada, and Allstream as it went through various owners and branding agreements. CN sold Terra Nova Tel to Newfoundland Telephone in 1988. Another telecommunications property wholly owned and built by CN was the CN Tower in Toronto, which still keeps its original name but was divested by the railway company in the mid-1990s. All proceeds from such sales were used to pay down CN's accumulated debt. At the time of their divestitures, all of these subsidiaries required considerable subsidies, which partly explained CN's financial problems prior to recapitalization.
CN also was given free rein by the Government of Canada following deregulation of the railway industry in the 1970s, as well as in 1987, when railway companies began to make tough business decisions by removing themselves from operating money-losing branch lines. In CN's case, some of these branch lines were those it had been forced to absorb through Government of Canada policies and outright patronage, while others were from the heady expansion era of rural branch lines in the 1920s and early 1930s and were considered obsolete following the development of local road networks.
In the period starting in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, thousands of kilometres of railway lines were abandoned, including the complete track networks on Newfoundland (CN subsidiary Terra Transport, the former Newfoundland Railway ended railway freight operations and mixed freight-passenger trains in 1988. Mainline Passenger rail service in Newfoundland ended in 1969.) and Prince Edward Island (the former PEIR), as well as numerous branch lines in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Southern Ontario, throughout the Prairie provinces, in the British Columbia interior, and on Vancouver Island. Virtually every rural area served by CN in some form was affected, creating resentment for the company and the Government of Canada. Many of these now-abandoned rights-of-way were divested by CN and the Government of Canada and have since been converted into recreational trails by local municipalities and provincial governments.
CN's U.S. subsidiaries prior to privatization
CN's railway network in the late 1980s consisted of the company's Canadian trackage, along with the following U.S. subsidiary lines: Grand Trunk Western Railroad (GTW) operating in Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois; Duluth, Winnipeg and Pacific Railway (DWP) operating in Minnesota; Central Vermont Railway (CV) operating down the Connecticut River valley from Quebec to Long Island Sound; and the Berlin subdivision to Portland, Maine, known informally as the Grand Trunk Eastern, sold to a short-line operator in 1989.
Privatization
In 1992, a new management team led by ex-federal government bureaucrats, Paul Tellier and Michael Sabia, started preparing CN for privatization by emphasizing increased productivity. This was achieved largely through aggressive cuts to the company's management structure, widescale layoffs in its workforce and continued abandonment or sale of its branch lines. In 1993 and 1994, the company experimented with a rebranding that saw the names CN, Grand Trunk Western, and Duluth, Winnipeg, and Pacific replaced under a collective CN North America moniker. In this time, CPR and CN entered into negotiations regarding a possible merger of the two companies. This was later rejected by the Government of Canada, whereupon CPR offered to purchase outright all of CN's lines from Ontario to Nova Scotia, while an unidentified U.S. railroad (rumoured to have been Burlington Northern Railroad) would purchase CN's lines in western Canada. This too was rejected. In 1995, the entire company including its U.S. subsidiaries reverted to using CN exclusively.
The CN Commercialization Act was enacted into law on July 13, 1995, and by November 28, 1995, the Government of Canada had completed an initial public offering (IPO) and transferred all of its shares to private investors. Two key prohibitions in this legislation include, 1) that no individual or corporate shareholder may own more than 15% of CN, and 2) that the company's headquarters must remain in Montreal, thus maintaining CN as a Canadian corporation.
Contraction and expansion since privatization
Following the successful IPO, CN has recorded impressive gains in its stock price, largely through an aggressive network rationalization and purchase of newer more fuel-efficient locomotives. Numerous branch lines were shed in the late 1990s across Canada, resulting in dozens of independent short line railway companies being established to operate former CN track that had been considered marginal. This network rationalization resulted in a core east–west freight railway stretching from Halifax to Chicago and Toronto to Vancouver and Prince Rupert. The railway also operated trains from Winnipeg to Chicago using trackage rights for part of the route south of Duluth.
In addition to the rationalization in Canada, the company also expanded in a strategic north–south direction in the central United States. In 1998, in an era of mergers in the U.S. rail industry, CN bought the Illinois Central Railroad (IC), which connected the already existing lines from Vancouver, British Columbia to Halifax, Nova Scotia with a line running from Chicago, Illinois to New Orleans, Louisiana. This single purchase of IC transformed CN's entire corporate focus from being an east–west uniting presence within Canada (sometimes to the detriment of logical business models) into a north–south NAFTA railway (in reference to the North American Free Trade Agreement). CN is now feeding Canadian raw material exports into the U.S. heartland and beyond to Mexico through a strategic alliance with Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS).
In 1999, CN and BNSF Railway, the second largest rail system in the U.S., announced their intent to merge, forming a new corporate entity North American Railways, headquartered in Montreal to conform to the CN Commercialization Act of 1995. The merger announcement by CN's Paul Tellier and BNSF's Robert Krebs was greeted with skepticism by the U.S. government's Surface Transportation Board (STB), and protested by other major North American rail companies, namely CPR and Union Pacific Railroad (UP). Rail customers also denounced the proposed merger, following the confusion and poor service sustained in southeastern Texas in 1998 following UP's purchase of Southern Pacific Railroad two years earlier. In response to the rail industry, shippers, and political pressure, the STB placed a 15-month moratorium on all rail-industry mergers, effectively scuttling CN-BNSF plans. Both companies dropped their merger applications and have never refiled.
After the STB moratorium expired, CN purchased Wisconsin Central (WC) in 2001, which allowed the company's rail network to encircle Lake Michigan and Lake Superior, permitting more efficient connections from Chicago to western Canada. The deal also included Canadian WC subsidiary Algoma Central Railway (ACR), giving access to Sault Ste. Marie and Michigan's Upper Peninsula. The purchase of Wisconsin Central also made CN the owner of EWS, the principal freight train operator in the United Kingdom.
On May 13, 2003, the provincial government of British Columbia announced the provincial Crown corporation, BC Rail (BCR), would be sold with the winning bidder receiving BCR's surface operating assets (locomotives, cars, and service facilities). The provincial government is retaining ownership of the tracks and right-of-way. On November 25, 2003, it was announced CN's bid of billion would be accepted over those of CPR and several U.S. companies. The transaction was closed effective July 15, 2004. Many opponents – including CPR – accused the government and CN of rigging the bidding process, though this has been denied by the government. Documents relating to the case are under court seal, as they are connected to a parallel marijuana grow-op investigation connected with two senior government aides also involved in the sale of BC Rail.
Also contested was the economic stimulus package the government gave cities along the BC Rail route. Some saw it as a buy-off to get the municipalities to cooperate with the lease, though the government asserted the package was intended to promote economic development along the corridor. Passenger service along the route had been ended by BC Rail a few years earlier due to ongoing losses resulting from deteriorating service. The cancelled passenger service has subsequently been replaced by a blue-plate tourist service, the Rocky Mountaineer, with fares well over double what the BCR coach fares had been.
CN also announced in October 2003 an agreement to purchase Great Lakes Transportation (GLT), a holding company owned by Blackstone Group for US$380 million. GLT was the owner of Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, Duluth, Missabe and Iron Range Railway (DM&I), and the Pittsburgh & Conneaut Dock Company. The key instigator for the deal was the fact that since the Wisconsin Central purchase, CN was required to use DM&I trackage rights for a short "gap" near Duluth, Minnesota, on the route between Chicago and Winnipeg. To purchase this short section, CN was told by GLT it would have to purchase the entire company. Also included in GLT's portfolio were eight Great Lakes vessels for transporting bulk commodities such as coal and iron ore as well as various port facilities. Following Surface Transportation Board approval for the transaction, CN completed the purchase of GLT on May 10, 2004.
On December 24, 2008, the STB approved CN's purchase for $300 million of the principal lines of the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern Railway Company (EJ&E) (reporting mark EJE) from the U.S. Steel Corporation, originally announced on September 27, 2007. The STB's decision was to become effective on January 23, 2009, with a closure of the transaction shortly thereafter. The EJ&E lines create a bypass around the western side of heavily congested Chicago-area rail hub and its conversion to use for mainline freight traffic is expected to alleviate substantial bottlenecks for both regional and intercontinental rail traffic subject to lengthy delays entering and exiting Chicago freight yards. The purchase of the lightly used EJ&E corridor was positioned by CN as a boon not only for its own business but for the efficiency of the entire U.S. rail system.
On December 31, 2011, CN completed the merger of DM&I, DWP, and WC into its Wisconsin Central Ltd. subsidiary.
In March 2021, CN subsidiary WCL reached a deal to sell roughly of non-core rail lines and assets in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Ontario to short-line operator Watco.
In April 2021, CN bid nearly $30 billion for Kansas City Southern (KCS), ostensibly creating a bidding war between itself and CPR, who had placed a $25 billion bid for the company in March. CN's offer represented a 21% premium to the one made by Canadian Pacific, offering $325 for each share and including $200 in cash. The move by CN was influenced by the projected economic upturn once the world began to emerge from the COVID-19 pandemic, with KCS's railroad network reaching from Canada, through the United States, and running along the Panama Canal. On May 21, CN and KCS agreed to merge, but lengthy regulatory approvals are required to put it into effect. However, on August 31, the US Surface Transportation Board (STB) denied a voting trust between CN and KCS. With the decision by the STB, KCS re-engaged with CP on CP's original offer.
CN today
Since the company operates in two countries, CN maintains some corporate distinction by having its U.S. lines incorporated under the Delaware-domiciled Grand Trunk Corporation for legal purposes; however, the entire company in both Canada and the U.S. operates under CN, as can be seen in its locomotive and rail car repainting programs.
Since the Illinois Central purchase in 1998 CN has been increasingly focused on running a "scheduled freight railroad/railway." This has resulted in improved shipper relations, as well as reduced the need for maintaining pools of surplus locomotives and freight cars. CN has also undertaken a rationalization of its existing track network by removing double track sections in some areas and extending passing sidings in other areas.
CN is also a rail industry leader in the employment of radio-control (R/C) for switching locomotives in yards, resulting in reductions to the number of yard workers required. CN has frequently been touted in recent years within North American rail industry circles as being the most-improved railroad in terms of productivity and the lowering of its operating ratio, acknowledging the fact the company is becoming increasingly profitable. Due to the rising popularity of ethanol, shuttle trains, and mineral commodities, CN Rail Service is increasing in popularity.
Projects
In April 2012 a plan was announced to build an railway that would run north from Sept-Îles, Quebec; the railway would support mining and other resource extraction in the Labrador Trough.
In September 2012, CN announced the trial of locomotives fuelled by natural gas as a potential alternative to conventional diesel fuel. Two EMD SD40 diesel-electric locomotives fuelled with 90% natural gas and 10% diesel were tested in service between Edmonton and Fort McMurray, Alberta.
Controversies
Accidents
In December 1999 the Ultratrain, a petroleum products unit train linking the Levis (Quebec) Ultramar oil refinery with a petroleum depot in Montreal, exploded when it collided with a derailed freight train travelling in the opposite direction between Sainte-Madeleine and Saint-Hilaire-Est, south of Montreal, killing the crew of the freight train (the Ultratrain crew's last words were "you guys are derailed, we're hitting you!"). The other train derailed at a broken rail caused by a defective weld that was not fixed in time, despite being repeatedly reported by train crews; the report by the Transportation Safety Board of Canada called into question CN's quality assurance program for rail welds as well as the lack of detection equipment for defective wheels. In memory of the dead crewmen, two new stations on the line have been named after them (Davis and Thériault).
On May 14, 2003, a trestle collapsed under the weight of a freight train near McBride, British Columbia, killing both crew members. Both men had been disciplined earlier for refusing to take another train on the same bridge, claiming it was unsafe. It was revealed that as far back as 1999, several bridge components had been reported as rotten, yet no repairs had been ordered by management. Eventually, the disciplinary records of both crewmen were amended posthumously.
Two CN trains collided on August 4, 2007, on the banks of the Fraser River near Prince George, British Columbia. Several cars carrying gasoline, diesel and lumber burst into flames. Water bombers were used to help put out the fires. Some fuel had seeped into the Fraser River.
On December 4, 2007, a CN train derailed near Edmonton in Strathcona County, Alberta, at 3:30 a.m Mountain Standard Time. Of the 28 cars derailed, the majority were empty or carrying non-hazardous materials such as lumber or pipes.
Derailments
On May 27, 2002, a CN train derailed at 12:30 p.m. north of Vermontville Highway in Potterville, Michigan. The train was hauling a total of 58 cars. Thirty-five of the cars derailed and 11 of them contained hazmat material. Nine were carrying propane and two cars carried sulfuric acid. Two of the propane tankers were leaking and a third was suspected of leaking. Each propane car contains 34,000 gallons of propane gas which is considered an extreme fire and explosive hazard. An evacuation of Potterville was declared. CN along with other agencies worked throughout the week to clean the area.
A second CN train derailment in Potterville, Michigan, occurred in May 2006, though no evacuation was necessary. The cause of this derailment was found to be a failed wheel bearing on the 82nd car.
About 9:04 am central standard time on February 9, 2003, northbound CN freight train M33371 derailed 22 of its 108 cars in Tamaroa, Illinois. Four of the derailed cars released methanol, and the methanol from two of these four cars fueled a fire. Other derailed cars contained phosphoric acid, hydrochloric acid, formaldehyde, and vinyl chloride. Two cars containing hydrochloric acid, one car containing formaldehyde, and one car containing vinyl chloride released product but were not involved in the fire. About 850 residents were evacuated from the area within a radius of the derailment, which included the entire village of Tamaroa. Improper placement of bond wire welds on the head of the rail just outside the joint bars, where untempered martensite associated with the welds led to fatigue and subsequent cracking that, because of increased stresses associated with known soft ballast conditions, rapidly progressed to rail failure.
On August 5, 2005, in the Cheakamus River derailment, a CN train had nine cars derail on a bridge over the Cheakamus River, causing of caustic soda to spill into the river, killing thousands of fish by caustic burns and asphyxiation. The CBC reported environmental experts say it would take the river 50 years or more to recover from the toxic pollution. CN is facing accusations from local British Columbians over the railway's supposed lack of response to this issue, touted as the worst chemical spill in British Columbia's history.
A derailment at Moran, north of Lillooet, on June 30, 2006, has raised more questions about CN's safety policies. Two more derailments near Lytton in August 2006 have continued criticism. In the first case, 20 coal cars of a CPR train using a CN bridge derailed, dumping 12 cars of coal into the Thompson River. In the second case half a dozen grain cars spilled on a CN train.
At approximately 8:36 p.m., Central Daylight Time, on Friday, June 19, 2009, eastbound CN freight train U70691-18, traveling at , derailed at a highway/rail grade crossing in Cherry Valley, Illinois (near Rockford). The train consisted of two locomotives and 114 cars, 19 of which derailed. All of the derailed cars were tank cars carrying denatured fuel ethanol, a flammable liquid. Thirteen of the derailed tank cars were breached or lost product and caught fire. At the time of the derailment, several motor vehicles were stopped on either side of the grade crossing waiting for the train to pass. As a result of the fire that erupted after the derailment, a passenger in one of the stopped cars was fatally injured, two passengers in the same car received serious injuries, and five occupants of other cars waiting at the highway/rail crossing were injured. Two responding firefighters also sustained minor injuries. The release of ethanol and the resulting fire prompted a mandatory evacuation of about 600 residences within a radius of the accident site. Monetary damages were estimated to total $7.9 million. The probable cause of the accident was the washout of the track structure that was discovered about 1 hour before the train's arrival, and CN's failure to notify the train crew of the known washout in time to stop the train because of the inadequacy of CN's emergency communication procedures. Contributing to the accident was the CN's failure to work with Winnebago County to develop a comprehensive storm water management plan to address the previous washouts in 2006 and 2007. Contributing to the severity of the accident was the CN's failure to issue the flash flood warning to the train crew and the inadequate design of the DOT-111 tank cars, which made the cars subject to damage and catastrophic loss of hazardous materials in the derailment.
Disputes
In March 2004 a strike by the Canadian Auto Workers union showed deep-rooted divisions between organized labour and the company's current management.
Transport Canada has restricted CN to trains not exceeding 80 car lengths because of the multiple derailments on the former BCR line north from Squamish. This was due to sufficient warnings from the former B.C. Rail to Canadian National Railway to avoid trains of over 60 cars. Unfortunately these warnings were ignored by CN who had been running trains well in excess of 80 cars on this winding and mountainous section of track, known for some of the steepest track in North America.
In October 2013 the James Street bridge between Thunder Bay and Fort William First Nation was subject to an act of arson causing great structural damage to the bridge. The bridge was the most direct route between Thunder Bay and Fort William First Nation reserve and was used by foot traffic, vehicular traffic, and rail traffic. The matter of who is responsible for the maintenance and repair of the bridge is subject to great controversy between the City of Thunder Bay and CN due to an agreement dating back to 1906 between the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway Company (later incorporated as CNR along with other railways) and the City of Fort William (later merged with the City of Port Arthur into the City of Thunder Bay). The 1906 Agreement states that "The Company will give the Municipal Corporation the perpetual right to cross said bridge for ...vehicle and foot traffic" and that "The Company will maintain the bridge in perpetuity without cost to the Town..." After the fire, CN made repairs to the bridge for use of its rail system but did not repair the damage to the vehicle lanes which render it unsafe for vehicle use. CN maintains that the 1906 Agreement does not speak to replacement of the bridge while the position of the City of Thunder Bay is that CN is solely responsible for making the necessary repairs to restore function to the vehicle lanes of the bridge.
Other incidents
Controversy arose again in Canadian political circles in 2003 following the company's decision to refer solely to its acronym "CN" and not "Canadian National", a move some interpret as being an attempt to distance the company from references to "Canada". Canada's Minister of Transport at the time called this policy move "obscene" after nationalists noted it could be argued the company is no longer Canadian, being primarily owned by American stockholders. The controversy is somewhat tempered by the fact a majority of large corporations are being increasingly referred to by acronyms.
The residents of Wabamun Lake, in Alberta, staged a blockade of CN tracks in August 2005, when they were unsatisfied with the railway's response to a derailment catastrophe that spilled over 700,000 Litres of tarry fuel oil and about 80,000 L of carcinogenic pole treatment oil into the lake. Reporters found pre-spill evidence. CN executives admitted CN failed to provide public safety information to prevent public exposure to carcinogenic, toxic chemicals. The tar-like oil and chemicals killed over 500 large migratory birds, animals, fish and other aquatic life.
In the years following CN's 1998 acquisition of Illinois Central, the company has come under scrutiny for illicit practices that allegedly cause the delay of Amtrak schedules. In 2012, Amtrak filed a formal complaint against CN with the Surface Transportation Board, stating that the prioritization of freight traffic over passenger traffic was commonplace on Amtrak routes operating on CN lines. The complaint cited over 4,000 delays during fiscal year 2011 on the route between Chicago and Carbondale, totaling over 26 days of net wasted schedule time; it also reported 99% of delays between Chicago and New Orleans on the City of New Orleans route were caused by CN dispatching issues. In 2018, Amtrak began issuing public report cards, grading the impact of freight railroads on passenger train performance. CN received the lowest-possible grade of "F" on the first card issued in March 2018.
Non-rail subsidiaries
CN Telegraph
CN Telegraph originated as the Great North West Telegraph Company in 1880 to connect Ontario and Manitoba and became a subsidiary of Western Union in 1881. In 1915, facing bankruptcy, GNWTC was acquired by the Canadian Northern Railway's telegraph company. When Canadian Northern was nationalized in 1918 and amalgamated into Canadian National Railways in 1921, its telegraph arm was renamed the Canadian National Telegraph Company. CN Telegraphs began co-operating with its Canadian Pacific-owned rival CPR Telegraphs in the 1930s, sharing telegraph networks and co-founding a teleprinter system in 1957. In 1967 the two services were amalgamated into a joint venture CNCP Telecommunications which evolved into a telecoms company. CN sold its stake of the company to CP in 1984.
CNR Radio
In 1923 CNR's second president, Sir Henry Thornton who succeeded David Blyth Hanna (1919–1922), created the CNR Radio Department to provide passengers with entertainment radio reception and give the railway a competitive advantage over its rival, CP. This led to the creation of a network of CNR radio stations across the country, North America's first radio network. As anyone in the vicinity of a station could hear its broadcasts the network's audience extended far beyond train passengers to the public at large.
Claims of unfair competition from CP as well as pressure on the government to create a public broadcasting system similar to the British Broadcasting Corporation led the government of R.B. Bennett (who had been a corporate lawyer with Canadian Pacific as a client prior to entering politics) to pressure CNR into ending its on-train radio service in 1931 and then withdrawing from the radio business entirely in 1933. CNR's radio assets were sold for $50,000 to a new public broadcaster, the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission, which in turn became the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 1936.
CN Hotels
Canadian railways built and operated their own resort hotels, ostensibly to provide rail passengers travelling long distances a place to sleep overnight. These hotels became attractions in and of themselves – a place for a rail passenger to go for a holiday. As each railway company sought to be more attractive than its competitors, they made their hotels more attractive and luxurious.
Canadian National Hotels was the CNRs chain of hotels and was a combination of hotels inherited by the CNR when it acquired various railways and structures built by the CNR itself. The chain's principal rival was Canadian Pacific Hotels.
Canadian National Steamship Company
Canadian National operated a fleet of passenger and cargo vessels on both the West Coast and East Coast of Canada which operated under a branch of the company known as Canadian National Steamships, later CN Marine.
West Coast
Swan Hunter and Wigham Richardson of Wallsend, England, built and for the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway in 1910. In 1930 Cammell Laird of Birkenhead, England, built , Prince Henry and Prince Robert. Prince Henry was sold in 1937. Prince George was destroyed by fire in 1945. Prince David and Prince Robert were requisitioned in 1939 as Royal Canadian Navy armed merchant cruisers, converted into landing ships in 1943, and sold in 1948. In 1948 a second Prince George was built by Yarrows Limited, becoming CN's sole remaining Pacific Coast passenger liner. She was switched from scheduled routes to pleasure cruises, and was the last CN ship that served the west coast. After a fire in 1975 she was sold in 1976 (first to British Columbia Steamship Company and finally Wong Brother Enterprises) before finally being sold to Chinese breakers in 1995 (and sank on her way to China in 1996 in Unimak Pass).
Former Canadian Northern Pacific ships
was built in 1918 for the Canadian Northern Pacific's Patricia Bay to Port Mann route. In 1919 the ship became part of Canadian National.
Former Grand Trunk Pacific steamships
These ships served the Pacific coast with GTP till Canadian National took possession of them in 1925:
(1910–56)
(1910–45) – Caught fire and destroyed in 1945.
Prince Albert
Prince John
CN-built steamships for the West Coast
Ships specially built for CN for the West Coast. After the Second World War steamship service had dropped and by the 1950s the ships were withdrawn. Prince George (II) stayed in service, but to do cruises on the West Coast. By 1975 Prince George (II) was retired, ending CN's steamship era on the West Coast.
Prince Charles
Prince William
(II) (1948–1975) – Built and replaced the first Prince George after it caught fire in 1945. Prince George (II) was the last ship that served the west coast for CN.
East Coast
In 1928–29 Cammell Laird built a set of five ships for CN to carry mail, passengers and freight between eastern Canada and the Caribbean via Bermuda. Each ship was named after the wife of an English or British admiral who was noted for his actions in the Caribbean, and who had been knighted or ennobled. They were therefore nicknamed the Lady-liners or Lady-boats. along with and were designed for service to eastern islands of the British West Indies and had larger passenger capacity but lesser cargo capacity than and who were built for service to western islands. In the Second World War Lady Somers was requisitioned as an ocean boarding vessel while her four sister ships continued in CN service. The sank Lady Somers in 1941. and Lady Drake were sunk by German U-boats in 1942. Lady Nelson was torpedoed in 1942 but refloated and converted to a hospital ship, while Lady Rodney survived the war unscathed. The two surviving Lady Boats, Nelson and Rodney, were sold in 1952 after declining passenger traffic and rising labour costs made them too expensive to run.
Cargo ships
In 1928 CN took over most of the fleet of Canadian Government Merchant Marine Ltd, giving it a fleet of about 45 cargo ships. When France surrendered to Germany in June 1940 the Canadian Government seized CGT's MV Maurienne and contracted CN to manage her.
Aquatrain
CN operated a rail barge service between Prince Rupert, British Columbia to Whittier, Alaska, from 1963 to 2021.
Corporate governance
Robert Pace is the chair of the CNR board. The other board members are Donald J. Carty, V. Maureen Kempston Darkes, Gordon D. Giffin, Edith E. Holiday, Luc Jobin, Denis Losier, Kevin G. Lynch, James E. O'Connor, Robert L. Phillips, and Laura Stein.
Heads of the corporation
Thornton and Harrison were the only non-Canadians to head CN.
Passenger trains
Early years
When CNR was first created, it inherited a large number of routes from its constituent railways, but eventually pieced its passenger network into one coherent network. For example, on December 3, 1920, CNR inaugurated the Continental Limited, which operated over four of its predecessors, as well as the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway. The 1920s saw growth in passenger travel, and CNR inaugurated several new routes and introduced new services, such as radio, on its trains. However, the growth in passenger travel ended with the Great Depression, which lasted between 1929 and 1939, but picked up somewhat in World War II. By the end of World War II, many of CNR's passenger cars were old and worn down. Accidents at Dugald, Manitoba, in 1947 and Canoe River, British Columbia, in 1950, wherein extra passenger trains composed of older, wooden equipment collided with transcontinental passenger trains composed of newer, all-steel equipment, demonstrated the dangers inherent in the older cars. In 1953, CNR ordered 359 lightweight passenger cars, allowing them to re-equip their major routes.
On April 24, 1955, the same day that the CPR introduced its transcontinental train The Canadian, CNR introduced its own new transcontinental passenger train, the Super Continental, which used new streamlined rolling stock. However, the Super Continental was never considered as glamorous as the Canadian. For example, it did not include dome cars. Dome cars would be added in the early 1960s with the purchase of six former Milwaukee Road "Super Domes". They were used on the Super Continental in the summer tourist season.
New services
Rail passenger traffic in Canada declined significantly between World War II and 1960 due to automobiles and airplanes. In the 1960s CN's privately owned rival CPR reduced its passenger services significantly. However, the government-owned CN continued much of its passenger services and marketed new schemes. One, introduced on 5 April 1962, was the "Red, White and Blue" fare structure, which offered deep discounts on off-peak days ("red") and were credited with increasing passenger numbers on some routes as much as 600%. Another exercise was the rebranding of the express trains in the Ontario–Quebec corridor with the Rapido label.
In 1968, CN introduced a new high-speed train, the United Aircraft Turbo, which was powered by gas turbines instead of diesel engines. It made the trip between Toronto and Montreal in four hours, but was not entirely successful because it was somewhat uneconomical and not always reliable. The trainsets were retired in 1982 and later scrapped at Metrecy, in Laval, Quebec.
On CN's narrow gauge lines in Newfoundland, CN also operated a main line passenger train that ran from St. John's to Port aux Basques called the Caribou. Nicknamed the Newfie Bullett, this train ran until June 1969. It was replaced by the CN Roadcruiser Buses. The CN Roadcruiser service was started in fall 1968 and was run in direct competition with the company's own passenger train. Travellers saw that the buses could travel between St. John's and Port aux Basques in 14 hours versus the train's 22 hours. After the demise of the Caribou, the only passenger train service run by CN on the island were the mixed (freight and passenger) trains that ran on the Bonavista, Carbonear and Argentia branch lines. The only passenger service surviving on the main line was between Bishop's Falls and Corner Brook.
In 1976, CN created an entity called Via-CN as a separate operating unit for its passenger services. Via evolved into a coordinated marketing effort with CP Rail for rail passenger services, and later into a separate Crown corporation responsible for inter-city passenger services in Canada. Via Rail took over CN's passenger services on April 1, 1978.
Decline
CN continued to fund its commuter rail services in Montreal until 1982, when the Montreal Urban Community Transit Commission (MUCTC) assumed financial responsibility for them; operation was contracted out to CN, which eventually spun off a separate subsidiary, Montrain, for this purpose. When the Montreal–Deux-Montagnes line was completely rebuilt in 1994–1995, the new rolling stock came under the ownership of the MUCTC, until a separate government agency, the Agence métropolitaine de transport (now AMT), was set up to consolidate all suburban transit administration around Montreal. Since then, suburban service has resumed to Saint-Hilaire, and a new line to Mascouche opened in December 2014.
In Newfoundland, Terra Transport would continue to operate the mixed trains on the branch lines until 1984. The main line run between Corner Brook and Bishop's Falls made its last run on September 30, 1988. Terra Transport/CN would run the Roadcruiser bus service until March 29, 1996, whereupon the bus service was sold off to DRL Coachlines of Triton, Newfoundland.
Expansion and service cuts
From the acquisition of the Algoma Central Railway in 2001 until service cancellation in July 2015, CN operated passenger service between Sault Ste. Marie and Hearst, Ontario. The passenger service operated three days per week and provided year-round access to remote tourist camps and resorts.
In January 2014, CN announced it was cutting the service, blaming the Government of Canada for cutting a subsidy necessary to keep the service running. It was argued as an essential service; however, the service had always been deemed financially uneconomic, and despite an extension of funding in April 2014, Algoma Central service was suspended as of July 2015.
CN operates the Agawa Canyon Tour excursion, an excursion that runs from Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, north to the Agawa Canyon. The canyon tour train consists of up to 28 passenger cars and 2 dining cars, the majority of which were built for CN by Canadian Car and Foundry in 1953–54. These cars were transferred to the D&RGW Ski Train and bought back by CN in 2009.
After CN acquired BC Rail in 2004, it started operating a railbus service between Seton Portage and Lillooet, British Columbia called the Kaoham Shuttle.
CN crews used to operate commuter trains on behalf of GO Transit in the Toronto and the surrounding vicinity. This changed in 2008 when a deal was reached with Bombardier Transportation that switched all CN crews for Bombardier crews.
Locomotives
Steam
The CNR acquired its first 4-8-4 Confederation locomotives in 1927. Over the next 20 years, it ordered over 200 for passenger and heavy freight service. The CNR also used several 4-8-2 Mountain locomotives, almost exclusively for passenger service. No. 6060, a streamlined 4-8-2, was the last CN steam locomotive, running in excursion service in the 1970s. CNR also used several 2-8-2 Mikado locomotives.
Electric
CN inherited from the Canadian Northern Railway several boxcab electrics used through the Mount Royal Tunnel. Those were built between 1914 and 1918 by General Electric in Schenectady, New York. To operate the new Montreal Central Station, which opened in 1943 and was to be kept free of locomotive smoke, they were supplemented by nearly identical locomotives from the National Harbours Board; those engines were built in 1924 by Beyer, Peacock & Company and English Electric. In 1950, three General Electric centre-cab electric locomotives were added to the fleet. In 1952 CN added electric multiple units built by Canadian Car and Foundry.
Electrification was restricted to Montreal, and went from Central Station to Saint-Lambert (south), Turcot (west), Montréal-Nord (east) and Saint-Eustache-sur-le-lac, later renamed Deux-Montagnes, (north). But as steam locomotives gave way to diesels, engine changeovers were no longer necessary, and catenary was eventually pulled from the west, east and from the south. However, until the end of the original electrification, CN's electric locomotives pulled Via Rail's trains, including its diesel electric locomotives, to and from Central Station.
The last 2,400 V DC CN electric locomotive ran on June 6, 1995, the very same locomotive that pulled the inaugural train through the Mount Royal Tunnel back in 1918. Later in 1995 the AMT's Electric Multiple Units began operating under 25 kV AC 60 Hz electrification, and in 2014, dual-power locomotives entered service on the Mascouche line.
Turbo
In May 1966, CN ordered five seven-car UAC TurboTrain for the Montreal–Toronto service. It planned to operate them in tandem, connecting two trains together into a larger fourteen-car arrangement with a total capacity of 644 passengers. The Canadian trains were built by Montreal Locomotive Works, with their ST6 engines supplied by UAC's Canadian division (now Pratt & Whitney Canada) in Longueuil, Quebec.
CN and their ad agency wanted to promote the new service as an entirely new form of transit, so they dropped the "train" from the name. In CN's marketing literature the train was referred to simply as the "Turbo", although it retained the full TurboTrain name in CN's own documentation and communication with UAC. A goal of CN's marketing campaign was to get the train into service for Expo '67, and the Turbo was rushed through its trials. It was late for Expo, a disappointment to all involved, but the hectic pace did not let up and it was cleared for service after only one year of testing.
The Turbo's first demonstration run in December 1968 with Conductor James Abbey of Toronto in command, included a large press contingent. An hour into its debut run, the Turbo collided with a truck at a highway crossing near Kingston.
The Turbo's final run was on October 31, 1982.
Diesel
CNR's first foray into diesel motive power was with self-propelled railcars. In November 1925, Railcar No. 15820 completed a 72-hour journey from Montreal to Vancouver with the diesel engine in nearly continuous operation for the entire trip. Railcars were used on marginal economic routes instead of the more-expensive-to-operate steam locomotives used for busier routes.
In 1929, the CNR made its first experiment with mainline diesel electric locomotives, acquiring two engines from Westinghouse, numbered 9000 and 9001. It was the first North American railway to use diesels in mainline service. These early units proved the feasibility of the diesel concept, but were not always reliable. No. 9000 served until 1939, and No. 9001 until 1947. The difficulties of the Great Depression precluded much further progress towards diesel locomotives. The CNR began its conversion to diesel locomotives after World War II, and had fully dieselized by 1960. Most of the CNR's first-generation diesel locomotives were made by General Motors Diesel (GMD) and Montreal Locomotive Works.
For its narrow-gauge lines in Newfoundland CN acquired from GMD the 900 series, Models NF110 (road numbers 900–908) and NF210 (road numbers 909–946). For use on the branch lines, CN purchased the EMD G8 (road numbers 800–805).
For passenger service the CNR acquired GMD FP9 diesels, as well as CLC CPA16-5, ALCO MLW FPA-2 and FPA-4 diesels. These locomotives made up most of the CNR's passenger fleet, although CN also owned some 60 RailLiners (Budd Rail Diesel Cars), some dual-purpose diesel freight locomotives (freight locomotives equipped with passenger train apparatus, such as steam generators) as well as the locomotives for the Turbo trainsets. Via acquired most of CN's passenger fleet when it took over CN passenger service in 1978.The CN fleet consists of 1,548 locomotives, most of which are products of either General Motors' Electro-Motive Division (EMD), or General Electric/GE Transportation Systems. Some locomotives more than 30 years old remain in service.
Much of the current roster is made up of EMD SD70I and EMD SD75I locomotives and GE C44-9W locomotives. Recently acquired are the new EMD SD70M-2 and GE ES44DC. Since 2015 the GE ES44AC & GE ET44AC are the latest units.
Beginning in the early summer months of 2010, CN purchased a small order of GE C40-8's and GE C40-8W's from Union Pacific and BNSF Railway, respectively. The intent was to use them as a cheaper power alternative. CN currently have 65 GE ES44ACs on its roster and all 65 were ordered and delivered from December 2012 – December 2013. They are CN's first AC-powered locomotives. In 2015, CN started ordering more GE units, the ET44AC. On November 17, 2020, CN revealed five heritage units to mark the 25th anniversary of becoming a publicly-traded company. They had originally been spotted a month earlier, but were not yet formally announced by the company. The locomotives were repainted into various schemes of railroads CN had previously acquired, and included four GE ET44ACs painted in IC, EJ&E, WC, and BC Rail paint, and an EMD SD70M-2 painted in GTW paint.
Major facilities
CN owns a large number of large yards and repair shops across their system. They are used for many operations, ranging from intermodal terminals to classification yards. Examples include:
Hump yards
Hump yards work by using a small hill over which cars are pushed before being released down a slope and switched automatically into cuts of cars, ready to join into outbound trains. CN's active humps include:
Vaughan, Ontario: MacMillan Yard
Winnipeg, Manitoba: Symington Yard
Gary, Indiana: Kirk Yard
Memphis, Tennessee: Harrison Yard
Other major yards
Battle Creek, Michigan: Battle Creek Yard
Calgary, Alberta: Sarcee Yard
Champaign, Illinois: Champaign Yard
Dartmouth, Nova Scotia: Dartmouth Yard
Edmonton, Alberta: Walker Yard (formerly Calder Yard) – Also home to CN's North American Operations Facility and rail traffic control
Flat Rock, Michigan: Flat Rock Yard
Flint, Michigan: Flint Yard
Fond du Lac, Wisconsin: Shops Yard
Homewood, Illinois: Markham Yard
Lévis, Quebec: Joffre Yard
Moncton, New Brunswick: Gordon Yard
Montreal, Quebec: Taschereau Yard
New Orleans, Louisiana: Mays Yard
Port Huron, Michigan: Port Huron Yard
Halifax, Nova Scotia: Rockingham Yard
Sarnia, Ontario: Sarnia Yard
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan: Chappell Yard
Surrey, British Columbia: Thornton Yard
Toledo, Ohio: Lang Yard
Windsor, Ontario: Van de Water Yard
Winnipeg, Manitoba: Transcona Shops, Symington Yard
Intermodal terminals
Auburn, Maine: terminal serviced the St. Lawrence & Atlantic Railroad
Calgary, Alberta
Chicago, Illinois
Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin
Detroit, Michigan (Ferndale)
Duluth, Minnesota
Edmonton, Alberta
Halifax, Nova Scotia
Gulfport, Mississippi
Jackson, Mississippi: terminal owned by the Kansas City Southern Railway
Memphis, Tennessee
Mobile, Alabama
Moncton, New Brunswick
Montreal, Quebec
New Orleans, Louisiana
Prince George, British Columbia
Prince Rupert, British Columbia
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Toronto, Ontario: main terminal is at Brampton, Ontario; smaller ramp and Roadrailer service at MacMillan Yard
Surrey, British Columbia
Winnipeg, Manitoba
See also
Narrow gauge railways in Canada
Canadian Pacific Railway
GO Transit
Newfoundland T'Railway
Ontario Northland Railway
Rail transport in Canada
References
Further reading
, illustrated description of the Canadian National Railway
External links
Canadian National Railway fonds (RG30/R231) at Library and Archives Canada
CN Images of Canada Gallery
Canadian National Railway Historic Photograph Collection
CNR Trucking: Express and Freight Vehicles
Perpetually Frozen Subsoil in Northern Canada Report at Dartmouth College Library
S&P/TSX 60
Companies based in Montreal
Alberta railways
Northwest Territories railways
British Columbia railways
Manitoba railways
New Brunswick railways
Defunct Newfoundland and Labrador railways
Nova Scotia railways
Ontario railways
Defunct Prince Edward Island railways
Quebec railways
Saskatchewan railways
Alabama railroads
Illinois railroads
Indiana railroads
Iowa railroads
Kentucky railroads
Louisiana railroads
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Canadian brands | [
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260803 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamboanga%20Sibugay | Zamboanga Sibugay | Zamboanga Sibugay, officially the Province of Zamboanga Sibugay (; ; Chavacano: Provincia de Zamboanga Sibugay), is a province in the Philippines located in the Zamboanga Peninsula region in Mindanao. Its capital is Ipil and it borders Zamboanga del Norte to the north, Zamboanga del Sur to the east and Zamboanga City to the southwest. To the south lies Sibuguey Bay in the Moro Gulf.
Zamboanga Sibugay is the 79th province created in the Philippines, when its territories were carved out from the third district of Zamboanga del Sur in 2001.
History
Zamboanga Sibugay was formerly part of Zamboanga del Sur. Attempts to divide Zamboanga del Sur into two separate provinces date as far back as the 1960s. Several bills were filed in the Philippine Congress, but remained unacted. The new province was finally created by Republic Act No. 8973 signed into law by President Joseph Estrada on November 7, 2000. On February 24, 2001, R.A. 8973 was ratified through a plebiscite conducted in 44 municipalities of Zamboanga del Sur and Pagadian City. Zamboanga del Sur Third District Representative George Hofer was appointed, and later elected as its first governor in 2001.
Government
Presently, former Diplahan Mayor Wilter Palma is the governor of the province, while the representatives of the first and second districts are Wilter "Sharky" Palma II and Dr. Dulce Ann K. Hofer, respectively.
Geography
Zamboanga Sibugay covers a total area of occupying the south-central section of the Zamboanga Peninsula in western Mindanao, at 7°48’N 122°40’E.
To the north it intersects the common municipal boundaries of Kalawit, Tampilisan, and Godod of Zamboanga del Norte. It is bordered to the west by the municipalities of Sirawai, Siocon, and Baliguian, to the south by the Sibuguey Bay, and to the east by the municipalities of Bayog and Kumalarang of Zamboanga del Sur. It is further bordered on the southwest by Zamboanga City.
Climate
The climate of the province is moderately normal (climate type III). Annual rainfall varies from . Temperature is relatively warm and constant throughout the year ranging from . The province is situated outside the country's typhoon belt.
Administrative divisions
Zamboanga Sibugay comprises 16 municipalities, organized into two congressional districts and further subdivided into 389 barangays.
Demographics
The population of Zamboanga Sibugay in the was people, with a density of .
The vast majority of the people of Zamboanga Sibugay speak Cebuano and Chavacano. Other languages such as Subanen and Tausug, among others, are also spoken, followed by English and Tagalog.
Religion
The province is predominantly Christian. Roman Catholics are the predominant Christians. Various sectarian groups are also present such as Baptists, Born-again Christians, Jehovah's Witnesses, Church of Christ of Latter Day Saints, Iglesia ni Cristo, and Seventh-Day Adventist. Islam comprises about 17% of the population.
Economy
The leading industries are in the areas of semi-processed rubber, rice and corn milling, ordinary food processing, wood and rattan furniture making, dried fish and squid processing, and home-made food processing. New industries include concrete products, garments, wax and candle factories, lime making, and other home and cottage industries.
Major crops produced include rice, corn, coconuts, rubber, fruit trees, vegetables, tobacco, coffee, cacao, and root crops. Livestock and poultry productions are predominantly small-scale and backyard operations. Coal mining in large and small scale and precious metal mining in small scale category are likewise present in some areas of the province.
Attractions
Rotunda Obelisk
Provincial Capitol
Buluan Island
Education
Private schools include:
Dr. Aurelio Mendoza Memorial Colleges (Dr. AMMC)
Marcelo Spinola School (MSS)
Marian College (MC)
Sibugay Technical Institute, Inc. (STII)
Universidad de Zamboanga (UZ)
Mindanao State University Buug Campus (MSU-BC)
Saint John College Buug (SJC)
Medina College Ipil (MC)
Sibugay Technical Institute, Inc. Imelda Branch (STII)
Western Mindanao State University (External Studies Unit (ESU)) in the following: Alicia, Diplahan, Imelda, Ipil, Mabuhay, Naga, Olutanga, Siay, Tungawan
IN BUUG;
There are two colleges in Buug. One is the government-owned, Mindanao State University - Buug Campus which offers courses in education, liberal arts, agriculture, and aquaculture. It also has a high school which also serves as the laboratory school of the College of Education. The other is the privately owned and medically inclined St. John General Hospital and College, Inc. Another private school, managed by the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres is also located here, the St. Paul School (formerly Holy Trinity Academy) which offers primary and high school education. The first high school which opened in Buug is Gabaldon Institute which is now called Western Mindanao Institute, another privately owned school. The first technical and vocational school which opened in buug year 2009 is INTERNACIONAL COLEGIO DE TECNOLOGIA (ICT) which offers courses in Electronics and Communication Technology, Electrical Technology, Information Technology, Hotel and Restaurant Management, Automotive and Metal Technology and now also offers SHS Grade-11 and Grade-12 courses offer in Academic Track in GAS and TVL Track in Industrial Arts strand, ICT strand, and Home Economics Strand. managed by ZALDY MASAYON GUMALANG the School President (SP-GUMALANG).
References
External links
Online news
Daily Zamboanga Times
The Official Website of Zamboanga Today Newspaper
Provinces of the Philippines
Zamboanga Peninsula
States and territories established in 2001
2001 establishments in the Philippines | [
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260806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodachrome%20Basin%20State%20Park | Kodachrome Basin State Park | Kodachrome Basin is a state park of Utah, United States. It is situated above sea level, south of Utah Route 12, and southeast of Bryce Canyon National Park. It is accessible from the north from Cannonville by a paved road and from the south by Road 400, a dirt road from the Page, Arizona area to Cannonville, passable for most vehicles in dry conditions. A longer but paved route to Tropic from the south is also available via US-89 and SR-12.
Geology
The geologic interests of the park are sandstone spires and columns called sand pipes, believed to be found nowhere else on earth. Differing geological explanations of the features in Kodachrome Basin State Park exist. One explanation is that the area was once similar to Yellowstone National Park with hot springs and geysers, which eventually filled up with sediment and solidified. Through time, the Entrada sandstone surrounding the solidified geysers eroded, leaving large sand pipes. Sixty-seven sand pipes ranging from two to 52 meters have been identified in the park.
While others suggest these sandstone spires are the result of sandstone intrusions which were created as a result of the tectonic activity in the Plio-Pleistocene time, the time of the uplift of the surrounding plateaus. Indications for this model include the concentric vertical ring structure of the columns themselves where each of the three vertical rings of sandstone, central, inner, and outer, can be traced and matched to a distinct sedimentary formation below. Also the truncation of two of the structures, at Shepherd's Point, by Pleistocene sheet conglomerates, and other intrusions which pierce through Pleistocene river deposited conglomerates place the intrusion event in the Pleistocene. The river conglomerates are truncated by the sheet conglomerates. Sheet conglomerates are usually caused by major seismic activity. There are also quite large well-rounded clasts, ranging in size from 2.5 centimeters and greater, found along the outer layer of the sandstone spires which are from the Pleistocene river conglomerates. Smaller less rounded, more angular clasts, about a centimeter or less in width, are also found and are from the red claystones layers found in the intruded sandstones. These clearly indicate that the pierced formations were well lithified. Additionally, the area has large masses of sandstone dikes. The spires have no evidence of a chaotic, mixing flow regime, rather they indicate a laminar flow not suggestive of hot springs or geysers. The outer surface is highly lithified, but within a few millimeters, the sandstone is quite friable.
The primary argument against an intrusion event is the liquified state required for the seismic intrusions. The source sediments are Jurassic in age, therefore, it is argued, to have been lithified and unable to be liquified. But there are intrusive dikes which show liquification did occur. And the hardened red claystone layers, which are pierced, were fairly consolidated at time of the intrusion event, therefore, they required tremendous pressure in order to be pierced. Seismic pressure waves would provide such pressure. The fracturing of the claystones also suggest that the intrusive sandstones were point sources able to concentrate the fluid pressure to a small area of the overlaying rock. It is also noted that the intrusions cleanly sheared the claystones so that the concentric edge of the claystone abuts cleanly against the spires.
History
Evidence near the park suggests that Native Americans were the first to wander through the area. Around the turn of the 20th century, cattlemen from Cannonville and Henrieville used the basin as a winter pasture. In 1948 the National Geographic Society explored and photographed the area for a story that appeared in the September 1949 issue of National Geographic. They named the area Kodachrome Flat, after the brand of Kodak film known for its vibrant color rendition. In 1962 the area was designated a state park. Fearing repercussions from the Kodak film company for using the name Kodachrome, the name was changed to Chimney Rock State Park, but renamed Kodachrome Basin a few years later with Kodak's permission.
Recreational activities
Primary recreational activities in Kodachrome Basin State Park include photography, wildlife watching, camping, and hiking the park's several trails. Popular sites include Chimney Rock, Shakespeare Arch (which collapsed in 2019), and Ballerina Geyser. Stargazing is popular as the park sees little light pollution. Grosvenor Arch, an intricate double arch located ten miles south east of the park in the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument is a popular destination for many visitors. Kodachrome Basin State Park has 55 campsites, two of which are group sites as well as available showers. Campsites can be reserved at Reserve America. There are also two bunkhouse cabins inside the state park for lodging, managed by the park. Horseback rides are also available throughout the park and surrounding wilderness areas.
References
External links
Kodachrome Basin State Park
Protected areas of Kane County, Utah
Protected areas established in 1962
State parks of Utah | [
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260808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrada%20Sandstone | Entrada Sandstone | The Entrada Sandstone is a formation in the San Rafael Group found in the U.S. states of Wyoming, Colorado, northwest New Mexico, northeast Arizona, and southeast Utah. Part of the Colorado Plateau, this formation was deposited during the Jurassic Period sometime between 180 and 140 million years ago in various environments, including tidal mudflats, beaches, and sand dunes. The Middle Jurassic San Rafael Group was dominantly deposited as ergs (sand seas) in a desert environment around the shallow Sundance Sea.
Description
At its type section at Entrada Point, located in the northern part the San Rafael Swell in Emery County, Utah, the Entrada consists of red silty sandstone and lesser interbedded mudstone and is a slope-forming formation. This part of the Entrada is sometimes described as the "earthy facies". Here the Entrada is overlain by the Curtis Formation, and overlies the Carmel Formation.To the south and east, the Entrada transitions to cliff-forming red or white crossbedded sandstone, sometimes called the "slickrock facies". This is actually more typical of the Entrada as a whole, and a principal reference section including both facies was designated by Peterson in 1988 at Pine Creek, north of Escalante, Utah, in the Kaiparowits Basin.
At the reference section in the Kaiparowitz Basin, the Entrada is thick and is divided into three informal members. The lower member is of orange-red silty sandstone, with occasional beds of red mudstone, corresponding to the earthy facies. The middle member is of red to green mudstone interbedded with red to white sandstone. The upper member is of crossbedded white sandstone. The white color is attributed to bleaching by organic-rich fluids from overlying beds. The formation rests on the Carmel Formation and is overlain by the Morrison Formation.
In the Curtis Mountains region of northeastern Arizona, the Entrada is overlain by the Wanakah Formation.
In the San Juan Basin of northwestern New Mexico, the Entrada consists of upper and lower sandy members and a medial silty member, the Rehoboth Member. The Curtis Formation is sometimes absent and the Entrada then overlies Chinle Formation. It is overlain by the Todilto Formation. Southeast of Fort Defiance, Arizona, the lower sandy beds are assigned to the Iyanbito Member. Total thickness is up to .
In the Slick Rock, Colorado area, the Entrada is divided into a "middle sandstone", the Rehoboth Member, and the Slick Rock Member, in ascending order.
The Entrada has been dated to the early to middle Callovian stage of the latest Middle Jurassic.
History of investigation
The Entrada Sandstone was named as one of the four formations of the San Rafael Group by James Gilluly and Reeside in 1928. Gregory and Moore worked out the geographic extent of the formation and gave an overview of it in 1931. The extent was revised several times afterwards (most recently in 1992 by Condon). It was divided into the Gunsight Butte, Cannonville, and Escalante members by Thompson and Stokes in 1970. The principal reference for the formation was written in 1988 by Peterson.
Members
Entrada members are (in alphabetical order):
Cannonville Member (UT)
Cow Springs Member (AZ); equivalent to the upper member at the reference section in southern Utah
Dewey Bridge Member (CO, UT) - named after the type locality at Dewey Bridge. This brick-red layer has a blocky look to it. Now assigned to the Carmel Formation.
Escalante Member (UT)
Henrieville Member (UT); abandoned by Peterson in 1988.
Exeter Member (NM)
Gunsight Butte Member (UT)
Iyanbito Member (NM)
Moab Member (CO, UT) or Moab Tongue (CO, UT) - named after the type locality of Moab, Utah. The whitish sands from inland dunes make up this "cap rock" layer, as seen atop Delicate Arch and Broken Arch in Arches National Park.
Red Mesa Member (AZ, NM, UT)
Slick Rock Member (CO, UT) - named for the type locality at Slick Rock, Colorado; rounded beach sands were cemented together to create this uniform layer.
Places found
Entrada Sandstone is found in these geologic locations:
Geologic province:
Anadarko Basin
Black Mesa Basin
Great Basin province
Green River Basin
Las Vegas-Raton Basin
Paradox Basin
Piceance Basin
Plateau Sedimentary Province
San Juan Basin
Sierra Grande Uplift
Found in these parklands (incomplete list):
Arches National Park
Capitol Reef National Park
Goblin Valley State Park
Kodachrome Basin State Park
Spatial distribution:
spatial distribution of Entrada Sandstone in Macrostrat
References
Further reading
USGS GEOLEX database entry for Entrada Sandstone Accessed 18 March 2006 (public domain text)
External links
Entrada Sandstone in Goblin Valley State Park
The Middle Jurassic Entrada Sandstone in Northeastern Arizona and Adjacent Areas, 2003, New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, Geology of the Zuni Plateau
Sandstone formations of the United States
Jurassic geology of Utah
Geologic formations of Wyoming
Geologic formations of Colorado
Jurassic formations of New Mexico
Geologic formations of Arizona
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260810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Columbia | USS Columbia | USS Columbia may refer to:
USS Columbia (1813), a 44-gun frigate under construction, was burned in 1814 to prevent her capture by the British
was a 50-gun sailing frigate launched in 1836 and in occasional service until 1861, when she was burned to avoid capture by the Confederates
was a captured Confederate screw steamer that ran aground in 1863
was an ironclad, also captured from the Confederates in 1865 and in use until June of that year.
, later CA-16, was a protected cruiser in service from 1894 to 1921. At the end of its career it was renamed USS Old Columbia.
was originally the Great Northern, a troop transport, renamed in 1921 and used until 1922
was a light cruiser launched 17 December 1941 and active throughout the rest of World War II
, a transport oiler, was returned to her owner on 1 May 1984
is a commissioned in 1995 and currently in active service
is the future lead ship of the
See also
List of ships named SS Columbia
Columbia Rediviva
Command Module Columbia, module of Apollo 11
Space Shuttle Columbia
United States Navy ship names | [
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260811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZSNES | ZSNES | ZSNES is a free software Super Nintendo Entertainment System emulator written mostly in x86 assembly with official ports for Linux, DOS, Windows, and unofficial ports for Xbox and macOS.
Background
Development of ZSNES began on 3 July 1997 and the first version was released on 14 October 1997, for DOS. Since then, official ports have been made for Windows and Linux. The emulator became free software under the GPL-2.0-or-later license on 2 April 2001. Despite an announcement by adventure_of_link stating that "ZSNES is NOT dead, it's still in development" made on the ZSNES board after the departure of its original developers zsKnight and _Demo_, development has slowed dramatically since its last version (1.51 released on 24 January 2007). Much of the development efforts concentrated on increasing the emulator's portability, by rewriting assembly code in C and C++, including a new GUI using Qt.
ZSNES is notable in that it was among the first to emulate most SNES enhancement chips at some level. Until version 1.50, ZSNES featured netplay via TCP/IP or UDP.
Because ZSNES is largely written in low-level assembly language for x86 processors, the idea of porting ZSNES to devices using RISC architectures such as ARM is highly unfeasible. Commercial gaming consoles did not typically use x86 processors (with the original Xbox being the most well-known exception) prior to the eighth generation, with the 2013 releases of the Xbox One and PlayStation 4.
Reception
ZSNES was generally well-regarded in its heyday, with British game magazine Retro Gamer in 2005 calling the emulator "very impressive" and praising the "incredible toaster mode".
However, with the more recent development of more accurate SNES emulators such as Snes9x and higan as computers have gradually become more powerful, retrospective reviews have criticized ZSNES not only for its relatively low accuracy, but also because its former popularity has led several fan-made translations and modifications to be designed with specific workarounds for the emulator's inaccuracies, which often makes them unplayable both on real hardware and in the newer emulators that have superseded ZSNES. Some of these other emulators even include a mode which is explicitly designed to replicate the quirks of ZSNES, allowing the ZSNES-focused mods to become playable again.
In 2015 an exploit that allowed a specially crafted SNES ROM to gain control of the host system, and thus be able to execute malicious code, was discovered in version 1.51; a partially fixed preview build was released shortly afterwards.
See also
List of video game console emulators
References
External links
ZSNES Documentation
Interview with zsKnight
Super Nintendo Entertainment System emulators
Linux emulation software
Windows emulation software
DOS emulation software
Free emulation software
Free software that uses SDL
Cross-platform software
Free software programmed in C
Free software programmed in C++
Assembly language software
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260816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy | Amy | Amy is a female given name, sometimes short for Amanda, Amelia, Amélie, or Amita. In French, the name is spelled "Aimée".
People
Amy Acker (born 1976), American actress
Amy Vera Ackman, also known as Mother Giovanni (1886–1966), Australian hospital administrator
Amy Adams (born 1974), American actress
Amy Alcott (born 1956) – American Hall of Fame golfer
Amy Archer-Gilligan, (1873–1962), American serial killer
Amy Beach (1867–1944), American composer and pianist
Amy Birnbaum (born 1975), American voice actress
Amy Bishop (born 1965), American professor and mass shooter
Amy Braverman, American statistician
Amy Brenneman (born 1964), American actress
Amy Bruckner (born 1991), American actress and singer
Amy Callaghan (born 1991 or 1992), British politician
Amy Carmichael (1867–1951), British missionary to India
Amy Castle (born 1990), American actress and internet personality
Amy Cimorelli (born 1995), American singer
Amy Carter (born 1967), American political activist
Amy Chan (badminton) (born 1961), player from Hong Kong
Amy Cheng, Singaporean actress
Amy Childs (born 1990), English reality TV star
Amy Chow (born 1978), American retired gymnast
Amy Chua (born 1962), Chinese-American law professor and writer
Amy Cotton (born 1980), Canadian judoka
Amy Coney Barrett (born 1972), American Supreme Court Associate Justice
Amy Dalby (1888–1969), British actress
Amy Davidson (born 1979), American actress
Amy Diamond (born 1992), Swedish singer
Amy Dumas (born 1975), American singer, retired WWE professional wrestler
Amy Fisher (born 1974), American criminal and cause célèbre
Amy Garnett (born 1976), English rugby player
Amy Goodman (born 1957), American journalist
Amy Grant (born 1960), American Christian contemporary pop singer
Amy Hargreaves (born 1970), American actress
Amy Beth Hayes (born 1982), British actress
Amy Faye Hayes (born 1973), American ring announcer and model
Amy Harris, Australian ballet dancer
Amy Heckerling (born 1954), American film director
Amy Hempel (born 1951) American writer and journalist
Amy Hennig (born 1964), video game director and script writer
Amy Hill (born 1953), American actress
Amy Holland (born 1953), American pop rock singer
Amy Hastings (born 1976), track and field athlete
Amy Irving (born 1953), American actress
Amy Jackson (born 1992), English actress
Amy Johnson (1903–1941), English aviator
Amy Jo Johnson (born 1970), American actress, singer-songwriter and musician
Amy Klobuchar (born 1960), a United States senator from Minnesota
Amy Lee (born 1981), American singer-songwriter, pianist and lead singer of Evanescence
Amy Lee (saxophonist), American musician
Amy Lindsay, American actress
Amy Lowell (1874–1925), American poet
Amy McDonald (Scottish footballer) (born 1985), Scottish football player and coach
Amy Macdonald (born 1987), British singer-songwriter
Amy MacDonald, American author
Amy Mainzer (born 1974), American astronomer
Amy Millan (born 1973), Canadian singer-songwriter
Amy Nuttall (born 1982), British actress and singer
Amy O'Neill (born 1971), American actress/performer.
Amy Palmer (born 1975), American hammer thrower
Amy Parkinson (1855-1938), Canadian poet
Amy Parmenter (born 1997), Australian netball player
Amy Pemberton (born 1988), British actress
Amy Phillips (born 1978), British Comedian and impressionist
Amy Poehler (born 1971), American comedian and actress
Amy Purdy (born 1979), American Paralympic Snowboarder and TV Personality
Amy Ray (born 1964), American singer-songwriter, half of the Indigo Girls duo
Amy Redford (born 1970), American actress, daughter of Robert Redford
Amy Robach (born 1973), American television journalist
Amy Rodriguez (born 1987), American soccer player
Amy Ryan (born 1968), American actress
Amy Sanderson (1876–1931), Scottish suffragette
Amy Satterthwaite (born 1986), New Zealand cricketer
Amy Schumer (born 1981), American comedian and actress
Amy Sedaris (born 1961), American actress, author, and comedian
Amy Seimetz (born 1981), American actress, writer, producer, director, and editor
Amy Segerstedt (1835–1928), Swedish teacher, folk teacher, philanthropist
Amy Sky (born 1960), Canadian singer-songwriter, record producer, theatre actress, and television host
Amy Sloan (born 1978), Canadian actress
Amy Soranno (born 1993/1994), Canadian animal rights activist
Amy Smart (born 1976), American actress and fashion model
Amy Spain (1848–1865), American slave
Amy Spanger (born 1971), American actress
Amy Spangler (born 1949), American activist
Amy Spurway (born 1976), Canadian authour
Amy Steel (born 1960), American actress
Amy Studt (born 1986), British singer-songwriter
Amy Summers (born 1963), American state representative from West Virginia
Amy Tan (born 1952), American writer
Amy Tinkler (born 1999), British gymnast
Amy Tong (born 1977), American judoka
Amy Veness (1876–1960), British actress
Amy Vermeulen (born 1983), Canadian football (soccer) forward
Amy Walker (born 1982), American actress and singer
Amy Wax (born 1953), American law professor
Amy Weber (born 1970), American model, singer, actress, and former WWE professional wrestler
Amy Welborn (born 1960), an American author
Amy Williams (born 1982), British Olympic Skeleton champion
Amy Winehouse (1983–2011), British singer-songwriter
Amy Winfrey, American animator
Amy Witting (born 1918–2001), Australian writer
Amy Wright (born 1950), American actress
Amy Wyss (born 1970/1971), Swiss-American billionaire businesswoman and philanthropist.
Amy Yasbeck (born 1962), American actress
Amy Zegart (born 1967), American writer and academic
Amy Zongo (born 1980), French athlete
Fictional characters
Amy, a teddy bear who appeared in the TV series Bananas in Pyjamas
Amy, a character in the children's television TV series and direct-to-video on Barney and the Backyard Gang
Amy, a character from Canadian teen drama series The Next Step
Amy, a character from Total Drama: Pahkitew Island
Amy, a character in the film Would You Rather
Amy the Amethyst Fairy, a character from the Rainbow Magic book franchise
Amy Alden, the main character and 13-year-old daughter of Aliane and Tom Alden in the film Fly Away Home
Amy Anderson, the civilian name of Sailor Mercury in the English dub of the popular anime, Sailor Moon
Amy Antsler, one of the main characters in the film Booksmart
Amy Barlow, character in soap opera Coronation Street
Amy Barnes, character in soap opera Hollyoaks
Amy Bendix, a character in The Punisher
Amy Bradshaw, the main character in D.E.B.S.
Amy Cahill, one of the main characters of The 39 Clues series
Amy Dorrit, the main character in the TV series Little Dorrit
Amy Duncan, the main character in the TV show Good Luck Charlie
Amy Dunne, the main character in Gone Girl by Gillian Flynn
Amy Enker, title character of Australian film Amy
Amy Farrah Fowler, a character in the American sitcom The Big Bang Theory
Amy Fleming Borden, the main character in the TV series Heartland
Amy Gardner, lobbyist and the First Lady's Chief of Staff in The West Wing
Amy Gillis, a character in American TV series Clarence
Amy Green, Rachel Green's younger sister in the TV series Friends
Amy Grimes, a character in the film Cyberbully
Patricia "Fat Amy" Hobart, a character from the Pitch Perfect film series
Amy Juergens, the main character in the teen show The Secret Life of the American Teenager
Amy Limietta, from the Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha series
Amy MacDougall, Robert Barone's girlfriend on the sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond
Amy Madison, in the TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer
Amy March, from the novel Little Women by Louisa May Alcott
Amy Matthews, Cory Matthews' mother in the TV series Boy Meets World
Amy Medford, the title character of Amy (1981 film), a Walt Disney Pictures live-action film
Amy Minoru, the older sister of Nico Minoru in the TV series Runaways
Amelia “Amy” Pond, companion of the Doctor in the TV series Doctor Who
Amy Pond, a character in the TV series Supernatural
Amy Raudenfeld, a main character in the TV series Faking It
Amy Rose, a character from the video game franchise Sonic the Hedgehog
Amy Santiago, a main character in the TV series Brooklyn Nine-Nine
Amy Sorel, a playable female character in the Soul series of fighting games
Amy Sosa, a main character in the NBC sitcom Superstore
Amy Squirrel, a main character in the film Bad Teacher
Amy Sutton, a character in the Sweet Valley High series
Amy Szalinski, a character from the Honey, I Shrunk the Kids franchise
Amy Wong, a character in the TV series Futurama
Amy Warnicker, a character in the film Footloose
Amy Yuuzuki, a main character in the TV series Zyuden Sentai Kyoryuger
See also
Aimee
Aime
Ami (given name)
References
English feminine given names
Given names
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260818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marbas | Marbas | In demonology, Marbas or Barbas is a demon described in the Ars Goetia. He is described as the Great President of Hell governing thirty-six legions of demons. He answers truly on hidden or secret things, causes and heals diseases, gives wisdom and knowledge in mechanical arts, and can change men into other shapes. He is depicted as a great lion that, under the conjurer's request, changes shape into a man.
The name Barbas also comes from the Latin "barba", beard, hellebore (a plant used in witchcraft, especially to invoke demons), and also a male name.
In popular culture
Marbas is the name of a demon in The Priests.
Bob Barbas is the name of a demon in DmC Devil May Cry.
Barbas is the name of the dog which accompanies the daedric prince Clavicus Vile in The Elder Scrolls series.
Barbas is the name of a demon on the TV show Charmed.
Marbas is the name of the demon who placed a fake curse on William Herondale in Cassandra Clare's book Clockwork Prince.
Barbas is the name of the god who possesses King Ashram in the Legend of Crystania anime.
Marbas Black Knight Slayer is the name of a Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans anime.
Marbas is the name of a demon character in the manga The Tale of the Outcasts.
Sources
S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: .
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260819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Columbia%20%281836%29 | USS Columbia (1836) | The first USS Columbia of the United States Navy was a three-masted, wooden-hulled sailing frigate of the US Navy, rated for 50 guns. She was built at Washington Navy Yard. Her keel was laid in 1825, but as was typical of much Navy construction during this period, she was not launched until much later, on 9 March 1836.
On her first cruise, from May 1838 – June 1840 with Lieutenant George A. Magruder in command, Columbia rounded the Cape of Good Hope to become flagship of Commodore George C. Read in the East India Squadron. She returned to the United States by way of Cape Horn, becoming one of the first U.S. naval ships to circumnavigate the globe. She participated in the 1838 Second Sumatran Expedition in response to a Maylay attack on an American merchant vessel.
Columbia served as flagship of the Home Squadron from January–May 1842; cruised on Brazil Squadron from July 1842 – February 1844 and in the Mediterranean Squadron from May–December 1844. She returned to the Brazil Squadron as flagship from November 1845 – October 1847, and was placed in ordinary at Norfolk Navy Yard upon her return home. Except for a cruise as flagship of the Home Squadron from January 1853 – March 1855, she remained at Norfolk until the outbreak of the American Civil War. Columbia was scuttled and burned by Union forces to avoid her capture by Confederates upon the surrender of Norfolk Navy Yard on 21 April 1861. Following the close of the war she was raised and sold at Norfolk on 10 October 1867.
See also
Glossary of nautical terms
List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy
References
External links
Journal of the U.S.S. Columbia and U.S.S. Mississippi, 1843-1846 MS 272 held by Special Collection & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy
Watch, Quarter, and Station Bill of the U.S.S. Columbia, 1844-1907 (bulk 1844) MS 77 held by Special Collection & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy
Sailing frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in the District of Columbia
United States Navy South Carolina-related ships
Ships of the Union Navy
1836 ships
Shipwrecks of the American Civil War
Shipwrecks of the Virginia coast
Ship fires
Scuttled vessels
Maritime incidents in April 1861 | [
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260820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathin | Bathin | Bathin (also Bathym, Mathim, or Marthim) is a demon described in demonological grimoires.
Variations
He is ranked as a duke in the Lesser Key of Solomon (as the eighteenth spirit) and Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (as the tenth spirit), where he is described as a serpent-tailed and muscular man riding a pale horse, who knows the properties of plants and stones, transports people across countries, and rules 30 legions of demons. He also appears in the Livre des Esperitz, as "Machin," without the horse but ruling 37 legions of demons. The German edition of The Grimoire of Pope Honorius describes Bathin (again by the name Machin) as teaching about and providing foreign plants and rocks. In the Grand Grimoire, he (as Bathsin or Bathim) is listed as a subordinate of Fleurety. According to Rudd, Bathin is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Caliel.
References
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260821 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy%20gun | Toy gun | Toy guns are toys which imitate real guns, but are designed for recreational sport or casual play by children. From hand-carved wooden replicas to factory-produced pop guns and cap guns, toy guns come in all sizes, prices and materials such as wood, metal, plastic or any combination thereof. Many newer toy guns are brightly colored and oddly shaped to prevent them from being mistaken for real firearms.
Types
Wooden guns are made to resemble real guns. Often handmade, these toys may or may not have metal parts and are made with various levels of detail.
Rubber band guns, are toy gun used to fire one or more rubber bands (or "elastic bands"). Rubber band guns are often used in live-action games such as Assassins, in which they are common and popular toy weapons. They are also common in offices and classrooms. Rubber band guns have been popular toys that date back to the invention of rubber bands, which were patented in England on March 17, 1845 by Stephen Perry.
Cap guns, cap pistol, or cap rifle are toy guns that creates a loud sound simulating a gunshot and a puff of smoke when a small percussion cap is exploded. Cap guns were originally made of cast iron, but after World War II were made of zinc alloy, and most newer models are made of plastic.
Model guns are Japanese full-size toy guns that highly replicate the appearance, design, and operation of the real ones but cannot shoot any projectile. It comes as either ignition models (a very sophisticated type of cap guns) or non-ignition dummy models. Both are subject to the strict Japanese Gun Control Law for identification and to prevent possible modification.
Prop guns are toy guns that have to look like real guns. They are commonly used in movies, TV show, and other theatrical performances.
Spud guns are small toy guns used to fire a fragment of potato. To operate, one punctures the surface of a potato with the gun's hollow tip and pries out a small pellet which fits snugly in the muzzle. Squeezing the trigger causes a small build-up of air pressure inside the toy which propels the projectile. The devices are usually short-range and low-powered.
Water guns are a type of toy gun that uses a variety of methods to spray jets of water. Many early small water guns used the same trigger based pumping mechanism used for spray bottles. In this type of device, the trigger actuates a positive displacement pump shaft. With the aid of two check valves, often using small balls, fluid is drawn into the pump from a reservoir, then forced out the nozzle upon squeezing the trigger. The simplicity of the spraying mechanism allowed these toys to be manufactured cheaply and allowed the majority of the body to be used as the reservoir. The primary limitation of this design is the volume of water that can be effectively moved per pump. Increasing pump volume would require more user effort to push the fluid out, making larger designs impractical. However, this technology remains widely used today both in spray bottles as well as small water guns that can be found in a wide variety of shapes and colors.
Pop guns (also written as popgun or pop-gun) is a toy gun that was made by American inventor Edward Lewis and uses air pressure to fire a small tethered or untethered projectile (such as cork or foam) out of a barrel, most often via piston action though sometimes via spring pressure. Other variants do not launch the obstruction, but simply create a loud noise. This mechanism consists of a hollow cylindrical barrel which is sealed at one end with the projectile and at the other with a long-handled plunger. In this type, the plunger is rapidly forced down the barrel, building up internal air pressure until the projectile is forced out with the "pop" sound that lends the toy its name.
Ray guns are a science fiction particle-beam weapon that fires what is usually destructive energy. They have various alternate names: ray gun, death ray, beam gun, blaster, laser gun, laser pistol, phaser, zap gun, etc. In most stories, when activated, a raygun emits a ray, typically visible, usually lethal if it hits a human target, often destructive if it hits mechanical objects, with properties and other effects unspecified or varying. Toy ray guns often have a mechanical component that sparks, light-up and make a sound effect.
Tracer guns, sometimes known as a disc gun, is a kind of toy gun made of durable plastic. The toy shoots lightweight plastic discs roughly the size of a penny. The discs used as ammunition for these guns are often sold with the label "Jet Discs." The firing mechanism is a spring, The magazine holds 20 "discs." The range is about 10 feet, and even then, accuracy is far from dependable. The trigger requires some force. The firing sound is loud, low, and distinctive. Oftentimes the trigger will become loose and will take multiple attempts to shoot.
Nerf Blasters are toy guns made by Hasbro that fire foam darts, discs, or foam balls. The term "Nerf gun" is often used to describe the toy; however, it is often used as a blanket term for any foam dart blaster, regardless of whether or not it has the Nerf brand name. Nerf blasters are manufactured in multiple forms, including pistols, rifles, and light machine guns. The first Nerf blasters emerged in the late 1980s with the release of the Nerf Blast-a-Ball and the Arrowstorm.
Airsoft guns are replica toy guns used in airsoft sports. They are essentially a special type of very low-power smoothbore air guns designed to shoot non-metallic spherical projectiles often colloquially (and incorrectly) referred to as "BBs", which are typically made of (but not limited to) plastic or biodegradable resin materials. Airsoft gun powerplants are designed to have low muzzle energy ratings (generally less than ) and the polymer pellets have significantly less penetrative and stopping powers than conventional air guns, and are generally quite safe for competitive sporting and recreational purposes if proper protective gear is worn. MilSim is a major element of appeal for airsoft guns, and airsoft games rely heavily on an honor system, where a player has the ethical obligation to call himself out of play when hit.
Gel blasters are replica toy guns similar in design to airsoft guns but much less powerful, and shoot superabsorbent polymer (most commonly sodium polyacrylate) water beads (often sold commercially as garden moisture retainers) which are hydrated into -diameter projectiles colloquially called gel beads or gel balls. Gel blasters are invented as a replacement toy for regions with airsoft-unfriendly laws (e.g. China, Australia, Malaysia and Vietnam), and are often played in CQB-style shooting skirmishes similar to paintball, but follows an airsoft-like honor-based gameplay umpiring system.
Paintball guns , paint gun, or marker gun, is the main piece of paintball equipment in the sport of paintball. Markers use an expanding gas, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or compressed air, to propel paintballs through the barrel and quickly strike a target. The term "marker" is derived from its original use as a means for forestry personnel to mark trees and ranchers to mark wandering cattle.
Light guns are pointing devices for computers and a control device for arcade and video games, typically shaped to resemble a pistol. Modern screen-based light guns work by building an optical sensor into the gun, which receives its input from the light emitted by on-screen target(s). The first device of this type, the light pen, was used on the MIT Whirlwind computer.
Laser tag gun is a tag game played with toy guns which fire infrared beams. Infrared-sensitive targets are commonly worn by each player and are sometimes integrated within the arena in which the game is played. Since its birth in 1979, with the release of the Star Trek Electronic Phasers toy manufactured by the South Bend Electronics brand of Milton Bradley, laser tag has evolved into both indoor and outdoor styles of play, and may include simulations of combat, role play-style games, or competitive sporting events including tactical configurations and precise game goals. Laser tag is popular with a wide range of ages. When compared to paintball, laser tag is painless because it uses no physical projectiles, and indoor versions may be considered less physically demanding because most indoor venues prohibit running or roughhousing.
Dummy guns have been historically used by police and military organizations for training purposes. During World War II, Parris Manufacturing Company provided over 2 million accurate copies of the M1903 Springfield rifles, the MK 1 USN Dummy Training Rifle to the U.S. armed forces. After the war they continued to manufacture and sell their replicas as toy guns. As well as smaller sized models for children that featured a working bolt with a dummy bullet, leather sling, the clicker action, and a smaller rubber bayonet similar to the M1 bayonet.
Today, the United States military, calls these dummy training guns "rubber ducks" or "blue guns", usually resembling an M16 type rifle. Trainees are issued rubber ducks before they have been properly trained to use actual rifles, in order to become familiar with the care, responsible handling, and added weight of an M16 during various activities, such as bayonet drills, water survival, and marches. They are also used to train soldiers in various ceremonial practices that differ when soldiers are armed. For example, standing at attention requires a different stance and set of movements when the soldier has a rifle in-hand.
Popularity and proliferation
Children have always had small imitations of things from the adult world and toy guns are no exception. From a hand-carved wooden replica to factory-produced pop guns and cap guns, toy guns came in all sizes, prices and materials from wood, to metal, to plastic or any combination thereof.
With the influence of Hollywood and comic strips, tie-ins could make an ordinary toy gun a major bestseller. In the 1930s Daisy Outdoor Products came out with a Buck Rogers Rocket Pistol (1933), Disintegrator Pistol (1934), and Liquid Helium Pistol (1935) that sold in record numbers.
Mattel had used television advertising to sell their "burp gun" on The Mickey Mouse Club in the mid-1950s to great effect. In 1959 Mattel sponsored their own television show Matty's Funday Funnies with their trademark little boy "Matty" showing cartoons and advertising their products. Mattel toys came out with Dick Tracy weapons in 1960 that were state of the art. Not only could the "Dick Tracy Crimestoppers" have a realistic snubnosed revolver in a shoulder holster, but Mattel also boosted junior law enforcement firepower with a Dick Tracy cap firing tommy gun that fired a burst of 6 caps automatically when the M-1 Thompson-style bolt was pulled back. One commercial featured Billy Mumy demonstrating the weapons to his father prior to watching Dick Tracy on TV. Mattel also came up with a "Dick Tracy Water Jet Gun" that was a miniature replica of a police pump action shotgun that fired caps when you pulled the trigger and squirted water when you pumped the slide. When the Dick Tracy craze faded the same two weapons were reissued in military camouflage as Green Beret "Guerrilla Fighter" weapons. (see United States Army Special Forces in popular culture). Mattel later issued the same tommy gun in its original colours as a Planet of the Apes tie-in complete with ape mask.
In the mid-1960s, Multiple Toymakers/Multiple Plastics Corporation (MPC) came out with James Bond's attaché case from From Russia with Love. Topper Toys replied with a copy called "Secret Sam" that featured a toy gun that fired plastic bullets through the attaché case and had a working camera that outsold 007's kit. MPC toys replied with a "B.A.R.K" - "Bond Assault and Raider Kit" an attaché case that opened up to display a firing mortar and a rocket shooting pistol. MPC also provided a "Bond-O-Matic" water pistol. Bond's television competition The Man From U.N.C.L.E. had their pistol with attachments that turned it into a rifle made by both the Ideal Toy Company in the US and the Lone Star Toys company in the United Kingdom. Mattel came out with a series of "Zero-M" secret-agent weapons such as a camera turning into a pistol and a radio turning into a rifle demonstrated by a juvenile Agent Zero M played by Kurt Russell.
Perhaps the ultimate toy weapon was the 1964 Topper Toys Johnny Seven OMA (One Man Army) where an exciting television commercial showed one little boy using each of the seven weapons of the gun to wipe out a neighborhood full of children armed only with ordinary toy guns. Though an amazing seller, the Captain Kangaroo television program refused to air the advertisement. The proliferation of toy weapons was satirized in the "Our Man in Toyland" episode of Get Smart.
In the 1970s, the Star Wars media franchise provided new laser blaster and lightsabers produced by Kenner Toys.
Toy gun control
Toy guns can cause harm like many objects not under proper supervision. Unlike most other toys though, much of the danger of these toys is related to mistaking a toy gun for a real gun or vice versa. For example:
a robber or other criminals might threaten people with a toy gun.
people might call the police, flee, panic, or attempt to overpower someone carrying a toy gun.
police officers and armed citizens might mistake someone carrying a toy gun for a killer carrying a real gun, and shoot them.
a child might play with and fire a real gun confusing it for a toy gun.
United States
Toy guns were temporarily removed from the Sears Roebuck 1968 Christmas catalog after the April assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and the June assassination of Robert F. Kennedy. However, they returned to the Sears catalog the following year.
Beginning in the 1970s, American gun control advocates called for federal government to regulate and/or ban the manufacture and sale of toy guns. These calls were countered by toy industry groups, who preferred to set their own standards. In 1973, the newly formed U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission received petitions and letters from consumers, asking the commission to institute mandatory safety standards for the design of toy weapons. These calls for action were repeated in 1975. However, the trade association representing the toy weapon manufacturers also contacted the CPSC, asking them to delay until the industry developed their own set of voluntary standards. The voluntary guidelines that were published over the next few years emphasized the use of warning labels on packaging and instructions, rather than mandating safety standards for the design of projectile toys. The Consumer Product Safety Commission rejected further petitions to regulate toy weapon manufacture in 1981 and 1985. In 1992, the Department of Commerce prohibited the manufacture, sale, or shipping of toy guns unless they have an orange tip or are entirely brightly colored. The regulation does not prohibit end-users from modifying the toys.
In March 2018, Walmart (the largest single retailer in the United States) announced that they would stop selling certain types of toy guns. “We are also removing items from our website resembling assault-style rifles, including nonlethal airsoft guns and toys,” the company said in a statement.
Laws
In the United States, federal law and regulations indicate that all toy guns transported or imported into the country must have a 6mm-wide blaze orange tip or a blaze orange stripe 1-inch (2.54 centimeters) thick on both sides of the barrel. However, this is not required by federal law for airsoft and paintball. Part 272 of Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations on foreign commerce and trade (15 CFR 272) states that "no person shall manufacture, enter into commerce, ship, transport, or receive any toy, look-alike, or imitation firearm" without approved markings; these may include an orange tip, orange barrel plug, brightly colored (safety orange) exterior of the whole toy, or transparent construction.
New York City, Washington, D.C., Chicago, and parts of Michigan have completely banned airsoft guns.. In New York City, as of 2003, the sale of replica toy guns was punishable with one year's jail term plus $1,000. Chicago goes even further with their mandates. It is considered a crime to wield a look-alike or replica gun (e.g., toy gun, airsoft gun) in public. If a toy gun or replica gun is used to commit a crime in Chicago, then that person is treated as though they had actually used a real firearm. However, state laws relating to the regulation of toy, look-alike, or imitation firearms, or purporting to ban the sale or manufacture of bb guns, paintball guns, or airsoft guns are preempted by federal law.
United Kingdom
There is a controversy as to whether or not toy guns are appropriate for children to play with. Some people believe they can encourage violence. In 2007, the British Department for Children, Schools and Families (which existed between 2007 and 2010) has advised young boys be encouraged to play with toy guns, as it will encourage them to learn and foster their development. However, the National Union of Teachers in England has criticised this advice, arguing that toy guns "symbolise aggression" and that encouraging boys to play with them fosters gender stereotypes.
Pakistan
In 2016, Shafeeq Gigyani, who is a peace activist in Pakistan, started a campaign against toy guns.
See also
BB gun
Ceremonial weapon
Drill purpose rifle
Lego gun
Rubber duck (military)
Shooting of Tamir Rice
References
External links
CNN: "A toy gun, a real crime". (January 8, 2003) Matt Bean on the dangers of toy guns being mistaken for real ones in the U.S.
Toy Rayguns
Super Soaker Central
Cap Guns Online
Gun politics
Toy weapons
Inert firearms
Toy recalls
Toy controversies | [
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260828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beal%2C%20Northumberland | Beal, Northumberland | Beal is a village in Northumberland, in England. It is situated a short distance inland from the North Sea coast, and lies on the link road between the A1 and Lindisfarne. The East Coast Main Line runs to the west of the village but the station was closed in the 1960s. The station site has been landscaped and includes a Peckett 0-4-0ST steam locomotive and an ex-North Eastern Railway cast metal warning sign.
History
The place-name Beal derives from the Old English 'beo-hyll', which means 'bee hill'.
Governance
Beal is in the parliamentary constituency of Berwick-upon-Tweed.
Economy
The area is largely agricultural in outlook.
There is a pub at Beal situated on the main road called The Lindisfarne Inn. It re-opened after being refurbished and was renamed having previously been named The Plough.
The Barn at Beal is a visitor centre with various wild birds and looks at the link between farming and the local environment.
There is a small caravan site located at Brock Mill farmhouse and there are a number of bed-and-breakfast outlets.
Transport
The following bus services operate to Beal (October 2011) - the A1 minibus link from Newcastle operated by Holy Island minibuses and 477 from Berwick upon Tweed by Perrymans Buses.
The South East Northumberland Rail Users Group would like to see the station re-opened for local and tourist (for Lindisfarne) traffic.
References
External links
Villages in Northumberland | [
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260829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beale | Beale | Beale is an English surname. At the time of the British Census of 1881, its relative frequency was highest in Dorset (6.3 times the British average), followed by Huntingdonshire, Hampshire, Sussex, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire, Warwickshire, Kent and Surrey.
The name Beale may refer to:
People
Anthony Beale (born 1967), American politician, alderman in Chicago
Bernard Charles Beale (1830–1910), New Zealand doctor and politician
Charles Lewis Beale (1824–1900), member of U.S. House of Representatives from New York
Daniel Beale (1759–1842), Scottish merchant, brother of Thomas Beale
Dorothea Beale (1831–1906), English teacher, founder of St. Hilda's College, Oxford
Edith Bouvier Beale (1917–2002), American socialite, first cousin of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and Lee Radziwill
Edward Fitzgerald Beale (1822–1893), American frontiersman and diplomat
Fleur Beale (born 1945), New Zealand teenage fiction writer best known for her novel I am not Esther
Gerard Beale, New Zealand rugby league player
Gregory Beale (born 1949), Reformed Christian theologian and seminary professor
Helen Purdy Beale (1893–1976), US virologist
Howard Beale (politician) (1898–1983), Australian politician and Ambassador to the United States
Howard K. Beale (1899–1959), American historian and author
Inga Beale, CEO of Lloyd's of London
Jack Beale (1917–2006), Australian politician
James Beale (1835–1883), also known as Africanus Horton, Sierra Leonean writer and folklorist
James Thomas Beale (born 1947), American mathematician
John Elmes Beale (1847–1928), English politician, three times Mayor of Bournemouth and founder of its largest department store, Beales
John Beale (disambiguation), multiple people
Joseph Henry Beale, Harvard Law professor and conflict of laws scholar
Julian Beale (1934–2021), Australian politician
Kurtley Beale (born 1989), Australian rugby union player
Lionel Smith Beale (1828–1906), British medical doctor and professor at King's College London
Margaret Beale (1886–1969), British marine artist
Maria Taylor Beale (1849–1929), American author
Martin Beale (1928–1985), British pioneer of mathematical programming
Mary Beale (1633–1699), English portrait painter
Octavius Beale (1850–1930), Irish piano manufacturer and philanthropist
Philippa Beale (born 1946), British artist
Richard L. T. Beale (1819–1893), American lawyer, Congressman from Virginia, and brigadier general in Confederate States Army
Simon Russell Beale (born 1961), British actor
Sophia Beale (1837–1920), English artist
Theodore Beale (born c.1968) American writer
Thomas Beale (c. 1775 – 1841), Scottish naturalist and opium speculator, brother of Daniel Beale
Thomas Chaye Beale (19th century), Scottish merchant, cousin of Daniel and Thomas Beale
Thomas Willert Beale (1828–1894), English writer, also wrote under the pseudonym Walter Maynard
William Beale (1784–1854), British composer
As given name
Beale M. Schmucker (1827–1888), American Lutheran leader and liturgical scholar
Characters
Howard Beale, played by Peter Finch in the film Network
Livia Beale, played by Moon Bloodgood in the TV series Journeyman
Chloe Beale, played by Brittany Snow in the film Pitch Perfect
EastEnders
Beale family
Albert Beale
Bobby Beale (EastEnders)
Cindy Beale
Elizabeth Beale
Harry Beale
Ian Beale
Jane Beale
Kathy Beale
Kenny Beale
Laura Beale
Lou Beale
Louie Beale
Lucy Beale
Melanie Beale
Pete Beale
Peter Beale
Ronnie Beale
Steven Beale
See also
Beal (surname)
Beall, a surname
Beel (disambiguation)
Bheel (disambiguation)
Biehl, surname
Notes
English-language surnames
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] |
42209538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaphosa%20oceanica | Gnaphosa oceanica | Gnaphosa oceanica is a ground spider species found in France.
See also
List of Gnaphosidae species
References
External links
Gnaphosidae
Spiders of Europe
Spiders described in 1878 | [
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260831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beall | Beall | Beall is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Bob Beall (born 1948), American baseball player
Daryl Beall (born 1946), American politician
George Beall (born 1729), landowner whose partial holdings were ceded to establish Georgetown in Washington, D.C.
George Beall (attorney) (1937–2017), prosecutor who brought down U.S. Vice President Spiro Agnew
James Andrew Beall (1866–1929), American politician, represented Texas in the U.S. House of Representatives, 1903 to 1915
James Glenn Beall (1894–1971), U.S. Senator from Maryland
Jim Beall (California politician) (born 1952), American politician
Jeffrey Beall, American librarian
J. Glenn Beall Jr. (1927–2006), U.S. Senator from Maryland
Jo Beall (born 1952), British academic specialising in development studies and economic development
John Yates Beall (1835–1865), Confederate privateer and spy
Johnny Beall (1882–1926), American baseball player
Lester Beall (1903–1969), American graphic designer
Lloyd J. Beall (1808–1887), American military officer and paymaster of U.S. Army, Commandant of the Confederate States Marine Corps
Martha Beall Mitchell (1918–1976), American wife of John Mitchell, U.S. Attorney General under President Richard Nixon
Rezin Beall (1723–1809), American Revolutionary war General from Maryland
Reasin Beall (1769–1843), Ohio congressman and militia general during War of 1812
Samuel Beall (1807–1868), American politician, second Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin
Walter Beall (1899–1959), American baseball player
William Beall (1825–1883), brigadier general in the Confederate States Army
See also
Beall Island, Antarctica
Beall Woods State Park, Wabash County, Illinois, U.S.
Beallsville, Pennsylvania, borough in Washington County, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Bealls (Florida) (pronounced belz), Florida-based department store chain founded by Robert M. Beall
Bealls (Texas) (pronounced belz), Texas-based department store chain founded by brothers Archie and Robbie Beall, later included brother, Willie Beall
Beall High School (pronounced bel), was a public high school in Frostburg, Maryland
Beal (disambiguation)
Beale (disambiguation)
Beel (disambiguation)
Bheel (disambiguation)
Bil (disambiguation) | [
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260836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twistor%20theory | Twistor theory | In theoretical physics, twistor theory was proposed by Roger Penrose in 1967 as a possible path to quantum gravity and has evolved into a branch of theoretical and mathematical physics. Penrose proposed that twistor space should be the basic arena for physics from which space-time itself should emerge. It leads to a powerful set of mathematical tools that have applications to differential and integral geometry, nonlinear differential equations and representation theory and in physics to general relativity and quantum field theory, in particular to scattering amplitudes.
Overview
Mathematically, projective twistor space is a 3-dimensional complex manifold, complex projective 3-space . It has the physical interpretation of the space of massless particles with spin. It is the projectivisation of a 4-dimensional complex vector space, non-projective twistor space with a Hermitian form of signature (2,2) and a holomorphic volume form. This can be most naturally understood as the space of chiral (Weyl) spinors for the conformal group of Minkowski space; it is the fundamental representation of the spin group of the conformal group. This definition can be extended to arbitrary dimensions except that beyond dimension four, one defines projective twistor space to be the space of projective pure spinors for the conformal group.
In its original form, twistor theory encodes physical fields on Minkowski space into complex analytic objects on twistor space via the Penrose transform. This is especially natural for massless fields of arbitrary spin. In the first instance these are obtained via contour integral formulae in terms of free holomorphic functions on regions in twistor space. The holomorphic twistor functions that give rise to solutions to the massless field equations are more correctly understood as Čech representatives of analytic cohomology classes on regions in . These correspondences have been extended to certain nonlinear fields, including self-dual gravity in Penrose's nonlinear graviton construction and self-dual Yang–Mills fields in Ward construction; the former gives rise to deformations of the underlying complex structure of regions in , and the latter to certain holomorphic vector bundles over regions in . These constructions have had wide applications, including inter alia the theory of integrable systems.
The self-duality condition is a major limitation for incorporating the full nonlinearities of physical theories, although it does suffice for Yang–Mills–Higgs monopoles and instantons (see ADHM construction). An early attempt to overcome this restriction was the introduction of ambitwistors by Edward Witten and by Isenberg, Yasskin & Green. Ambitwistor space is the space of complexified light rays or massless particles and can be regarded as a complexification or cotangent bundle of the original twistor description. These apply to general fields but the field equations are no longer so simply expressed.
Twistorial formulae for interactions beyond the self-dual sector first arose from Witten's twistor string theory. This is a quantum theory of holomorphic maps of a Riemann surface into twistor space. It gave rise to the remarkably compact RSV (Roiban, Spradlin & Volovich) formulae for tree-level S-matrices of Yang–Mills theories, but its gravity degrees of freedom gave rise to a version of conformal supergravity limiting its applicability; conformal gravity is an unphysical theory containing ghosts, but its interactions are combined with those of Yang–Mills theory in loop amplitudes calculated via twistor string theory.
Despite its shortcomings, twistor string theory led to rapid developments in the study of scattering amplitudes. One was the so-called MHV formalism loosely based on disconnected strings, but was given a more basic foundation in terms of a twistor action for full Yang–Mills theory in twistor space. Another key development was the introduction of BCFW recursion. This has a natural formulation in twistor space that in turn led to remarkable formulations of scattering amplitudes in terms of Grassmann integral formulae and polytopes. These ideas have evolved more recently into the positive Grassmannian and amplituhedron.
Twistor string theory was extended first by generalising the RSV Yang–Mills amplitude formula, and then by finding the underlying string theory. The extension to gravity was given by Cachazo & Skinner, and formulated as a twistor string theory for maximal supergravity by David Skinner. Analogous formulae were then found in all dimensions by Cachazo, He & Yuan for Yang–Mills theory and gravity and subsequently for a variety of other theories. They were then understood as string theories in ambitwistor space by Mason & Skinner in a general framework that includes the original twistor string and extends to give a number of new models and formulae. As string theories they have the same critical dimensions as conventional string theory; for example the type II supersymmetric versions are critical in ten dimensions and are equivalent to the full field theory of type II supergravities in ten dimensions (this is distinct from conventional string theories that also have a further infinite hierarchy of massive higher spin states that provide an ultraviolet completion). They extend to give formulae for loop amplitudes and can be defined on curved backgrounds.
The twistor correspondence
Denote Minkowski space by , with coordinates and Lorentzian metric signature . Introduce 2-component spinor indices and set
Non-projective twistor space is a four-dimensional complex vector space with coordinates denoted by where and are two constant Weyl spinors. The hermitian form can be expressed by defining a complex conjugation from to its dual by so that the Hermitian form can be expressed as
This together with the holomorphic volume form, is invariant under the group SU(2,2), a quadruple cover of the conformal group C(1,3) of compactified Minkowski spacetime.
Points in Minkowski space are related to subspaces of twistor space through the incidence relation
The incidence relation is preserved under an overall re-scaling of the twistor, so usually one works in projective twistor space which is isomorphic as a complex manifold to . A point thereby determines a line in parametrised by A twistor is easiest understood in space-time for complex values of the coordinates where it defines a totally null two-plane that is self-dual. Take to be real, then if vanishes, then lies on a light ray, whereas if is non-vanishing, there are no solutions, and indeed then corresponds to a massless particle with spin that are not localised in real space-time.
Variations
Supertwistors
Supertwistors are a supersymmetric extension of twistors introduced by Alan Ferber in 1978. Non-projective twistor space is extended by fermionic coordinates where is the number of supersymmetries so that a twistor is now given by with anticommuting. The super conformal group naturally acts on this space and a supersymmetric version of the Penrose transform takes cohomology classes on supertwistor space to massless supersymmetric multiplets on super Minkowski space. The case provides the target for Penrose's original twistor string and the case is that for Skinner's supergravity generalisation.
Hyperkähler manifolds
Hyperkähler manifolds of dimension also admit a twistor correspondence with a twistor space of complex dimension .
Palatial twistor theory
The nonlinear graviton construction encodes only anti-self-dual, i.e., left-handed fields. A first step towards the problem of modifying twistor space so as to encode a general gravitational field is the encoding of right-handed fields. Infinitesimally, these are encoded in twistor functions or cohomology classes of homogeneity −6. The task of using such twistor functions in a fully nonlinear way so as to obtain a right-handed nonlinear graviton has been referred to as the (gravitational) googly problem (the word "googly" is a term used in the game of cricket for a ball bowled with right-handed helicity using the apparent action that would normally give rise to left-handed helicity). The most recent proposal in this direction by Penrose in 2015 was based on noncommutative geometry on twistor space and referred to as palatial twistor theory. The theory is named after Buckingham Palace, where Michael Atiyah suggested to Penrose the use of a type of "noncommutative algebra", an important component of the theory (the underlying twistor structure in palatial twistor theory was modeled not on the twistor space but on the non-commutative holomorphic twistor quantum algebra).
See also
Background independence
Complex spacetime
History of loop quantum gravity
Robinson congruences
Spin network
Notes
References
Roger Penrose (2004), The Road to Reality, Alfred A. Knopf, ch. 33, pp. 958–1009.
Roger Penrose and Wolfgang Rindler (1984), Spinors and Space-Time; vol. 1, Two-Spinor Calculus and Relativitic Fields, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Roger Penrose and Wolfgang Rindler (1986), Spinors and Space-Time; vol. 2, Spinor and Twistor Methods in Space-Time Geometry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Further reading
Atiyah, M., Dunajski, M., and Mason, L. J. (2017). "Twistor theory at fifty: from contour integrals to twistor strings". Proc. R. Soc. A. 473 (2206): 20170530. doi:10.1098/rspa.2017.0530. ISSN 1364-5021.
Baird, P., "An Introduction to Twistors."
Huggett, S. and Tod, K. P. (1994). An Introduction to Twistor Theory, second edition. Cambridge University Press. . OCLC 831625586.
Hughston, L. P. (1979) Twistors and Particles. Springer Lecture Notes in Physics 97, Springer-Verlag. .
Hughston, L. P. and Ward, R. S., eds (1979) Advances in Twistor Theory. Pitman. .
Mason, L. J. and Hughston, L. P., eds (1990) Further Advances in Twistor Theory, Volume I: The Penrose Transform and its Applications. Pitman Research Notes in Mathematics Series 231, Longman Scientific and Technical. .
Mason, L. J., Hughston, L. P., and Kobak, P. K., eds (1995) Further Advances in Twistor Theory, Volume II: Integrable Systems, Conformal Geometry, and Gravitation. Pitman Research Notes in Mathematics Series 232, Longman Scientific and Technical. .
Mason, L. J., Hughston, L. P., Kobak, P. K., and Pulverer, K., eds (2001) Further Advances in Twistor Theory, Volume III: Curved Twistor Spaces. Research Notes in Mathematics 424, Chapman and Hall/CRC. .
Penrose, Roger (1999) "The Central Programme of Twistor Theory," Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 10: 581–611.
External links
Penrose, Roger (1999), "Einstein's Equation and Twistor Theory: Recent Developments"
Penrose, Roger; Hadrovich, Fedja. "Twistor Theory."
Hadrovich, Fedja, "Twistor Primer."
Penrose, Roger. "On the Origins of Twistor Theory."
Jozsa, Richard (1976), "Applications of Sheaf Cohomology in Twistor Theory."
Dunajski, Maciej, "Twistor Theory and Differential Equations."
Andrew Hodges, Summary of recent developments.
Huggett, Stephen (2005), "The Elements of Twistor Theory."
Mason, L. J., "The twistor programme and twistor strings: From twistor strings to quantum gravity?"
Sämann, Christian (2006), "Aspects of Twistor Geometry and Supersymmetric Field Theories within Superstring Theory."
Sparling, George (1999), "On Time Asymmetry."
Spradlin, Marcus (2006), "Progress and Prospects in Twistor String Theory."
MathWorld: Twistors.
Universe Review: "Twistor Theory."
Twistor newsletter archives.
Clifford algebras
Quantum field theory
Theories of gravitation | [
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260841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mana%20%28series%29 | Mana (series) | The Mana series, known in Japan as , is a high fantasy action role-playing game series created by Koichi Ishii, with development formerly from Square, and is currently owned by Square Enix. The series began as a handheld side story to Square's flagship franchise Final Fantasy. The Final Fantasy elements were subsequently dropped starting with the second installment, Secret of Mana, in order to become its own series. It has grown to include games of various genres within the fictional world of Mana, with recurring stories involving a world tree, its associated holy sword, and the fight against forces that would steal their power. Several character designs, creatures, and musical themes reappear frequently.
Four games were released in the series between 1991 and 1999: the original Seiken Densetsu (1991)—Final Fantasy Adventure in North America and Mystic Quest in Europe—for the Game Boy, Secret of Mana (1993) for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Trials of Mana (1995) for the Super Famicom, and Legend of Mana for the PlayStation. A remake of the original game, Sword of Mana (2003), was published for the Game Boy Advance. All of the original games were action role-playing games, though they included a wide variety of gameplay mechanics, and the stories of the games were connected only thematically.
In 2006 and 2007, four more games were released as part of the World of Mana subseries, an attempt by Square Enix to release games in a series over a variety of genres and consoles. These were Children of Mana (2006), an action-oriented dungeon crawler game for the Nintendo DS; Friends of Mana (2006), a Japan-only multiplayer role-playing game for mobile phones; Dawn of Mana (2006), a 3D action-adventure game for the PlayStation 2; and Heroes of Mana (2007), a real-time strategy game for the DS. Children was developed by Nex Entertainment and Heroes by Brownie Brown, founded by several developers of Legend, though Ishii oversaw development of all four games. Three more games have been released since the World of Mana subseries ended: Circle of Mana (2013), a Japan-only card battle game for the GREE mobile platform, Rise of Mana (2014), a Japan-only free-to-play action role-playing game for iOS, Android, and PlayStation Vita, and Adventures of Mana (2016), a 3D remake of Final Fantasy Adventure for the PlayStation Vita, iOS, and Android. In addition to the games, four manga series and one novelization have been released in the Mana franchise.
The Mana series reception has been very uneven, with early games rated higher by critics than more recent titles. Secret of Mana has been regarded as one of the best 2D action role-playing games ever made, and their music has inspired several orchestral concerts, while the games from the World of Mana series have been rated considerably lower. By 2021, the series had sold over 8 million copies.
Development
History
Square trademarked Seiken Densetsu in 1989, intending to use it for a game project subtitled The Emergence of Excalibur, and led by Kazuhiko Aoki for the Famicom Disk System. According to early advertisements, the game would consist of an unprecedented five floppy disks, making it one of the largest titles developed for the Famicom up until that point. Although Square solicited pre-orders for the game, Kaoru Moriyama, a former Square employee, affirms that management canceled the ambitious project before it advanced beyond the early planning stages. In October 1987, customers who had placed orders were sent a letter informing them of the cancellation and had their purchases refunded. The letter also suggested to consider placing an order on another upcoming Square role-playing game in a similar vein: Final Fantasy.
In 1991, Square reused the Seiken Densetsu trademark for an unrelated Game Boy action role-playing game directed by Koichi Ishii. Originally developed under the title Gemma Knights, the game was renamed Seiken Densetsu: Final Fantasy Gaiden (published in North America as Final Fantasy Adventure and in Europe as Mystic Quest).
Beginning with the 1993 sequel, Secret of Mana, Seiken Densetsu was subsequently "spun off" into its own series of action role-playing games distinct from Final Fantasy, named the Mana series outside Japan. Four titles in the series were released between 1993 and 2003. Secret of Mana was originally intended to be a launch title for the Super NES CD-ROM Adapter, but when the add-on was cancelled it was cut down into a standard Super NES cartridge, with many of the cut ideas appearing in other Square titles. Hirō Isono provided artwork for the game including forest landscapes. It was followed in 1995 by the then Japan-only Trials of Mana (Seiken Densetsu 3 in Japan); the game was originally planned to be released in English as Secret of Mana 2, but technical issues and localization costs prohibited the release. The final new game in the series' initial run is the 1999 Legend of Mana, developed for the PlayStation. Legend is a 2D game like its predecessors, despite the PlayStation's 3D focus, because the console could not handle the full 3D world Ishii envisioned where one could interact with natural shaped objects. 2003 saw the release of Sword of Mana, a remake of the original Seiken Densetsu for the Game Boy Advance. The remake was outsourced to Brownie Brown, which was composed of many of the Square employees who had worked on Legend.
In 2003, Square, now Square Enix, began a drive to begin developing "polymorphic content", a marketing and sales strategy to "[provide] well-known properties on several platforms, allowing exposure of the products to as wide an audience as possible". The first of these was the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII, and Square Enix intended to have campaigns for other series whereby multiple games in different genres would be developed simultaneously. Although no such project for the Mana series had been announced by this point, it was announced in late 2004 that an unnamed Mana game was in development for the upcoming Nintendo DS platform. In early 2005, Square Enix announced a World of Mana project, the application of this "polymorphic content" idea to the Mana franchise, which would include several games across different genres and platforms. These games, as with the rest of the series, would not be direct sequels or prequels to one another, even if appearing so at first glance, but would instead share thematic connections. The first release in this project and the sixth release in the Mana series was announced in September 2005 as Children of Mana for the DS. Four games were released in 2006 and 2007 in the World of Mana subseries: Children of Mana, Friends of Mana, and Dawn of Mana in 2006, and Heroes of Mana in 2007.
Each game in the World of Mana series was different, both from each other and from the previous games in the series. Children is an action-oriented dungeon crawler game for the DS, developed by Nex Entertainment; Friends is a Japan-only multiplayer role-playing game for mobile phones; Dawn is a 3D action-adventure game for the PlayStation 2; and Heroes is a real-time strategy game for the DS, developed by Brownie Brown. While Ishii was the designer for all four games, he served as the director and producer for Dawn, which was considered the main game of the four and was released as Seiken Densetsu 4 in Japan. The theme of the subseries for Ishii, especially Dawn, was about exploring how to add "the feeling of touch" to a game. He had held off on designing new Mana games after Legend was unable to meet his desires, until he felt that technology had improved enough to let him create what he envisioned. A fifth game for the subseries was considered for the Wii in 2006, but did not enter development. In April 2007, a month after the release of the final game of the World of Mana, Ishii left Square Enix to lead his own development company, named Grezzo.
The Mana series is put on hiatus until 2013, when Square Enix released Circle of Mana, a Japan-only card battle game for the GREE mobile platform. It was followed in 2014 by Rise of Mana, a Japan-only free-to-play action role-playing game for iOS, Android, and PlayStation Vita, and in 2016 by Adventures of Mana, a 3D remake of Final Fantasy Adventure for the PlayStation Vita, iOS, and Android. On August 25, 2017, a 3D remake of Secret of Mana was announced for PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Microsoft Windows, for release on February 15, 2018. The original staff was not involved in any recent game's development because many had already left Square Enix.
During the series' 30th anniversary stream were announced a new mobile spin-off game, Echoes of Mana, and new game of the series for consoles.
Creation and design
The Mana series is the result of Koichi Ishii's desire to create a fictional world. In Ishii's opinion, Mana is not a series of video games, but rather a world which is illustrated by and can be explored through video games. When working on the series, Koichi Ishii draws inspiration from abstract images from his memories of childhood, as well as movies and fantasy books that captivated him as a child. Ishii takes care to avoid set conventions, and his influences are correspondingly very wide and non-specific. Nonetheless, among his literary influences, he acknowledges Tove Jansson's Moomin, Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, and J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings.
While some titles of the World of Mana series do share direct connections with other installments, the games of the series have few concrete links. There is no overall explicit in-game chronological order. Further, according to Koichi Ishii in 2006 the games do not take place in exactly the same world, and characters or elements who appear in different titles are best considered alternate versions of each other. Instead, the connections between each title are more abstract than story-based, linked only on the karmic level. Complicating this assertion, Ishii has also said in an interview that Children is set ten years after Dawn, while Heroes is set one generation prior to Trials of Mana.
Games
Main series
Spin-offs
Remakes
Common elements
A common element of the series is its seamless, real-time battle system. The system was developed by Koichi Ishii and improved upon by Hiromichi Tanaka, out of a desire to create a system different from the one featured in the first few Final Fantasy titles. While action-based, the Mana battle system is intended to be playable even by newcomers as well as veterans. The system is coupled with the distinctive hierarchical "Ring Command" menu system, featured prominently in Secret of Mana and Trials of Mana, and to a lesser extent in later installments. Each ring is a set of icons with a textual infobox explanation which, upon selection, allow the player to use an item, cast a spell, look up in-game statistics, or change the game's settings. Navigation within a menu is achieved by rotating the ring through the cursor left or right, while switching to a different menu is achieved by pressing the up or down buttons. Although not part of the series, the spin-off Secret of Evermore, developed by the North American Square Soft, was also built upon the "Ring Command" system.
The Mana series features several recurring characters and beings, including the Final Fantasy creatures Chocobos in Final Fantasy Adventure and Legend of Mana, and Moogles in Secret of Mana and as a status ailment in Trials of Mana and Sword of Mana. Watts is a dwarf blacksmith wearing a horned helmet who upgrades the player's weaponry. Usually, an anthropomorphic cat merchant is found outside of town areas and allows a player to save the game and buy supplies at high prices. This role is played by Neko in Secret of Mana, and Niccolo in Legend of Mana and Sword of Mana. In the Japanese games these merchants share the name Nikita.
The Mana Tree and the Mana Sword, called Excalibur in Final Fantasy Adventures English version, are recurring plot devices which have been featured in every game of the series. The mystical Mana Tree is a source of magic which sustains the balance and nature of the series' world. The Mana Sword is typically used to restore this balance when it becomes lost in the games. Final Fantasy Adventure explains that if the Mana Tree dies, a member of the Mana Family will become the "seed" of a new Tree. A sprout of the Mana Tree is called a Gemma, while protectors of the Tree, who wield the Mana Sword, are called Gemma Knights. In Trials of Mana, a Goddess is said to have turned into the Mana Tree after creating the world with the Mana Sword. The Mana Tree is destroyed near the game ending in Final Fantasy Adventure and Secret of Mana, but a character becomes the new Mana Tree in the former game.
Elemental Spirits, also called Mana Spirits, are beings who govern the magic elements of the series' world, and are at the core of the games' magic system as they are used to cast magic spells. Eight types of spirits have appeared in the series since Secret of Mana, and each embodies a different element. Their names are homonyms of mythological beings or phenomena. In Secret of Mana and Trials of Mana, usage of their power is enabled upon the main characters' meeting with them. In Legend of Mana, the spirits serve as factors in the Land Creation System. In Legend of Mana and Sword of Mana, multiple spirits of the same elemental type appear. In terms of storyline, in Trials of Mana and Heroes of Mana, the spirits are charged to protect the Mana Stones in which the Mana Goddess sealed eight elemental benevodons (God-Beasts in the fan-translation of SD3). In Dawn of Mana's North American version, each spirit speaks with a particular European accent, such as French or Scottish.
Rabites, known as in the Japanese versions of the games, are cute, fictional, rabbit-like creatures appearing as a common enemy in the series since its beginning. The Rabite has become a sort of mascot for the Mana series, much the same way as the Chocobo represents Final Fantasy, and is one of its most recognizable icons. The Rabite resembles a bodiless, one-toothed rabbit with large ears that curve upward and form a point at the tip, and a round, puffy pink tail that moves by hopping along the ground. It is most commonly yellow colored, but also pink, lilac, black, and white, and are variously minor enemies, "superboss" characters and even friendly units and pets. Rabites are also mentioned in Final Fantasy X-2 with an accessory comically named "Rabite's Foot", which increases a character's luck statistics. Additionally, they appear in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance in the description of one of the game's optional missions as an endangered species due to being poached for good luck charms. Rabites have appeared prevalently in several pieces of Mana merchandise, including plush dolls, cushions, lighters, mousepads, straps, telephone cards, and T-shirts.
Flammie, sometimes spelled Flammy, is the name of a fictional species of flying dragons, as well as the proper name of some its members, featured in several games of the series. A Flammie's appearance is a mixture of draconian, mammalian, and reptilian features, and its coloring has varied throughout the series. Flammies typically serve as a means of transportation in the game by allowing a player's characters to ride on a Flammie's back to different locations in the game's world. In Secret of Mana and Trials of Mana, the Super NES's Mode 7 graphic capabilities allows the player to control a Flammie from either a "behind the back" third-person or top-down perspective, and fly over the landscape as it scrolls beneath them. In terms of story, the Flammies were created by the Moon Gods, and are part of an endless cycle of destruction and rebirth as the stronger versions of Flammies—becoming part of a category of creature known as Mana Beasts (Benevodons in Trials of Mana), or in Japanese—destroy the world and the Mana Sword and Tree restore the world.
Music
The Mana series has had several different composers. Final Fantasy Adventure was composed by Kenji Ito; it was his second original score. Ito's music is mainly inspired by images from the game rather than outside influences. The scores for Secret of Mana and Trials of Mana were both composed by Hiroki Kikuta. Despite difficulties in dealing with the hardware limitations, Kikuta tried to express, in the music of Secret of Mana, two "contrasting styles", namely himself and the game. This was to create an original score which would be neither pop music nor standard game music. Kikuta worked on the music for the two games mostly by himself, spending nearly 24 hours a day in his office, alternating between composing and editing to create an immersive three-dimensional sound. Kikuta considers the score for Secret of Mana his favorite creation. His compositions for Secret of Mana and Trials of Mana were partly inspired by natural landscapes. In 1995, Kikuta released an experimental album of arranged music from the two installments, titled Secret of Mana +, which features one 50-minute-long track.
Legend of Mana'''s score was composed by Yoko Shimomura, and of all her compositions, she considers it the one that best expresses herself. Kenji Ito returned to the series with Sword of Mana. He also composed roughly one third of the Children of Mana soundtrack, while the rest was composed by Masaharu Iwata and Takayuki Aihara. Ito was the main composer for Dawn of Mana, assisted by Tsuyoshi Sekito, Masayoshi Soken, and Junya Nakano, as well as main theme composer Ryuichi Sakamoto. In North America, purchasers of Dawn of Mana from participating retailers were offered a sampler disc, titled Breath of Mana, which features a selection of tracks from the game. Shimomura has returned to the series with Heroes of Mana, while also contributing one song to Rise of Mana.
Printed adaptations
A five-volume manga based on Legend of Mana was drawn by Shiro Amano and published in Japan by Enterbrain between 2000 and 2002. It features a comedic story about the game's main character, here named Toto. A German version was published by Egmont Manga & Anime in 2003. A collection of four-panel comic strips, drawn by various authors and titled Sword of Mana Yonkoma Manga Theatre, was published in Japan by Square Enix on January 16, 2004. It included a questionnaire that, if sent back, allowed participants to win illustrations signed by Koichi Ishii and Shinichi Kameoka, as well as special T-shirts. Enterbrain also published a Sword of Mana manga adaptation in Japan on February 25, 2004, drawn by a collaboration of authors led by Shiro Amano. Two days later, Square Enix published a two-volume novelization of Sword of Mana in Japan written by Matsui Oohama. An original manga, named Seiken Densetsu: Princess of Mana, was drawn by Satsuki Yoshino and published in the Japanese magazine Gangan Powered on February 22, 2007.
Reception
The Mana series has been mostly well received, though each title has seen varied levels of success. RPGFan called Final Fantasy Adventure one of the best things to happen to the Game Boy, while IGN considered it the best action RPG on the console after The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening. GameSpot referred to Secret of Mana as "one of Square's masterpieces on the SNES". The game has appeared on several list of top games, including ranked number 97 on Famitsu's top 100 games of all time. Trials of Mana was called "easily one of the best RPGs to come out of the 16-bit era" by Nintendo Life. Famitsu rated Legend of Mana at 31/40 and Heroes of Mana at 32/40. The NPD Group ranked Legend of Mana as the top seller the week of its release, and in 2006 was re-released as part of the Ultimate Hits series.
Many of the World of Mana titles have not been as critically successful as the original five games in the series, and though the franchise has been praised for their attempts at trying new ways of experiencing the games' fictional world, there have been various gameplay design flaws that have hindered the later games. 1UP.com commented that despite the game's excellent presentation and storytelling, Dawn of Mana did not match the level of gameplay of the early Mana games. Prior to the World of Mana games, RPGamer called the series a "treasured favorite". After the release of Heroes of Mana, they commented that the World of Mana series is "cursed", and the future of the series looked "bleak".
The music of the Mana series, especially Secret of Mana, has received wide acclaim and fan enthusiasm. The Secret of Mana soundtrack was one of the first official soundtracks of video games music released in the United States and thus before fully mainstream interest in RPGs. The Secret of Manas opening theme, "Angel's Fear", was rated at number 7 on IGN's Top Ten RPG Title tracks, calling it a "magical title song that captures our hearts". It was also featured in the third Orchestral Game Concert. Secret of Mana is also the number 6 most remixed soundtrack on the popular video game music site OverClocked ReMix, with Trials of Mana tied at 18. The music of the other titles have also been well received. RPGFan called the music to Final Fantasy Adventure "addictive", despite its low, MIDI-like quality. GameSpy called Children of Manas music some of the best Nintendo DS music yet and referred to it as "beautiful". Game Informer complimented Dawn of Manas music, calling it good. IGN referred to Legend of Manas music as "beautiful" and stated the background music brought "intensity", "suspense", and "subtle nuance" to the game. Other reviewers echoed similar praise to GameSpot, calling the music "excellently orchestrated" and RPGFan calling it one of the game's good points.
The Mana series has sold well overall, and as of March 2011, series titles have sold over 6 million units. The original Seiken Densetsu sold over 700,000 units, and its remake Sword of Mana sold over 277,000 copies in Japan. Secret of Mana has shipped over 1.83 million copies worldwide. Legend of Mana sold over 400,000 units in its first week alone as the highest-selling release that week in Japan, and over 700,000 copies in Japan by the end of the year. Children of Mana sold over 281,000 copies in Japan, and Dawn of Mana sold over 410,000 copies worldwide. Heroes of Mana sold over 178,000 copies worldwide. The PlayStation Vita version of Rise of Mana'' downloaded over 100,000 times. By 2021, the game series had sold over 8 million copies.
See also
List of Japanese role-playing game franchises
List of Square Enix video game franchises
Notes
References
Action role-playing video games
Seiken Densetsu: The Emergence of Excalibur
Square Enix franchises
Video game franchises
2000 manga
2004 manga
2007 manga
Video game franchises introduced in 1991 | [
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260843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Community | Pacific Community | The Pacific Community (PC), formerly the South Pacific Commission (SPC), is an international development organisation governed by 27 members, including 22 Pacific island countries and territories. The organisation's headquarters are in Nouméa, New Caledonia, and it has regional offices in Suva, Pohnpei, and Port Vila, as well as field staff in other locations in the Pacific. Its working languages are English and French. It primarily provides technical and scientific advice, and acts as a conduit for funding of development projects from donor nations. Unlike the slightly smaller Pacific Islands Forum, the SPC is not a trade bloc, and does not deal with military or security issues.
The SPC's regional development issues include climate change, disaster risk management, fisheries, food security, education, gender equality, human rights, non-communicable diseases, agriculture, forestry and land use, water resources, and youth employment.
History
The Pacific Community was founded in 1947 as the South Pacific Commission by six developed countries with strategic interests and territories in the region: Australia, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
The SPC's founding charter is the Canberra Agreement. In the aftermath of World War II, the six colonial powers which created the SPC arguably intended it to secure Western political and military interests in the postwar Pacific. Two founding members, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, have since withdrawn from the SPC as the Pacific territories they controlled either gained independence or the right to represent themselves in the organization.
From the start, the SPC's role was constrained. The invitation from Australia and New Zealand to the US, France, the Netherlands and the UK to participate in a South Seas Commission Conference in 1947 included the statement that "the [South Pacific] Commission to be set up should not be empowered to deal in any way with political matters or questions of defense or security". This constraint on discussion (particularly the constraint on discussing nuclear weapons testing in the region) led to the 1971 creation of the South Pacific Forum (now Pacific Islands Forum), which not only excluded the more distant "metropolitan" powers of France, UK and USA, but also at the time their Pacific island territories.
In 1949, the Pacific Community established its permanent headquarters in Nouméa, New Caledonia, at a former American military base. In 1995, a new headquarters was constructed close to the same location and the military base was demolished. A monument and plaque commemorating SPC's original headquarters location can be found on site of the Le Promenade complex at Anse Vata.
In 1962, the Pacific Community created the South Pacific Games Council with the goal of holding a regular Pacific wide sporting event. The first games Games were held in Suva, Fiji in 1963, with 646 participants from 13 Pacific territories taking part. Initially the Games were held at three-year intervals although this was subsequently expanded to 4 following the Tumon Games in Guam.
Dutch New Guinea, formerly represented in the SPC by the Netherlands, was transferred to United Nations authority in 1962 and to Indonesia the following year. Without any territory remaining in the region, the Netherlands withdrew from the SPC in 1962.
Governance of the SPC reflected the changing political environment. At inception, each member had equal representation and a single vote. When Western Samoa joined as newly independent state in 1965 the rules were changed to ensure that the Western foundation nations would maintain firm control over the organization. Australia was given five votes, France, Britain, New Zealand, and the United States four and Western Samoa just one.
In 1972, the first South Pacific Arts Festival was convened by SPC in Suva, Fiji. The event drew more than 1000 participants from 14 countries. In 1975 SPC created a Council of Pacific Arts, permanently making culture issues a part of the SPC mandate and establishing the Festival of Pacific Arts as a regular event.
In response to demand to rapid development of the Pacific regions media industry, SPC established a Regional Media Center in 1973 in collaboration with the recently created University of the South Pacific. The center produced audio material for the regions radio stations and provided training in video production.
With decolonization efforts expanding, newly independent states and nonindependent territories were also allowed to apply for membership. "As its membership grew, the character and scope of the SPC evolved to incorporate the indigenous peoples of the Pacific."
In 1983, at the Saipan Conference, unequal voting was abandoned, once again establishing a "one member, one vote" principle for SPC. However, this decision did not come without criticism as some pointed out that the combination of allowing membership to non-independent territories and establishing a one-vote per member principle effectively provided additional votes to France and the United States who continued to maintain control over Pacific territories. It was also during the Saipan Conference that the Committee of Representatives of Governments and Administrations (CRGA) was established, creating the only Pacific regional organization that was both fully representative of the Pacific, and fully governed by its membership.
In 1988, the SPC become a founding member of the Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific or CROP (formerly the South Pacific Organisations Coordinating Committee, SPOCC) "to improve cooperation, coordination, and collaboration among the various intergovernmental regional organisations to work toward achieving the common goal of sustainable development in the Pacific region".
The United Kingdom withdrew from the organisation in 1996 and rejoined in 1998. The UK withdrew a second time in 2004. The UK's interests in the Pacific Community were prior to Brexit primarily managed through the European Union, although the UK also is a direct donor for some projects. The UK rejoined in 2021 after reopening its high commissions in Tonga, Samoa and its embassy in Vanuatu in the past two years.
In 1996, the Pacific Heads of Agriculture and Livestock Programmes asked "to put in place, both in their countries and through regional cooperation, policies to conserve, protect and best utilize their plant genetic resources". As these resources were considered a shared regional responsibility, it made sense for a regional organization to respond to this need. SPC established the Regional Germplasm Centre (RGC) in 1998. The facility grew rapidly and in 2007 was renamed Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT). It currently holds more than 2000 varieties of genetic material on Pacific strains of taro, banana, breadfruit and others, and has been instrumental in helping to rebuild island agriculture after disasters.
In 2000, SPC became the first CROP organization to be headed by a woman, Lourdes Pangelinan of Guam, who served in the role from 2000 to 2006.
Pacific Way television series
The SPC began producing a television program, known as The Pacific Way, in 1995. Supported by UNESCO as a trial for exchanging news stories, the first season was shared freely with just one tape circulated between TV stations in several Pacific Island nations. The programs' regional and local focus made it popular addition to local television schedules and at its height was producing and distributing 26 annual episodes to 21 TV stations around the region. Since 2017, the Pacific Way has been developing 10 episodes per season for television and has been reintroduced to radio through its complementary podcasts. The half-hour show shares development stories about the Pacific for the Pacific. It covers important topics and key issues, such as climate change adaptation, health, youth employment, innovation in agriculture, fisheries management and the protection of cultural heritage.
Name and logo
While the acronym "SPC" has been consistent since the organization's founding in 1947, the name and logo have evolved over the years. The organization's original name was the South Pacific Commission, which represented the limited nature of its membership and activities. The name was changed in 1997 to the Pacific Community, reflecting the growth of membership across the entire Pacific region. The current logo was officially adopted in 2015.
Present
The Pacific Community today includes 22 Pacific island countries and territories, which were all previously territories (or, in the case of Tonga, a protectorate) of the original founding members of the SPC, along with the developed countries of Australia, France, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States:
The SPC is concentrated on providing technical and scientific advice to its member governments and administrations, particularly in areas where small island states lack the wherewithal to maintain purely national cadres of expertise, or in areas where regional co-operation or interaction is necessary.
The operational budget of the Pacific Community in 2018 was approximately €82 million. The organization is financially supported through a combination of membership fees and donor funding. Its main funding partners include the European Union, the Australian Foreign Department, the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the governments of France and the United States.
Divisions
The SPC works across more than 25 sectors. It is involved in such areas as fisheries science, public health surveillance, geoscience and conservation of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, statistics and education. Using a multi-sector approach in responding to its members’ development priorities, SPC draws on skills and capabilities from around the region and internationally, and supports the empowerment of Pacific communities and sharing of expertise and skills between countries and territories.
SPC currently has nine divisions:
Climate Change and Environmental Stability (CCES)
Educational Quality and Assessment Program (EQAP)
Fisheries, Aquaculture and Marine Ecosystems (FAME)
Geoscience Energy and Maritime (GEM)
Land Resources Division (LRD)
Public Health Division (PHD)
Regional Rights Resource Team (RRRT)
Social Development Program (SDP)
Statistics for Development (SDD)
SPC Directors-General
See also
CROP agencies
Pacific Islands Forum
Pacific Regional Environment Programme
University of the South Pacific
Forum Fisheries Agency
South Pacific Tourism Organisation
Pacific Aviation Safety Office
Others
Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees
Festival of Pacific Arts
Pacific Games
Pacific Island Farmers Organisation Network (PIFON)
Pacific Islands Private Sector Organisation (PIPSO)
Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC)
Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission
International organization
References
Further reading
Mitcham, Chad, 'Forsyth, William Douglass (1909–1993)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/forsyth-william-douglass-27737/text35421, published online 2018.
South Pacific Commission. 'Meeting House of the Pacific: The Story of the SPC, 1947–2007', Nouméa, New Caledonia: SPC Secretariat, 2007.
External links
Pacific Community official website
The Canberra Agreement establishing the South Pacific Community
The Pacific Community gains official observer status with United Nations
International organizations based in Oceania
New Zealand–Pacific relations
Pacific Community
Organizations established in 1947
Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty | [
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260844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergus | Mergus | Mergus is the genus of the typical mergansers , fish-eating ducks in the subfamily Anatinae. The genus name is a Latin word used by Pliny the Elder and other Roman authors to refer to an unspecified waterbird.
The common merganser (Mergus merganser) and red-breasted merganser (M. serrator) have broad ranges in the northern hemisphere. The Brazilian merganser (M. octosetaceus) is a South American duck, and one of the six most threatened waterfowl in the world, with possibly fewer than 250 birds in the wild. The scaly-sided merganser or "Chinese merganser" (M. squamatus) is an endangered species. It lives in temperate East Asia, breeding in the north and wintering in the south.
The hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus, formerly known as Mergus cucullatus) is not of this genus but is closely related. The other "aberrant" merganser, the smew (Mergellus albellus), is phylogenetically closer to goldeneyes (Bucephala).
Although they are seaducks, most of the mergansers prefer riverine habitats, with only the red-breasted merganser being common at sea. These large fish-eaters typically have black-and-white, brown and/or green hues in their plumage, and most have somewhat shaggy crests. All have serrated edges to their long and thin bills that help them grip their prey. Along with the smew and hooded merganser, they are therefore often known as "sawbills". The goldeneyes, on the other hand, feed mainly on mollusks, and therefore have a more typical duck-bill.
Mergus ducks are also classified as "diving ducks" because they submerge completely in looking for food. In other traits, however, the genera Mergus, Lophodytes, Mergellus, and Bucephala are very similar: uniquely among all Anseriformes, they do not have notches at the hind margin of their sternum, but holes surrounded by bone.
Taxonomy
The genus Mergus was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. The genus name is the Latin word for an unidentified waterbird mentioned by Pliny the Elder and other authors. The type species was designated as the common merganser (Mergus merganser) by Thomas Campbell Eyton in 1838.
Other taxonomists may consider the genus to be polyphyletic, with the brazilian merganser and red-breasted merganser not considered to belong within this genus, with these species preferably belonging to the possible genera Neomergus and Prionorhynchus respectively.
Species
The genus contains four extant species.
Extinct species
New Zealand merganser, Mergus australis (extinct c.1902)
Some fossil/subfossil members of this genus have been described:
Chatham Island merganser, Mergus milleneri, is known from Holocene remains from the Chatham Island (may have survived to historical times).
Mergus miscellus is known from the Middle Miocene Calvert Formation (Barstovian, c.14 million years ago) of Virginia, USA.
Mergus connectens lived in the Early Pleistocene about 2–1 million years ago, in Central and Eastern Europe.
The Early Oligocene booby "Sula" ronzoni was at first mistakenly believed to be a typical merganser. A Late Serravallian (13–12 million years ago) fossil sometimes attributed to Mergus, found in the Sajóvölgyi Formation of Mátraszőlős, Hungary, probably belongs to Mergellus. The affiliations of the mysterious "Anas" albae from the Messinian (c. 7–5 million years ago) of Hungary are undetermined; it was initially believed to be a typical merganser too.
References
Bibliography
Mlíkovský, Jirí (2002b): Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe. Ninox Press, Prague.
Bird genera
Ducks
Langhian first appearances
Extant Miocene first appearances
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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260856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronius%20Maximus | Petronius Maximus | Petronius Maximus ( 39731 May 455) was Roman emperor of the West for two and a half months in 455. A wealthy senator and a prominent aristocrat, he was instrumental in the murders of the Western Roman magister militum, Aëtius, and the Western Roman emperor, Valentinian III.
Maximus secured the throne the day after Valentinian's death by ensuring the backing of the senate and by bribing the palace officials. He strengthened his position by forcing Valentinian's widow to marry him and forcing Valentinian's daughter to marry his son. He cancelled the betrothal of his new wife's daughter to the son of the Vandal king Genseric. This infuriated both his stepdaughter and Genseric, who sent a fleet to Rome. Maximus failed to obtain troops from the Visigoths and he fled as the Vandals arrived, became detached from his retinue and bodyguard in the confusion, and was killed. The Vandals thoroughly sacked Rome.
Early career
Petronius Maximus was born about 397. Although he was of obscure origin, it is believed that he belonged to the Anicius family. Related to the later Emperor Olybrius, Maximus was the son of Anicius Probinus, and the grandson of Anicia Faltonia Proba and Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus, who was prefect of Illyricum in 364, prefect of Gaul in 366, prefect of Italy from 368 to 375 and again in 383 and consul in 371.
Maximus had a remarkable early career. His earliest known office was praetor, held in about 411; around 415 he served as a tribunus et notarius, which was an entry position to the imperial bureaucracy and led to his serving as comes sacrarum largitionum (count of the sacred largess) between 416 and 419. From January or February 420 to August or September 421 he was praefectus urbi of Rome, meaning that he had executive authority for much of the municipal administration of Rome; he held the office again sometime before 439. As praefectus he restored the Old St. Peter's Basilica. He was also appointed praetorian prefect, a leading military and judicial position, sometime between 421 and 439. It was either while holding this post or during his second urban prefecture that he was appointed consul for the year 433. Becoming a consul was considered the highest honour of the Roman state. From August 439 to February 441 he held the praetorian prefecture of Italy, the most important administrative and judicial non-imperial position in the Western Empire. He was awarded a second consulship in 443. In 445 he was granted the title of patrician, the Empire's senior honorific title, which was limited to a very small number of holders. During this year he was briefly the most honoured of all non-imperial Romans, until the third consulate of Flavius Aëtius, generalissimo, or magister militum, of the Western Empire, the following year. Between 443 and 445 Maximus built a forum, the Forum Petronii Maximi, in Rome, on the Caelian Hill between the via Labicana and the Basilica di San Clemente.
Murder of Valentinian III and accession of Maximus
According to the historian John of Antioch, Maximus poisoned the mind of the Emperor against Aëtius, resulting in the murder of his rival at the hands of Valentinian III. John's account has it that Valentinian and Maximus placed a wager on a game that Maximus ended up losing. As he did not have the money available, Maximus left his ring as a guarantee of his debt. Valentinian then used the ring to summon to court Lucina, the chaste and beautiful wife of Maximus, whom Valentinian had long lusted after. Lucina went to the court, believing she had been summoned by her husband, but instead found herself at dinner with Valentinian. Although initially resisting his advances, the Emperor managed to wear her down and succeeded in raping her. Returning home and meeting Maximus, she accused him of betrayal, believing that he had handed her over to the Emperor. Although Maximus swore revenge, he was equally motivated by ambition to supplant "a detested and despicable rival", so he decided to move against Valentinian.
According to John of Antioch, Maximus was acutely aware that while Aëtius was alive he could not exact vengeance on Valentinian, so Aëtius had to be removed. He therefore allied himself with a eunuch of Valentinian's, the primicerius sacri cubiculi Heraclius, who had long opposed the general, with the hope of exercising more power over the emperor. The two of them convinced Valentinian that Aëtius was planning to assassinate him and urged him to kill his magister militum during a meeting, which Valentinian did with his own hands, with the help of Heraclius, on 21 September 454.
Once Aëtius was dead, Maximus asked Valentinian for Aëtius's now-vacant position, but the Emperor refused; Heraclius, in fact, had advised the Emperor not to allow anyone to possess the power that Aëtius had wielded. According to John of Antioch, Maximus was so irritated by Valentinian's refusal to appoint him as his magister militum that he decided to have Valentinian assassinated as well. He chose as accomplices Optilia and Thraustila, two Scythians who had fought under the command of Aetius and who, after the death of their general, had been appointed as Valentinian's escort.
Maximus easily convinced them that Valentinian was the only one responsible for the death of Aetius, and that the two soldiers must avenge their old commander, while at the same time also promising them a reward for the betrayal of the Emperor. On 16 March 455 Valentinian, who was in Rome, went to Campus Martius with some guards, accompanied by Optilia, Thraustila and their men. As soon as the Emperor dismounted to practice with the bow, Optilia came up with his men and stabbed him in the temple. As Valentinian turned to look at his attacker, Optila finished him off with another thrust of his blade. At the same moment, Thraustila killed Heraclius. The two Scythians took the imperial diadem and robe and brought them to Maximus.
The sudden and violent death of Valentinian III left the Western Roman Empire without an obvious successor to the throne. Several candidates were supported by various groups of the imperial bureaucracy and the military. In particular, the army's support was split among three main candidates: Maximianus, the former domesticus (bodyguard) of Aëtius, who was the son of an Egyptian merchant named Domninus who had become rich in Italy; the future emperor Majorian, who commanded the army after the death of Aetius and who had the backing of the Empress Licinia Eudoxia; and Maximus himself, who had the support of the Roman Senate and who secured the throne on 17 March by distributing money to the officials of the imperial palace.
Reign and death
After gaining control of the royal palace, Maximus consolidated his hold on power by immediately marrying Licinia Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian. She married him reluctantly, suspecting that he had been involved in the murder of her late husband; and indeed Maximus treated Valentinian III's assassins with considerable favour. The eastern court at Constantinople refused to recognise his accession. To further secure his position Maximus quickly appointed Avitus as magister militum and sent him on a mission to Toulouse to gain the support of the Visigoths. He also proceeded to cancel the betrothal of Licinia's daughter, Eudocia, to Huneric, the son of the Vandal king Geiseric, and marry her to his own son. Again he anticipated that this would further his and his family's imperial credentials. This repudiation infuriated the Vandal king, who only needed the excuse of Licinia's despairing appeal to the Vandal court to begin preparations for the invasion of Italy.
By May, within two months of Maximus gaining the throne, news reached Rome that Geiseric was sailing for Italy. As the news spread, panic gripped the city and many of its inhabitants took to flight. The Emperor, aware that Avitus had not yet returned with the expected Visigothic aid, decided that it was fruitless to mount a defence against the Vandals. So he attempted to organise his escape, urging the Senate to accompany him. However, in the panic, Petronius Maximus was abandoned by his bodyguard and entourage and left to fend for himself.
As Maximus rode out of the city on his own on 31 May 455, he was set upon by an angry mob, which stoned him to death (another account has it that he was killed by "a certain Roman soldier named Ursus"). His body was mutilated and flung into the Tiber. He had reigned for only seventy-five days. His son from his first marriage, Palladius, who had held the title of caesar between 17 March and 31 May, and who had married his stepsister Eudocia, was probably executed.
Aftermath
On 2 June 455, three days after Maximus' death, Geiseric captured the city of Rome and sacked it for two weeks. Amidst the pillaging and looting of the city, and in response to the pleas of Pope Leo I, the Vandals are said to have refrained from arson, torture, and murder. Such modern historians as John Henry Haaren state that temples, public buildings, private houses and even the emperor's palace were destroyed. The Vandals also shipped many boatloads of Romans to North Africa as slaves, destroyed works of art and killed a number of citizens. The Vandals' activities during the sack gave rise to the modern term vandalism. Geiseric also carried away the empress Licinia Eudoxia and her daughters Placidia and Eudocia.
See also
Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire
References
Sources
390s births
455 deaths
4th-century Romans
5th-century Christians
5th-century murdered monarchs
5th-century Roman emperors
5th-century Roman consuls
Comites sacrarum largitionum
Deaths by stoning
Imperial Roman consuls
Imperial Roman praetors
Murdered Roman emperors
Patricii
Maximus
Praetorian prefects of Italy
Theodosian dynasty
Urban prefects of Rome
Year of birth uncertain
Lynching deaths | [
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260857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vireo | Vireo | The vireos make up a family, Vireonidae, of small to medium-sized passerine birds found in the New World (Canada to Argentina, including Bermuda and the West Indies) and Southeast Asia. "Vireo" is a Latin word referring to a green migratory bird, perhaps the female golden oriole, possibly the European greenfinch.
They are typically dull-plumaged and greenish in color, the smaller species resembling wood warblers apart from their heavier bills. They range in size from the Chocó vireo, dwarf vireo and lesser greenlet, all at around 10 centimeters and 8 grams, to the peppershrikes and shrike-vireos at up to 17 centimeters and 40 grams.
Distribution and habitat
Most species are found in Middle America and northern South America. Thirteen species of true vireos occur farther north, in the United States, Bermuda and Canada; of these all but Hutton's vireo are migratory. Members of the family seldom fly long distances except in migration. They inhabit forest environments, with different species preferring forest canopies, undergrowth, or mangrove swamps.
A few species in the genus Vireo have appeared on the eastern side of the Atlantic as vagrants to the Western Palearctic.
Behaviour
The resident species occur in pairs or family groups that maintain territories all year (except Hutton's vireo, which joins mixed feeding flocks). Most of the migrants defend winter territories against conspecifics. The exceptions are the complex comprising the red-eyed vireo, the yellow-green vireo, the black-whiskered vireo, and the Yucatan vireo, which winter in small wandering flocks.
Voice
Males of most species are persistent singers. Songs are usually rather simple, monotonous in some species of the Caribbean littoral and islands, and most elaborate and pleasant to human ears in the Chocó vireo and the peppershrikes.
Breeding
The nests of many tropical species are unknown. Of those that are known, all build a cup-shaped nest that hangs from branches. The female does most of the incubation, spelled by the male except in the red-eyed vireo complex.
Feeding
All members of the family eat some fruit but mostly insects and other arthropods. They take prey from leaves and branches; true vireos also flycatch, and the gray vireo takes 5 percent of its prey from the ground.
Systematics
The six genera of these birds make up the family Vireonidae, and are believed to be related to the crow-like birds in family Corvidae and the shrikes in family Laniidae. Recent biochemical studies have identified two babbler genera (Pteruthius and Erpornis) which may be Old World members of this family. Observers have commented on the vireo-like behaviour of the Pteruthius shrike-babblers, but apparently no-one suspected the biogeographically unlikely possibility of vireo relatives in Asia.
The family can be conveniently though perhaps inaccurately categorised by genus as the true vireos, the greenlets, the shrike-vireos and the peppershrikes. Preliminary genetic studies by Johnson et al. revealed large interspecific genetic distances between clades within Vireo and Hylophilus of a similar magnitude to differences between Cyclarhis and Vireolanius. Furthermore, some vireo and greenlet species may be closer to the peppershrikes than to their respective congeners. A more comprehensive study may reveal this family to be considerably undersplit at both the generic and species level.
Species in taxonomic order
Genus Pteruthius - shrike-babblers
Green shrike-babbler, Pteruthius xanthochlorus
Black-eared shrike-babbler, Pteruthius melanotis
Black-headed shrike-babbler, Pteruthius rufiventer
Himalayan shrike-babbler, Pteruthius ripleyi
Blyth's shrike-babbler, Pteruthius aeralatus
Dalat shrike-babbler, Pteruthius annamensis
Pied shrike-babbler, Pteruthius flaviscapis
Clicking shrike-babbler, Pteruthius intermedius
Trilling shrike-babbler, Pteruthius aenobarbus
Genus Erpornis
White-bellied erpornis or white-bellied "yuhina", Erpornis zantholeuca - formerly in Yuhina (Cibois et al. 2002)
Genus Cyclarhis, the peppershrikes
Rufous-browed peppershrike, Cyclarhis gujanensis
Black-billed peppershrike Cyclarhis nigrirostris
Genus Vireolanius , the shrike-vireos
Chestnut-sided shrike-vireo, Vireolanius melitophrys
Green shrike-vireo, Vireolanius pulchellus
Yellow-browed shrike-vireo, Vireolanius eximius
Slaty-capped shrike-vireo, Vireolanius leucotis
Genus Hylophilus
Grey-eyed greenlet, Hylophilus amaurocephalus
Rufous-crowned greenlet, Hylophilus poicilotis
Olivaceous greenlet, Hylophilus olivaceus
Ashy-headed greenlet, Hylophilus pectoralis
Brown-headed greenlet, Hylophilus brunneiceps
Lemon-chested greenlet, Hylophilus thoracicus
Scrub greenlet, Hylophilus flavipes
Grey-chested greenlet, Hylophilus semicinereus
Genus Tunchiornis
Tawny-crowned greenlet, Tunchiornis ochraceiceps
Genus Pachysylvia
Lesser greenlet, Pachysylvia decurtata
Dusky-capped greenlet, Pachysylvia hypoxantha
Buff-cheeked greenlet, Pachysylvia muscicapina
Golden-fronted greenlet, Pachysylvia aurantiifrons
Rufous-naped greenlet, Pachysylvia semibrunnea
Genus Vireo, the true vireos.
The "hypochryseus" group
Golden vireo, Vireo hypochryseus
The "olivaceous" group.
Yellow-green vireo, Vireo flavoviridis (sometimes included in V. olivaceus)
Red-eyed vireo, Vireo olivaceus
Yucatan vireo, Vireo magister
Black-whiskered vireo, Vireo altiloquus
Chivi vireo, Vireo chivi
Noronha vireo, Vireo gracilirostris
The "gilvus" group.
Tepui vireo, Vireo sclateri
Philadelphia vireo, Vireo philadelphicus
Warbling vireo, Vireo gilvus
Brown-capped vireo, Vireo leucophrys
The "eye-ringed" group.
Hutton's vireo, Vireo huttoni
Gray vireo, Vireo vicinior
Yellow-throated vireo, Vireo flavifrons
Yellow-winged vireo, Vireo carmioli
Choco vireo, Vireo masteri
Blue-headed vireo, Vireo solitarius
Cassin's vireo, Vireo cassinii
Plumbeous vireo, Vireo plumbeus
Blue Mountain vireo, Vireo osburni
Flat-billed vireo, Vireo nanus
Mangrove vireo, Vireo pallens
Providencia vireo, Vireo approximans
Cozumel vireo, Vireo bairdi
San Andres vireo, Vireo caribaeus
White-eyed vireo, Vireo griseus
Thick-billed vireo, Vireo crassirostris
Jamaican vireo, Vireo modestus
Cuban vireo, Vireo gundlachii
Bell's vireo, Vireo bellii
Puerto Rican vireo, Vireo latimeri
Black-capped vireo, Vireo atricapillus
Dwarf vireo, Vireo nelsoni
Slaty vireo, Vireo brevipennis
References
External links
Vireos (Vireonidae) information, including 33 species with videos and 40 with photographs at the Internet Bird Collection | [
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260858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius%20of%20Phalerum | Demetrius of Phalerum | Demetrius of Phalerum (also Demetrius of Phaleron or Demetrius Phalereus; ; c. 350 – c. 280 BC) was an Athenian orator originally from Phalerum, a student of Theophrastus, and perhaps of Aristotle, and one of the first Peripatetics. Demetrius was a distinguished statesman who was appointed by the Macedonian king, Cassander, to govern Athens, where he ruled as sole ruler for ten years, introducing important reforms of the legal system while maintaining pro-Cassander oligarchic rule. He was exiled by his enemies in 307 BC, and he went first to Thebes, and then, after 297 BC, to the court of Alexandria. He wrote extensively on the subjects of history, rhetoric, and literary criticism. He is not to be confused with his grandson, also called Demetrius of Phaleron, who probably served as regent of Athens between 262 and 255, on behalf of the Macedonian King Antigonos Gonatas.
Life
Demetrius was born in Phalerum, c. 350 BC. He was the son of Phanostratus, a man without rank or property, and was brother to the anti-Macedonian orator Himeraeus. He was educated, together with the poet Menander, in the school of Theophrastus. He began his public career about 325 BC, at the time of the disputes concerning Harpalus, and soon acquired a great reputation by the talent he displayed in public speaking. He belonged to the pro-oligarchic party of Phocion; and he acted in the spirit of that statesman. When Xenocrates was unable to pay the new tax on metics (foreign residents) c. 322 BC, and the Athenians threatened him with slavery, he was only saved (according to one story) when Demetrius purchased his debt and paid his tax. After the death of Phocion in 317 BC, Cassander placed Demetrius at the head of the administration of Athens. He filled this office for ten years, instituting extensive legal reforms. The Athenians conferred upon him the most extraordinary distinctions (almost all of which were revoked after his later expulsion from Athens), and no fewer than 360 statues were erected to him. However, Demetrius was unpopular with the lower classes of Athenians and with pro-democratic political factions, who resented the limitations he placed on the democratic franchise and viewed him as little more than a pro-Macedonian puppet ruler.
According to Stephen V. Tracy, the story about the statues was not historical; also he argues that Demetrius later played a big role in the foundation of the Library of Alexandria.
He remained in power until 307 BC when Cassander's enemy, Demetrius Poliorcetes captured Athens, and Demetrius was obliged to take to flight. It was claimed that during the latter period of his administration he had abandoned himself to every kind of excess, and we are told he squandered 1200 talents a year on dinners, parties, and love affairs. Carystius of Pergamum mentions that he had a lover by the name of Diognis, of whom all the Athenian boys were jealous. After his exile, his enemies contrived to induce the people of Athens to pass the death sentence upon him, in consequence of which his friend Menander nearly fell a victim. All his statues, with the exception of one, were demolished.
Demetrius first went to Thebes, and then (after Cassander's death in 297 BC) to the court of Ptolemy I Soter at Alexandria, with whom he lived for many years on the best terms, and who is even said to have entrusted to him the revision of the laws of his kingdom. During his stay at Alexandria, he devoted himself mainly to literary pursuits, ever cherishing the recollection of his own country.
On the accession of Ptolemy Philadelphus, Demetrius fell into disfavour (he apparently supported the wrong candidate, Ptolemy Keraunos), and was sent into exile to Upper Egypt. According to one account a statue at Memphis Saqqara was attributed to him. He is said to have died from the bite of a venomous snake. His death appears to have taken place soon after the year 283 BC.
Works and legacy
Literary works
Demetrius was the last among the Attic orators worthy of the name, after which the activity went into a decline. His orations were characterised as being soft, graceful, and elegant, rather than sublime like those of Demosthenes. His numerous writings, the greater part of which he probably composed during his residence in Egypt, embraced a wide range of subjects, and the list of them given by Diogenes Laërtius shows that he was a man of the most extensive acquirements. These works, which were partly historical, partly political, partly philosophical (e.g. Aisopeia, a collection of Aesopic Fables), and partly poetical, have all perished. The work On Style () which has come down under his name, is the work of a later writer, c. 2nd century AD.
Education and arts
The performance of tragedy had fallen into disuse in Athens, on account of the great expense involved. In order to afford the people less costly and yet intellectual amusement, he caused the Homeric and other poems to be recited on the stage by rhapsodists.
According to Strabo, Demetrius inspired the creation of the Mouseion, the location of the Library of Alexandria, which was modelled after the arrangement of Aristotle's school. The Mouseion contained a peripatos (covered walkway), a syssition (room for communal dining) and a categorized organization of scrolls.
According to the earliest source of information, the pseudepigraphic Letter of Aristeas composed between c180 and 145 BC, the library was initially organized by Demetrius of Phaleron, under the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (c.367 BC—c.283 BC). Other sources claim it was instead created under the reign of his son Ptolemy II (283–246 BC).
Cultural references
Diogenes Laërtius
Diogenes Laërtius devotes a section of his The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers to Demetrius Phalereus.
Hegel
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, in the Lectures on the History of Philosophy, says of Demetrius Phalereus that "Demetrius Phalereus and others were thus soon after [Alexander] honoured and worshipped in Athens as God." What the exact source was for Hegel's claim is unclear. Diogenes Laërtius does not mention this.
Apparently Hegel's error comes from a misreading of Plutarch's Life of Demetrius which is about Demetrius Poliorcetes and not Demetrius of Phalereus. But Plutarch describes in the work how Demetrius Poliorcetes conquered Demetrius Phalereus at Athens. Then, in chapter 12 of the work, Plutarch describes how Demetrius Poliorcetes was given honours due to the god Dionysus. Somehow this account by Plutarch was confusing not only for Hegel, but for others as well.
Notes
References
Innes, Doreen (1995) Demetrius: On Style, in Aristotle Poetics, Longinus On the Sublime, Demetrius on Style. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press.
Attribution:
Further reading
Fortenbaugh, W., Schütrumpf, Eckart, (2000), Demetrius of Phalerum: Text Translation and Discussion. Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities IX. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ.
External links
The Rediscovery of the Corpus Aristotelicum on the role of Demetrius in the constitution of the Corpus Aristotelicum
Demetrius on style, W. Rhys Roberts (ed.), Cambridge, at the University press, 1902.
Typi epistolares in Epistolographi graeci, R. Hercher (ed.), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1873, pp. 1-6.
4th-century BC Athenians
3rd-century BC Athenians
4th-century BC writers
3rd-century BC writers
4th-century BC philosophers
Ancient LGBT people
Hellenistic Athens
Hellenistic-era philosophers in Athens
Peripatetic philosophers
Ptolemaic court
350s BC births
280s BC deaths | [
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260860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procopius%20%28usurper%29 | Procopius (usurper) | Procopius (Ancient Greek: Προκόπιος) (c. 325/326 – 27 May 366) was a Roman usurper against Valens, and a member of the Constantinian dynasty.
Life
Procopius was a native of Cilicia born in Corycus. On his mother's side, Procopius was a Greek, a maternal cousin, to Emperor Julian, since their maternal grandfather was Julius Julianus. His first wife was probably Artemisia, having married secondly the dowager Empress Faustina, while the Roman general of the 5th century Procopius and his son, the Emperor Anthemius, were among his descendants, the first being the son of his son Procopius.
In 358, during the reign of Constantius II, he was sent with Lucillianus as an envoy to the Sassanid court; in this period he was tribunus and notarius.
Procopius entered Julian's retinue and took part in his campaign against the Sassanids in 363. Together with Sebastianus he was entrusted with controlling the upper Tigris with 30,000 men and, if possible, joining King Arsaces II of Armenia and marching southward, to reach Julian's army in Assyria. However, Julian died and, when Procopius reached the main Roman army near Thilsaphata, between Nisibis and Singara, he met the new emperor, Jovian.
According to Zosimus, Julian had given Procopius an imperial robe, explaining his act only to him. When Jovian was acclaimed Emperor, Procopius gave him the robe, revealed to him Julian's intention, and asked the new Emperor to be allowed to retire to private life; Jovian accepted, and Procopius and his family retired to Caesarea Mazaca.
Ammianus, who based part of his account on the testimony of Strategius, tells that a baseless rumor spread, according to which Julian had ordered Procopius to take the purple in case of his death. Fearing Jovian's wrath, which had caused the death of another army candidate to the throne (Jovianus), Procopius went into hiding, but later supervised the transport of Julian's body to Tarsus and its subsequent burial, and only later went to Caesarea with his family.
After Jovian's death, the new emperors, Valentinian I and Valens, sent some soldiers to arrest Procopius. He surrendered, but asked to meet his family; he had his captors dine and drink, and then seized the opportunity to flee with his family, first to the Black Sea and later to the Tauric Chersonese, where they hid. However, Procopius lived in constant fear of betrayal or exposure among the savage barbarians, and decided to go to Constantinople to ask Strategius for help.
Procopius immediately moved to declare himself Emperor. He bribed two legions which were then resting at Constantinople to support his efforts, and took control of the imperial city. Shortly after this he proclaimed himself Emperor on September 28, 365, and quickly took control of the provinces of Thrace, and later Bithynia.
Though Valens initially despaired of subduing the rebellion, and was inclined to come to terms with the usurper, he quickly rallied, guided by the counsels of Salutius and Arintheus, and the superior ability of his generals prevailed in two battles at Thyatira and Nacolia where Procopius' forces were defeated. He fled the battlefield, and was for a while a fugitive in the wilds of Phrygia, but was soon betrayed to Valens due to the treachery of his two generals Agilonius and Gomoarius (they had been promised they would be "shown favour" by Valens), he was captured. Valens had his rival executed on 27 May 366 by being fastened to two trees bent down with force; when the trees were released, Procopius was ripped apart in the manner of the legendary execution of the bandit Sinis. The "favour" Valens showed to Agilonius and Gomoarius was to have them both sawn asunder.
References
Sources
External links
326 births
366 deaths
4th-century Roman usurpers
Constantinian dynasty
Dismemberments
Executed ancient Roman people
Generals of Julian
Julian's Persian expedition
People executed by the Roman Empire | [
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260863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Williamson | Henry Williamson | Henry William Williamson (1 December 1895 – 13 August 1977) was an English author who wrote novels concerned with wildlife, English social history and ruralism. He was awarded the Hawthornden Prize for literature in 1928 for his book Tarka the Otter.
He was born in London, and brought up in a semi-rural area where he developed his love of nature, and nature writing. He fought in World War I and, having witnessed the Christmas Truce and the devastation of trench warfare, he developed first a pacifist ideology, then Fascist sympathies. He moved to Devon after World War II and took up farming and writing; he wrote many other novels. He married twice. He died in a hospice in Ealing in 1977, and was buried in North Devon.
Early years
Henry Williamson was born in Brockley in south-east London to bank clerk William Leopold Williamson (1865-1946) and Gertrude Eliza (1867-1936; née Leaver). In early childhood his family moved to Ladywell, and he received a grammar school education at Colfe's School. The then semi-rural location provided easy access to the Kent countryside, and he developed a deep love of nature throughout his childhood.
First World War
On 22 January 1914, Williamson volunteered as a rifleman with the 5th (City of London) Battalion of the London Regiment, part of the British Army's Territorial Force, and was mobilised when war was declared upon Imperial Germany on 5 August 1914.
In November 1914, he went to France with the London Rifle Brigade's 1st Battalion, entering the Western Front's trenches in the Ypres Salient, where he witnessed the Christmas Truce between British and German troops. In January 1915, he was withdrawn from the winter trenches with trench foot and dysentery and evacuated back to Britain. After convalescence, he was commissioned on 10 April 1915 as a second lieutenant with the 10th (Service) Battalion of the Bedfordshire Regiment. In May 1915, he was attached for training to the 2/1st Cambridgeshire Regiment at Newmarket. In October 1915, he was transferred to the 25th Middlesex Regiment at Hornchurch. He volunteered to specialise in machine-gun warfare, and in January 1916, joined No. 208 Machine Gun Company of the Machine Gun Corps at Belton Park, Grantham. In May 1916, he entered hospital in London with anaemia, and was granted two months' medical leave. He rejoined No. 208 MGC and in February 1917 departed Britain with it for the Western Front, the unit taking the field with the 62nd (2nd West Riding) Division. Williamson acted as his company's transport officer and, in June 1917, he was gassed while transporting ammunition up to the front line. He was returned to the UK, spending the next few months in military convalescent hospitals. In September 1917, he was attached for garrison duty as the adjutant of the 3rd Bedfordshire Regiment at Felixstowe. Classed B1 by an Army Medical Board, from the effects of the gas, he was judged to be unfit for active service. After a year at Felixstowe, and frustrated at the nature of garrison life, Williamson attempted to get back to front-line action in September 1918 with an application to be transferred to the Royal Air Force, but this was rejected due to his medical classification. He then applied for a transfer to the Indian Army, which was granted, but the war was ending and the order was cancelled. He spent a year afterwards on administrative duties demobilising soldiers from military camps on the south east coast of England, and was discharged from the army himself on 19 September 1919.
Williamson became disgusted with what he considered to be the pointlessness of the war, blaming its causation on greed and bigotry. He became determined that Germany and Britain should never go to war again. Williamson was also powerfully influenced by the camaraderie that he had experienced in the trenches, and what he saw as the bonds of kinship that existed between the ordinary British and German soldiers.
Early writing
He told of his war experiences in The Wet Flanders Plain (1929), The Patriot's Progress (1930) and in many of his books in the semi-autobiographical 15-book series A Chronicle of Ancient Sunlight (1951–1969).
After the war, he read Richard Jefferies' book The Story of My Heart and this inspired him to begin writing seriously. In 1921, he moved to Georgeham, Devon, initially living in Skirr Cottage there. He married Ida Loetitia Hibbert in 1925; they had six children. One daughter, Margaret, was the first wife of the guitarist and lutenist Julian Bream.
In 1927 Williamson published his most acclaimed book, Tarka the Otter; it won him the Hawthornden Prize in 1928, and made him enough money to pay for the wooden hut near Georgeham where he wrote many of his later books, often sitting alone there for 15 hours a day. The wooden writing hut was granted Grade II listed status by English Heritage in July 2014 because of its "historical interest". Tarka also sparked a friendship with T. E. Lawrence who had similar views about the need for a lasting peace settlement in Europe. Lawrence died in May 1935 shortly after receiving a telegram from Williamson, which has sparked some conspiracy theories.
In 1936 he bought a farm in Stiffkey, Norfolk. The Story of a Norfolk Farm (1941) is his account of his first years of farming there.
Politics
In 1935, Williamson visited the National Socialist German Workers Party Congress at Nuremberg and was greatly impressed, particularly with the Hitler Youth movement, which he viewed as having a healthy outlook on life compared with the London slums. He had a "well-known belief that Hitler was essentially a good man who wanted only to build a new and better Germany." Opposed to war and falsely believing that wars were caused by Jewish "usurial moneyed interests", he was attracted to Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists and joined it in 1937. Mosley became Hereward Birkin in Williamson's Chronicle of Ancient Sunlight (possibly a reference to Hereward the Wake and Freda May Birkin, or possibly a reference to Chattie Wake who married Michel Hewitt Salaman who became master of the Exmoor Hunt 1908-11-see Piers P Read's biography of Alec Guinness).
On the day of the British declaration of war, Williamson suggested to friends that he might fly to Germany to speak with Hitler to persuade him away from war. Following a meeting with Mosley later that day, however, he was dissuaded from his plan. At the start of the Second World War, Williamson was briefly held under Defence Regulation 18B for his political views. Visiting London in January 1944, he observed with satisfaction that what he perceived as the ugliness and immorality represented by its financial and banking sector had been "relieved a little by a catharsis of high explosive" and somewhat "purified by fire". In The Gale of the World, the last book of his Chronicle, published in 1969, Williamson has his main character Phillip Maddison question the moral and legal validity of the Nuremberg Trials.
Williamson initially retained a close relationship with Mosley in the immediate aftermath of the war, but when he brought Mosley as his guest to the Savage Club, the former BUF leader was asked to leave. Williamson refused Mosley's request to join the newly established Union Movement and indeed, his suggestion to Mosley that he should instead join him in abandoning politics altogether led to the two men falling out. Nonetheless, Williamson would write for the Mosleys' theoretical journal The European. He also continued to express admiration for aspects of Nazi Germany after the war.
Post-war life and writing
After the war the family left the farm. In 1946 Williamson went to live alone at Ox's Cross, Georgeham in North Devon, where he built a small house in which to write. In 1947 Henry and Loetitia divorced. Williamson fell in love with a young teacher, Christine Duffield, and they were married in 1949. He began to write his series of fifteen novels collectively known as A Chronicle of Ancient Sunlight. In 1950, the year his only child by this marriage Harry Williamson was born, he edited a collection of poems and short stories by James Farrar, a promising young poet who had died, at the age of 20, in the Second World War. From 1951 to 1969 Williamson produced almost one novel a year, while contributing regularly to the Sunday Express and The European magazine, edited by Diana Mosley. He also contributed a number of reviews and articles to The Sunday Times.
In 1964 he had a short affair with the novelist Ann Quin, who was nearly forty years his junior (he had previously had an affair with his secretary Myfanwy Thomas, daughter of poet Edward Thomas). This all put great strain on his marriage and, in 1968, Christine and he were divorced after years of separation.
In 1974 he began working on a script for a film treatment of Tarka the Otter, but it was not regarded as suitable to film, being 400,000 words long. Filming went on, unknown to him, and the film of Tarka the Otter, narrated by Peter Ustinov, was released in 1979.
Death
After a general anaesthetic for a minor operation Williamson's health failed catastrophically; one day he was walking and chopping wood, the next day he was unrecognisable and had forgotten who his family were. Suffering from senile dementia, he moved into a hospice at Twyford Abbey in Ealing. He died there on 13 August 1977, by coincidence on the day that the death scene of Tarka was being filmed. His body was buried in the graveyard of St George's Church, Georgeham, North Devon. At a service of thanksgiving in St Martin-in-the-Fields, Ted Hughes delivered the memorial address.
Henry Williamson Society
The Henry Williamson Society was founded in 1980. His first wife, Loetitia, supported the society until her death in 1998 and his son, Richard, is its president.
Bibliography
The Flax of Dream - a tetralogy following the life of Willie Maddison
The Beautiful Years (1921)
Dandelion Days (1922)
The Dream of Fair Women (1924)
The Pathway (1928)
A Chronicle of Ancient Sunlight - a series of 15 novels following the life of Phillip Maddison from his birth in the late 1890s till the early 1950s, based loosely on Williamson's own life and experiences. It is on the List of longest novels in English.
The Dark Lantern (1951)
Donkey Boy (1952)
Young Phillip Maddison (1953)
How Dear Is Life (1954)
A Fox Under My Cloak (1955)
The Golden Virgin (1957)
Love and the Loveless (1958)
A Test to Destruction (1960)
The Innocent Moon (1961)
It Was the Nightingale (1962)
The Power of the Dead (1963)
The Phoenix Generation (1965)
A Solitary War (1967)
Lucifer Before Sunrise (1967)
The Gale of the World (1969)
Other Works
The Lone Swallows (1922)
The Peregrine's Saga, and Other Stories of the Country Green (1923)
The Old Stag (1926)
Tarka the Otter (1927)
The Linhay on the Downs (1929)
The Ackymals (1929)
The Wet Flanders Plain (1929)
The Patriot’s Progress (1930)
The Village Book (1930)
The Labouring Life (1932)
The Wild Red Deer of Exmoor (1931)
The Star-born (1933)
The Gold Falcon or the Haggard of Love (1933)
On Foot in Devon (1933)
The Linhay on the Downs and Other Adventures in the Old and New Worlds (1934)
Devon Holiday (1935)
Salar the Salmon (1935)
Goodbye West Country (1937)
The Children of Shallowford (1939)
The Story of a Norfolk Farm (1941)
Genius of Friendship: T. E. Lawrence (1941; reprinted by the Henry Williamson Society 1988; e-book 2014)
As the Sun Shines (1941)
The Incoming of Summer (undated)
Life in A Devon Village (1945)
Tales of a Devon Village (1945)
The Sun in the Sands (1945)
The Phasian Bird (1948)
The Scribbling Lark (1949)
Tales of Moorland and Estuary (1953)
A Clearwater Stream (1958)
In The Woods, a biographical fragment (1960)
The Scandaroon (1972)
Writings published posthumously by the Henry Williamson Society
Days of Wonder (1987; e-book 2013)
From a Country Hilltop (1988; e-book 2013)
A Breath of Country Air (2 vols, 1990–91; e-book 2013)
Spring Days in Devon, and other Broadcasts (1992; e-book 2013)
Pen and Plough: Further Broadcasts (1993; e-book 2014)
Threnos for T.E. Lawrence and Other Writings (1994; e-book 2014)
Green Fields and Pavements (1995; e-book 2013)
The Notebook of a Nature-lover (1996; e-book 2013)
Words on the West Wind: Selected Essays from The Adelphi (2000; e-book 2013)
Indian Summer Notebook: A Writer's Miscellany (2001; e-book 2013)
Heart of England: Contributions to the Evening Standard, 1939-41 (2003; e-book 2013)
Chronicles of a Norfolk Farmer: Contributions to the Daily Express, 1937-39 (2004; e-book 2013)
Stumberleap, and other Devon Writings: Contributions to the Daily Express and Sunday Express, 1915-1935 (2005; e-book 2013)
Atlantic Tales: Contributions to the Atlantic Monthly, 1927-1947 (2007; e-book 2013)
Sources
Farson, Daniel, Henry: An Appreciation of Henry Williamson. London, Michael Joseph. 1982.
Higginbottom, Melvyn David, Intellectuals and British Fascism: A Study of Henry Williamson. London, Janus Publishing Co. 1992.
Lamplugh, Lois, A Shadowed Man: Henry Williamson 1895-1977. 2nd revised ed., Dulverton, Somerset, Exmoor Press, 1991.
Matthews, Hugoe, Henry Williamson. A Bibliography. London, Halsgrove. 2004.
Murry, John Middleton, 'The Novels of Henry Williamson', in Katherine Mansfield, and other Literary Studies. London, Constable. 1959.
Sewell, Fr. Brocard Henry Williamson: The Man, The Writings: A Symposium. Padstow, Tabb House. 1980.
West, Herbert Faulkner, The Dreamer of Dreams: An Essay on Henry Williamson, Ulysses Press, 1932.
Williamson, Anne, Henry Williamson: Tarka and the Last Romantic, Sutton Publishing (1995) . Paperback edition (1997)
Williamson, Anne, A Patriot's Progress: Henry Williamson and the First World War, Sutton Publishing (1998)
Wilson, Peter (ed), T. E. Lawrence. Correspondence with Henry Williamson. Fordingbridge, Hants, Castle Hill Press. 2000. (Volume IX of T. E. Lawrence Letters, edited by Jeremy Wilson)
References
External links
The Great War Interview BBC
The Henry Williamson Society
Henry Williamson Papers MSS 1714; 20th Century Western & Mormon Manuscripts; L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University.
Henry Williamson at University of Exeter Special Collections
1895 births
1977 deaths
20th-century English male writers
20th-century English novelists
20th-century naturalists
Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment officers
British Army personnel of World War I
British Union of Fascists politicians
Burials in Devon
Daily Express people
English fascists
English male novelists
English naturalists
Machine Gun Corps officers
People detained under Defence Regulation 18B
People educated at Colfe's School
People from Brockley
People from Stiffkey
Rifle Brigade soldiers
The Sunday Times people
London Regiment soldiers
Cambridgeshire Regiment officers
Middlesex Regiment officers
Military personnel from London
Participants of the Christmas truce of 1914 | [
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260869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Fleet%20Auxiliary | Royal Fleet Auxiliary | The Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) is a naval auxiliary fleet owned by the UK's Ministry of Defence. It provides vital logistical and operational support to the Royal Navy and Royal Marines. The RFA ensures the Royal Navy is supplied and supported by providing fuel and stores through replenishment at sea, transporting Royal Marines and British Army personnel, providing medical care and transporting equipment and essentials around the world. In addition the RFA acts independently providing humanitarian aid, counter piracy and counter narcotic patrols together with assisting the Royal Navy in preventing conflict and securing international trade. They are a uniformed civilian branch of the Royal Navy staffed by British merchant sailors.
RFA personnel are civilian employees of the Ministry of Defence and members of the Royal Naval Reserve and Sponsored Reserves. Although RFA personnel wear Merchant Navy rank insignia with naval uniforms, they are classed as a part of the naval service . RFA vessels are commanded and crewed by these sailors, augmented with regular and reserve Royal Navy personnel who perform specialised functions such as operating and maintaining helicopters or providing hospital facilities. Royal Navy personnel who are also needed to operate certain weapons, such as the Phalanx, however other weapons (such as the Bushmaster 30mm cannon) are operated by RFA personnel. The RFA counts an Aviation Training ship/Hospital Ship and landing vessels amongst its assets.
History
The RFA was first established in 1905 to provide coaling ships for the Navy in an era when the change from sail to coal-fired steam engines as the main means of propulsion meant that a network of bases around the world with coaling facilities or a fleet of ships able to supply coal were necessary for a fleet to operate away from its home country. Since the Royal Navy of that era possessed the largest network of bases around the world of any fleet, the RFA at first took a relatively minor role.
The RFA firstly became heavily reliant on by the Royal Navy during World War II, when the British fleet was often far from available bases, either due to the enemy capturing such bases, or, in the Pacific, because of the sheer distances involved. World War II also saw naval ships staying at sea for much longer periods than had been the case since the days of sail. Techniques of Replenishment at Sea (RAS) were developed. The auxiliary fleet comprised a diverse collection, with not only RFA ships, but also commissioned warships and merchantmen as well. The need for the fleet to be maintained was unambiguously demonstrated by World War II.
After 1945, the RFA became the Royal Navy's main source of support in the many conflicts that the Navy was involved in. The RFA performed important service to the Far East Fleet off Korea from 1950 until 1953, when sustained carrier operations were again mounted in Pacific waters. During the extended operations of the Konfrontasi in the 1960s, the RFA was also heavily involved. As the network of British bases overseas shrank during the end of the Empire, the Navy increasingly relied on the RFA to supply its ships during routine deployments.
The RFA played an important role in the largest naval war since 1945, the Falklands War in 1982 (where one vessel was lost and another badly damaged), and also the Gulf War, Kosovo War, Afghanistan Campaign and the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
In July 2008, the RFA was presented with a Queen's Colour, an honour unique to a civilian organisation.
Fleet
Ships in RFA service carry the ship prefix RFA, standing for Royal Fleet Auxiliary, and fly the Blue Ensign defaced with an upright gold killick anchor. All Royal Fleet Auxiliaries are built and maintained to Lloyd's Register and Department for Transport standards.
The most important role provided by the RFA is replenishment at sea (RAS), therefore the mainstay of the current RFA fleet are the replenishment ships.
The Wave-class are 'Fleet Tankers', which primarily provide under way refuelling to Royal Navy ships, but can also provide a limited amount of dry cargo. The Tide-class are 'Fast Fleet Tankers' that were ordered in February 2012. The four tankers have been ordered from DSME, South Korea with design support from Britain's BMT Defence Services, the first of which Tidespring entered service in 2017. From 2022, only the Tide-class were to be active with both Wave-class being placed in extended readiness (uncrewed reserve).
Fort Victoria is a 'one-stop' replenishment ship, capable of providing under way refuelling and dry cargoes (i.e. rearming, victualling and spares).
The older Fort Rosalie-class ships provided only dry cargoes. Both Fort Rosalie-class vessels were in reduced (base maintenance period) or "extended readiness" (uncrewed reserve) as of June 2020. The 2015 Strategic Defence and Security Review stated that three new "Fleet Solid Support" Ships were to be built and bidding for the contract was to start in late 2016. In 2019 this competition was stopped in the face of criticism that the competition permitted bids to build the ships from outside the UK. In May 2020, Defence Minister Ben Wallace stated that the competition was likely to restart in September 2020. However, the start was then delayed to the 'spring' of 2021. The 2021 defence white paper confirmed that both Fort Rosalie-class ships would be decommissioned and eventually replaced by new Fleet Solid Stores Support Vessels. In October 2021, both ships were sold to Egypt.
The Wave-class, Tide-class and Fort Victoria incorporate aviation facilities, providing aviation support and training facilities as well as vertical replenishment capabilities. They are capable of operating and supporting Merlin and Lynx Wildcat helicopters, both of which are significant weapons platforms. The presence of aviation facilities on RFA ships allows for them to be used as 'force multipliers' for the task groups they support in line with Royal Navy doctrine.
The RFA is tasked with the role of supporting Royal Navy amphibious operations through its three Bay-class dock landing ships (LSD). Typically one Bay-class is also assigned as a permanent 'mothership' for Royal Navy mine countermeasures vessels in the Persian Gulf. The 2021 defence white paper proposed the acquisition of a new class of up to six Multi-Role Support Ships to support littoral strike operations. These seemed likely to replace the Bay-class ships by the 2030s. In the interim, the white paper proposed to upgrade one of the Bay-class vessels with permanent hangar facilities in order to carry out the littoral strike role.
The unique support ship in the fleet is the aviation training ship Argus, a converted roll-on/roll-off (RoRo) container ship. She is tasked with peacetime aviation training and support. On active operations, she becomes the Primary Casualty Receiving Ship (PCRS); essentially a hospital ship. She cannot be described as such – and is not afforded such protection under the Geneva Convention – as she is armed. She can, however, venture into waters too dangerous for a normal hospital ship. Argus completed a refit in May 2007 intended to extend her operational life to 2020. As of 2021 Argus was still in service but expected to retire from service in 2024. The 2021 defence white paper did not specifically mention her replacement. However her functions are likely eventually to be taken over by the new Fleet Solid Stores Support ships approved for acquisition in the 2021 defence white paper.
The Point-class sealift ships were acquired in 2002 under a £1.25bn private finance initiative with Foreland Shipping known as the 'Strategic Sealift Service'. These ships are Merchant Navy vessels leased to the Ministry of Defence as and when needed. Originally six ships were part of the deal, allowing the MoD use of four of the ships with two being made available for commercial charter, these latter two were released from the contract in 2012. The Ministry of Defence also contracts to secure fuel supplies for facilities overseas. For sometime this requirement was maintained through charter of the vessel Maersk Rapier. The ship was tasked with supplying fuel to the United Kingdoms various naval establishments at home and overseas, as well as providing aviation fuel to RAF stations at Cyprus, Ascension and the Falklands. The MoD chartered the vessel to commercial companies during periods where she was not in use for defence purposes. Since the end of the contract for the use of Maersk Rapier, a further contract for the use of another tanker, renamed the Raleigh Fisher, has been secured.
As of 2021, there are 11 ships in service with the Royal Fleet Auxiliary with a total displacement of approximately 329,000 tonnes. These figures exclude merchant navy vessels under charter to the Ministry of Defence.
Replenishment
Dock landing ships
Aviation Support/Casualty Evacuation
Ministry of Defence Sealift/Supply Vessels
Rank insignia
Officers
Rank insignia of RFA officers are the same as for the Royal Navy; however, the RFA makes use of the diamond used by merchant shipping rather than the loop used by the RN.
The rank of commodore is the most senior in the RFA.
Department Colours
The RFA uses distinctive cloth to distinguish the branch of its officers. The Royal Navy ceased this practice for most officers in 1955, with the exception of medical and dental officers who are denoted by red and orange cloth respectively.
Marine Engineers may also have maroon coloured cloth in place of purple.
Crew
Uniforms
Officers and Ratings of the RFA wear similar uniforms to the Royal Navy with RFA distinguishing marks.
No. 1 Dress
This is the formal uniform worn on ceremonial occasions. For all officers it consists of a double-breasted, navy blue reefer jacket with four rows of two RFA buttons; matching trousers; white shirt and black tie; peaked cap; and black leather shoes. Rank insignia is denoted on the lower sleeve.
For ratings this uniform is a single breasted tunic fastened with four RFA buttons, with flapped chest pockets and hip pockets; white shirt and black tie, peaked cap for Petty Officers and above and a light blue beret for other ratings; and black leather shoes. Rank insignia is denoted on the lower sleeve.
No. 2 Dress
Number 2A dress is the formal evening dress for ceremonial dinners; it consists of a navy blue mess jacket with a white waistcoat (black cummerbund for female officers) with miniature medals.
2B is "mess undress" for other mess functions, and is worn with either a black cummerbund or navy blue waistcoat and miniature medals. 2C, "red sea rig", is worn for informal evening wear on board ship; it consists of a white short sleeved shirt, worn with shoulderboards, without medals and with black trousers, black shoes and a black cummerbund.
No. 3 Dress
This is worn all year round for general duties. It consists of a white shirt with rank insignia on the shoulders, and appropriate headgear. For officers 3A dress includes a long-sleeved shirt and tie, while 3B includes a short-sleeved shirt worn with hard shoulder boards. 3C is the same in all respects as 3A but with the addition of a navy blue woollen jersey.
This is the same as for Officer's No. 3 dress but with the relevant rate insignia and beret. Junior rates are only issued with short-sleeve shirts and are not issued with ties. Thus No.3 dress is divided into 3B (without jersey) and 3C dress (navy-blue jersey worn over the shirt with the shirt collar out). There is no equivalent of 3A dress for junior ratings.
No. 4 Dress
Number 4 dress is the working uniform of the RFA. It is referred to as Royal Fleet Auxiliary Personal Clothing System (RFAPCS); it consists of a navy blue fire-retardant jacket, navy blue baseball cap, navy blue stable belt, navy-blue fire-retardant trousers, dms boots, navy-blue T-shirt and an optional navy-blue microfleece.
Number 4R dress is the same only without the jacket and with an optional baseball cap.
RFAPCS is distinguished from its RNPCS counterpart by the RFA blue ensign and 'ROYAL FLEET AUXILIARY' tape replacing the white ensign and 'ROYAL NAVY' tape worn on the left arm and left chest pocket respectively.
Junior ratings may also wear an RFA badged baseball cap in this order of dress, whilst undertaking courses at Royal Navy establishments.
No. 5 Dress
Number 5 dress is the collective category for all specialist working uniforms. They are worn as required for duties.
Recruitment and training
The RFA recruits ratings either directly from industry (or where they are suitably trained to allow direct entry), or as apprentices whilst undertaking training.
Officers are recruited in one of three ways:
direct from industry (or where they are suitably trained to allow direct entry)
via the RTO (rating-to-officer) programme
as cadets
All new officers take part in a 10-week Initial Naval Training Officers (INT-O) course at BRNC Dartmouth that is designed to familiarise new officers to the RFA and develop leadership skills.
List of Commodores Royal Fleet Auxiliary
The post of Commodore of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary (COMRFA) was created in 1951, known as Commodore RFA and Deputy Director Royal Navy Afloat Support since 2020, is the senior officer of the RFA. The following people have served as COMRFA:
1951–1954: Stanley Kent
1954–1955: William Browne
1955–1957: Thomas Card
1957–1962: Thomas Elder
1962–1964: Albert Curtain
1964–1966: Eric Payne
1966–1968: Griffith Evans
1968–1971: Joe Dines
1971–1972: Henry L'Estrange
1972–1977: George Robson
1977–1983: Samuel Dunlop
1983–1985: James Coull
1986–1989: Barry Rutterford
1989–1994: Richard Thorn
1994–1999: Norman Squire
1999–2003: Peter Lannin
2003–2008: Robert Thornton
2008–2013: Bill Walworth
2013–2015: Rob Dorey
2015–2020: Duncan Lamb
2020- David Eagles
See also
Lists of ships operated by or in support of Her Majesty's Naval Service
List of active Royal Navy ships
List of active Royal Marines military watercraft
List of ships of Serco Marine Services
Related articles
Her Majesty's Naval Service
List of Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship names
Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)
Royal Research Ship
Military Sealift Command – the United States Navy's analogue to the Royal Fleet Auxiliary
Solid Support Ship
Notes
References
Bibliography
The Royal Fleet Auxiliary – A Century of Service. Adams/Smith. London 2005. Chatham Publishing. .
External links
RFA Association Photo Archive (rfaaplymouth.org)
The Marine Society provides a crew library service and education services to serving Merchant Navy and Royal Navy personnel.
History of the RFA (historicalrfa.org)
British Merchant Navy
1905 establishments in the United Kingdom
Naval Service
Royal Navy
Fighting Arms of the Royal Navy | [
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260870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Clymer | George Clymer | George Clymer (March 16, 1739January 23, 1813) was an American politician and Founding Father of the United States, one out of six to sign both the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. Although fact-checkers claim he never held slaves, it would appear that Clymer held slaves as some point in his life. He was one of the first Patriots to advocate complete independence from Britain. He attended the Continental Congress and served in political office until the end of his life.
Early life and family
Clymer was born in Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania on March 16, 1739. Orphaned when only a year old, he was apprenticed to his maternal aunt and uncle, Hannah and William Coleman, to prepare to become a merchant. He married Elizabeth Meredith on March 22, 1765. In a letter written by Clymer to the rector of Christ Church, the Reverend Richard Peters, Clymer states that he had previously fathered a child; neither the child's nor mother's name is mentioned. Clymer and his wife had nine children, four of whom died in infancy. His oldest surviving son, Henry (born 1767), married the Philadelphia socialite Mary Willing in 1794. John Meredith, Margaret, George, and Ann also survived to adulthood, though John Meredith was killed in the Whiskey Rebellion in 1787 at age 18.
Career
Clymer was a patriot and leader in the demonstrations in Philadelphia resulting from the Tea Act and the Stamp Act. Clymer accepted the command as a leader of a volunteer corps belonging to General John Cadwalader's brigade. In 1759, he was inducted as a member of the original American Philosophical Society. He became a member of the Philadelphia Committee of Safety in 1773 and was elected to the Continental Congress 1776–1780. Clymer shared the responsibility of being treasurer of the Continental Congress with Michael Hillegas. He served on several committees during his first congressional term and was sent with Sampson Mathews to inspect the northern army at Fort Ticonderoga on behalf of Congress in the fall of 1776. When Congress fled Philadelphia in the face of Sir Henry Clinton's threatened occupation, Clymer stayed behind with George Walton and Robert Morris. Clymer's business ventures during and after war served to increase his wealth. In 1779 and 1780, Clymer and his son Meredith engaged in a lucrative trade with Sint Eustatius. Although not partial to the merchant business, Clymer continued in business with his father-in-law and brother-in-law until 1782.
He resigned from Congress in 1777 and in 1780 was elected to a seat in the Pennsylvania Legislature. In 1782, he was sent on a tour of the southern states in a vain attempt to get the legislatures to pay up on subscriptions due to the central government. He was re-elected to the Pennsylvania legislature in 1784 and represented his state at the Constitutional Convention in 1787. He was elected to the first U.S. Congress in 1789.
He was the first president of the Philadelphia Bank and the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and vice-president of the Philadelphia Agricultural Society. When Congress passed a bill imposing a duty on spirits distilled in the United States in 1791, Clymer was placed as head of the excise department in the state of Pennsylvania. He was also one of the commissioners to negotiate a treaty with the Creek Indian confederacy at Colerain, Georgia on June 29, 1796. He is considered the benefactor of Indiana Borough, as it was he who donated the property for a county seat in Indiana County, Pennsylvania.
Clymer died on January 23, 1813. He was buried at the Friends Burying Ground in Trenton, New Jersey.
Legacy
USS George Clymer (APA-27) was named in his honor. Clymer, Indiana County, Pennsylvania, was named in his honor as was Clymer, New York. There is a George Clymer Elementary School in the School District of Philadelphia. Clymer's home in Morrisville, Pennsylvania, known as Summerseat, still stands, as does a house he owned in Philadelphia's Fairmount Park known as Ridgeland Mansion. Was one of the six people who signed the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. constitution.One of the streets running alongside Summerseat in Morrisville is Clymer Avenue.
In Reading, Pennsylvania, Clymer Street is named in his honor. In the Leedom Estates section of Ridley Township, Pennsylvania, Clymer Lane is named after him.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
ancestry.com Burnell, Jim. George Clymer the Signer (accessed October 16, 2011).
External links
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
George Clymer Bio
Biography and portrait at the University of Pennsylvania
George Clymer biography, from the website of The Society of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence
, from the website of the Pennsylvania Center for the Book
1739 births
1813 deaths
Continental Congressmen from Pennsylvania
18th-century American politicians
19th-century American Episcopalians
18th-century American Episcopalians
Indiana County, Pennsylvania
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
Politicians from Philadelphia
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Signers of the United States Constitution
British North American Anglicans
Burials in New Jersey
American slave owners
American slave traders | [
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260871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham%20Clark | Abraham Clark | Abraham Clark (February 15, 1726 – September 15, 1794) was an American Founding Father, politician, and Revolutionary War figure. He was a delegate for New Jersey to the Continental Congress where he signed the Declaration of Independence and later served in the United States House of Representatives in both the Second and Third United States Congress, from March 4, 1791, until his death in 1794.
Early life
Clark was born in Elizabethtown in the Province of New Jersey. His father, Thomas Clark, realized that he had a natural grasp for math so he hired a tutor to teach Abraham surveying. While working as a surveyor, he taught himself law and went into practice. He became quite popular and became known as "the poor man's councilor" as he offered to defend poor men who could not afford a lawyer. He was a slaveholder.
Clark married Sarah Hatfield circa 1749, with whom he had 10 children. While she raised the children on their farm, Clark was able to enter politics as a clerk of the Provincial Assembly. Later he became high sheriff of Essex County and in 1775 was elected to the Provincial Congress. He was a member of the Committee of Public Safety.
Political career
Early in 1776, the New Jersey delegation to the Continental Congress was opposed to independence from Great Britain. As the issue heated up, the state convention replaced all their delegates with those favoring the separation. Because Clark was highly vocal on his opinion that the colonies should have their independence, on June 21, 1776, they appointed him, along with John Hart, Francis Hopkinson, Richard Stockton, and John Witherspoon as new delegates. They arrived in Philadelphia on June 28, 1776, and voted for the Declaration of Independence in early July.
Clark remained in the Continental Congress through 1778, when he was elected as Essex County's Member of the New Jersey Legislative Council. New Jersey returned him twice more, from 1780 to 1783 and from 1786 to 1788. Clark was one of New Jersey's three representatives at the aborted Annapolis Convention of 1786, along with William C. Houston and James Schureman. In an October 12, 1804 letter to Noah Webster, James Madison recalled that Clark was the delegate who formally motioned for the Constitutional Convention, because New Jersey's instructions allowed for consideration of non-commercial matters.
Clark, more than many of his contemporaries, was a proponent of democracy and the common man, supporting especially the societal roles of farmers and mechanics. Because of their emphasis on production, Clark saw these occupations as the lifeblood of a virtuous society, and he decried the creditor status of more elite men, usually lawyers, ministers, physicians, and merchants, as an aristocratic threat to the future of republican government. Unlike many Founding Fathers who demanded deference to elected officials, Clark encouraged constituents to petition their representatives when they deemed change necessary.
In May 1786, Clark, aided by thousands of petitions in the preceding months, pushed a pro-debtor paper money bill through the New Jersey legislature. To garner support for the paper money bill and espouse his populist vision for New Jersey's future, Clark, under the pseudonym "A Fellow Citizen," published a forty-page pamphlet entitled The True Policy of New-Jersey, Defined; or, Our Great Strength led to Exertion, in the Improvement of Agriculture and Manufactures, by Altering the Mode of Taxation, and by the Emission of Money on Loan, in IX Sections in February 1786.
Death and legacy
Clark retired before the state's Constitutional Convention in 1794. He died from sunstroke at his home. Clark Township in Union County, New Jersey, is named for him, as is Abraham Clark High School in Roselle, New Jersey. Clark is buried there at the Rahway Cemetery in Rahway, New Jersey.
See also
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1790–1899)
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Notes
References
Bogin, Ruth, Abraham Clark and the Quest for Equality in the Revolutionary Era, 1774-1794. Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1982.
Brant, Irving. James Madison: The Nationalist, 1780-1787, Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1948.
External links
Genealogical information for Abraham Clark
ColonialHall.com biography of Abraham Clark
1726 births
1794 deaths
American Presbyterians
New Jersey sheriffs
Members of the New Jersey Legislative Council
Continental Congressmen from New Jersey
18th-century American politicians
Members of the United States House of Representatives from New Jersey
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Politicians from Elizabeth, New Jersey
People from Rahway, New Jersey
People of colonial New Jersey
American slave owners
Deaths from hyperthermia | [
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260872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Chase | Samuel Chase | Samuel Chase (April 17, 1741 – June 19, 1811) was a Founding Father of the United States, an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, and a signatory to the Continental Association and United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Maryland. He was impeached by the House of Representatives on grounds of letting his partisan leanings affect his court decisions but was acquitted by the Senate and remained in office.
Born near Princess Anne, Maryland, Chase established a legal practice in Annapolis, Maryland. He served in the Maryland General Assembly for several years and favored independence during the American Revolution. He won election to the Continental Congress before serving on the Baltimore District Criminal Court and the Maryland General Court. In 1796, President George Washington appointed Chase to the United States Supreme Court.
After the 1800 elections, President Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans sought to weaken Federalist influence on the federal courts. Chase's actions on the court had been accused of demonstrating bias, and Jefferson believed that Chase should be removed from office, a process that required a vote in both the Senate and the House of Representatives. The House passed eight articles of impeachment, all centering on Chase's alleged political bias. The Senate voted to acquit Chase on all counts, and Chase served on the Supreme Court until his death in 1811. Some historians have argued that Chase's acquittal set an important precedent regarding the independence of the federal judiciary.
Early life
Samuel Chase was the only child of the Reverend Thomas Chase (c. 1703–1779) and his wife, Matilda Walker (? – by 1744), born near Princess Anne, Maryland. His father was a clergyman who immigrated to Somerset County to become a priest in a new church. Samuel was educated at home. He was eighteen when he left for Annapolis where he studied law under attorney John Hall. He was admitted to the bar in 1761 and started a law practice in Annapolis. It was during his time as a member of the bar that his colleagues gave him the nickname of "Old Bacon Face."
In May 1762, Chase married Anne Baldwin, daughter of Thomas and Agnes Baldwin. Samuel and Anne had three sons and four daughters, with only four surviving to adulthood. Anne died in 1776. In 1784, Chase traveled to England to deal with Maryland's Bank of England stock, where he met Hannah Kilty, daughter of Samuel Giles, a Berkshire physician. They were married later that year and had two daughters, Hannah and Elisa.
Political career
In 1762, Chase was expelled from the Forensic Club, an Annapolis debating society, for "extremely irregular and indecent" behavior. In 1764, Chase was elected to the Maryland General Assembly where he served for 20 years.
In 1766, he became embroiled in a war of words with a number of loyalist members of the Maryland political establishment. In an open letter dated July 18, 1766, Chase attacked Walter Dulany, George Steuart (1700–1784), John Brice (1705–1766), and others for publishing an article in the Maryland Gazette Extraordinary of June 19, 1766, in which Chase was accused of being: "a busy, reckless incendiary, a ringleader of mobs, a foul-mouthed and inflaming son of discord and faction, a common disturber of the public tranquility". In his response, Chase accused Steuart and the others of "vanity...pride and arrogance", and of being brought to power by "proprietary influence, court favour, and the wealth and influence of the tools and favourites who infest this city."
In 1769, he started construction of the mansion that would become known as the Chase–Lloyd House, which he sold unfinished in 1771. The house is now a National Historic Landmark. He co-founded Anne Arundel County's Sons of Liberty chapter with his close friend William Paca, as well as leading opposition to the 1765 Stamp Act.
From 1774 to 1776, Chase was a member of the Annapolis Convention. He represented Maryland at the Continental Congress, was re-elected in 1776 and signed the United States Declaration of Independence. He remained in the Continental Congress until 1778. Chase was elected to the 1788 Maryland Ratifying Convention to ratify the proposed 1787 Constitution. In the Convention, Chase was a prominent Antifederalist, though despite his efforts Maryland became the seventh state to ratify.
Judicial career
In 1786, Chase moved to Baltimore, which remained his home for the rest of his life. In 1788, he was appointed chief justice of the District Criminal Court in Baltimore and served until 1796. In 1791, he became Chief Justice of the Maryland General Court, again serving until 1796. On January 26, 1796, President George Washington nominated Chase as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States; the U.S. Senate confirmed his appointment the following day. Chase was sworn into office on February 4, 1796, and served on the Court until his death on June 19, 1811.
Impeachment
President Thomas Jefferson, alarmed at the seizure of power by the judiciary through the claim of exclusive judicial review, led his party's efforts to remove the Federalists from the bench. His allies in Congress had, shortly after his inauguration, repealed the Judiciary Act of 1801, abolishing the lower courts created by the legislation and terminating their Federalist judges despite lifetime appointments; Chase, two years after the repeal in May 1803, had denounced it in his charge to a Baltimore grand jury, saying that it would "take away all security for property and personal liberty, and our Republican constitution will sink into a mobocracy." Earlier in April 1800, Chase acting as a district judge, had made strong attacks upon Thomas Cooper, who had been indicted under the Alien and Sedition Acts; Chase had taken the air of a prosecutor rather than a judge. Also in 1800, when a grand jury in New Castle, Delaware declined to indict a local printer, Chase refused to discharge them, saying he was aware of one specific printer whom he wished them to indict for seditious behavior. Jefferson saw the attack as indubitable bad behavior and an opportunity to reduce the Federalist influence on the judiciary by impeaching Chase, launching the process from the White House when he wrote to Congressman Joseph Hopper Nicholson of Maryland, asking: "Ought the seditious and official attack [by Chase] on the principles of our Constitution . . .to go unpunished?"
Virginia Congressman John Randolph of Roanoke took up the challenge and took charge of the impeachment. The House of Representatives served Chase with eight articles of impeachment in late 1803, one of which involved Chase's handling of the trial of John Fries. Two more focused on his conduct in the political libel trial of James Callender. One article covered Chase's conduct with the New Castle grand jury, charging that he "did descend from the dignity of a judge and stoop to the level of an informer by refusing to discharge the grand jury, although entreated by several of the said jury so to do." Three articles focused on procedural errors made during Chase's adjudication of various matters, and an eighth was directed at his "intemperate and inflammatory … peculiarly indecent and unbecoming … highly unwarrantable … highly indecent" remarks while "charging" or authorizing a Baltimore grand jury. On March 12, 1804, the House voted 73 to 32 to impeach Chase. The United States Senate—controlled by the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans—began the impeachment trial of Chase on February 9, 1805, with Vice President Aaron Burr presiding and Randolph leading the prosecution.
All the counts involved Chase's work as a trial judge in lower circuit courts. (In that era, Supreme Court justices had the added duty of serving as individuals on circuit courts, a practice that was ended in the late 19th century.) The heart of the allegations was that political bias had led Chase to treat defendants and their counsel in a blatantly unfair manner. Chase's defense lawyers called the prosecution a political effort by his Republican enemies. In answer to the articles of impeachment, Chase argued that all of his actions had been motivated by adherence to precedent, judicial duty to restrain advocates from improper statements of law, and considerations of judicial efficiency.
The Senate voted to acquit Chase of all charges on March 1, 1805. There were 34 senators present (25 Republicans and 9 Federalists), and 23 votes were needed to reach the required two-thirds majority for conviction/removal from office. Of the eight votes cast, the closest vote was 18 for conviction/removal from office and 16 for acquittal in regards to the Baltimore grand jury charge. He is the only U.S. Supreme Court justice to have been impeached. Judge Alexander Pope Humphrey recorded in the Virginia Law Register an account of the impeachment trial and acquittal of Chase.
The impeachment raised constitutional questions over the nature of the judiciary and was the end of a series of efforts to define the appropriate extent of judicial independence under the Constitution. It set the limits of the impeachment power, fixed the concept that the judiciary was prohibited from engaging in partisan politics, defined the role of the judge in a criminal jury trial, and clarified judicial independence. The construction was largely attitudinal, as it modified political norms without codifying new legal doctrines.
The acquittal of Chase—by lopsided margins on several counts—set an unofficial precedent that many historians say helped ensure the independence of the judiciary. As Chief Justice William Rehnquist noted in his book Grand Inquests, some senators declined to convict Chase despite their partisan hostility to him, apparently because they doubted that the mere quality of his judging was grounds for removal. All impeachments of federal judges since Chase have been based on allegations of legal or ethical misconduct, not on judicial performance. For their part, federal judges since that time have generally been much more cautious than Chase in trying to avoid the appearance of political partisanship.
Death and legacy
Samuel Chase died of a heart attack in 1811. He was interred in what is now Baltimore's Old Saint Paul's Cemetery. The World War II Liberty Ship was named in his honor.
See also
List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Further reading
External links
ColonialHall.com: Samuel Chase
Samuel Chase, Freedom Firebrand – Delmarva Heritage Series
Oyez Project, Supreme Court media, Samuel Chase.
Samuel Chase, Supreme Court Historical Society.
Booknotes interview with William Rehnquist on Grand Inquests: The Historic Impeachments of Justice Samuel Chase and President Andrew Johnson, July 5, 1992.
1741 births
1811 deaths
18th-century American judges
19th-century American judges
American Episcopalians
American slave owners
Colonial politicians from Maryland
Continental Congressmen from Maryland
18th-century American politicians
Impeached United States federal judges
Maryland Federalists
People from Princess Anne, Maryland
People of colonial Maryland
Politicians from Annapolis, Maryland
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
United States federal judges appointed by George Washington
Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
Signers of the Continental Association | [
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260873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter%20Braxton | Carter Braxton | Carter Braxton (September 10, 1736October 10, 1797) was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, a merchant, planter, a Founding Father of the United States and a Virginia politician. A grandson of Robert "King" Carter, one of the wealthiest and most powerful landowners and slaveholders in the Old Dominion, Braxton was active in Virginia's legislature for more than 25 years, generally allied with Landon Carter, Benjamin Harrison V, Edmund Pendleton and other conservative planters.
Early life
Braxton was born on Newington Plantation in King and Queen County, Virginia, on September 10, 1736, but wrongly reported as dead along with his mother, Mary Carter Braxton, who "unhappily catching a Common Cold," died shortly after his birth.
His maternal grandfather, King Carter, possibly the wealthiest man as well as the largest landowner in Virginia at the time of his death, had bequeathed £2,000 to his youngest daughter, who became bethrothed to George Braxton Jr. five months after her father's death (although her brother had not paid that full amount to her new husband by the time of her death). His paternal grandfather, George Braxton, Sr. by 1704 (before western lands were opened to European settlement) had also become one of the 100 largest landowners in Virginia's Northern Neck. George Braxton Sr. had been elected for the first time to the House of Burgesses in 1718 and was re-elected nine years later with John Robinson, Jr., who would become the powerful Speaker of the House of Burgesses and benefactor of the Braxton family. The elder Braxton owned at least one ship, the Braxton that traded with the West Indies and elsewhere, and was commission agent for cargoes of enslaved blacks sold to Virginia planters. He died, aged 71, when Carter was twelve; his eldest son (Carter's father) George Jr. had succeeded him as delegate for King and Queen County in 1742 but died not long thereafter in 1749. Speaker Robinson and neighbor Humphrey Hill served as guardians for Carter and his slightly (3 year) elder brother George (who inherited Newington and various land in King and Queen and Essex County).
Educated at the College of William & Mary like his father and brother, Braxton followed family tradition at age 19 by marrying Judith Robinson, a wealthy heiress and the Speaker's niece. However, she died giving birth to their daughter, leaving Braxton two daughters, Mary and Judith. The young widower soon journeyed to England for two years. Upon returning to the colonies in 1760, Braxton sold Elsing Green, where he had lived with Judith, and married again, this time to Elizabeth Corbin, eldest daughter of Richard Corbin, deputy receiver general for his majesty's revenues in Virginia, who brought a £1000 dowry.
Career as merchant and plantation owner
Carter Braxton purchased a small schooner shortly after his second marriage and turned his energies to trade. Braxton traded between the West Indies and American colonies, establishing relationships with Bayard & Son of New York and Willing & Morris of Philadelphia. He also urged the Brown brothers of Providence, Rhode Island, who had abandoned the slave trade during the French and Indian War, to sell him African people, but such transactions may not have completed. Whether or not Braxton's mercantile enterprises included slave trading, he and his brother were accompanied by a black slave at the College of William & Mary.
Braxton later owned many more slaves on his various plantations, and there are no records of manumissions or a will. His biographer notes that at the end of the Revolutionary War, despite selling off some properties after his father's and brother's deaths and for his own debts, Braxton owned at least 12,000 acres and 165 slaves. The biographer Alonzo T. Dill states that before his death, Braxton sold off or gave to his kinsmen all but 42 of his blacks and probably could only have farmed fewer than half of the remaining 3,900 acres. Braxton's racial attitudes, while common to his class, contrasted with those of another of King Carter's grandsons, Robert Carter III, and of George Mason IV, who fought against the slave trade during their legislative careers. Most persons with the name Carter Braxton since the end of the Civil War have been, and are, African-American, presumably descendants of slaves on Braxton's plantations.
Early political career
Braxton began his long career representing King William County in the Virginia House of Burgesses, taking his seat in 1761. However, his brother George died on October 3, 1761, leaving an insolvent estate, so the family lost Newington (which burned down, under other owners, in 1800). Although both high-living Braxtons had been considered wealthy, as well as political allies of Speaker John Robinson, when the John Robinson estate scandal broke in 1766, they turned out to be among the largest beneficiaries of the late speaker's interest-free loans of redeemed paper money supposed to have been burned.
In addition to his duties as a Burgess, Braxton served as sheriff of King William County (a lucrative position for which he briefly resigned his position as Burgess), colonel of its militia, and vestryman of the troubled St. John's Church about ten miles east of his Chericoke plantation. Factional disputes within the parish (which assessed members to support not only the rector but the parish poor) grew so severe that the House of Burgesses held hearings and ultimately passed a special bill dissolving the vestry, as Braxton had wished.
Although always considered a moderate or conservative politician, Braxton signed the First Virginia Association intended to protest the Townshend duties on tea and other products, but like his ally Landon Carter, not the Second Association which set up boycott compliance mechanism, nor the Third Virginia Association pledging not to purchase various East Indian commodities. However, in 1774 Braxton returned to Williamsburg as King William County's delegate (with William Aylett), and joined 108 others in the Fourth Virginia Association, which authorized local committees of safety as well as volunteer militia. When Lord Dunmore seized the colony's gunpowder and flintlocks for their rifles, Braxton helped negotiate a compromise between fellow legislator Patrick Henry and his own father-in-law Corbin that averted a crisis.
Reluctant revolutionary and Virginia moderate
Braxton was "a moderate politician during the Revolution—often viewed as sympathetic to the British (but not a Loyalist)." Although absent at some sessions, he had represented his county sixteen times between 1761 and Lord Dunmore's dissolution of the House of Burgesses; Braxton also served as the county delegate to all five sessions of the Virginia Convention. In 1774, Braxton joined the patriots' Committee of Safety in Virginia, as well as chaired the legislative committee considering legal penalties for Tories.
When Peyton Randolph died unexpectedly in Philadelphia in October 1775, fellow Virginia legislators elected Braxton to take his place in the Continental Congress. He served in the Congress from February 1776 until August, when Virginia reduced its delegation to five members. In that capacity Braxton signed the Declaration of Independence, although he had previously opposed it as premature in Committee of the Whole, and explained his stance in several letters to his uncle Landon Carter. Braxton also drew revolutionaries' criticism for his pamphlet, Address to the Convention, which he had printed in reply to the proposals of John Adams's Thoughts on Government.
Afterwards Braxton returned to the House of Burgesses, which thanked him and Thomas Jefferson for their service, although King William voters failed to re-elect the absent Braxton as one of their delegates (so he missed the two sessions in 1778). Moreover, his house at Chericoke burned down shortly before Christmas in 1776, so Braxton moved his family to Grove House near West Point, Virginia. Through most of his legislative career, Braxton was a political opponent of the Lee family (since its involvement in the Robinson estate scandal), and he also became involved in a press quarrel with anti-slavery activist and diplomat Arthur Lee, supposedly concerning Silas Deane's mercantile and diplomatic activities. Between 1776 and 1785, Braxton served in 8 of the 11 legislative assemblies and attended 14 of 21 sessions, with a special concern for debt and tax moratoriums or other relief.
Financial speculation and troubles
Braxton invested a great deal of his wealth in the American Revolution. Like Robert Morris, Braxton loaned money to the cause, as well as funded shipping and privateering (and lost about half of the 14 ships in which he held interests). Braxton (with fellow businessmen including Morris and Benjamin Harrison) sold Virginia and Carolina tobacco and corned meat abroad, and secured arms and ammunition (unsuccessfully, most colonies preferring arms supplied by foreign governments on favorable terms), as well as wheat and salt, and cloth and other trade goods. In 1780, the Continental Congress censured Braxton for his role in the Phoenix affair of 1777, in which his privateer seized a neutral Portuguese vessel from Brazil, prompting diplomatic protests. The British also destroyed some of Braxton's plantations during the war.
In addition to the indebtedness incurred after the deaths of his father and brother, and through his own relatively poor agricultural business practices, Braxton accumulated war debts of the Continental Congress and also of Robert Morris, both of which proved slow to repay. In 1786 Braxton sold a plantation and rented a smaller residence ("row-house") in Richmond, which (with the depreciated paper currency) allowed him to repay his own indebtedness to the Robinson estate in 1787.
In 1787, Braxton sued Robert Morris in Henrico County court for £28,257, but the lawsuit continued for eight years before commissioners were appointed, then Morris appealed. Finally, Virginia's Court of Appeals led by Edmund Pendleton decided mostly in favor of Braxton before Morris was forced into bankruptcy by his own continued land speculations (although Morris as late as 1800 believed he should have won £20,000). In 1791, Braxton also purchased Strawberry Hill outside Richmond for his wife (who had received nothing upon her father's death, all his property being given to his sons), and conveyed it to his sons Carter Jr. and Corbin to hold for their mother's benefit. Braxton's biographer does not believe that Braxton hid assets from his creditors by placing them in relatives' names, although his widow later attempted to recover dower rights in land and slaves that her husband sold in his last years. His sons in law, Robert Page and John White (husbands of Molly and Judith, his daughters by his first wife) paid creditors more than £2,000 on Braxton's behalf.
On November 15, 1785, fellow delegates elected Braxton to the Council of State (which handled the executive functions formerly performed by the Privy Council). Receiving the paid position vacated by William Nelson, Jr., Braxton moved to Richmond, which had become the capital in 1780. Ineligible for re-election for three years, Braxton was elected a second time in 1794.
Death and legacy
Braxton died, aged 61, in his Richmond home on October 10, 1797. Family tradition maintains Henrico County sheriff Samuel Mosby was at Braxton's door attempting to collect debts lest he have to pay them himself. His widow survived until July 5, 1814, and was praised in an obituary for the assistance and comfort she had offered Braxton during his final years (during which he suffered two or more strokes during Council meetings).
A biographer speculated that Braxton may be the Founding Father with the most descendants, since he and his second wife may have had as many as sixteen children, in addition to his two daughters with his first wife. Although none of Braxton's sons (George, Corbin, Carter Jr., John Tayloe, William) lived as long as their father, they and their sisters had numerous children, many of whom fought for the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, including grandsons (all achieving the rank of Major) Carter Moore Braxton of the Fredericksburg Artillery, Tomlinson Braxton, M.D. and Elliott Muse Braxton (who was later elected to the Forty-second Congress and served from March 4, 1871 – March 3, 1873). Confederate General Braxton Bragg was named for the signer, but not apparently a descendant. Another great-grandson, John W. Stevenson of Kentucky, served two terms as U.S. Representative before the Civil War, and later won election as governor in 1868 and U.S. Senator in 1871, before retiring to his law practice and becoming president of the American Bar Association. Virginia lawyer Allen Caperton Braxton, who led efforts to limit blacks' access to education and voting, particularly during Virginia's Constitutional Convention in 1902, proclaimed his descent from Carter Braxton.
Carter Braxton may have been buried at Chericoke, which remains in the family's possession today. Although it burned in 1776, Braxton rebuilt it and gave to his eldest son George on his marriage to Mary Walker Carter (daughter of Charles Carter of Shirley) in 1781 (which transfer survived despite legal attacks by his creditors). However, when the family graves there were moved to Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond in 1910, his could not be located; a monument was erected for him nonetheless. Nearby Elsing Green also survives and is available for tourism.
Braxton County, West Virginia, was named in his honor. The World War II Liberty Ship was named in his honor. For a brief time during the 1960s to the early 1980s, the Waterman Steamship Company owned a break bulk freighter, SS Carter Braxton, which was named in his honor. The Newington Archaeological Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2010.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Other sources
Charles Rappleye, Sons of Providence: The Brown Brothers, the Slave Trade, and the American Revolution (Simon & Schuster, New York, 2006)
Biographical sketch at the National Park Service
External links
Carter Braxton at Ushistory.org
1736 births
1797 deaths
People from King and Queen County, Virginia
American Episcopalians
College of William & Mary alumni
Carter family of Virginia
History of slavery in Virginia
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
House of Burgesses members
Continental Congressmen from Virginia
18th-century American politicians
Braxton family of Virginia
American planters
American slave owners
People from West Point, Virginia
American slave traders | [
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260875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Ellery | William Ellery | William Ellery (December 22, 1727 – February 15, 1820) was a Founding Father of the United States, one of the 56 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, and a signer of the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Rhode Island.
In 1764, the Baptists consulted with Ellery and Congregationalist Reverend Ezra Stiles on writing a charter for the college that became Brown University. Ellery and Stiles attempted to give control of the college to the Congregationalists, but the Baptists withdrew the petition until it was rewritten to assure Baptist control. Neither Ellery nor Stiles accepted appointment to the reserved Congregationalist seats on the board of trustees.
Biography
Ellery was born in Newport, Rhode Island on December 22, 1727, the second son of William Ellery, Sr. and Elizabeth Almy, a descendant of Thomas Cornell. He received his early education from his father, a merchant and Harvard College graduate. He graduated from Harvard College in 1747, where he excelled in Greek and Latin. He then returned to Newport where he worked first as a merchant, next as a customs collector, and then as clerk of the Rhode Island General Assembly. He started practicing law in 1770 at age 43 and became active in the Rhode Island Sons of Liberty.
Statesman Samuel Ward died in 1776, and Ellery replaced him in the Continental Congress. He was a signer of the Articles of Confederation and one of the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The size of his signature on the Declaration is second only to John Hancock's famous signature.
Ellery also served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of Rhode Island from May 1780 to May 1781, and chief justice from June 1785 to May 1786. He had become an abolitionist by 1785. He was the first customs collector of the port of Newport under the Constitution, serving there until his death, and he worshipped at the Second Congregational Church of Newport.
Ellery died on February 15, 1820, at age 92 and was buried in Common Burial Ground in Newport. The Rhode Island Society of the Sons of the Revolution and the William Ellery Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution make an annual commemoration at his grave on Independence Day.
Family and legacy
Ellery married Ann Remington of Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1750. She was the daughter of Judge Jonathan Remington. She died in 1764 in Cambridge and was buried there, and he married Abigail Cary in 1767. He had 19 children, and his descendants include Ellery Channing, Washington Allston, William Ellery Channing, Richard Henry Dana, Sr., Edie Sedgwick, Paulita Sedgwick, Kyra Sedgwick and Andra Akers. Francis Dana married his daughter Elizabeth.
William Ellery is the namesake of the town of Ellery, New York, and Ellery Avenue in Middletown, Rhode Island, is named in his honor
Images
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
External links
Brown University Charter
American Congregationalists
American people of English descent
Continental Congressmen from Rhode Island
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the Articles of Confederation
Harvard College alumni
Brown University people
Cornell family
University and college founders
Politicians from Newport, Rhode Island
Patriots in the American Revolution
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
1727 births
1820 deaths
Political leaders of the American Revolution
People of Rhode Island in the American Revolution
People of colonial Rhode Island
Burials at Common Burying Ground and Island Cemetery | [
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260876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Floyd | William Floyd | William Floyd (December 17, 1734 – August 4, 1821) was an American politician from New York, delegate to the Continental Congress, and a signer of the Continental Association and the United States Declaration of Independence. He is one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.
Early life
Floyd was born on December 17, 1734, in Brookhaven, Province of New York, on Long Island into a family of English and Welsh origins. He was the son of Tabitha (née Smith) Floyd and Nicholl Floyd (1705–1755). Among his siblings was sister Ruth Floyd, who married Brigadier General Nathaniel Woodhull; sister Charity Floyd, who married Continental Congressmen Ezra L'Hommedieu; and brother Charles Floyd, who married Margaret Thomas in 1761.
William's great-grandfather was Richard Floyd, who was born in Brecknockshire, Wales, in about 1620 and was the last of his brothers to leave England, first visiting Jamestown, Virginia, before settling in the Province of New York around 1640 where he practiced law. Around 1688, his grandfather purchased 4,400 acres from Tangier Smith's family in the Mastic Neck of the Town of Brookhaven. William's father Nicoll built a house there in 1723 where William was born.
Career
After his father's death in 1755, William took over the family farm. He became a member of the Suffolk County Militia in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, becoming Major General. He was a delegate from New York in the First Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776. He was a member of the New York State Senate (Southern District) from 1777 to 1788.
On July 4, 1787, he was elected an honorary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati. In March 1789, he was elected to the 1st United States Congress under the new Constitution as an Anti-Administration candidate and served until March 3, 1791. Floyd was a presidential elector in 1792, voting for George Washington and George Clinton. Floyd, for whom the town of Floyd, New York, is named, became a resident of Oneida County in 1794.
In 1795, Floyd ran for Lieutenant Governor of New York with Robert Yates on the Democratic-Republican ticket, but they were defeated by Federalists John Jay and Stephen Van Rensselaer. Floyd was again a presidential elector in 1800, voting for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr; and in 1804, voting for Jefferson and George Clinton. Floyd was a member of the state senate (Western District) in 1808.
In 1820, Floyd was chosen a presidential elector but did not attend the meeting of the electoral college, and Martin Van Buren was appointed to fill the vacancy. In the 1820 Census, when Floyd was 86, he had 6 slaves and 2 free black residents lived in his household at the General William Floyd House in Westernville, New York.
Personal life
Family
In 1760, Floyd was married to Hannah Jones (1740–1781), who was born in Southampton, New York, and was the daughter of William Jones. Together, they were the parents of:
Nicoll Floyd (1762–1852), who married Phoebe Gelston (1770–1836), daughter of David Gelston (collector of the Port of New York), in 1789.
Mary Floyd (1764–1805), who married Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge, who was in charge of President George Washington's spy ring.
Catherine Floyd (1767–1832), who married Reverend William Clarkson (1763–1812).
After the death of his first wife in 1781, Floyd remarried to Joanna Strong (1747–1826), who was born in Setauket, New York, and was the daughter of Benajah Strong and Martha (née Mills) Strong. Together, they were the parents of:
Ann Floyd (1785–1857), who married George Washington Clinton (1771–1809), son of George Clinton, the first Governor of New York and the fourth Vice President of the United States.
Elizabeth Floyd (1789–1820), who married James Platt (1788–1870), youngest son of Continental Congressmen Zephaniah Platt.
Residence and estate
The William Floyd House, the family home, is located in Mastic Beach, is part of Fire Island National Seashore and is open to visitors. It consists of the home, grounds and a cemetery of the Floyd family. Over the course of 200 years, eight generations of Floyds have managed the 25-room mansion and 613-acre property. Prior to the 20th century, the estate was much larger.
Descendants
Through his son Nicoll, he was a grandfather of U.S. Representative John Gelston Floyd, and Mary Floyd, who married John Lawrence Ireland (grandson of New York State Senator Jonathan Lawrence). Through his daughter Catherine, he was the grandfather of Harriet Ashton (née Clarkson) Crosby (1786–1859), and great-grandfather of New York State Senator Clarkson Floyd Crosby, who married Angelica Schuyler, daughter of John Schuyler.
Death and legacy
Floyd died on August 4, 1821, and is buried at the Westernville Cemetery in Oneida County. His widow died in 1826.
There are several places named after William Floyd, including:
William Floyd School District in present-day Brookhaven Town, which includes William Floyd Elementary, William Floyd middle school, and William Floyd High School.
William Floyd Parkway in the Town of Brookhaven.
Town of Floyd in Oneida County.
General William Floyd Elementary School in the Holland Patent School District in Oneida County
Floyd Memorial Library in Greenport, Suffolk County, New York
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Notes
References
External links
Floyd Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
1734 births
1821 deaths
People from Mastic Beach, New York
American Presbyterians
American people of Welsh descent
American slave owners
Continental Congressmen from New York (state)
18th-century American politicians
American people of English descent
Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state)
Militia generals in the American Revolution
New York (state) state senators
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
1792 United States presidential electors
1800 United States presidential electors
1804 United States presidential electors
People from Westernville, New York
Clinton family of New York
Signers of the Continental Association | [
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260877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Button%20Gwinnett | Button Gwinnett | Button Gwinnett (March 3, 1735 – May 19, 1777) was an English-born American Founding Father who, as a representative of Georgia to the Continental Congress, was one of the signatories (first signature on the left) on the United States Declaration of Independence. He was also, briefly, the provisional president of Georgia in 1777, and Gwinnett County (now a major suburb of metropolitan Atlanta) was named for him. Gwinnett was killed in a duel by rival Lachlan McIntosh following a dispute after a failed invasion of East Florida.
Early life and education
Gwinnett was born in 1735 in the parish of Down Hatherley in the county of Gloucestershire, England, to a Welsh father, the Reverend Samuel Gwinnett, (Gwinnett deriving from the Welsh county of Gwynedd) and his wife, Anne. He was the third of his parents' seven children, born after his older sister Anna Maria and his older brother Samuel. There are conflicting reports as to his exact birthdate, but he was baptized in St Catherine's Church in Gloucester on April 10, 1735. It is believed that he attended the College School, held in Gloucester Cathedral (now called The King's School) as did his older brother, but there is no surviving evidence to substantiate this. He started his career apprenticed to his uncle William Gwinnett, a greengrocer in Gloucester, then moved to Wolverhampton in Staffordshire in 1754 after obtaining a further apprenticeship with an ironmonger there named John Weston Smith. On 19 April 1757 he married Ann Bourne, daughter of a greengrocer, at St. Peter's Church, Wolverhampton. In 1762, the couple, who parented three daughters, departed Wolverhampton and emigrated to America.
Gwinnett's business activities took him from Newfoundland to Jamaica. Never very successful, he moved to Savannah, Georgia in 1765, and opened a store. When that venture failed, he bought (on credit) St. Catherine's Island, as well as a large number of enslaved people, in order to attempt to become a planter. Though his planting activities were also unsuccessful, he did make a name for himself in local politics and was elected to the Provincial Assembly.
Political career
Gwinnett did not become a strong advocate of colonial rights until 1775, when St. John's Parish, which encompassed his lands, threatened to secede from Georgia because of the colony's conservative response to the events of the times. During his tenure in the Assembly, Gwinnett's chief rival was Lachlan McIntosh, and Lyman Hall was his closest ally.
Gwinnett was appointed to represent Georgia at the Continental Congress, where he voted in favor of the Declaration of Independence, adopted by Congress on July 2, 1776. He signed the famous parchment copy on August 2, 1776. After signing the Declaration, he was accompanied as far as Virginia by Carter Braxton, another of the signers, carrying a proposed state constitution drawn up by John Adams. During his service in the Continental Congress, Gwinnett was a candidate for a brigadier general position to lead the 1st Regiment in the Continental Army but lost out to McIntosh. The loss of the position to his rival embittered Gwinnett greatly.
Gwinnett served in the Georgia state legislature, and in 1777 he wrote the original draft of Georgia's first state constitution. He became Speaker of the Georgia Assembly, a position he held until the death of the President (Governor) of Georgia Archibald Bulloch. Gwinnett was elevated to the vacated position by the Assembly's Executive Council. In this position, he sought to undermine the leadership of McIntosh. Tensions between Gwinnett and McIntosh reached a boiling point when the General Assembly voted to approve Gwinnett's attack on British Florida in April 1777.
Death
As acting Delegate of the Congress from Georgia and commander-in-chief of Georgia's military, Gwinnett was the superior of his rival McIntosh. Gwinnett had McIntosh's brother arrested and charged with treason. He also ordered McIntosh to lead an invasion of British-controlled East Florida, which failed. Gwinnett and McIntosh blamed each other for the defeat, and McIntosh publicly called Gwinnett "a scoundrel and lying rascal". Gwinnett then challenged McIntosh to a duel, which they fought on May 16, 1777, at a plantation owned by deposed Royal Governor James Wright. The two men exchanged pistol shots at twelve paces, and both were wounded. Gwinnett died of his wounds on May 19, 1777, and he was later buried in Savannah's Colonial Park Cemetery. McIntosh, although wounded, recovered and went on to live until 1806. He was not charged in connection with Gwinnett's death.
Legacy
Gwinnett's autograph is highly sought by collectors as a result of a combination of the desire by many top collectors to acquire a complete set of autographs by all 56 signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, and the extreme rarity of the Gwinnett signature; there are 51 known examples, since Gwinnett was fairly obscure prior to signing the Declaration and died shortly afterward. Only ten of those are in private hands. Gwinnett County, Georgia, a suburban area of Atlanta, is named after him.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
List of U.S. state governors born outside the United States
References
External links
Biography of Button Gwinnett
Georgia Signers of the Declaration of Independence
New Georgia Encyclopedia
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
Button Gwinnett historical marker
1735 births
1777 deaths
American Revolutionary War deaths
Continental Congressmen from Georgia (U.S. state)
18th-century American politicians
Governors of Georgia (U.S. state)
British emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
People of Georgia (U.S. state) in the American Revolution
People from Wolverhampton
People from the Borough of Tewkesbury
Politicians from Savannah, Georgia
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Welsh emigrants to the United States
American Congregationalists
American slave owners
Deaths by firearm in Georgia (U.S. state)
American politicians killed in duels
People educated at the King's School, Gloucester
Independent state governors of the United States
Georgia (U.S. state) Independents
Gwinnett County, Georgia | [
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260878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20China | Free China | The term "Free China" may mean:
Free China (Second Sino-Japanese War), areas of China not under the control of the invading Imperial Japanese Army
Free area of the Republic of China, a term used by the ROC government to contrast itself with the People's Republic of China and avoid acknowledging their control over mainland China; often shortened to "Free China" and used in contrast to "Red China"
Free China Journal, a former publication of the government of the Republic of China (Taiwan)
Free China (junk) (:zh:自由中國號), a Chinese junk boat
The Free China Movement, a coalition of about 30 pro-democracy and human rights organizations promoting democracy in China
Free China: The Courage to Believe a 2012 film.
Free China Relief Association, a Non-Governmental Organization. | [
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260879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard%20College | Harvard College | Harvard College is the undergraduate college of Harvard University, an Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636, Harvard College is the original school of Harvard University, the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States
and among the most prestigious
in the world.
Part of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Harvard College is Harvard University's traditional undergraduate program, offering AB and SB degrees. It is highly selective, with fewer than five percent of applicants being offered admission in recent years.
Harvard College students participate in more than 450 extracurricular organizations
and nearly all live on campus—first-year students in or near Harvard Yard, and upperclass students in community-oriented "houses".
The college has produced many distinguished alumni, including prominent politicians, scholars, and business leaders.
History
The school came into existence in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony—though without a single building, instructor, or student. In 1638, the college became home for North America's first known printing press, carried by the ship .
Three years later, the college was renamed in honor of deceased Charlestown minister John Harvard (1607–1638) who had bequeathed to the school his entire library and half of his monetary estate.
Harvard's first headmaster was Nathaniel Eaton (1610–1674); in 1639, he also became its first instructor to be dismissed, for overstrict discipline.
The school's first students were graduated in 1642.
The Harvard Indian College was established, with the capacity for four or five Native Americans, and in 1665 Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck (c. 1643–1666) "from the Wampanoag … did graduate from Harvard, the first Indian to do so in the colonial period."
Currently, Harvard College is responsible for undergraduate admissions, advising, housing, student life, and athletics—generally all undergraduate matters except instruction, which is the purview of the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences. The body known as the President and Fellows of Harvard College retains its traditional name despite having governance of the entire University. Radcliffe College, established in 1879, originally paid Harvard faculty to repeat their lectures for women.
Since the 1970s, Harvard has been responsible for undergraduate matters for women, though women's Harvard diplomas were countersigned by the President of Radcliffe until a final merger in 1999.
Admissions
Admission is based on academic prowess, extracurricular activities, and personal qualities. For the undergraduate class of 2025, Harvard had 57,435 applications and accepted 1,968 (3.4% acceptance rate). For the undergraduate class of 2023, the middle 50% range of SAT scores of enrolled freshmen was 710–770 for reading and writing and 750–800 for math, while the middle 50% range of the ACT composite score was 33–35.
The average high school grade point average (GPA) was 4.18. The acceptance rate for transfer students has been approximately 1%. Harvard consistently ranks first in the enrollment of recipients of the National Merit $2,500 Scholarship; it enrolled 207 such scholars in the Class of 2022.
Harvard College ended its early admissions program in 2007, but for the class of 2016 and beyond, an early action program was reintroduced.
The freshman class that entered in the fall of 2017 was the first to be majority (50.8%) nonwhite.
A federal lawsuit alleges that Harvard's admissions policies discriminate against Asian Americans, who tend to be overrepresented among students with high academic achievement.
A 2019 district court decision in the case (which has since been appealed) found no evidence of explicit racial bias but did not rule out a small amount of implicit bias.
Harvard has implemented more implicit bias training for its admissions staff in accordance with the court's recommendations.
In addition, Harvard's admissions preference for children of alumni, employees, and donors has been criticized as favoring white and wealthy candidates.
The median family income of Harvard students is $168,800, with 53% of students coming from the top 10% highest-earning families and 20% from the bottom 60%.
As of 2019, Harvard College tuition was about $48,000 and total costs about $70,000.
However, Harvard offers one of the most generous financial aid programs in the United States, with need-blind admission and 100% of financial need met for all students.
Families with incomes below $65,000 pay nothing for their children to attend, while families earning up to $150,000 pay no more than 10% of their annual incomes.
Financial aid is solely based on need; no merit or athletic scholarships are offered.
Academics
The four-year, full-time undergraduate program has a liberal arts and sciences focus.
To graduate in the usual four years, undergraduates normally take four courses per semester.
Midway through the second year, most undergraduates join one of fifty academic majors; many also declare a minor (secondary field). Joint majors (combining the requirements of two majors) and special majors (of the student's own design) are also possible.
Most majors lead to the Artium Baccalaureus (AB). Some award the Scientiae Baccalaureus (SB). There are also dual degree programs permitting students to earn both a Harvard AB and a Master of Music (MM) from either the New England Conservatory of Music or the Berklee College of Music over five years.
In most majors, an honors degree requires advanced coursework and/or a senior thesis.
Harvard College students must take a course in each of four General Education categories (Aesthetics and Culture; Ethics and Civics; Histories, Societies, Individuals; Science and Technology in Society) as well as a course in each of three academic divisions (Arts and Humanities; Social Sciences; Science and Engineering and Applied Science). They must also fulfill foreign language, expository writing, and quantitative reasoning with data requirements.
Exposure to a range of intellectual areas in parallel with pursuit of a chosen major in depth fulfills the injunction of former Harvard president Abbott Lawrence Lowell that liberal education should produce "men who know a little of everything and something well".
Some introductory courses have large enrollments, but most courses are small: the median class size is 12 students.
Funding and faculty mentorship for research is available in all disciplines for undergraduates at all levels.
Student life
House system
Nearly all undergraduates live on campus, for the first year in dormitories in or near Harvard Yard and later in the upperclass houses—administrative subdivisions of the college as well as living quarters, providing a sense of community in what might otherwise be a socially incohesive and administratively daunting university environment. Each house is presided over by two faculty deans, while its Allston Burr Resident Dean—usually a junior faculty member—supervises undergraduates' day-to-day academic and disciplinary well-being.
The faculty deans and resident dean are assisted by other members of the Senior Common Room—select graduate students (tutors), faculty, and university officials brought into voluntary association with each house. The faculty deans and resident dean reside in the house, as do resident tutors. Terms like tutor, Senior Common Room, and Junior Common Room reflect a debt to the residential college systems at Oxford and Cambridge from which Harvard's system took inspiration.
The houses were created by President Lowell in the 1930s to combat what he saw as pernicious social stratification engendered by the private, off-campus living arrangements of many undergraduates at that time. Lowell's solution was to provide every man—Harvard was male-only at the time—with on-campus accommodations throughout his time at the college; Lowell also saw great benefits in other features of the house system, such as the relaxed discussions—academic or otherwise—which he hoped would take place among undergraduates and members of the Senior Common Room over meals in each house's dining hall.
How students come to live in particular houses has changed greatly over time. Under the original "draft" system, masters (now faculty deans) negotiated privately over the assignment of students. From the 1960s to the mid-1990s, each student ranked the houses according to personal preference, with a lottery resolving the oversubscription of more popular houses. Today, groups of one to eight freshmen form a block which is then assigned, essentially at random, to an upperclass house.
The nine "River Houses" are south of Harvard Yard, near the Charles River: Adams, Dunster, Eliot, Kirkland, Leverett, Lowell, Mather, Quincy, and Winthrop. Their construction was financed largely by a 1928 gift from Yale alumnus Edward Harkness, who, frustrated in his attempts to initiate a similar project at his alma mater, eventually offered $11 million to Harvard.
Two of the houses, Dunster and Lowell, were completed in 1930.
Construction of the first houses began in 1929,
but the land on which they were built had been assembled decades before. After graduating from Harvard in 1895, Edward W. Forbes found himself inspired by the Oxford and Cambridge systems during two years of study in England; on returning to the United States he set out to acquire the land between Harvard Yard and the Charles River that was not already owned by Harvard or an associated entity. By 1918, that ambition had been largely fulfilled and the assembled land transferred to Harvard.
The three "Quad Houses" enjoy a residential setting half a mile northwest of Harvard Yard. These were built by Radcliffe College and housed Radcliffe College students until the Harvard and Radcliffe residential systems merged in 1977.
They are Cabot, Currier, and Pforzheimer House. A thirteenth house, Dudley House, is nonresidential but fulfills, for some graduate students and the (very few) undergraduates living off campus, the administrative and social functions provided to on-campus residents by the other twelve houses. Harvard's residential houses are paired with Yale's residential colleges in sister relationships.
Student government
The Harvard Undergraduate Council (UC) is the 54-member student government of Harvard College. The student body at large elects the UC's president and vice president, while the twelve upperclass houses and five freshman neighborhoods each sends three representatives. (The Dudley Cooperative sends one representative.) The UC operates several committees on issues pertaining to undergraduates and allocates resources to student organizations.
Athletics
The Harvard Crimson fields 42 intercollegiate sports teams in the NCAA Division I Ivy League, more than any other NCAA Division I college in the country. Every two years, the Harvard and Yale track and field teams come together to compete against a combined Oxford and Cambridge team in the oldest continuous international amateur competition in the world. As with other Ivy League universities, Harvard does not offer athletic scholarships.
Harvard's athletic rivalry with Yale is intense in every sport in which they meet, coming to a climax each fall in the annual football meeting, which dates back to 1875 and is usually called simply "The Game". While Harvard's football team is no longer one of the best as it was in football's early days, both Harvard and Yale have influenced the way the game is played. In 1903, Harvard Stadium introduced a new era into football with the first permanent reinforced concrete stadium of its kind in the country.
Even older than HarvardYale football rivalry, the Harvard–Yale Regatta is held each June on the Thames River in eastern Connecticut. The Harvard crew is typically considered to be one of the top teams in the country in rowing. Other sports in which Harvard teams are particularly strong are men's ice hockey, squash, and men's and women's fencing. Harvard's men's ice hockey team won the school's first NCAA Championship in any team sport in 1989, and Harvard also won the Intercollegiate Sailing Association National Championships in 2003. Harvard was the first Ivy League school to win an NCAA Championship in a women's sport when its women's lacrosse team won in 1990.
The school color is crimson, which is also the name of Harvard's sports teams and the student newspaper, The Harvard Crimson. The color was unofficially adopted (in preference to magenta) by an 1875 vote of the student body, although the association with some form of red can be traced back to 1858, when Charles William Eliot, a young graduate student who would later become Harvard's 21st and longest-serving president (1869–1909), bought red bandanas for his crew so they could more easily be distinguished by spectators at a regatta.
Fight songs
Harvard has several fight songs, the most played of which, especially at football, are "Ten Thousand Men of Harvard" and "Harvardiana". While "Fair Harvard" is actually the alma mater, "Ten Thousand Men" is better known outside the university. The Harvard University Band performs these fight songs and other cheers at football and hockey games. These were parodied by Harvard alumnus Tom Lehrer in his song "Fight Fiercely, Harvard", which he composed while an undergraduate.
Athletics history
By the late 19th century, critics of intercollegiate athletics, including Harvard president Charles William Eliot, believed that sports had become over-commercialized and took students away from their studies. They called for limitations on all sports.
This opposition prompted Harvard's athletic committee to target "minor" sports—basketball and hockey—for reform in order to deflect attention from the major sports: football, baseball, track, and crew. The committee made it difficult for the basketball team to operate by denying financial assistance and limiting the number of overnight away games in which the team could participate.
Student organizations
Harvard has more than 450 undergraduate student organizations.
The Phillips Brooks House Association acts as an umbrella service organization.
Notable alumni
Athletics
Craig Adams
Matt Birk
Ryan Fitzpatrick
Bobby Jones
Jeremy Lin
Dominic Moore
Christopher Nowinski
Paul Wylie
Malcolm Howard (Olympic Gold Medalist)
Biology
John Tyler Bonner
Jared Diamond
Eric Kandel
George Minot
Kiran Musunuru
Gregg L. Semenza
Harold M. Weintraub
Business
Steve Ballmer
Lloyd Blankfein
Jim Cramer
Bill Gates (did not graduate)
Kenneth C. Griffin
Trip Hawkins
William Randolph Hearst (did not graduate)
Andy Jassy
Sumner Redstone
Sheryl Sandberg
Eduardo Saverin
Mark Zuckerberg (did not graduate)
Chemistry
Martin Chalfie
Walter Gilbert
Martin Karplus
William Standish Knowles
Charles Sanders Peirce
Theodore William Richards
William Howard Stein
James B. Sumner
Roger Y. Tsien
Economics
Ben Bernanke
Martin Feldstein
Jason Furman
Michael Kremer
Steven Levitt
Merton Miller
Christopher A. Sims
Robert Solow
James Tobin
Journalism
Ross Douthat
Nicholas Kristof
Anthony Lewis
Walter Lippmann
David E. Sanger
Chris Wallace
Kristen Welker
Matthew Yglesias
Law
Harry Blackmun
Merrick Garland
Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
Mark F. Pomerantz
John Roberts
David Souter
Literature
James Agee
William S. Burroughs
Michael Crichton
E. E. Cummings
John Dos Passos
T. S. Eliot
Amanda Gorman
Norman Mailer
Maxwell Perkins
Erich Segal
Wallace Stevens
John Updike
Mathematics
Manjul Bhargava
Buddy Fletcher
David Mumford
Daniel Quillen
Performing arts
Tatyana Ali
Darren Aronofsky
Paris Barclay
Leonard Bernstein
Andy Borowitz
Amy Brenneman
Carter Burwell
Nestor Carbonell
Rivers Cuomo
Matt Damon (did not graduate)
Fred Gwynne
Rashida Jones
Tommy Lee Jones
Colin Jost
Tom Lehrer
Jack Lemmon
Ryan Leslie
John Lithgow
Donal Logue
Yo-Yo Ma
Terrence Malick
Tom Morello
Dean Norris
Conan O'Brien
Natalie Portman
Joshua Redman
Meredith Salenger
Elisabeth Shue
Whit Stillman
Mira Sorvino
James Toback
Philosophy
Donald Davidson
Daniel Dennett
Ralph Waldo Emerson
William James (did not graduate)
Thomas Kuhn
George Santayana
Henry David Thoreau
Cornel West
Physics
Philip W. Anderson
Percy Williams Bridgman
Roy J. Glauber
Theodore Hall
David Lee
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Saul Perlmutter
Neil deGrasse Tyson
Kenneth G. Wilson
Politics
John Adams
John Quincy Adams
Samuel Adams
Charlie Baker
Benazir Bhutto
Antony Blinken
Richard Blumenthal
Pete Buttigieg
Pedro Albizu Campos
Tom Cotton
Shaun Donovan
Sir George Downing
Al Franken
Rahul Gandhi (did not graduate)
Elbridge Gerry
Al Gore
John Hancock
Ted Kennedy
John F. Kennedy
Robert F. Kennedy
Henry Kissinger
Phil Murphy
Masako Owada
Deval Patrick
Gina Raimondo
Tom Ridge
Jay Rockefeller
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt
Ben Sasse
Chuck Schumer
Pat Toomey
Religion
Aga Khan IV
Cotton Mather
Increase Mather
Theodore Parker
Samuel Parris
Miscellaneous
Buckminster Fuller (did not graduate)
Philip Johnson
Ted Kaczynski
Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.
Stephanie Wilson
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
1636 establishments in Massachusetts
Educational institutions established in the 1630s
Harvard Square
College
Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences | [
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260890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomad%20rover | Nomad rover | The Nomad rover is an unmanned vehicle designed as a test for such a vehicle to ride on other planets.
From June 15 to July 31 of 1997 on a mission, Carnegie Mellon University deployed the robotic rover Nomad to traverse the Atacama Desert of Northern Chile. Nomad traveled an unprecedented 215 km in 45 days, remotely controlled and driven from both the Carnegie Science Center in Pittsburgh, PA, and the Intelligent Mechanisms Group laboratory at Ames Research Center (ARC). This NASA-funded research program tested technologies critical to planetary exploration and enabled scientists to perform remote geological experiments. The total cost of developing Nomad and conducting the desert trek was $1.6 million.
Nomad was operated entirely under remote control from the U.S., including telepresence and autonomous guidance with simulated 4- to 15-minute time delays such as those that would be encountered on missions to Mars. 20 of the 215 km it travelled were done under autonomous control. The distance was travelled in 45 days.
Nomad is about the size of a small car and has a mass of 550 kg. To maneuver through rough terrain, the robot has four-wheel drive and four-wheel steering with a chassis that expands to improve stability and travel over various terrain conditions. Four aluminum wheels with cleats provide traction in soft sand. For this terrestrial experiment, power was supplied by a gasoline generator that enabled the robot to travel at speeds up to about one mile per hour. Nomad employed a panospheric camera, a high-resolution video camera that focuses up into a hemispheric mirror similar to a store security mirror. The video view includes all of the ground up to the horizon in the circle surrounding Nomad. The robot also had three pairs of conventional stereo cameras and a laser rangefinder for 3D visualization.
Today, Nomad is on display at the Museo del Desierto de Atacama (Atacama Desert Museum) in Antofagasta, Chile.
See also
LORAX (robot)
Rover (space exploration)
References
Unmanned ground vehicles
Planetary rovers
1997 robots
Robots of the United States
Four-wheeled robots
Carnegie Mellon University
Ames Research Center | [
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260893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antirrhinum | Antirrhinum | Antirrhinum is a genus of plants commonly known as dragon flowers, snapdragons and dog flower because of the flowers' fancied resemblance to the face of a dragon that opens and closes its mouth when laterally squeezed. They are native to rocky areas of Europe, the United States, Canada, and North Africa. It is widely used as an ornamental plant in borders and as a cut flower.
Description
The Antirrhinum is morphologically diverse, particularly the New World group (Saerorhinum). The genus is characterized by personate flowers with an inferior gibbous corolla.
Taxonomy
Antirrhinum used to be treated within the family Scrophulariaceae, but studies of DNA sequences have led to its inclusion in a vastly enlarged family Plantaginaceae, within the tribe Antirrhineae.
Circumscription
The taxonomy of this genus is complex and not yet fully resolved at present. In particular the exact circumscription of the genus, especially the inclusion of the New World species (Saerorhinum), is contentious. The situation is further complicated by the variety of terms in use for infrageneric ranks, especially of the Old World species, that is Antirrhinum, sensu stricto (e.g. Streptosepalum, Kicksiella, Meonantha).
The USDA Plants Database recognises only two species: A. majus (the garden snapdragon), the only species naturalised in North America, and A. bellidifolium (the lilac snapdragon), now considered to be Anarrhinum bellidifolium (L.) Willd. As of April 2017, The Plant List (Version 1.1) accepts 21 species.
A widely accepted scheme (Thompson 1988) placed 36 species in the genus in three sections. While many botanists accepted this broad circumscription (sensu lato), whose main departure from other classifications was the inclusion of the New World Saerorhinum, others did not, restricting the genus to the Old World. (For a comparison of Thompson with earlier systems, see Oyama and Baum, Table 1.) New species also continue to be discovered (see e.g. Romo et al., 1995).
In 2004 research into the molecular systematics of this group and related species by Oyama and Baum confirmed that the genus sensu lato as described by Thompson is monophyletic, provided that one species (A. cyathiferum) is removed to the separate genus Pseudorontium, and the two species of Mohavea (Mohavea confertiflora and M. breviflora) are included. The species list given here follows these conclusions.
This is the broad circumscription that includes the Old World Misopates and New World Sairocarpus. By contrast the narrow circumscription (sensu stricto) confines the genus to the monophyletic Old World perennial species with a diploid chromosome number of 16, distributed in the Mediterranean basin, approximately 25 species. (Tolety 2011), following the phylogenetic analysis of Vargas et al. (2004) suggesting they are a distinct group. Both Misopates and Sairocarpus are accepted names in The Plant List, and many of the New World species now have Sairocarpus as their accepted name, rather than Antirrhinum. It has been proposed that many of the New World Antirrhinum be now considered under Sairocarpus, in the forthcoming Flora of North America.
Infrageneric subdivision
It is widely agreed that this broad group should be subdivided into three or four subgroups, but the level at which this should be done, and exactly which species should be grouped together, remain unclear. Some authors continue to follow Thompson in using a large genus Antirrhinum, which is then divided into several sections; others treat Thompson's genus as a tribe or subtribe, and divide it into several genera. For a comparison of earlier schemes see Mateu-Andrés and de Paco, Table 1 (2005)
If the broad circumscription is accepted, its three sections as described by Thompson are as follows (two Old World, one New):
Section Antirrhinum: 19 Old World species of relatively large flowered perennial plants, including the type species Antirrhinum majus, mostly native to the western Mediterranean region with a focus on the Iberian Peninsula. Chromosomes n=8. (3 subsections: Majora, Sicula, Hispanica)
Section Orontium: two species, also from the Mediterranean. Chromosome number=8. The species in this section, including the section type species Antirrhinum orontium (lesser snapdragon) are often treated in the genus Misopates.
Section Saerorhinum: 15 small flowered New World species, mostly annual plants and mostly native to California, though species are found from Oregon to Baja California Sur and as far east as Utah. Tetraploid (n=15-16). Like other authors, Thompson placed A. cyathiferum in this section, but Oyama and Baum, following earlier authors, suggest that it should be reclassified in genus Pseudorontium, while Mohavea should be included. Vargas et al., strongly recommending segregation of the New World species suggest that the 14 species originally recognised by Sutton (1988) more properly belong to Sairocarpus (11 species), Howelliella (1 species), and Neogarrhinum (2 species). Other authors would also include Galvezia glabrata, Galvezia juncea, Galvezia rupicola and Galvezia speciosa. None of the names originally allocated to this section are now accepted (see List of Antirrhinum species).
Snapdragons
While Antirrhinum majus is the plant that is usually meant by the term of "snapdragon" if used on its own, many other species in the genus, and in the family Scrophulariaceae more widely, have common names that include the word "snapdragon". Such as Antirrhinum molle is known as "dwarf snapdragon" in the UK.
Species
Etymology
The word "antirrhinum" is derived from the Greek antirrhinon "calf's snout, Antirrhinum Orontium" which in turn is derived from anti "against, like", and rhis "nose" (GEN rhinos); thus, possibly "noselike", possibly referring to the noselike capsule in its mature state.
Ecology
Snapdragons are short-lived perennial plants that survive well in cold seasons but are often replanted each spring and considered annual plants. They do best in full or partial sun, in well-drained soil since their roots are susceptible to rotting (although they do require regular watering). They are classified commercially as a range of heights: midget or dwarf (), medium () and tall (). Removing the dead flowers, also called "deadheading", is important to help them to continuously produce beautiful flowers throughout their growing season. They are susceptible to ethylene gas so removing dead flowers and keeping them away from ripe fruits or vegetables also helps them bloom longer. They grow during their peak seasons of April to June and August to October in the Northern Hemisphere. and bloom in a variety of colors ranging from: white, yellow, orange, red, purple, pink and some multicolored patterns.
They are ecologically diverse, particularly the New World species (Saerorhinum).
Cultivation
The snapdragon is an important garden plant, widely cultivated from tropical to temperate zones as a bedding, rockery, herbaceous border or container plant. (Tolety 2011) Cultivars have showy white, crimson, or yellow bilabiate flowers (with two lips). It is also important as a model organism in botanical research, and its genome has been studied in detail.
Genetic studies
Antirrhinum is a genus that has been used from the earliest genetic studies of Gregor Mendel and Charles Darwin and was used as a model by Erwin Baur (Tolety 2011). Together with closely related genera, it has become a model organism for the investigation of the genetic basis of plant development, particularly floral development.
The genus is a typical example of incomplete dominance by the red allele with the anthocyanin pigment. Any cross between red-flowered and white-flowered snapdragons, give an intermediate and heterozygous phenotype with pink flowers, that carries both the dominant and recessive alleles.
Several species of Antirrhinum are self-incompatible, meaning that a plant cannot be fertilised by its own pollen. Self-incompatibility in the genus has been studied since the early 1900s. Self-incompatibility in Antirrhinum species is controlled gametophytically and shares many important features with self-incompatibility systems in Rosaceae and Solanaceae.
Uses
In addition to growing the plants for cut flowers, the seeds have been used to extract edible oils, particularly in Russia, while the leaves and flowers have been considered to possess antiphlogistic (anti-inflammatory) properties and have been used in poultices. A green dye has also been extracted from the flowers.
Gallery
References
Sources
Sutton, D.A. (1988) A Revision of the Tribe Antirrhineae. Oxford: OUP.
Rothmaler W. 1956. Taxonomische Monographie der Gattung Antirrhinum. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
Tolety J, Sane A. Antirrhinum , in Kole C (ed.) Wild Crop Relatives: Genomic and Breeding Resources. Plantation and Ornamental Crops. Springer 2011, pp. 1-14
A. R. Doaigey, K. J. Harkiss. Application of epidermis characters to the taxonomy of European species of Antirrhinum (Schrophulariaceae). Nordic Journal of Botany. Volume 11, Issue 5, pages 513–524, December 1991. DOI: 10.1111/j.1756-1051.1991.tb01258.x
Vargas P, JA Rosselló, R Oyama, J Güemes. 2004 Molecular evidence for naturalness of genera in the tribe Antirrhineae (Scrophulariaceae) and three independent evolutionary lineages from the New World and the Old. Plant Syst Evol 249:151–172.
External links
The Plant List
Antirrhinum in Topwalks
The Genus Antirrhinum (Snapdragon): A Flowering Plant Model for Evolution and Development
Antirrhinum majus genetic and phenotypic database
Plantaginaceae genera
Extant Pliocene first appearances
Plant models
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260897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver%20Wolcott | Oliver Wolcott | Oliver Wolcott Sr. (November 20, 1726 December 1, 1797) was an American Founding Father and politician. He was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Connecticut, and the nineteenth Governor of Connecticut.
Wolcott was a major general for the Connecticut Militia in the Revolutionary War serving under George Washington.
Early life
Wolcott was born in Windsor, Connecticut, the youngest of 14 children born to colonial governor Roger Wolcott and Sarah Drake Wolcott. His elder brother was Erastus Wolcott. He attended Yale College, graduating in 1747 as the top scholar in his class. Upon graduation, New York Governor George Clinton granted Wolcott a captain's commission to raise a militia company to fight in the French and Indian War. Captain Wolcott served on the northern frontier defending the Canadian border against the French until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. At the end of the war, he moved to newly settled Goshen in northwestern Connecticut to practice and study medicine with his brother Alexander. He then moved to Litchfield and became a merchant; he was appointed sheriff of the newly created Litchfield County, Connecticut, serving from 1751 to 1771. He married Lorraine (Laura) Collins of Guilford, Connecticut on January 21, 1755. Their children were: Oliver (who died young), Oliver, Jr., Laura, Mariann, and Frederick.
Career
American Revolutionary War
Wolcott had two careers during the war years as one of Connecticut's principal delegates to the Continental Congress and also a militia officer. He participated in the American Revolutionary War as brigadier general and then as major general in the Connecticut militia. As a representative in the Continental Congress, he was a strong advocate for independence.
Early in the growing struggle with Great Britain, Wolcott made it clear that the colonists would not give up their rights and privileges. In February 1776, he stated: "Our difference with Great Britain has become very great. What matters will issue in, I cannot say, but perhaps in a total disseverance from Great Britain." The early support for independence led him to important roles during the war, both as military leader and as member of the Continental Congress.
Wolcott saw extensive militia service during the American Revolution. On August 11, 1776, Connecticut officials ordered him to march the Seventeenth Regiment of militia to New York and join George Washington's army. Upon arriving at Washington's camp, Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull appointed Wolcott brigadier general in command of all the state's militia regiments in New York. He led 300—400 volunteers from his brigade to help General Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold defeat Burgoyne at the Battle of Saratoga.
In May 1779, Wolcott was promoted to major general in command of all Connecticut Militia. That summer, he saw combat in protecting the coastline from Tryon's raids. He was largely unsuccessful in his combat with Major General William Tryon. Over the course of the war, he showed great disdain towards his opposition, describing the British in his memoirs as "a foe who have not only insulted every principle which governs civilized nations but by their barbarities offered the grossest indignities to human nature."
The Continental Congress appointed him Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and he was elected to the Congress in 1775. He became seriously ill in 1776 and did not sign the Declaration of Independence until some time later.
Later career
At the beginning of the Revolution, Congress had made Wolcott a commissioner of Indian affairs to persuade the northern Indian nations to remain neutral. His qualifications for that role came from his early experience on the northern front of the French and Indian War. He was asked, along with Richard Butler and Arthur Lee, to negotiate a peace treaty with the Six Nations at Fort Schuyler.
Beyond his postwar diplomatic role, Wolcott aspired to higher office. He was elected Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut as a Federalist in 1786 and served in that position for ten years. He was re-elected to the position, holding the office until his death at the age of seventy-one.
Death and legacy
Wolcott died on December 1, 1797, in Litchfield, Connecticut. He is interred at East Cemetery, in Litchfield, Connecticut. Historian Ellsworth Grant remembers Wolcott's Revolutionary war efforts in stating that, "It is doubful if any other official in Connecticut during this period carried so many public duties on his shoulders."
Oliver Wolcott Jr., his son, served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents George Washington and John Adams and as Governor of Connecticut. The town of Wolcott, Connecticut bears his name. His home in Litchfield was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971. In Torrington, Connecticut there is a school named after him, The Oliver Wolcott Technical High School.
In 1798, Fort Washington on Goat Island in Newport, Rhode Island was renamed Fort Wolcott. Fort Wolcott was an active fortification until 1836. It later became the site of the United States Naval Torpedo Station.
His descendants include Congregationalist minister Samuel Wolcott, D.D.; Edward O. Wolcott, a United States Senator from Denver; Anna Wolcott Vaile, who established the Wolcott School for Girls in Denver; ethnologist George Gibbs; chemist Oliver Wolcott Gibbs; brigadier general Alfred Gibbs; and mountaineer Roger Wolcott Toll.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Bibliography
"A Guide to the Oliver Wolcott, Sr. Papers, from 1638-1834." Connecticut Historical Society, 2016.
External links
American National Biography Online, Oliver Wolcott.
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
Litchfield Historical Society
National Governors Association
The Political Graveyard
The Peter Force Library at the Library of Congress has an important compilations of pamphlets that were assembled by Oliver Wolcott.
1726 births
1797 deaths
Connecticut militiamen in the American Revolution
Militia generals in the American Revolution
Continental Congressmen from Connecticut
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the Articles of Confederation
Governors of Connecticut
Connecticut Federalists
Connecticut sheriffs
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
American Congregationalists
Yale College alumni
People from Windsor, Connecticut
People from South Windsor, Connecticut
Burials in Connecticut
Lieutenant Governors of Connecticut
Federalist Party state governors of the United States
Military personnel from Connecticut
Members of the American Antiquarian Society | [
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260898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Witherspoon | John Witherspoon | John Witherspoon (February 5, 1723 – November 15, 1794) was a Scottish American Presbyterian minister, educator, farmer, slaveholder, and a Founding Father of the United States. Witherspoon embraced the concepts of Scottish common sense realism, and while president of the College of New Jersey (1768–1794; now Princeton University) became an influential figure in the development of the United States' national character. Politically active, Witherspoon was a delegate from New Jersey to the Second Continental Congress and a signatory to the July 4, 1776, Declaration of Independence. He was the only active clergyman and the only college president to sign the Declaration. Later, he signed the Articles of Confederation and supported ratification of the Constitution.
In 1789 he was convening moderator of the First General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America.
Early life and ministry in Scotland
John Witherspoon was born in Beith, North Ayrshire, Scotland, as the eldest child of the Reverend James Alexander Witherspoon and Anne Walker, a descendant of John Welsh of Ayr and John Knox. This latter claim of Knox descent though ancient in origin is long disputed and without primary documentation. He attended the Haddington Grammar School, and obtained a Master of Arts from the University of Edinburgh in 1739. He remained at the university to study divinity. In 1764, he was awarded an honorary doctoral degree in divinity by the University of St. Andrews.
Witherspoon was a staunch Protestant, nationalist, and supporter of republicanism. Consequently, he was opposed to the Roman Catholic Legitimist Jacobite rising of 1745–46. Following the Jacobite victory at the Battle of Falkirk (1746), he was briefly imprisoned at Doune Castle, which had a long-term effect on his health.
He became a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) minister at Beith, Ayrshire (1745–1758), where he married Elizabeth Montgomery of Craighouse. They had ten children, with five surviving to adulthood.
From 1758 to 1768, he was minister of the Laigh Kirk, Paisley (Low Kirk). Witherspoon became prominent within the Church as an Evangelical opponent of the Moderate Party. During his two pastorates he wrote three well-known works on theology, notably the satire "Ecclesiastical Characteristics" (1753), which opposed the philosophical influence of Francis Hutcheson.
Princeton
At the urging of Benjamin Rush and Richard Stockton, whom he met in Paisley, Witherspoon finally accepted their renewed invitation (having turned one down in 1766) to become president and head professor of the small Presbyterian College of New Jersey in Princeton. Thus, Witherspoon and his family emigrated to New Jersey in 1768.
At the age of 45, he became the sixth president of the college, later known as Princeton University. Upon his arrival, Witherspoon found the school in debt, with weak instruction, and a library collection which clearly failed to meet student needs. He immediately began fund-raising—locally and back home in Scotland—added three hundred of his own books to the library, and began purchasing scientific equipment including the Rittenhouse orrery, many maps, and a terrestrial globe.
Witherspoon also instituted a number of reforms, including modeling the syllabus and university structure after that used at the University of Edinburgh and other Scottish universities. He also firmed up entrance requirements, which helped the school compete with Harvard and Yale for scholars.
Witherspoon personally taught courses in eloquence or belles lettres, chronology (history), and divinity. However, none was more important than moral philosophy (a required course). An advocate of natural law within a Christian and republican cosmology, Witherspoon considered moral philosophy vital for ministers, lawyers, and those holding positions in government (magistrates). Firm but good-humored in his leadership, Witherspoon was very popular among both faculty and students.
Witherspoon had been a prominent evangelical Presbyterian minister in Scotland before accepting the Princeton position. As the college's primary occupation at the time was training ministers, Witherspoon became a major leader of the early Presbyterian Church in America. He also helped organize Nassau Presbyterian Church in Princeton, New Jersey.
Nonetheless, Witherspoon transformed a college designed predominantly to train clergymen into a school that would equip the leaders of a new country. Students who later played prominent roles in the new nation's development included James Madison, Aaron Burr, Philip Freneau, William Bradford, and Hugh Henry Brackenridge. From among his students came 37 judges (three of whom became justices of the U.S. Supreme Court); 10 Cabinet officers; 12 members of the Continental Congress, 28 U.S. senators, and 49 United States congressmen.
Revolutionary War
Long wary of the power of the British Crown, Witherspoon saw the growing centralization of government, progressive ideology of colonial authorities, and establishment of Episcopacy authority as a threat to the Liberties of the colonies. Of particular interest to Witherspoon was the crown's growing interference in the local and colonial affairs which previously had been the prerogatives and rights of the American authorities. When the crown began to give additional authority to its appointed Episcopacy over Church affairs, British authorities hit a nerve in the Presbyterian Scot, who saw such events in the same lens as his Scottish Covenanters. Soon, Witherspoon came to support the Revolution, joining the Committee of Correspondence and Safety in early 1774. His 1776 sermon "The Dominion of Providence over the Passions of Men" was published in many editions and he was elected to the Continental Congress as part of the New Jersey delegation, appointed Congressional Chaplain by the President of the Continental Congress John Hancock, and in July 1776, voted to adopt the Virginia Resolution for Independence. In answer to an objection that the country was not yet ready for independence, according to tradition he replied that it "was not only ripe for the measure, but in danger of rotting for the want of it." He lost his son Major James during the Battle of Germantown in 1777.
Witherspoon served in Congress from June 1777 until November 1784 and became one of its most influential members and a workhorse of prodigious energy. He served on over 10,000 committees, most notably the sitting committees, the board of peace and the committee on public correspondence or common affairs. He spoke often in concurrence; helped draft the Articles of Confederation; helped organize the executive departments; played a major role in shaping public policy; and drew up the instructions for the peace commissioners. He fought against the flood of paper money, and opposed the issuance of bonds without provision for their amortization. "No business can be done, some say, because money is scarce", he wrote. He also served twice in the New Jersey Legislature, and strongly supported the adoption of the United States Constitution during the New Jersey ratification debates.
In November 1777, American forces neared, Witherspoon closed and evacuated the College of New Jersey. The main building, Nassau Hall, was badly damaged and his papers and personal notes were lost. Witherspoon was responsible for its reconstruction after the war, which caused him great personal and financial difficulty. In 1780 he was elected to a one-year term in the New Jersey Legislative Council representing Somerset County. At the age of 68, he married a 24-year-old widow, with whom he had two more children.
Death and burial
Witherspoon suffered eye injuries and was blind by 1792. He died in 1794 on his farm Tusculum, just outside Princeton, and is buried along Presidents Row in Princeton Cemetery. An inventory of Witherspoon's possessions taken at his death included "two slaves ... valued at a hundred dollars each".
Family
Witherspoon and his wife, Elizabeth Montgomery, had a total of 10 children, only five of whom survived to accompany their parents to America. James, the eldest, a young man of great promise, graduated from Princeton in 1770, and joined the American army as an aide to General Francis Nash, with the rank of major and was killed at the Battle of Germantown on 4 October 1777. The next youngest son, John, graduated from Princeton in 1779, practiced medicine in South Carolina, and was lost at sea in 1795. David, the youngest son, graduated the same year as his brother, married the widow of Abner Nash, brother of General Francis Nash, and practiced law in New Bern, North Carolina. Anna, the eldest daughter, married Reverend Samuel Smith on June 28, 1775. Reverend Samuel Smith succeeded Dr. Witherspoon as president of Princeton in 1775. Frances, the youngest daughter, married Dr. David Ramsay, a delegate from South Carolina to the Continental Congress, on March 18, 1763.
Philosophy
According to Herbert Hovenkamp, Witherspoon's most lasting contribution was the initiation of the Scottish common sense realism, which he had learned by reading Thomas Reid and two of his expounders Dugald Stewart and James Beattie.
Witherspoon revised the moral philosophy curriculum, strengthened the college's commitment to natural philosophy, and positioned Princeton in the larger transatlantic world of the republic of letters. Witherspoon was a proponent of Christian values, his common sense approach to the public morality of civil magistrates was influenced by the ethics of Scottish philosophers Francis Hutcheson and Thomas Reid rather than Jonathan Edwards. In regard to civil magistrates, Witherspoon thus believed moral judgment should be pursued as a science. He held to old concepts from the Roman Republic of virtuous leadership by civil magistrates, but he also regularly recommended that his students read such modern philosophers as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, and David Hume, even though he disapproved of Hume's "infidel" stance on religion.
Virtue, he argued, could be deduced through the development of the moral sense, an ethical compass instilled by God in all human beings and developed through religious education (Reid) or civil sociability (Hutcheson). Witherspoon saw morality as having two distinct components: spiritual and temporal. Civil government owed more to the latter than the former in Witherspoon's Presbyterian doctrine. Thus, public morality owed more to the natural moral laws of the Enlightenment than to revealed Christianity.
In his lectures on moral philosophy at Princeton, required of all juniors and seniors, Witherspoon argued for the revolutionary right of resistance and recommended checks and balances within government. He made a profound impression on his student James Madison, whose suggestions for the United States Constitution followed both Witherspoon's and Hume's ideas. The historian Douglass Adair writes, "The syllabus of Witherspoon's lectures . . . explains the conversion of the young Virginian to the philosophy of the Enlightenment."
Witherspoon accepted the impossibility of maintaining public morality or virtue in the citizenry without an effective religion. In this sense, the temporal principles of morality required a religious component which derived its authority from the spiritual. Therefore, public religion was a vital necessity in maintaining the public morals. However, in this framework, non-Christian societies could have virtue, which, by his definition, could be found in natural law. Witherspoon, in accordance with the Scottish moral sense philosophy, taught that all human beings, Christian or otherwise, could be virtuous, but he was nonetheless committed to Christianity as the only route to personal salvation.
Witherspoon owned slaves and lectured against the abolition of slavery.
However, in his "Lectures on Moral Philosophy", Dr. Witherspoon advocated for the humane treatment of laborers and servants (including slaves), stating:
The settled opinion among the American founding fathers, including Dr. Witherspoon, was that slavery would eventually disappear naturally within a generation. For this reason, Rev. Witherspoon advocated for "gradual emancipation" of slaves.
Legacy
Witherspoon is not known for being a particularly insightful, significant, or even consistent Reformed preacher and thinker. However, he was firmly grounded in the Reformed tradition of High to Late Orthodoxy, embedded in the transatlantic Evangelical Awakening of the eighteenth century, and frustrated by the state of religion in the Scottish Kirk. Like Benedict Pictet (1655-1724), Witherspoon held firmly to the tenets of confessional Calvinism. And like Pictet, Witherspoon was eager to show that the truths of supernatural revelation could be squared with reason. His aim as a minister was to defend and rearticulate traditional Scottish Presbyterian theology, without altering or disguising it.
Statues
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia
University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland, United Kingdom
Doctor John Witherspoon, Connecticut Avenue and N Street, N.W., near Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C.
Buildings
Witherspoon Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
Witherspoon Building, in the Market East neighborhood of Philadelphia
The former Witherspoon Street School for Colored Children, Princeton, New Jersey
The former John Witherspoon Middle School, Princeton, New Jersey. In August 2021, the Princeton School Board voted to remove John Witherspoon's name from the local public middle school due to Witherspoon's history as a slave owner who opposed abolition. The Board had previously voted not to make the change, but reversed itself after local residents submitted a petition with more than 1,500 signatures and input gathered at two public forums, temporarily changing the name to the Princeton Unified Middle School until a permanent new name is identified.
Memberships
Witherspoon was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1789
Other
John Witherspoon College, a non-denominational Christian liberal arts college in Rapid City, South Dakota
Witherspoon Institute, a research center, in Princeton, New Jersey
Witherspoon Society, an organization of laypeople within the Presbyterian Church (USA)
Witherspoon Street, in: Princeton, New Jersey; Louisville, Kentucky; and, Paisley, Scotland
SS John Witherspoon, a Liberty ship class United States Merchant Marine ship during World War II; participated in an Allied convoy, code named PQ 17, and was sunk in the Barents Sea by the German submarine U-255 on July 6, 1942
Portrayed in the musical 1776, about the debates over and eventual adoption of the Declaration of Independence, by Edmund Lyndeck in the 1969 stage play and by James Noble in the 1972 film
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Citations
Sources
Collins, Varnum L. President Witherspoon: A Biography, 2 vols. (1925, repr. 1969)
Ashbel Green, ed. The Works of the Rev. John Witherspoon, 4 vols. (1802, repr. with a new introduction by L. Gordon Tait, 2003)
Morrison, Jeffry H. John Witherspoon and the Founding of the American Republic (2005)
Pomfret, John E.. '"Witherspoon, John" in Dictionary of American Biography (1934)
Tait, L. Gordon. The Piety of John Witherspoon: Pew, Pulpit, and Public Forum (2001)
Moses Coit Tyler "President Witherspoon in the American Revolution" The American Historical Review Volume 1, Issue 1, July 1896. pp. 671–79.
Woods, David W.. John Witherspoon (1906)
An Animated Son of Liberty – A life of John Witherspoon J. Walter McGinty (2012)
Further reading
External links
Biography on Princeton University's website
Photographic tour of John Witherspoon's grave at Princeton Cemetery.
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
1723 births
1794 deaths
18th-century American politicians
18th-century American theologians
18th-century American writers
18th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians
18th-century Scottish theologians
18th-century Scottish writers
Alumni of New College, Edinburgh
American Calvinist and Reformed theologians
American evangelicals
American slave owners
Blind people from the United States
Burials at Princeton Cemetery
Clergy in the American Revolution
Continental Congressmen from New Jersey
Members of the New Jersey Legislative Council
18th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland
Musical theatre characters
People from East Lothian
People from Paisley, Renfrewshire
Presbyterian Church in the United States of America ministers
Presidents of Princeton University
Scottish Calvinist and Reformed theologians
Scottish emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
Scottish evangelicals
Signers of the Articles of Confederation
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Witherspoon Institute
People of colonial New Jersey
American proslavery activists | [
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260899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Rush | Benjamin Rush | Benjamin Rush (April 19, 1813) was a Founding Father of the United States who signed the United States Declaration of Independence, and a civic leader in Philadelphia, where he was a physician, politician, social reformer, humanitarian, educator, and the founder of Dickinson College. Rush was a Pennsylvania delegate to the Continental Congress. His later self-description there was: "He aimed right." He served as surgeon general of the Continental Army and became a professor of chemistry, medical theory, and clinical practice at the University of Pennsylvania.
Rush was a leader of the American Enlightenment and an enthusiastic supporter of the American Revolution. He was a leader in Pennsylvania's ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1788. He was prominent in many reforms, especially in the areas of medicine and education. He opposed slavery, advocated free public schools, and sought improved education for women and a more enlightened penal system. As a leading physician, Rush had a major impact on the emerging medical profession. As an Enlightenment intellectual, he was committed to organizing all medical knowledge around explanatory theories, rather than rely on empirical methods. Rush argued that illness was the result of imbalances in the body's physical system and was caused by malfunctions in the brain. His approach prepared the way for later medical research, but Rush undertook none of it. He promoted public health by advocating clean environment and stressing the importance of personal and military hygiene. His study of mental disorder made him one of the founders of American psychiatry. In 1965, the American Psychiatric Association recognized Rush as the "father of American psychiatry".
Early life and career
Rush was born to John Rush and Susanna Hall on January 4, 1746 (December 24, 1745 O.S.). The family, of English descent, lived on a farm in the Township of Byberry in Philadelphia County, about 14 miles outside of Philadelphia (the township was incorporated into Philadelphia in 1854). Rush was the fourth of seven children. His father died in July 1751 at age 39, leaving his mother, who ran a country store, to care for the family. At age eight, Benjamin was sent to live with an aunt and uncle to receive an education. He and his older brother Jacob attended a school run by Reverend Samuel Finley, which later became West Nottingham Academy.
In 1760, after further studies at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), Rush graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree at age fourteen. From 1761 to 1766, Rush apprenticed under Dr. John Redman in Philadelphia. Redman encouraged him to further his studies at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, where Rush studied from 1766 to 1768 and earned an M. D. degree. Rush became fluent in French, Italian, and Spanish as a result of his studies and European tour. While at Edinburgh, he became a friend of the Earl of Leven and his family, including William Leslie.
Returning to the Colonies in 1769, Rush opened a medical practice in Philadelphia and became professor of chemistry at the College of Philadelphia. After his election to the revived American Philosophical Society in 1768, Rush served as the society's curator from 1770 to 1773, as secretary from 1773 to 1773, and vice president from 1797 to 1801. Rush ultimately published the first American textbook on chemistry and several volumes on medical student education and wrote influential patriotic essays.
Revolutionary period
Rush was active in the Sons of Liberty and was elected to attend the provincial conference to send delegates to the Continental Congress. Thomas Paine consulted Rush when writing the profoundly influential pro-independence pamphlet Common Sense. Starting in 1776, Rush represented Pennsylvania and signed the Declaration of Independence. He also represented Philadelphia at Pennsylvania's own Constitutional Convention.
While Rush was representing Pennsylvania in the Continental Congress (and serving on its medical committee), he also used his medical skills in the field. Rush accompanied the Philadelphia militia during the battles after which the British occupied Philadelphia and most of New Jersey. He was depicted serving in the Battle of Princeton in the painting The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777 by the American artist John Trumbull.
The Army Medical Service was in disarray, between the military casualties, extremely high losses from typhoid, yellow fever and other camp illnesses, political conflicts between Dr. John Morgan and Dr. William Shippen, Jr., and inadequate supplies and guidance from the medical committee. Nonetheless, Rush accepted an appointment as surgeon-general of the middle department of the Continental Army. Rush's order "Directions for preserving the health of soldiers" became one of the foundations of preventive military medicine and was repeatedly republished, including as late as 1908. However, Rush's reporting of Dr. Shippen's misappropriation of food and wine supplies intended to comfort hospitalized soldiers, under-reporting of patient deaths, and failure to visit the hospitals under his command, ultimately led to Rush's resignation in 1778.
Controversy
Rush criticized General George Washington in two handwritten but unsigned letters while still serving under the surgeon general. One, to Virginia Governor Patrick Henry dated October 12, 1778, quotes General Thomas Conway saying that if not for God's grace the ongoing war would have been lost by Washington and his weak counselors. Henry forwarded the letter to Washington, despite Rush's request that the criticism be conveyed orally, and Washington recognized the handwriting. At the time, the supposed Conway Cabal was reportedly trying to replace Washington with Horatio Gates as commander-in-chief. Rush's letter relayed General John Sullivan's criticism that forces directly under Washington were undisciplined and mob-like, and contrasted Gates' army as "a well-regulated family". Ten days later, Rush wrote to John Adams relaying complaints inside Washington's army, including about "bad bread, no order, universal disgust" and praising Conway, who had been appointed to inspector general.
Dr. Shippen sought Rush's resignation and received it by the end of the month after Continental Congress delegate John Witherspoon, chairman of a committee to investigate Morgan's and Rush's charges of misappropriation and mismanagement against Shippen, told Rush his complaints would not produce reform. Rush later expressed regret for his gossip against Washington. In a letter to John Adams in 1812, Rush wrote, "He [Washington] was the highly favored instrument whose patriotism and name contributed greatly to the establishment of the independence of the United States." Rush also successfully pleaded with Washington's biographers Justice Bushrod Washington and Chief Justice John Marshall to delete his association with those stinging words.
In his book 1776, David McCullough quotes Rush, referring to George Washington:
Post-Revolution
In 1783, he was appointed to the staff of Pennsylvania Hospital, and he remained a member until his death. He was elected to the Pennsylvania convention which adopted the Federal constitution and was appointed treasurer of the United States Mint, serving from 1797 to 1813. He was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1788.
He became a professor of medical theory and clinical practice at the University of Pennsylvania in 1791, though the quality of his medicine was quite primitive even for the time: he advocated bloodletting for almost any illness, long after its practice had declined. While teaching at the University of Pennsylvania, one of his students was future president William Henry Harrison, who took a chemistry class from Rush. He became a social activist and an abolitionist and was the most well-known physician in America at the time of his death.
He was also founder of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. In 1794, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the 1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic, Rush treated patients with bleeding, calomel, and other early medicinal techniques that often were ineffective and actually brought many patients closer to their deathbeds. Rush's ideas on yellow fever treatments differed from those of many experienced French doctors, who came from the West Indies where they had yellow fever outbreaks every year.
Rush was a founding member of the Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons (known today as the Pennsylvania Prison Society), which greatly influenced the construction of Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia. He supported Thomas Jefferson for president in 1796 over the eventual winner, John Adams.
Corps of Discovery
In 1803, Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis to Philadelphia to prepare for the Lewis and Clark Expedition under the tutelage of Rush, who taught Lewis about frontier illnesses and the performance of bloodletting. Rush provided the corps with a medical kit that included:
Turkish opium for nervousness
emetics to induce vomiting
medicinal wine
fifty dozen of Dr. Rush's Bilious Pills, laxatives containing more than 50% mercury, which have since colloquially been referred to as "thunderclappers." Their meat-rich diet and lack of clean water during the expedition gave the men cause to use them frequently. Although their efficacy is questionable, their high mercury content provided an excellent tracer by which archaeologists have been able to track the corps' actual route to the Pacific.
Reforms
Anti-slavery
In 1766, when Rush set out for his studies in Edinburgh, he was outraged by the sight of 100 slave ships in Liverpool harbor. As a prominent Presbyterian doctor and professor of chemistry in Philadelphia, he provided a bold and respected voice against the slave trade. He warmly praised the ministry of "Black Harry" Hosier, the freedman circuit rider who accompanied Bishop Francis Asbury during the establishment of the Methodist Church in America, but the highlight of his involvement was the pamphlet he wrote in 1773 entitled "An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, upon Slave-Keeping." In this first of his many attacks on the social evils of his day, he assailed the slave trade as well as the entire institution of slavery. Rush argued scientifically that Negroes were not by nature intellectually or morally inferior. Any apparent evidence to the contrary was only the perverted expression of slavery, which "is so foreign to the human mind, that the moral faculties, as well as those of the understanding are debased, and rendered torpid by it."
Anti-capital punishment
Rush deemed public punishments such as putting a person on display in stocks, common at the time, to be counterproductive. Instead, he proposed private confinement, labor, solitude, and religious instruction for criminals, and he opposed the death penalty. His outspoken opposition to capital punishment pushed the Pennsylvania legislature to abolish the death penalty for all crimes other than first-degree murder. He authored a 1792 treatise on punishing murder by death in which he made three principal arguments:
I. Every man possesses an absolute power over his own liberty and property, but not over his own life...
II. The punishment of murder by death, is contrary to reason, and to the order and happiness of society...
III. The punishment of murder by death, is contrary to divine revelation.
Rush led the state of Pennsylvania to establish the first state penitentiary, the Walnut Street Prison, in 1790. Rush campaigned for long-term imprisonment, the denial of liberty, as both the most humane but severe punishment. This 1792 treatise was preceded by comments on the efficacy of the death penalty that he self-references and which, evidently, appeared in the second volume of the American Museum.
Status of women
After the Revolution, Rush proposed a new model of education for elite women that included English language, vocal music, dancing, sciences, bookkeeping, history, and moral philosophy. He was instrumental to the founding of the Young Ladies' Academy of Philadelphia, the first chartered women's institution of higher education in Philadelphia. Rush saw little need for training women in metaphysics, logic, mathematics, or advanced science; rather he wanted the emphasis on guiding women toward moral essays, poetry, history, and religious writings. This type of education for elite women grew dramatically during the post-revolutionary period, as women claimed a role in creating the Republic. And so, the ideal of Republican motherhood emerged, lauding women's responsibility of instructing the young in the obligations of patriotism, the blessings of liberty and the true meaning of Republicanism. He opposed coeducational classrooms and insisted on the need to instruct all youth in the Christian religion.
Medical contributions
Physical medicine
Rush was a leading proponent of heroic medicine. He firmly believed in such practices as bloodletting patients (a practice now known to be generally harmful, but at the time common practice), as well as purges using calomel and other toxic substances. In his report on the Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic of 1793, Rush wrote: "I have found bleeding to be useful, not only in cases where the pulse was full and quick but where it was slow and tense. I have bled twice in many and in one acute case four times, with the happiest effect. I consider intrepidity in the use of the lancet, at present, to be necessary, as it is in the use of mercury and jalap, in this insidious and ferocious disease." During that epidemic, Rush gained acclaim for remaining in town and treating sometimes 100 patients per day (some through freed black volunteers coordinated by Richard Allen), but many died. Even Rush acknowledged the failure of two treatments, sweats in vinegar-wrapped blankets accompanied by mercury rubs, and cold baths.
William Cobbett vociferously objected to Rush's extreme use of bloodletting, and even in Rush's day and location, many physicians had abandoned on scientific grounds this favorite remedy of Rush's former teachers Thomas Sydenham and Hermann Boerhaave. Cobbett accused Rush of killing more patients than he had saved. Rush ultimately sued Cobbett for libel, winning a judgment of $5,000 and $3,000 in court costs, which was only partially paid before Cobbett returned to England. Nonetheless, Rush's practice waned as he continued to advocate bloodletting and purges, much to the chagrin of his friend Thomas Jefferson. Some even blamed Rush's bleeding for hastening the death of Benjamin Franklin, as well as George Washington (although the only one of Washington's medics who opposed the bleeding was Rush's former student), and Rush insisted upon being bled himself shortly before his death (as he had during the yellow fever epidemic two decades earlier).
Rush also wrote the first case report on dengue fever (published in 1789 on a case from 1780). Perhaps his greatest contributions to physical medicine were his establishment of a public dispensary for low income patients, and public works associated with draining and rerouting Dock Creek (eliminating mosquito breeding grounds, which greatly decreased typhus, typhoid and cholera outbreaks).
Another of Rush's medical views that now draws criticism is his analysis of race. In reviewing the case of Henry Moss, a slave who lost his dark skin color (probably through vitiligo), Rush characterized being black as a hereditary and curable skin disease. Rush wrote that the "disease, instead of inviting us [whites] to tyrannise over them [blacks], it should entitle them to a double portion of our humanity." He added that this "should teach white people the necessity of keeping up that prejudice against [miscegenation], as it would tend to infect posterity with … their disorder" and called for an "endeavour to discover a remedy for it."
Rush was interested in Native American health. He wanted to find out why Native Americans were susceptible to certain illnesses and whether they suffered from higher mortality rates as compared to other people. Other questions that he raised were whether dreamed more and if their hair turned gray as they got older. His fascination with these people came from his interest in the theory that social scientists can better study the history of their own civilization by studying cultures in earlier stages of development, "primitive men". In his autobiography, he writes "From a review of the three different species of settlers, it appears that there are certain regular stages which mark the progress from the savage to civilized life. The first settler is nearly related to an Indian in his manners. In the second, the Indian manners are more diluted. It is in the third species only that we behold civilization completed. It is to the third species of settlers only that it is proper to apply the term of farmers. While we record the voices of the first and second settlers, it is but just to mention their virtues likewise. Their mutual wants to produce mutual dependence; hence they are kind and friendly to each other. Their solitary situation makes visitors agreeable to them; hence they are hospitable to a stranger."
Mental health
Rush published one of the first descriptions and treatments for psychiatric disorders in American medicine, Medical Inquiries and Observations, Upon the Diseases of the Mind (1812). He undertook to classify different forms of mental illness and to theorize as to their causes and possible cures. Rush believed (incorrectly) that many mental illnesses were caused by disruptions of blood circulation or by sensory overload and treated them with devices meant to improve circulation to the brain such as a centrifugal spinning board, and inactivity/sensory deprivation via a restraining chair with a sensory-deprivation head enclosure ("tranquilizer chair"). After seeing mental patients in appalling conditions in Pennsylvania Hospital, Rush led a successful campaign in 1792 for the state to build a separate mental ward where the patients could be kept in more humane conditions.
Rush believed, as did so many physicians of the time, that bleeding and active purging with mercury(I) chloride (calomel) were the preferable medical treatments for insanity, a fact evidenced by his statement that, "It is sometimes difficult to prevail upon patients in this state of madness, or even to compel them, to take mercury in any of the ways in which it is usually administered. In these cases I have succeeded, by sprinkling a few grains of calomel daily upon a piece of bread, and afterwards spreading over it, a thin covering of butter." Rush followed the standard procedures of bleeding and treatment with mercury, he did believe that "coercion" and "restraint", the physical punishment, chains and dungeons, which were the practice of the time, were the answer as proven by his invention of the restraint chair and other devices. For this reason, some aspects of his approach could be seen as similar to Moral Therapy, which would soon rise to prominence in at least the wealthier institutions of Europe and the United States.
Rush is sometimes considered a pioneer of occupational therapy particularly as it pertains to the institutionalized. In Diseases of the Mind (1812), Rush wrote:
Furthermore, Rush was one of the first people to describe Savant Syndrome. In 1789, he described the abilities of Thomas Fuller, an enslaved African who was a lightning calculator. His observation would later be described in other individuals by notable scientists like John Langdon Down.
Rush pioneered the therapeutic approach to addiction. Prior to his work, drunkenness was viewed as being sinful and a matter of choice. Rush believed that the alcoholic loses control over himself and identified the properties of alcohol, rather than the alcoholic's choice, as the causal agent. He developed the conception of alcoholism as a form of medical disease and proposed that alcoholics should be weaned from their addiction via less potent substances.
Rush advocated for more humane mental institutions and perpetuated the idea that people with mental illness are people who have an illness, rather than inhuman animals. He is quoted to have said, "Terror acts powerfully upon the body, through the medium of the mind, and should be employed in the cure of madness." He also championed the idea of "partial madness," or that people could have varying degrees of mental illness.
The American Psychiatric Association's seal bears an image of Rush's purported profile at its center. The outer ring of the seal contains the words "American Psychiatric Association 1844". The Association's history of the seal states:
Educational legacy
During his career, he educated over 3,000 medical students, and several of these established Rush Medical College in Chicago in his honor after his death. His students included Valentine Seaman, who mapped yellow fever mortality patterns in New York and introduced the smallpox vaccine to the United States in 1799. One of his last apprentices was Samuel A. Cartwright, later a Confederate States of America surgeon charged with improving sanitary conditions in the camps around Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Port Hudson, Louisiana. Rush University Medical Center in Chicago, formerly Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center, was named in his honor.
Religious views and vision
Rush advocated Christianity in public life and in education and sometimes compared himself to the prophet Jeremiah. Rush regularly attended Christ Church in Philadelphia and counted William White among his closest friends (and neighbors). Ever the controversialist, Rush became involved in internal disputes over the revised Book of Common Prayer and the splitting of the Episcopal Church from the Church of England. He dabbled with Presbyterianism, Methodism (which split from Anglicanism in those years), and Unitarianism. In a letter to John Adams, Rush describes his religious views as "a compound of the orthodoxy and heterodoxy of most of our Christian churches." Christian Universalists consider him one of their founders, although Rush stopped attending that church after the death of his friend, former Baptist pastor Elhanan Winchester, in 1797.
Rush fought for temperance and both public and Sunday schools. He helped found the Bible Society at Philadelphia (now known as the Pennsylvania Bible Society) and promoted the American Sunday School Union. When many public schools stopped using the Bible as a textbook, Rush proposed that the U.S. government require such use, as well as furnish an American Bible to every family at public expense. In 1806, Rush proposed inscribing "The Son of Man Came into the World, Not To Destroy Men's Lives, But To Save Them." above the doors of courthouses and other public buildings. Earlier, on July 16, 1776, Rush had complained to Patrick Henry about a provision in Virginia's constitution of 1776 which forbade clergymen from serving in the legislature.
Rush felt that the United States was the work of God: "I do not believe that the Constitution was the offspring of inspiration, but I am as perfectly satisfied that the Union of the United States in its form and adoption is as much the work of a Divine Providence as any of the miracles recorded in the Old and New Testament". In 1798, after the Constitution's adoption, Rush declared: "The only foundation for a useful education in a republic is to be laid in Religion. Without this there can be no virtue, and without virtue there can be no liberty, and liberty is the object and life of all republican governments." One quote popularly assigned to Rush, however, which portrays him as a medical libertarian: "Unless we put medical freedoms into the Constitution, the time will come when medicine will organize into an undercover dictatorship [. . .] To restrict the art of healing to one class of men and deny equal privileges to others will constitute the Bastille of medical science. All such laws are un-American and despotic and have no place in a republic [. . .] The Constitution of this republic should make special privilege for medical freedom as well as religious freedom," is likely a misattribution. No primary source for it has been found, and the words "un-American" and "undercover" are anachronisms, as their usage as such did not appear until after Rush's death.
Before 1779, Rush's religious views were influenced by what he described as "Fletcher's controversy with the Calvinists in favor of the Universality of the atonement." After hearing Elhanan Winchester preach, Rush indicated that this theology "embraced and reconciled my ancient calvinistical, and my newly adopted (Arminian) principles. From that time on I have never doubted upon the subject of the salvation of all men." To simplify, both believed in punishment after death for the wicked. His wife, Julia Rush, thought her husband like Martin Luther for his ardent passions, fearless attacks on old prejudices, and quick tongue against perceived enemies.
Rush helped Richard Allen found the African Methodist Episcopal Church. In his autobiography, Allen wrote:
Personal life
On January 11, 1776, Rush married Julia Stockton (1759–1848), daughter of Richard Stockton, another signer of the Declaration of Independence, and his wife Annis Boudinot Stockton. They had 13 children, 9 of whom survived their first year: John, Ann Emily, Richard, Susannah (died as an infant), Elizabeth Graeme (died as an infant), Mary B, James, William (died as an infant), Benjamin (died as an infant), Richard, Julia, Samuel, and William. Richard later became a member of the cabinets of James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk, and Zachary Taylor (at one point during each of their presidencies).
In 1812, Rush helped reconcile the friendship of Jefferson and Adams by encouraging the two former presidents to resume writing to each other.
Death
After dying of typhus fever, he was buried (in Section N67) along with his wife Julia in the Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia, not far from where Benjamin Franklin is buried. At the site, a small plaque honoring Benjamin Rush has been placed. However, the box marker is next to the plaque on the right, with inscriptions on the top. The inscription reads,
"In memory of
Benjamin Rush MD
he died on the 19th of April
in the year of our Lord 1813
Aged 68 years
Well done good and faithful servant
enter thou into the joy of the Lord"
"Mrs Julia Rush
consort of
Benjamin Rush MD
Born March 2, 1759
Died July 7, 1848
For as in Adam, all die, even so in Christ
Shall all be made alive"
Legacy
Benjamin Rush Elementary School in Redmond, Washington was named by its students for him. The Arts Academy at Benjamin Rush magnet high school in Philadelphia was established in 2008. Rush County, Indiana, is named for him as is its county seat, Rushville. Rush University Medical Center in Chicago is named after Rush. Benjamin Rush State Park in Philadelphia is named after Rush. The eponymous conservative Benjamin Rush Institute is an associate member of the State Policy Network.
Controversy regarding quotations
George Seldes includes in his widely recognized book "The Great Quotations" (1960) a quote by Rush:"The Constitution of this Republic should make special provision for medical freedom. To restrict the art of healing to one class will constitute the Bastille of medical science."The book includes a detailed depiction of sources and methodologies used by Seldes to gather the quotes. However Thomas Szasz in recent years has claimed to believe this is a false attribution, while avoiding to mention Seldes' book: "...Not a single author supplies a verifiable source for it. Hence, I believe this false attribution, depicting Rush as a medical libertarian, needs to be exposed as bogus."
Writings
1989 reprint: Syracuse University Press,
Rush, Benjamin (1812) Medical Inquiries And Observations Upon The Diseases Of The Mind, 2006 reprint: Kessinger Publishing, . Free digital copies of original published in 1812 at http://deila.dickinson.edu/theirownwords/title/0034. or https://web.archive.org/web/20121024024628/http://collections.nlm.nih.gov/muradora/objectView.action?pid=nlm%3Anlmuid-2569036R-bk
The Spur of Fame: Dialogues of John Adams and Benjamin Rush, 1805–1813 (2001), Liberty Fund,
Archival collections
The Presbyterian Historical Society in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, has a collection of Benjamin Rush's original manuscripts.
See also
List of abolitionist forerunners
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Notes
Further reading
Unger, Harlow Giles. Dr. Benjamin Rush: The Founding Father Who Healed a Wounded Nation (Da Capo Press, 2018). 320 pp. online review
External links
Article and portrait at "Discovering Lewis & Clark"
"Benjamin Rush: The Revolution's Doctor of Medicine and Universal Humanitarian" – excerpts from his writings
Papers from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society
Guide to the Benjamin Rush Lectures circa 1775-1825 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
Guide to Benjamin Rush, On the Influence of Physical Causes on the Moral Faculty 1786 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
1746 births
1813 deaths
18th-century American physicians
18th-century American politicians
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
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American chemists
American slave owners
American male writers
American people of English descent
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Burials at Christ Church, Philadelphia
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Deaths from typhus
Dickinson College
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History of psychiatry
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Mental health activists
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Physicians from Philadelphia
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Presbyterian abolitionists
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Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Stockton family of New Jersey
University and college founders
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West Nottingham Academy alumni | [
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260900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20Morris%20%28disambiguation%29 | Lewis Morris (disambiguation) | Lewis Morris (1726–1798) was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence.
Lewis Morris may also refer to:
Lewis Morris (governor) (1671–1746), American colonial leader in New York and New Jersey
Lewis Morris (speaker) (1698–1762), American judge, politician and landowner
Lewis Morris (1701–1765), Welsh poet
Lewis R. Morris (1760–1825), U.S. Representative from Vermont
Lewis G. Morris (1808–1900), maritime advocate, sheep and cattle breeder
Sir Lewis Morris (1833–1907), Welsh poet, academic and politician
Lewis Gouverneur Morris (1882–1967), banker and social figure in New York and Newport society | [
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260901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Livingston | Philip Livingston | Philip Livingston (January 15, 1716 – June 12, 1778) was an American merchant and statesman from New York City. He represented New York at the October 1774 First Continental Congress, where he favored imposing economic sanctions upon Great Britain as a way of pressuring the British Parliament to repeal the Intolerable Acts. He was also a delegate to the Second Continental Congress from 1775 to 1778, and signed the Declaration of Independence, thus becoming one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.
Early life
Livingston was born in Albany, New York, on January 15, 1716, the fourth surviving son of Philip Livingston (1686–1749), 2nd Lord of the Manor, and Catherine Van Brugh Livingston, the daughter of Albany Mayor Pieter Van Brugh. Along with his brother, William Livingston (1723–1790), he grew up in the Albany area, dividing his time between his father's Albany townhouse and the manor house in Linlithgo, at the junction of the Roeliff Jansen Kill and the Hudson River.
Career
Livingston graduated from Yale College in 1737 and returned to Albany to serve a mercantile apprenticeship under his father. Through his father's influence, he obtained clerkships in Albany's local government. He then settled in New York City and pursued a career in the import business, trading with the British sugar islands in the West Indies. During King George's War (1744–1748), Livingston made his fortune provisioning and privateering. He also speculated heavily in real estate and the slave trade. He had a stone townhouse on Duke Street in Manhattan and a forty-acre estate in Brooklyn Heights. He became a merchant and served as an alderman of the East Ward from 1754 through 1762.
Livingston was a promoter of the founding of Kings College (now Columbia University) and helped to organize the New York Public Library in 1754. Livingston founded the first Chamber of Commerce in 1770, and in 1756 he was president and founding member of the St. Andrew's Society, New York's first benevolent organization. He was also one of the first governors of New York Hospital.
Politics
In 1754, Livingston went as a delegate to the Albany Congress. There, he joined delegates from several other colonies to negotiate with Indigenous nations and discuss common plans for dealing with the French and Indian War. Livingston became an active promoter of efforts to raise and fund troops for the war. According to Cynthia A. Kiemer, he owned shares in six privateers, making him one of the colony's leading investors.
He served as a member of the provincial house of representatives from 1763 to 1769 and in 1768 served as speaker. In October 1765, he attended the Stamp Act Congress, which produced the first formal protest to the Crown as a prelude to the American Revolution. He joined New York City's Committee of Correspondence to continue communication with leaders in the other colonies, and New York City's Committee of Sixty. When New York established the New York Provincial Congress in 1775, he was named its president.
He was selected as one of the delegates to the Continental Congress. His brother William, a prominent lawyer in New Jersey, was also a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1774 to June 1776. In July 1775, Philip signed the Olive Branch Petition, a final attempt to achieve an understanding with the Crown. Like many of the early Patriots, he initially did not advocate a complete break from the mother country but eventually aligned himself with the opposition to the measures the British were imposing on the colonists. When the British occupied New York City, Philip and his family fled to Kingston, New York, where he maintained another residence. After the Battle of Long Island, General George Washington and his officers met at Philip's residence in Brooklyn Heights and decided to evacuate the island. The British subsequently used Philip's Duke Street home as a barracks and his Brooklyn Heights residence as a Royal Navy hospital.
After the adoption of the new New York State Constitution, he was appointed to the New York State Senate southern district in 1777, while continuing to sit in the Continental Congress. Livingston suffered from dropsy, and his health deteriorated in 1778.
Personal life
On April 14, 1740, he married Christina Ten Broeck (1718–1801), daughter of Dirck Ten Broeck (1686–1751) and Margarita Cuyler (1682–1783). Christina was the sister of Albany Mayor Abraham Ten Broeck and the great-granddaughter of Albany Mayor Dirck Wesselse Ten Broeck (1638–1717), through her maternal grandfather, Wessel Ten Broeck (1664–1747). Together, Philip and Christina had nine children:
Philip Philip Livingston (1741–1787), who married Sara Johnson (1749–1802)
Dirck "Richard" Livingston (b. 1743), who died unmarried.
Catherine Livingston (1745–1810), who married Stephen van Rensselaer II (1742–1769) in 1764. After his death, she married Eilardus Westerlo (1738–1790) in 1775.
Margaret Livingston (1747–1830), who married Dr. Thomas Jones (1733–1794) of New York.
Peter Van Brugh Livingston (b. 1751), who died unmarried.
Sarah Livingston (1752–1814), who married Rev. John Henry Livingston (1746–1825), her second cousin.
John Abraham Livingston (1754-1782), who served as commissary to the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War and who died unmarried in Charleston, South Carolina.
Alida Livingston (b. 1757), who died unmarried.
Henry Philip Livingston (b. 1760), a captain in General Washington's Life Guard, who died unmarried.
Death
Livingston died suddenly while attending the sixth session of Congress in York, Pennsylvania, and is buried in the Prospect Hill Cemetery there. Livingston was a Presbyterian and a Mason. When Livingston died, his estate was insufficient to meet his debts, and his executors renounced the administration of the estate. On February 25, 1785, the New York Legislature passed an act, entitled An Act for vesting the Estate of Philip Livingston, late of the City of New-York, Esquire, deceased, in Trustees for the Payment of his Debts, and other Purposes therein mentioned, which named as trustees his son and heir, Philip Philip Livingston, Isaac Roosevelt, and Robert C. Livingston, his nephew who was a son of Robert Livingston, 3rd Lord of the Manor. The trustees were responsible for administering Livingston's "property, pay all debts, and discharge the pecuniary legacies." After his son's death in 1788, Rev. John Henry Livingston, Thomas Jones, both his sons-in-law, Henry Brockholst Livingston, his nephew, and Alexander Hamilton were appointed the executors of his will.
Descendants
Through his son Philip, the only of his sons to have children, he was the grandfather of Philip Henry Livingston (1769–1831) and Edward Philip Livingston (1779–1843), the Lieutenant Governor of New York. Through Philip Henry, he was the great-grandfather of Edward Livingston (1796–1840), Speaker of the New York State Assembly. His granddaughter, Christina Livingston, married John Navarre Macomb (1774–1810), the son of Alexander Macomb (1748–1831) and brother of Maj. Gen. Alexander Macomb (1782–1841). Through his daughter Catherine, he was the grandfather of Stephen Van Rensselaer III (1764–1839), the patroon of Rensselaerswyck, Philip S. Van Rensselaer (1767–1824), the Mayor of Albany, Rensselaer Westerlo (1776–1851), a U.S. Representative, and Catharine Westerlo (1778–1846), who married John Woodworth, the New York State Attorney General.
Legacy
Livingston Avenue and the former Philip Livingston Magnet Academy, both in Albany, New York, are named for him. A public school in Brooklyn, PS 261 in Boerum Hill, is named for him.
See also
Livingston family
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
External links
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
Philip
1716 births
1778 deaths
Speakers of the New York General Assembly
Members of the New York General Assembly
Members of the New York Provincial Assembly
Members of the New York Provincial Congress
Continental Congressmen from New York (state)
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Foundrymen
Politicians from Albany, New York
Colonial American merchants
American Presbyterians
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Dutch descent
American people of Norwegian descent
American slave owners
Yale University alumni
People of colonial New York
University and college founders
Columbia University people
New York (state) state senators
Businesspeople from Albany, New York
People from Brooklyn Heights
Presidents of the Saint Andrew's Society of the State of New York
American slave traders
Van Brugh family
Signers of the Continental Association | [
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260902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat%20of%20force%20%28public%20international%20law%29 | Threat of force (public international law) | Threat of force in public international law is a situation between states described by British lawyer Ian Brownlie as:
an express or implied promise by a government of a resort to force conditional on non-acceptance of certain demands of that government.
The 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties notes in its preamble that both the threat and the use of force are prohibited. Moreover, in Article 52, it establishes the principle that if threats of using force are made during diplomatic negotiations, then any resulting treaty is invalid, stating "A treaty is void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force in violation of the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations".
See also
Coercion
References
Further reading
Stürchler, Nikolas. (August 13, 2007). The Threat of Force in International Law. Series: Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law (No. 53). Cambridge University Press. .
World Court Digest web page referring to threat of force.
International law
International law legal terminology
Social philosophy | [
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260903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20N.%20Other | A. N. Other | A. N. Other is used as a placeholder name or, less commonly, a pseudonym used by a person wishing to remain anonymous. It is most used in the United Kingdom, often written as AN Other. Occasionally it may be abbreviated to ANO, or—in cases where a female name is expected—rendered as Ann(e) Other.
As a placeholder name, A. N. Other is commonly employed in lists of cricket players, where players' names are traditionally listed as initials and surname (e.g., I. T. Botham), for players whose names have not yet been announced or are unknown (e.g. "Additional players: A. W. Smith, J. C. Taylor and A. N. Other").
The Formula One racing driver Jackie Stewart raced as "A. N. Other" early in his career, supposedly because his mother would worry if she knew he was racing cars.
Less frequently used is U. N. Owen, as for example used in the Agatha Christie novel And Then There Were None.
The name is also used for demonstration on sample documents and identity cards.
An equivalent term is "NN", for "Nomen nescio". Of equivalent function are TBA, TBC, and TBD (to be announced, confirmed, determined).
See also
List of pseudonyms
John Doe
References
External links
Johnson carves some turkey - Cricinfo article using "AN Other", 16 September 2006.
Anonymity pseudonyms
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