id
stringlengths 6
8
| url
stringlengths 31
167
| title
stringlengths 1
98
| text
stringlengths 26
185k
| embedding
sequence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
260904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic%20%28disambiguation%29 | Uralic (disambiguation) | The word Uralic refers to the Uralic languages and their speakers. It is named for the Ural region of Russia. See also:
Eskimo–Uralic languages
Indo-Uralic languages
Proto-Uralic homeland hypotheses
Proto-Uralic language
Uralic neopaganism
Uralic Phonetic Alphabet
Uralic–Yukaghir languages
Uralo-Siberian languages
See also | [
-0.05252043530344963,
0.699199914932251,
-0.3663821816444397,
-0.260954886674881,
-0.7280358076095581,
0.5692655444145203,
1.0341066122055054,
0.5792416930198669,
-0.4744991958141327,
-0.26579684019088745,
-0.24607406556606293,
-0.1337755024433136,
-0.3842372000217438,
0.5131946802139282,
0.14997993409633636,
0.9632682800292969,
-0.31662997603416443,
0.4665243327617645,
-0.08830650895833969,
-0.03951529413461685,
0.26379409432411194,
0.06874939054250717,
0.04428730905056,
-0.15419086813926697,
-0.03134305402636528,
-0.19233939051628113,
0.4529262185096741,
0.2730482518672943,
-0.45239371061325073,
-0.1098465695977211,
-0.8171402812004089,
0.8188295364379883,
0.10289064794778824,
-0.042575690895318985,
0.2885923981666565,
-0.46455782651901245,
-0.21649427711963654,
-0.6551475524902344,
-0.04683348909020424,
-0.7365570664405823,
-0.3525317311286926,
0.06757937371730804,
-0.3570473790168762,
0.7495637536048889,
-0.023152494803071022,
0.054038215428590775,
-1.5416630506515503,
0.4449559152126312,
-0.869920015335083,
-0.39240092039108276,
-0.20448608696460724,
-0.5107024908065796,
0.08264879137277603,
0.23926618695259094,
-0.318167507648468,
0.6935656070709229,
-1.1219308376312256,
-0.46457526087760925,
0.7190980315208435,
0.563176691532135,
0.575565755367279,
0.4930647313594818,
-0.26938462257385254,
0.005697947461158037,
0.5812124609947205,
0.08193285018205643,
-0.8025063276290894,
0.7440037727355957,
-1.2080389261245728,
-0.60397869348526,
-0.4255707561969757,
-0.21581293642520905,
-0.27434688806533813,
0.28985753655433655,
-0.15356513857841492,
-0.11162979155778885,
0.14427237212657928,
0.02936141937971115,
0.46815335750579834,
-0.31897205114364624,
-0.6089755296707153,
0.21247948706150055,
0.6702221632003784,
0.30676305294036865,
0.4826919138431549,
-0.5601810812950134,
-0.7639735341072083,
-0.2546875476837158,
-0.05446597561240196,
0.6944335699081421,
0.49972084164619446,
-0.1314658373594284,
0.5108552575111389,
-0.20586776733398438,
-0.21519896388053894,
0.0556887686252594,
-0.13031841814517975,
0.03630974516272545,
-0.40630418062210083,
-0.1342797428369522,
-0.6070817112922668,
0.7958335280418396,
0.19216108322143555,
-0.1574248969554901,
-0.9138894081115723,
-0.601142406463623,
-0.5689161419868469,
0.45731446146965027,
-0.051473718136548996,
-0.284842848777771,
-0.7496375441551208,
0.2923905551433563,
0.18707381188869476,
0.05167415738105774,
-0.16322258114814758,
0.20593060553073883,
-0.18653441965579987,
-0.165395587682724,
0.010492845438420773,
0.2610591948032379,
-0.07234562188386917,
0.6878292560577393,
-0.3913188874721527,
-0.26745155453681946,
0.14066828787326813,
0.43554824590682983,
0.4321819245815277,
-0.1859457641839981,
-0.8782414793968201,
0.21887822449207306,
-0.4404315650463104,
1.109207034111023,
0.024244269356131554,
0.10304444283246994,
0.3520705997943878,
-0.4295203685760498,
0.39319342374801636,
0.38969823718070984,
0.022394312545657158,
0.16826081275939941,
-1.1531364917755127,
-0.1534464806318283,
-1.0534917116165161,
0.39003413915634155,
0.45622339844703674,
0.2916682958602905,
-0.05134984850883484,
0.08560093492269516,
-0.32840803265571594,
-0.13936971127986908,
-0.3644615113735199,
-0.1701870560646057,
-0.04834610968828201,
0.11919809877872467,
-0.23003190755844116,
0.25825342535972595,
0.7997979521751404,
0.050908274948596954,
0.7606340050697327,
0.06909498572349548,
-0.07464202493429184,
0.028203044086694717,
-0.12285710871219635,
-0.09227953851222992,
0.2582155764102936,
-0.26950687170028687,
0.2120552957057953,
0.3660726547241211,
-0.33928778767585754,
0.20071791112422943,
-0.6877918839454651,
-0.44505053758621216,
0.6712806820869446,
-0.22600841522216797,
-0.07504381239414215,
-0.14224019646644592,
0.21634536981582642,
0.08328516036272049,
0.3145085573196411,
-0.1122262105345726,
-0.610903799533844,
0.6384223699569702,
0.07970956712961197,
0.4152253270149231,
0.2728250324726105,
0.2065439373254776,
-0.13314589858055115,
-0.13423967361450195,
-0.07191402465105057,
0.01933399960398674,
0.3275310695171356,
-0.2761784791946411,
-0.11301983147859573,
-0.6136490106582642,
0.5190999507904053,
-0.02801540121436119,
-0.6708317995071411,
0.39813917875289917,
0.15244823694229126,
0.7299433946609497,
-0.5711160898208618,
-0.892385721206665,
-0.1484236866235733,
0.31922632455825806,
0.9793691635131836,
0.8255375027656555,
-0.2440471053123474,
0.48257604241371155,
0.7086489200592041,
0.5834193825721741,
0.6611806154251099,
-0.34746506810188293,
0.6150408387184143,
0.11448851227760315,
-0.18978029489517212,
0.0198571365326643,
-0.5577607154846191,
0.314740926027298,
-0.17602695524692535,
-0.03742224723100662,
1.2955557107925415,
-0.8976793885231018,
0.15329749882221222,
-0.1680886149406433,
-0.5541700124740601,
0.6490306258201599,
0.032676491886377335,
0.13088063895702362,
0.4952254593372345,
-0.5562903881072998,
0.17154616117477417,
0.08991310745477676,
0.3881043791770935,
-0.16529887914657593,
-0.5446210503578186,
-0.864628255367279,
-0.6045177578926086,
-0.10575798898935318,
0.17328400909900665,
-0.006642191670835018,
-0.2074381709098816,
0.06271307915449142,
-0.1850920021533966,
-0.3376728892326355,
0.12965057790279388,
-0.4591689705848694,
-0.239436075091362,
0.0014164319727569818,
-0.318345308303833,
-0.23807352781295776,
0.38755378127098083,
0.08845625817775726,
-0.2616267204284668,
-0.7380127906799316,
0.07871522754430771,
0.3469519019126892,
0.15566889941692352,
0.014186089858412743,
0.516945481300354,
0.048199769109487534,
-0.008176698349416256,
0.8830658197402954,
-0.30098864436149597,
-0.1983477920293808,
0.19171595573425293,
-0.21287225186824799,
-0.05742059648036957,
0.23556679487228394,
0.2742987275123596,
-0.08315733075141907,
0.0444682352244854,
-0.036575593054294586,
-0.7439450621604919,
-0.4434662461280823,
-0.5391561985015869,
-0.6145905256271362,
0.26484212279319763,
-0.02297188714146614,
-0.48348268866539,
-0.16561436653137207,
-0.953155517578125,
0.4116559326648712,
0.376461386680603,
-0.1556006520986557,
-0.7079218029975891,
-0.49431493878364563,
0.08206760138273239,
-0.13336537778377533,
0.39180871844291687,
-0.5280172824859619,
-0.06648106127977371,
0.37822383642196655,
-0.41541430354118347,
0.16846264898777008,
-0.25992316007614136,
-0.3078666627407074,
-0.11682042479515076,
-0.16670233011245728,
0.2752900719642639,
-0.41782915592193604,
-1.110453724861145,
0.5549894571304321,
-0.025683652609586716,
-0.43738481402397156,
-0.4279642701148987,
0.09464552253484726,
-0.5775375366210938,
0.3388643264770508,
-5.354116916656494,
0.5788933634757996,
-0.6915016770362854,
-0.14728987216949463,
0.3702881932258606,
0.03875039145350456,
0.6632934808731079,
0.052481476217508316,
-0.10759394615888596,
0.15467192232608795,
0.11808162927627563,
-0.2715918719768524,
-0.22004543244838715,
0.36807695031166077,
0.5893805623054504,
-0.2611382007598877,
0.06469343602657318,
0.40533822774887085,
-0.15321354568004608,
-0.13411694765090942,
0.06304430216550827,
0.6631612777709961,
0.011103710159659386,
0.9692712426185608,
0.6312878131866455,
0.44227707386016846,
-0.15852898359298706,
0.18273192644119263,
-0.17253892123699188,
-0.6719722151756287,
-0.029114987701177597,
-0.3277890980243683,
0.5496342778205872,
-0.12167686969041824,
-0.3987509310245514,
0.10534970462322235,
0.6280046701431274,
1.1106061935424805,
0.6227737069129944,
-0.08683767169713974,
-0.019395139068365097,
0.49007248878479004,
0.27648383378982544,
-0.11421022564172745,
0.5647002458572388,
-0.628316342830658,
-0.4363695979118347,
0.12498943507671356,
-0.576331377029419,
0.5780822038650513,
-0.26507341861724854,
-0.4550776183605194,
0.5418264865875244,
0.47061076760292053,
0.6848045587539673,
0.1602519452571869,
0.9046237468719482,
0.02646847814321518,
-0.4720231592655182,
0.5319264531135559,
0.634969174861908,
-0.25074368715286255,
-0.003930447623133659,
-0.5596792697906494,
-0.06915081292390823,
-0.403056800365448,
-0.8700405359268188,
0.0034815925173461437,
0.17657919228076935,
0.18672005832195282,
-1.1514973640441895,
0.6787376403808594,
-0.16918325424194336,
-0.39550885558128357,
0.24407459795475006,
-0.27903831005096436,
-0.4432350993156433,
-0.06109923869371414,
-0.004566035699099302,
0.34838613867759705,
-0.5153255462646484,
-0.20897363126277924,
-0.28528618812561035,
0.6422361731529236,
0.36125531792640686,
0.005075037479400635,
-0.3608943521976471,
0.3004375398159027,
-0.5492914319038391,
0.21320468187332153,
0.8221290707588196,
-0.29764875769615173,
-0.06954090297222137,
-0.234847292304039,
-0.24024598300457,
0.37838542461395264,
0.6920605897903442,
-0.8734185695648193,
0.7864839434623718,
0.017029112204909325,
0.7542383670806885,
-0.76821368932724,
0.007849005982279778,
-0.004864094313234091,
-0.0765967145562172,
-0.1496478021144867,
-0.5995267033576965,
0.437312513589859,
1.0398106575012207,
-0.07400769740343094,
0.3001079261302948,
0.549267053604126,
0.19795119762420654,
-0.4874558448791504,
0.2588968276977539,
0.2231583148241043,
-0.20122602581977844,
0.606419026851654,
0.1621139943599701,
0.13354581594467163,
0.12060386687517166,
0.19351249933242798,
-0.26620760560035706,
0.456485778093338,
-0.3812803626060486,
0.1255519688129425,
-0.10359751433134079,
0.4654586911201477,
-0.3412349820137024,
0.38091742992401123,
-0.19530627131462097,
-0.4890056550502777,
0.29012221097946167,
-0.5300719738006592,
0.3927369713783264,
0.49038708209991455,
0.016608862206339836,
-0.02713128738105297,
0.19671304523944855,
-0.8242164254188538,
0.08726681023836136,
-1.1538323163986206,
-0.1555144488811493,
0.18958522379398346,
0.04554097726941109,
0.020677529275417328,
0.08864890784025192,
-0.3980660140514374,
-0.5886008143424988,
0.30452752113342285,
-0.028183382004499435,
0.01739824377000332,
0.39286008477211,
-0.13794326782226562,
-0.4983888864517212,
-0.0885997861623764,
0.4210745096206665,
0.45154157280921936,
-0.16752666234970093,
-0.11293303221464157,
0.09007178992033005,
-0.8678851127624512,
-0.1474096029996872,
-0.039759084582328796,
0.3426903784275055,
-1.303073525428772,
-0.174546018242836,
-0.06925519555807114,
-0.32705017924308777,
1.1022801399230957,
0.11948925256729126,
0.3200511634349823,
-0.698296308517456,
-0.15596508979797363,
0.7824805974960327,
-0.057348109781742096,
0.24339717626571655,
0.5570654273033142,
-0.06438994407653809,
0.044328540563583374,
0.6061908006668091,
-0.053902991116046906,
-0.07996886223554611,
0.5996286273002625,
0.5160341858863831,
0.2586997151374817,
0.3053037226200104,
0.29305896162986755,
-0.49333152174949646,
-0.32919368147850037,
-0.41413989663124084,
-0.22171613574028015,
0.3140086531639099,
-0.47402098774909973,
-0.41681766510009766,
0.03856300935149193,
0.0167938731610775,
0.4404861032962799,
0.0903530865907669,
-0.6249617338180542,
0.6908150911331177,
0.25674518942832947,
-0.12739689648151398,
-0.012271405197679996,
0.5747608542442322,
-0.6664561629295349,
0.8592318296432495,
-0.5167611241340637,
-0.6684087514877319,
-0.16333766281604767,
-0.06462899595499039,
-1.3215471506118774,
-0.7794974446296692,
0.11149940639734268,
-0.2553681433200836,
-0.3519931435585022,
0.5913560390472412,
-0.4072626233100891,
-0.7312339544296265,
-0.44406992197036743,
0.35290130972862244,
0.12061053514480591,
0.14132390916347504,
0.504094123840332,
-0.18112532794475555,
0.4999389350414276,
-0.14211861789226532,
0.05200117081403732,
0.11378457397222519,
-0.20482710003852844,
0.6060563325881958,
-0.10960856080055237,
0.2602672874927521,
0.02657427452504635,
-0.06054840609431267,
-0.6187166571617126,
0.09387444704771042,
-0.04435446485877037,
-0.6308331489562988,
0.35422345995903015,
0.6375025510787964,
0.541154146194458,
0.424326092004776,
-0.403755247592926,
-0.22945502400398254,
-0.16797657310962677,
0.18235087394714355,
-0.4661286175251007,
-0.25127384066581726,
0.26246997714042664,
0.18398448824882507,
-0.44984957575798035,
-1.009665608406067,
-0.36774182319641113,
0.7870312929153442,
-0.04479718953371048,
0.04900043457746506,
0.06200574338436127,
0.2002236545085907,
0.16115820407867432,
0.10562171787023544,
0.15665888786315918,
-0.07895667850971222,
0.22739791870117188,
-0.3824358284473419,
0.1701813042163849,
-0.4995550215244293,
0.3571412265300751,
0.6174123883247375,
-0.49341651797294617,
-0.17803305387496948,
-0.4822853207588196,
0.24089260399341583,
0.21742680668830872,
-0.24054300785064697,
-0.12841443717479706,
0.03168211504817009,
-0.3989826738834381,
0.5201266407966614,
0.04031766206026077,
-0.8048281073570251,
-0.18294711410999298,
0.1290467232465744,
0.24906876683235168,
0.17565838992595673,
-0.05697068199515343,
0.19835393130779266,
0.029109716415405273,
-0.47327694296836853,
-0.07629723101854324,
-0.48863035440444946,
0.4923502504825592,
-0.2830401360988617,
0.5328364968299866,
0.02388722263276577,
-0.38551971316337585,
0.29763954877853394,
0.7368441224098206,
0.29021763801574707,
0.1541653722524643,
-0.5356007814407349,
0.5256423354148865,
-0.016526121646165848,
-0.28551408648490906,
0.0030630517285317183,
0.36170485615730286,
0.3068881332874298,
-0.4359667897224426,
0.13603100180625916,
0.0062073105946183205,
0.15146969258785248,
0.5229881405830383,
0.9469939470291138,
0.868014395236969,
0.48261576890945435,
0.013861019164323807,
0.2760379910469055,
-0.3602196276187897,
-0.006081265863031149,
-0.034202516078948975,
0.5373306274414062,
0.0689716637134552,
0.6038303375244141,
0.27410000562667847,
-0.21770603954792023,
0.6308963894844055,
-0.653354287147522,
-0.368101567029953,
0.0016950457356870174,
0.31652548909187317,
0.6611233949661255,
0.07219062745571136,
-0.3552382290363312,
-0.10126958787441254,
-0.5147323608398438,
-0.41131770610809326,
-0.11253207921981812,
-0.7819277048110962,
-0.05632811784744263,
0.6404390335083008,
0.024937961250543594,
0.4212515354156494,
-0.9172396063804626,
-0.2404695749282837,
-0.07685505598783493,
0.29975226521492004,
-0.22620052099227905,
0.029565615579485893,
0.5259672403335571,
0.3188152015209198,
0.4448704123497009,
-0.12111009657382965,
-0.09923186153173447,
-0.42224904894828796,
-0.20657730102539062,
-0.19295677542686462,
0.2897394299507141,
-0.23972034454345703,
-0.27098870277404785,
-0.6480392217636108,
0.0038439419586211443,
0.7967112064361572,
-0.6332632303237915,
0.08474834263324738,
0.304189532995224,
-0.22668859362602234,
0.03484432399272919,
-0.25927460193634033,
-0.20326751470565796,
-0.04425472766160965,
0.4656890630722046,
0.14451974630355835,
0.05615289509296417,
0.35713908076286316,
0.5390023589134216,
0.25885337591171265,
0.7972489595413208,
0.32531866431236267,
0.06031039357185364,
-0.814946711063385,
-0.33703407645225525,
0.37082746624946594,
0.06155597046017647,
-0.5044614672660828,
0.09833651036024094,
-0.4234432280063629,
0.24169164896011353,
0.19495753943920135,
0.34972652792930603,
0.34085845947265625,
-0.2929019331932068,
-0.5865641236305237,
0.4929940402507782,
-0.20271813869476318,
-0.65735924243927,
-0.6209798455238342,
-0.42809414863586426,
0.29987719655036926,
0.056144341826438904,
0.42058026790618896,
0.16044895350933075,
-0.16834399104118347,
0.38098302483558655,
0.34449902176856995,
-0.215476393699646,
0.09974613040685654,
-0.5759465098381042,
-0.030422791838645935,
-0.6118232011795044,
0.685340166091919,
0.45511341094970703,
-0.32265159487724304,
-0.2615720331668854,
0.6616119742393494,
0.2679767608642578,
0.3282857835292816,
0.11057190597057343,
-0.4441453516483307,
-0.027120361104607582,
-0.3569217324256897,
-0.10158319771289825,
-0.47623375058174133,
0.23644864559173584,
0.323475182056427,
-0.07501121610403061,
-0.4880070090293884,
0.1871645450592041,
0.6136286854743958,
-0.7093855738639832,
0.47844651341438293,
0.021139634773135185,
0.1775578409433365,
-0.06681524217128754,
0.11984723806381226,
0.21780750155448914,
0.21398386359214783,
0.2618730664253235,
0.4425659775733948,
-0.37201330065727234,
-0.7031082510948181,
-0.21197150647640228,
-0.05140386521816254,
-0.26546698808670044,
0.028051860630512238,
-1.0890182256698608,
0.43298056721687317,
-0.1100405752658844,
0.12450215220451355,
-0.9017144441604614,
0.23340563476085663,
0.2520845830440521,
-0.2784625291824341,
0.36593538522720337,
-0.011283446103334427,
0.25222042202949524,
-0.02563065104186535,
0.593695342540741,
-1.0211498737335205,
-0.18545523285865784,
0.6914758682250977
] |
260910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Sherman | Roger Sherman | Roger Sherman (April 19, 1721 – July 23, 1793) was an early American statesman, lawyer, and a Founding Father of the United States. He is the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution. He also signed the 1774 Petition to the King.
Born in Trenton, New Jersey, Sherman established a legal career in Litchfield County, Connecticut, despite a lack of formal education. After a period in the Connecticut House of Representatives, he served as a justice of the Superior Court of Connecticut from 1766 to 1789. He represented Connecticut at the Continental Congress, and he was a member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence.
Sherman served as a delegate to the 1787 Philadelphia Convention, which produced the United States Constitution. After Benjamin Franklin, he was the second oldest delegate present at the convention. He favored granting the federal government power to raise revenue and regulate commerce, but initially opposed efforts to supplant the Articles of Confederation with a new constitution. He ultimately came to support the establishment of a new constitution and proposed the Connecticut Compromise, which won the approval of both the larger states and the smaller states.
After the ratification of the Constitution, Sherman represented Connecticut in the United States House of Representatives from 1789 to 1791. He served in the United States Senate from 1791 to his death in 1793.
Early life and family
Sherman was born into a family of farmers in Newton, Massachusetts, near Philadelphia. His father was William and mother Mehetabel Sherman. The Shermans left Trenton and settled in what became the town of Princeton, northeast of his home in Trenton, when Roger was two. Sherman's education did not extend beyond his father's library and grammar school, and his early career was spent as a shoemaker. However, he had an aptitude for learning, access to a good library owned by his father, and a Harvard-educated parish minister, Rev. Samuel Dunbar, who took him under his wing.
In 1743, his father's death made Sherman move with his mother and siblings to New Milford, Connecticut, where in partnership with his brother William, he opened the town's first store. He very quickly introduced himself in civil and religious affairs, rapidly becoming one of the town's leading citizens and eventually town clerk of New Milford. He became county surveyor of New Haven County in 1745 and began providing astronomical calculations for almanacs in 1759.
Sherman was married two times and had a total of fifteen children with thirteen reaching adulthood. Sherman married Elizabeth Hartwell (born August 31, 1726 in Stoughton, Massachusetts) on November 17, 1749. Elizabeth died on October 19, 1760. Sherman married Rebecca (also spelled Rebekah) Prescott (born on May 20, 1742, in Danvers, Massachusetts) on May 12, 1763 and had eight children: Rebecca, Elizabeth, Roger, Mehetabel (1st), Mehetabel (2nd), Oliver, Martha and Sarah.
Career
Sherman is especially notable in United States history for being the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States, the Articles of Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the United States Constitution. Robert Morris, who did not sign the Articles of Association, signed the other three. John Dickinson also signed three, the Continental Association, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. He was involved with the Declaration of Independence but abstained, hoping for a reconciliation with Britain.
Despite the fact that Sherman had no formal legal training, he was urged to read for the bar exam by a local lawyer and was admitted to the bar of Litchfield, Connecticut in 1754, during which he wrote "A Caveat Against Injustice" and was chosen to represent New Milford in the Connecticut House of Representatives from 1755 to 1758 and from 1760 to 1761. Sherman was appointed justice of the peace in 1762 and judge of the court of common pleas in 1765. During 1766, Sherman was first elected to the Governor's Council of the Connecticut General Assembly, where he served until 1785. Sherman served as Justice of the Superior Court of Connecticut from 1766 to 1789, when he left to become a member of the United States Congress.
Sherman was also appointed treasurer of Yale College, and awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree. He was a professor of religion for many years, and engaged in lengthy correspondences with some of the theologians of the time. During February 1776, Sherman, George Wythe, and John Adams were members of a committee responsible for establishing guidelines for U.S. Embassy officials in Canada with the committee instructions that included, "You are to declare that we hold sacred the rights of conscience, and may promise to the whole people, solemnly in our name, the free and undisturbed exercise of their religion. And ... that all civil rights and the rights to hold office were to be extended to persons of any Christian denomination."
In 1784 he was elected mayor of New Haven, which office he held until his death. In 1790 both Sherman and Richard Law were appointed to revise the confused and archaic Connecticut statutes, which they accomplished. Throughout his life, Sherman was a major benefactor of Yale College, acting as the university's treasurer for many years and promoting construction of a college chapel.
Constitutional Convention
Roger Sherman was one of the most influential members of the Constitutional Convention. He is not well known for his actions at the Convention because he was a "terse, ineloquent speaker" who never kept a personal record of his experience, unlike other prominent figures at the Convention such as James Madison. At 66 years of age, Sherman was the second eldest member at the convention following Benjamin Franklin (who was 81 years old at the time). Yet as one of the most active members of the Convention, Sherman made motions or seconds in reference to the Virginia Plan 160 times. His opponent Madison made motions or seconds 177 times.
Sherman came into the Convention without the intention of creating a new constitution. Sherman, an original signer of the Articles of Confederation, saw the convention as a means to modify the already existing government. Part of his stance was concerned with the public appeal. He defended amending the articles declaring that it was in the best interest of the people and the most probable way the people would accept changes to a constitution. Sherman saw no reason for a bicameral legislature, as proposed by the Virginia Plan. "The problem with the old government was not that it had acted foolishly or threatened anybody's liberties, but that it had simply been unable to enforce its decrees". Sherman further advanced the idea that the national government simply needed a way to raise revenue and regulate commerce. He defended the unicameral legislature of the Articles of Confederation by stating that the large states had not "suffered at the hands of small states on account of the rule of equal voting". Ultimately, when Sherman saw his initial goals of the convention as unattainable he organized compromises and deals in order to enact some of his desirable legislation.
Sherman was from a particularly isolationist state – Connecticut operated almost without much need from other states, using its own ports to trade with the West Indies instead of utilizing ports in Boston – and feared that "...the mass of people lacked sufficient wisdom to govern themselves and thus wished no branch of the federal government to be elected directly by the people".
Sherman, Elbridge Gerry and others were of the shared opinion that the elected composition of the national government should be reserved for the vote of state officials and not for election by the will of the people. Sherman was wary of allowing ordinary citizen participation in national government and stated that the people "should have as little to do as may be about the Government. They want information and are constantly liable to be misled".
The two proposed options for the formation of the legislative branch emerged in the deliberations. One was to form a bicameral legislature in which both chambers had representation proportional to the population of the states, which was supported by the Virginia Plan. The second was to modify the unicameral legislature that had equal representation from all of the states, which was supported by the New Jersey Plan. Sherman was a devout supporter of a unicameral legislature, but when he saw that goal as unattainable he motioned to compromise. In terms of modes of election "Sherman moved to allow each state legislature to elect its own senators". Additionally, in the house Sherman originally proposed that the suffrage of the House of Representatives should be figured according to the "numbers of free inhabitants" in each state.
This plan, which became the Connecticut Compromise, was designed to be acceptable to both large and small states: the people would be represented proportionally in one branch of the legislature, called the House of Representatives (the lower legislative house). The states would be represented in another house called the Senate (the upper house). In the lower house, each state had a representative for every one delegate. In the upper house, each state was guaranteed two senators, regardless of its size.
Sherman is known for his stance against paper money with his authoring of Article I, Section 10 of the United States Constitution and his later opposition to James Madison over the "Bill of Rights" amendments to the U.S. Constitution in his belief that these amendments would diminish the role and power of the states over the people.
Mr. Wilson & Mr. Sherman moved to insert after the words "coin money" the words "nor emit bills of credit, nor make any thing but gold & silver coin a tender in payment of debts" making these prohibitions absolute, instead of making the measures allowable (as in the XIII art) with the consent of the Legislature of the U.S. ... Mr. Sherman thought this a favorable crisis for crushing paper money. If the consent of the Legislature could authorize emissions of it, the friends of paper money would make every exertion to get into the Legislature in order to license it."
Sherman had very little interest in giving the executive branch much authority. Sherman suggested that no constitutional provision needed be made for the executive because it was "nothing more than an institution for carrying the will of the Legislature into effect".
Originally opposed to slavery because of his personal beliefs and Puritan views, Sherman used the issue of slavery as a tool for negotiation and alliance. Sherman was of the opinion that slavery was already gradually being abolished and the trend was moving southward. Sherman saw that the issue of slavery could be one that threatened the success of the constitutional convention. Therefore, Sherman decided to help pass legislation to benefit slave states in order to obtain unlikely allies from South Carolina. The two forces joined together because they both, due to the economies of their home states, benefitted from there being no export tax.
Sherman opposed appointment of fellow signer Gouverneur Morris as minister to France because he considered that high-living Patriot to be of an "irreligious nature".
Death and burial site
Sherman died in his sleep on July 23, 1793, after a two-month illness diagnosed as typhoid fever. The Gazette of the United States (Philadelphia), August 17, 1793, p. 508, reported an alternate diagnosis, "He was taken ill about the middle of May last, and from that time declined till his death. His physician supposed his disorder to be seated in his liver." He was buried in New Haven Green. In 1821, when that cemetery was relocated, his remains were moved to the Grove Street Cemetery.
The town of Sherman, Connecticut was named for Roger Sherman. Sherman, as a member of the Committee of Five, is portrayed on the pediment of the Jefferson Memorial.
See also
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1790–1899)
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Further reading
Dictionary of American Biography
Boardman, Roger Sherman, Roger Sherman, Signer and Statesman, 1938. Reprint. New York: Da Capo Press, 1971.
Boutell, Lewis Henry, The Life of Roger Sherman, Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1896.
Hall, Mark David, Roger Sherman and the Creation of the American Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013)
Gerber, Scott D., "Roger Sherman and the Bill of Rights." Polity 28 (Summer 1996): 521–540.
Hoar, George Frisbie, The Connecticut Compromise. Roger Sherman, the Author of the Plan of Equal Representation of the States in the Senate, and Representation of the People in Proportion to Numbers in the House, Worcester, MA: Press of C. Hamilton, 1903.
External links
From Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence, 1856
Baldwin-Greene-Gager family of Connecticut at Political Graveyard
Sherman-Hoar family at Political Graveyard
Roger Sherman Papers Yale University
Roger Sherman, Revolutionary and Dedicated Public Servant Connecticut History
History of Sherman's boyhood home of Stoughton, Massachusetts
1721 births
1793 deaths
People from Canton, Massachusetts
People of colonial Massachusetts
People of colonial Connecticut
Sherman family (U.S.)
American people of English descent
American Congregationalists
Continental Congressmen from Connecticut
Signers of the Articles of Confederation
Signers of the Continental Association
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Signers of the United States Constitution
Pro-Administration Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Connecticut
Pro-Administration Party United States senators from Connecticut
Members of the Connecticut General Assembly Council of Assistants (1662–1818)
Members of the Connecticut House of Representatives
Mayors of New Haven, Connecticut
Connecticut state court judges
Shoemakers
People from New Milford, Connecticut
Lawyers from New Haven, Connecticut
People of Connecticut in the American Revolution
Deaths from typhoid fever
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Connecticut | [
-0.014197115786373615,
0.08024857938289642,
-0.47438180446624756,
0.32562634348869324,
0.4836778938770294,
0.5645138025283813,
0.6537871956825256,
0.3772367835044861,
-0.21814389526844025,
-0.3446400761604309,
-0.19633649289608002,
0.16768209636211395,
-0.264493465423584,
0.9211524724960327,
-0.9924557209014893,
0.2716005742549896,
-0.056270159780979156,
-0.13410936295986176,
-0.1496206372976303,
0.18120810389518738,
-0.5887922644615173,
0.6349384188652039,
0.3871817886829376,
-0.13061366975307465,
0.3238026797771454,
0.0804879441857338,
0.5091298222541809,
-0.8659332990646362,
-0.1997205764055252,
0.16656535863876343,
-0.006451889872550964,
-0.24590155482292175,
0.16486883163452148,
-0.03093005158007145,
-0.8758004903793335,
-0.02549002878367901,
-0.3812859356403351,
-0.0135732376947999,
-0.3541688323020935,
-0.030988842248916626,
-0.148875430226326,
-0.2756620943546295,
0.5365180373191833,
0.00548942107707262,
-0.3862444758415222,
-0.06484916061162949,
-1.5426214933395386,
0.5303348302841187,
-0.23435643315315247,
-0.37767431139945984,
-0.0861949771642685,
0.20477773249149323,
-0.45877036452293396,
0.7550582885742188,
-0.414223849773407,
0.3668026328086853,
-0.04319234564900398,
-0.28589096665382385,
-0.16572262346744537,
-0.25931859016418457,
0.3968532979488373,
0.47356346249580383,
0.8021205067634583,
0.11620639264583588,
0.1918933391571045,
-0.16087442636489868,
0.00043796459794975817,
0.3988206088542938,
-0.19844377040863037,
0.020576639100909233,
-0.3043166697025299,
0.009353755973279476,
0.1715494841337204,
0.3585955500602722,
0.2362569272518158,
-0.5557337403297424,
0.36646541953086853,
0.4906030595302582,
0.17099015414714813,
0.12746016681194305,
-0.16171219944953918,
-0.20728346705436707,
0.735544741153717,
0.4522097706794739,
-0.40152281522750854,
0.3815041780471802,
0.12543918192386627,
0.035379186272621155,
-0.4256926476955414,
0.01438149530440569,
-0.46021130681037903,
0.8449773192405701,
0.47849175333976746,
-0.05020293965935707,
-0.16224665939807892,
-0.438836008310318,
-0.36018607020378113,
-0.017295517027378082,
-0.14472922682762146,
-0.682057797908783,
-0.43628600239753723,
-0.3180217742919922,
0.7546775937080383,
0.10994470864534378,
-0.24449118971824646,
0.17958831787109375,
0.38621270656585693,
-0.21685251593589783,
0.1020350456237793,
0.168407142162323,
0.4450666010379791,
0.23683805763721466,
0.44255658984184265,
0.16970279812812805,
-0.6440383791923523,
0.8283975720405579,
0.46914076805114746,
-0.9837963581085205,
-0.2024734765291214,
-0.5773314833641052,
-0.23869015276432037,
0.48486486077308655,
-0.214851513504982,
-0.4241634011268616,
-0.058932121843099594,
-0.009764070622622967,
0.31656399369239807,
0.1302769035100937,
-0.17371904850006104,
-0.32950884103775024,
0.1353471875190735,
0.6974744200706482,
-0.49393343925476074,
-0.2185867726802826,
-0.5513051152229309,
-0.07743832468986511,
0.0423315204679966,
0.09944283962249756,
-0.23171602189540863,
0.04829481616616249,
-0.2765895128250122,
-0.3134661018848419,
-0.18766538798809052,
-0.13226686418056488,
0.4387323260307312,
-0.16008812189102173,
0.46571964025497437,
0.5419191122055054,
-0.9462798833847046,
0.46679800748825073,
-0.2602780759334564,
0.12480004131793976,
0.22327758371829987,
-0.23275615274906158,
0.39154642820358276,
0.0013135159388184547,
0.5760864615440369,
0.05548672750592232,
0.12218698859214783,
0.668602466583252,
0.2058279812335968,
-0.048521608114242554,
0.1905914694070816,
-0.38664087653160095,
0.2671644687652588,
-0.09483017772436142,
0.4631856381893158,
-0.12069356441497803,
-0.5690386891365051,
0.20543818175792694,
-0.0692572072148323,
-0.13074788451194763,
0.35841143131256104,
-0.02911471202969551,
-0.1340683400630951,
0.38816744089126587,
0.5458481311798096,
0.009294381365180016,
0.7134150266647339,
-0.34951671957969666,
-0.6577112078666687,
-0.16988612711429596,
0.40578025579452515,
0.03226563706994057,
0.023757539689540863,
0.040324024856090546,
0.24060238897800446,
-0.23558107018470764,
0.03281788155436516,
-0.20483341813087463,
-0.11701444536447525,
-0.4689306616783142,
-0.6271788477897644,
-0.52348792552948,
0.8196544647216797,
0.3160378038883209,
-0.947284460067749,
0.6417040228843689,
0.10488652437925339,
0.9143131971359253,
-0.07085371017456055,
-0.5006269812583923,
-0.20827041566371918,
0.017659859731793404,
0.12953941524028778,
0.45438283681869507,
0.4175190329551697,
0.29940757155418396,
0.3914670944213867,
0.1500830203294754,
0.322735995054245,
-0.3981485068798065,
-0.12296655774116516,
-0.10932500660419464,
-0.042574264109134674,
-0.33794042468070984,
0.17081516981124878,
-0.26082301139831543,
0.5062901377677917,
-0.1321088671684265,
0.6278653740882874,
0.10288211703300476,
0.0985679179430008,
0.6583836078643799,
0.8293749690055847,
0.4968680441379547,
-0.6387625932693481,
-0.004639198537915945,
-0.15627600252628326,
-0.19930751621723175,
-0.4830377995967865,
-0.4794784188270569,
-0.00163075712043792,
-0.29406872391700745,
0.35536855459213257,
-0.6203657388687134,
-0.25656381249427795,
0.10130233317613602,
0.5244337916374207,
0.03579884022474289,
0.16607022285461426,
0.02405054308474064,
-0.4880256652832031,
0.1386234164237976,
-0.2439962476491928,
-0.26233747601509094,
-0.38348501920700073,
-0.7596035003662109,
0.337984561920166,
-0.5218346118927002,
-0.011399134062230587,
0.29551592469215393,
0.34162259101867676,
0.338250994682312,
0.27921444177627563,
-0.35308200120925903,
0.04407665133476257,
0.01974654756486416,
-0.12557202577590942,
0.1625392735004425,
-0.14061132073402405,
0.05566282570362091,
-0.17923569679260254,
0.2681865096092224,
0.4568273425102234,
-0.4364427626132965,
-0.40384966135025024,
0.09445585310459137,
-0.10418202728033066,
0.38733744621276855,
0.831368625164032,
-0.359197199344635,
0.27753251791000366,
0.10674553364515305,
0.9215827584266663,
-0.5838946104049683,
0.13842815160751343,
0.38069504499435425,
-0.4130043089389801,
-0.5260866284370422,
0.3726944327354431,
0.4202777147293091,
-0.5827699899673462,
-0.6424506306648254,
-0.15211373567581177,
-0.8420630097389221,
-0.14172840118408203,
-0.26098906993865967,
0.0460505336523056,
0.4475615620613098,
0.22211693227291107,
0.3325939476490021,
-0.28787147998809814,
-0.0019669062457978725,
0.24452652037143707,
1.169161081314087,
0.10598867386579514,
-0.23727241158485413,
-0.24008020758628845,
-0.02129380777478218,
-0.8474097847938538,
-0.02437984198331833,
0.05501508712768555,
-0.15166503190994263,
1.0558464527130127,
-0.25032344460487366,
0.45198744535446167,
0.14316478371620178,
-5.733428001403809,
-0.12493911385536194,
-0.2022589147090912,
-0.09359665215015411,
0.5674835443496704,
0.07586551457643509,
0.7061814665794373,
0.20641331374645233,
0.40121570229530334,
-0.08678041398525238,
0.5724000334739685,
-0.3053157329559326,
-0.5791928172111511,
0.3082660138607025,
0.13433220982551575,
0.38366463780403137,
1.004422903060913,
0.37644997239112854,
-0.029714105650782585,
0.7360556125640869,
0.33503854274749756,
-0.49732473492622375,
-0.4022216200828552,
0.13997584581375122,
0.34156373143196106,
-0.0024086814373731613,
-0.2525321841239929,
0.20431773364543915,
-0.29320186376571655,
0.12274370342493057,
-0.1265200972557068,
0.05453134700655937,
0.14094112813472748,
-0.577995240688324,
-0.11592347174882889,
-0.4974318742752075,
0.01822054386138916,
0.31511884927749634,
-0.06272387504577637,
-0.07154956459999084,
-0.011619079858064651,
-0.06791769713163376,
-0.4610460698604584,
-0.08086951822042465,
0.07254493236541748,
-0.3983689248561859,
-0.09912364929914474,
0.3601073920726776,
-0.07329832762479782,
0.09522421658039093,
-0.012350503355264664,
0.6633666753768921,
0.3672221302986145,
-0.3790488541126251,
0.0896778330206871,
0.19168198108673096,
0.4369659125804901,
0.20465175807476044,
-0.9640804529190063,
-0.13859523832798004,
0.6785740852355957,
-0.16193103790283203,
0.1733027845621109,
-0.006077580153942108,
0.38724133372306824,
-1.1908124685287476,
-0.21788375079631805,
-0.36813995242118835,
-0.28402671217918396,
0.100843645632267,
0.10726767033338547,
0.760154664516449,
0.03868749365210533,
-0.9886204600334167,
-0.020309090614318848,
-0.6324660181999207,
-0.2932662069797516,
-0.2070821225643158,
0.04220026358962059,
-0.2115529477596283,
-0.20236597955226898,
-0.11151010543107986,
0.06336136162281036,
1.1996769905090332,
0.3472222685813904,
0.7240527868270874,
-0.2268713265657425,
0.4549907147884369,
-0.8470615744590759,
-0.4008689224720001,
-0.0375654511153698,
0.06355708092451096,
-0.05704020336270332,
-0.15273192524909973,
0.2421409785747528,
-0.2158338874578476,
-0.6895010471343994,
0.4629698693752289,
0.40416815876960754,
0.26976677775382996,
-0.7058714628219604,
0.49324607849121094,
-0.5011921525001526,
-0.5203337073326111,
0.06844766438007355,
0.011207588016986847,
-0.10666833072900772,
0.3396713137626648,
0.7601739764213562,
0.5284649133682251,
-0.18040622770786285,
0.2651735544204712,
-0.2972898781299591,
-0.23235735297203064,
0.09072273969650269,
-0.33261197805404663,
0.28757473826408386,
0.17664732038974762,
0.9142593145370483,
0.005158809944987297,
0.13293255865573883,
0.7805993556976318,
-0.31557759642601013,
0.08331895619630814,
0.8686906099319458,
-0.4360927939414978,
-0.08037088066339493,
-0.1605047732591629,
-0.15591798722743988,
-0.1829831451177597,
0.2972026467323303,
0.13800080120563507,
0.04453058913350105,
0.24784711003303528,
0.09906711429357529,
-0.07330797612667084,
0.16025426983833313,
-0.5031071901321411,
-0.4877353012561798,
-0.20755372941493988,
-0.20208211243152618,
-0.3300568759441376,
0.2249196171760559,
-0.19622614979743958,
0.35772067308425903,
-0.10421764105558395,
0.276075154542923,
0.32288846373558044,
-0.22391022741794586,
0.6537895798683167,
-0.20400410890579224,
-0.3882118761539459,
0.027320407330989838,
0.08659477531909943,
-0.308843195438385,
-0.27219337224960327,
0.29024630784988403,
-0.16227848827838898,
-0.27495208382606506,
-0.11823277175426483,
0.1735425591468811,
0.1923355609178543,
-0.8185204267501831,
-0.7983866930007935,
0.2486853003501892,
0.3569256067276001,
-0.5349173545837402,
-0.050321269780397415,
-0.4382985830307007,
0.3343382477760315,
0.8209846615791321,
-0.3267359733581543,
-0.4313129782676697,
-0.08132367581129074,
0.11416632682085037,
0.16704340279102325,
-0.12663772702217102,
0.23395656049251556,
0.122276172041893,
0.2776406705379486,
0.651405930519104,
-0.04911436885595322,
-0.40771177411079407,
-0.2253093421459198,
-0.09344501048326492,
-0.5187579989433289,
-0.1114603728055954,
-0.2594445049762726,
-0.17143525183200836,
0.0269188079982996,
-0.5953686237335205,
-0.3591838479042053,
0.6099780201911926,
0.567107617855072,
-0.5210005640983582,
0.052607275545597076,
0.16888804733753204,
0.1479392647743225,
-0.21168182790279388,
-0.30930614471435547,
-0.10234211385250092,
0.08558809757232666,
-0.6467955708503723,
-0.48258012533187866,
-0.35150575637817383,
-0.7382804155349731,
-0.2899681627750397,
0.1220361664891243,
0.13436289131641388,
0.5495221614837646,
-0.16831715404987335,
-0.2404317855834961,
-0.05161771923303604,
-0.037135303020477295,
0.19415418803691864,
-0.07609426230192184,
0.2481604814529419,
-0.02264639176428318,
-0.23271024227142334,
-0.4782480001449585,
0.009561306796967983,
-0.166741743683815,
0.07786872982978821,
-0.2586436867713928,
-0.33783572912216187,
0.468311607837677,
-0.14172004163265228,
0.44875001907348633,
0.5799933671951294,
-0.6193435192108154,
-0.26234012842178345,
-0.4714028537273407,
-0.5413557291030884,
0.6257373094558716,
-0.05628619343042374,
-0.049844659864902496,
0.0906825065612793,
0.2374774068593979,
-0.24580322206020355,
0.0009558869642205536,
0.3241935074329376,
1.1073356866836548,
0.3144361972808838,
-0.10451311618089676,
-0.32616013288497925,
-0.1330130696296692,
0.4136602580547333,
0.3789021968841553,
-0.11169091612100601,
0.34368816018104553,
0.17769114673137665,
-0.39006805419921875,
-0.6007277965545654,
0.10407405346632004,
0.6262452006340027,
-0.33191365003585815,
0.07379145175218582,
0.14710602164268494,
-0.3345419764518738,
-0.4015711843967438,
0.03150268271565437,
0.4359320104122162,
-0.692261815071106,
-0.23591002821922302,
-0.19192318618297577,
-0.5389010906219482,
-0.45361560583114624,
0.2861320674419403,
-0.13770563900470734,
-0.5152050852775574,
-0.16759352385997772,
-0.41941019892692566,
-1.0329430103302002,
0.4862985908985138,
-0.050270918756723404,
-0.07731524854898453,
0.3529752492904663,
0.022030185908079147,
0.8776916861534119,
-0.20326359570026398,
-0.8973926901817322,
-0.016232993453741074,
-0.39164960384368896,
-0.14478346705436707,
-0.2947462499141693,
-0.7025941610336304,
-0.32703596353530884,
-0.2398006170988083,
-0.0882120355963707,
-0.009146399796009064,
-0.9820775389671326,
0.43023157119750977,
-0.6151306629180908,
-0.08592136204242706,
-0.6803149580955505,
0.07761191576719284,
0.08525203913450241,
0.7256352305412292,
-0.015408149920403957,
0.3329191207885742,
-0.434902161359787,
0.6715497374534607,
0.4328542947769165,
-0.08909864723682404,
-0.11265356093645096,
-0.15545330941677094,
0.0780063346028328,
0.19068266451358795,
0.1094193309545517,
0.07195083051919937,
0.2428564578294754,
-0.33509311079978943,
0.1552836149930954,
-0.026707766577601433,
-0.4050963222980499,
-0.047229427844285965,
1.1247957944869995,
-0.13923315703868866,
-0.27311408519744873,
0.0473954863846302,
-0.2162407636642456,
-0.34456679224967957,
-0.11849282681941986,
-0.3133600950241089,
0.4304838180541992,
0.48713356256484985,
-0.30033421516418457,
-0.26915159821510315,
-0.3002282977104187,
0.5717304348945618,
0.0036755951587110758,
0.011330228298902512,
-0.5803926587104797,
0.06648818403482437,
0.33448711037635803,
-0.058454424142837524,
-0.3619835376739502,
-0.40954792499542236,
-0.18316592276096344,
0.33115124702453613,
0.4202098846435547,
0.2855614721775055,
-0.11768092960119247,
0.16187986731529236,
-0.07481823116540909,
0.18220512568950653,
0.015714634209871292,
0.09386871755123138,
-0.17046090960502625,
0.05352017655968666,
0.6205551624298096,
-0.21981759369373322,
0.6205254197120667,
-0.42328327894210815,
0.630104660987854,
-0.23844130337238312,
0.45630592107772827,
0.4499322175979614,
-0.37184494733810425,
-0.2183571755886078,
0.20625485479831696,
-0.24165284633636475,
1.1989891529083252,
-0.5845812559127808,
-0.02540583722293377,
0.48614615201950073,
-0.038479868322610855,
-0.409204363822937,
-0.03317730128765106,
0.18460379540920258,
-0.007310010027140379,
0.14111697673797607,
-0.25389426946640015,
0.5883929133415222,
0.13815702497959137,
0.7489251494407654,
0.8081867098808289,
0.08840461075305939,
0.3426153063774109,
-0.1631360948085785,
-0.5641807317733765,
-0.5596606731414795,
-0.5420805215835571,
-0.1403927057981491,
-0.40225309133529663,
0.4380507171154022,
0.23493844270706177,
0.03034215234220028,
-0.6412373781204224,
-0.2950889766216278,
-0.01402926817536354,
-0.6929876804351807,
-0.12794376909732819,
0.5113518834114075,
-0.46047359704971313,
0.11726204305887222,
-0.07062774896621704,
0.5972456932067871,
0.12552280724048615,
0.20798131823539734,
-0.07032044976949692,
-0.15533366799354553,
0.07056401669979095,
0.04294351860880852,
-0.07045150548219681,
0.3037497103214264,
-0.2152697741985321,
-0.0372285358607769,
-0.6932216882705688,
0.676263153553009,
-0.013483996503055096,
-0.4731346070766449,
-0.31411656737327576,
0.35694795846939087,
-0.7049160003662109,
-0.28001609444618225,
0.6204787492752075,
0.08050093799829483,
-0.059261828660964966,
-0.6627832651138306,
0.12844882905483246,
0.3735557794570923,
-0.5446199178695679,
-0.11661562323570251,
-0.7660397291183472,
-0.2605350911617279,
0.5551835298538208,
0.3422965407371521,
-0.3318372368812561,
0.6411024928092957,
-0.08386027812957764,
-0.4940831661224365,
-0.1833692342042923,
-0.19501331448554993,
0.20064358413219452,
-0.7345982789993286,
0.26972007751464844,
0.9745700359344482,
-0.004059196915477514,
-0.7237718105316162,
0.045360397547483444,
0.1862686425447464,
0.18683674931526184,
-0.30187180638313293,
0.40551283955574036,
-0.6029360294342041,
0.08289147168397903,
-0.023538168519735336,
-0.038226477801799774,
0.9312407970428467,
-0.004179864656180143,
0.27665385603904724,
0.1394212543964386,
-0.4638743996620178,
0.6930616497993469,
0.04196540266275406,
0.19111967086791992,
-0.547953724861145,
0.6031346321105957,
0.43382081389427185
] |
260912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Fox | HMS Fox | Sixteen ships and two shore establishments of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Fox, after the fox.
Ships
was a 22-gun ship captured from the French in 1650 and expended as a fireship in 1656.
was a 14-gun ship captured in 1658 and expended as a fireship in 1666.
was an 8-gun fireship launched in 1690 and expended in 1692 at La Hougue.
was a 6-gun sloop launched in 1699 and wrecked later that year.
was a 24-gun sixth rate captured in 1705 and wrecked the following year.
HMS Fox was a 24-gun sixth rate launched in 1702 as . She was captured by the French in 1707, was recaptured later that year and renamed HMS Fox, rebuilt in 1727 and broken up in 1737.
was a 20-gun sixth rate launched in 1740 and foundered in 1745.
was a 24-gun sixth rate launched in 1746 and foundered in a hurricane in 1751.
was an 8-gun ketch launched in 1766, and still in the records in 1772.
was a 28-gun sixth rate launched in 1773, captured by the Americans in 1777, recaptured a month later, then captured by the French in 1778. She ran aground in March 1779 on Pointe St Jacques on Rhuys Peninsula and could not be refloated.
was a 32-gun fifth rate launched in 1780 and broken up in 1816.
HM hired armed cutter , of twelve 9-pounder guns, was hired on 27 March 1793 and sunk in action at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1797).
was a 14-gun schooner purchased in 1799 and wrecked later that year off Dog Island, Apalachee Bay, Florida. There were no lives lost despite the fact that the crew had to wait for 33 days with little food and water before they were rescued.
was a 46-gun fifth rate launched in 1829, converted to a screw frigate in 1856, and broken up in 1882.
was an second class cruiser launched in 1893 and sold in 1920.
was a survey vessel launched in 1967 and sold in 1989.
Shore establishments
was the Navy's base at Lerwick, Shetland between 1939 and 1945.
HMS Fox II was the Coastal Forces Base at Lerwick between 1942 and 1944.
Battle honours
Ships named Fox have earned the following battle honours:
Gabbard, 1653
Orfordness, 1666
Barfleur, 1692
Genoa, 1795
St Vincent, 1797
Egypt, 1801
Burma, 1852-3
See also
, Arctic exploration vessel.
Citations and references
Citations
References
Royal Navy ship names | [
-0.16840830445289612,
-0.050852011889219284,
-0.6411667466163635,
-0.4676886796951294,
-0.03499511256814003,
0.48494935035705566,
1.0310580730438232,
0.37347152829170227,
-0.6175886392593384,
0.14164936542510986,
-0.3253830671310425,
0.19270305335521698,
0.048410575836896896,
0.4987409710884094,
0.22299516201019287,
0.42164289951324463,
-0.1804865449666977,
0.7239348888397217,
-0.05496816709637642,
-0.6001516580581665,
-0.4959917366504669,
-0.18370766937732697,
0.16289037466049194,
-0.17916832864284515,
0.053891345858573914,
0.19595392048358917,
0.3835500180721283,
0.1062222272157669,
0.09528108686208725,
0.46806755661964417,
0.27119192481040955,
0.3552189767360687,
-0.23173312842845917,
0.17896877229213715,
0.25809961557388306,
-0.21697621047496796,
-0.2575238347053528,
-0.11263209581375122,
-0.7163640856742859,
-0.9180698394775391,
-0.11638543009757996,
-0.06437410414218903,
0.13194486498832703,
0.35483595728874207,
-0.593718409538269,
0.08420941978693008,
-1.1818631887435913,
0.336331307888031,
0.28322210907936096,
0.29881012439727783,
-0.23717281222343445,
0.2044859528541565,
0.4476702809333801,
0.04355625808238983,
-0.05960685387253761,
1.1437946557998657,
-0.5191321969032288,
-0.03339013829827309,
0.07194045186042786,
-0.012886282987892628,
0.2732395827770233,
0.01888456381857395,
0.5899202823638916,
0.5634641051292419,
0.05359184741973877,
0.20307067036628723,
0.4816817343235016,
0.562834620475769,
0.020692836493253708,
-0.29111775755882263,
-0.27313777804374695,
0.06479357928037643,
-0.3020052909851074,
0.894002377986908,
-1.1094943284988403,
0.12787611782550812,
0.1973419487476349,
-0.1971036195755005,
0.6361656785011292,
0.3579311966896057,
0.8777019381523132,
-0.20838914811611176,
0.38709700107574463,
0.30181074142456055,
-0.55511474609375,
0.4854850769042969,
-0.34696412086486816,
-0.15111170709133148,
-0.3720574975013733,
0.5987579226493835,
-0.3085023760795593,
-0.598233699798584,
0.5131993293762207,
0.557066798210144,
-0.15819451212882996,
0.17424529790878296,
-0.35263389348983765,
-0.10339528322219849,
0.5179998278617859,
0.2795465588569641,
-0.39732372760772705,
0.43929600715637207,
0.7424268126487732,
0.15589386224746704,
-1.0030090808868408,
-0.09099547564983368,
-0.5087159276008606,
-0.9102621674537659,
-0.5890380144119263,
-0.07648499310016632,
-0.11893492937088013,
-0.30779895186424255,
0.010505148209631443,
0.16967448592185974,
-0.4621501564979553,
0.23223741352558136,
0.39691346883773804,
-0.39282315969467163,
-0.08882230520248413,
-0.28452903032302856,
-0.028744328767061234,
0.42497923970222473,
-0.22644850611686707,
-0.4072926640510559,
0.004084352869540453,
0.24439206719398499,
0.6150910258293152,
0.042167410254478455,
-0.5051361918449402,
-0.09077104181051254,
0.019382180646061897,
1.1469577550888062,
-0.8512069582939148,
-0.007568167056888342,
-0.4583977162837982,
-0.1947394609451294,
-0.10532089322805405,
0.452793687582016,
-0.2744862735271454,
0.4049745202064514,
-1.228186845779419,
-0.4718739092350006,
-0.30536720156669617,
-0.18184491991996765,
1.005215048789978,
-0.09770743548870087,
-0.32353416085243225,
-0.08525710552930832,
-0.09156876057386398,
0.03096984513103962,
-0.15071776509284973,
-0.30865347385406494,
0.16177129745483398,
-0.11797013878822327,
-0.7608612775802612,
-0.25814154744148254,
0.07960943132638931,
-0.16716788709163666,
0.5168699622154236,
0.1730203926563263,
0.4482334554195404,
-0.30597424507141113,
0.06282485276460648,
0.23120640218257904,
0.2056666910648346,
-0.010291620157659054,
0.5619813203811646,
0.02034706249833107,
-0.8534401059150696,
0.16476178169250488,
-0.03276892751455307,
0.24760249257087708,
0.9059500098228455,
-0.07589555531740189,
-0.3487951457500458,
0.41974490880966187,
-0.09893258661031723,
0.002760730916634202,
0.6487905383110046,
-0.820010244846344,
-0.6349327564239502,
0.5475302338600159,
0.7312438488006592,
-0.1323273777961731,
-0.5163761973381042,
0.14070063829421997,
-0.38445019721984863,
-0.21347899734973907,
-0.4041691720485687,
0.27157899737358093,
-0.49490174651145935,
-0.40135279297828674,
0.44955015182495117,
-0.5414573550224304,
1.224457859992981,
-0.6773056983947754,
-0.5825841426849365,
-0.03283367305994034,
0.2963266372680664,
0.5064088702201843,
-0.2172447293996811,
-0.49887892603874207,
0.37384992837905884,
-0.34116828441619873,
-0.8321777582168579,
0.12892106175422668,
0.15915237367153168,
-0.18668176233768463,
0.39755499362945557,
0.4012903869152069,
-0.09783037006855011,
-0.5199398994445801,
0.0912482738494873,
0.28404608368873596,
-0.3445313274860382,
-0.14258956909179688,
-0.14635570347309113,
0.0783083364367485,
0.1453455537557602,
-0.529080867767334,
0.17340581119060516,
-0.048417262732982635,
-0.6471850872039795,
0.2903575301170349,
0.3163573741912842,
0.5151404738426208,
-0.4014475345611572,
-0.1762612909078598,
0.17602230608463287,
-0.7419760823249817,
0.32020890712738037,
0.3701364994049072,
-0.3298812806606293,
0.497071236371994,
-0.3318035900592804,
-0.7137285470962524,
0.5013464689254761,
-0.21262578666210175,
0.31837475299835205,
-0.5330005288124084,
0.2837670147418976,
0.2993318736553192,
-0.23236802220344543,
0.6604458093643188,
0.30115798115730286,
-0.028918059542775154,
0.29618969559669495,
0.045010797679424286,
0.17010903358459473,
-0.7383458614349365,
0.546743631362915,
0.38729536533355713,
0.7427583932876587,
-0.3857493996620178,
-0.059404656291007996,
-0.669411301612854,
-0.13999027013778687,
-0.15144619345664978,
-0.07579919695854187,
0.340548574924469,
0.10977710038423538,
0.15923339128494263,
0.2821337878704071,
0.563188374042511,
0.666809618473053,
-1.0088202953338623,
-0.26495561003685,
-0.1680043637752533,
0.6896457076072693,
0.26184868812561035,
0.6564189791679382,
-0.10440082848072052,
0.28921690583229065,
-0.1615849882364273,
0.4861949682235718,
-0.41886916756629944,
0.29463082551956177,
-0.10116990655660629,
0.020007621496915817,
-0.6308190226554871,
-0.08884896337985992,
0.7038100361824036,
-0.776152491569519,
-0.4284653663635254,
0.11780476570129395,
-0.6789430975914001,
-0.2536447048187256,
-0.25530654191970825,
-0.07475859671831131,
0.3549514710903168,
-0.20132052898406982,
-0.5227444171905518,
-0.2068781554698944,
0.25953325629234314,
-0.7078965306282043,
-0.10682201385498047,
-0.620282769203186,
-0.1699957698583603,
0.2119068205356598,
-0.3760197162628174,
0.10011465847492218,
0.4727591574192047,
-0.39226487278938293,
-0.2754441797733307,
0.14644590020179749,
-0.1552349478006363,
-0.37949708104133606,
0.3810376524925232,
-5.445035457611084,
-0.09878572821617126,
-0.06914612650871277,
-0.12896694242954254,
-0.1539541482925415,
-0.16431543231010437,
0.4408535063266754,
-0.16516618430614471,
-0.0459044873714447,
0.23733076453208923,
0.3956068456172943,
0.11143939942121506,
0.3777419626712799,
0.24249714612960815,
0.5509176254272461,
-0.23810306191444397,
0.4438154101371765,
-0.17422206699848175,
0.6137803792953491,
0.1493910551071167,
-0.09826397150754929,
0.1631627231836319,
-0.08383947610855103,
0.4363316297531128,
-0.1505085676908493,
0.5262954235076904,
-0.3817597031593323,
-0.5574554204940796,
-0.41211429238319397,
-0.12773311138153076,
0.1525418907403946,
-0.5894449949264526,
0.013109298422932625,
-0.21475866436958313,
-0.252729594707489,
-0.25814008712768555,
0.06465011835098267,
0.08264147490262985,
0.09564319998025894,
-0.48693376779556274,
-0.15521426498889923,
0.3808821439743042,
0.046029072254896164,
-0.03384021297097206,
0.7907023429870605,
-0.4109664559364319,
-0.2546401023864746,
0.4014027416706085,
0.4875932037830353,
-0.06404095888137817,
-0.27717745304107666,
0.45218425989151,
-0.164764404296875,
-0.0036211905535310507,
0.25367915630340576,
-0.25798672437667847,
0.27377137541770935,
-0.37746167182922363,
-0.233412504196167,
0.17088845372200012,
0.7177461385726929,
-0.06029967591166496,
-0.023215604946017265,
0.27030810713768005,
0.2940218150615692,
-0.499152272939682,
0.08084933459758759,
-0.6171286106109619,
-0.21745848655700684,
-0.04770049825310707,
-0.016346435993909836,
0.38093826174736023,
-0.0875515416264534,
-0.7620677351951599,
0.004668980836868286,
-0.6441442966461182,
-0.05228743329644203,
0.532121479511261,
0.2812826931476593,
-0.24655768275260925,
-0.31754475831985474,
-0.13404996693134308,
-0.6334460377693176,
0.27022585272789,
-0.30380159616470337,
-1.1884676218032837,
-0.33874908089637756,
0.14595988392829895,
0.11875684559345245,
-0.7622013092041016,
0.8029825687408447,
-0.39556995034217834,
0.4694296419620514,
0.8967522382736206,
-0.051402539014816284,
-0.015117909759283066,
-0.29371318221092224,
-0.36104604601860046,
0.7196395993232727,
-0.3933025598526001,
0.33198752999305725,
-0.016936011612415314,
0.23203405737876892,
-0.7152422666549683,
-0.11974876374006271,
-0.2282315045595169,
0.03908279910683632,
-0.23148906230926514,
0.6296220421791077,
-0.031790513545274734,
-0.1665278822183609,
-0.5311635732650757,
0.12539006769657135,
-0.5128302574157715,
-0.022605106234550476,
-0.09607023000717163,
0.06262204796075821,
0.2914535701274872,
0.7698060274124146,
0.41653671860694885,
-0.3830423653125763,
0.3509965240955353,
-0.805801510810852,
0.12673518061637878,
0.2256152629852295,
-0.7602109313011169,
0.08245968073606491,
-0.8495669960975647,
-0.3755744695663452,
0.15403831005096436,
0.2475656419992447,
-0.02017383463680744,
0.21554531157016754,
0.370918333530426,
0.15852020680904388,
0.07560441642999649,
-0.137522891163826,
-0.7666833996772766,
0.19596955180168152,
-0.12874898314476013,
-0.4434818923473358,
0.4697296619415283,
0.02776189148426056,
0.5921132564544678,
0.7739616632461548,
0.29389044642448425,
0.4071212708950043,
-0.0871758833527565,
0.03649444878101349,
1.1555992364883423,
-0.646624743938446,
-0.647519052028656,
0.3909040093421936,
-0.5681690573692322,
0.007724738214164972,
-0.33282697200775146,
0.18859514594078064,
0.2505645453929901,
-0.47729000449180603,
0.2034585028886795,
0.3642890751361847,
-0.08649371564388275,
-0.6471459865570068,
-0.5174737572669983,
0.33373212814331055,
-0.04548463970422745,
-0.41932934522628784,
-0.27482590079307556,
-0.032256677746772766,
0.1702146977186203,
-0.15144860744476318,
-0.34686410427093506,
-0.413907527923584,
0.5703157186508179,
-0.006272750906646252,
-0.036719005554914474,
-0.6304555535316467,
0.06380875408649445,
-0.050691936165094376,
0.2859395146369934,
-0.14940732717514038,
0.4726361930370331,
-0.034705378115177155,
0.8111412525177002,
0.8061238527297974,
-0.048831742256879807,
-0.2276110202074051,
-0.1557386815547943,
0.10874336212873459,
-0.046747732907533646,
-0.09913917630910873,
0.20934276282787323,
-0.011280663311481476,
0.5273341536521912,
-0.8194720149040222,
0.31719252467155457,
0.06920492649078369,
0.6852300763130188,
0.4653359055519104,
-0.38823652267456055,
0.8675292730331421,
0.9563121795654297,
-0.43305328488349915,
0.2391262799501419,
0.18044142425060272,
-0.7017977237701416,
-0.010111846029758453,
0.10735233128070831,
-0.08845055848360062,
0.43176940083503723,
0.003329574828967452,
-0.6743508577346802,
-0.03088495321571827,
1.02798330783844,
-0.14023102819919586,
0.05058915168046951,
0.2652127146720886,
-0.16152703762054443,
-0.03826068341732025,
-0.35290539264678955,
-0.3793368637561798,
-0.2551482021808624,
-0.09362366795539856,
-0.648983895778656,
-0.4533575773239136,
0.45712772011756897,
0.4374811351299286,
0.19741463661193848,
0.48213455080986023,
-0.2733134329319,
-0.13674068450927734,
0.15359550714492798,
-0.07940977811813354,
0.5389077663421631,
0.4905872941017151,
-0.21474945545196533,
-0.12014000862836838,
-0.00894184596836567,
0.6872105598449707,
-0.11019840836524963,
0.7267035841941833,
1.1294599771499634,
0.5258569121360779,
-0.256226122379303,
-0.07710444182157516,
0.23600666224956512,
0.749198853969574,
-0.690312922000885,
-0.5466153025627136,
-0.006160037592053413,
-0.045363880693912506,
-0.29492446780204773,
-0.4881707727909088,
-0.46283143758773804,
0.797333836555481,
-0.3134903609752655,
0.096550352871418,
0.5315223336219788,
0.1902880072593689,
0.2320181280374527,
0.03975774347782135,
0.4315400719642639,
-1.2860270738601685,
0.389060914516449,
0.44905853271484375,
0.15610943734645844,
-0.7954423427581787,
0.3299504220485687,
-0.43843165040016174,
0.12268360704183578,
-0.2319171279668808,
-0.10841568559408188,
0.2525698244571686,
0.40709397196769714,
-0.26800453662872314,
0.2512355148792267,
-0.10729649662971497,
-0.21592643857002258,
0.40618595480918884,
-0.5093387961387634,
-0.5605716705322266,
0.5536860823631287,
-0.023055370897054672,
-0.8750134706497192,
-0.3703157603740692,
-0.5845398306846619,
0.07555614411830902,
-0.43817171454429626,
0.34494292736053467,
-0.4463999569416046,
0.08745422214269638,
-0.05846504867076874,
0.30226463079452515,
0.3114919364452362,
0.05592164769768715,
0.07255914062261581,
-0.12928014993667603,
0.7701581716537476,
0.3994224965572357,
0.9167730212211609,
-0.9201083183288574,
0.4078533351421356,
-0.15798793733119965,
-0.10242882370948792,
0.015499833039939404,
0.48246777057647705,
-0.06142366677522659,
-0.5181112885475159,
-0.024755749851465225,
0.267200767993927,
-0.216830313205719,
-0.06218024343252182,
-0.2194759100675583,
0.10350584238767624,
0.20177042484283447,
-0.16004076600074768,
0.7686905264854431,
-0.8145286440849304,
0.25618496537208557,
0.2532098889350891,
0.14096379280090332,
-0.17160165309906006,
0.5200741291046143,
0.43022269010543823,
-0.5273404717445374,
0.4235913157463074,
-0.932428777217865,
-0.06057308614253998,
0.009485862217843533,
0.5413579940795898,
-0.029831504449248314,
-0.19817371666431427,
-0.7507398128509521,
0.8286581039428711,
-0.8627009391784668,
-0.06344693154096603,
0.3091539144515991,
-0.4515487253665924,
-0.5210343599319458,
0.24987666308879852,
0.7364392280578613,
0.4014444649219513,
-0.5069954991340637,
-0.6071317791938782,
-0.09621860831975937,
0.49396005272865295,
0.22855666279792786,
-0.1391550749540329,
0.41140440106391907,
0.46394822001457214,
0.19963423907756805,
-0.04392891377210617,
0.4859282374382019,
-0.21647371351718903,
0.26087644696235657,
0.17195925116539001,
0.23446303606033325,
-0.2124091535806656,
-0.3475048840045929,
-0.26490506529808044,
-0.3724208474159241,
-0.26668593287467957,
-0.16147367656230927,
-0.2631005048751831,
-0.34409162402153015,
0.028489872813224792,
0.40504613518714905,
-0.05554678291082382,
0.48470237851142883,
0.14966535568237305,
0.5437292456626892,
0.34451615810394287,
-0.19385790824890137,
-0.5868693590164185,
-0.14364245533943176,
0.29608863592147827,
0.394302099943161,
0.010293161496520042,
0.47684502601623535,
-0.8745740652084351,
-0.6083036065101624,
0.37887343764305115,
0.06637630611658096,
-0.50425124168396,
0.5032234787940979,
-0.25596415996551514,
-0.6072720885276794,
0.29856598377227783,
-0.08808821439743042,
0.15279126167297363,
0.9471932053565979,
-0.2224789708852768,
-0.2577841579914093,
-0.052552931010723114,
-0.12368550151586533,
-0.3910536766052246,
-0.061168886721134186,
0.4851038157939911,
0.14035655558109283,
-0.23723027110099792,
-0.44203633069992065,
0.3700270354747772,
-0.3035108149051666,
0.5408550500869751,
0.1828140914440155,
-0.1987556517124176,
-0.7753830552101135,
0.06026943027973175,
-0.4485345184803009,
-0.03412967547774315,
0.6221487522125244,
-0.4893094599246979,
-0.6639589667320251,
-0.05569126829504967,
-0.41423100233078003,
-0.5053720474243164,
0.7155731320381165,
-1.1444133520126343,
-0.4761570394039154,
-0.11655637621879578,
0.38508057594299316,
0.004198076203465462,
-0.157051682472229,
0.3875545859336853,
-0.9335970282554626,
-0.358462929725647,
0.21698947250843048,
-0.4083957374095917,
-0.45969685912132263,
0.5745848417282104,
-0.10798539966344833,
0.040514592081308365,
-0.6592303514480591,
0.04705517739057541,
0.18909913301467896,
-0.9118117094039917,
0.507838785648346,
1.2216243743896484,
0.2847646474838257,
-0.054274674504995346,
0.22792525589466095,
0.03114972822368145,
0.6779855489730835,
0.07748786360025406,
0.3161231279373169,
0.1150626540184021,
0.29953059554100037,
-0.6325151324272156,
-0.2689238488674164,
0.8523378372192383,
0.4793383777141571,
-0.12384340912103653,
0.12026473879814148,
-0.25457528233528137,
0.013763106428086758,
-0.07082034647464752,
0.5686900019645691,
-0.548424482345581,
0.08334510028362274,
0.3192707896232605
] |
260914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders%20of%20magnitude%20%28numbers%29 | Orders of magnitude (numbers) | This list contains selected positive numbers in increasing order, including counts of things, dimensionless quantities and probabilities. Each number is given a name in the short scale, which is used in English-speaking countries, as well as a name in the long scale, which is used in some of the countries that do not have English as their national language.
Smaller than (one googolth)
Mathematics – random selections: Approximately is a rough first estimate of the probability that a typing "monkey", or an English-illiterate typing robot, when placed in front of a typewriter, will type out William Shakespeare's play Hamlet as its first set of inputs, on the precondition it typed the needed number of characters. However, demanding correct punctuation, capitalization, and spacing, the probability falls to around 10−360,783.
Computing: 2.2 is approximately equal to the smallest positive non-zero value that can be represented by an octuple-precision IEEE floating-point value.
1 is equal to the smallest positive non-zero value that can be represented by a quadruple-precision IEEE decimal floating-point value.
6.5 is approximately equal to the smallest positive non-zero value that can be represented by a quadruple-precision IEEE floating-point value.
3.6 is approximately equal to the smallest positive non-zero value that can be represented by an 80-bit x86 double-extended IEEE floating-point value.
1 is equal to the smallest positive non-zero value that can be represented by a double-precision IEEE decimal floating-point value.
4.9 is approximately equal to the smallest positive non-zero value that can be represented by a double-precision IEEE floating-point value.
1 is equal to the smallest positive non-zero value that can be represented by a single-precision IEEE decimal floating-point value.
10−100 to 10−30
Mathematics: The chances of shuffling a standard 52-card deck in any specific order is around 1.24 (or exactly )
Computing: The number 1.4 is approximately equal to the smallest positive non-zero value that can be represented by a single-precision IEEE floating-point value.
10−30
(; 1000−10; short scale: one nonillionth; long scale: one quintillionth)
Mathematics: The probability in a game of bridge of all four players getting a complete suit each is approximately .
10−27
(; 1000−9; short scale: one octillionth; long scale: one quadrilliardth)
10−24
(; 1000−8; short scale: one septillionth; long scale: one quadrillionth)
ISO: yocto- (y)
10−21
(; 1000−7; short scale: one sextillionth; long scale: one trilliardth)
ISO: zepto- (z)
Mathematics: The probability of matching 20 numbers for 20 in a game of keno is approximately 2.83 × 10−19.
10−18
(; 1000−6; short scale: one quintillionth; long scale: one trillionth)
ISO: atto- (a)
Mathematics: The probability of rolling snake eyes 10 times in a row on a pair of fair dice is about .
10−15
(; 1000−5; short scale: one quadrillionth; long scale: one billiardth)
ISO: femto- (f)
Mathematics: The Ramanujan constant, is an almost integer, differing from the nearest integer by approximately .
10−12
(; 1000−4; short scale: one trillionth; long scale: one billionth)
ISO: pico- (p)
Mathematics: The probability in a game of bridge of one player getting a complete suit is approximately ().
Biology: Human visual sensitivity to 1000 nm light is approximately of its peak sensitivity at 555 nm.
10−9
(; 1000−3; short scale: one billionth; long scale: one milliardth)
ISO: nano- (n)
Mathematics – Lottery: The odds of winning the Grand Prize (matching all 6 numbers) in the US Powerball lottery, with a single ticket, under the rules , are 292,201,338 to 1 against, for a probability of ().
Mathematics – Lottery: The odds of winning the Grand Prize (matching all 6 numbers) in the Australian Powerball lottery, with a single ticket, under the rules , are 134,490,400 to 1 against, for a probability of ().
Mathematics – Lottery: The odds of winning the Jackpot (matching the 6 main numbers) in the UK National Lottery, with a single ticket, under the rules , are 13,983,815 to 1 against, for a probability of ().
10−6
(; 1000−2; long and short scales: one millionth)
ISO: micro- (μ)
Mathematics – Poker: The odds of being dealt a royal flush in poker are 649,739 to 1 against, for a probability of 1.5 ().
Mathematics – Poker: The odds of being dealt a straight flush (other than a royal flush) in poker are 72,192 to 1 against, for a probability of 1.4 (0.0014%).
Mathematics – Poker: The odds of being dealt a four of a kind in poker are 4,164 to 1 against, for a probability of 2.4 (0.024%).
10−3
(0.001; 1000−1; one thousandth)
ISO: milli- (m)
Mathematics – Poker: The odds of being dealt a full house in poker are 693 to 1 against, for a probability of 1.4 × 10−3 (0.14%).
Mathematics – Poker: The odds of being dealt a flush in poker are 507.8 to 1 against, for a probability of 1.9 × 10−3 (0.19%).
Mathematics – Poker: The odds of being dealt a straight in poker are 253.8 to 1 against, for a probability of 4 × 10−3 (0.39%).
Physics: α = , the fine-structure constant.
10−2
(0.01; one hundredth)
ISO: centi- (c)
Mathematics – Lottery: The odds of winning any prize in the UK National Lottery, with a single ticket, under the rules as of 2003, are 54 to 1 against, for a probability of about 0.018 (1.8%).
Mathematics – Poker: The odds of being dealt a three of a kind in poker are 46 to 1 against, for a probability of 0.021 (2.1%).
Mathematics – Lottery: The odds of winning any prize in the Powerball, with a single ticket, under the rules as of 2015, are 24.87 to 1 against, for a probability of 0.0402 (4.02%).
Mathematics – Poker: The odds of being dealt two pair in poker are 21 to 1 against, for a probability of 0.048 (4.8%).
10−1
(0.1; one tenth)
ISO: deci- (d)
Legal history: 10% was widespread as the tax raised for income or produce in the ancient and medieval period; see tithe.
Mathematics: = ≈ 0.207879576.
Mathematics – Poker: The odds of being dealt only one pair in poker are about 5 to 2 against (2.37 to 1), for a probability of 0.42 (42%).
Mathematics – Poker: The odds of being dealt no pair in poker are nearly 1 to 2, for a probability of about 0.5 (50%).
100
(1; one)
Demography: The population of Monowi, an incorporated village in Nebraska, United States, was one in 2010.
Religion: One is the number of gods in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (monotheistic religions).
Computing – Unicode: One character is assigned to the Lisu Supplement Unicode block, the fewest of any public-use Unicode block as of Unicode 14.0 (2021).
Mathematics: ≈ , the ratio of the diagonal of a square to its side length.
Mathematics: φ ≈ , the golden ratio.
Mathematics: ≈ , the ratio of the diagonal of a unit cube.
Mathematics: the number system understood by most computers, the binary system, uses 2 digits: 0 and 1.
Mathematics: ≈ 2.236 067 9775, the correspondent to the diagonal of a rectangle whose side lengths are 1 and 2.
Mathematics: + 1 ≈ 2.414 213 562 373 095 049, The ratio of smaller of the two quantities to the larger quantity is the same as the ratio of the larger quantity to the sum of the smaller quantity and twice the larger quantity.
Mathematics: e ≈ , the base of the natural logarithm.
Mathematics: the number system understood by ternary computers, the ternary system, uses 3 digits: 0, 1, and 2.
Religion: three manifestations of God in the Christian Trinity.
Mathematics: π ≈ , the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter.
Religion: the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism.
Biology: 7 ± 2, in cognitive science, George A. Miller's estimate of the number of objects that can be simultaneously held in human working memory.
Music: 7 notes in a major or minor scale.
Astronomy: 8 planets in the Solar System.
Religion: the Eightfold Path in Buddhism.
Literature: 9 circles of Hell in the Inferno by Dante Alighieri.
101
(10; ten)
ISO: deca- (da)
Demography: The population of Pesnopoy, a village in Bulgaria, was 10 in 2007.
Human scale: There are 10 digits on a pair of human hands, and 10 toes on a pair of human feet.
Mathematics: The number system used in everyday life, the decimal system, has 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Religion: the Ten Commandments in the Abrahamic religions.
Music: The number of notes (12) in a chromatic scale.
Astrology: There are 12 zodiac signs, each one representing part of the annual path of the sun's movement across the night sky.
Computing – Microsoft Windows: Twelve successive consumer versions of Windows NT have been released as of December 2021.
Music: The number (15) of completed, numbered string quartets by each of Ludwig van Beethoven and Dmitri Shostakovich.
Linguistics: The Finnish language has fifteen noun cases.
Mathematics: The hexadecimal system, a common number system used in computer programming, uses 16 digits where the last 6 are usually represented by letters: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
Computing – Unicode: The minimum possible size of a Unicode block is 16 contiguous code points (i.e., U+abcde0 - U+abcdeF).
Computing – UTF-16/Unicode: There are 17 addressable planes in UTF-16, and, thus, as Unicode is limited to the UTF-16 code space, 17 valid planes in Unicode.
Science fiction: The 23 enigma plays a prominent role in the plot of The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson.
Mathematics: e ≈ 23.140692633
Music: a combined total of 24 major and minor keys, also the number of works in some musical cycles of J. S. Bach, Frédéric Chopin, Alexander Scriabin, and Dmitri Shostakovich.
Alphabetic writing: There are 26 letters in the Latin-derived English alphabet (excluding letters found only in foreign loanwords).
Science fiction: The number 42, in by Douglas Adams, is the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything which is calculated by an enormous supercomputer over a period of 7.5 million years.
Biology: Each human cell contains 46 chromosomes.
Phonology: There are 47 phonemes in English phonology in Received Pronunciation.
Syllabic writing: There are 49 letters in each of the two kana syllabaries (hiragana and katakana) used to represent Japanese (not counting letters representing sound patterns that have never occurred in Japanese).
Chess: Either player in a chess game can claim a draw if 50 consecutive moves are made by each side without any captures or pawn moves.
Demography: The population of Nassau Island, part of the Cook Islands, is around 78 in 2016.
Syllabic writing: There are 85 letters in the modern version of the Cherokee syllabary.
Music: There are 88 keys on a grand piano.
Computing – ASCII: There are 95 printable characters in the ASCII character set.
102
(100; hundred)
ISO: hecto- (h)
Music: There are 104 numbered symphonies of Franz Josef Haydn.
European history: Groupings of 100 homesteads were a common administrative unit in Northern Europe and Great Britain (see Hundred (county division)).
Religion: 108 is a sacred number in Hinduism.
Chemistry: 118 chemical elements have been discovered or synthesized as of 2016.
Computing – ASCII: There are 128 characters in the ASCII character set, including nonprintable control characters.
Phonology: The Taa language is estimated to have between 130 and 164 distinct phonemes.
Political Science: There were 193 member states of the United Nations as of 2011.
Computing: A GIF image (or an 8-bit image) supports maximum 256 (=28) colors.
Computing – Unicode: There are 320 different Unicode blocks as of Unicode 14.0 (2021).
Aviation: 583 persons died in the 1977 Tenerife airport disaster, the deadliest accident not caused by deliberate terrorist action in the history of civil aviation.
Music: The highest number (626) in the Köchel catalogue of works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
Demography: The Vatican City, the least populous independent country, has an approximate population of 800 as of 2018.
103
(; thousand)
ISO: kilo- (k)
Demography: The population of Ascension Island is 1,122.
Music: 1,128: number of known extant works by Johann Sebastian Bach recognized in the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis as of 2017
Typesetting: 2,000–3,000 letters on a typical typed page of text.
Mathematics: 2,520 (5×7×8×9 or 23×32×5×7) is the least common multiple of every positive integer under (and including) 10.
Terrorism: 2,996 persons (including 19 terrorists) died in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.
Biology: the DNA of the simplest viruses has 3,000 base pairs.
Military history: 4,200 (Republic) or 5,200 (Empire) was the standard size of a Roman legion.
Linguistics: Estimates for the linguistic diversity of living human languages or dialects range between 5,000 and 10,000. (SIL Ethnologue in 2009 listed 6,909 known living languages.)
Astronomy – Catalogues: There are 7,840 deep-sky objects in the NGC Catalogue from 1888.
Lexicography: 8,674 unique words in the Hebrew Bible.
104
(; ten thousand or a myriad)
Biology: Each neuron in the human brain is estimated to connect to 10,000 others.
Demography: The population of Tuvalu was 10,544 in 2007.
Lexicography: 14,500 unique English words occur in the King James Version of the Bible.
Zoology: There are approximately 17,500 distinct butterfly species known.
Language: There are 20,000–40,000 distinct Chinese characters in more than occasional use.
Biology: Each human being is estimated to have 20,000 coding genes.
Grammar: Each regular verb in Cherokee can have 21,262 inflected forms.
War: 22,717 Union and Confederate soldiers were killed, wounded, or missing in the Battle of Antietam, the bloodiest single day of battle in American history.
Computing – Unicode: 42,720 characters are encoded in CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B, the most of any single public-use Unicode block as of Unicode 14.0 (2021).
Aviation: , 44,000+ airframes have been built of the Cessna 172, the most-produced aircraft in history.
Computing - Fonts: The maximum possible number of glyphs in a TrueType or OpenType font is 65,535 (216-1), the largest number representable by the 16-bit unsigned integer used to record the total number of glyphs in the font.
Computing – Unicode: A plane contains 65,536 (216) code points; this is also the maximum size of a Unicode block, and the total number of code points available in the obsolete UCS-2 encoding.
Mathematics: 65,537 is the largest known Fermat prime.
Memory: , the largest number of decimal places of π that have been recited from memory is 70,030.
105
(; one hundred thousand or a lakh).
Demography: The population of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines was 100,982 in 2009.
Biology – Strands of hair on a head: The average human head has about 100,000–150,000 strands of hair.
Literature: approximately 100,000 verses (shlokas) in the Mahabharata.
Computing – Unicode: 144,762 characters (including control characters) encoded in Unicode as of version 14.0 (2021).
Language: 267,000 words in James Joyce's Ulysses.
Computing – Unicode: 288,512 code points assigned to a Unicode block as of Unicode 14.0.
Mathematics: 294,000 – The approximate number of entries in The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences .
Genocide: 300,000 people killed in the Rape of Nanking.
Language – English words: The New Oxford Dictionary of English contains about 360,000 definitions for English words.
Biology – Plants: There are approximately 390,000 distinct plant species known, of which approximately 20% (or 78,000) are in risk of extinction.
Biology – Flowers: There are approximately 400,000 distinct flower species on Earth.
Literature: 564,000 words in War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy.
Literature: 930,000 words in the King James Version of the Bible.
Mathematics: There are 933,120 possible combinations on the Pyraminx.
Computing – Unicode: There are 974,530 publicly-assignable code points (i.e., not surrogates, private-use code points, or noncharacters) in Unicode.
106
(; 10002; long and short scales: one million)
ISO: mega- (M)
Demography: The population of Riga, Latvia was 1,003,949 in 2004, according to Eurostat.
Computing – UTF-8: There are 1,112,064 (220 + 216 - 211) valid UTF-8 sequences (excluding overlong sequences and sequences corresponding to code points used for UTF-16 surrogates or code points beyond U+10FFFF).
Computing – UTF-16/Unicode: There are 1,114,112 (220 + 216) distinct values encodable in UTF-16, and, thus (as Unicode is currently limited to the UTF-16 code space), 1,114,112 valid code points in Unicode (1,112,064 scalar values and 2,048 surrogates).
Ludology – Number of games: Approximately 1,181,019 video games have been created as of 2019.
Biology – Species: The World Resources Institute claims that approximately 1.4 million species have been named, out of an unknown number of total species (estimates range between 2 and 100 million species). Some scientists give 8.8 million species as an exact figure.
Genocide: Approximately 800,000–1,500,000 (1.5 million) Armenians were killed in the Armenian genocide.
Linguistics: The number of possible conjugations for each verb in the Archi language is 1,502,839.
Info: The freedb database of CD track listings has around 1,750,000 entries .
War: 1,857,619 casualties at the Battle of Stalingrad.
Computing – UTF-8: 2,164,864 (221 + 216 + 211 + 27) possible one- to four-byte UTF-8 sequences, if the restrictions on overlong sequences, surrogate code points, and code points beyond U+10FFFF are not adhered to. (Note that not all of these correspond to unique code points.)
Mathematics – Playing cards: There are 2,598,960 different 5-card poker hands that can be dealt from a standard 52-card deck.
Mathematics: There are 3,149,280 possible positions for the Skewb.
Mathematics – Rubik's Cube: 3,674,160 is the number of combinations for the Pocket Cube (2×2×2 Rubik's Cube).
Info – Web sites: As of , , the English Wikipedia contains approximately million articles in the English language.
Geography/Computing – Geographic places: The NIMA GEOnet Names Server contains approximately 3.88 million named geographic features outside the United States, with 5.34 million names. The USGS Geographic Names Information System claims to have almost 2 million physical and cultural geographic features within the United States.
Computing - Supercomputer hardware: 4,981,760 processor cores in the final configuration of the Tianhe-2 supercomputer.
Genocide: Approximately 5,100,000–6,200,000 Jews were killed in the Holocaust.
107
(; a crore; long and short scales: ten million)
Demography: The population of Haiti was 10,085,214 in 2010.
Genocide: An estimated 12 million persons shipped from Africa to the New World in the Atlantic slave trade.
Mathematics: 12,988,816 is the number of domino tilings of an 8×8 checkerboard.
War: 15 to 22 million casualties estimated as a result of World War I.
Genocide/Famine: 15 million is an estimated lower bound for the death toll of the 1959–1961 Great Chinese Famine, the deadliest known famine in human history.
Computing: 16,777,216 different colors can be generated using the hex code system in HTML (note that the trichromatic color vision of the human eye can only distinguish between about an estimated 1,000,000 different colors).
Science Fiction: In Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire, in 22,500 CE, there are 25,000,000 different inhabited planets in the Galactic Empire, all inhabited by humans in Asimov's "human galaxy" scenario.
Internet – YouTube: There are estimated to be about 31 million YouTube channels with at least five subscribers, posting 500 hours of video every minute.
Genocide/Famine: 55 million is an estimated upper bound for the death toll of the Great Chinese Famine.
Literature: Wikipedia contains a total of around articles in languages as of .
War: 70 to 85 million casualties estimated as a result of World War II.
Mathematics: 73,939,133 is the largest right-truncatable prime.
108
(; long and short scales: one hundred million)
Demography: The population of the Philippines was 100,981,437 in 2015.
Info – Books: The British Library claims that it holds over 150 million items. The Library of Congress claims that it holds approximately 148 million items. See The Gutenberg Galaxy.
Video gaming: , approximately 200 million copies of Minecraft (the most-sold video game in history) have been sold.
Mathematics: More than 215,000,000 mathematical constants are collected on the Plouffe's Inverter .
Mathematics: 275,305,224 is the number of 5×5 normal magic squares, not counting rotations and reflections. This result was found in 1973 by Richard Schroeppel.
Demography: The population of the United States was 328,239,523 in 2019.
Mathematics: 358,833,097 stellations of the rhombic triacontahedron.
Info – Web sites: , the Netcraft web survey estimates that there are 525,998,433 (526 million) distinct websites.
Astronomy – Cataloged stars: The Guide Star Catalog II has entries on 998,402,801 distinct astronomical objects.
109
(; 10003; short scale: one billion; long scale: one thousand million, or one milliard)
ISO: giga- (G)
Demography: The population of Africa reached 1,000,000,000 sometime in 2009.
Demographics – India: 1,381,000,000 – approximate population of India in 2020.
Transportation – Cars: , there are approximately 1.4 billion cars in the world, corresponding to around 18% of the human population.
Demographics – China: 1,439,000,000 – approximate population of the People's Republic of China in 2020.
Internet – Google: There are more than 1,500,000,000 active Gmail users globally.
Internet: Approximately 1,500,000,000 active users were on Facebook as of October 2015.
Computing – Computational limit of a 32-bit CPU: 2,147,483,647 is equal to 231−1, and as such is the largest number which can fit into a signed (two's complement) 32-bit integer on a computer.
Computing – UTF-8: 2,147,483,648 (231) possible code points (U+0000 - U+7FFFFFFF) in the pre-2003 version of UTF-8 (including five- and six-byte sequences), before the UTF-8 code space was limited to the much smaller set of values encodable in UTF-16.
Biology – base pairs in the genome: approximately 3.3 base pairs in the human genome.
Linguistics: 3,400,000,000 – the total number of speakers of Indo-European languages, of which 2,400,000,000 are native speakers; the other 1,000,000,000 speak Indo-European languages as a second language.
Mathematics and computing: 4,294,967,295 (232 − 1), the product of the five known Fermat primes and the maximum value for a 32-bit unsigned integer in computing.
Computing – IPv4: 4,294,967,296 (232) possible unique IP addresses.
Computing: 4,294,967,296 – the number of bytes in 4 gibibytes; in computation, 32-bit computers can directly access 232 units (bytes) of address space, which leads directly to the 4-gigabyte limit on main memory.
Mathematics: 4,294,967,297 is a Fermat number and semiprime. It is the smallest number of the form which is not a prime number.
Demographics – world population: 7,862,000,000 – Estimated population for the world as of September 2021.
1010
(; short scale: ten billion; long scale: ten thousand million, or ten milliard)
Biology – bacteria in the human body: There are roughly 1010 bacteria in the human mouth.
Computing – web pages: approximately 5.6 web pages indexed by Google as of 2010.
1011
(; short scale: one hundred billion; long scale: hundred thousand million, or hundred milliard)
Astronomy: There are 100 billion planets located in the Milky Way.
Biology – Neurons in the brain: approximately (1±0.2) × 1011 neurons in the human brain.
Paleodemography – Number of humans that have ever lived: approximately (1.2±0.3) × 1011 live births of anatomically modern humans since the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic.
Astronomy – stars in our galaxy: of the order of 1011 stars in the Milky Way galaxy.
1012
(; 10004; short scale: one trillion; long scale: one billion)
ISO: tera- (T)
Astronomy: Andromeda Galaxy, which is part of the same Local Group as our galaxy, contains about 1012 stars.
Biology – Bacteria on the human body: The surface of the human body houses roughly 1012 bacteria.
Astronomy – Galaxies: A 2016 estimate says there are 2 × 1012 galaxies in the observable universe.
Biology – Blood cells in the human body: The average human body has 2.5 × 1012 red blood cells.
Biology: An estimate says there were 3.04 × 1012 trees on Earth in 2015.
Marine biology: 3,500,000,000,000 (3.5 × 1012) – estimated population of fish in the ocean.
Mathematics: 7,625,597,484,987 – a number that often appears when dealing with powers of 3. It can be expressed as , , , and 33 or when using Knuth's up-arrow notation it can be expressed as and .
Mathematics: 1013 – The approximate number of known non-trivial zeros of the Riemann zeta function .
Mathematics – Known digits of π: , the number of known digits of π is 31,415,926,535,897 (the integer part of π).
Biology – approximately 1014 synapses in the human brain.
Astronomy: IC 1101, a supergiant elliptical galaxy located inside the Abell 2029 cluster, is estimated to have approximately 100 trillion (1014) stars inside the galaxy, making it the largest known galaxy in the universe.
Biology – Cells in the human body: The human body consists of roughly 1014 cells, of which only 1013 are human. The remaining 90% non-human cells (though much smaller and constituting much less mass) are bacteria, which mostly reside in the gastrointestinal tract, although the skin is also covered in bacteria.
Cryptography: 150,738,274,937,250 configurations of the plug-board of the Enigma machine used by the Germans in WW2 to encode and decode messages by cipher.
Computing – MAC-48: 281,474,976,710,656 (248) possible unique physical addresses.
Mathematics: 953,467,954,114,363 is the largest known Motzkin prime.
1015
(; 10005; short scale: one quadrillion; long scale: one thousand billion, or one billiard)
ISO: peta- (P)
Biology – Insects: 1,000,000,000,000,000 to 10,000,000,000,000,000 (1015 to 1016) – The estimated total number of ants on Earth alive at any one time (their biomass is approximately equal to the total biomass of the human species).
Computing: 9,007,199,254,740,992 (253) – number until which all integer values can exactly be represented in IEEE double precision floating-point format.
Mathematics: 48,988,659,276,962,496 is the fifth taxicab number.
Science Fiction: In Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire, in what we call 22,500 CE there are 25,000,000 different inhabited planets in the Galactic Empire, all inhabited by humans in Asimov's "human galaxy" scenario, each with an average population of 2,000,000,000, thus yielding a total Galactic Empire population of approximately 50,000,000,000,000,000.
Science Fiction: There are approximately 1017 sentient beings in the Star Wars galaxy.
Cryptography: There are 256 = 72,057,594,037,927,936 different possible keys in the obsolete 56-bit DES symmetric cipher.
1018
(; 10006; short scale: one quintillion; long scale: one trillion)
ISO: exa- (E)
Mathematics: Goldbach's conjecture has been verified for all n ≤ 4 by a project which computed all prime numbers up to that limit.
Computing – Manufacturing: An estimated 6 transistors were produced worldwide in 2008.
Computing – Computational limit of a 64-bit CPU: 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (about 9.22) is equal to 263−1, and as such is the largest number which can fit into a signed (two's complement) 64-bit integer on a computer.
Mathematics – NCAA Basketball Tournament: There are 9,223,372,036,854,775,808 (263) possible ways to enter the bracket.
Mathematics – Bases: 9,439,829,801,208,141,318 (≈9.44) is the 10th and (by conjecture) largest number with more than one digit that can be written from base 2 to base 18 using only the digits 0 to 9, meaning the digits for 10 to 17 are not needed in bases above 10.
Biology – Insects: It has been estimated that the insect population of the Earth is about 1019.
Mathematics – Answer to the wheat and chessboard problem: When doubling the grains of wheat on each successive square of a chessboard, beginning with one grain of wheat on the first square, the final number of grains of wheat on all 64 squares of the chessboard when added up is 264−1 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 (≈1.84).
Mathematics – Legends: The Tower of Brahma legend tells about a Hindu temple containing a large room with three posts, on one of which are 64 golden discs, and the object of the mathematical game is for the Brahmins in this temple to move all of the discs to another pole so that they are in the same order, never placing a larger disc above a smaller disc, moving only one at a time. Using the simplest algorithm for moving the disks, it would take 264−1 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 (≈1.84) turns to complete the task (the same number as the wheat and chessboard problem above).<ref>Ivan Moscovich, 1000 playthinks: puzzles, paradoxes, illusions & games, Workman Pub., 2001 .</ref>
Computing – IPv6: 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 (264; ≈1.84) possible unique /64 subnetworks.
Mathematics – Rubik's Cube: There are 43,252,003,274,489,856,000 (≈4.33) different positions of a 3×3×3 Rubik's Cube.
Password strength: Usage of the 95-character set found on standard computer keyboards for a 10-character password yields a computationally intractable 59,873,693,923,837,890,625 (9510, approximately 5.99) permutations.
Economics: Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe estimated in February 2009 by some economists at 10 sextillion percent, or a factor of 1020.
1021
(; 10007; short scale: one sextillion; long scale: one thousand trillion, or one trilliard)
ISO: zetta- (Z)
Geo – Grains of sand: All the world's beaches combined have been estimated to hold roughly 1021 grains of sand.
Computing – Manufacturing: Intel predicted that there would be 1.2 transistors in the world by 2015 and Forbes estimated that 2.9 transistors had been shipped up to 2014.
Mathematics – Sudoku: There are 6,670,903,752,021,072,936,960 (≈6.7) 9×9 sudoku grids.
Astronomy – Stars: 70 sextillion = 7, the estimated number of stars within range of telescopes (as of 2003).
Astronomy – Stars: in the range of 1023 to 1024 stars in the observable universe.
Mathematics: 146,361,946,186,458,562,560,000 (≈1.5) is the fifth unitary perfect number.
Mathematics: 357,686,312,646,216,567,629,137 (≈3.6) is the largest left-truncatable prime.
Chemistry – Physics: The Avogadro constant () is the number of constituents (e.g. atoms or molecules) in one mole of a substance, defined for convenience as expressing the order of magnitude separating the molecular from the macroscopic scale.
1024
(; 10008; short scale: one septillion; long scale: one quadrillion)
ISO: yotta- (Y)
Mathematics: 2,833,419,889,721,787,128,217,599 (≈2.8) is the fifth Woodall prime.
Mathematics: 3,608,528,850,368,400,786,036,725 (≈3.6) is the largest polydivisible number.
Mathematics: 286 = 77,371,252,455,336,267,181,195,264 is the largest known power of two not containing the digit '0' in its decimal representation.
1027
(; 10009; short scale: one octillion; long scale: one thousand quadrillion, or one quadrilliard)
Biology – Atoms in the human body: the average human body contains roughly 7 atoms.
Mathematics – Poker: the number of unique combinations of hands and shared cards in a 10-player game of Texas hold 'em is approximately 2.117.
1030
(; 100010; short scale: one nonillion; long scale: one quintillion)
Biology – Bacterial cells on Earth: The number of bacterial cells on Earth is estimated at around 5,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, or 5 × 1030.
Mathematics: 5,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,027 is the largest quasi-minimal prime.
Mathematics: The number of partitions of 1000 is 24,061,467,864,032,622,473,692,149,727,991.
Mathematics: 368 = 278,128,389,443,693,511,257,285,776,231,761 is the largest known power of three not containing the digit '0' in its decimal representation.
Mathematics: 2108 = 324,518,553,658,426,726,783,156,020,576,256 is the largest known power of two not containing the digit '9' in its decimal representation.
1033
(; 100011; short scale: one decillion; long scale: one thousand quintillion, or one quintilliard)
Mathematics – Alexander's Star: There are 72,431,714,252,715,638,411,621,302,272,000,000 (about 7.24) different positions of Alexander's Star.
1036
(; 100012; short scale: one undecillion; long scale: one sextillion)
Physics: ke e2 / Gm2, the ratio of the electromagnetic to the gravitational forces between two protons, is roughly 1036.
Mathematics: 227-1-1 = 170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,727 (≈1.7) is the largest known double Mersenne prime.
Computing: 2128 = 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 (≈3.40282367), the theoretical maximum number of Internet addresses that can be allocated under the IPv6 addressing system, one more than the largest value that can be represented by a single-precision IEEE floating-point value, the total number of different Universally Unique Identifiers (UUIDs) that can be generated.
Cryptography: 2128 = 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 (≈3.40282367), the total number of different possible keys in the AES 128-bit key space (symmetric cipher).
1039
(; 100013; short scale: one duodecillion; long scale: one thousand sextillion, or one sextilliard)
Cosmology: The Eddington–Dirac number is roughly 1040.
Mathematics: 97# × 25 × 33 × 5 × 7 = 69,720,375,229,712,477,164,533,808,935,312,303,556,800 (≈6.97) is the least common multiple of every integer from 1 to 100.
1042 to 10100
(; 100014; short scale: one tredecillion; long scale: one septillion)
Mathematics: 141×2141+1 = 393,050,634,124,102,232,869,567,034,555,427,371,542,904,833 (≈3.93) is the second Cullen prime.
Mathematics: There are 7,401,196,841,564,901,869,874,093,974,498,574,336,000,000,000 (≈7.4) possible permutations for the Rubik's Revenge (4×4×4 Rubik's Cube).
Chess: 4.52 is a proven upper bound for the number of legal chess positions.
Geo: 1.33 is the estimated number of atoms in Earth.
Mathematics: 2168 = 374,144,419,156,711,147,060,143,317,175,368,453,031,918,731,001,856 is the largest known power of two which is not pandigital: There is no digit '2' in its decimal representation.
Mathematics: 3106 = 375,710,212,613,636,260,325,580,163,599,137,907,799,836,383,538,729 is the largest known power of three which is not pandigital: There is no digit '4'.
Mathematics: 808,017,424,794,512,875,886,459,904,961,710,757,005,754,368,000,000,000 (≈8.08) is the order of the monster group.
Cryptography: 2192 = 6,277,101,735,386,680,763,835,789,423,207,666,416,102,355,444,464,034,512,896 (6.27710174), the total number of different possible keys in the AES 192-bit key space (symmetric cipher).
Cosmology: 8 is roughly the number of Planck time intervals since the universe is theorised to have been created in the Big Bang 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago.
Cosmology: 1 is Archimedes' estimate in The Sand Reckoner of the total number of grains of sand that could fit into the entire cosmos, the diameter of which he estimated in stadia to be what we call 2 light-years.
Mathematics – Cards: 52! = 80,658,175,170,943,878,571,660,636,856,403,766,975,289,505,440,883,277,824,000,000,000,000 (≈8.07) – the number of ways to order the cards in a 52-card deck.
Mathematics: There are ≈1.01×1068 possible combinations for the Megaminx.
Mathematics: 1,808,422,353,177,349,564,546,512,035,512,530,001,279,481,259,854,248,860,454,348,989,451,026,887 (≈1.81) – The largest known prime factor found by ECM factorization .
Mathematics: There are 282,870,942,277,741,856,536,180,333,107,150,328,293,127,731,985,672,134,721,536,000,000,000,000,000 (≈2.83) possible permutations for the Professor's Cube (5×5×5 Rubik's Cube).
Cryptography: 2256 = 115,792,089,237,316,195,423,570,985,008,687,907,853,269,984,665,640,564,039,457,584,007,913,129,639,936 (≈1.15792089), the total number of different possible keys in the AES 256-bit key space (symmetric cipher).
Cosmology: Various sources estimate the total number of fundamental particles in the observable universe to be within the range of 1080 to 1085.WMAP- Content of the Universe . Map.gsfc.nasa.gov (2010-04-16). Retrieved on 2011-05-01. However, these estimates are generally regarded as guesswork. (Compare the Eddington number, the estimated total number of protons in the observable universe.)
Computing: 9.999 999 is equal to the largest value that can be represented in the IEEE decimal32 floating-point format.
Computing: 69! (roughly 1.7112245), is the highest factorial value that can be represented on a calculator with two digits for powers of ten without overflow.
Mathematics: One googol, 1, 1 followed by one hundred zeros, or 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
10100 (one googol) to 101000
(; short scale: ten duotrigintillion; long scale: ten thousand sexdecillion, or ten sexdecillard)
Mathematics: There are 157 152 858 401 024 063 281 013 959 519 483 771 508 510 790 313 968 742 344 694 684 829 502 629 887 168 573 442 107 637 760 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 (≈1.57) distinguishable permutations of the V-Cube 6 (6×6×6 Rubik's Cube).
Chess: Shannon number, 10120, a lower bound of the game-tree complexity of chess.
Physics: 10120, discrepancy between the observed value of the cosmological constant and a naive estimate based on Quantum Field Theory and the Planck energy.
Physics: 8, ratio of the mass-energy in the observable universe to the energy of a photon with a wavelength the size of the observable universe.
Mathematics: 19 568 584 333 460 072 587 245 340 037 736 278 982 017 213 829 337 604 336 734 362 294 738 647 777 395 483 196 097 971 852 999 259 921 329 236 506 842 360 439 300 (≈1.96) is the period of primary pretenders.
History – Religion: Asaṃkhyeya is a Buddhist name for the number 10140. It is listed in the Avatamsaka Sutra and metaphorically means "innumerable" in the Sanskrit language of ancient India.
Xiangqi: 10150, an estimation of the game-tree complexity of xiangqi.
Mathematics: There are 19 500 551 183 731 307 835 329 126 754 019 748 794 904 992 692 043 434 567 152 132 912 323 232 706 135 469 180 065 278 712 755 853 360 682 328 551 719 137 311 299 993 600 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 (≈1.95) distinguishable permutations of the V-Cube 7 (7×7×7 Rubik's Cube).
Go: There are 208 168 199 381 979 984 699 478 633 344 862 770 286 522 453 884 530 548 425 639 456 820 927 419 612 738 015 378 525 648 451 698 519 643 907 259 916 015 628 128 546 089 888 314 427 129 715 319 317 557 736 620 397 247 064 840 935 (≈2.08) legal positions in the game of Go. See Go and mathematics.
Economics: The annualized rate of the hyperinflation in Hungary in 1946 was estimated to be 2.9%. It was the most extreme case of hyperinflation ever recorded.
Board games: 3.457, number of ways to arrange the tiles in English Scrabble on a standard 15-by-15 Scrabble board.
Physics: 10186, approximate number of Planck volumes in the observable universe.
Shogi: 10226, an estimation of the game-tree complexity of shogi.
Physics: 7, approximate spacetime volume of the history of the observable universe in Planck units.
Computing: 1.797 693 134 862 315 807 is approximately equal to the largest value that can be represented in the IEEE double precision floating-point format.
Computing: (10 – 10−15) is equal to the largest value that can be represented in the IEEE decimal64 floating-point format.
Mathematics: 997# × 31# × 25 × 34 × 54 × 7 = 7 128 865 274 665 093 053 166 384 155 714 272 920 668 358 861 885 893 040 452 001 991 154 324 087 581 111 499 476 444 151 913 871 586 911 717 817 019 575 256 512 980 264 067 621 009 251 465 871 004 305 131 072 686 268 143 200 196 609 974 862 745 937 188 343 705 015 434 452 523 739 745 298 963 145 674 982 128 236 956 232 823 794 011 068 809 262 317 708 861 979 540 791 247 754 558 049 326 475 737 829 923 352 751 796 735 248 042 463 638 051 137 034 331 214 781 746 850 878 453 485 678 021 888 075 373 249 921 995 672 056 932 029 099 390 891 687 487 672 697 950 931 603 520 000 (≈7.13) is the least common multiple of every integer from 1 to 1000.
101000 to 1010100 (one googolplex)
Mathematics: There are approximately 1.869 distinguishable permutations of the world's largest Rubik's cube (33×33×33).
Computing: 1.189 731 495 357 231 765 05 is approximately equal to the largest value that can be represented in the IEEE 80-bit x86 extended precision floating-point format.
Computing: 1.189 731 495 357 231 765 085 759 326 628 007 0 is approximately equal to the largest value that can be represented in the IEEE quadruple-precision floating-point format.
Computing: (10 – 10−33) is equal to the largest value that can be represented in the IEEE decimal128 floating-point format.
Computing: 1010,000 − 1 is equal to the largest value that can be represented in Windows Phone's calculator.
Mathematics: 26384405 + 44052638 is a 15,071-digit Leyland prime; the largest which has been proven .
Mathematics: 3,756,801,695,685 × 2666,669 ± 1 are 200,700-digit twin primes; the largest known .
Mathematics: 18,543,637,900,515 × 2666,667 − 1 is a 200,701-digit Sophie Germain prime; the largest known .
Mathematics: approximately 7.76 × 10206,544 cattle in the smallest herd which satisfies the conditions of Archimedes's cattle problem.
Mathematics: 10474,500 + 999 × 10237,249 + 1 is a 474,501-digit palindromic prime, the largest known .
Mathematics: 2,996,863,034,895 × 21,290,000±1 are 388,342-digit twin primes; the largest known .
Mathematics: 1,098,133# – 1 is a 476,311-digit primorial prime; the largest known .
Mathematics: 208,003! − 1 is a 1,015,843-digit factorial prime; the largest known .
Mathematics – Literature: Jorge Luis Borges' Library of Babel contains at least 251,312,000 ≈ 1.956 × 101,834,097 books (this is a lower bound).
Mathematics: 4 × 721,119,849 − 1 is the smallest prime of the form 4×72n−1
Mathematics: (215,135,397+1)/3 is a 4,556,209-digit Wagstaff probable prime, the largest known .
Mathematics: 1,059,0941,048,576 + 1 is a 6,317,602-digit Generalized Fermat prime, the largest known .
Mathematics: (108,177,207−1)/9 is a 8,177,207-digit probable prime, the largest known .
Mathematics: 10,223 × 231,172,165 + 1 is a 9,383,761-digit Proth prime, the largest known Proth prime and non-Mersenne prime .
Mathematics: 282,589,933 − 1 is a 24,862,048-digit Mersenne prime; the largest known prime of any kind .
Mathematics: 282,589,932 × (282,589,933 − 1) is a 49,724,095-digit perfect number, the largest known as of 2020.
Mathematics – History: 108×1016, largest named number in Archimedes' Sand Reckoner.
Mathematics: 10googol (), a googolplex. A number 1 followed by 1 googol zeros. Carl Sagan has estimated that 1 googolplex, fully written out, would not fit in the observable universe because of its size, while also noting that one could also write the number as 1010100.
Larger than 1010100
(One googolplex; 10googol; short scale: googolplex; long scale: googolplex)
Mathematics – Literature: The number of different ways in which the books in Jorge Luis Borges' Library of Babel can be arranged is approximately , the factorial of the number of books in the Library of Babel.
Cosmology: In chaotic inflation theory, proposed by physicist Andrei Linde, our universe is one of many other universes with different physical constants that originated as part of our local section of the multiverse, owing to a vacuum that had not decayed to its ground state. According to Linde and Vanchurin, the total number of these universes is about .
Mathematics: , order of magnitude of an upper bound that occurred in a proof of Skewes (this was later estimated to be closer to 1.397 × 10316).Cosmology: The estimated number of Planck time units for quantum fluctuations and tunnelling to generate a new Big Bang is estimated to be .
Mathematics: , a number in the googol family called a googolplexplex, googolplexian, or googolduplex. 1 followed by a googolplex zeros, or 10googolplex
Mathematics: , order of magnitude of another upper bound in a proof of Skewes.
Mathematics: Steinhaus' mega lies between 10[4]257 and 10[4]258 (where a[n]b is hyperoperation).
Mathematics: Moser's number, "2 in a mega-gon" in Steinhaus–Moser notation, is approximately equal to 10[10[4]257]10, the last four digits are ...1056.
Mathematics: Graham's number, the last ten digits of which are ...2464195387, equals 3[3[3[...3[3[3[6]3+2]3+2]3...]3+2]3+2]3 with 64 levels of brackets. Arises as an upper bound solution to a problem in Ramsey theory. Representation in powers of 10 would be impractical (the number of 10s in the power tower would be virtually indistinguishable from the number itself).
Mathematics: TREE(3): appears in relation to a theorem on trees in graph theory. Representation of the number is difficult, but one weak lower bound is AA(187196)(1), where A(n) is a version of the Ackermann function.
Mathematics: SSCG(3): appears in relation to the Robertson–Seymour theorem. Known to be greater than both TREE(3) and the TREE function nested inside itself TREE(3) times with TREE(3) at the bottom.
Mathematics:'' Transcendental integers: a set of numbers defined in 2000 by Harvey Friedman, appears in proof theory.
See also
Conway chained arrow notation
Encyclopedic size comparisons on Wikipedia
Fast-growing hierarchy
Large numbers
List of numbers
Mathematical constant
Names of large numbers
Names of small numbers
Power of 10
References
External links
Seth Lloyd's paper Computational capacity of the universe provides a number of interesting dimensionless quantities.
Notable properties of specific numbers
Numbers | [
-0.3036666512489319,
0.34005990624427795,
0.20529785752296448,
0.053459133952856064,
-0.46507805585861206,
0.46472325921058655,
0.498297780752182,
-0.0634571835398674,
-0.5718410015106201,
-0.5704466104507446,
-0.17578251659870148,
0.1967727094888687,
-0.19766412675380707,
0.7450748682022095,
0.08509013801813126,
0.29108211398124695,
0.14737676084041595,
0.48768535256385803,
-0.65959233045578,
0.34264805912971497,
-0.07317157834768295,
0.15892548859119415,
0.39457279443740845,
-0.5899028182029724,
0.08848704397678375,
0.17954230308532715,
-0.15089848637580872,
-0.014065924100577831,
-0.20071910321712494,
-0.12509357929229736,
-0.38904786109924316,
0.6907945871353149,
0.18905681371688843,
0.21399450302124023,
-0.440271258354187,
-0.6647864580154419,
-0.1179545447230339,
-0.15655910968780518,
0.04524649307131767,
-0.6128219366073608,
0.16929267346858978,
-0.9133179187774658,
0.2657380700111389,
0.25907522439956665,
-0.7525388598442078,
-0.43249329924583435,
-1.2436281442642212,
-0.1649741530418396,
-0.6286441683769226,
0.29167285561561584,
0.004959496203809977,
0.11310875415802002,
0.4707161486148834,
0.1428055763244629,
0.016417715698480606,
0.13858908414840698,
-0.3933394253253937,
0.26827943325042725,
0.5378545522689819,
-0.668955385684967,
0.2789616584777832,
-0.08380113542079926,
0.15592262148857117,
-0.1887865662574768,
0.23448504507541656,
0.9043785333633423,
-0.02199559658765793,
0.23132522404193878,
-0.3180599808692932,
-0.14390136301517487,
0.08564452081918716,
-0.5530418157577515,
-0.12719711661338806,
0.285119891166687,
-0.41944199800491333,
-0.7140957117080688,
0.0058678556233644485,
-0.2324085533618927,
-0.23510366678237915,
-0.1378575712442398,
-0.18265926837921143,
0.03704264387488365,
0.6821758151054382,
-0.78857421875,
-0.03543013334274292,
0.06939837336540222,
-0.004901627544313669,
-0.032568708062171936,
-0.5862347483634949,
0.5788991451263428,
0.269530326128006,
-0.08420711010694504,
0.6494379639625549,
0.18714244663715363,
0.09624619781970978,
-0.3237387239933014,
0.33907198905944824,
-0.6616284847259521,
0.33851033449172974,
0.24074095487594604,
-0.18482562899589539,
-0.10076194256544113,
0.09983005374670029,
-0.25295281410217285,
-0.15333756804466248,
-0.2653011977672577,
0.09048376232385635,
-0.31209397315979004,
0.2764318287372589,
-0.18061062693595886,
-1.157118320465088,
-0.011659983545541763,
-0.06693513691425323,
-0.019014524295926094,
-0.16113296151161194,
-0.2803801894187927,
0.29328036308288574,
-0.0392494797706604,
-0.10409045964479446,
-0.33796659111976624,
0.23665790259838104,
0.5188761353492737,
0.41971683502197266,
0.42747077345848083,
0.43189626932144165,
0.4302351772785187,
0.5191864967346191,
0.44691401720046997,
0.28745198249816895,
0.08996523171663284,
-0.4343620538711548,
0.8087748289108276,
0.2410302460193634,
-0.4115423858165741,
-0.07693023979663849,
-0.7886943817138672,
-0.40919065475463867,
0.3491649031639099,
-0.5167968273162842,
-0.20861314237117767,
-0.3088284432888031,
-0.10626954585313797,
-0.18593011796474457,
-0.40900763869285583,
0.41509780287742615,
-0.593115508556366,
-0.31936115026474,
-0.327832967042923,
-0.12989768385887146,
0.40697991847991943,
-0.19935466349124908,
0.3566410541534424,
-0.7070839405059814,
0.08015944063663483,
0.18398267030715942,
0.04206175357103348,
0.2911522388458252,
0.31278809905052185,
0.03739030659198761,
0.4544123113155365,
0.20653797686100006,
0.3247320353984833,
0.10977979749441147,
-0.3271942436695099,
0.19402684271335602,
-0.4554343819618225,
0.676247239112854,
0.6008389592170715,
-0.34237930178642273,
0.3341520428657532,
-0.45252498984336853,
0.044454608112573624,
-0.12441219389438629,
0.5725242495536804,
-0.7966394424438477,
-0.11523252725601196,
0.5204557180404663,
-0.02045401744544506,
0.7534096837043762,
-0.19107374548912048,
-0.4346056282520294,
-0.30275726318359375,
0.22321657836437225,
-0.49622079730033875,
0.1974199414253235,
-0.0499529093503952,
-0.10146831721067429,
0.25858938694000244,
0.4357435405254364,
0.1555362343788147,
0.12549591064453125,
0.1403578668832779,
-0.013845638372004032,
-0.4309786856174469,
0.45670756697654724,
-0.4089328944683075,
-0.5316738486289978,
0.43564268946647644,
0.15741312503814697,
0.07262955605983734,
-0.24370354413986206,
-0.06635427474975586,
0.4354116916656494,
0.2562149465084076,
0.1757318377494812,
0.221345454454422,
-0.3620623052120209,
0.4516826868057251,
-0.16342104971408844,
0.2503602206707001,
0.1964581161737442,
-0.3053572475910187,
0.08321823924779892,
-0.9000676870346069,
-0.019288932904601097,
0.09322252869606018,
-0.7591330409049988,
0.6559101939201355,
-0.22841033339500427,
0.31313765048980713,
0.7423371076583862,
-0.3894934058189392,
0.1586509495973587,
0.0596739761531353,
-0.5478997230529785,
0.02334180660545826,
0.5913352370262146,
0.40594834089279175,
0.5893881320953369,
-0.8649216294288635,
0.43617939949035645,
-0.7824493646621704,
0.2551557123661041,
0.04324635490775108,
-0.3951118588447571,
0.17379552125930786,
0.16101230680942535,
-0.040840860456228256,
0.5220156908035278,
-0.5711170434951782,
0.08797819167375565,
0.1678527295589447,
-0.250183641910553,
0.205443874001503,
0.07902320474386215,
0.030248655006289482,
0.028934825211763382,
-0.4704723060131073,
-0.5251178741455078,
0.23556385934352875,
-0.31566405296325684,
-0.10839663445949554,
0.262373685836792,
0.24412892758846283,
0.5900238752365112,
-0.2061452716588974,
0.1499641090631485,
-0.1075366884469986,
0.22832605242729187,
0.8064743280410767,
-0.3620854616165161,
-0.5709022283554077,
0.06567082554101944,
-0.04462486505508423,
-0.15499858558177948,
-0.283340722322464,
-0.542724072933197,
-0.28854212164878845,
0.6291235685348511,
0.6145253777503967,
0.3052699565887451,
0.34405335783958435,
-0.2508583664894104,
-0.01816677302122116,
0.2536701560020447,
-1.2058883905410767,
0.13862934708595276,
0.3074260950088501,
-0.9293704628944397,
-0.6299675107002258,
-0.2340882420539856,
0.6375647783279419,
0.5986572504043579,
0.12269178032875061,
0.3369319438934326,
-0.6260644793510437,
0.37818893790245056,
-0.326211541891098,
0.16362546384334564,
0.025711653754115105,
-0.7526982426643372,
0.40698105096817017,
0.002905644476413727,
-0.45701271295547485,
0.10080917924642563,
-0.2079756110906601,
0.07506314665079117,
-0.3040868639945984,
-0.41061410307884216,
-0.17820435762405396,
-0.5389717221260071,
0.3062590956687927,
-0.12975919246673584,
-0.3250972330570221,
-0.49263831973075867,
-0.027086352929472923,
0.06612538546323776,
1.0175987482070923,
-5.825124263763428,
-0.26611554622650146,
-0.4027844965457916,
0.17613008618354797,
-0.3785800635814667,
0.10561553388834,
0.944651186466217,
0.3741518259048462,
-0.4014852046966553,
-0.14249840378761292,
0.42209821939468384,
-0.03795268014073372,
-0.0009841220453381538,
0.5146129131317139,
0.27528131008148193,
-0.206637442111969,
0.3581872582435608,
0.4926423132419586,
0.2729591727256775,
0.9631582498550415,
0.16689467430114746,
-0.29533228278160095,
0.31767845153808594,
0.6404989361763,
-0.18080663681030273,
0.04246378690004349,
-0.019028184935450554,
0.37019097805023193,
-0.4749562442302704,
-0.05307747423648834,
0.07649245113134384,
-0.424602746963501,
-0.42151758074760437,
-0.7457944750785828,
-0.05961978808045387,
0.05046061426401138,
0.6902668476104736,
-0.23566852509975433,
0.316217839717865,
-0.4668867886066437,
0.11390402168035507,
0.5497087240219116,
-0.0442824587225914,
-0.08486004918813705,
0.6988967061042786,
-0.019796688109636307,
-0.5534626245498657,
0.7654663920402527,
-0.40160518884658813,
0.38330426812171936,
-0.41175374388694763,
0.16168496012687683,
0.23796489834785461,
-0.353386789560318,
-0.13235296308994293,
-0.2710891366004944,
0.03894675895571709,
0.8440833687782288,
-0.2768145501613617,
0.42664048075675964,
0.5806911587715149,
0.4872748851776123,
0.17044991254806519,
-0.05235191434621811,
-0.02131875790655613,
-0.2778531014919281,
-0.8958457112312317,
-0.11473206430673599,
0.4986969232559204,
-0.2710784375667572,
-0.1659340262413025,
-0.6521746516227722,
-0.17775095999240875,
-0.4943459630012512,
0.26336342096328735,
-0.22219906747341156,
0.5932942032814026,
0.2746962904930115,
0.49337074160575867,
0.6169738173484802,
-0.7030043601989746,
-0.9680922031402588,
-0.052281007170677185,
-0.20313017070293427,
-0.24298417568206787,
0.13318420946598053,
-0.5750813484191895,
-0.2716725170612335,
-0.23455433547496796,
-0.2468900978565216,
0.6826832294464111,
0.012848432175815105,
0.25185418128967285,
0.24470379948616028,
0.5788941979408264,
0.18597593903541565,
0.6885348558425903,
0.23249727487564087,
0.4301689565181732,
-0.2581327259540558,
0.44603288173675537,
-0.4851464629173279,
0.7854351997375488,
-0.5176393985748291,
0.04313785955309868,
-0.2724524438381195,
-0.2838926613330841,
0.6557707190513611,
0.631946861743927,
-0.5847579836845398,
-0.11947088688611984,
-0.28826314210891724,
-0.16957783699035645,
-0.5964154005050659,
0.40227097272872925,
0.31560617685317993,
-0.13358721137046814,
0.6348530054092407,
0.5225798487663269,
0.1690886914730072,
-0.2538584768772125,
0.13452556729316711,
-0.39690887928009033,
-0.30100584030151367,
-0.010848920792341232,
0.014098399318754673,
-0.3844859004020691,
-0.17459069192409515,
-0.03753609582781792,
-0.37226250767707825,
0.4561280906200409,
0.6860971450805664,
-0.08348499238491058,
0.6349367499351501,
0.6445275545120239,
-0.28447243571281433,
0.16651150584220886,
-0.31191354990005493,
-0.02929689921438694,
-0.6474239826202393,
0.6435200572013855,
0.10131921619176865,
-0.6204957365989685,
0.34217485785484314,
0.16813348233699799,
0.3763989508152008,
0.2161298394203186,
-0.11629226058721542,
-0.19808509945869446,
0.31842753291130066,
0.2459137737751007,
-0.22306860983371735,
0.42209142446517944,
0.10348472744226456,
-0.31645667552948,
0.8464610576629639,
-0.06357978284358978,
-0.020074302330613136,
-0.18323400616645813,
-0.3514593541622162,
0.2244344800710678,
0.32806649804115295,
-1.0245989561080933,
-0.7767502069473267,
0.26603221893310547,
-0.39239150285720825,
-1.1043049097061157,
-0.09082146733999252,
0.5658783316612244,
0.40273451805114746,
0.0494292788207531,
0.4128952622413635,
-0.48860475420951843,
-0.7548684477806091,
-0.21518519520759583,
0.18194758892059326,
-0.19057729840278625,
0.11762343347072601,
-0.1287986934185028,
-0.45904219150543213,
0.458371639251709,
-0.23438870906829834,
-0.5118244886398315,
0.3801710307598114,
0.20934922993183136,
0.21412725746631622,
0.02263900265097618,
0.37228676676750183,
0.3232715129852295,
-0.44129478931427,
0.24477215111255646,
-0.2862063944339752,
0.08104855567216873,
-0.3480028510093689,
-0.15811480581760406,
-0.07690005749464035,
0.38889530301094055,
0.515892744064331,
-0.3155639171600342,
-0.4395372271537781,
0.019956331700086594,
-0.07641647756099701,
-0.9755305647850037,
-0.048268694430589676,
0.44120538234710693,
-0.6438812017440796,
0.4651657044887543,
-0.004895414691418409,
-0.1904400885105133,
0.10798901319503784,
-0.22017614543437958,
-0.4270828664302826,
-0.38068923354148865,
-0.2762032747268677,
0.24102021753787994,
0.34263935685157776,
0.2216564267873764,
-0.5682617425918579,
-0.09298797696828842,
-0.8440431356430054,
0.21249538660049438,
0.22932039201259613,
-0.1333816796541214,
0.15637421607971191,
0.3562380075454712,
-0.37641045451164246,
0.4027511775493622,
0.09976661205291748,
0.38115254044532776,
-0.15762075781822205,
-0.09526658058166504,
0.6722612380981445,
-0.35369837284088135,
0.07475271821022034,
-0.2776542603969574,
-0.2684709429740906,
-0.4638967514038086,
-0.05927109718322754,
-0.3912734389305115,
0.09059660881757736,
-0.04767041653394699,
0.5878327488899231,
0.03729446977376938,
-0.4907020330429077,
0.38034436106681824,
-0.35855311155319214,
0.5599356889724731,
-0.6573395729064941,
-0.15235458314418793,
0.27171236276626587,
0.1343853622674942,
-0.4070529341697693,
-0.5465037226676941,
-0.39279210567474365,
0.3387816846370697,
0.07985221594572067,
0.22736908495426178,
-0.844236433506012,
0.15348730981349945,
0.44128915667533875,
-0.21150170266628265,
-0.2223930060863495,
-0.0672890916466713,
0.24787932634353638,
0.255668580532074,
0.6081676483154297,
-0.6623143553733826,
-0.3440537750720978,
0.6075535416603088,
-0.5172606706619263,
0.3102768361568451,
0.1233268603682518,
-0.11234227567911148,
0.26228830218315125,
0.1479807198047638,
0.3698789179325104,
0.10287421941757202,
0.03982481732964516,
-0.5415604710578918,
-0.2723310887813568,
-0.1101076602935791,
0.29204559326171875,
0.050848338752985,
-0.33955270051956177,
0.307717502117157,
-0.5443559885025024,
0.038818176835775375,
0.1256149262189865,
-0.3041953146457672,
0.672213077545166,
-0.8661679625511169,
0.45128533244132996,
-0.1587248146533966,
0.3072739243507385,
0.08772788196802139,
0.012921537272632122,
0.7256765961647034,
0.2987889349460602,
-0.02501763589680195,
0.2713359296321869,
0.10005030781030655,
0.4567343592643738,
0.22646963596343994,
-0.4569185674190521,
-0.25089263916015625,
0.2359389364719391,
0.21130657196044922,
0.10728199034929276,
-0.14856238663196564,
-0.2474101483821869,
-0.15651388466358185,
0.07591436058282852,
0.06315484642982483,
0.34357771277427673,
-0.40210047364234924,
0.03904153034090996,
0.7010294198989868,
-0.5639187693595886,
0.3761979639530182,
0.14660827815532684,
-0.11383099853992462,
0.3445144593715668,
0.22347436845302582,
-0.45521461963653564,
-0.8268652558326721,
0.42590078711509705,
-0.30474385619163513,
0.12441763281822205,
-0.05977620556950569,
0.1750667244195938,
0.8645148873329163,
0.5242151618003845,
-0.6645382046699524,
0.06405775994062424,
-0.5925747752189636,
-0.5562336444854736,
0.30556270480155945,
0.10614931583404541,
-0.16336429119110107,
0.32587870955467224,
0.6378580927848816,
0.4604661464691162,
-0.07152102887630463,
0.1738421767950058,
-0.3068872094154358,
0.37298595905303955,
-0.26606330275535583,
0.3129175007343292,
-0.323171466588974,
0.4596940279006958,
-0.1280636191368103,
-0.0407940037548542,
0.48160210251808167,
-0.3123331367969513,
-0.15134620666503906,
0.15473373234272003,
0.4505839943885803,
-0.11724397540092468,
0.245236337184906,
-0.024927616119384766,
-0.2400202751159668,
0.25062239170074463,
0.3004889190196991,
0.4271720051765442,
-0.24927401542663574,
0.32299134135246277,
0.53359055519104,
-0.17977948486804962,
-0.19931282103061676,
-0.1961957812309265,
0.3186127543449402,
0.593496561050415,
-0.4091426730155945,
0.5355796813964844,
-0.3396347165107727,
-0.019271519035100937,
0.12013096362352371,
0.3809102177619934,
-0.0818842202425003,
-0.1501924842596054,
0.12372226268053055,
-0.22585353255271912,
-0.3153519928455353,
-0.5595930218696594,
0.00569959357380867,
0.11347486823797226,
-0.1466163992881775,
0.16755424439907074,
-0.292370468378067,
0.6089571714401245,
0.25334039330482483,
-0.17473198473453522,
-0.19342899322509766,
-0.17423027753829956,
-0.31598496437072754,
0.17888124287128448,
-0.42481517791748047,
1.0434857606887817,
0.3575797975063324,
0.07398469746112823,
-0.3833414316177368,
0.10454849898815155,
0.4836987257003784,
0.07605674117803574,
-0.44655635952949524,
0.14371836185455322,
-0.4059973955154419,
-0.6515272855758667,
-0.5456928610801697,
0.3096083998680115,
0.18955381214618683,
-0.6033765077590942,
-0.0033354919869452715,
0.11846956610679626,
-0.3745436370372772,
-0.25947216153144836,
0.39372918009757996,
-0.3101208806037903,
0.18132467567920685,
-0.3538587689399719,
-0.39459341764450073,
-0.5293495059013367,
0.30634453892707825,
0.5843033790588379,
-0.12440871447324753,
-0.18966814875602722,
0.2138923853635788,
-0.09807191044092178,
-0.6438336372375488,
0.15600551664829254,
-0.6221535205841064,
0.026408838108181953,
-0.1189480796456337,
0.4249679148197174,
-0.5990864038467407,
-0.08467509597539902,
0.7516183853149414,
0.38273563981056213,
0.3581767678260803,
-0.2007548063993454,
-0.430145800113678,
0.039439231157302856,
0.024650709703564644,
0.3988032639026642,
0.03524021431803703,
0.8638756275177002,
-0.8822433352470398,
-0.42967337369918823,
-0.5676090121269226,
0.21961450576782227,
0.03304046019911766,
-0.2944929897785187,
0.08006526529788971,
0.29483872652053833,
-0.20563377439975739,
-0.19624556601047516,
0.4037211835384369,
-0.2332773357629776,
0.2784576714038849,
0.331293523311615
] |
260915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Footprint%20Center | Footprint Center | Footprint Center (formerly America West Arena, US Airways Center, Talking Stick Resort Arena and Phoenix Suns Arena) is a multi-purpose arena in Phoenix, Arizona.
Built in the regional population epicenter of the southwestern United States, the arena opened on June 6, 1992 at a construction cost of $89 million.
It is currently the home arena for the Phoenix Suns of the National Basketball Association (NBA), the Phoenix Mercury of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) and the Indoor Football League's Arizona Rattlers. The ECHL's Phoenix RoadRunners also played there from 2005 until they ceased operations at the conclusion of the 2008-2009 season. Additionally, the National Hockey League (NHL)'s Phoenix Coyotes (now the Arizona Coyotes) played their first 7+ seasons at the arena following their arrival in Phoenix on July 1, 1996.
Located one block away from Chase Field, home of the Arizona Diamondbacks, the arena is in size on an site. These two major league sports venues are half of those used by Phoenix area professional teams, the other two being State Farm Stadium and Gila River Arena in the neighboring Phoenix suburb of Glendale.
Footprint Center underwent its second significant renovation in its history. The Phoenix City Council approved the plan on January 23, 2019, involving the arena, with the Phoenix Suns paying up to $80 million alongside any overrun costs. The first renovation was completed in March 2003 that had an air conditioned glass-enclosed atrium built on the northwest side of the arena. That $67 million project was constructed to keep patrons cool while waiting in line for tickets or spending time inside the building before events. The arena upgrades have been done as part of the Suns' plan to keep it economically competitive after Gila River Arena opened. Former Suns owner Jerry Colangelo originally thought of the renovations after visiting Staples Center in Los Angeles and envisioned a similar entertainment district in Phoenix.
The COVID-19 pandemic forced a pause to the Suns' 2019–20 season and allowed for an early start to the most recent renovations. Up to 80% of all planned work was completed in time for the 2020 preseason home opener, a 112–107 loss to the Los Angeles Lakers on December 16, 2020. The Mercury originally planned to play their 2020 WNBA season home games at Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum, but relocated all of the season's games to the IMG Academy in Bradenton, Florida. The Rattlers had their 2020 IFL season cancelled, but played their first home game of the 2021 season on June 12, 2021 against the Tucson Sugar Skulls.
Sports teams and events
Basketball, arena football, concerts, ice shows and other events such as wrestling are held in the arena.
The Coyotes hosted their first regular season home game in Arizona at the arena on October 10, 1996, with a 4–1 win over the San Jose Sharks. They finished the 1996–97 season with a 38–37–7 record to qualify for the Stanley Cup playoffs. That playoff appearance was short-lived, with a Game 7 loss to the Anaheim Ducks in the Western Conference Quarterfinals. Just over 7 years later, the team played their last home game within Phoenix city limits with a 5–2 loss to the Minnesota Wild on December 15, 2003.
The arena also hosted the Arizona Sandsharks of the defunct Continental Indoor Soccer League (CISL).
Its most common nickname is "The Purple Palace", though during the Rattlers' season it is known as "The Snake Pit".
Capacity for basketball games was originally 19,023, but was downsized after the 2002–03 season to 18,422 and further downsized to 18,055 before the 2014–15 season.
The arena has seen its share of basketball moments. Less than a year after its opening, it hosted 3 championship games of the 1993 NBA Finals between the Suns and the Chicago Bulls. The Mercury hosted WNBA Finals games in 1998, 2007 and 2009. The 1995 NBA All-Star Game, 2000 WNBA All-Star Game and 2009 NBA All-Star Game. were played at the arena.
The Rattlers have hosted four ArenaBowl games, with three played at Footprint Center. They won ArenaBowl XI with a 55–33 win over the Iowa Barnstormers on August 25, 1997. They lost in their only championship game appearance at Gila River Arena, a 56–42 ArenaBowl XXIX loss to the Philadelphia Soul on August 26, 2016.
Among the notable boxing events held in Phoenix, they include Oscar De La Hoya's early bouts, Michael Carbajal's WBO world Junior Flyweight title against Josue Camacho in 1994 and Julio César Chávez ended his career with a fight at the arena.
In bull riding, the Professional Bull Riders hosted a Built Ford Tough Series (formerly the Bud Light Cup) at the arena between 1999 and 2002. The annual event moved to Giendale in 2004 before it returned to downtown Phoenix in March 2014.
Concerts
Frank Sinatra gave one of his last concerts on December 10, 1993, in the arena.
As part of their Keep the Faith Tour, Bon Jovi performed in the arena on March 11, 1993.
Gloria Estefan played here on July 30, 1996, during her “Evolution” World Tour.
Van Halen made a stop in Phoenix on April 1, 1995, as part of their The Balance "Ambulance" Tour.
Shakira performed at the arena on January 31, 2003 during the Tour of the Mongoose. She later brought her Oral Fixation Tour to the arena on August 11, 2006. She returned to the arena on August 26, 2018 for her El Dorado World Tour.
Depeche Mode performed during 3 separate tours at the arena. They were on December 14, 1998 (Singles Tour), August 10, 2001 (Exciter Tour) and August 23, 2009 (Tour of the Universe). Their 2009 show had 7,635 people in attendance and was recorded for the band's live albums project Recording the Universe.
Miley Cyrus performed at the arena for her Bangerz Tour on February 27, 2014.
Ariana Grande performed at the arena on April 6, 2015 as part of The Honeymoon Tour. She kicked off her Dangerous Woman Tour at the arena on February 3, 2017. She later brought her Sweetener World Tour to the arena on May 14, 2019.
Fleetwood Mac performed at the arena on November 28, 2018, during their An Evening with Fleetwood Mac tour. It took place in the hometown of their lead singer Stevie Nicks.
Earlier that month, Twenty One Pilots held a second show there as part of their The Bandito Tour.
They will return to arena for their The Icy Tour on September 16, 2022.
On August 30, 2021, Guns N' Roses held a show as a part of their 2020 Tour.
On October 17, 2021, J.Cole performed at the arena for his The Off-Season Tour.
On February 8, 2022, Tyler, the Creator performed at the Footprint Center for his first show on the Call Me If You Get Lost Tour.
On February 19, 2022, Andrea Bocelli performed at the Footprint Center for his United States Tour.
History
Construction began on August 1, 1990, as former Suns owner Jerry Colangelo envisioned a need for a new arena to be built in Phoenix to replace Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum. About 27 months later, Footprint Center was officially inaugurated with the Suns' 1992–1993 season opening 111–105 victory over the Los Angeles Clippers on November 7, 1992. Simultaneously, it also was Charles Barkley's first regular season game as a Sun. Despite the fact that the Suns had lost the 1993 NBA Finals to the Chicago Bulls, a parade was still held and attracted more than 300,000 Suns fans. It made its way through downtown Phoenix and finished at the new arena.
NHL years
When the original Winnipeg Jets publicly announced their intention to relocate to Phoenix for the 1996–97 NHL season, the arena was quickly reconfigured to accommodate ice hockey. Unlike most multipurpose arenas, it was not designed with an ice hockey rink in mind. Its tight seating configuration suits basketball very well, but made it logistically difficult to fit a standard NHL rink onto the floor. The lower level had to be sheared in half to fit the rink and create retractable seating.
As it turned out, the result was completely inadequate for the Coyotes. Three entire sections at one end of the ice hung over the boards. Fans sitting in those sections could not see of the ice (including one of the nets) except on the video boards. The problem was so serious that after the team's first season in Phoenix, the team had to curtain off some seats in the areas where the view was particularly obstructed, cutting listed capacity from around 18,000 seats to 16,210.
The Coyotes added a second video board for an area where the view was particularly obstructed. They also put up numerous proposals to improve sight lines and boost the seating capacity back over the 17,000 mark. They also had to sell many obstructed-view tickets at a reduced price. Additionally, an unfavorable lease caused further financial troubles that impacted the team for much of the time they played at the arena. These were factors in driving them into bankruptcy in 2009. The Coyotes moved into Gila River Arena nearly midway through the 2003–04 NHL season.
Naming rights
The original arena naming rights contract was sold in January 1990 to Tempe-based America West Airlines. The venue was known as America West Arena from its opening until 2006.
The previous year, America West purchased rival carrier US Airways. Although America West was the surviving airline, it took the US Airways name as did the venue. This was the second arena that the company owned the naming rights after the now-demolished US Airways Arena (formerly Capital Centre) in Landover, Maryland.
Talking Stick Resort in nearby Scottsdale secured the new naming rights with an official announcement outside the Casino Arizona Pavilion on December 2, 2014.
The name change to Talking Stick Resort Arena was completed in September 2015, in time for the start of the 2015–16 Phoenix Suns season.
After negotiations on a contract extension stalled earlier on in the year due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Arizona, Talking Stick Resort officially announced the naming rights deal expired on November 6, 2020. Until a new agreement was reached, the venue was known as Phoenix Suns Arena; prior to this, it was briefly known as PHX Arena.
On July 16, 2021, it was announced that Gilbert based materials science company Footprint had secured the arena naming rights, naming it the Footprint Center as part of a long-term partnership with the Suns ownership and the company.
See also
List of historic properties in Phoenix, Arizona
References
External links
1992 establishments in Arizona
Arena football venues
Arizona Coyotes arenas
Basketball venues in Arizona
Defunct indoor ice hockey venues in the United States
Defunct National Hockey League venues
Indoor soccer venues in the United States
Music venues in Arizona
National Basketball Association venues
Phoenix Mercury venues
Phoenix Points of Pride
Phoenix Suns venues
Sports venues completed in 1992
Sports venues in Phoenix, Arizona
Indoor arenas in Arizona | [
0.7074747085571289,
0.13672320544719696,
0.16653917729854584,
0.1380896270275116,
0.38890042901039124,
-0.2617225646972656,
0.17816804349422455,
0.4177314043045044,
0.12104997038841248,
-1.0470607280731201,
0.29982930421829224,
-0.011864904314279556,
-0.34332388639450073,
-0.2660755217075348,
-0.43696096539497375,
-0.07892308384180069,
0.06437823921442032,
0.45945674180984497,
-0.18358604609966278,
-0.16529390215873718,
-0.15336467325687408,
-0.002157187322154641,
0.3948012888431549,
0.4330505430698395,
-0.122052863240242,
0.7451837062835693,
-0.055806975811719894,
0.18002934753894806,
-0.30979710817337036,
0.5526477694511414,
0.007234765682369471,
-0.0338519923388958,
-0.0019561946392059326,
-0.420279324054718,
0.4209105968475342,
0.20223960280418396,
-0.054845597594976425,
0.0016344634350389242,
-0.42535674571990967,
-0.4690549969673157,
-0.18146225810050964,
-0.2544133961200714,
0.003682590089738369,
0.48244887590408325,
-0.17802657186985016,
0.2706180512905121,
-1.627338171005249,
0.1808047592639923,
-1.3111298084259033,
-0.22897209227085114,
-0.43432411551475525,
0.0031213494949042797,
0.06664485484361649,
0.13245829939842224,
0.41659995913505554,
0.6327241659164429,
-0.972700297832489,
-0.27577516436576843,
0.12042414397001266,
-0.2449832707643509,
0.0864703431725502,
0.6057480573654175,
0.006290527526289225,
-0.01357254758477211,
0.5734056830406189,
-0.34683525562286377,
0.633391797542572,
0.29177403450012207,
0.48289158940315247,
0.029061540961265564,
-0.09912929683923721,
0.5926725268363953,
-0.1552000343799591,
0.8337035179138184,
-0.05476140230894089,
0.0684867650270462,
-0.10755730420351028,
0.4281660318374634,
0.3982771933078766,
0.4495132863521576,
-0.13629715144634247,
-0.06632683426141739,
0.8367225527763367,
0.3906267583370209,
-0.04605551064014435,
-0.4692225158214569,
-0.5020975470542908,
-0.8097463846206665,
-0.45099613070487976,
0.21846207976341248,
-0.6833804249763489,
-0.5180278420448303,
0.5093360543251038,
0.6176049113273621,
-0.32524263858795166,
0.07306793332099915,
0.22967028617858887,
-0.06055347993969917,
0.6015141010284424,
-0.21918709576129913,
-0.0792807936668396,
-0.288208931684494,
0.16730019450187683,
-0.07563332468271255,
0.16746391355991364,
-0.037068650126457214,
-0.44805437326431274,
-0.38502955436706543,
0.4205457866191864,
-0.08233880996704102,
-0.3460322916507721,
0.18800750374794006,
-0.12247468531131744,
-0.06746061891317368,
0.20966942608356476,
0.5490196347236633,
0.5072147846221924,
-0.27874624729156494,
-0.5285090208053589,
-0.5491849184036255,
0.1260422021150589,
0.880786657333374,
0.07625436037778854,
0.019642405211925507,
-0.35559552907943726,
0.19150228798389435,
0.5339845418930054,
0.10617387294769287,
-0.24215660989284515,
-0.5977534651756287,
0.29107216000556946,
-0.03332037851214409,
0.07845582813024521,
0.043884795159101486,
0.07301191985607147,
0.22365614771842957,
0.3742702305316925,
-0.6996009945869446,
0.4703053832054138,
0.2751489579677582,
0.2766883075237274,
-0.6184465289115906,
-0.1458960473537445,
-0.3060742914676666,
0.2470414787530899,
0.028752140700817108,
0.05821453779935837,
-0.4630754888057709,
-0.0050653391517698765,
0.1779649555683136,
0.24329787492752075,
0.2532881796360016,
-0.3333006799221039,
-0.46126025915145874,
-0.4662855863571167,
0.3089188039302826,
0.46259137988090515,
-0.6245752573013306,
0.24048970639705658,
0.1514732837677002,
-0.24069789052009583,
0.19644272327423096,
-0.22400732338428497,
0.004117833916097879,
-0.2484617978334427,
-0.4050726890563965,
0.7066941261291504,
-0.40921860933303833,
0.33142533898353577,
0.09897782653570175,
-0.23384755849838257,
-0.020285844802856445,
0.7240431308746338,
0.3964943289756775,
0.18985870480537415,
-0.5672866702079773,
0.45324084162712097,
-0.06814156472682953,
-0.23100994527339935,
0.3624858260154724,
-0.6972154974937439,
-0.04419737309217453,
0.4115942716598511,
-0.01845022849738598,
0.37034904956817627,
-0.8061590790748596,
1.1897056102752686,
0.12717847526073456,
-0.035225071012973785,
-0.26125040650367737,
-0.5822597742080688,
-0.635404109954834,
0.3831388056278229,
-0.37279993295669556,
0.5652278065681458,
-0.5848899483680725,
-0.331489622592926,
0.48873305320739746,
-0.2941013276576996,
0.24116289615631104,
-0.5563902854919434,
0.2711540758609772,
0.8587331175804138,
-0.20577192306518555,
-0.4114423990249634,
-0.3768124580383301,
0.2598808705806732,
-0.3819660246372223,
-0.14136596024036407,
0.5320387482643127,
0.7334189414978027,
-0.7859207987785339,
0.25264379382133484,
0.5884606838226318,
-0.018961438909173012,
-0.9380854368209839,
-0.6215342879295349,
0.33125215768814087,
-0.4718094766139984,
0.23752528429031372,
1.4047741889953613,
0.4864008128643036,
0.23909911513328552,
0.08405566960573196,
-0.054868683218955994,
0.7791370153427124,
-0.14208951592445374,
-0.0158243291079998,
0.4069332480430603,
0.24990659952163696,
0.24685201048851013,
0.2786037027835846,
-0.1360635757446289,
-0.967768669128418,
0.5101751685142517,
-0.07591032236814499,
0.6966020464897156,
-0.6376898884773254,
0.14630718529224396,
-0.2928488254547119,
-0.4523885250091553,
-0.284577339887619,
-0.41499781608581543,
-0.30303680896759033,
0.7842691540718079,
-0.27262577414512634,
-0.3585902154445648,
0.1440357267856598,
-0.13006146252155304,
-0.3154396712779999,
-0.37046071887016296,
-0.14854523539543152,
0.16686265170574188,
-0.4703719913959503,
0.603549599647522,
0.44062820076942444,
0.17047066986560822,
0.1317630410194397,
0.3428526222705841,
-0.42208972573280334,
-0.01025737076997757,
0.019081775099039078,
0.07135366648435593,
0.07339461147785187,
-0.26568010449409485,
-0.31890973448753357,
0.11072145402431488,
-0.25939449667930603,
0.2790319323539734,
-0.14465929567813873,
0.33478429913520813,
-0.20759591460227966,
-0.06741747260093689,
0.18178699910640717,
-0.2822095453739166,
-0.11909182369709015,
-0.27477625012397766,
-0.1253180354833603,
0.03898242861032486,
-0.7434969544410706,
0.5572397112846375,
0.4131663739681244,
-0.044924601912498474,
-0.2661891281604767,
0.2451670914888382,
0.37341174483299255,
-0.3749168813228607,
-0.397109717130661,
-0.712376058101654,
-0.3062936067581177,
-0.47723105549812317,
0.5136472582817078,
-0.11156477779150009,
0.6014651656150818,
0.1745503842830658,
0.3987366855144501,
0.48773524165153503,
-0.3742542266845703,
0.4231322407722473,
-0.3025084137916565,
-0.2548837661743164,
0.20286712050437927,
-0.3203446567058563,
-0.31705790758132935,
0.18240812420845032,
-0.29591241478919983,
0.1621420532464981,
-0.9580063223838806,
-5.597416400909424,
0.46536344289779663,
-0.6509916186332703,
-0.2642216682434082,
-0.0670662671327591,
-0.1673622578382492,
-0.1841130256652832,
0.33618178963661194,
0.061158403754234314,
-0.010242413729429245,
0.07598882913589478,
-0.768241286277771,
0.25726982951164246,
-0.29185447096824646,
0.3607783317565918,
0.42436841130256653,
0.7775697112083435,
0.30882835388183594,
0.07682282477617264,
-0.010099684819579124,
0.18181397020816803,
-0.26655980944633484,
-0.3051600158214569,
0.3341620862483978,
0.5128670334815979,
0.2072085589170456,
-0.24473936855793,
-0.02794867567718029,
-0.7402704358100891,
-0.6782292723655701,
0.022740399464964867,
0.08143316209316254,
-0.7235400676727295,
0.10197429358959198,
0.1457352489233017,
0.641937255859375,
0.22489851713180542,
-0.6096501350402832,
-0.17154669761657715,
-0.4235016107559204,
0.35348597168922424,
0.22223280370235443,
0.22283774614334106,
-0.47476357221603394,
0.8491264581680298,
0.0541093647480011,
-0.005816393997520208,
0.10261056572198868,
-0.5290172696113586,
0.13384407758712769,
0.5040433406829834,
-0.03889942541718483,
0.04998842626810074,
0.3833010792732239,
0.13040238618850708,
-0.47081589698791504,
-0.06070587784051895,
0.14883700013160706,
0.21398910880088806,
0.3521363139152527,
0.34676066040992737,
-0.641559898853302,
0.023392880335450172,
-0.4442611336708069,
-0.002430527936667204,
-0.5808398723602295,
0.21604974567890167,
0.21661819517612457,
0.44260743260383606,
-0.16271765530109406,
0.06207173690199852,
0.31454282999038696,
-0.6185446977615356,
-0.6959593892097473,
-0.32555827498435974,
-0.2341928780078888,
0.38084062933921814,
0.17913614213466644,
-0.9480905532836914,
0.2289344072341919,
-0.3265670835971832,
-0.10735908150672913,
-0.5140222311019897,
0.2878361642360687,
0.31436067819595337,
-0.19212326407432556,
-0.5214968323707581,
0.7173743844032288,
-0.3543868362903595,
0.302621454000473,
0.7070016860961914,
-0.4451672434806824,
-0.13239188492298126,
-0.23055939376354218,
0.13599510490894318,
-0.10499975830316544,
-0.038594216108322144,
-0.19405733048915863,
0.2916611433029175,
0.2188059687614441,
0.2951134741306305,
0.23965023458003998,
0.2613760530948639,
-0.3417038023471832,
0.15405942499637604,
-0.6286264657974243,
0.4370078444480896,
0.34081849455833435,
0.4914497137069702,
-0.4180109202861786,
0.04942426458001137,
-0.04528099671006203,
-0.46959781646728516,
-0.24242839217185974,
0.3586834669113159,
-0.17274630069732666,
-0.453914612531662,
0.15758126974105835,
-0.18145295977592468,
0.18774811923503876,
-0.3635293245315552,
0.378129243850708,
-0.3738943636417389,
0.35004517436027527,
-0.9102604985237122,
-0.41986414790153503,
-0.1529073715209961,
0.04199783504009247,
0.49773916602134705,
-0.25027692317962646,
0.4673163890838623,
-0.13226677477359772,
0.7680761218070984,
0.5343914031982422,
-0.10495085269212723,
-0.16707275807857513,
-0.17247481644153595,
-0.4765017032623291,
0.1728082001209259,
0.08686404675245285,
0.01974676363170147,
0.2314271777868271,
0.4906923472881317,
0.5066774487495422,
0.48255449533462524,
0.6169294118881226,
-0.31074708700180054,
-0.3190132677555084,
-0.9202261567115784,
0.25161105394363403,
0.04987854138016701,
-0.416483610868454,
0.12061745673418045,
-0.625135600566864,
0.2971346080303192,
0.16245034337043762,
0.08715064078569412,
-0.1834261268377304,
0.5547291040420532,
0.033363040536642075,
0.42953047156333923,
0.13782858848571777,
-0.18591919541358948,
0.2362300306558609,
-0.15733495354652405,
0.06458639353513718,
-0.5635180473327637,
-0.45819777250289917,
-0.9486740231513977,
0.13433140516281128,
0.6806508898735046,
-1.091561198234558,
-0.9660419821739197,
-0.3744848072528839,
0.4426882863044739,
-0.17699413001537323,
0.12530697882175446,
-0.41706326603889465,
0.36722469329833984,
0.12526679039001465,
-0.44213277101516724,
0.028996381908655167,
-0.3904992640018463,
0.5803402662277222,
0.3734493851661682,
-0.16051772236824036,
-0.4374029040336609,
-0.4761071801185608,
0.5254641175270081,
-0.37187373638153076,
0.24483846127986908,
-0.2880368232727051,
-0.24266433715820312,
0.0802033543586731,
0.2873117923736572,
-0.24858668446540833,
0.5385481119155884,
1.0636978149414062,
-0.9452400207519531,
-0.055332109332084656,
-0.22267265617847443,
0.08330561965703964,
-0.5566905736923218,
0.7237920165061951,
0.6442798972129822,
0.006733761169016361,
0.28888848423957825,
0.15272749960422516,
-0.33048000931739807,
-0.023953046649694443,
-0.9242148995399475,
-0.49637773633003235,
0.3158482015132904,
0.4383334219455719,
0.17242102324962616,
0.5085805654525757,
-0.03874560445547104,
-0.35695764422416687,
-0.37600576877593994,
-0.4321882724761963,
0.2071344554424286,
-0.07203204184770584,
-0.3498629033565521,
-0.42564308643341064,
-0.9451221227645874,
0.2590493857860565,
0.2628156542778015,
-0.03468784689903259,
-0.3939606547355652,
-0.3454986810684204,
-0.1943182349205017,
0.07986342161893845,
-0.3126493990421295,
0.0938217043876648,
0.4551427960395813,
0.07815879583358765,
-0.36806195974349976,
0.4164843261241913,
0.9646868109703064,
0.026645304635167122,
0.231120765209198,
0.4968698024749756,
0.45146843791007996,
-0.023516878485679626,
0.04554596543312073,
0.5778796672821045,
0.3166869878768921,
0.1949082612991333,
-0.9047046303749084,
0.546607494354248,
0.21484136581420898,
-0.1416613608598709,
-0.1423129439353943,
-0.1888270080089569,
0.4754801094532013,
-0.5244919657707214,
0.023691542446613312,
0.07744210213422775,
-0.8302894234657288,
-0.2625170946121216,
-0.11630566418170929,
-0.21544837951660156,
-0.4016895890235901,
0.23917987942695618,
-0.007682701572775841,
0.176284059882164,
-0.30739280581474304,
-0.6885470747947693,
0.010208758525550365,
-1.18671452999115,
0.15697145462036133,
0.3958565294742584,
-0.047337863594293594,
0.6774981617927551,
0.08907081186771393,
0.12019173055887222,
0.4025603234767914,
-0.5363227725028992,
-0.6515196561813354,
0.034157514572143555,
0.050819024443626404,
0.06687058508396149,
-0.28204265236854553,
-0.4546137750148773,
0.30521541833877563,
-0.5296165347099304,
-0.5316494703292847,
0.010562197305262089,
-0.32548585534095764,
0.4475579857826233,
-0.2000129371881485,
-0.36827054619789124,
-0.19034677743911743,
-0.1438860446214676,
-0.6419839859008789,
0.012184138409793377,
1.166451096534729,
0.1956821084022522,
-0.020349325612187386,
0.35795655846595764,
-0.637152373790741,
0.6166796684265137,
0.0010642220731824636,
-0.730069100856781,
0.08604347705841064,
-0.3457866311073303,
-0.19748255610466003,
-0.25547561049461365,
0.23342160880565643,
0.10587034374475479,
0.005256734322756529,
-0.4205675721168518,
0.34650978446006775,
0.5473216772079468,
-0.6212398409843445,
0.376401424407959,
0.11805358529090881,
-0.05429086834192276,
-0.11533543467521667,
0.04399548098444939,
-0.5901901125907898,
0.21170654892921448,
0.32247379422187805,
-0.195503368973732,
0.32854709029197693,
0.36064210534095764,
-0.23372593522071838,
0.14751411974430084,
-0.23492762446403503,
0.32724446058273315,
0.3203986585140228,
-0.5165243744850159,
0.07114996016025543,
0.47092998027801514,
0.15790997445583344,
-0.48696044087409973,
0.07611158490180969,
-0.1404404491186142,
-0.27686893939971924,
-0.17582052946090698,
-0.03750374913215637,
0.6503829956054688,
-0.26809343695640564,
0.32965904474258423,
-0.392470121383667,
-0.12154833227396011,
0.6530228853225708,
0.1362627148628235,
0.15195795893669128,
0.7135509252548218,
0.03375864773988724,
-0.29512378573417664,
-0.4599287211894989,
-0.12706634402275085,
0.2729046642780304,
-0.23819759488105774,
0.010900808498263359,
-0.27328652143478394,
-0.0024066308978945017,
0.5714387893676758,
0.38668280839920044,
0.4685696065425873,
0.5405492782592773,
-0.37109532952308655,
-0.8638750910758972,
-0.3359447419643402,
-0.1793505996465683,
-0.6074286103248596,
0.3576138913631439,
0.09075204282999039,
-0.5693284273147583,
1.0239136219024658,
-0.47125163674354553,
-0.24848264455795288,
0.22776469588279724,
0.18532781302928925,
0.1530575305223465,
-0.08385442942380905,
-0.0946260467171669,
0.02038436010479927,
0.24426104128360748,
-0.3134220242500305,
-0.43201562762260437,
-0.06584656238555908,
-0.1309860497713089,
0.3886622488498688,
-0.03925536200404167,
0.6931667923927307,
0.23665986955165863,
-0.1608908474445343,
-0.01944548264145851,
-0.3838047385215759,
0.2669215202331543,
-0.07533155381679535,
0.36082425713539124,
0.2730877697467804,
-0.20759445428848267,
-0.15273673832416534,
-0.03700731694698334,
0.4678106904029846,
0.49985048174858093,
-0.03836292400956154,
0.5584408044815063,
0.36893200874328613,
-0.0876050665974617,
0.2846677601337433,
-0.2983451187610626,
-0.15263822674751282,
-0.32462793588638306,
0.43029075860977173,
0.12880584597587585,
-0.12813469767570496,
-0.3204208016395569,
0.3780536651611328,
0.04575012996792793,
0.7691831588745117,
0.7043833136558533,
0.4823680520057678,
0.10498255491256714,
-0.17638806998729706,
-0.007219310849905014,
-0.011862059123814106,
0.5692338943481445,
0.10296289622783661,
-0.07242176681756973,
-0.610573410987854,
0.6766603589057922,
-0.43788769841194153,
-0.6095120310783386,
0.8454554677009583,
-0.17688772082328796,
-0.5259934663772583,
-0.39601975679397583,
0.645005464553833,
-0.8439289331436157,
-1.1262645721435547,
-0.12966425716876984,
0.7664657235145569,
1.1569344997406006,
-0.2777126431465149,
0.5070759057998657,
0.3312894105911255,
0.19756357371807098,
-0.040534377098083496,
0.7612054347991943,
0.38510268926620483,
-0.43434199690818787,
-0.622063398361206,
-0.6138949990272522,
0.3886689245700836,
0.23560228943824768,
0.021524621173739433,
-0.3541682958602905,
0.13047268986701965,
0.010803498327732086,
-0.09919735044240952,
-0.17517788708209991,
0.20158930122852325,
0.6044265627861023,
-0.3977305293083191
] |
260916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20Hesse | House of Hesse | The House of Hesse is a European dynasty, directly descended from the House of Brabant. They ruled the region of Hesse, one branch as prince-electors until 1866, and another branch as grand dukes until 1918.
History
The origins of the House of Hesse begin with the marriage of Sophie of Thuringia (daughter of Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia, and Elizabeth of Hungary) with Henry II, Duke of Brabant, from the House of Reginar. Sophie was the heiress of Hesse, which she passed on to her son, Henry, upon her retention of the territory following her partial victory in the War of the Thuringian Succession, in which she was one of the belligerents.
Originally the western part of the Landgraviate of Thuringia, in the mid 13th century, it was inherited by the younger son of Henry II, Duke of Brabant, and became a distinct political entity. From the late 16th century, it was generally divided into several branches, the most important of which were those of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) and Hesse-Darmstadt.
In the early 19th century, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel was elevated to Elector of Hesse (1803), while the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt became the Grand Duke of Hesse (1806), later the Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine. The Electorate of Hesse (Hesse-Kassel) was annexed by Prussia in 1866, while the Grand Duchy of Hesse (Hesse-Darmstadt) remained a sovereign realm until the end of the German monarchies in 1918.
Since 23 May 2013, the head of the house has been Donatus, Landgrave of Hesse. He descends from the Hesse-Kassel branch of the family, which has been the genealogically senior male line since the house's major partition in 1567. He is married to Countess Floria-Franziska of Faber-Castell. They have three children together.
Links
Rulers of Hesse
Faber-Castell Family
Branches
Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, died in 1567. Hesse was then divided between his four sons, thus four main branches arose: Hesse-Kassel, Hesse-Marburg, Hesse-Rheinfels and Hesse-Darmstadt.
House of Brabant
Hesse (1264–1567)
Hesse-Kassel (1567–1866), became Electorate of Hesse in 1803
Hesse-Rotenburg (1627–1834)
Hesse-Wanfried (1627–1755)
Hesse-Rheinfels (1627–1754)
Hesse-Eschwege (1632-1657)
Hesse-Philippsthal (1685-1866)
Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (1721–1866)
Hanau-Schaumburg (1831/1853, morganatic line)
Hesse-Marburg (1567, divided in 1604 between Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse-Kassel)
Hesse-Rheinfels (1567, divided in 1583 between Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Kassel and Hesse-Marburg)
Hesse-Darmstadt (1567–1918), became Grand Duchy of Hesse in 1806
Hesse-Butzbach (1609–1642)
Hesse-Braubach (1609–1651)
Hesse-Homburg (1622–1866)
Hesse-Itter (1661–1676)
Battenberg (1858, morganatic line. Mountbatten since 1917)
The Battenberg family are morganatic descendants in the male-line of the House of Hesse, issuing from the marriage of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine with Countess Julia Hauke who, along with her children and agnatic descendants, were made princes and princesses of Battenberg and Serene Highnesses. The Battenbergs who later settled in England changed that name to Mountbatten after World War I at the behest of George V, who substituted British peerages for their former German princely title. Those descended from the marriage of Alexander of Battenberg, Prince of Bulgaria, contracted with a commoner after the loss of his throne, were granted the title Count von Hartenau.
Hesse-Kassel and its junior lines were annexed by Prussia in 1866. Hesse-Darmstadt became the People's State of Hesse when the monarchy was abolished in 1918. Hesse-Philippsthal died out in the male line in 1925, and Hesse-Darmstadt in 1968. The male-line heirs of Hesse-Kassel and Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld continue to exist to the present day.
Family tree
See also
George Donatus
References
External links
Rulers of Hesse
Hesse | [
0.04063434526324272,
-0.05091962590813637,
0.4473993182182312,
0.2229381501674652,
-0.3761289119720459,
0.2900242805480957,
0.45845314860343933,
0.04635513201355934,
-0.4209577739238739,
-0.5675970911979675,
-0.09147702902555466,
-0.5282943844795227,
-0.15706761181354523,
0.9539824724197388,
-0.37398555874824524,
0.34485575556755066,
0.3789130747318268,
0.18601782619953156,
-0.28477853536605835,
-0.3915378451347351,
-0.6614670753479004,
-0.06223655119538307,
0.6200204491615295,
0.36581099033355713,
0.051890090107917786,
-0.47278016805648804,
0.8481130003929138,
0.14194148778915405,
0.4037819802761078,
-0.014435281045734882,
0.13545680046081543,
0.5443015098571777,
-0.12876473367214203,
-0.4132973253726959,
-0.08696256577968597,
-0.2298344224691391,
-0.0973498672246933,
-0.3790150284767151,
-0.20876061916351318,
-0.5958647131919861,
0.3511417508125305,
-0.1784765124320984,
0.5003057718276978,
0.19255545735359192,
-0.36033767461776733,
-0.23633664846420288,
-1.6947132349014282,
-0.08550761640071869,
-0.2810226380825043,
-0.1869359165430069,
0.2746693193912506,
-0.10569649189710617,
-0.438448429107666,
0.8741376399993896,
0.3644125759601593,
0.2380843162536621,
-1.1647006273269653,
-0.26816415786743164,
0.08846959471702576,
0.15734659135341644,
0.3459588289260864,
-0.041460998356342316,
0.018236255273222923,
0.45184460282325745,
-0.29632601141929626,
0.11561107635498047,
0.27766671776771545,
0.4017823040485382,
-0.5187408328056335,
-0.1714465320110321,
0.021804530173540115,
-0.03995427489280701,
-0.006288478150963783,
-0.31350865960121155,
0.40390080213546753,
0.030796078965067863,
-0.4037075340747833,
0.5134013295173645,
0.5185197591781616,
-0.4517824053764343,
-0.2054443508386612,
0.056379273533821106,
0.4649210572242737,
0.041139669716358185,
0.5269214510917664,
0.4311721622943878,
0.5819784998893738,
-0.18140916526317596,
-0.1867481917142868,
-0.01090728584676981,
-0.0998941957950592,
0.18512384593486786,
0.040407802909612656,
0.34583956003189087,
0.14099277555942535,
-0.7716004252433777,
0.28856924176216125,
0.18892818689346313,
0.16748352348804474,
0.2776186168193817,
0.06420130282640457,
0.23200519382953644,
-0.12378975003957748,
-0.576799213886261,
-0.7047158479690552,
-0.44397565722465515,
-0.35331112146377563,
0.029633525758981705,
-0.9878959655761719,
0.2840055823326111,
-0.2845861613750458,
0.31914204359054565,
0.6210077404975891,
0.15119338035583496,
-0.32745304703712463,
-0.2823348343372345,
0.3065848648548126,
-0.9696083664894104,
0.3450852334499359,
0.2743658125400543,
0.5414632558822632,
0.6001003980636597,
-0.5138562917709351,
0.4161343276500702,
0.40970170497894287,
-0.017067840322852135,
0.4175526201725006,
0.28070226311683655,
-0.4755374789237976,
-0.22130195796489716,
0.7302306294441223,
0.7568534016609192,
0.09423263370990753,
-0.037665024399757385,
0.47449299693107605,
-0.31093934178352356,
0.053941257297992706,
0.3814361095428467,
0.3803955614566803,
-0.02327590249478817,
-1.1440731287002563,
-0.24329985678195953,
-0.47859442234039307,
-0.18737228214740753,
0.027123641222715378,
-0.35454484820365906,
0.01802223175764084,
-0.39306893944740295,
0.016864247620105743,
-0.3029383420944214,
-0.37103334069252014,
-0.06746546179056168,
-0.10257038474082947,
-0.12201996147632599,
-0.9097316861152649,
0.31317636370658875,
0.5536758899688721,
0.01439970824867487,
1.2451728582382202,
0.45418068766593933,
-0.007836546748876572,
-0.3347714841365814,
0.43880221247673035,
0.1479506641626358,
0.7527687549591064,
0.03176857531070709,
-0.29047271609306335,
0.015976401045918465,
-0.7112420201301575,
0.130113422870636,
-0.36725905537605286,
0.08771124482154846,
-0.18906506896018982,
-0.3492538332939148,
-0.4980800449848175,
-0.25020912289619446,
0.22164390981197357,
0.2507564425468445,
0.5304945111274719,
-0.40747496485710144,
-0.34301048517227173,
0.35266175866127014,
0.17696349322795868,
-0.1502538025379181,
-0.28090885281562805,
0.42461732029914856,
0.41208672523498535,
0.0016381542664021254,
0.26000121235847473,
-0.3782157301902771,
0.3312581479549408,
-0.28006285429000854,
0.08322812616825104,
-0.3611706793308258,
0.6702318787574768,
-0.38689738512039185,
-0.27202531695365906,
0.502713143825531,
-0.20600628852844238,
0.48257219791412354,
0.4437999427318573,
-0.5850561857223511,
0.18706469237804413,
0.21643805503845215,
-0.039770565927028656,
0.19539102911949158,
-0.23569080233573914,
0.04241536557674408,
0.9435118436813354,
0.33839213848114014,
0.460724413394928,
0.03177402913570404,
0.1982346475124359,
0.2329467386007309,
0.06395124644041061,
0.0656064823269844,
-0.38214823603630066,
-0.16589167714118958,
-0.07671012729406357,
-0.7213850617408752,
0.1956140100955963,
0.033267393708229065,
-0.25813984870910645,
0.8481257557868958,
-0.03145507723093033,
0.847576916217804,
-0.14417578279972076,
-0.1548675149679184,
0.05164403095841408,
-0.06477406620979309,
-0.04068527743220329,
0.0016547080595046282,
0.274243026971817,
-0.17912915349006653,
0.11916642636060715,
-0.5594592690467834,
-0.441219300031662,
-0.24679456651210785,
-0.19515849649906158,
-0.09152038395404816,
0.2734643816947937,
0.20502890646457672,
-0.4615823030471802,
0.5443853139877319,
-0.09803441166877747,
0.2926078736782074,
-0.3557443618774414,
-0.06897133588790894,
-0.7870937585830688,
-0.47298386693000793,
0.4788069725036621,
0.21829065680503845,
-0.5838958621025085,
0.14855541288852692,
0.020407212898135185,
-0.4387573301792145,
0.0658462718129158,
-0.025099165737628937,
-0.26936793327331543,
0.2988434135913849,
-0.31194889545440674,
0.18370665609836578,
0.21438314020633698,
-0.04554034397006035,
0.1630340814590454,
0.19551318883895874,
-0.38511544466018677,
-0.40482333302497864,
0.0759449228644371,
0.37831491231918335,
0.6708217263221741,
-0.17865212261676788,
-0.3785770833492279,
-0.43439823389053345,
-0.10100436210632324,
-0.9311197996139526,
0.11818642169237137,
0.09822668135166168,
-0.5401379466056824,
-0.1984199434518814,
-0.2036544680595398,
0.3131253719329834,
-0.22510114312171936,
-0.7026419639587402,
0.30685001611709595,
-0.3384089171886444,
0.47606414556503296,
-0.08102039247751236,
0.07509752362966537,
0.701027512550354,
0.39239737391471863,
-0.07179345190525055,
-0.8668565154075623,
-0.5291406512260437,
-0.1343897432088852,
0.18793430924415588,
-0.11859656870365143,
0.26868191361427307,
0.2683156430721283,
-0.36301666498184204,
-0.9431123733520508,
-0.3810451030731201,
-0.6384236812591553,
0.027075372636318207,
0.2504703104496002,
-0.3977091908454895,
-0.2313152700662613,
0.15636898577213287,
-5.761089324951172,
-0.4099944829940796,
-0.10565855354070663,
-0.03725447878241539,
0.7005858421325684,
0.19566462934017181,
0.15439046919345856,
-0.28529784083366394,
0.46249863505363464,
-0.6117433905601501,
0.8524115681648254,
-0.10501153767108917,
0.2575983703136444,
0.30474311113357544,
0.03347138687968254,
-0.16219750046730042,
0.3030790090560913,
0.2605622708797455,
0.1585208624601364,
-0.3500796854496002,
0.144198939204216,
-0.0336138941347599,
0.23329749703407288,
0.5405780673027039,
0.13584309816360474,
0.4456987977027893,
-0.12645754218101501,
-0.46868404746055603,
-0.40617427229881287,
-0.6146319508552551,
-0.4500800669193268,
-0.4930184483528137,
0.529613733291626,
0.12803201377391815,
-0.13108043372631073,
-0.27729418873786926,
0.557854950428009,
0.5839307308197021,
0.2596670091152191,
-0.12463722378015518,
0.18121850490570068,
0.5725303292274475,
-0.4365914463996887,
0.4515775740146637,
-0.42865702509880066,
-0.45950838923454285,
-0.7084231972694397,
0.536670982837677,
-0.24382491409778595,
0.5164149403572083,
0.01829482428729534,
0.20920336246490479,
0.5883640050888062,
0.1745118945837021,
0.49361899495124817,
0.41507965326309204,
-0.1887274533510208,
0.12478882074356079,
-0.1033904030919075,
0.3170334994792938,
-0.040871478617191315,
-0.00507766380906105,
0.33284515142440796,
0.013020051643252373,
0.017926335334777832,
-0.5869637131690979,
-0.4802594482898712,
0.6683204770088196,
0.39375096559524536,
-0.2864760160446167,
-0.39008718729019165,
-0.1360219269990921,
0.6548610329627991,
-0.8814816474914551,
0.34772056341171265,
-0.17711792886257172,
-0.5978854298591614,
-0.4286631643772125,
0.4561091661453247,
0.040730465203523636,
0.5549502372741699,
0.598501443862915,
0.037340182811021805,
0.495161235332489,
0.22143352031707764,
-0.7020922899246216,
-0.42795470356941223,
0.07684735208749771,
0.22805798053741455,
-0.07017827779054642,
-0.3034827411174774,
-0.6607153415679932,
0.013554083183407784,
0.39307141304016113,
-0.007243327796459198,
1.0506739616394043,
-0.05379831790924072,
-0.05810478702187538,
0.45619654655456543,
-0.02747785672545433,
0.5829499959945679,
0.2800094187259674,
-0.48005369305610657,
-0.15853393077850342,
-0.02018974907696247,
0.21142184734344482,
0.15216660499572754,
-0.17620021104812622,
0.5416907072067261,
-0.4117739200592041,
-0.18214650452136993,
-0.3421746492385864,
-0.05621131882071495,
-1.0444297790527344,
-0.10954243689775467,
-1.018746256828308,
-1.199684977531433,
0.839993417263031,
0.3408083915710449,
-0.0633619874715805,
0.16314415633678436,
0.6482009291648865,
-0.4681245684623718,
-0.16635043919086456,
0.4228407144546509,
0.330024778842926,
-0.08585427701473236,
0.15989500284194946,
-0.6282161474227905,
0.1887405961751938,
-0.09008336067199707,
-0.31315967440605164,
0.3366716802120209,
0.002632095478475094,
-0.05400136113166809,
-0.2577749490737915,
0.16939885914325714,
-0.7590135931968689,
-0.10348108410835266,
-0.5832960605621338,
-0.33979079127311707,
-0.5044947862625122,
-0.17192168533802032,
0.15366952121257782,
0.14397339522838593,
-0.18733841180801392,
0.17417575418949127,
-0.2239501178264618,
-0.5153093338012695,
0.7371590733528137,
-0.3059214651584625,
0.2000446915626526,
1.236533284187317,
-0.010472763329744339,
-0.6455380916595459,
-0.3656538426876068,
0.15551096200942993,
0.50510174036026,
-0.28641727566719055,
-0.4960603415966034,
0.07752540707588196,
-0.4154818058013916,
-0.6352455615997314,
0.7220144867897034,
0.26844605803489685,
0.22537055611610413,
-0.5722848773002625,
0.18071714043617249,
-0.18710365891456604,
0.650687038898468,
0.20233432948589325,
-0.10208077728748322,
-0.3609529733657837,
0.3397548496723175,
-0.10957363247871399,
-0.11077238619327545,
0.169807568192482,
0.8312894105911255,
-0.32269570231437683,
-0.4886331856250763,
0.365805983543396,
0.11240583658218384,
-0.2967953383922577,
0.6096484661102295,
0.6101517081260681,
-0.2674660384654999,
0.358708918094635,
-0.2929845154285431,
-0.6203752756118774,
-0.10262142866849899,
0.23896834254264832,
0.34192144870758057,
0.11998163908720016,
0.5008528828620911,
-0.7814560532569885,
-0.1444011777639389,
0.03113463893532753,
-0.24882884323596954,
0.17621804773807526,
-0.11790181696414948,
0.23311518132686615,
0.6586174964904785,
-0.21504391729831696,
-0.24063345789909363,
0.3326759338378906,
-0.7557546496391296,
0.044280409812927246,
-0.09570903331041336,
0.1787310391664505,
0.3075099289417267,
0.010000339709222317,
-0.544640302658081,
-0.028460830450057983,
0.5334939956665039,
-0.12830427289009094,
-0.30620020627975464,
0.30655062198638916,
-0.6434214115142822,
0.32816872000694275,
-0.37557488679885864,
0.16351169347763062,
-0.20845210552215576,
-0.5683959722518921,
-0.04952171817421913,
-0.6153803467750549,
0.27866658568382263,
0.26667216420173645,
-0.15411998331546783,
0.5381349921226501,
-0.30203813314437866,
-0.07409149408340454,
-0.410966694355011,
0.28032809495925903,
0.25321561098098755,
-0.33221521973609924,
-0.16252993047237396,
0.9333106279373169,
0.17153798043727875,
0.08406186103820801,
0.48946014046669006,
0.3804919123649597,
0.8356575965881348,
0.3226124346256256,
-0.5986613035202026,
0.2619969844818115,
0.06761758774518967,
0.3143450915813446,
-0.7787403464317322,
-0.539003312587738,
0.6294233202934265,
-0.12954457104206085,
-0.4738341271877289,
-0.3823980391025543,
-0.21721768379211426,
0.9122205376625061,
-0.6060933470726013,
0.171167254447937,
0.1782425493001938,
0.14482514560222626,
-0.38771405816078186,
-0.5741337537765503,
0.23316767811775208,
-0.6458056569099426,
0.24638940393924713,
0.002759489929303527,
-0.1241205483675003,
-0.5610398650169373,
0.035956017673015594,
-0.1292695254087448,
0.28359371423721313,
-0.16772465407848358,
-0.28078120946884155,
-0.07808387279510498,
0.146493598818779,
0.0008271647966466844,
0.42679446935653687,
-0.19575713574886322,
-0.24998696148395538,
0.40201351046562195,
0.2755851447582245,
-0.705919086933136,
-0.35370180010795593,
-0.539417564868927,
-0.6704759001731873,
0.15383879840373993,
-0.576448380947113,
-0.5542089343070984,
-0.00978381559252739,
-0.16278482973575592,
0.008520854637026787,
-0.09072670340538025,
-0.16930915415287018,
0.18382295966148376,
0.5183248519897461,
0.1090489998459816,
0.4770684540271759,
-0.49455562233924866,
0.3974045217037201,
0.4893794357776642,
0.2508724629878998,
0.11079094558954239,
0.4078886806964874,
0.3978172540664673,
0.5999599099159241,
-0.35549917817115784,
0.43271341919898987,
-0.10339678823947906,
-0.519772469997406,
-0.08614683896303177,
-0.09561134874820709,
0.8864095211029053,
-0.07197200506925583,
-0.04332341253757477,
-0.03400905802845955,
-0.31478703022003174,
0.19687873125076294,
0.5504211783409119,
-0.3966994881629944,
0.012837174348533154,
-0.12514105439186096,
0.25955525040626526,
0.33947598934173584,
0.2744505703449249,
0.08769243210554123,
-0.28110191226005554,
0.5013779401779175,
-0.14671345055103302,
-0.15865272283554077,
-0.04457519203424454,
-0.1760801523923874,
0.771008312702179,
0.5592363476753235,
-0.914033830165863,
0.7037288546562195,
-0.38198912143707275,
-0.33726784586906433,
-0.21732915937900543,
-0.29276183247566223,
0.17239461839199066,
0.6457529067993164,
0.47274547815322876,
0.18097145855426788,
-0.3936505913734436,
-0.09364420175552368,
-0.24505729973316193,
0.3846208453178406,
-0.09232603758573532,
0.07990188896656036,
0.42529216408729553,
-0.17191460728645325,
0.5314083695411682,
-0.06479158997535706,
0.48226943612098694,
-0.30591899156570435,
0.3556601107120514,
0.5049127340316772,
0.7402700781822205,
-0.11797656863927841,
0.22497960925102234,
0.06537063419818878,
0.38654378056526184,
-0.7459191083908081,
0.37448349595069885,
-0.21614371240139008,
-0.4058975577354431,
-0.20542870461940765,
-0.3762551546096802,
-0.0022997865453362465,
0.06397593021392822,
-0.42619651556015015,
0.3947676420211792,
-0.3963983356952667,
-0.15416640043258667,
-0.11281269043684006,
-0.13817083835601807,
0.6810570359230042,
0.16293832659721375,
-0.09561670571565628,
0.3403581976890564,
0.18524132668972015,
-0.42425066232681274,
-0.6143922805786133,
0.03774873539805412,
-0.22278524935245514,
-0.2916087508201599,
-0.20934203267097473,
-0.014838489703834057,
0.17344224452972412,
-0.15416647493839264,
0.2796894609928131,
0.03859569504857063,
-0.6845752000808716,
0.21132199466228485,
-0.2747562527656555,
-0.14844590425491333,
0.148910254240036,
-0.12698951363563538,
0.2903977334499359,
-0.1063985526561737,
-0.2591434717178345,
0.034567587077617645,
0.4464350640773773,
0.06318778544664383,
0.00682080490514636,
-0.6267273426055908,
0.5652053952217102,
-0.033680930733680725,
0.22057464718818665,
-0.2634626626968384,
0.6672915816307068,
0.5887530446052551,
-0.26339033246040344,
-0.001511291367933154,
0.32855480909347534,
-0.37294289469718933,
-0.3185220956802368,
0.7484144568443298,
-0.41778841614723206,
-0.45918288826942444,
-0.1970585733652115,
-0.14660364389419556,
-0.43851813673973083,
-0.4458531141281128,
-0.26268279552459717,
-0.36258289217948914,
0.1792820543050766,
0.39248234033584595,
0.24954289197921753,
-0.6135038137435913,
0.2127518653869629,
0.07319534569978714,
0.034789156168699265,
-0.5723810195922852,
-0.5080572366714478,
-0.21821649372577667,
0.2101181298494339,
0.7191218137741089,
-0.05170300230383873,
-0.5449817776679993,
-0.80167156457901,
-0.1002616211771965,
-0.18061496317386627,
0.4871407747268677,
0.2987860441207886,
0.2523680329322815,
-0.4356851279735565,
0.48818570375442505,
-0.3174051344394684,
-0.3607821464538574,
0.5323446989059448,
0.24182476103305817,
0.26738202571868896,
0.5439807176589966,
-0.025820648297667503,
0.4622895419597626,
0.18389180302619934,
0.14369460940361023,
-0.6914478540420532,
0.3437182605266571,
0.30134865641593933
] |
260919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sojourner | Sojourner | A sojourner is a person who resides temporarily in a place.
Sojourner may also refer to:
Sojourner Truth (1797–1883), abolitionist and women's rights activist
Albert Sojourner (1872-1951), member of the Mississippi House of Representatives
Melanie Sojourner (born 1968) member of the Mississippi State Senate
Mike Sojourner (born 1953), American retired National Basketball League player
Willie Sojourner (1943–2005), basketball player and brother of Mike Sojourner
Sojourner (rover), a robotic rover that was part of the Mars Pathfinder mission
Sojourner (album) a box set by the alternative country band Magnolia Electric Co.
Sojourners, a Christian monthly magazine
Sojourner, a member of the DC Comics superhero team Hellenders
See also
Sojourner-Douglass College, a private learning institution named after the abolitionist
Sojourner Bolt, the ring name of wrestler Josette Bynum
Sojourn (disambiguation) | [
0.1287909299135208,
0.2549583613872528,
-0.4514862298965454,
0.2182423174381256,
0.11700034141540527,
0.1811607927083969,
0.4590655565261841,
0.4677256643772125,
-0.42407581210136414,
-0.3897956907749176,
-0.9897657632827759,
-0.34805694222450256,
-0.25241854786872864,
0.32304248213768005,
-0.12482938170433044,
0.32223987579345703,
0.06470030546188354,
0.3150506317615509,
0.04023139923810959,
-0.7013154029846191,
-0.19929535686969757,
0.07614799588918686,
-0.38150227069854736,
-0.5050720572471619,
0.3190194368362427,
-0.056613579392433167,
0.1032792404294014,
-0.046597033739089966,
-0.3423527479171753,
0.004015820100903511,
-0.10536043345928192,
0.9100049734115601,
-0.12168734520673752,
-0.3234541714191437,
0.4564523994922638,
0.31945115327835083,
0.3084023892879486,
-0.09360689669847488,
-0.31962406635284424,
-0.6880348324775696,
0.4522971212863922,
-0.04675368592143059,
0.845939576625824,
0.2274644672870636,
-0.8277720808982849,
-0.4536563754081726,
-1.6324522495269775,
0.1883537620306015,
-0.5051400661468506,
-0.3838731348514557,
-0.4182606041431427,
0.28317713737487793,
0.6273100972175598,
0.6397143602371216,
-0.2963394224643707,
0.459402471780777,
-0.8808356523513794,
0.11439209431409836,
0.12648652493953705,
-0.1929377168416977,
0.3844289183616638,
-0.2131926715373993,
0.0430150106549263,
-0.6139452457427979,
0.29465416073799133,
0.3113492429256439,
0.2589021623134613,
0.058709196746349335,
0.3123582899570465,
-0.6367210149765015,
-0.6715237498283386,
-0.31418728828430176,
0.4222886860370636,
0.6612042188644409,
-0.9181612730026245,
-0.041709646582603455,
0.4709039330482483,
-0.2327849268913269,
-0.20615914463996887,
0.20420552790164948,
-0.7355256080627441,
0.5081267356872559,
0.4910537898540497,
-0.42517825961112976,
0.4620538651943207,
-0.01748819835484028,
-0.7923733592033386,
0.3127726912498474,
-0.3454531729221344,
0.3827132284641266,
0.6956748962402344,
-0.2576117515563965,
0.47279953956604004,
-0.03829839825630188,
-0.126631498336792,
0.3297649323940277,
0.6657613515853882,
0.12182371318340302,
0.09692846238613129,
0.4015927314758301,
0.03157161921262741,
-0.07456294447183609,
0.7963652014732361,
0.008863722905516624,
0.27589529752731323,
-0.4397859573364258,
-0.20049838721752167,
-0.4187867045402527,
0.7403796315193176,
-0.5380579829216003,
-0.03201723471283913,
0.41849157214164734,
-0.503341555595398,
-0.10242290794849396,
-0.19818557798862457,
0.034749794751405716,
0.24587853252887726,
0.33881768584251404,
-0.37569460272789,
-0.370551198720932,
0.5005806088447571,
0.24899736046791077,
0.006638297811150551,
-0.40270525217056274,
-0.35107797384262085,
-0.08089885115623474,
0.3943651616573334,
0.5960261225700378,
-0.6277318000793457,
0.11749636381864548,
-0.02892896719276905,
0.6997462511062622,
-0.20088978111743927,
0.15088506042957306,
-0.23304016888141632,
0.09821811318397522,
0.45007196068763733,
0.04803058132529259,
0.12288644909858704,
0.17111890017986298,
-0.5788514018058777,
0.10588709264993668,
-1.0540804862976074,
0.09101641178131104,
0.5088854432106018,
-0.18805663287639618,
0.5491056442260742,
-0.5599579215049744,
0.2701340913772583,
-0.12001129239797592,
0.07480660080909729,
0.4136238694190979,
-0.16158843040466309,
0.06047442927956581,
-0.3686942756175995,
-0.4540294408798218,
0.3067288100719452,
-0.06125815585255623,
0.42383909225463867,
-0.037629950791597366,
0.17901505529880524,
0.6878857016563416,
-0.3969997465610504,
-0.0733318030834198,
0.03466270864009857,
-0.3851849436759949,
0.06358030438423157,
0.3837176561355591,
0.10770278424024582,
0.462220698595047,
-0.3940150737762451,
0.423125684261322,
0.30431681871414185,
-0.24214579164981842,
-0.2953776717185974,
0.6265363097190857,
0.6507762670516968,
-0.05703607201576233,
0.7801316380500793,
-0.016246071085333824,
-0.6219608187675476,
0.24315066635608673,
0.37510690093040466,
-0.054639168083667755,
0.24336230754852295,
-0.4258444309234619,
0.01639590784907341,
0.49592092633247375,
0.1792915016412735,
0.0040325806476175785,
-0.7541368007659912,
-0.34500011801719666,
-0.23931419849395752,
-0.7874581217765808,
0.7178182601928711,
-0.04420263692736626,
-0.3161437213420868,
0.8956230878829956,
0.21332351863384247,
0.28591838479042053,
-0.6650502681732178,
0.17355096340179443,
0.3489093482494354,
0.15627768635749817,
-0.3121788501739502,
1.4002054929733276,
0.35671019554138184,
0.3822058439254761,
0.16684870421886444,
0.09169942140579224,
0.38988617062568665,
-0.31275254487991333,
0.7343549728393555,
-0.0719490796327591,
-0.12258859723806381,
0.34941965341567993,
-0.5681010484695435,
0.3341633379459381,
-0.17551261186599731,
-0.058439187705516815,
0.742601752281189,
0.07252679020166397,
-0.10171639174222946,
0.4889501631259918,
-0.10306593030691147,
0.523382306098938,
0.2509235739707947,
-0.14751814305782318,
0.529918372631073,
-0.7286074161529541,
0.35414013266563416,
0.4002196788787842,
-0.08678790181875229,
-0.5070124864578247,
-0.5690589547157288,
0.25617969036102295,
0.664283275604248,
-0.43481728434562683,
0.3744015395641327,
0.12278413027524948,
-0.1705227494239807,
-0.1527136266231537,
-0.03462962433695793,
0.1322893500328064,
0.05669568479061127,
0.7398855686187744,
-0.29904159903526306,
0.2595392167568207,
0.13772191107273102,
-0.02607106976211071,
0.3718111217021942,
0.11537815630435944,
0.14713184535503387,
-0.18863297998905182,
0.5369765162467957,
-0.12011656165122986,
-0.1999642699956894,
0.5176118612289429,
0.4999161958694458,
-0.44973447918891907,
-0.29581043124198914,
-0.10658182948827744,
0.40247106552124023,
-0.041688740253448486,
-0.2762593626976013,
-0.19482381641864777,
-0.5496374368667603,
0.04079882800579071,
0.3019270896911621,
1.0053093433380127,
0.7076526880264282,
0.05729110538959503,
-0.5246228575706482,
-0.3628470003604889,
-0.4190339148044586,
-0.013491319492459297,
0.052716709673404694,
0.5485866665840149,
-0.3015669584274292,
-0.18125835061073303,
0.15277820825576782,
0.3181822597980499,
-0.01686437427997589,
-0.8247677087783813,
0.15858440101146698,
-0.6547569036483765,
0.2165696918964386,
-0.010437092743813992,
-0.2591867446899414,
0.03060193359851837,
-0.29147735238075256,
-0.07802022993564606,
0.28651005029678345,
0.17074458301067352,
0.7020031809806824,
0.381088525056839,
-0.0027272009756416082,
-0.1747095286846161,
0.07340557128190994,
-0.04879011958837509,
-0.06551075726747513,
-0.5925927758216858,
-0.3418239653110504,
-0.16507987678050995,
-0.014650903642177582,
-0.46058186888694763,
-0.1207289919257164,
-0.41883471608161926,
-5.610625743865967,
0.2663279175758362,
-0.25744372606277466,
-0.442729651927948,
-0.34816643595695496,
-0.022309523075819016,
1.192702054977417,
0.22541716694831848,
-0.7481339573860168,
0.5362220406532288,
-0.9062517285346985,
-0.3886345624923706,
-0.0881311297416687,
0.563785195350647,
0.6586083769798279,
0.41850611567497253,
0.1133137196302414,
0.36711689829826355,
-0.17898936569690704,
0.17262543737888336,
-0.38391709327697754,
0.09432268142700195,
0.14243730902671814,
0.3224448561668396,
0.1529971957206726,
-0.1316344290971756,
-0.3868921101093292,
0.1524636149406433,
-0.5813709497451782,
-0.13953514397144318,
0.4103012681007385,
0.09371280670166016,
0.22019731998443604,
-0.5968736410140991,
0.14311756193637848,
0.3090997338294983,
0.6342941522598267,
0.09749200195074081,
-0.12492958456277847,
-0.6053946018218994,
-0.46627578139305115,
0.6638091206550598,
0.08760029822587967,
0.13715016841888428,
0.2030123770236969,
-0.18479907512664795,
-0.5221605896949768,
-0.30648714303970337,
-0.28833112120628357,
0.37352877855300903,
0.12597917020320892,
0.0659264624118805,
0.10450522601604462,
0.12815254926681519,
-0.37212052941322327,
-0.13023610413074493,
0.3229947090148926,
-0.00704909348860383,
-0.3691515028476715,
-0.07279235124588013,
0.9435737133026123,
-0.5212031006813049,
0.4994142949581146,
-0.41929367184638977,
0.07325036823749542,
-0.5383448004722595,
-0.6610397696495056,
-0.2640218138694763,
0.6125493049621582,
0.5018002986907959,
-0.052480556070804596,
0.33999818563461304,
0.5656328797340393,
-0.8856519460678101,
-0.2344277799129486,
-0.5951325297355652,
-0.3095845878124237,
0.1086442619562149,
0.23600627481937408,
0.21424366533756256,
-0.27847743034362793,
-0.07749245315790176,
-0.6142355799674988,
0.18074388802051544,
0.24796470999717712,
-0.35251542925834656,
-0.1735629439353943,
0.40077224373817444,
-0.9637003540992737,
-0.5090208053588867,
0.8985279202461243,
0.3461664021015167,
0.5574501752853394,
-0.21327511966228485,
-0.00153663894161582,
0.48782458901405334,
0.23263485729694366,
-0.8792941570281982,
0.38654452562332153,
-0.06602016091346741,
0.2610573172569275,
-0.35981911420822144,
-0.2526651620864868,
-0.12613140046596527,
0.3352336883544922,
-0.1182418018579483,
-0.8771301507949829,
0.7583281397819519,
0.7407143712043762,
0.5467711091041565,
-0.26328355073928833,
0.7435171604156494,
-0.3081844747066498,
-0.41756385564804077,
0.24040795862674713,
0.19482997059822083,
-0.23291394114494324,
0.13233348727226257,
0.13556350767612457,
-0.12538321316242218,
0.0189864169806242,
0.026762278750538826,
-0.2668016254901886,
-0.07441313564777374,
-0.6473316550254822,
-0.0914602130651474,
-0.14346782863140106,
-0.3183455765247345,
-0.16205576062202454,
0.29263514280319214,
0.4192488491535187,
0.8105971813201904,
0.11829212307929993,
-0.39271780848503113,
0.3272053003311157,
-0.8562175631523132,
0.15745657682418823,
0.10007444024085999,
-0.08809170126914978,
-0.5527010560035706,
0.44101524353027344,
-0.45470431447029114,
0.04958341270685196,
0.1258491724729538,
0.06358150392770767,
0.6545360684394836,
-0.019981617107987404,
0.16289952397346497,
-0.36641716957092285,
0.7470352053642273,
-0.05037298426032066,
-0.31869763135910034,
0.3769804835319519,
-0.36009007692337036,
0.11140056699514389,
-0.06316117942333221,
0.10533737391233444,
-0.133142352104187,
-0.0008024859707802534,
-0.3500076234340668,
0.30688756704330444,
-0.25124800205230713,
-1.0169811248779297,
-0.08775656670331955,
-0.24153012037277222,
-0.7055070996284485,
-0.3772788345813751,
-0.21303921937942505,
-0.30799365043640137,
0.8162522912025452,
-0.2266150265932083,
-0.19135554134845734,
-0.3272716999053955,
-0.14540241658687592,
0.19346043467521667,
-0.0778319463133812,
0.08155927062034607,
0.5094468593597412,
0.01668088138103485,
-0.48126116394996643,
0.11658956110477448,
-0.1365792453289032,
-0.18829943239688873,
0.09714525192975998,
0.5683956146240234,
-0.2779964506626129,
0.12958088517189026,
-0.16705584526062012,
-0.34796732664108276,
-0.8385464549064636,
-0.03397953137755394,
0.5646741986274719,
0.18564559519290924,
0.22217023372650146,
0.09457714110612869,
-0.7371889352798462,
-0.22401665151119232,
0.43069547414779663,
-0.7400808334350586,
-0.3885778486728668,
0.4324662983417511,
0.20391927659511566,
-0.6800543069839478,
0.319563627243042,
0.3769697844982147,
-0.5103793740272522,
0.1555129587650299,
-0.18299561738967896,
-0.5746309161186218,
0.15040545165538788,
-0.7685049176216125,
0.03828998655080795,
0.020625295117497444,
0.06009362265467644,
-0.46468305587768555,
0.4198262095451355,
0.06362110376358032,
-0.6617045402526855,
-0.2707713544368744,
-0.2773803472518921,
0.09303126484155655,
-0.05614994838833809,
-0.12986324727535248,
-0.3139236867427826,
-0.2901393473148346,
0.12669400870800018,
0.2764084041118622,
-0.31119754910469055,
0.3140111267566681,
-0.2004438191652298,
-0.17423909902572632,
0.015292664989829063,
-0.17853842675685883,
-0.6793988943099976,
-0.6892463564872742,
0.13720527291297913,
0.3053533434867859,
-0.23156414926052094,
0.0072023505344986916,
0.3575122058391571,
0.15499429404735565,
0.6684684753417969,
0.33701184391975403,
-0.393034964799881,
-0.3219839334487915,
0.6434409618377686,
0.0973086729645729,
-0.44948264956474304,
-0.6857486367225647,
-0.09330563247203827,
0.08650299906730652,
-0.2828412652015686,
-0.23928424715995789,
-0.4359202980995178,
0.3577302098274231,
0.312732070684433,
-0.14632344245910645,
0.0020365286618471146,
0.2815679609775543,
0.29068517684936523,
0.15324459969997406,
-0.5000659823417664,
0.14431661367416382,
-0.06312523037195206,
0.4140318036079407,
-0.05173640698194504,
0.21532730758190155,
0.5049843788146973,
0.29952576756477356,
-0.9399415254592896,
0.07902565598487854,
0.21342557668685913,
0.4769185483455658,
0.36540791392326355,
0.7355546355247498,
-0.35589510202407837,
0.1314089596271515,
-0.3885195851325989,
-0.21043053269386292,
-0.7121095061302185,
0.09296272695064545,
-0.18442486226558685,
0.1985521912574768,
-0.08704893290996552,
0.5847219228744507,
-0.3103751540184021,
0.4828267991542816,
0.09331992268562317,
-1.1869585514068604,
-0.1765892058610916,
-0.333242803812027,
0.047409478574991226,
0.33571913838386536,
1.2554551362991333,
-0.02306937426328659,
0.2483019232749939,
0.06000851094722748,
0.08318605273962021,
0.21785061061382294,
-0.17519013583660126,
-0.9593092203140259,
0.26157131791114807,
-0.12870383262634277,
-1.1392866373062134,
0.635739266872406,
-0.27567148208618164,
0.28700923919677734,
-0.7163019180297852,
0.20289689302444458,
-0.2575530707836151,
0.29164308309555054,
-0.15925107896327972,
-0.051393359899520874,
0.6396980285644531,
-0.0511062853038311,
-0.3966391980648041,
0.2237638533115387,
-0.8339529633522034,
0.034190885722637177,
0.32019200921058655,
0.04570181295275688,
-0.8310675024986267,
0.48925352096557617,
-0.006715564988553524,
0.12619152665138245,
0.12964989244937897,
-0.1769469529390335,
0.07605265080928802,
0.020170370116829872,
-0.2814197242259979,
1.0261095762252808,
0.8580840229988098,
-0.3105984032154083,
0.030301187187433243,
-0.34036433696746826,
-0.2183801233768463,
-0.011526226997375488,
-0.4250833988189697,
-0.737355649471283,
0.36963555216789246,
0.21367967128753662,
0.7260420322418213,
-0.22040727734565735,
0.281953901052475,
-0.16733136773109436,
0.1477605402469635,
0.4941614866256714,
0.8123065829277039,
0.17260918021202087,
0.543062686920166,
0.27017736434936523,
0.2263725996017456,
-0.02360185608267784,
0.06599777936935425,
0.02788349986076355,
-0.4104330241680145,
0.3880402147769928,
-0.20912328362464905,
-0.17508582770824432,
-0.20095808804035187,
-0.17957286536693573,
-0.0391385443508625,
0.2857990264892578,
-0.15642905235290527,
0.5621788501739502,
-0.651717483997345,
0.007632933557033539,
-0.9329880475997925,
0.37336453795433044,
-0.07234062254428864,
0.504636824131012,
0.7310729026794434,
-0.361415296792984,
0.33764412999153137,
0.5035971403121948,
-0.061653126031160355,
0.2947288751602173,
0.10212601721286774,
-0.0695885717868805,
-0.14812923967838287,
-0.19321903586387634,
0.03473805636167526,
-0.12578153610229492,
-0.16404689848423004,
0.21056771278381348,
-0.05106193572282791,
0.30705052614212036,
0.13386763632297516,
0.08193319290876389,
0.08470070362091064,
0.24272410571575165,
-0.43509140610694885,
-0.05847654119133949,
-0.36799994111061096,
0.16439175605773926,
-0.16042214632034302,
-0.1752321720123291,
0.5754894018173218,
-0.029616864398121834,
-0.6644434928894043,
0.11923769861459732,
0.15202128887176514,
0.3119388520717621,
-0.13994884490966797,
-0.04801863431930542,
0.6471856832504272,
-0.08389945328235626,
-0.05481599643826485,
-0.5878893733024597,
0.5959678292274475,
0.24938401579856873,
-0.592066764831543,
-0.03970984369516373,
0.585042417049408,
0.7529579401016235,
0.4559076726436615,
-0.29825645685195923,
-0.4456334412097931,
0.13002999126911163,
-0.466721773147583,
0.3309638202190399,
0.10969259589910507,
0.2806139886379242,
-0.2632991373538971,
-0.3472236394882202,
-0.6818385124206543,
-0.0010686293244361877,
-0.34727537631988525,
-0.19684536755084991,
0.3397955000400543,
-0.07000717520713806,
0.774913489818573,
-0.5794996023178101,
0.47549399733543396,
-0.16419856250286102,
-0.27802056074142456,
0.14693787693977356,
0.2305048704147339,
0.46062785387039185,
-0.03187405318021774,
-0.14092516899108887,
-0.3294561803340912,
-0.2745659053325653,
0.016852760687470436,
-1.5461764335632324,
0.10619442164897919,
-0.665952742099762,
-0.2766122817993164,
-0.6706480979919434,
0.11293936520814896,
0.20259180665016174,
-0.7454951405525208,
0.18469205498695374,
-0.22965827584266663,
-0.4987739026546478,
0.35173332691192627,
0.0723874419927597,
-0.7188378572463989,
-0.050721075385808945,
0.8255757093429565
] |
260920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strand%20Bookstore | Strand Bookstore | The Strand Bookstore is an independent bookstore located at 828 Broadway, at the corner of East 12th Street in the East Village neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City, two blocks south of Union Square. In addition to the main location, there is another store on the Upper West Side on Columbus Ave between West 81st and 82nd Streets, as well as kiosks in Central Park and Times Square. The company's slogan is "18 Miles Of Books," as featured on its stickers, T-shirts, and other merchandise. In 2016, The New York Times called The Strand "the undisputed king of the city’s independent bookstores."
Description
The Strand is a family-owned business with more than 230 employees. Many notable New York City artists have worked at the store, including rock musicians of the 1970s: Patti Smith – who claimed not to have liked the experience because it "wasn't very friendly" – and Tom Verlaine, who was fond of the discount book carts sitting outside the store. Other celebrity employees include Richard Hell, Neil Winokur, Adam Bellow, Sam Shephard, Mary Gaitskill, Burt Britton, Lucy Sante, Marvin Mondlin, Ken Schles, and Thomas Weatherly Jr.
The Strand has had a unionized workforce for over 35 years. On April 5, 2012, unionized workers at the store rejected a new contract; on June 15, 2012, workers ratified a new contract.
Besides the main store and Central Park kiosk, an additional location called the "Strand Book Annex" opened in the 1980s and was originally located on Front Street in the South Street Seaport complex. It moved in 1996 to Fulton and Gold Streets in the Financial District, but finally closed on September 22, 2008 due to rent increases. A branch in the Flatiron District opened in 2013, and a summer kiosk in Times Square opened in 2016. In 2020 The Strand's planned opening of its Upper West Side location was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
In 2005, the main store underwent a major renovation and expansion, with the addition of an elevator, air conditioning, and a re-organization of the floors to make browsing easier for shoppers. It also began to sell discounted new books and non-book merchandise.
The bookstore had 70,000 books in its early years, which increased by the mid-1960s to 500,000. By the 1990s it had 2.5 million books, which necessitated the renting of a warehouse in Sunset Park, Brooklyn. At that time, the oldest book for sale in the Strand was an edition of Magna Moralia, which was priced at $4,500. The most expensive book is a copy of James Joyce's Ulysses at $38,000. While the store continues to boast the slogan, "18 miles of books," they now house over "23 miles" of books.
History
Benjamin Bass was an emigrant from Lithuania who came to the United States when he was 17. He worked as a messenger, salesman and subway construction worker before he came across the used-book district on Fourth Avenue between Astor Place and Union Square. His first bookstore was the Pelican Book Shop on Eighth Street near Greene Street. However, the store was not a success, and Bass next opened the Strand – named after the street in London – in 1927 with $300 in his own savings and $300 he borrowed; early on, he slept on a cot in the store. The new store was able to survive the Depression by use of Bass's extensive network of contacts. Furthermore, his landlord was the last of the city's noted Stuyvesant family, and he carried the store through its lean years when Bass could not pay his rent; Bass later paid back the debt, and agreed to a schedule of voluntary rent increases during rent controls which were instituted with World War II. After rent controls ended, the Stuyvesant interests doubled the rents on their other properties, but not on the Strand.
The Strand was then located on Fourth Avenue, which had at the time 48 bookstores, in what was known as "Book Row", which was established as early as 1890. These started to disappear around the 1930s due to the Great Depression and again in the 1950s, due to rent increases.
Benjamin Bass died in 1978.
Bass's son Fred – who started working in the store on weekends when he was 13 years old – took over the business in 1956 and the next year moved the store to the present location at the corner of East 12th Street and Broadway. The store expanded to the entire first floor of the building, and then first three floors in the 1970s. In 1996 Bass bought the building at East 12th Street and Broadway for $8.2 million, by which time the Strand was the largest used bookstore in the world. The store now occupies three and a half floors, with another one and half floors for offices.
Strand also has two kiosks, one in Times Square and one in Central Park, and has a pop-up location in the Artists & Fleas market in Soho. They also participate in seasonal holiday markets in Union Square, Bryant Park, and Columbus Circle.
Bass's daughter Nancy Bass Wyden, the current owner of the Strand, began helping in the store at age 6, sharpening pencils for staff. At 16, she began taking phone requests, working the cash register, and managing the store's Central Park kiosks. After receiving her MBA from the University of Wisconsin and working briefly for Exxon, she returned to New York City to work for her father at The Strand. Wyden officially joined The Strand as a manager in 1986. She established the store's Books by the Foot department, curating custom book collections and private libraries. She spearheaded major renovations and expansions of the store in 2005, and supervised the rollout of The Strand's official bookish merchandise, including t-shirts and totes, which now account for over 15% of the business's revenue.
Wyden become the co-owner of the store on her father's retirement in November 2017. With her father's death in January 2018, she is now the sole owner.
Wyden is married to United States Senator for Oregon, Ron Wyden, whom she met while on a trip to Portland to see Powell's Books.
On December 22, 2021, Ben McFall, who had worked at the Strand since 1978, and was the longest-tenured bookseller there, died in his home as the result of a fall. McFall did not have an official position in the Strand's management, but was the only employee who had personal control over an entire section of the store, in his case the fiction section, and the only one with a desk designated for his own use. Wyden referred to McFall as "the heart of the Strand."
Fight against landmarking
In December 2018, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission held a hearing on the topic of designating The Strand as a city landmark. Owner Nancy Bass Wyden objected and campaigned heavily against the designation, citing regulatory barriers to proposed renovations and increased costs of running the business as obstacles to running her independent business; she also contrasted the treatment of her store to the reception of Amazon HQ2 in New York, saying "I’m not asking for money or a tax rebate, just leave me alone." The commission voted to landmark the building on June 11, stating that it had "lost very few buildings" to mismanagement. The landmarking can be appealed to the New York City Council.
2020 controversies
In March 2020, the Strand laid off most of its employees due to the COVID-19 pandemic, though in April it received a Paycheck Protection Program loan between $1 and $2 million intended to help maintain 212 jobs of which 188 had already been eliminated. Less than two dozen union jobs were restored. In July 2020, the Strand laid off 12 recently rehired employees.
On July 15, 2020, the Strand opened a new location on the Upper West Side, replacing Book Culture.
On October 23, 2020, Bass Wyden released a statement on Twitter saying the Strand was in danger of closing. This plea for help, issued on a Friday, drew enormous sales in the following days, with 25,000 online orders placed over the following weekend. However, it also drew criticism from those who had followed the ongoing labor issues at the store.
Bass Wyden also drew criticism for purchasing $115,000 in Amazon stock in April and May, and then $60,000 to $200,000 of the stock in June, after having previously characterized the company as a threat to the Strand's survival.
In popular culture
The Strand has been featured in films such as Six Degrees of Separation, Julie & Julia and Remember Me, starring Robert Pattinson, who played a Strand employee.
The Strand can be seen from the room of Professor Wutheridge in The Bishop's Wife (1948).
The Strand is featured in the third episode of the miniseries Flesh and Bone.
The band Steely Dan "name-checks" the Strand in their song "What A Shame About Me" from the album Two Against Nature.
Joyce Carol Oates' short story, "Three Girls", takes place at the Strand.
The Strand was referenced on Gilmore Girls in the season four episode "Ballrooms and Biscotti", when Rory and Lorelai discuss a daytrip to New York City, before Rory starts college.
The Strand was a backdrop for part of the novel Dash & Lily's Book of Dares by David Levithan and Rachel Cohn and was also featured in the Netflix series Dash & Lily, based on the book.
One of the short stories in the book Bad Behavior: Stories by Mary Gaitskill features a girl named Daisy who works at the Strand.
The Strand was featured on the BBC television series Absolutely Fabulous in the 2002 Christmas Special "Gay"
In the Sex and the City episode, "The Freak Show", Carrie Bradshaw shops the book carts outside the Strand.
In the 2011 film Arthur, the titular character visits the store.
The Strand is the location of a chase in the movie The House on Carroll Street.
In the episode "Expectation" of The Romanoffs, the characters visit the store.
The store and owner Nancy Bass Wyden were featured in the 2020 documentary The Booksellers, chronicling the antique book trade.
Wyden was interviewed by Rishabh Chaddha who is a newsletter editor at Substack. They talked about the history and future of the store.
See also
Books in the United States
Book Row
References
External links
C-SPAN coverage of the Strand Bookstore
Bookstores in Manhattan
Independent bookstores of the United States
Antiquarian booksellers
Book selling websites
Broadway (Manhattan)
East Village, Manhattan
Shops in New York City
Bookstores established in the 20th century
American companies established in 1927
Retail companies established in 1927
1927 establishments in New York City
Used bookstores | [
0.5268217325210571,
-0.2443929761648178,
0.10809433460235596,
0.07980084419250488,
0.6861620545387268,
0.17174501717090607,
0.0720192939043045,
0.30439549684524536,
0.012919946573674679,
-0.4733116030693054,
-0.36813029646873474,
0.28711825609207153,
-0.03160152584314346,
0.36798205971717834,
-0.23162323236465454,
-0.5409396886825562,
-0.021336909383535385,
0.4293501675128937,
0.12941591441631317,
-0.54409259557724,
-0.32160669565200806,
-0.19763100147247314,
0.0715424045920372,
0.031889546662569046,
-0.04337332397699356,
0.08302991092205048,
0.5909975171089172,
-0.45586591958999634,
-0.3205644488334656,
0.4383687674999237,
0.3833627700805664,
0.34133636951446533,
0.1718960851430893,
-0.6952636241912842,
0.1437097191810608,
-0.42354580760002136,
-0.07534759491682053,
-0.6725847721099854,
-0.26910778880119324,
-0.5093435049057007,
-0.12280147522687912,
-0.0003861584118567407,
0.24674776196479797,
0.9172860980033875,
0.08594676107168198,
0.20109134912490845,
-2.004577875137329,
0.2513292729854584,
-1.2731952667236328,
0.33882322907447815,
0.024036675691604614,
0.14870323240756989,
0.7093710899353027,
0.18192270398139954,
0.11130373924970627,
0.8770473599433899,
-0.8754149079322815,
0.18635909259319305,
0.7616999745368958,
-0.31983891129493713,
0.19687828421592712,
0.30068880319595337,
0.777746319770813,
-0.008287644013762474,
0.6208046674728394,
0.1707012951374054,
0.28680047392845154,
0.19684059917926788,
-0.128409743309021,
-0.21813106536865234,
0.29105451703071594,
0.14179213345050812,
0.022973280400037766,
0.227675661444664,
-0.15127187967300415,
0.06144194304943085,
-0.04735953360795975,
-0.01427582185715437,
0.3572729527950287,
0.28058430552482605,
-0.0501624159514904,
0.45049118995666504,
0.5362498760223389,
0.2615226209163666,
0.38749876618385315,
-0.4799098074436188,
-1.0200341939926147,
-0.7780911326408386,
-0.26596713066101074,
0.7419394850730896,
-0.7405328154563904,
-0.2759890556335449,
0.18311962485313416,
0.4793655574321747,
0.08363804966211319,
0.051112618297338486,
0.21766529977321625,
0.29418620467185974,
-0.030832873657345772,
0.347649484872818,
-0.03014158084988594,
0.8171759247779846,
0.586735188961029,
-0.06982110440731049,
-0.30288782715797424,
-0.1198885515332222,
-0.26007041335105896,
-0.30409300327301025,
0.6590926051139832,
0.3624759018421173,
-0.2496708482503891,
0.609752357006073,
-0.28686273097991943,
-0.17285162210464478,
-0.22748588025569916,
0.7088252305984497,
0.901549220085144,
-0.4641897678375244,
-0.7500335574150085,
-0.12738892436027527,
0.12619808316230774,
0.5932363271713257,
0.19292527437210083,
0.21582205593585968,
0.0040990086272358894,
0.029088109731674194,
-0.010833214037120342,
0.07005514949560165,
-0.13207317888736725,
-0.15450769662857056,
0.11896432191133499,
0.8414410948753357,
-0.1904752403497696,
-0.6567869782447815,
-0.3066161870956421,
-0.1664443165063858,
-0.12696604430675507,
0.2527933716773987,
0.862287163734436,
0.3151969015598297,
-0.15792599320411682,
-0.04647640138864517,
-0.4410439133644104,
-0.8730681538581848,
0.7722064852714539,
-0.24248361587524414,
0.37087276577949524,
-0.6727105379104614,
-0.49936744570732117,
-0.5573773384094238,
0.41247913241386414,
-0.06140551716089249,
-0.4613536596298218,
-0.45494258403778076,
-0.40311503410339355,
-0.47199541330337524,
0.43690618872642517,
0.1267351359128952,
0.18890692293643951,
0.346655011177063,
-0.21901144087314606,
0.049034833908081055,
-0.1725977659225464,
0.20798879861831665,
-0.3624095022678375,
0.18921348452568054,
0.02533654123544693,
0.12461639195680618,
0.035198282450437546,
-0.15073943138122559,
-0.4566144347190857,
0.2645745277404785,
0.28406083583831787,
0.03145410120487213,
-0.06996995955705643,
-0.02825263701379299,
0.5709541440010071,
-0.07337558269500732,
0.17646010220050812,
-0.24955302476882935,
-0.4561874270439148,
0.6569956541061401,
0.2579742670059204,
-0.21549546718597412,
0.10479637235403061,
-0.3341788649559021,
0.40417352318763733,
0.6434546709060669,
0.2165112942457199,
0.3510362207889557,
-0.555152952671051,
-0.449245810508728,
0.2694264352321625,
-0.0068972231820225716,
0.8117314577102661,
0.38415518403053284,
-0.7217556834220886,
1.489573359489441,
-0.4652641713619232,
-0.037293266505002975,
-0.4273473620414734,
0.19864152371883392,
0.8089956045150757,
0.22941309213638306,
-0.6706193089485168,
-0.26484134793281555,
0.5658127069473267,
0.22409795224666595,
0.10784031450748444,
0.4863024950027466,
0.48119375109672546,
-0.6649898886680603,
0.37478429079055786,
0.6027044057846069,
0.03868239000439644,
-0.5879867672920227,
-0.14808371663093567,
0.1515999287366867,
-0.38687393069267273,
-0.11872518062591553,
1.288257122039795,
-0.10252603888511658,
0.6358475089073181,
-0.28607311844825745,
-0.35297638177871704,
0.7420161962509155,
0.11387452483177185,
-0.007882226258516312,
0.7959213256835938,
0.0754522904753685,
0.5166595578193665,
-0.09312912076711655,
0.2940036356449127,
-0.6888472437858582,
-0.2306177169084549,
-0.055274076759815216,
-0.11239927262067795,
-0.8412560224533081,
0.6322991251945496,
-0.13416053354740143,
-0.33072906732559204,
-0.5492563843727112,
-0.6864691376686096,
0.07513997703790665,
0.35338807106018066,
0.0979965552687645,
-0.5930843949317932,
0.6567838191986084,
0.1535666435956955,
-0.14298729598522186,
0.41441574692726135,
0.0542798712849617,
-0.11791285127401352,
-0.3299068212509155,
0.13458839058876038,
-0.005545354448258877,
0.14374196529388428,
0.2133343517780304,
1.0745357275009155,
-0.07317888736724854,
-0.2037021666765213,
-0.038047030568122864,
0.12175797671079636,
0.010652095079421997,
-0.07557772845029831,
0.07473237067461014,
-0.11722515523433685,
-0.7783915400505066,
0.19728372991085052,
-0.09072133153676987,
0.5998044610023499,
0.1858861893415451,
-0.5155254006385803,
0.22345422208309174,
-0.020186085253953934,
-0.08045819401741028,
0.2961359918117523,
-0.04287898167967796,
-0.0486244261264801,
-0.4734572470188141,
0.26966914534568787,
0.022931134328246117,
0.2529556453227997,
-0.6096561551094055,
0.009983808733522892,
0.013824977912008762,
-0.054351117461919785,
-0.2784483730792999,
-0.7197498679161072,
-0.36775434017181396,
-0.37058377265930176,
0.3186454772949219,
-0.016087479889392853,
0.14433860778808594,
-0.18195609748363495,
0.6558786630630493,
0.09677479416131973,
-0.2110770046710968,
0.004249007906764746,
-0.11800163239240646,
0.5385332107543945,
0.36827319860458374,
-0.4020572006702423,
0.23028568923473358,
-0.0011451102327555418,
0.04705692455172539,
0.17167843878269196,
-0.5694222450256348,
-5.542352199554443,
0.9602164626121521,
-0.9187032580375671,
0.31795376539230347,
-0.49117204546928406,
-0.5527572631835938,
0.551914632320404,
0.018983693793416023,
-0.2211828976869583,
-0.4415096640586853,
-0.6591824889183044,
-0.3123926818370819,
0.05122925713658333,
0.25962746143341064,
0.5379481315612793,
0.520769476890564,
-0.013468802906572819,
0.014011421240866184,
0.06510842591524124,
0.28517821431159973,
-0.6713706254959106,
-0.14845365285873413,
0.1308896839618683,
0.5685867667198181,
0.5751733183860779,
0.5091903805732727,
-0.19601908326148987,
-0.15117837488651276,
-0.7331823706626892,
-0.5800379514694214,
-0.08261534571647644,
-0.4628277122974396,
-0.32799825072288513,
-0.46264219284057617,
0.6379519104957581,
-0.22668415307998657,
0.6326864957809448,
-0.7789919376373291,
-0.057677917182445526,
-0.2078893929719925,
0.4407074451446533,
0.5008291602134705,
0.4952506124973297,
-0.17475475370883942,
0.47593286633491516,
0.08425583690404892,
-0.28681108355522156,
-0.07846738398075104,
-0.5924155116081238,
0.5633885264396667,
0.6108185052871704,
-0.08418038487434387,
0.1885816901922226,
0.017903152853250504,
0.07088073343038559,
-0.3448849320411682,
-0.32337629795074463,
-0.4377204179763794,
0.06976636499166489,
-0.1437402218580246,
0.30949825048446655,
-0.4531885087490082,
0.17038320004940033,
-0.15995408594608307,
-0.1450916826725006,
-0.05202917382121086,
-0.6361806988716125,
-0.03722672536969185,
0.15159259736537933,
0.21204471588134766,
0.0424012653529644,
0.2977546453475952,
0.002469072351232171,
-0.7981477379798889,
-0.032541852444410324,
-0.5853232145309448,
-0.3244376480579376,
-0.10573221743106842,
0.18519537150859833,
0.06995784491300583,
-0.1581546515226364,
-0.3406051695346832,
-0.5657356977462769,
0.6716669201850891,
0.30956795811653137,
-1.6022181510925293,
-0.1750188022851944,
0.3851829171180725,
-1.3105710744857788,
-0.1976703256368637,
-0.03927943482995033,
0.4268387258052826,
-0.11421378701925278,
0.14373743534088135,
-0.013605008833110332,
-0.5137315392494202,
0.19800135493278503,
0.6793802380561829,
0.4895097613334656,
0.5539275407791138,
0.6913226842880249,
-0.02384890802204609,
-0.17475582659244537,
-0.4250129163265228,
0.3068862855434418,
-0.09334638714790344,
0.08033914119005203,
-0.2204992026090622,
0.613903284072876,
-0.5222424864768982,
-0.7253588438034058,
-0.5898188352584839,
-0.21706850826740265,
-0.3319035470485687,
0.8091570138931274,
-0.6583854556083679,
0.05503682419657707,
0.3286013603210449,
-0.4620189964771271,
-0.009585090912878513,
0.1800411194562912,
0.07134175300598145,
-0.06894735991954803,
-0.026021448895335197,
-0.3411288559436798,
-0.21324874460697174,
0.05601734668016434,
-0.6774464249610901,
0.18129359185695648,
0.19156067073345184,
0.1823849380016327,
0.10075531154870987,
0.1621236652135849,
-0.27930209040641785,
-0.10915844887495041,
-0.11682726442813873,
-0.789586067199707,
-0.7479718923568726,
-0.19023117423057556,
0.7304244637489319,
-0.12615419924259186,
-0.23993831872940063,
0.378435343503952,
0.4523000121116638,
0.9242748022079468,
0.4815371334552765,
0.1059989407658577,
-0.46244844794273376,
-1.103753685951233,
0.5465322732925415,
-0.35031166672706604,
-0.21676820516586304,
0.0437181331217289,
-0.43238621950149536,
0.0878085121512413,
-0.08643921464681625,
-0.14778850972652435,
0.14589864015579224,
-0.18056587874889374,
0.4042949676513672,
-0.036350637674331665,
-0.47984635829925537,
-0.09561819583177567,
0.2211098074913025,
-0.3600444197654724,
-0.2322741001844406,
-0.2655540704727173,
0.21182842552661896,
-0.7079660892486572,
0.4234611690044403,
0.048006780445575714,
0.010038470849394798,
-0.4413881003856659,
-0.1934090107679367,
0.28705495595932007,
0.3499271273612976,
0.24939905107021332,
0.13628411293029785,
0.12474878877401352,
-0.09761575609445572,
-0.08825191110372543,
-0.17985807359218597,
-0.31950369477272034,
0.20163065195083618,
1.2662837505340576,
-0.8469570279121399,
-0.4214024245738983,
-0.11116544157266617,
-0.5758472681045532,
-0.21154266595840454,
0.02780476212501526,
-0.11308949440717697,
0.19167481362819672,
0.0381435863673687,
-0.49556976556777954,
-0.7239317893981934,
0.43879541754722595,
0.5125704407691956,
-0.3745441138744354,
0.30984824895858765,
-0.13638219237327576,
0.6968187093734741,
-0.919196367263794,
0.5845391154289246,
0.022697053849697113,
-0.7274606823921204,
0.4290564954280853,
0.22490879893302917,
-0.0528440997004509,
0.926173210144043,
-0.4360765516757965,
-0.3389577269554138,
0.3925831615924835,
-0.05213533341884613,
-0.16696028411388397,
0.16706818342208862,
-0.08995432406663895,
-0.572239339351654,
-0.2766094207763672,
-0.040206242352724075,
0.03101559728384018,
0.022125322371721268,
-0.5649280548095703,
-0.18088805675506592,
-0.3809027075767517,
0.8971580862998962,
0.17867080867290497,
-0.45747125148773193,
-0.018897242844104767,
-0.3074703812599182,
0.1082349345088005,
-0.2916378080844879,
0.14483454823493958,
-0.12397240102291107,
-0.2145986407995224,
0.16003018617630005,
-0.5702713131904602,
0.17958028614521027,
0.3331143260002136,
0.47179850935935974,
-0.05739200487732887,
0.06314554810523987,
0.002506554126739502,
-0.403902530670166,
0.03983007371425629,
0.9670790433883667,
0.3811074495315552,
0.08663564175367355,
-0.8304548859596252,
0.5680762529373169,
0.3418077230453491,
-1.0148223638534546,
0.039122212678194046,
0.048802997916936874,
0.8844234347343445,
-0.17728008329868317,
0.08788693696260452,
0.21877947449684143,
-0.4698847532272339,
0.2554914951324463,
0.42164143919944763,
-0.027009958401322365,
-0.5453417897224426,
0.43330487608909607,
0.12155159562826157,
0.6386871933937073,
-0.15869022905826569,
-0.9406794309616089,
-0.4664851427078247,
-0.5046371221542358,
0.3134238123893738,
0.0042763566598296165,
0.22340381145477295,
0.28093546628952026,
0.009918995201587677,
-0.1221233457326889,
-0.1899302452802658,
-0.604935348033905,
-0.5220454931259155,
-0.7752463221549988,
-0.14942608773708344,
0.20220455527305603,
-0.3149348497390747,
-0.31656384468078613,
0.2984867990016937,
-0.2797451615333557,
-0.293964147567749,
0.5011086463928223,
-0.060777679085731506,
0.10306435823440552,
0.09038019180297852,
-0.3706221878528595,
0.5116826295852661,
0.18558472394943237,
-0.04938652366399765,
0.31617218255996704,
0.5939847826957703,
0.12637218832969666,
-0.06812310218811035,
-0.07589521259069443,
-0.2723120152950287,
0.30107352137565613,
0.7562474012374878,
-0.43348658084869385,
0.502774178981781,
0.09717289358377457,
-0.278140127658844,
-0.17403793334960938,
0.05658698081970215,
0.043274667114019394,
0.4594804048538208,
-0.6095605492591858,
0.419289767742157,
0.74160236120224,
-0.5222980976104736,
-0.10877176374197006,
0.2667596638202667,
-0.256711483001709,
0.04014365002512932,
0.47726970911026,
-0.5219631791114807,
0.4405171275138855,
0.30346426367759705,
0.22297146916389465,
-0.3379756212234497,
0.20234520733356476,
-0.37874507904052734,
0.41904526948928833,
0.007295246701687574,
-0.18442881107330322,
0.08423478901386261,
-0.3171808421611786,
-0.5123602747917175,
0.5322138071060181,
0.04731380566954613,
-0.2592516541481018,
-0.4283001124858856,
-0.6631902456283569,
-0.6650052070617676,
0.19172507524490356,
0.3764791488647461,
0.1670559197664261,
-0.34393110871315,
0.5442025661468506,
-0.4635850787162781,
-0.21695420145988464,
0.578730583190918,
0.1930713653564453,
0.06003211811184883,
0.23984065651893616,
0.37229442596435547,
-0.07787943631410599,
0.09196686744689941,
-0.34678927063941956,
0.5591729879379272,
-0.5178675055503845,
0.29820188879966736,
-0.4636276066303253,
-0.18037183582782745,
0.3519991934299469,
-0.09636133164167404,
0.7137051820755005,
0.08924060314893723,
-0.8922958970069885,
-0.3930496871471405,
-0.2035362869501114,
0.4110623002052307,
-0.6551643013954163,
-0.027514200657606125,
0.5111666321754456,
-0.052870724350214005,
0.34712016582489014,
-0.4110712707042694,
0.0369277223944664,
0.14025729894638062,
0.4740604758262634,
0.6042631268501282,
-0.012091513723134995,
0.13928161561489105,
0.19808900356292725,
-0.13539958000183105,
-0.08493887633085251,
0.026295103132724762,
0.23945800960063934,
0.3052515983581543,
-0.30067887902259827,
0.06512194126844406,
0.0019835499115288258,
-0.003921393305063248,
-0.47884365916252136,
0.191893070936203,
-0.46959325671195984,
-0.006669346708804369,
-0.2555692195892334,
0.2560919225215912,
0.06866049766540527,
-0.31954407691955566,
0.9583960175514221,
-0.6724047064781189,
0.052093300968408585,
-0.6459419131278992,
0.37501898407936096,
-0.0013120941584929824,
0.04281431809067726,
-0.40609464049339294,
0.6477944254875183,
-0.135399729013443,
-0.28703805804252625,
-0.3732565641403198,
0.9804630875587463,
0.11797485500574112,
0.30783289670944214,
0.13429847359657288,
0.607452929019928,
-0.19333429634571075,
0.4361286163330078,
0.43829354643821716,
0.23306165635585785,
-0.6608893275260925,
-0.08685632795095444,
0.24851806461811066,
-0.17299000918865204,
-0.2653385400772095,
0.06773630529642105,
-0.5596609711647034,
-0.34330806136131287,
-0.5989095568656921,
0.11892099678516388,
-0.5933542847633362,
-0.14532218873500824,
0.2751699388027191,
-0.5110893249511719,
-0.22701925039291382,
0.26757997274398804,
-0.5046132206916809,
0.2947740852832794,
-0.2980566918849945,
0.7362503409385681,
0.9539515376091003,
-0.20592084527015686,
0.09498370438814163,
-0.26248693466186523,
-0.34878793358802795,
-0.1520063430070877,
0.8124573826789856,
0.43356502056121826,
0.01326573733240366,
-0.13272243738174438,
-0.6391821503639221,
0.5785140991210938,
-0.05471936613321304,
-0.9429610967636108,
0.1397506445646286,
0.34556469321250916,
-0.41482239961624146,
-0.2303714156150818,
-0.380687952041626,
-0.0819462314248085,
0.41379988193511963,
-0.2421775758266449
] |
260924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tambaba | Tambaba | Tambaba is an official nudist beach in Brazil, located on the Atlantic coast south of João Pessoa and north of Recife, at . In Tambaba, one must be nude in the family area (the main part of the beach). Around the periphery of the beach, nudism is optional.
Tambaba is a short beach, about . Until recently, the final access road was unpaved. However, as part of the infrastructure, development of the region the Ministro Abelardo Jurema highway (PB-008) has been completed and the route is paved from João Pessoa to Tambaba. Tambaba sits in the municipality of Pitambui in the state of Paraiba and is considered one of the best beaches in Brazil. While famous for its nudist beach, it also has a public beach without nudism.
The area benefits from proximity of the recently expanded BR-101 route from Recife to Joao Pessoa to Natal, as well as to the other beaches of Tabatinga, Praia Bella and Coquerinho. This route is considered of high importance to the economy of Paiariba which is expanding due to the increase in tourism to the areas in and around Tambaba and the wider region including Joao Pessoa.
Tambaba Country Club Resort, a 150 hectare country club, is closely linked to the beach of Tambaba.
Notes
External links
Official information on Tambaba in Portuguese only
Nude beaches
Beaches of Brazil
Landforms of Paraíba | [
0.14673101902008057,
-0.31333500146865845,
-0.16488398611545563,
-0.05676984041929245,
0.7110362648963928,
-0.09159905463457108,
0.17403019964694977,
0.48562654852867126,
-0.4101356863975525,
0.1661224067211151,
-0.06901371479034424,
0.4028756618499756,
-0.1540096551179886,
0.4525206387042999,
-0.26424601674079895,
0.5526094436645508,
0.05603710934519768,
0.04459037631750107,
1.0117629766464233,
-0.1250346302986145,
-0.2432824969291687,
-0.1297653764486313,
-0.48746800422668457,
-0.17977283895015717,
0.04647703096270561,
-0.31787216663360596,
0.2850589156150818,
0.7374655604362488,
-0.4818247854709625,
0.06641530245542526,
0.08876147121191025,
0.536849319934845,
-0.4019645154476166,
-0.042623598128557205,
0.7808873653411865,
0.01385682262480259,
0.463508278131485,
-1.0874441862106323,
-0.008100233972072601,
0.03133288770914078,
-0.26356831192970276,
-0.3976694345474243,
0.20178648829460144,
0.09217245131731033,
0.10266212373971939,
0.1805315762758255,
-0.07186802476644516,
0.7767151594161987,
-0.6491224765777588,
0.23148012161254883,
-0.6168784499168396,
0.8194803595542908,
0.3294070065021515,
0.4048827588558197,
0.6799989342689514,
-0.04434579983353615,
-0.8850050568580627,
0.42798033356666565,
0.45864593982696533,
0.05384288728237152,
0.4433448612689972,
0.6378802061080933,
0.09223689883947372,
-0.19353441894054413,
-0.09711022675037384,
0.37950196862220764,
-0.19204875826835632,
0.431887686252594,
0.4201039969921112,
-0.17413155734539032,
-0.09663733094930649,
-0.058011338114738464,
-0.5552058815956116,
-0.6879193782806396,
-0.5733790993690491,
-0.3151235580444336,
-0.4516683518886566,
0.37008902430534363,
0.11982410401105881,
0.4139159023761749,
0.10711481422185898,
-0.34181687235832214,
0.7892094850540161,
-0.2818327248096466,
0.4448182284832001,
0.11892672628164291,
-0.0928872674703598,
-0.15938298404216766,
-0.5713257789611816,
0.22783544659614563,
-0.4889325201511383,
0.2093367725610733,
0.5253207683563232,
-0.44521331787109375,
-0.006153678987175226,
-0.06843560189008713,
0.0665632039308548,
0.222969651222229,
0.4398098289966583,
-0.0675325021147728,
-0.05206744372844696,
-0.10218983143568039,
-0.02771713025867939,
0.20740379393100739,
-0.727011501789093,
-0.32549402117729187,
-0.4745466411113739,
-0.3177511692047119,
0.2774043679237366,
0.05841471627354622,
-0.5914362668991089,
0.4488808214664459,
0.3106563985347748,
0.06194164231419563,
0.001466675428673625,
0.2993350028991699,
-0.1254524141550064,
0.02198685333132744,
-0.4375913739204407,
-0.14790010452270508,
0.7026254534721375,
-0.24782904982566833,
0.3273015320301056,
-0.20802687108516693,
-0.06553545594215393,
0.3978075087070465,
0.4581436812877655,
0.13440822064876556,
-0.7204108238220215,
0.6475898027420044,
0.5107083320617676,
0.10932692140340805,
0.1730751246213913,
-0.06322922557592392,
0.1798715889453888,
-0.34018856287002563,
0.050245124846696854,
-0.18233583867549896,
0.660525918006897,
0.3344138562679291,
-0.27125969529151917,
0.25308457016944885,
-0.6009768843650818,
0.20975150167942047,
0.7569136023521423,
-0.12209408730268478,
0.11612679064273834,
-0.3335353136062622,
-0.17833566665649414,
-0.22787712514400482,
0.11542364209890366,
0.31575995683670044,
0.012842082418501377,
-0.22256015241146088,
-0.5402243137359619,
-0.03687275946140289,
0.4102722406387329,
-0.27921178936958313,
-0.4570448398590088,
0.08750888705253601,
0.39259859919548035,
0.03408031538128853,
-0.03348357975482941,
0.14821691811084747,
0.46398717164993286,
-0.18037085235118866,
0.2650419771671295,
0.04608598351478577,
0.29846712946891785,
0.7780409455299377,
-0.012504168786108494,
-0.07312431931495667,
0.5755656361579895,
-1.0549250841140747,
-0.4642353057861328,
0.32094696164131165,
0.21303416788578033,
0.007532825693488121,
0.4693439304828644,
0.09185317158699036,
-0.8224548101425171,
-0.02340685762465,
0.13677899539470673,
0.3169429302215576,
0.01846844144165516,
-0.4548373520374298,
0.2329443246126175,
0.7279723882675171,
0.2583602964878082,
0.1770576387643814,
-0.2362837940454483,
-0.8382928371429443,
0.3075203597545624,
-0.11586160212755203,
0.5627153515815735,
0.3763407766819,
-0.6663162708282471,
1.1772408485412598,
-0.20690836012363434,
0.39116841554641724,
-0.8790134191513062,
0.31239065527915955,
0.6190727353096008,
-0.3635479807853699,
-1.136513352394104,
0.2956337034702301,
0.28112953901290894,
-0.2315296083688736,
0.3138870298862457,
-0.17670880258083344,
-0.6890541911125183,
-0.14338842034339905,
0.2664357125759125,
-0.35150837898254395,
0.013388063758611679,
-0.5322625041007996,
-0.02671186812222004,
0.025776181370019913,
-0.05795864015817642,
-0.5652823448181152,
0.05429932475090027,
0.31002694368362427,
-0.7277597188949585,
0.20531688630580902,
-0.2545073628425598,
0.9797278642654419,
-0.18236581981182098,
0.05036700889468193,
0.4692261815071106,
0.3127386271953583,
0.03771611303091049,
0.43040138483047485,
0.24073781073093414,
-0.011527345515787601,
-0.12209714949131012,
0.46740445494651794,
0.4225749969482422,
-0.743502140045166,
0.2081867903470993,
0.5433952808380127,
-0.04650766775012016,
0.24764147400856018,
-0.4235120415687561,
0.11517931520938873,
0.052255790680646896,
0.38547074794769287,
0.01767161302268505,
0.19253668189048767,
-0.49017825722694397,
0.1966381072998047,
-0.2274767905473709,
-0.16508319973945618,
0.05274660885334015,
0.2390560507774353,
0.20199067890644073,
-0.22737564146518707,
-0.4258161783218384,
0.22661609947681427,
0.24936708807945251,
-0.4935123920440674,
-0.6287881731987,
-0.11788695305585861,
-0.06728953123092651,
0.7200331687927246,
-0.1400926411151886,
0.2870968282222748,
0.03272334113717079,
-0.3317801058292389,
0.2883862853050232,
0.2932475805282593,
-0.32632210850715637,
-0.177538201212883,
-0.3135652542114258,
0.030478009954094887,
-0.4603099524974823,
-0.08003146946430206,
-0.3720557689666748,
0.25048577785491943,
-0.29557082056999207,
-0.2407905012369156,
0.36618170142173767,
0.4930051565170288,
-0.21000467240810394,
-1.4404264688491821,
-0.4475526511669159,
0.21637536585330963,
0.2699440121650696,
0.03892824426293373,
-0.829654335975647,
0.6327306032180786,
-0.3320997655391693,
-0.3276255130767822,
-0.12583929300308228,
0.6710360646247864,
-0.389999657869339,
-0.04890903830528259,
-0.24909454584121704,
-0.24023962020874023,
0.41377782821655273,
-0.22393491864204407,
0.02011757530272007,
-0.15123842656612396,
-0.2971796989440918,
-0.020140143111348152,
0.0980285033583641,
0.01768391579389572,
-0.23202233016490936,
-0.42784860730171204,
-5.429687023162842,
0.4970686435699463,
-0.689021646976471,
0.37419652938842773,
-0.4117010235786438,
0.11795388162136078,
0.8538117408752441,
0.32883650064468384,
0.09410335123538971,
-0.5321035385131836,
-0.587939977645874,
-0.3809203505516052,
0.1812647581100464,
0.5681066513061523,
-0.005555586889386177,
0.9006993174552917,
0.9864165782928467,
-0.4232219159603119,
0.25873127579689026,
-0.07784939557313919,
-0.753343403339386,
0.6266219615936279,
-0.37853673100471497,
-0.08358750492334366,
0.1321391761302948,
1.1695009469985962,
-0.9381428360939026,
0.15579061210155487,
-1.0345051288604736,
-0.8788904547691345,
0.21902155876159668,
0.2652944028377533,
-0.033273421227931976,
-0.0790267139673233,
0.24302013218402863,
0.9730273485183716,
-0.07332392036914825,
-0.6997942328453064,
-0.06916887313127518,
-0.414813756942749,
-0.20600059628486633,
0.2759319543838501,
-0.17573413252830505,
-0.26486220955848694,
0.051169175654649734,
-0.2172037959098816,
-0.29835066199302673,
0.1464129090309143,
0.1959867626428604,
0.4983208179473877,
-0.03846680000424385,
-0.027965104207396507,
-0.07658792287111282,
0.13378798961639404,
0.16231879591941833,
-0.41756218671798706,
0.4054170548915863,
-0.2676883637905121,
-0.0483572781085968,
0.36641567945480347,
0.2831787168979645,
-0.41957810521125793,
0.5718865990638733,
-0.7098796963691711,
0.12374184280633926,
0.2017430067062378,
0.3513387441635132,
-0.16254882514476776,
0.4941422641277313,
0.6846936345100403,
0.08210399746894836,
0.14239716529846191,
-0.6165910959243774,
-0.9197412729263306,
-0.13393953442573547,
-0.37777745723724365,
-0.7690982818603516,
-0.15727271139621735,
-0.20592540502548218,
-0.45730987191200256,
0.1350192427635193,
-0.21389250457286835,
-0.5075618028640747,
0.7681363821029663,
0.11182146519422531,
-0.683129072189331,
0.3314589560031891,
-0.15254494547843933,
-0.6560290455818176,
-0.6647195219993591,
0.7244094610214233,
0.0789351761341095,
0.2137698382139206,
-0.15635059773921967,
-0.8971230983734131,
0.8957231640815735,
-0.3338406980037689,
-0.1950087994337082,
0.19520805776119232,
-0.23890376091003418,
0.981488823890686,
0.0044550346210598946,
0.23966892063617706,
-0.36623939871788025,
0.04710592329502106,
-0.16254574060440063,
0.3427622318267822,
0.5510324239730835,
-0.34178537130355835,
-0.3169216513633728,
-0.39936500787734985,
0.30898237228393555,
-0.5777221322059631,
0.08241873979568481,
0.5757535696029663,
0.3960246741771698,
-0.18747344613075256,
0.4708124101161957,
0.28584760427474976,
-0.06429826468229294,
0.9077935218811035,
0.24909427762031555,
0.2677163779735565,
-0.24565355479717255,
-0.14430296421051025,
-0.0879419595003128,
0.07529620081186295,
0.20387598872184753,
-0.3851119577884674,
0.12733158469200134,
0.0347486212849617,
0.02978448010981083,
0.09843983501195908,
-0.38527488708496094,
0.39089325070381165,
-0.4092583656311035,
-0.7162749171257019,
-0.7239916324615479,
-0.0826798677444458,
0.049443550407886505,
-0.07067109644412994,
-0.09829555451869965,
0.07791902124881744,
0.4106621742248535,
0.15829376876354218,
0.07578601688146591,
-0.007638429757207632,
-0.6223881244659424,
-0.8687533736228943,
1.0785901546478271,
0.11923493444919586,
-0.1768588125705719,
-0.26276862621307373,
-0.4565960168838501,
-0.0960502028465271,
-0.24623458087444305,
0.17213541269302368,
0.01555959228426218,
0.24344366788864136,
0.24110037088394165,
-0.27154460549354553,
-0.727017879486084,
-0.9404494166374207,
0.2875652313232422,
-0.5067963600158691,
-0.6337594389915466,
-0.8698025941848755,
-0.3005697429180145,
-0.3863532543182373,
-0.07476764917373657,
-0.05537969991564751,
-0.5400523543357849,
-0.6687344908714294,
-0.30089783668518066,
0.35474684834480286,
-0.6039170622825623,
-0.16073697805404663,
1.1146728992462158,
0.032416343688964844,
-0.23334529995918274,
-0.2448095828294754,
0.17082345485687256,
-0.3183645009994507,
0.0738290473818779,
0.43260297179222107,
-0.9008480310440063,
-0.4558441936969757,
-0.09620406478643417,
0.23296663165092468,
-0.2034289687871933,
0.517388105392456,
0.4120376706123352,
0.8274765014648438,
0.11113841086626053,
-0.4349205195903778,
-0.9651785492897034,
-0.1085219532251358,
1.12276029586792,
-0.48301348090171814,
-0.06693600863218307,
-0.37862449884414673,
0.22884881496429443,
-1.1269540786743164,
1.2399656772613525,
-0.09839440137147903,
-0.4884685277938843,
0.7657889723777771,
0.43018317222595215,
-0.7270328998565674,
0.03702129051089287,
-0.3914980888366699,
-0.6787072420120239,
0.39164766669273376,
0.26967403292655945,
-0.7946526408195496,
0.5066285729408264,
0.0030450730118900537,
-0.44840356707572937,
-0.5956340432167053,
0.09070734679698944,
-0.3530413806438446,
-0.7626991868019104,
0.10599081963300705,
-0.09452568739652634,
-0.453810453414917,
0.3523556888103485,
1.0964655876159668,
-0.5196073055267334,
0.07268620282411575,
0.13961555063724518,
0.314540296792984,
-0.5760820508003235,
0.06489258259534836,
0.0024775038473308086,
-0.33217230439186096,
-0.025257349014282227,
-0.11604422330856323,
-0.1722458451986313,
0.22604811191558838,
0.5134081840515137,
0.2969591021537781,
0.5477996468544006,
-0.21925291419029236,
-0.4968043267726898,
0.11502336710691452,
0.2680182158946991,
-0.2107139527797699,
0.06626196205615997,
-0.8909457921981812,
0.25555458664894104,
0.23165827989578247,
0.27945002913475037,
-0.7174133658409119,
-0.08038368076086044,
0.2667216658592224,
0.3476566970348358,
0.12415127456188202,
0.32107412815093994,
0.01796197146177292,
0.48954513669013977,
0.8187952637672424,
0.48644351959228516,
-0.194705992937088,
0.4193362891674042,
-0.16329425573349,
-0.5939739942550659,
0.32629311084747314,
-0.15804338455200195,
0.5562404990196228,
-0.5676183700561523,
0.02539225108921528,
-0.7916351556777954,
0.7155297994613647,
0.38610920310020447,
-0.6357740163803101,
-0.35172683000564575,
0.16095145046710968,
-0.1881309449672699,
0.5700281262397766,
-0.15768977999687195,
-0.9068301320075989,
0.24231214821338654,
0.03309902921319008,
0.07536385953426361,
-0.12239070236682892,
-0.3773002028465271,
-0.17974276840686798,
0.05918591469526291,
-0.30653470754623413,
-0.09605663269758224,
-0.10620597004890442,
-0.26880285143852234,
0.2785731852054596,
0.23542310297489166,
-0.026307350024580956,
0.21423327922821045,
0.25701233744621277,
0.3265809118747711,
-0.21728603541851044,
-0.34996679425239563,
-0.6469123959541321,
0.6491365432739258,
-0.1343189924955368,
-0.31003281474113464,
-0.10148469358682632,
-0.30119770765304565,
0.6023684144020081,
-0.5206921100616455,
-0.21251414716243744,
0.4060578942298889,
0.4242449998855591,
0.2869386672973633,
-0.0939367339015007,
1.3566107749938965,
-0.40263286232948303,
0.622063159942627,
0.5678367614746094,
0.24631386995315552,
0.2907106280326843,
0.7157084941864014,
-0.19696642458438873,
-0.731189489364624,
0.3495539128780365,
0.37812113761901855,
0.9289637804031372,
0.31243404746055603,
-0.33485475182533264,
0.0496099554002285,
0.5079410672187805,
0.5034003853797913,
0.11489469558000565,
-0.4959275722503662,
0.22874562442302704,
-0.12253021448850632,
-0.4311503469944,
-0.07537201792001724,
0.02059924043715,
-0.0806690901517868,
-0.9831066727638245,
0.24951933324337006,
0.5643704533576965,
0.1411823332309723,
-0.27775540947914124,
-0.07027766853570938,
0.6594300270080566,
-0.03541049733757973,
0.4719351828098297,
0.11738557368516922,
0.30810829997062683,
-0.4829479157924652,
0.29544496536254883,
-0.2248666137456894,
0.12231288850307465,
0.10047181695699692,
0.11399856209754944,
0.11894768476486206,
0.2864598333835602,
-0.4105280935764313,
-0.34172505140304565,
0.44909560680389404,
0.10766022652387619,
0.17023950815200806,
-0.5228181481361389,
0.2926503121852875,
-0.2796022295951843,
-0.32772502303123474,
-0.07060740143060684,
-0.4000384211540222,
0.42431095242500305,
0.17450904846191406,
0.4874260723590851,
0.5370485186576843,
-0.22092893719673157,
0.3686632215976715,
0.2457534372806549,
-0.1077074408531189,
0.041203632950782776,
0.7515214085578918,
-0.20680558681488037,
0.08548226952552795,
-0.3831932246685028,
0.10567973554134369,
-0.361977219581604,
-0.2750358581542969,
0.1405654102563858,
-0.4224978983402252,
0.1516239196062088,
0.07951553165912628,
-0.7681397199630737,
0.517559289932251,
-0.13001912832260132,
-0.6604518294334412,
-0.5361703038215637,
-0.05768194794654846,
-1.0281744003295898,
-0.07891575992107391,
-0.11231561750173569,
1.053995132446289,
-0.050210315734148026,
-0.1613040566444397,
0.07516689598560333,
0.7796577215194702,
0.07438749074935913,
0.7209503054618835,
-0.38165345788002014,
0.2540993392467499,
-0.6080418229103088,
0.20793262124061584,
-0.11522994935512543,
0.6560533046722412,
0.11629486083984375,
0.6682177186012268,
-0.08909384906291962,
0.541425883769989,
-0.09168039262294769,
0.5475088357925415,
0.3659846782684326,
-0.39773333072662354,
-0.19415707886219025,
0.030598286539316177,
-0.3922569155693054,
-0.4115450978279114,
-0.6120144724845886,
0.48947328329086304,
-0.031909018754959106,
-0.32288217544555664,
0.305349737405777,
0.3378303349018097,
-0.7619032859802246,
0.31386813521385193,
-0.0060419137589633465,
-0.045914772897958755,
-0.49029651284217834,
0.10249195992946625,
-0.6621805429458618,
-1.0276405811309814,
0.25226864218711853,
0.8091127276420593,
0.4086657762527466,
-0.09508158266544342,
0.25213193893432617,
0.3709922730922699,
0.27598142623901367,
-0.19714929163455963,
0.30196520686149597,
-0.9028926491737366,
-0.27941131591796875,
0.11540957540273666,
-1.0262045860290527,
-0.42412078380584717,
0.33566924929618835,
-0.18912093341350555,
-0.05027664452791214,
-0.09862717986106873,
0.16934065520763397,
-0.5479781627655029,
0.3510459363460541,
-0.4158971607685089,
0.29370421171188354,
0.4742138981819153
] |
260927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20newspapers%20in%20Belgium | List of newspapers in Belgium | Since the 1950s the newspaper market has been in decline in Belgium. The number of national daily newspapers in the country was 50 in 1950, whereas it was 30 in 1965. The number became 33 in 1980. There were 32 newspapers in the country in 1995. It was 23 in 2000.
Below is a partial list of newspapers published in Belgium:
Daily newspapers
* — La Capitale, La Meuse, La Nouvelle Gazette, La Province and Nord Eclair
Other newspapers
Dutch language
Brugsch Handelsblad
Kortrijks Handelsblad
English language newspapers
New Europe, newspaper focusing on EU affairs
The Brussels Times Belgium’s leading daily online English-language news media and bi-monthly print magazine.
Politico Europe better known for its website but it also has a weekly paper edition. Politico Europe is based in Belgium, but its subject matter is EU politics and policymaking.
The Bulletin
Flanders Today
Media groups in Belgium
Mediahuis
De Persgroep
Rossel
Roularta
References
Bibliography
External links
Catalog of Belgian newspapers published after 2020
Full List of Belgium's Newspapers and Media
Belgium Newspapers - Belgische kranten
Newspapers
Belgium
List | [
0.1134100928902626,
0.385360449552536,
-0.39309656620025635,
-0.422916442155838,
-0.3043017089366913,
0.22475665807724,
0.4014056324958801,
0.8542622327804565,
-1.0418757200241089,
-0.11668329685926437,
0.12737923860549927,
0.15905365347862244,
-0.08390747010707855,
0.33192071318626404,
-0.17406386137008667,
0.6800395846366882,
-0.25877150893211365,
0.9187899827957153,
0.4582566022872925,
-0.7702420353889465,
-0.07041588425636292,
-0.4532119333744049,
0.743108332157135,
-0.18681946396827698,
0.21661348640918732,
-0.636470377445221,
0.6248622536659241,
0.28701427578926086,
-0.19768136739730835,
-0.4237717092037201,
-0.3999977707862854,
0.6009872555732727,
0.3720782399177551,
0.2594919204711914,
0.17043623328208923,
-0.31769827008247375,
0.4889867901802063,
-0.8420446515083313,
0.2604749798774719,
-0.1403706818819046,
-0.10779651254415512,
-0.39391517639160156,
-0.18632693588733673,
0.5378578305244446,
0.1939794272184372,
-0.6315120458602905,
-1.0512416362762451,
0.33302950859069824,
-0.3676198720932007,
0.3724212944507599,
-0.7642906308174133,
0.24205149710178375,
0.22833244502544403,
0.9012897610664368,
0.009750748053193092,
0.4155645966529846,
-0.933063805103302,
0.18675847351551056,
0.236709862947464,
0.5545077323913574,
0.17266787588596344,
-0.023034270852804184,
-0.13919691741466522,
-0.0018831106135621667,
0.2902657389640808,
0.07048801332712173,
-0.4319693446159363,
0.495604932308197,
-0.47808483242988586,
-0.6020664572715759,
0.034296926110982895,
-0.74806809425354,
0.30006954073905945,
-0.23450182378292084,
0.19521622359752655,
-0.23367051780223846,
0.007196077611297369,
-0.5717511773109436,
0.0498773530125618,
-0.7036319375038147,
-0.0715114176273346,
0.09639620780944824,
0.7675853371620178,
-0.2338789999485016,
0.3235449492931366,
0.20498725771903992,
-0.19432862102985382,
-0.7075068354606628,
0.06609223037958145,
-0.3338678181171417,
0.05799379199743271,
-0.34204840660095215,
0.5868626832962036,
-0.054258208721876144,
-0.4084569811820984,
0.13880124688148499,
-0.22449156641960144,
0.7336357831954956,
-0.18386036157608032,
0.3775548040866852,
0.2929042875766754,
0.6206731200218201,
0.7722625732421875,
0.05936636030673981,
-0.7364836931228638,
-0.2092922031879425,
-0.16780240833759308,
-0.2520989179611206,
0.4061782658100128,
-0.5461236238479614,
-0.4950432777404785,
0.09937789291143417,
-0.14281681180000305,
0.20226362347602844,
0.027702026069164276,
0.21828320622444153,
0.39362552762031555,
-0.18842066824436188,
-0.375516802072525,
0.03686368092894554,
-0.2009764164686203,
0.9163852334022522,
0.04864756390452385,
0.40322330594062805,
-0.5359331965446472,
0.20928837358951569,
0.4104214906692505,
0.17985811829566956,
0.11844232678413391,
0.6054251194000244,
1.0288654565811157,
1.3809654712677002,
-0.4106085002422333,
-0.3411799371242523,
-0.3804936110973358,
0.006681425031274557,
0.3028820753097534,
0.9434250593185425,
0.28396233916282654,
-0.30120962858200073,
-0.7647795081138611,
-0.10987485200166702,
-0.6500821113586426,
0.3239184319972992,
-0.11319826543331146,
-0.8698387145996094,
-0.3025710880756378,
-0.3880079388618469,
-0.2418084442615509,
-0.19444157183170319,
-0.01577509567141533,
-0.552142322063446,
0.049801722168922424,
0.6726799011230469,
-0.18317629396915436,
0.5875012278556824,
0.6062753796577454,
-0.2269463837146759,
0.47544065117836,
0.38305455446243286,
0.4252162575721741,
-0.11332421749830246,
0.5212710499763489,
0.023419883102178574,
0.059318676590919495,
0.15222324430942535,
0.04854157567024231,
0.5160825252532959,
0.26440194249153137,
0.03683691844344139,
-0.803146243095398,
-0.1725783497095108,
0.5074913501739502,
-0.5146721601486206,
-0.25718653202056885,
-0.008508099243044853,
0.7964509129524231,
-0.06561927497386932,
0.19878508150577545,
-0.19495230913162231,
-0.6440393328666687,
0.42628270387649536,
0.210605651140213,
0.05116904154419899,
0.6941837072372437,
0.2483402043581009,
0.5072981715202332,
0.3553418219089508,
-0.47203636169433594,
0.011904802173376083,
-0.28188854455947876,
-0.5997883081436157,
0.4619206190109253,
-0.29551130533218384,
0.963509202003479,
-0.09693577885627747,
-0.27995356917381287,
0.496884822845459,
-0.08322657644748688,
0.32564160227775574,
-0.5277097821235657,
-0.20447809994220734,
0.429146945476532,
-0.02902843989431858,
-0.41465944051742554,
0.6932523846626282,
-0.12638865411281586,
0.28561124205589294,
0.42275550961494446,
0.440810889005661,
0.4373268783092499,
-0.2641652226448059,
-0.2501319944858551,
-0.09067708998918533,
0.31585606932640076,
-0.2772168815135956,
-0.021224403753876686,
0.3266389071941376,
-0.4636562168598175,
-0.3034132122993469,
0.19332347810268402,
-0.3539828360080719,
-0.359803169965744,
0.8089664578437805,
-0.05435924232006073,
-0.013612551614642143,
0.4797486662864685,
0.28294169902801514,
0.5962172150611877,
-0.8759160041809082,
0.08103447407484055,
-0.22644257545471191,
0.15411515533924103,
-0.7116957902908325,
-0.7835952639579773,
-0.14269165694713593,
-0.21249856054782867,
-0.04430509731173515,
-0.07202938199043274,
-0.2192712426185608,
0.28338611125946045,
0.36233195662498474,
-0.14787019789218903,
-0.18915234506130219,
-0.10035957396030426,
0.6523090600967407,
-0.4575706422328949,
0.24419917166233063,
-0.41637399792671204,
-0.29105275869369507,
0.7285952568054199,
0.10506617277860641,
0.010250968858599663,
-0.6421522498130798,
0.07320839911699295,
-0.12458805739879608,
0.3472818434238434,
-0.22980080544948578,
0.795301079750061,
0.1335488259792328,
-0.016236811876296997,
-0.28388482332229614,
-0.1773582398891449,
0.3639861047267914,
0.042287979274988174,
-0.25813502073287964,
-0.7227045893669128,
-0.8561708331108093,
0.20015063881874084,
0.3466370701789856,
0.27700597047805786,
-0.18475940823554993,
-0.3740520179271698,
-0.5649641752243042,
1.0201505422592163,
0.2715100347995758,
0.11182531714439392,
0.3445201516151428,
-0.7496729493141174,
-0.0915665552020073,
-0.5746654272079468,
0.8661745190620422,
0.5207895040512085,
-0.7472696900367737,
0.010952530428767204,
-0.1343659609556198,
0.4782094657421112,
-0.13743402063846588,
-0.2593786120414734,
0.09603249281644821,
-0.004001628141850233,
-0.49370306730270386,
-0.26218560338020325,
-0.15092560648918152,
0.48651763796806335,
0.1477051079273224,
0.22680458426475525,
0.00249590165913105,
-0.028155935928225517,
-0.747678279876709,
-0.4177827537059784,
0.29929792881011963,
-0.7074291706085205,
-0.3090629577636719,
-0.11785312741994858,
-0.16542017459869385,
-0.42818865180015564,
-0.12532104551792145,
-5.210060119628906,
0.30646947026252747,
-0.16500210762023926,
-0.67755126953125,
-0.844944417476654,
-0.4903474450111389,
0.246332049369812,
-0.1671789139509201,
-0.34706321358680725,
-0.281265527009964,
0.03857358917593956,
-0.3175853490829468,
0.032066963613033295,
0.9905763268470764,
0.3784084916114807,
0.7711817026138306,
0.6525088548660278,
-0.1735965758562088,
0.4909374415874481,
0.11791800707578659,
0.2866040766239166,
-0.248942032456398,
0.2812812030315399,
-0.01591910980641842,
0.3109807074069977,
0.867388129234314,
0.1457919180393219,
-0.14197228848934174,
-0.3569246232509613,
-0.24460479617118835,
-0.34022825956344604,
-0.42192554473876953,
0.4046857953071594,
-0.4209892451763153,
0.02601323463022709,
-0.38372763991355896,
0.327395498752594,
0.8692377805709839,
0.22975558042526245,
-0.38590145111083984,
0.4849891662597656,
0.8287827968597412,
-0.20607520639896393,
0.4077356457710266,
0.563031017780304,
-0.6719288229942322,
-1.0122530460357666,
0.10512698441743851,
-0.805363655090332,
1.4359022378921509,
0.036095842719078064,
-0.7563954591751099,
0.3505793511867523,
0.4687601625919342,
0.2569217085838318,
-0.25865164399147034,
0.38117626309394836,
-0.4733562469482422,
-0.5371367335319519,
0.19560088217258453,
0.2579759359359741,
-0.088797926902771,
0.16775177419185638,
-0.8528194427490234,
-0.2007288783788681,
-0.3066696226596832,
-0.8561040759086609,
-0.35899618268013,
0.10490325093269348,
-0.1781882792711258,
-0.28708788752555847,
-0.21043148636817932,
-0.27599766850471497,
-0.665908932685852,
-0.02377576380968094,
-0.5066801309585571,
-0.2253577709197998,
0.08625561743974686,
0.7890541553497314,
0.17593669891357422,
-0.36989688873291016,
-0.29020872712135315,
-0.4192971885204315,
0.16480064392089844,
-0.03794487938284874,
-0.7022830247879028,
-0.4169920086860657,
0.1285739690065384,
-0.6070018410682678,
-0.5294573903083801,
0.4816933572292328,
-0.26880529522895813,
0.12583571672439575,
0.5451005101203918,
-0.38759270310401917,
0.2641873061656952,
0.6404288411140442,
-0.36317673325538635,
0.4464437961578369,
-0.43994230031967163,
0.25949499011039734,
-0.334199458360672,
-0.6952975988388062,
-0.5921114683151245,
-0.044563163071870804,
-0.10712363570928574,
-0.1518566757440567,
0.5038161277770996,
0.21403919160366058,
-0.36502668261528015,
-0.48083680868148804,
-0.20469141006469727,
-0.4705212414264679,
-0.7238404154777527,
0.4801125228404999,
-0.40574297308921814,
-0.005842963699251413,
0.5186402797698975,
-0.022334160283207893,
-0.16945330798625946,
0.43772274255752563,
0.6592039465904236,
0.10904873162508011,
-0.29762008786201477,
-0.6499366760253906,
-0.24672354757785797,
-0.1999267190694809,
-0.21005573868751526,
-0.28750523924827576,
-0.08638683706521988,
0.0943538025021553,
0.11788589507341385,
0.3261953592300415,
-0.012491285800933838,
0.4086560606956482,
-0.2726440727710724,
-0.26489728689193726,
-0.2845786213874817,
-0.039654441177845,
-0.9031622409820557,
0.1096174567937851,
0.09483643621206284,
-0.21142666041851044,
0.22850164771080017,
0.10996576398611069,
0.1496264785528183,
0.1277417093515396,
0.1691388040781021,
-0.5490172505378723,
0.11724825203418732,
-0.16705113649368286,
-0.19394829869270325,
0.38370707631111145,
-0.08778437227010727,
-0.3205324709415436,
0.2095450609922409,
-0.21322454512119293,
0.9580203890800476,
-0.1933523565530777,
-0.4112793803215027,
0.1993059515953064,
-0.7325478196144104,
-0.7271292209625244,
0.633947491645813,
0.8790398836135864,
-1.1057223081588745,
0.11574166268110275,
0.16174021363258362,
-0.1750607043504715,
0.7213037014007568,
-0.1725355088710785,
-0.14907079935073853,
-0.4428684115409851,
0.2801046669483185,
0.3610014021396637,
-0.5485104918479919,
0.5162384510040283,
0.22801519930362701,
-0.1597694754600525,
-0.13343101739883423,
0.19828355312347412,
-0.2761158347129822,
-0.3463216722011566,
0.9562478065490723,
0.6912163496017456,
0.2173222452402115,
0.09686225652694702,
-0.15944071114063263,
0.17121979594230652,
-0.3093644082546234,
0.7842721343040466,
0.7460343241691589,
0.3829807937145233,
-0.018371783196926117,
-0.9897132515907288,
-1.0043286085128784,
0.042676571756601334,
0.644530713558197,
0.03821129351854324,
-0.309081107378006,
0.46609756350517273,
0.4265105724334717,
-0.3778260350227356,
-0.05332932248711586,
-0.05508677661418915,
-0.4388275444507599,
0.4677923619747162,
-0.25940465927124023,
-0.5217074751853943,
0.26705771684646606,
-0.5986379384994507,
-0.3702385127544403,
0.07025306671857834,
0.7507448792457581,
-0.518822431564331,
-0.2801922559738159,
0.6481168270111084,
0.04928071051836014,
-0.8988869786262512,
0.15214323997497559,
-0.24335703253746033,
-0.30299606919288635,
-0.9603798985481262,
-0.28789204359054565,
-0.14461180567741394,
1.310420036315918,
0.6176959872245789,
-0.4469462037086487,
0.38517409563064575,
-0.18554452061653137,
-0.17060938477516174,
-0.2416532039642334,
0.12130726128816605,
-0.003836001269519329,
-0.3719983398914337,
0.38832515478134155,
0.2931705713272095,
0.22802379727363586,
-0.29479148983955383,
0.4825977087020874,
0.7898762822151184,
0.8501201272010803,
0.4136016070842743,
-0.47298163175582886,
-0.05287425220012665,
0.7995346188545227,
0.4784091114997864,
-0.7534967660903931,
-0.758267879486084,
-0.017243195325136185,
-0.24882028996944427,
0.16696256399154663,
-0.7763099670410156,
0.05472452566027641,
1.4956798553466797,
0.2979432940483093,
-0.666260838508606,
0.8881587386131287,
0.4784606099128723,
0.4906306564807892,
0.1695713996887207,
-0.1988334208726883,
-0.016726341098546982,
1.201079249382019,
1.2440725564956665,
0.05298803001642227,
0.02730616182088852,
-0.18080155551433563,
0.42294836044311523,
0.29605624079704285,
-0.7498200535774231,
-0.33907637000083923,
-0.013857323676347733,
0.3195212781429291,
0.11702077835798264,
-0.025535952299833298,
-0.37188637256622314,
-0.7883327007293701,
0.22191694378852844,
-0.35630008578300476,
-0.7788108587265015,
-0.3299594819545746,
0.0903429463505745,
-0.28729262948036194,
0.32133394479751587,
-0.6550847291946411,
-0.5289814472198486,
0.4070504605770111,
-0.6975222826004028,
-0.11087199300527573,
0.2878982126712799,
-0.4976124167442322,
-0.35584557056427,
0.05355094373226166,
0.3458552360534668,
0.2202366590499878,
0.06244618073105812,
0.03256771340966225,
0.11893485486507416,
0.17068016529083252,
-0.4722897410392761,
0.566581130027771,
0.637703537940979,
-0.5918813347816467,
0.2542150318622589,
-0.033713921904563904,
-0.20436778664588928,
-0.004847569391131401,
-0.20767733454704285,
0.2959689795970917,
0.057545095682144165,
0.03724095970392227,
0.05237835645675659,
0.3664674460887909,
-0.2131357342004776,
0.10299790650606155,
0.5455014109611511,
-0.6520971059799194,
-0.030615705996751785,
0.11581511795520782,
-0.0031865776982158422,
-0.06527097523212433,
0.10725466907024384,
0.25698110461235046,
-0.5851223468780518,
1.3920525312423706,
-0.06870462000370026,
-0.062104012817144394,
0.6469133496284485,
-0.8724409937858582,
0.34083980321884155,
1.079024076461792,
-1.0169668197631836,
0.7344599962234497,
-0.6905527114868164,
-0.06140759214758873,
-0.17677812278270721,
-0.11844654381275177,
-0.015821659937500954,
0.38835418224334717,
0.04526261240243912,
0.15774455666542053,
-0.5722925662994385,
-0.2953372597694397,
0.16452021896839142,
0.2129250317811966,
-0.13123293220996857,
-0.5121675133705139,
0.6217705011367798,
0.3064001202583313,
0.4099850058555603,
0.2931208312511444,
0.07724533975124359,
0.4311254620552063,
-0.3555145859718323,
-0.5890784859657288,
0.13365177810192108,
0.021440615877509117,
-0.01085523422807455,
-0.28904101252555847,
0.25704172253608704,
0.32505419850349426,
-0.012248924002051353,
0.020205192267894745,
0.12363922595977783,
0.09588183462619781,
0.41225168108940125,
0.27160051465034485,
-0.207977756857872,
0.5647701025009155,
0.003365288255736232,
0.22553350031375885,
-0.42049893736839294,
-0.585726797580719,
-0.9969746470451355,
0.22236421704292297,
0.1688031256198883,
-0.347728967666626,
-0.15325750410556793,
-0.2814992666244507,
-0.40499404072761536,
0.3448026180267334,
-0.4869881570339203,
0.34258729219436646,
-0.332196980714798,
0.017174258828163147,
-0.4017159044742584,
-0.4080249071121216,
0.16564778983592987,
-0.2971237897872925,
-0.530898928642273,
-0.5359554290771484,
-0.1462555229663849,
0.2841035723686218,
-0.19805771112442017,
-0.04850422963500023,
-0.7573387026786804,
1.014262318611145,
0.06592418998479843,
-0.2869500517845154,
-0.13172443211078644,
-0.14140388369560242,
0.06000818684697151,
0.08962956815958023,
0.0671694204211235,
0.38721007108688354,
-0.159164160490036,
-0.3599429130554199,
-0.5396716594696045,
0.24522121250629425,
0.24188247323036194,
0.3666705787181854,
-0.07819410413503647,
0.18053816258907318,
0.28191012144088745,
0.21389338374137878,
0.47212424874305725,
-0.4763822555541992,
-0.31886523962020874,
-0.17118984460830688,
0.22853237390518188,
-0.3544600307941437,
0.46602752804756165,
0.7326632142066956,
-0.0855746790766716,
-0.29454976320266724,
0.33317485451698303,
0.4153626561164856,
-0.39853742718696594,
0.000035029534046771005,
-0.4128572940826416,
-0.15538738667964935,
-0.1453288495540619,
0.03535863757133484,
-1.3432929515838623,
0.7678115963935852,
1.0540454387664795,
0.48042207956314087,
0.22504687309265137,
-0.22081886231899261,
-0.07448305189609528,
-0.11477135121822357,
0.7117886543273926,
0.7754040360450745,
-0.7535327076911926,
0.06250813603401184,
-0.021176155656576157,
0.15456125140190125,
-1.0228862762451172,
0.22059114277362823,
0.02835199609398842,
-0.02178860269486904,
0.2529013752937317,
-0.13411259651184082,
0.1258692890405655,
-0.5262460112571716,
0.3252151310443878,
-0.4370978772640228,
0.7069908976554871,
0.0247739776968956
] |
260928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights%20of%20the%20Dinner%20Table | Knights of the Dinner Table | Knights of the Dinner Table (KoDT) is a comic book/strip created by Jolly R. Blackburn and published by Kenzer & Company. It primarily focuses on a group of role playing gamers and their actions at the gaming table, which often result in unfortunate, but humorous consequences in the game. The name is a parody of King Arthur's Round Table reinforced by the truism that roleplaying aficionados often end up sitting round their host's dinner table as it is the only one large enough to accommodate the party (4 to 8 people typically).
The comic
The panels are written by Blackburn, and given that he had no formal art training, the characters are drawn in simple caricatures which are scanned onto a computer and are continuously reused. Many of the stories presented in KoDT are based on actual in-game experiences of the developers or readers, who are encouraged to submit story ideas. Part of the comic's popularity stems from the reader's ability to relate to the characters and their experiences. KoDT has won the Origins Awards for Best Professional Game Magazine of 1998 and 1999. KoDT has also won the Origins Award for Best Game Accessory of 2009.
It also won the Origins Award Gamer's Choice: Best Periodical of 2003.
Publication history
In Shadis #2 (March/April 1990), then editor Jolly Blackburn decided to draw a simple strip of his own to put on the last page which he called Knights of the Dinner Table, which depicted the humorous interactions of a gaming group. When Blackburn published that first Knights strip, he thought that he was just filling a blank page but when he tried to replace it with more professional strips beginning with Shadis #6, there was an outcry; because of that outcry Knights soon returned. Blackburn also published Knights of the Dinner Table as a comic book, the first three issues of which appeared from his company Alderac Entertainment Games over the next year (1994-1995). As a result of diverging interests with his partners, Blackburn left Alderac in 1995, with Shadis #21 (December 1995) being his final issue; he kept the rights to Knights of the Dinner Table. Blackburn formed a new company called KODT Enteractive Facktory, which was to publish the Knights of the Dinner Table comic monthly. While he was working on getting that new company together, Blackburn received a call from the editor of TSR's Dragon magazine, asking if the Knights of the Dinner Table strip was now available; although Blackburn originally planned to continue the strip in Shadis, he accepted the offer and Knights of the Dinner Table thus began appearing beginning in Dragon #226 (February, 1996), a run that lasted through issue #269 (March 2000), when it was replaced by and expanded Nodwick strip.
While working on Knights of the Dinner Table #4 (1996), Blackburn concluded that he really did not want to go it alone, and David Kenzer and the staff of Kenzer & Company wanted to get Blackburn to join their company. In November 1996 when David Kenzer and others were visiting Blackburn over the course of a local con, and Blackburn decided that Kenzer had the sort of business sense and integrity that he was looking for in a partner. Starting with issue #5 (February 1997) Knights of the Dinner Table was the work of the "KoTD Development Team" which consisted of Jolly Blackburn, David Kenzer, Brian Jelke and Steve Johansson.
Characters
The Knights of the Dinner Table
The main group of characters are the members of a gaming group known as "The Knights of the Dinner Table" in a fictionalized version of Muncie, Indiana. The players' best-known and most often-used characters are the HackMaster characters known as the "Untouchable Trio (Plus One)" (abbreviated as "UT+1"). They consist of:
Boris Alphonzo "B.A." Felton
B.A. is the GM and current organizer of the Knights (although the group was founded, and GMed, by Brian). In his 30s, he lives with his mother due to a failed attempt at game design, and works at the local pizza shop known as the Pizza-A-Go-Go, as well as his father's dry cleaning shop. B.A. has a bad reputation among the Knights for being ruthlessly cunning, largely because the players tend to be paranoid and to react poorly to setbacks, and any attempt at normal gameplay usually ends in misery (or complete and utter disaster). He often finds his games thwarted or sabotaged by the antics of the other players, much to his dismay.
He is also a sucker for the local game-shop owner, "Weird Pete" Ashton (see "The Black Hands Gaming Society", below), who constantly finds ways to sell him new or over-stocked product, on the basis that it's just what B.A. needs to spice up his campaigns. B.A. was supposedly based on Jolly Blackburn himself. B.A. from late 2005 to early 2006 took a furlough from GMing, having seen too many of his hard-worked campaigns reduced to rubble, the last such disaster prior to his furlough being a difficult situation revolving around two self-aware swords. His place behind the GM screen was temporarily taken by Brian VanHoose. B.A.'s return to the gamemaster's seat was heralded by his acquisition of a copy of the infamously deadly Temple of Horrendous Doom HackMaster scenario created by "Weird Pete". Now he's taken up a more hardball approach in the hopes of reining in the power gaming that wrecked most of his previous adventures.
Robert Samuel "Bob" Herzog
Bob lives for gaming. He's a member of the "Old School" style of playing which revolves around killing people and breaking things. His short temper has led him into trouble on many occasions. He reacts to most encounters with "I waste him/her/it with my crossbow!". Bob is extremely protective of his large dice collection. At one point, Bob came into conflict with his father over gaming, given the option to straighten up and give up gaming, or move out. Being the true gamer, Bob did indeed move out, and is currently attempting to live on his own, but tends to spend his rent money on gaming paraphernalia. Bob's favourite character in fantasy campaigns is a dwarf named Knuckles (ranging from Knuckles, King of the Wall-climbers to Knuckles the Eighth), who rides a mule named "Little Mike" which he believes to be a "Dwarven Warhorse."
Bob is in a relationship with Sheila Horowitz, a member of another Muncie gaming group, the Dorm Troopers; recent issues have shown the two apparently living together. Bob currently works for Weird Pete at the till, getting paid in gaming stock each week, because Weird Pete cannot afford to pay him in actual money. Bob has little qualms with this arrangement, and has even made Sara compliment him on how enthusiastic he is.
David "Dave" Harcord Bozwell
The youngest of the Knights, Dave is a student at Ball State University, where he studies Cultural Anthropology and Dance Theory (the latter of the two for the purpose of meeting girls). He originally used to show up for the food, but really got into the game despite a bad first encounter with Johnny (a former Knight who gouged Dave out of a priceless gem). Dave is the typical "Hack-N-Slash" player, who becomes bored easily in non-action situations. When faced with talking things through (at which he is poor), or fighting, Dave chooses the latter. Dave, until recently, played a character by the name of El Ravager, wielding a coveted Hackmaster +12 sword named "Tremble". He lusts to own a god-level Magic Sword, but dreads the possibility of such a blade having its own ideas of what it is to be used for.
More recently (late 2006) in B.A.'s newest campaign, Dave has changed tactics (in part thanks to B.A.'s new hardball rules) and is playing a magic-user named El Mardico with, it must be said, some margin of success. Brian has therefore provided Dave with tutelage on how to properly run a mage – for a small fee. Dave was once involved with local Game Master Patty Gauzweiller; he later broke it off but she still had feelings for him, leaving him a target for her flirtatious tactics. This, however, seems to have disappeared with time.
Sara Ashlyn Felton
B.A.'s cousin Sara, the only female member of the group, prefers games with a focus on role playing rather than the pure action. Often, she tries to solve issues in-game through negotiation, while the others prefer violence. Exactly how she, playing a 'good' character, came to unleash upon the game-world a blood-thirsty pack of pit bulls to attack and devour anything alive they come across (and quite a few not-alive things as well) is an entirely different story, and one Sara would like the world to forget about (even if she never will). Usually the voice of reason, Sara has reflexes that would scare a striking cobra and has been known to have a hair-trigger temper on certain subjects (sexist remarks being perhaps the foremost); Bob, Dave and Brian have all had their shirt collars wrenched by a fuming Sara at least once.
Sara's trademark characters are generally (fully clothed) female barbarians, the most noteworthy of which are probably Zayre and Thorina. She also has the distinction of being the person that broke Brian's undefeated streak at Risque (a parody of Risk). Brian is not fond of being reminded of this. Sara was supposedly based on Jolly Blackburn's wife, Barbara Blackburn.
Brian Montgomery VanHoose
Brian is the rules lawyer and powergamer of the group. A web designer and miniature painter, he lives alone in a house inherited from his parents. He can quote rules and supplements down to page and paragraph/footnote numbers, and bend and abuse this knowledge to his advantage, at times at the expense of other players. He meticulously hands down notes of earlier adventures to his characters' descendants, thereby giving them in-game access to knowledge they otherwise would not possess, and has been known to tattoo his character's spells on fellow party-members backs as a contingency plan, making them into walking grimoires. Brian is another person said to keep a grudge so long he has a regular account at the taxidermists' shop. In addition, when he does get pushed too far (either by a carefully constructed plot falling apart or a bout of in-game backstabbing), he has been known to flip the table in a moment of rage.
His weaknesses include a miserly streak that makes him charge other players 15 cents apiece for character sheets (and non-KoDT affiliated gamers 25 cents), and a love for dogs that can lead to B.A. leading him by the nose towards traps and misfortunes. Brian's trademark characters are wizards, all bearing the name Lotus. His most well-known character is known as Teflon Billy, but this was a nickname given by the group to a character originally named Black Lotus (Black Lotus gives BL which gives Billy, and "Teflon" refers to the uncanny skill of the character at avoiding damage). Formerly a renowned Game-Master, he abandoned the GM's Screen after an unspecified incident at a convention, but has recently taken it up again (after B.A. was burned out by repeated trashings of his best efforts in GMing), to run a complex Cattlepunk campaign. This campaign terminated with the sudden reversal of Brian's meticulous plans, at the hands of an alliance between B.A. and Sara, and an unexpected role-reversal, (from cringing dupe to back-shooting plotter) on the part of Bob's character; Brian threw the reins back to B.A., returning to the role of player, saying that he had only GM'd in order to keep his HMPA-GM credentials fully valid.
Brian has also appeared as a tragic character more than once; in his youth, his parents were killed in a car crash, and his uncle managed his inheritance until he turned eighteen. Living on his own, he concocts elaborate fantasies which he narrates to the other players about being taken globetrotting by his uncle for Christmas, or having a girlfriend (see Alexis Marie below), sometimes even making bogus phone calls or actually booking hotel rooms to strengthen the illusion. In one extreme case, Brian has been portrayed as role-playing a date with a doll, which he referred to as "Sara"; in another, when the Knights had met for pizza and were drawing from a prop Deck of Many Things that Brian made and imagining what would happen if the deck was real and affected their real lives, Brian drew the card "the Void" ("Body functions, but soul is trapped elsewhere"), and responded with "That pretty much describes my life already." It has also been suggested Brian's state may be linked to the fact that Brian previously ran six separate campaigns every week, and was paid for GMing, and further that there may be links between this and "the incident" which caused Brian to give up GMing. Recent issues have not mentioned this aspect of the plot, and it may have been dropped, as a number of reader's letters suggested that readers found these developments too disturbing.
On a number of occasions (such as the doll incident mentioned above), Brian has displayed evidence of a severe crush on Sara; he has not, however, ever openly acknowledged this to her.
The Black Hands Gaming Society
Usually represented as the "evil" counterpart to the Knights, as most of their games revolve around the PCs finding reasons to kill each other before completing the intended adventure. Their membership consists of players who have been rejected from all other local groups, and hence they remain together simply because none of them has anywhere else to go. They are far more results-oriented than the Knights, enforcing demerit policies when Weird Pete is behind the GM screen (often worked off by unpaid labor behind Weird Pete's counter), and holding extensive post-mortems on their game sessions, to see where things could have been done better (usually by the members of the group not slaughtering one another's characters for minor infractions of local "rules", to vent a real-life grudge, or to gain experience points needed to advance their own character a level or two). They are especially prone to do this to "new" charactersmost all of them have a psychological "button" which triggers a desire to execute a character based solely on race, attitude or type of clothing (e.g. looking like the character might be an assassin).
Victor "Nitro" Fergueson – Former Marine and the current GM of the Black Hands; he resorts to increasingly contrived methods to keep the group in order, including using demerits, using incentives, and forcing players to wear "hubcaps of shame" if warranted. Supposedly earned his name after an incident taking part in the steam tunnels under the local University where Nitro attempted to run a "live action" session. For some reason yet to be fathomed, Nitro has a habit of using deceased celebrities of cult-like status as NPCs in most, if not all, of his games (Andy Warhol, his apparent favorite, springs up everywherein HackMaster, Nitro placed him as the primary deity of his campaign setting, Kraag Wurld). Has little tolerance for stupidity and sucking up (usually done at the same time by Newt), and can quickly slip into a drill sergeant-esque tirade that would make R. Lee Ermey proud. Nitro was supposedly based on a real person who Jolly met at a gaming club, who really was nicknamed Nitro.
Pete Ashton – known to the gaming community as "Weird Pete"; owner of the local game shop, the "Games Pit" (originally called the "Games Pit Stop"). A player in the Black Hands, although he has occasionally acted as GM for both them and other groups in the comic, usually running his trademark "never-completed" adventure The Temple Of Horrendous Doom (a reference of a pair of real D&D modules, Tomb Of Horrors and The Temple of Elemental Evil) which "no-one has ever completed without dying". In fact, the majority of the adventure requires players to take control of disembodied spirits; thus "dying" and being reborn is part and parcel of completing the adventure. Weird Pete generally forces players to sign a non-disclosure contract before playing as he enjoys the mystique that has evolved around the adventure. Weird Pete also devised a "demerit" system for penalizing players when he is GMing, which can be worked off with time running the front counter of the "Games Pit".
Weird Pete is a ruthless salesman and has no qualms about feeding his friends and customers a line of bull about the virtues of his wares; he has a particular talent for convincing B.A. that a given product or service is just what B.A. needs for his game. However, Pete is also a poor businessman, willing to shell out for whatever seems to be "the next big thing" and taking the fall when the product flops; he is often as vulnerable to the sales pitches of game manufacturers as his customers are to his own "salesmanship".
Newt Forager – a small and rather whiny and tricky player who invariably plays evil, mysterious loners with hidden agendas, all of whom are blood related so that he can share in-game information between them. The only child of a career military family, Newt bounced from base to base while he was youngperhaps the reason he has a hard time making friends. He has gravitated to the Black Hands because no other group will let him in (he played once with B.A. and the Knights when Bob was unable to game, and proceeded to try and rob everybody just to load up on treasure and experience for another GM's game he was aiming for). Since joining the Black Hands he has acquired an ongoing hatred of Stevil, mostly due to in-game interpersonal warfare and vendettas. Newt's first appearances with the Black Hands were initially believed to be examples of "newbie-bashing" (mistreatment of players who are new to a game or group, and are thus at a disadvantage) by several KODT readers; however, the creators behind the Knights point out that Newt's anti-social and selfish tendencies both in and out of character put him on an even footing with the Black Hands from the start, and that sooner or later, Newt invariably gives as good as he gets where his fellow players are concerned.
Gordo Sheckberry – a more roleplay focused player who usually plays female characters, most notably female pixie fairies who are dramatically underpowered compared to the other characters in the campaign. Gordo uses a wheelchair and has full lifetime disability, but considers this a bonus as it enables him to game almost daily with different groups. He is easily recognized by his Coke-bottle glasses and bad toupee. Gordo has a degree in Chemical Engineering, and is rumored to have cooked up the batch of C-4 used in an attempt to breach the steam tunnels (the incident that gave Nitro his nickname).
Stevil Van Hostle – also known as Stevil Van Hostile, Evil Stevil or Bitter Stevil, Stevil is a tech-support worker who commutes from Indianapolis to game sessions and is quick and vicious to jump on any grudge in the game (sometimes accompanied by his signature gripe, "I can't believe I drove forty-five frickin' miles for THIS!"). On occasions, he has been known to deliberately trash entire parties and campaigns simply because another player's character won over on him. He has an ongoing grudge against Newt which started when Newt first joined the group; Stevil's character challenged Newt's to "swing at him with a stick" to test his combat prowess (after Newt refused to describe his character in game-statistic terms). Newt's character knocked out Stevil's with his first blow and it was discovered that Stevil had assumed that a "stick" would be a small twig or similar, whereas the "stick" Newt's character had actually used was a full-length pole resembling a log. Outside the Black Hands' table, Newt merely brags he knocked Stevil out with an ordinary stick, which only serves to further annoy Stevil.
Hard Eight Enterprises
In the KODT world, Hard Eight Enterprises are the creators of the Hackmaster, Cattlepunk, Space Hack, and Scream of Kachooloo gaming systems. Well respected by all of Muncie's gaming groups (USUALLY anyway), they call the shots. Hard Eight Enterprises run the tournament-level Hackmaster games in the semi-finals, which one year resulted in the disqualification of the Black Hands, and the Untouchable Trio (Plus One) causing Timmy Jackson to cry. Hard Eight runs the annual Garycon game convention; there is now a real-world convention with this name, held in memory of Gary Gygax in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin.
Gary Jackson – President and founder of Hard Eight, Gary Jackson designed and created Hackmaster (a parody of Dungeons & Dragons). His name combines those of Gary Gygax and Steve Jackson, two noted RPG designers. Gary Jackson has always been two things—first and foremost a gamer, but second and not distantly behind that at all: a business man. Some of Hard 8's best and worst products were the design of Gary, including the One-Legged Dwarf Kits. Gary has a son by the name of Timmy (Timmy Jackson in full), who also is involved in the family business. However, Timmy is somewhat young, and a lot of the ideas he comes up with are met with spite and disgust. Gary Jackson allegedly died in issue #53 in a plane crash. Because of controversy surrounding the new edition of Hackmaster, Brian and Bob got into a vehicle and drove up to Hard Eight to confirm. Despite their shock and horror at his "death," the two rubbed several of their dice on Gary (believed to endow good luck, they in fact cursed the dice). Suddenly, in issue #149, Gary emerged from hiding (after having faked his own death to avoid gambling debts), and started his own game company, purchasing several of his game lines from Hard Eight, now controlled by Heidi. Eventually, he merges his new company with Hard Eight, recombining their old intellectual properties, but must work under Heidi, who still owns it.
Heidi Jackson – estranged wife of Gary Jackson and owner of a regular publishing company, Paperback Werks, and owner of Hard Eight since the (faked) death of Gary Jackson – although she rarely actually showed up at Hard Eight, instead holding telephone conferences with the staff. Heidi is a hard-nosed businesswoman who cares nothing for games or gamers, and imposed continuously harsher deadlines for Hard Eight to show greater and greater profit margins, having threatened to close down the company more than once if it fails to show sufficient growth. Many of the employees dislike Heidi, but Jo Jo (below) has accepted that her business attitude is only acknowledging and dealing with a weakness that was already there. Heidi began demanding changes in Hackmaster to the point it resembled one of the romance/adventure novels her company publishes. (Some changes suggested by Heidi appear to be not-so-subtle jabs at the recent, real-world alterations made to Dungeons & Dragons 4th Edition.) After Heidi sold off several Hard Eight assets to have them purchased secretly by Gary, Gary found that his employees had signed Non-compete clause contracts with Heidi. Gary was able to "charm" Heidi into re-merging the companies.
Timmy Jackson – Son of Gary and Heidi Jackson. Over the years, Timmy earned the nickname of "Table Happy," because of his munchkin ways. He was also referred to on occasion as "Timmy the Rules Mangler." Timmy was intended to one day inherit Hard Eight. Timmy used to participate in the creation of gaming systems, including Cattlepunk. However, Timmy was a munchkin (i.e. power gamer) and his products had poor reputations. Following the return of Gary Jackson, it has been implied that Timmy has lost interest in role-playing games and has grown into a typical teen jock, more interested in football and girls.
Jo Jo Zeke – Jo Jo was (until his supposed demise) Gary Jackson's best friend and he assumed daily management of Hard Eight after Gary's "death." Jo Jo was once forced to accompany Timmy Jackson to host a Hackmaster tournament because Gary was busy. In the aftermath, Jo Jo grabbed a then-crying Timmy and retreated back to Hard Eight as fast as possible. Everyone found out why very quickly, for the prize of the tournament turned out to be a $1500 certificate for One-Legged Dwarf Kits and Spelljacked cards. This development enraged even those who had lost the tournament, and a riot broke out. Jo Jo was pressed by the Hard Eight staff to stand up to Heidi Jackson's more ridiculous changes to HackMaster. Jo Jo presented their case and was subsequently fired. He created his own gaming company, but was then brought back on board when Gary returned.
Patty's Perpetrators
Patty's Perpetrators (Patty's Perps for short) are one of the newest sanctioned groups in Muncie recognized by the HMPA . Patty's Perps have the stigma of being the very bottom of the barrel (i.e. they take in those who no one else will accept, like Crutch).
Patty Gauzweiller – currently teaches a Kindergarten class in Muncie. She used to belong to the Black Hands before forming Patty's Perpetrators (or more commonly "Patty's Perps"). She often brings her "teaching tools" from her classroom to the gaming table (time outs, for example). Patty used to be in a relationship with Dave. They dated for a number of months before Dave decided to break up with her. In more recent times, after a series of misunderstandings and an eventual co-GM arrangement with B.A. during a massive PvP war at the Knights' table, surprisingly, Patty and B.A. appear to be on the road to an actual relationship.
Leslie "Crutch" Humphries – Crutch is an ex-con who's gotten two "strikes" and been put on notice. If he commits a crime again, he goes to prison for good. He's often found at Hawg Wallers (though legally he is not allowed to be in bars by the terms of his probation, the police don't usually go to Hawg's). Despite his criminal record, it's apparent to those who know him that he mostly has a good heart. He is a very loyal friend—though he often gets in trouble for his loyalty. Crutch discovered role-playing by accident, when he mistook a game of Cattlepunk the Black Hands were playing in Hawg Wallers for an actual meeting to plan a heist; when he was told the truth, he decided he would like to see how the heist turned out in the game anyway and was hooked on Cattlepunk. However, Crutch also had a social stigma of being cutthroat and was rejected from the Knights, as well as from the Black Hands. He finally found a home with Patty's Perps, although he had to try hard to earn the acceptance and approval of the other players. He has learned much about fantasy role-playing and teamwork with fellow players in his time with the Perps, and in a recent Hackmaster Tournament/Grudge Match, Crutch was the only member of the group to advance to the finals. Moreover, it was his act of self-sacrifice that enabled Sara Felton (another finalist among the three teams that called the Grudge Match) to reach the final goal and win the game. Crutch eventually became an HMA certified gamemaster, drawing on his criminal background to run a surprisingly popular (and extremely lethal) Crime Nation campaign.
Mona "Mo" Wert – Mona has a lot of time to game since her children are grown up and she received a large inheritance from a great-uncle, as well as her husband's departure. She is proud of "answering to no one" and being a "free spirit". She is honest, blunt, and rather ruthless, but most people still consider her enjoyable to be around. In her spare time she does volunteer work and met Patty working at her kindergarten.
Eddie "Tank" Ramirez – Eddie acquired the nickname "Tank" in high school as the League Commissioner for his Fantasy Football League. He is very proud of his character – Kraven the Frost Giant thief. He believes he is the only player in the country playing a giant thief, although there are rumors that someone in Belize is playing a Hill Giant assassin. He has assumed the role of Crutch's "tutor", teaching him the intricacies of roleplaying and "playing well with others". As a child, Eddie was extremely shy, and Patty's Perps was the only group that accepted him. Patty has been working on "coaxing him out of his shell" and he started working out at Nitro's gym regularly after she offered in-game incentives for exercising.
Chad Aguilar – Chad is a graduate student as Ball State University, and working as a disc jockey to get needed money. He's known for having a short temper – he is often sent to Patty's time-out corner, and if he goes out prematurely, he'll lose a level. When he started playing Hackmaster, his age (13) made it difficult to find an accepting group, but he was accepted in Patty's group. He plays now with his love interest, Reese, who is a naive vegan peacenik completely unsuited for the brutal world of Hackmaster. After having a baby son ("Peeta...") they ended up sharing a pixie fairy character with multiple personalities.
Other groups
The Dorm Troopers, Logan's Heroes and Slacker's Hackers are part of some of the other local gaming groups across whom the Knights come at intervals, most notably in the incident of the Player Exchange Program (and resulting intergroup grudge match). In this, certain Game Masters conspired to arrange for the annihilation of competing groups' characters (so that their bodies could be looted for plunder) by switching players into other groups' games where, separated from their regular comrades, they could be killed off. The ultimate plan was to eliminate competition in an upcoming local HackMaster tournament, as well as use any magic items and other enhancements looted from other characters to win the tourney.
Other notable characters from the Muncie gaming community include
Bridgette Keating, a beautiful woman who wears skimpy costumes at conventions and delights in using her appearance to manipulate the "geeks" (not least by involving them in the LARP "Vampyres: Lords of Darkness" and then using them for manual labor).
Earl Slackmozer, an occasional freelancer for Hard Eight Enterprises and a one-time rival of B.A. B.A. didn't care for one of Earl's modules and the two butted heads for a while, but have since learned to respect each other (more or less).
Sheila Horowitz was introduced to gaming at the Knights' table (though never became an official member of the group) while dating Dave Bozwell, and once got in a fistfight with B.A. when he accused her of in-game cheating. She is currently a member of the Dorm Troopers, and is cohabitating with Bob Herzog. Sheila is arguably a vital part of Bob's maintaining his independence from his father, as she initially took something of a "mother hen" attitude with Bob. Since moving in together, it is clear that Sheila is the dominant personality in the relationship, limiting Bob's spending money and assigning him household chores (although, also, at the latest GaryCon, covertly arranging for Bob to fulfill his ambition to win a giant D20, even if she did then have to manipulate him into not displaying it on a table where she kept a family photograph). This relationship took a dramatic nosedive after Bob got suckered into a couple of Brian's schemes to 'get one over' on Hard 8, culminating in Bob losing Sheila's trust over rent money spent on Hacker-Snacks.
Hunter and Croix are Bob Herzog's nephew and niece (respectively), whom he has introduced to gaming. Hunter was part of Nitro's PeeWee team that competed in HackMaster tournaments, and later appeared in Wave 1 of Bob Herzog's intercampaign invasion during the PvP war against Carvin' Marvin, Brian, and Sara.
Two fictional groups that are frequently referenced in stories are the Hackmaster Association for gamemasters (HMA) and Hackmaster Players' Association for players (HMPA). They act as networking organizations for the two types of participant, perform lobbying activities on behalf of their groups to Hard Eight Enterprises (e.g., to advocate for rule changes that benefit their members), arbitrate disputes, and issue rulings that are binding on their members. The HMA also serves as an accreditation body for gamemasters. The HMA and HMPA are examples of the exaggerated level of organization of the RPG hobby in the comic; another is the fictional Gamer Temps company that provides, for a fee, drop-in temporary players for campaigns when a regular player is absent (minor character Ty Ferfel was introduced as a Gamer Temps employee).
Miscellaneous characters
Characters who are not part of a gaming group.
Squirrely – Weird Pete's pet chimpanzee, he can be considered a security measure. Squirrely is actually a hyper-intelligent experimental animal formerly of a U.S. Government research facility; how he escaped is somewhat of a mystery, and one Weird Pete will likely never solve- mainly because he doesn't know or even care. He works as sort of a gofer at the Games Pit, running errands on his scooter or sorting inventory. He has, on occasions, sat in at the Knights' table, substituting for one of the regulars (though never (so far) for Sara or Brian). He tends to do very well, because Weird Pete keeps his cage in the room he lets gamers hire for sessions, so Squirrely (who games as "Squire Lee", a name Pete had also used to apply for a credit card) has seen most of the commercial modules played already, and knows where the treasure, monsters and traps are. Squirrely is also a rather heavy smoker—something that can create friction at the Knights' table, due to Brian's bad reactions (either physically or psychosomatically allergic) to cigarette smoke.
Erik Bouchard – A Canadian gamer who showed up at Gary Jackson's funeral and rubbed dice on Gary, right in front of the entire Hard 8 Staff. He later appeared as a "hired gun" during the grudge match that resulted from the Player Exchange Program.
In-game (non-player) characters
The Knights themselves have encountered several recurring non-player characters in their (various) roleplaying campaigns. Among these are:
(Li'l) Knobby Foot, the Untouchable Trio (Plus One)'s one-time loyal halfling torch-bearer, who fled with certain of the UT+1's possessions, including Knuckles' "dwarven warhorse" and El Ravager's "magic cow," when the group was in dire straits and Knuckles, El Ravager, and Teflon Billy decided to use Knobby Foot as food. They also once shaved his head and branded "slacker" on his forehead for falling asleep on guard duty. He defected to Sergeant Barringer during the Bag Wars, and later inherited his position as lord of Barringer City. He eventually became a sort of lich and served a villainous role during a major campaign to destroy Bag World.
Lord Gilead, formerly the henchman of one of Sara's HackMaster characters who became a charismatic noble lord after an unknown, potentially dangerous magical helmet which the Knights insisted that he should be the one to try out turned out to be the legendary Helm of Lordship. He now rules the land of Faengerie and looks down on the propensity of Teflon Billy, Knuckles and El Ravager to burn and slaughter their way through whatever kingdom they happen to be in. Gilead is known to be a "favored NPC" by B.A., who uses him as to foil many of the players' more absurd large-scale plans and actions.
Chelsie the Magic Cow, once owned by El Ravager and subsequently eaten by Li'l Knobby Foot. Originally she was an ordinary cow, grazing by the side of the road as mere flavor text. El Ravager insisted on investigating, and B.A.'s attempts dissuade them were met with more fervor and suspicion ("there must be something really special about that cow if he's trying to keep us away from it"). When Teflon Billy used Detect Magic on the cow, B.A. sarcastically declared that it radiated a blinding magical aura. El Ravager laid claim to the cow, named her Chelsie, and over the course of several adventures sought to determine her supposed magic abilities; sadly, he never succeeded. Poor Chelsie met her end as a meal and warm clothing for Li'l Knobby Foot when he fled for his life from the Untouchable Trio. There is a similar story regarding Knuckles and a mule, though that was a case of deliberate trickery on the GM's part; B.A. convinced Knuckles (Bob's player) that "Little Mike" was actually a dwarven warhorse. Mike was also stolen by Knobby Foot, but was kept on as the former hireling's steed when Knobby Foot joined the Barringer rebellion. (Oddly enough, when KenzerCo published the actual rulebooks for HackMaster, the dwarven warhorse showed up on the equipment lists of the Player's Guide, along with a plethora of other items mentioned in the comic. However, it contains no references to magic cows, so Chelsie's special abilities remain a mystery.)
"Red" Gurdy Pickens, most often a bar-owner or piano player and nemesis of the Knights' Cattlepunk characters. From the players' perspective, the most feared of all of B.A.'s recurring NPCs; he is often recognized by description before being mentioned by name, eliciting a cry from the players (in unison) of "RED GURDY PICKENS?!". A Canadian descendant of Red even showed up in B.A.'s Hacknoia campaign to plague the Knights' agent characters. He was Resurrected yet again as the sheriff (and primary antagonist for the players) of the town of Lazarus, during Brian's Cattlepunk campaign. Red Gurdy Pickens appears as an NPC in Aces and Eights, the real-life analogue to Cattlepunk.
Alexis Marie (aka Lexie), supposedly Brian's girlfriend, but never seen by anyone else in the flesh. He talked about her larger-than-life adventures and careers for over two years before Bob and the other Knights decided the ruse was out of control; Brian had claimed they were engaged and even sent out wedding invitations. After a long, drawn-out intervention-type discussion, Brian was forced to admit that Alexis was not real. In a dramatic emotional outburst, he confessed he had created his own fantasy world, "Brian's Life", in order that he could feel loved (a sort of escape from the 'harsh edges' of the real world). Alexis is now a touchy subject among all the Knights, and any mention of her at the table tends to result in Brian unleashing a furious beatdown on the person who mentioned her.
Jonid Coincrawler, a gnomish thief and illusionist, who devises elaborate schemes to separate the Knights from their gold. In many cases, these schemes would not have worked as well as they did if it were not for the Knights simultaneously attempting an equally elaborate scheme to profit from a situation. In the "reality" of the comic strip, Jonid seems to be an established character from official HackMaster material rather than an original creation of B.A.'s, as he is mentioned in documents distributed by Hard Eight Enterprises.
Sergeant Barringer, the leader of a group of hirelings that the UT+1 placed inside a magical bag of holding in order to transport them more easily (in other words, less expensively than buying them all horses). After Teflon Billy, who was in charge of the bag, forgot to feed the hirelings or let them out of the bag for several months, he was shocked to discover that, rather than dying, they had created a fortress and society within "Bag World", living off the other resources that the Knights had stored there. This led to a conflict and eventually to several full-scale "Bag Wars" in which the Knights attempted to reclaim their items. In a more recent storyline, a campaign taking place generations after the end of the "Bag Wars" features the Knights' current characters entering Bag World and encountering societies descended from veterans of the wars; one of these settlements was "Barringer City," ruled by a corrupted Knobby Foot.
"Carvin' Marvin", an intelligent artifact-level magic sword who is completely insane and delights in having his wielder kill and maim anyone nearby and/or themselves. On occasion, however, he can be persuaded to pursue a more useful goal, and on those occasions serves as a very powerful and effective weapon. The last time Marvin was wielded resulted in a clash between him and Tremble, the Hackmaster +12 that (played by Nitro) had asserted control over Dave's character, with the result that every PC died and Marvin absorbed Tremble's power as his own. He waited centuries at 'Meatgrinder Rock,' luring in unsuspecting treasure hunters in and destroying them to create bodies for a mighty undead army. Eventually, the party returned to investigate the sword and Sara and Brian's characters got too close and became dominated by Marvin, who then used them to launch a campaign to conquer Garweeze World.
Pit bulls. The UT+1 discovered that the HackMaster rules allowed pit bulls to be purchased in large quantities from even the smallest village, making them a cheap but effective weapon en masse (though somewhat uncontrollable, since the cheap price was for untrained dogs). Unfortunately, when one of Sara's characters purchased a large group to run off guards transporting the other three player characters to justice, the dogs became feral and started gathering up every other pit bull in the country, one village at a time, until a vast pack of the dogs ('the Doomsday Pack') was killing everyone and every living thing which they came across, changing the face of Garweeze World.
Fictional games
Since the comic centers around a community of role-playing gamers, the characters are seen playing many games that are analogues of real-world games (some of which were then published as real-world games). They include:
Hackmaster, a fantasy role-playing game like Dungeons & Dragons, but even more baroquely complex. Hackmaster games are typically set in Garweeze Wurld, a reference to Gary Gygax's World of Greyhawk campaign setting. It is the game most often shown being played. Kenzer and Company has published multiple real-world versions of the game, including supplements with names taken from the comic (e.g. the Hacklopedia of Beasts guides to the monsters of Garweeze Wurld). In the very early Shadis scripts, the game the group plays is apparently called Dung & Dragons (although this is only seen on the back of B.A.'s GM screen). HackMaster is initially described as a home-brewed rule set by B.A., but was later declared to be a published product.
Spacehack, a science-fiction role-playing game like Traveller. Early strips implied this to be exactly the same game as HackMaster with different names, but it diverged later. One early storyline features the Knights' Spacehack characters traveling through a rift in space to Garweeze Wurld, where they encountered their Hackmaster characters. Several single-frame strips referring to SpaceHack were originally advertisement strips for the sci-fi RPG Fading Suns (which otherwise has no relationship to Hackmaster)
Scream of Kachooloo, a horror role-playing game closely modeled on Call of Cthulhu.
HackNoia, a modern-day espionage role-playing game like TSR's Top Secret.
Heroes and Zeroes, a superhero role-playing game like Champions.
Cattlepunk, a Western role-playing game like TSR's Boot Hill. The earliest strips call it Hackmaster: Cattlepunk, implying it may be a supplement or variation on that game. Kenzer and Company has published its own Western-themed game named Aces & Eights: Shattered Frontier.
Crime Nation, a role-playing game where the characters are gang members in a crime-ridden city.
Dawg: The RPG, a role-playing game, designed by B.A. Felton, where the characters are dogs of various breeds, similar to Bunnies & Burrows, which featured rabbit characters. Was self-published by B.A. and was a disastrous failure; the one time the group played it, the session consisted almost entirely of making "saving throws versus Canine Compulsion" to avoid their character acting like an actual dog. Was later picked up by Hard Eight after an intellectual property dispute with Heidi and "tidied up" by Jo Jo Zeke.
Vampyres: Lords of Darkness, a live-action role-playing game like White Wolf's Vampire: The Masquerade.
World of Hackcraft, a massively multiplayer on-line role-playing game set in Garweeze Wurld, modeled on World of Warcraft.
Spelljacked, a fantasy-themed collectible card game like Magic: The Gathering and Spellfire. Spelljacked is depicted as Hard Eight's failed attempt to cash in on the CCG craze; they were later forced to practically give away their remaining stocks of cards.
Fairy Meat, a miniatures game designed by Pete Ashton about cannibalistic fairies. Later published as a real-world game.
Risque, a board game of world conquest modeled on Risk.
Island of Kataan, a board game of building and trading modeled on The Settlers of Catan. When the Knights play it, most of them are baffled by its complete lack of rules for combat.
"TreasonHackers", a RPG that mimics "Paranoia". It only shows up in the animated YouTube videos, and Brain thinks it's a joke due to the high lethality rate.
RoadHack, a post-apocalypse highway game of car-to-car combat a la The Road Warrior, clearly based on Car Wars.
The Great War, an extremely detailed simulation of the First World War, costing several hundred dollars. A number of Muncie gamers formed the "Guns of August Society" to purchase and play it; over the years, all except Weird Pete and Brian have dropped out, and those two have been playing the game, at the rate of one turn per month, for fifteen years. When Johnny Kizinski briefly returned to the Society, he found that Pete and Brian had stopped attacking each other and were continuing to play the game peacefully simply to keep it running: Johnny attacked, upsetting the balance. A reference to the "monster games" of wargaming's past, such as SPI's War in Europe or GDW's Europa Series.
Virulence: The Game of Biological Warfare, a boardgame with both cooperative and competitive elements, centered around keeping a patient alive as it is attacked by various diseases while engineering diseases to attack other teams' patients. Similarly themed to the cooperative board game Pandemic.
Live readings
An event held at the Origins Game Fair, and possibly other Gaming conventions, is the Knights Of The Dinner Table live reading. People in attendance will put their name into a random drawing. The "winners" go up on stage, sit around a table, and act out the comic book, with hilarious results.
Affiliated products
Several games based on the comic have been published:
The boardgame Orcs At The Gates, published in 1998, and an expansion Orcs: The Reckoning in 1999. The base game won the 1999 Origins Award for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Boardgame.
The card game Knights of the Dinner Table: HACK!, published in 2001.
Four Lost Worlds gamebooks were published by Flying Buffalo based on the comic's famous "Untouchable Trio +1" (Bob's "Knuckles", Dave's "El Ravager", Sara's "Thorina", and Brian's "Teflon Billy").
HackMaster, a real-world realization of the game played in the comic, was published by Kenzer and Company. Based on the first edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (system used under license), it won the Origins Award for Game of the Year 2001.
In 2000, a monthly spin-off comic was created, titled Knights of the Dinner Table Illustrated, AKA K.ILL. The comic depicts many of the adventures described within KotDT; however, K.ILL shows the player characters' actions rather than those of the players behind them.
In 2018 a Kickstarted Live action show was produced. However, due to the mismanagement and misdoings of the Originator of the Kickstarter, Ken Whitman, now known as Whit Whitman, the 4TB harddrive with the footage was lost. Thankfully, a portion of the footage was recovered and Ben Dobyns of Zombie Orpheus Entertainment was able to make and send the backers a reconstructed version despite no obligation to do so.
See also
Nodwick, another roleplaying comic strip
Dork Tower, another roleplaying comic strip
The Order of the Stick, another roleplaying comic strip
Eric and the Dread Gazebo, a notorious gaming anecdote that provided the basis for one story in the comic's first issue.
References
External links
Official KoDT homepage
Official "Who's Who" of KoDT
1990 comics debuts
American comic strips
Gag-a-day comics
Origins Award winners
Role-playing game magazines | [
-0.39988160133361816,
0.3943678140640259,
-0.06057457998394966,
0.10318198800086975,
-0.2158290147781372,
0.050604578107595444,
-0.2782197892665863,
0.39993178844451904,
-0.5807408094406128,
-0.15429037809371948,
-0.6363719701766968,
0.08079414814710617,
0.23728328943252563,
-0.033258166164159775,
-0.3631201982498169,
0.05770901218056679,
0.26432836055755615,
0.38388076424598694,
-0.6003591418266296,
-0.8509108424186707,
-0.3206672668457031,
-0.2702206075191498,
-0.08751530200242996,
-0.21507064998149872,
-0.2801874577999115,
0.27717918157577515,
-0.04282659664750099,
-0.15988244116306305,
0.3434330224990845,
0.3265988528728485,
0.2834104001522064,
0.36551302671432495,
0.2777547538280487,
-0.6389686465263367,
-0.43235015869140625,
-0.6885310411453247,
-0.11607902497053146,
-0.09699094295501709,
0.23360195755958557,
-0.36766690015792847,
0.440642386674881,
0.13777264952659607,
0.5976722836494446,
0.5254206657409668,
0.03807169198989868,
-0.5296237468719482,
-1.4750480651855469,
0.3318072557449341,
-1.132190227508545,
0.21040375530719757,
-0.3070020079612732,
0.3797142207622528,
0.2279709428548813,
0.518045961856842,
0.22461967170238495,
1.088607668876648,
-0.6503609418869019,
0.6429378986358643,
0.041864145547151566,
-0.42175304889678955,
-0.03775743767619133,
0.32184576988220215,
0.21101659536361694,
-0.35100165009498596,
-0.5264376997947693,
0.28703078627586365,
0.22921301424503326,
0.6105350255966187,
0.10672116279602051,
0.5283964276313782,
0.11065414547920227,
-0.4608352482318878,
0.15283367037773132,
0.12265182286500931,
0.1459740400314331,
-0.17419111728668213,
0.36919838190078735,
0.09799293428659439,
-0.061674993485212326,
0.15755698084831238,
-0.427810937166214,
0.1937950849533081,
0.8298379182815552,
0.2345302402973175,
0.4038214087486267,
0.3690531849861145,
-0.30346745252609253,
-0.4286501109600067,
-0.2559327483177185,
0.40221795439720154,
-0.39038604497909546,
0.0035823427606374025,
0.6775485873222351,
0.33173781633377075,
0.00011650548549368978,
-0.885724663734436,
-0.23379725217819214,
0.21069970726966858,
0.2670825719833374,
0.6958234310150146,
-0.19652272760868073,
0.3400663733482361,
0.698232114315033,
-0.40343841910362244,
-0.6107012033462524,
0.043433498591184616,
0.07795814424753189,
-0.6393952965736389,
0.3888266384601593,
0.09243707358837128,
-0.35807207226753235,
-0.1626056581735611,
0.1279021054506302,
0.153264120221138,
-0.03289598599076271,
0.3090892434120178,
-0.06723924726247787,
-0.35635942220687866,
-0.7653034925460815,
-0.19607706367969513,
-0.3078172206878662,
0.864514946937561,
0.32062017917633057,
0.6283301115036011,
0.14912396669387817,
0.16188891232013702,
0.4392337501049042,
0.3996888995170593,
0.011264562606811523,
0.0703849121928215,
0.367341548204422,
0.4906994700431824,
-0.27724650502204895,
-0.5503237843513489,
-0.297932893037796,
0.2539500892162323,
0.336699903011322,
0.6114410161972046,
0.04460776224732399,
0.20199054479599,
-0.7207986116409302,
-0.7287532687187195,
-0.4004792273044586,
-0.24730809032917023,
0.2847652733325958,
-0.37655365467071533,
-0.03484407812356949,
-0.5630318522453308,
0.02605525404214859,
-0.2046789824962616,
0.13915838301181793,
-0.04009373486042023,
-0.26628538966178894,
0.20999912917613983,
-0.07523742318153381,
0.6501585841178894,
0.23153962194919586,
-0.246676504611969,
0.47121772170066833,
0.20867636799812317,
0.28810766339302063,
-0.26213306188583374,
-0.5490541458129883,
-0.23395095765590668,
0.10023028403520584,
0.278453528881073,
0.13512714207172394,
-0.048514463007450104,
-0.18992415070533752,
0.452804833650589,
-0.7453721761703491,
0.21553851664066315,
-0.062441349029541016,
-0.22146978974342346,
0.13554005324840546,
0.5968313217163086,
0.7917181253433228,
0.15067361295223236,
0.30758005380630493,
-0.05283607542514801,
-0.6003284454345703,
-0.3763187825679779,
0.12916111946105957,
-1.064873218536377,
0.2639996111392975,
-0.13892914354801178,
0.18891732394695282,
-0.17286953330039978,
-0.29075637459754944,
0.22317828238010406,
-1.1902822256088257,
-0.03981369733810425,
0.7189459204673767,
-0.2900469899177551,
1.473713994026184,
0.16259099543094635,
-0.8502548336982727,
1.0799814462661743,
0.2749083340167999,
0.8175939321517944,
-0.08054376393556595,
0.30261167883872986,
0.6719763875007629,
0.10258035361766815,
-0.4346480369567871,
0.39387431740760803,
-0.2708605229854584,
0.23163847625255585,
0.32273808121681213,
0.2648017406463623,
0.3724016845226288,
0.0055940598249435425,
0.34376877546310425,
0.04154570400714874,
-0.08086258918046951,
-0.26039835810661316,
-0.08498743176460266,
0.32346323132514954,
0.09122619777917862,
-0.7707621455192566,
0.9761468172073364,
0.19345544278621674,
-0.2232048362493515,
0.3435658812522888,
-0.3205524682998657,
0.9094767570495605,
-0.10191329568624496,
0.20932388305664062,
0.6655932664871216,
-0.15483258664608002,
0.026191044598817825,
-0.0585254468023777,
0.23221167922019958,
-0.788621723651886,
-0.07667260617017746,
-0.4799196422100067,
0.22777874767780304,
-0.5353673696517944,
-0.09511662274599075,
0.05216114595532417,
0.44266965985298157,
0.29546409845352173,
-0.6197282671928406,
0.1738000214099884,
-0.04616331309080124,
0.2512355446815491,
-0.4750114679336548,
0.5491378307342529,
0.09541448205709457,
-0.31372228264808655,
0.33483198285102844,
0.2750386595726013,
0.46949389576911926,
-0.22865846753120422,
0.1262228637933731,
0.3230098485946655,
-0.33601540327072144,
-0.024438288062810898,
0.01881089247763157,
0.25618624687194824,
-0.12922541797161102,
0.03716413304209709,
-0.19879470765590668,
-0.02701386995613575,
0.0006868505151942372,
-0.8627000451087952,
-0.014272752217948437,
-0.8965781331062317,
0.2913309335708618,
0.6237003803253174,
0.6270161271095276,
-0.2518327832221985,
-0.8494082689285278,
-0.6310180425643921,
0.1504882574081421,
-0.8031424283981323,
0.05903524532914162,
-0.04179275035858154,
-0.399871289730072,
-0.8043864369392395,
-0.329672634601593,
0.5633204579353333,
0.610110878944397,
-0.22568967938423157,
-0.23225228488445282,
-0.33972662687301636,
0.15772585570812225,
-0.6397728323936462,
-0.2661385238170624,
0.30976930260658264,
0.39435872435569763,
0.7576993107795715,
-0.16593070328235626,
-0.33225661516189575,
0.4586140513420105,
0.09946990758180618,
-0.30381345748901367,
0.06557297706604004,
-0.466153621673584,
-0.031990066170692444,
-0.11982659995555878,
-0.07552145421504974,
0.07768804579973221,
0.07587380707263947,
0.23908452689647675,
-0.5197415351867676,
-0.043076444417238235,
0.13030171394348145,
-5.792935848236084,
-0.5209208130836487,
-0.29641443490982056,
-0.27137047052383423,
-0.08161257952451706,
0.08481164276599884,
0.9432737231254578,
-0.6156490445137024,
0.5066686868667603,
0.04155782237648964,
-0.09975256770849228,
-0.011746818199753761,
0.212163507938385,
0.2244151085615158,
0.3941383957862854,
0.448449969291687,
0.012210306711494923,
0.07219225913286209,
0.09742411971092224,
-0.14186237752437592,
0.15788516402244568,
-0.4432726204395294,
-0.05369710177183151,
0.378456711769104,
0.22837409377098083,
0.7743440270423889,
-0.5194752812385559,
-0.03614042326807976,
-0.5693109631538391,
0.13599929213523865,
0.24216358363628387,
-0.021498706191778183,
0.17428505420684814,
-0.42304879426956177,
-0.2289731800556183,
-0.6732584834098816,
0.933067798614502,
0.37255343794822693,
0.06185927614569664,
-0.05658840015530586,
-0.17588528990745544,
0.17023742198944092,
-0.07982946187257767,
-0.5399712324142456,
0.9607000350952148,
-0.019596600905060768,
-0.361543744802475,
-0.34790319204330444,
-0.029598113149404526,
0.4433618485927582,
0.5087242126464844,
0.15199296176433563,
0.7458817362785339,
0.40405064821243286,
0.0629861131310463,
-0.17294298112392426,
0.38093283772468567,
0.18374423682689667,
-0.17543663084506989,
-0.2040582150220871,
0.49622634053230286,
-0.3778074383735657,
0.19252747297286987,
-0.15531152486801147,
0.08773837238550186,
-0.4359600245952606,
-0.2299233078956604,
0.09784723073244095,
0.46720975637435913,
0.10582053661346436,
-0.505313515663147,
-0.005853734444826841,
0.05719559267163277,
-0.9520043134689331,
0.1841227114200592,
-0.47255855798721313,
0.14505940675735474,
-0.1754370778799057,
0.24250943958759308,
-0.050786059349775314,
0.23615136742591858,
-0.3426284193992615,
-0.7243170142173767,
-0.21736791729927063,
-0.312447190284729,
-0.8136290907859802,
-0.689198911190033,
-0.01739989034831524,
-0.5530292391777039,
-0.026594143360853195,
0.18228605389595032,
-0.1780833750963211,
0.08098522573709488,
0.9549585580825806,
0.3701658248901367,
0.43979740142822266,
0.2992485761642456,
0.3498038947582245,
0.07330699265003204,
-0.06844935566186905,
-0.30917060375213623,
-0.4104444980621338,
0.40658050775527954,
-0.19405418634414673,
-0.18906667828559875,
-0.12152934074401855,
0.042298611253499985,
-0.07870415598154068,
0.38115257024765015,
-0.1532098352909088,
-0.59177166223526,
-0.19898709654808044,
-0.882301390171051,
-0.4463106393814087,
0.47310081124305725,
0.20866785943508148,
-0.13729646801948547,
0.11839914321899414,
-0.2040441483259201,
0.4277987778186798,
-0.1691805124282837,
0.12218469381332397,
0.08028270304203033,
-0.2541588246822357,
-0.29357460141181946,
-0.26425594091415405,
0.32212895154953003,
-0.5900495052337646,
0.6345824599266052,
0.003191426396369934,
-0.07454437762498856,
0.12271372228860855,
0.3148173391819,
0.30400246381759644,
0.06427834182977676,
-0.025337064638733864,
-0.15526819229125977,
-0.2177976369857788,
-0.0038452015724033117,
-0.21995748579502106,
-0.06470195204019547,
-0.35739052295684814,
-0.6789696216583252,
0.273642361164093,
0.13480347394943237,
0.22929689288139343,
-0.45836853981018066,
0.1454208493232727,
0.24936041235923767,
1.031142234802246,
-0.27194100618362427,
0.09230376780033112,
0.8380637168884277,
-0.3687090575695038,
-0.6648913025856018,
-0.3239375054836273,
-0.42844921350479126,
0.686332106590271,
-0.2068624645471573,
0.055208053439855576,
0.13601548969745636,
-0.7699395418167114,
-1.1974703073501587,
-0.0011702870251610875,
-0.09312761574983597,
-0.3013885021209717,
-0.4179915487766266,
-0.6936167478561401,
-0.34804123640060425,
0.2391938865184784,
0.1143316701054573,
0.5157809853553772,
-0.2733238637447357,
-0.09465483576059341,
0.45914730429649353,
-0.15051695704460144,
0.006109093315899372,
0.23238365352153778,
-0.15145649015903473,
0.02340823970735073,
0.43301257491111755,
0.08899756520986557,
-0.27640241384506226,
0.17280597984790802,
0.3033673167228699,
-0.35468828678131104,
-0.1942765712738037,
0.31437447667121887,
0.10673895478248596,
-0.0827421247959137,
0.3808322846889496,
0.4106942415237427,
0.6432173252105713,
0.09782369434833527,
-0.5473654270172119,
-0.04248080402612686,
0.08448277413845062,
0.4532529413700104,
0.058518268167972565,
-0.5823585391044617,
0.04006960988044739,
0.23305895924568176,
-0.8374312520027161,
0.17526903748512268,
0.5818350911140442,
-0.6460720896720886,
0.012464042752981186,
-0.27789029479026794,
-0.0021539602894335985,
0.4826631247997284,
-0.06001110374927521,
-0.26803654432296753,
0.244066059589386,
-0.09607800096273422,
-0.5844619870185852,
-0.0591726154088974,
0.2727545201778412,
-0.19709725677967072,
0.1481935828924179,
-0.20804259181022644,
-0.08474351465702057,
-0.12174898386001587,
-0.38124892115592957,
0.31807366013526917,
-0.41478267312049866,
0.488592267036438,
0.6029046773910522,
-0.709776759147644,
0.2711604833602905,
-0.7184305787086487,
0.2822939455509186,
-0.001852555200457573,
0.09141505509614944,
0.38121503591537476,
-0.019749930128455162,
0.269729346036911,
-0.03550388664007187,
0.5095577836036682,
0.13078716397285461,
0.5860047340393066,
0.22921550273895264,
0.47180941700935364,
0.20449303090572357,
-0.6870995759963989,
0.10816557705402374,
-0.007212270982563496,
0.6072900891304016,
-0.4386177361011505,
-0.38183510303497314,
0.21784372627735138,
0.6137670874595642,
-0.7175312042236328,
-0.01966942846775055,
0.0285330880433321,
0.35392820835113525,
-0.7226601839065552,
0.027950186282396317,
0.41709771752357483,
-0.07410690188407898,
-0.16403283178806305,
-0.23997126519680023,
0.5171467661857605,
-0.8138250708580017,
0.35984286665916443,
0.08100157231092453,
0.6255348324775696,
-0.1340760886669159,
-0.6471599340438843,
0.22720704972743988,
-0.09059900045394897,
0.3273918628692627,
-0.03269046172499657,
0.2601938843727112,
0.26202696561813354,
0.27063557505607605,
-0.027771249413490295,
0.12258271127939224,
-0.7037303447723389,
0.10909289121627808,
-0.15163151919841766,
-0.0779174193739891,
0.06942874938249588,
-0.04351679980754852,
-0.5935409665107727,
0.09722210466861725,
-0.9714359641075134,
0.16278693079948425,
-0.30082976818084717,
-0.06812246888875961,
0.13886386156082153,
-0.3638424277305603,
0.5108675956726074,
0.026672910898923874,
0.19759702682495117,
0.5349535346031189,
-0.1918625384569168,
0.5405731201171875,
-0.42509448528289795,
0.07034869492053986,
0.12436354160308838,
-0.3922708332538605,
0.4961838126182556,
0.011613615788519382,
0.03084430657327175,
0.4862752854824066,
0.2592540979385376,
-0.04087519273161888,
-0.06837765872478485,
-0.5299403071403503,
0.30908533930778503,
0.0765429139137268,
-0.7408430576324463,
0.1667589396238327,
0.4530329704284668,
-0.5690828561782837,
-0.22740578651428223,
0.4926515519618988,
-0.6556897759437561,
0.3622341752052307,
-0.011549731716513634,
0.25982800126075745,
0.055627524852752686,
0.6066641807556152,
0.17719699442386627,
-0.5774827599525452,
0.9867631196975708,
-0.4090788662433624,
-0.22981180250644684,
0.1891767680644989,
-0.5417755246162415,
0.49047455191612244,
0.622684895992279,
-0.6073150038719177,
-0.20126588642597198,
-0.09964271634817123,
-0.4972749948501587,
-0.10002754628658295,
-0.3198990523815155,
0.007849597372114658,
0.6105114817619324,
-0.0785503089427948,
-0.0972013771533966,
-0.48976147174835205,
-0.2247401475906372,
-0.055802732706069946,
0.260784387588501,
0.014113339595496655,
-0.012331142090260983,
0.02178332395851612,
0.339688777923584,
0.11217273026704788,
0.17124563455581665,
0.27469873428344727,
-0.6456964015960693,
0.8454104661941528,
-0.08562381565570831,
-0.45425742864608765,
-0.1532823145389557,
0.25673556327819824,
-0.12567391991615295,
0.22432616353034973,
-0.1306748390197754,
0.45534664392471313,
0.24172697961330414,
-0.24346192181110382,
0.2656325399875641,
-0.19086165726184845,
-0.0840892493724823,
0.07246291637420654,
0.3689241111278534,
-0.11050950735807419,
0.14221501350402832,
0.05757981911301613,
0.1376206874847412,
-0.8702247142791748,
0.07578662037849426,
0.6151764392852783,
0.39671021699905396,
0.4855572283267975,
0.36161771416664124,
-0.513349711894989,
-0.5005372166633606,
-0.42921632528305054,
-0.3869384229183197,
0.33771562576293945,
0.30852246284484863,
-0.37354597449302673,
0.45180797576904297,
-0.27841153740882874,
0.08282884210348129,
0.2904069423675537,
-0.8925827145576477,
-0.2423115223646164,
0.23803067207336426,
-0.09393264353275299,
-0.03377212584018707,
-0.22569110989570618,
0.6952043771743774,
0.2522193491458893,
-0.018296005204319954,
-0.4172300100326538,
0.1637948751449585,
0.7256737947463989,
-0.36349353194236755,
-0.3696027398109436,
0.34724628925323486,
-0.5091374516487122,
-0.4834560751914978,
-0.6869729161262512,
0.10730289667844772,
-0.21748366951942444,
-0.10378888249397278,
0.3482687473297119,
0.1527549773454666,
-0.17821022868156433,
-0.33781373500823975,
0.30737605690956116,
-0.2522069215774536,
0.48752105236053467,
-0.08278299868106842,
-0.5055708885192871,
0.24416710436344147,
0.04969002306461334,
0.3073688745498657,
-0.20544971525669098,
-0.1095399335026741,
0.4026011526584625,
-0.05301916226744652,
-0.3810458183288574,
0.24349527060985565,
0.09472282230854034,
-0.05328353866934776,
-0.7352070808410645,
0.008043619804084301,
0.2675340175628662,
0.010793445631861687,
0.3031083643436432,
0.8801523447036743,
0.512117862701416,
-0.3157355487346649,
-0.053797397762537,
0.06788554787635803,
-0.2798400819301605,
-0.03527373820543289,
-1.041445255279541,
0.23471520841121674,
-0.16895385086536407,
-0.13028202950954437,
-0.46781405806541443,
0.3977101147174835,
-0.17643794417381287,
-0.32497718930244446,
0.29489845037460327,
-0.5540885329246521,
0.0037767200265079737,
0.039545126259326935,
0.000875980535056442,
-0.2959158718585968,
0.542005717754364,
0.05010170862078667
] |
260931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDT | KDT | KDT may refer to:
Euro container, stackable containers termed (KLT)
Knights of the Dinner Table, a comic book
Kamphaeng Saen Airport (IATA code: KDT), an airport serving Nakhon Pathom, in Thailand
Keyword-driven testing, a software testing methodology
KDT Nacional, an association football club from Callao, Peru
Kilusang Diwa ng Taguig, a political party of the Philippines | [
0.1488623321056366,
0.015995332971215248,
0.20784491300582886,
0.6039488911628723,
-0.06960488855838776,
0.054537128657102585,
-0.27877524495124817,
0.13295401632785797,
-0.5734691619873047,
0.02616727538406849,
-0.31984299421310425,
-0.16739940643310547,
0.037060901522636414,
0.10758237540721893,
0.12798050045967102,
0.22686928510665894,
0.4436037838459015,
0.5677854418754578,
-0.2676711678504944,
-0.6360469460487366,
-0.6169922351837158,
-0.34797024726867676,
0.18711435794830322,
-0.3926919102668762,
0.03898324444890022,
0.27588123083114624,
-0.020715828984975815,
0.27528971433639526,
-0.36640405654907227,
0.312885582447052,
0.21083396673202515,
0.3402542769908905,
0.34282585978507996,
0.2942957580089569,
-0.023273028433322906,
-0.13720032572746277,
-0.1375291794538498,
-0.11557546257972717,
-0.048973891884088516,
-0.8199167251586914,
0.28317075967788696,
-0.32881903648376465,
0.3572828769683838,
-0.01736840233206749,
-0.5349892377853394,
-0.40193116664886475,
-1.740585446357727,
0.15259627997875214,
-0.9743393063545227,
0.17054525017738342,
-0.029779180884361267,
0.34822070598602295,
-0.2779300808906555,
0.4981198012828827,
0.3413711190223694,
0.7303173542022705,
-0.5637540221214294,
-0.15535692870616913,
0.13723629713058472,
-0.7494729161262512,
0.2439129650592804,
-0.22389894723892212,
-0.13642747700214386,
0.16073763370513916,
0.27739500999450684,
0.23664194345474243,
0.12689532339572906,
-0.07084812968969345,
-0.31222084164619446,
-0.33904799818992615,
0.1077674925327301,
-0.025376934558153152,
0.053701162338256836,
0.13800480961799622,
0.05570215359330177,
-0.36965852975845337,
-0.41884928941726685,
0.2578262686729431,
-0.3700393736362457,
0.19604994356632233,
-0.3362334668636322,
0.3905280828475952,
0.6733101010322571,
-0.17561869323253632,
0.5264714956283569,
-0.02994333580136299,
-0.1683281809091568,
0.32537388801574707,
-0.36424943804740906,
0.3110092282295227,
0.23181577026844025,
-0.011490452103316784,
0.5159878134727478,
0.10137923806905746,
-0.38565999269485474,
-0.20240387320518494,
-0.07002486288547516,
-0.10649540275335312,
0.6265974640846252,
0.2856159210205078,
-0.3254238963127136,
-0.44119858741760254,
-0.07056137919425964,
-0.006331832613795996,
-0.6768419742584229,
-0.19610550999641418,
-0.5952084064483643,
-0.07683585584163666,
0.09433223307132721,
-0.1466706246137619,
-0.4977286159992218,
-0.2850889563560486,
0.36654892563819885,
0.0895630493760109,
-0.049374308437108994,
0.10671218484640121,
0.283709317445755,
-0.5888807773590088,
0.03355995938181877,
0.05547443404793739,
0.1365797072649002,
0.6350500583648682,
0.02500707283616066,
0.07263977080583572,
0.5951221585273743,
0.2928926348686218,
0.6689688563346863,
0.6053819060325623,
-0.29971596598625183,
0.2789195477962494,
0.24716493487358093,
0.2602557837963104,
0.1720837503671646,
0.19974888861179352,
-0.3323543071746826,
-0.04589467495679855,
-0.14402033388614655,
-0.14067299664020538,
0.4538637101650238,
0.3713226914405823,
-0.6715388894081116,
-0.1179594025015831,
-0.502170741558075,
-0.1761954128742218,
0.37478166818618774,
-0.1044846922159195,
-0.056462083011865616,
-0.221515953540802,
-0.38798362016677856,
0.129697784781456,
-0.027173690497875214,
0.14212530851364136,
-0.0682850182056427,
0.5443862080574036,
-0.07733289152383804,
0.4517967998981476,
0.3422071933746338,
-0.04502289742231369,
0.08478198945522308,
0.19300398230552673,
-0.15993860363960266,
0.031848255544900894,
-0.6547176241874695,
0.27892816066741943,
-0.203538179397583,
0.07427076995372772,
0.29668331146240234,
0.7717530727386475,
-0.3165448307991028,
-0.08839371055364609,
-0.0009586441447027028,
-0.1364866942167282,
0.010596787557005882,
0.41100606322288513,
-0.1466764360666275,
0.07428901642560959,
0.23002320528030396,
-0.020035995170474052,
0.22822076082229614,
0.5955145955085754,
-0.6798691153526306,
0.35572224855422974,
-0.11913967877626419,
-0.37552472949028015,
-0.02787182666361332,
0.08878207206726074,
0.4309678375720978,
-0.09863657504320145,
0.009991860948503017,
-0.1362793743610382,
-0.7412386536598206,
-0.20462915301322937,
-0.05970858782529831,
-0.5504005551338196,
0.8470929861068726,
-0.09267859160900116,
-0.12992684543132782,
0.9600633382797241,
0.1184505820274353,
0.3584696352481842,
-0.15841926634311676,
0.20888134837150574,
0.6042920351028442,
-0.37287387251853943,
-0.17423385381698608,
0.3088023066520691,
0.2361748218536377,
0.20020626485347748,
0.16305585205554962,
0.24540667235851288,
0.44605204463005066,
-0.28705883026123047,
-0.07589780539274216,
-0.13992194831371307,
0.12419918179512024,
-0.2809268534183502,
-0.3227091133594513,
0.34572523832321167,
0.07102030515670776,
0.13724488019943237,
0.9528641104698181,
-0.44383442401885986,
-0.01602713204920292,
0.6396210193634033,
-0.3433724045753479,
0.8750526905059814,
0.18987765908241272,
0.4053272604942322,
0.8821631669998169,
-0.36695030331611633,
0.3246572017669678,
-0.37206974625587463,
0.2204941064119339,
-0.4865141212940216,
0.06440427154302597,
0.29754623770713806,
0.17641986906528473,
-0.3336475193500519,
0.15760290622711182,
-0.07397385686635971,
-0.39969247579574585,
0.44975391030311584,
-0.06655427068471909,
0.0939490795135498,
0.47984370589256287,
-0.015297681093215942,
-0.40158334374427795,
-0.2308732569217682,
-0.11183054000139236,
-0.07043884694576263,
0.2711387574672699,
0.5699763298034668,
-0.33327674865722656,
-0.2352832853794098,
-0.028171658515930176,
0.29456964135169983,
-0.008588463999330997,
0.23310573399066925,
-0.3069858253002167,
-0.03845980763435364,
-0.29605722427368164,
-0.09548617899417877,
0.11909466236829758,
0.1442488431930542,
-0.13233545422554016,
-0.4158971607685089,
-0.162011981010437,
-0.0856463685631752,
0.4503207504749298,
0.49045202136039734,
0.1938803642988205,
-0.37105461955070496,
-0.3120063841342926,
-0.11456487327814102,
-0.7105062007904053,
-0.8121595978736877,
-0.07448798418045044,
0.6579961776733398,
-0.5811743140220642,
-0.8434260487556458,
-0.6147361397743225,
-0.15514139831066132,
0.2607203722000122,
-0.5181589722633362,
0.5538601279258728,
0.07034022361040115,
-0.31911054253578186,
-0.6499691009521484,
-0.01692177541553974,
-0.498902827501297,
0.2400306761264801,
0.03654102236032486,
-0.21408922970294952,
-0.10491988807916641,
0.3492271602153778,
-0.0638381838798523,
0.0653364509344101,
0.15810926258563995,
0.3157157599925995,
-0.04235135391354561,
-0.22305119037628174,
0.19658376276493073,
-0.24167832732200623,
0.2778048515319824,
0.4873654544353485,
-0.36329013109207153,
-0.07518433779478073,
-0.06916331499814987,
-6.204298973083496,
0.2233535498380661,
-0.06688614189624786,
-0.21127338707447052,
0.3144987225532532,
-0.006819399539381266,
0.555699348449707,
-0.13646477460861206,
0.1232929676771164,
-0.23084531724452972,
-0.02977820672094822,
0.10474007576704025,
-0.036228157579898834,
0.028282055631279945,
0.13021153211593628,
0.2662000060081482,
0.27885425090789795,
0.46570950746536255,
-0.014988449402153492,
-0.18372374773025513,
0.05532564967870712,
0.005966118071228266,
0.276322603225708,
0.8231286406517029,
0.10771037638187408,
0.04861559346318245,
-0.617932140827179,
0.016770290210843086,
-0.5264319777488708,
-0.3080292046070099,
-0.18611225485801697,
0.046827394515275955,
-0.2567206621170044,
0.19560471177101135,
-0.3318840563297272,
-0.062462374567985535,
0.8281571865081787,
0.10233493894338608,
0.012311633676290512,
-0.3575607240200043,
0.14391891658306122,
0.5617422461509705,
0.16802836954593658,
-0.6518523097038269,
0.3759244978427887,
-0.036171115934848785,
-0.260202556848526,
-0.06498966366052628,
-0.5132232308387756,
0.3733830749988556,
0.17019718885421753,
-0.21632511913776398,
0.4065817892551422,
0.18493326008319855,
-0.06431159377098083,
-0.12159652262926102,
0.20384705066680908,
-0.16461165249347687,
-0.35534974932670593,
0.44805803894996643,
0.5180025100708008,
-0.05639408528804779,
-0.20645356178283691,
-0.6449660658836365,
-0.49836546182632446,
-0.3785626292228699,
-0.2897837162017822,
-0.07944355905056,
0.4427744448184967,
-0.03549891337752342,
-1.0078383684158325,
0.13611596822738647,
0.13410994410514832,
-0.6776579022407532,
0.20572887361049652,
-0.74086993932724,
0.16916398704051971,
-0.06757599115371704,
-0.06862745434045792,
0.5893121361732483,
-0.11463067680597305,
0.11331027746200562,
-0.14199888706207275,
-0.4878653287887573,
-0.15638236701488495,
-0.6224182844161987,
-0.2756534516811371,
0.326941579580307,
-0.13606564700603485,
-0.13102610409259796,
0.5082526803016663,
-0.34284111857414246,
0.40031906962394714,
0.27932897210121155,
0.4269976019859314,
0.6048540472984314,
0.013991842977702618,
0.17730452120304108,
-0.17005400359630585,
-0.18294022977352142,
0.30338504910469055,
-0.002333626849576831,
0.02643088437616825,
-0.2693525552749634,
-0.18691501021385193,
0.02758982591331005,
-0.18102839589118958,
0.28483226895332336,
0.4985044598579407,
0.062319766730070114,
-0.22759860754013062,
0.4027723968029022,
-0.10000438988208771,
-0.7041051983833313,
0.1762702465057373,
0.29674193263053894,
-0.39472314715385437,
0.12791575491428375,
0.19360071420669556,
-0.2913774847984314,
0.15332897007465363,
0.40985265374183655,
-0.4577961266040802,
-0.0038426739629358053,
-0.2884729504585266,
-0.19439300894737244,
-0.002748214639723301,
0.10988282412290573,
0.3567925691604614,
-0.21026121079921722,
0.09305012226104736,
0.27308788895606995,
0.7977365851402283,
-0.14650820195674896,
0.00626616133376956,
-0.25777292251586914,
-0.23353613913059235,
0.01174028217792511,
0.10732078552246094,
-0.4449027478694916,
0.22967223823070526,
-0.11819937080144882,
-0.2307092845439911,
0.277071475982666,
0.2378312647342682,
0.11559250950813293,
-0.33409154415130615,
0.07170593738555908,
0.12952996790409088,
0.44314804673194885,
0.1984025090932846,
-0.42940956354141235,
0.7392598390579224,
-0.21322005987167358,
-0.29270851612091064,
-0.18842078745365143,
0.3866502046585083,
0.4707547426223755,
0.39403966069221497,
-0.31827056407928467,
0.3831460177898407,
-0.0704306960105896,
-0.9874330759048462,
-0.1083693653345108,
0.22331592440605164,
-0.2442459613084793,
0.19971917569637299,
-0.3053179979324341,
0.005367019213736057,
0.4902821481227875,
0.2094046026468277,
-0.2239009141921997,
-0.3991014361381531,
0.08512166142463684,
-0.005586083512753248,
0.09487111866474152,
0.4356294870376587,
-0.24655504524707794,
0.14742733538150787,
0.24557895958423615,
0.1572830080986023,
0.02764897421002388,
0.21827878057956696,
0.36084043979644775,
0.39856117963790894,
-0.07659876346588135,
0.4032573401927948,
0.2857043743133545,
-0.24547113478183746,
0.17549489438533783,
0.17008967697620392,
0.21227753162384033,
0.35527417063713074,
0.42947691679000854,
0.0329151451587677,
-0.5385891795158386,
-0.06345833837985992,
0.9773731827735901,
-0.10240914672613144,
-0.06900490075349808,
0.21308059990406036,
0.4968142807483673,
-0.5510810017585754,
-0.09821123629808426,
0.07567834109067917,
-0.3180786371231079,
0.35299086570739746,
-0.5022855997085571,
0.41785699129104614,
-0.47948047518730164,
-0.41370174288749695,
-0.23426729440689087,
-0.17493972182273865,
0.10567350685596466,
-0.14309221506118774,
-0.09603902697563171,
0.0018318375805392861,
-0.31733742356300354,
-0.6690723299980164,
-0.11358814686536789,
0.26838913559913635,
0.14983461797237396,
-0.4524117112159729,
-0.03887947276234627,
-0.3089374005794525,
0.520118236541748,
0.2605690360069275,
-0.9823977947235107,
0.13584262132644653,
-0.14424940943717957,
-0.1777346283197403,
-0.43188080191612244,
0.08650608360767365,
0.6490232348442078,
-0.237027108669281,
0.0017831750446930528,
0.07298833131790161,
0.23542703688144684,
0.24123866856098175,
-0.25547295808792114,
-0.22040854394435883,
0.032238900661468506,
0.07647264003753662,
-1.0328463315963745,
-0.3084990084171295,
0.2969871163368225,
0.17846933007240295,
-0.40139520168304443,
-0.571000874042511,
0.44944021105766296,
0.29171624779701233,
-0.42807844281196594,
-0.19137640297412872,
0.02147051692008972,
0.8528341054916382,
-0.35862672328948975,
-0.388728529214859,
-0.14149552583694458,
0.10568027198314667,
0.047668103128671646,
-0.5517169833183289,
-0.5674778819084167,
-0.2966843545436859,
0.0038677824195474386,
-0.059182364493608475,
0.10364320874214172,
-0.7495453357696533,
-0.26009631156921387,
-0.31106752157211304,
-0.47806283831596375,
-0.43268993496894836,
-0.03233063966035843,
0.8177547454833984,
0.011290311813354492,
0.6162183880805969,
-0.18850576877593994,
0.11257348209619522,
-0.6248940229415894,
-0.2286720871925354,
0.4519830346107483,
-0.5751919746398926,
-0.3236362040042877,
-0.07508385181427002,
-0.186795175075531,
0.13743701577186584,
-0.5520679354667664,
0.08073125034570694,
-0.09322267770767212,
-0.39768192172050476,
-0.07380972057580948,
-0.21464289724826813,
0.25845998525619507,
-0.3641909956932068,
0.3906174898147583,
-0.3426245450973511,
-0.19148536026477814,
0.29042890667915344,
0.19547857344150543,
0.055599603801965714,
0.12317301332950592,
-0.5634213089942932,
0.17638429999351501,
0.506681501865387,
-0.6130875945091248,
0.28058627247810364,
0.16776448488235474,
-0.04380401596426964,
-0.7839974761009216,
0.10642600059509277,
-0.01822856068611145,
0.11414872109889984,
-0.2861952483654022,
0.05786219984292984,
0.127262145280838,
0.11193538457155228,
0.13167768716812134,
0.2972226142883301,
-0.696915864944458,
0.2917591631412506,
0.2325572818517685,
0.571590006351471,
0.1802956610918045,
0.10305435210466385,
0.14945587515830994,
-0.3428031802177429,
0.3825330436229706,
-0.33782291412353516,
-0.550800621509552,
0.2688528001308441,
0.3093523383140564,
0.7553992867469788,
0.0019526192918419838,
0.006311303935945034,
0.00023850664729252458,
-0.2208682745695114,
-0.08361262083053589,
-0.3501240909099579,
-0.31778186559677124,
-0.1704871505498886,
0.5774099230766296,
0.22640150785446167,
0.13344204425811768,
-0.5350809097290039,
-0.15551237761974335,
-0.10732187330722809,
0.2819552719593048,
0.3317096531391144,
-0.11722782999277115,
-0.18637071549892426,
0.4680643677711487,
0.096312016248703,
0.012966961599886417,
-0.4157465100288391,
0.02435850165784359,
0.11771996319293976,
-0.3738454282283783,
-0.25567013025283813,
-0.17274592816829681,
-0.054551541805267334,
-0.04728701710700989,
0.2363511025905609,
0.15611927211284637,
0.27279654145240784,
-0.015734640881419182,
-0.2363530844449997,
-0.1714000701904297,
0.15743441879749298,
-0.236554816365242,
0.610823929309845,
0.024133410304784775,
-0.080305315554142,
0.10862478613853455,
-0.6856526136398315,
0.5523834824562073,
-0.3291265368461609,
0.21444767713546753,
0.42125454545021057,
0.4868728220462799,
0.01275066938251257,
0.30207517743110657,
-0.5885303616523743,
-0.1261092871427536,
0.044967856258153915,
-0.11712580174207687,
0.32633650302886963,
-0.12338311970233917,
0.05951455235481262,
0.2003028243780136,
-0.4250481128692627,
0.21893590688705444,
0.11809344589710236,
-0.3423807919025421,
0.08985830843448639,
0.24117609858512878,
0.14269094169139862,
0.15207944810390472,
-0.24740105867385864,
0.6638485193252563,
0.5377152562141418,
0.07038145512342453,
-0.5838152170181274,
-0.3024829030036926,
0.3439526855945587,
-0.40459030866622925,
-0.39697736501693726,
-0.33995717763900757,
-0.310778945684433,
0.597771167755127,
-0.5120856165885925,
0.013920999132096767,
0.8463635444641113,
0.13111338019371033,
0.13429369032382965,
0.31532156467437744,
-0.15383286774158478,
0.2077414095401764,
0.6888056397438049,
-0.03062410280108452,
0.1074712723493576,
0.03941280394792557,
-0.27243196964263916,
-0.6484278440475464,
0.6210112571716309,
0.15879392623901367,
0.18428906798362732,
-0.3092330992221832,
0.9278412461280823,
0.28820058703422546,
-0.8809157013893127,
0.2596481442451477,
0.21948663890361786,
-0.11420376598834991,
-0.6697303056716919,
0.578484058380127,
-0.5823090672492981,
0.03182590752840042,
-0.11427164077758789,
0.5897395014762878,
0.2525079548358917,
-0.10474970936775208,
0.15899330377578735,
0.13371960818767548,
0.02350570075213909,
-0.27915459871292114,
0.0438476987183094,
0.38009312748908997,
-0.06925111263990402,
0.1282254308462143,
-0.8072242736816406,
0.23436009883880615,
0.13339439034461975,
-0.3060268461704254,
0.24081158638000488,
-0.21051746606826782,
0.24360990524291992,
0.16133487224578857,
0.013573430478572845,
-0.24479541182518005,
0.4226069450378418,
0.060823164880275726
] |
260933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard%20Mey | Reinhard Mey | Reinhard Friedrich Michael Mey (born 21 December 1942) is a German "Liedermacher" (literally "songmaker", a German-style singer-songwriter). In France he is known as Frédérik Mey.
By 2009, Mey had released 27 German albums, and generally releases a new album approximately every two years; his first album was Ich wollte wie Orpheus singen (1967); the most recent studio album is Das Haus an der Ampel (2020). His biggest success to date was Mein Achtel Lorbeerblatt (1972). His most famous song by far is "Über den Wolken" (1974), which has been covered by numerous German artists. Mey is known to embark upon an extensive concert tour every two or three years, with a live album released from each tour.
Biography
Reinhard Mey was born on 21 December 1942, in Berlin, Germany, where he spent his childhood. At the age of 12, he had his first piano lesson, and at the age of 14 he got his first guitar. He taught himself how to play the trumpet. During his school years he gained performance experience by playing Skiffle music with friends. In 1965, Mey was offered the chance to perform at a Liedermacher festival at Waldeck Castle, a converted castle ruin. This led to his first recording contract. In 1961, he became part of the group Les Trois Affamés, with Schobert Schulz.
In 1963, Mey graduated from the French Gymnasium in Berlin, receiving the German Abitur as well as the French Baccalauréat, and thereafter began vocational training as an industrial trader at Schering AG Berlin. He broke off his university studies in economics in order to concentrate on songwriting and singing, and has been a successful performer in Germany, in France, and in the Netherlands ever since. He has written songs in German, French, Dutch and English. He records his French material under the name of Frédérik Mey. In 1967, he married a French woman named Christine. Their marriage was dissolved in 1976.
Today, Mey lives in Berlin-Frohnau in his second marriage (since 1977) to Hella Hennies (born in Hannover), and had three children in the marriage: Frederik (born 20 November 1976), Maximilian (born 28 January 1982; died May 2014), and Victoria-Luise (born 19 November 1985).
His son Maximilian died in May 2014 after five years in a persistent vegetative state. Undiagnosed severe pneumonia had led to a cardio-pulmonary arrest, from which Maximilian was resuscitated after eight minutes of hypoxia.
Lyrics and political views
Mey writes both sensitive and humorous songs, with subject matter taken mostly from his everyday life and surroundings. His themes include life on the road, his hobbies (e.g., flying), childhood memories, his family life and surroundings, and occasionally politics.
Mey's politics tend to be moderate to left-leaning. He speaks out in particular for freedom and non-violence, and not only in his songs (for example, he participated in a demonstration at the beginning of 2003 against the coming war in Iraq). Nevertheless, his Annabelle criticises female political correct deadly-serious non-serene activism; Mey is said later to have repented of it and wrote another song in response to himself. Strongly influenced by the French chanson, Mey's political songs were relatively scarce among his works at the beginning, but they have increased in quantity over time, such that there is usually at least one song on each new album about politics. His 2004 album, Nanga Parbat, for example, includes "Alles OK in Guantanamo Bay", a song critical of the U.S. detention facility in Cuba.
For years, Mey has been an avid vegetarian, and also has been active in the German chapter of the organisation People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). Several of his songs deal with the theme of prevention of cruelty to animals, the most famous one being "Die Würde des Schweins ist unantastbar" (roughly, "a pig's dignity is inviolable.", echoing the first sentence of the first article of the German constitution)
Theme music
The first bars of Reinhard Mey's Gute Nacht, Freunde have been used since 1976 as the beginning of the theme tune for the popular Dutch radio show Met het Oog op Morgen, broadcast every night from 23:00 until midnight on Radio 1. After the words "und ein letztes Glas im steh'n", the Mey song fades away and an orchestra takes over.
Awards
1968 Prix International de la Chanson française (the first non-French singer to receive this award)
1983 Verdienstkreuz am Bande (Cross of Merit on ribbon)
2001 Verdienstkreuz 1. Klasse (Cross of Merit, First class)
Selected discography
German
Studio albums
1967 – Ich wollte wie Orpheus singen
1968 – Ankomme Freitag, den 13.
1970 – Aus meinem Tagebuch
1971 – Ich bin aus jenem Holze
1972 – Mein achtel Lorbeerblatt
1974 – Wie vor Jahr und Tag
1975 – Ikarus
1977 – Menschenjunges
1979 – Keine ruhige Minute
1980 – Jahreszeiten
1981 – Freundliche Gesichter
1983 – Die Zwölfte
1985 – Hergestellt in Berlin
1986 – Alleingang
1988 – Balladen
1990 – Farben
1992 – Alles geht
1994 – Immer weiter
1996 – Leuchtfeuer
1998 – Flaschenpost
2000 – Einhandsegler
2002 – Rüm Hart
2004 – Nanga Parbat
2007 – Bunter Hund
2010 – Mairegen
2013 – Dann mach's gut
2016 – Mr. Lee
2020 – Das Haus an der Ampel
Live albums
1971 – Reinhard Mey live
1974 – 20.00 Uhr
1978 – Unterwegs
1981 – Tournee
1984 – Live '84
1987 – Die grosse Tournee '86
1991 – Mit Lust und Liebe
1995 – Zwischen Zürich und zu Haus
1997 – Lebenszeichen
1999 – Lampenfieber
2002 – Solo – Die Einhandsegler Tournee
2003 – Klaar Kiming
2006 – !ich kann
2009 – Danke Liebe Gute Fee
2012 – Gib mir Musik!
2015 – dann mach's gut Live
2018 – Mr. Lee Live
Compilation albums
1973 – Mädchen in den Schänken (Compilation of 7" 45rpm singles)
1973 – Alles was ich habe
1977 – Starportrait
1982 – Starportrait 2, Welch ein Geschenk ist ein Lied
1987 – Die großen Erfolge
1989 – Mein Apfelbäumchen
1990 – Die Story (6-CD-Release Bertelsmann Buchclub)
1993 – Ich liebe dich
1997 – Du bist ein Riese ...
2000 – Peter und der Wolf / Tierballaden
2003 – Über den Wolken – Lieder aus 4 Jahrzehnten
2005 – Frei!
2013 – Jahreszeiten
2015 – Lieder von Freunden
Singles
1965 – Geh und fang den Wind / Drei Lilien (Debut single; German cover version of Donovans "Catch The Wind" under the pseudonym Rainer May)
1966 – 25 00 30 Fred Kasulzke protestazki / Frau Pohl / Vertreterbesuch / Ballade / Bauer ich bitt euch (EP)
1966 – Die drei Musketiere / Schuttabladeplatz der Zeit / Abgesang / Mein Kanapee (EP)
1968 – Diplomatenjagd / Komm, giess mein Glas noch einmal ein
1969 – Ich hab' nur Dich gekannt / Der Weg zurück
1970 – Die Ballade vom Pfeifer / Ankomme, Freitag, den 13.
1970 – In meinem Zimmer fällt leis' der Regen / Ein Krug aus Stein
1971 – Die heisse Schlacht am kalten Buffet / Neun... und vorbei
1971 – Der Mörder ist immer der Gärtner / Längst geschlossen sind die Läden
1972 – Annabelle, ach Annabelle / Bevor ich mit den Wölfen heule
1973 – Trilogie auf Frau Pohl / Das Geheimnis im Hefeteig oder der Schuss im Backofen
1973 – Aber Deine Ruhe findest Du nicht mehr / Zwei Hühner auf dem Weg nach Vorgestern
1974 – Mann aus Alemannia / Über den Wolken
1974 – Gute Nacht Freunde / Musikanten sind in der Stadt
1974 – Über den Wolken / Der alte Bär ist tot und sein Käfig leer
1975 – Es gibt Tage, da wünscht' ich, ich wär' mein Hund / Es bleibt eine Narbe zurück
1975 – Hab Erdöl im Garten / Ich bin Klempner von Beruf
1977 – Ist mir das peinlich / Mein erstes graues Haar
1977 – Einen Antrag auf Erteilung eines Antragsformulars / Menschenjunges
1978 – Daddy Blue / Alles ist gut
1979 – Keine ruhige Minute / Dieter Malinek, Ulla und ich
1979 – Dr. Nahtlos, Dr. Sägeberg und Dr. Hein / Was weiss ich schon von Dir?
1980 – Wir sind lauter arme, kleine Würstchen / Freunde, lasst uns trinken
1980 – Sommermorgen / Bei Ilse und Willi auf'm Land
1981 – Müllmänner-Blues / Das Leben ist ...
1983 – Was in der Zeitung steht / Ich würde gern einmal in Dresden singen
1983 – Hilf mir / Ich habe nie mehr Langeweile
1984 – Rundfunkwerbung-Blues
1984 – Frohe Weihnacht / Alles ist so schön verpackt
1985 – Lasst sie reisen / Ich grüsse ...
1990 – Alle Soldaten woll'n nach Haus'
1986 – Nein, meine Söhne geb' ich nicht
1992 – Das Etikett (Promo-Single)
1994 – 51er Kapitän
1996 – Lilienthals Traum
1998 – Die 12 Weihnachtstage (Adaptation of the British Christmas song "The Twelve Days of Christmas") / Willst Du Dein Herz mir schenken
2000 – Einhandsegler
2000 – Ich bring' Dich durch die Nacht (Promo-Single)
With other artists
1986 – Ein Loch in der Kanne (Live with Rainhard Fendrich)
1996 – Liebe, Schnaps & Tod (with Hannes Wader and Klaus Hoffmann)
1999 – Einfach abhau'n, einfach geh'n (Maxi-CD, with Ina Deter)
2003 – Mey, Wader, Wecker – Das Konzert (live with Hannes Wader and Konstantin Wecker)
DVDs
2003 – Klaar Kiming
2009 – Danke liebe gute Fee
British albums
1970 – One Vote for tomorrow
French albums
Studio
1968 – Frédérik Mey, Vol. 1
1972 – Frédérik Mey, Vol. 2
1974 – Frédérik Mey, Vol. 3
1976 – Frédérik Mey, Vol. 4
1979 – Frédérik Mey, Vol. 5
1982 – Frédérik Mey, Vol. 6
2005 – Frédérik Mey, Vol. 7 – douce France
Live
1976 – Recital Frédérik Mey à l'Olympia
1979 – Bobino
Dutch singles
1975 – Als de dag van toen
1976 – Vergeef me als je kunt
References
External links
Official homepage of Reinhard Mey
Reinhard Mey – www.laut.de
Source of many Reinhard Mey's recordings
Herbstgewitter spezial: Reinhard Mey im Interview. - interview of Reinhard Mey at the singer and song writer magazine Ein Achtel Lorbeerblatt (audio, German, 95 mins)
1942 births
Living people
German songwriters
German male singers
French-language singers
Dutch-language singers
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Recipients of the Order of Merit of Berlin
Musicians from Berlin
Französisches Gymnasium Berlin alumni
People from Reinickendorf | [
-0.38485896587371826,
0.567955493927002,
-0.059652406722307205,
-0.24371345341205597,
-0.26563212275505066,
0.7485456466674805,
0.703815758228302,
-0.005540523212403059,
0.022331204265356064,
-0.15067028999328613,
-0.022752074524760246,
0.15064476430416107,
-0.1380043476819992,
-0.06993436068296432,
-0.5489518642425537,
0.2907871603965759,
0.20667877793312073,
-0.13993719220161438,
-0.38580381870269775,
-0.5610008239746094,
-0.34665799140930176,
-0.3237121105194092,
0.259866327047348,
-0.08457490801811218,
-0.18498343229293823,
0.41402363777160645,
-0.12424471974372864,
0.04874473810195923,
0.2805878221988678,
-0.2329038828611374,
-0.13567863404750824,
0.5582079887390137,
0.6891774535179138,
-0.2662855386734009,
-0.46170276403427124,
0.6095889806747437,
-0.2908257246017456,
-0.28006547689437866,
0.3875640332698822,
0.02271321415901184,
-0.28556570410728455,
0.07355029881000519,
0.21434323489665985,
-0.2607264220714569,
-0.3205159306526184,
-0.39106419682502747,
-2.1457431316375732,
0.23351868987083435,
-1.1095881462097168,
-0.5673178434371948,
0.24945838749408722,
0.38793429732322693,
0.272942453622818,
0.7159543037414551,
-0.06074758991599083,
-0.3326353430747986,
-0.6647474765777588,
-0.5237517952919006,
0.3193548023700714,
0.14165297150611877,
-0.21828223764896393,
-0.27014997601509094,
0.020633995532989502,
-0.25131461024284363,
0.2210972160100937,
0.12605850398540497,
-0.08885852247476578,
0.1459037959575653,
0.10300081223249435,
-0.7219219207763672,
-0.05941615253686905,
0.3506896197795868,
0.44131311774253845,
-0.44388070702552795,
0.20937180519104004,
-0.43483883142471313,
0.2610515058040619,
-0.051798250526189804,
0.05514872074127197,
0.3056805729866028,
-0.2579915225505829,
-0.25207212567329407,
1.213582158088684,
0.012565898708999157,
0.30762583017349243,
-0.11171180754899979,
-0.21364820003509521,
0.6212743520736694,
-0.9535768032073975,
-0.37506309151649475,
-0.49690690636634827,
-0.9270886778831482,
-0.18631400167942047,
0.2839149534702301,
0.0012117320438846946,
0.2230076789855957,
0.06247909739613533,
0.8054658770561218,
0.1149979680776596,
0.15002529323101044,
0.46462690830230713,
-0.03066098876297474,
0.23826062679290771,
-0.07064206153154373,
-0.46642574667930603,
-0.03372705727815628,
-0.01623654179275036,
-0.026781415566802025,
-0.18184320628643036,
0.16857004165649414,
-0.326449453830719,
-0.13178947567939758,
0.16297116875648499,
0.472988486289978,
0.11856180429458618,
0.5567174553871155,
0.09445858001708984,
-0.4800459146499634,
-0.25919750332832336,
0.34268197417259216,
0.6771328449249268,
0.4111226797103882,
0.27860310673713684,
-0.0700363889336586,
-0.6587467193603516,
-0.08199086040258408,
-0.3813490867614746,
0.6116703748703003,
-0.6240896582603455,
0.510662317276001,
0.40340656042099,
1.2477138042449951,
-0.2860168516635895,
-0.3273041844367981,
0.10361634194850922,
-0.23998168110847473,
0.4633296728134155,
-0.16217954456806183,
-0.054693203419446945,
0.1635388731956482,
-0.5643904209136963,
-0.1246357262134552,
-0.6996898651123047,
-0.27292439341545105,
0.3998851478099823,
-0.17636816203594208,
-0.801032304763794,
-0.3869907259941101,
0.2354850172996521,
-0.08699086308479309,
0.10805002599954605,
0.09776339679956436,
0.19002601504325867,
0.16241002082824707,
-0.7911677360534668,
0.45668619871139526,
0.16963335871696472,
0.3212597966194153,
0.45668265223503113,
0.1762060821056366,
0.07813923805952072,
-0.21283122897148132,
-0.44132864475250244,
-0.0966915711760521,
-0.1304977685213089,
-0.2288193553686142,
0.3314753770828247,
0.7942505478858948,
-0.5482779741287231,
-0.07229107618331909,
-0.5102110505104065,
-0.17603693902492523,
-0.33239835500717163,
0.09932432323694229,
0.008335982449352741,
-0.1625426858663559,
0.5315351486206055,
0.4212550222873688,
0.19245117902755737,
-0.26837795972824097,
-0.763511598110199,
0.022796504199504852,
0.10652905702590942,
-0.04103526100516319,
0.27005094289779663,
0.5627610683441162,
0.027734193950891495,
0.17823141813278198,
0.5463014841079712,
-0.4956977367401123,
-0.6755866408348083,
-1.001528024673462,
0.8601993322372437,
-0.13848014175891876,
0.4729597568511963,
0.5136126279830933,
0.4904753863811493,
0.15252019464969635,
-0.0045255268923938274,
0.023767339065670967,
-0.23278099298477173,
-0.2990046441555023,
0.4031161665916443,
0.07230573892593384,
0.23182019591331482,
0.3902055323123932,
0.36884605884552,
-0.2054756134748459,
-0.29925480484962463,
0.027011245489120483,
0.33479049801826477,
-0.16292458772659302,
0.13437245786190033,
0.14156511425971985,
-0.7356419563293457,
-0.15598152577877045,
-0.17931309342384338,
-0.3361595869064331,
0.14571887254714966,
-0.36478111147880554,
0.5164677500724792,
0.21569563448429108,
-0.04878811538219452,
0.4162364900112152,
-0.2633880078792572,
1.3293229341506958,
-0.03947056829929352,
-0.163082554936409,
0.23710164427757263,
-0.26192227005958557,
-0.2833613157272339,
0.1551242619752884,
0.18775109946727753,
-0.3781009018421173,
0.2964237630367279,
0.3674103319644928,
0.25202232599258423,
-0.20740176737308502,
0.14315983653068542,
-0.3045417368412018,
0.5830292105674744,
0.26569780707359314,
-0.2978743016719818,
0.24819527566432953,
0.16240531206130981,
0.2911026179790497,
-0.5138259530067444,
-0.280860036611557,
-0.526228666305542,
-0.01905287802219391,
0.4588582217693329,
0.5919578075408936,
-0.010268554091453552,
-0.2301086187362671,
-0.31991857290267944,
0.1610340178012848,
0.1377602070569992,
0.2697487771511078,
0.2312205582857132,
0.35203108191490173,
0.2540726363658905,
-0.44083982706069946,
0.7927618026733398,
0.13504381477832794,
-0.32064586877822876,
-0.520628035068512,
0.09923924505710602,
0.027353310957551003,
0.2392888367176056,
-0.08727526664733887,
0.19636064767837524,
-0.02440541610121727,
-0.3045831620693207,
0.6245406866073608,
-0.06754925101995468,
-0.04843619838356972,
-0.5409183502197266,
-0.20029239356517792,
-0.25562357902526855,
-0.6073099374771118,
0.2241552472114563,
0.6213715672492981,
-0.0814557895064354,
-0.17776405811309814,
-0.15574568510055542,
0.2797701060771942,
0.19163846969604492,
-0.019632143899798393,
0.4395706057548523,
0.11961998790502548,
-0.16830210387706757,
1.262502908706665,
-0.17002949118614197,
0.008180919103324413,
0.28596195578575134,
0.0985630452632904,
-0.22458717226982117,
-0.6669706702232361,
-0.15812696516513824,
-0.2860828936100006,
-0.4375690221786499,
0.33146417140960693,
-0.09991046041250229,
0.1370323896408081,
0.009721128270030022,
0.04029285907745361,
-0.3820100724697113,
0.12238150089979172,
-5.701101303100586,
-0.42934364080429077,
0.548870861530304,
-0.21844792366027832,
0.16176216304302216,
0.10217813402414322,
0.19534367322921753,
-0.5385348200798035,
0.01335859950631857,
-0.47503191232681274,
0.047486890107393265,
-0.214011549949646,
0.004856444429606199,
0.2506368160247803,
0.4997802972793579,
0.04441041126847267,
0.2862399220466614,
-0.24799351394176483,
0.009287649765610695,
-0.1272176057100296,
0.3991801142692566,
-0.20176541805267334,
0.264030784368515,
0.3433123230934143,
0.04537813737988472,
-0.196775421500206,
-0.23212534189224243,
0.20032761991024017,
-0.8803116679191589,
-0.2608622610569,
0.3582344949245453,
-0.37744539976119995,
-0.24264977872371674,
0.1651647537946701,
0.2590930461883545,
0.06896909326314926,
0.28519293665885925,
0.5978363156318665,
0.40051865577697754,
-0.019932495430111885,
0.07542440295219421,
0.2183447778224945,
-0.38893911242485046,
-0.22855058312416077,
-0.2428223043680191,
-0.11039933562278748,
-0.6785874962806702,
-0.5095069408416748,
-0.22728200256824493,
0.8102309107780457,
0.3810108006000519,
-0.7776412963867188,
0.08778726309537888,
-0.08455488830804825,
0.26439428329467773,
0.10990462452173233,
0.1842309534549713,
0.13250336050987244,
-0.08513902872800827,
0.558642566204071,
0.5177667737007141,
-0.22750742733478546,
-0.20441527664661407,
-0.39023756980895996,
-0.5576279163360596,
-0.0771464854478836,
-0.2120172083377838,
0.35086002945899963,
0.3224486708641052,
-0.3970239758491516,
0.42924851179122925,
0.29751795530319214,
-0.018459511920809746,
-1.0549346208572388,
-0.32427969574928284,
-0.372883141040802,
-0.12019060552120209,
-0.4618542194366455,
-0.5503165125846863,
0.3864678144454956,
0.09710247069597244,
-0.3543812036514282,
-0.3103831708431244,
0.4182646572589874,
0.9655576348304749,
0.24487268924713135,
-0.7350887656211853,
0.25604182481765747,
0.259061723947525,
-0.3553600609302521,
-0.09130844473838806,
-0.6717300415039062,
0.24090911448001862,
0.11641353368759155,
0.896316647529602,
0.7211131453514099,
0.056478794664144516,
0.20431555807590485,
0.5057946443557739,
0.21557441353797913,
-0.07905641943216324,
-0.39730146527290344,
0.4167146682739258,
-0.25316914916038513,
0.8155205249786377,
0.018482627347111702,
0.02002360299229622,
0.12693266570568085,
0.9839484095573425,
0.19268697500228882,
0.26490187644958496,
0.2734189033508301,
0.004579321481287479,
-0.7771453857421875,
-0.4729014039039612,
-0.8593065142631531,
-0.13666681945323944,
0.2005385160446167,
0.2189444750547409,
0.22352594137191772,
0.3226124942302704,
0.31798627972602844,
0.5940096974372864,
-0.6483504772186279,
-0.39427271485328674,
-0.18571367859840393,
0.10441730171442032,
0.2853805422782898,
-0.45557069778442383,
-0.019753379747271538,
-0.519781768321991,
1.032544732093811,
-0.07746504247188568,
-0.15596206486225128,
0.2155631184577942,
-0.13905690610408783,
-0.2684066891670227,
-0.09122392535209656,
-0.028245070949196815,
-0.04443315416574478,
0.5595903992652893,
-0.29510870575904846,
-0.12730427086353302,
0.15316864848136902,
0.40824151039123535,
0.16116145253181458,
-0.11036990582942963,
-0.5799312591552734,
-0.7239020466804504,
0.3591614365577698,
0.22439183294773102,
-0.01155122835189104,
0.74296635389328,
-0.5803058743476868,
-0.48062795400619507,
0.5755653381347656,
-0.2754204273223877,
-0.19141463935375214,
0.02990536577999592,
-0.16497951745986938,
0.36356881260871887,
-0.2684381902217865,
-1.0165348052978516,
0.3036377727985382,
0.029802648350596428,
0.22056610882282257,
-0.20542888343334198,
0.04651960730552673,
-0.16410000622272491,
0.2382390946149826,
0.4566560685634613,
-0.7050341963768005,
-0.4135599136352539,
0.2280774563550949,
-0.11731313169002533,
-0.05810270830988884,
0.08743910491466522,
-0.39663028717041016,
-0.057267360389232635,
-0.16292335093021393,
-0.4459478557109833,
0.21878698468208313,
-0.7835784554481506,
0.4444427490234375,
0.3119907081127167,
0.07233697175979614,
-0.3565204441547394,
-0.08651909232139587,
-0.8602703809738159,
0.11987785249948502,
0.09610341489315033,
-0.12819401919841766,
0.21675394475460052,
0.550950288772583,
-0.06834466010332108,
-0.6754152178764343,
-0.08268311619758606,
-0.13032813370227814,
0.009387791156768799,
-0.1820167750120163,
0.453348845243454,
-0.1498655080795288,
-0.17692488431930542,
-0.2243996262550354,
0.6419627666473389,
-1.1966534852981567,
-0.1698615401983261,
-0.24450424313545227,
-0.5614433884620667,
0.2908368706703186,
-0.3893021047115326,
-0.6956961154937744,
0.12965689599514008,
0.4138615131378174,
-0.5366984605789185,
-0.32852229475975037,
0.2494674026966095,
-0.31498321890830994,
-0.9418580532073975,
-0.33297792077064514,
-0.16863441467285156,
-0.2725868225097656,
-0.3611569404602051,
0.16857872903347015,
-1.0348162651062012,
-0.0584489107131958,
0.08916844427585602,
-0.32339659333229065,
0.10515990108251572,
-0.8957275748252869,
0.13916908204555511,
-0.04520007222890854,
0.33749639987945557,
-0.13658787310123444,
-0.48762333393096924,
-0.17061161994934082,
0.16541513800621033,
0.797513484954834,
-0.43254169821739197,
0.42047080397605896,
0.7274401187896729,
0.636995255947113,
0.030128682032227516,
-0.03910152614116669,
-0.19538600742816925,
0.3013860285282135,
0.14990146458148956,
-0.3630748689174652,
-0.00943895522505045,
0.5908273458480835,
0.0663471445441246,
0.32487908005714417,
-0.5120197534561157,
0.17645512521266937,
1.3711377382278442,
-0.23475173115730286,
-0.10571517795324326,
-0.09571031481027603,
0.39703068137168884,
-0.1726280152797699,
0.467337042093277,
-0.1834968775510788,
0.7406105399131775,
-0.11856520175933838,
-0.25476500391960144,
0.3967767655849457,
-0.22213943302631378,
-0.06595610082149506,
-0.287729948759079,
-0.16059280931949615,
-0.46526196599006653,
0.02659536525607109,
-0.5581876635551453,
0.15752820670604706,
-0.29650238156318665,
0.3736686110496521,
-0.07036492973566055,
-0.5663702487945557,
-0.06343349814414978,
0.2854680120944977,
-0.4115021824836731,
-0.2376374751329422,
-0.33599916100502014,
-0.5588638782501221,
-0.2254878729581833,
0.035599663853645325,
-0.7296057343482971,
-0.3710922598838806,
-0.29593560099601746,
0.2369055300951004,
-0.3032650351524353,
-0.12381304800510406,
-0.26020491123199463,
0.8662191033363342,
0.189168781042099,
0.21915799379348755,
-0.21554341912269592,
0.4410838484764099,
-0.37443462014198303,
-0.13801157474517822,
0.08108077198266983,
0.06326413154602051,
0.5820549130439758,
-0.18063607811927795,
0.29212141036987305,
0.06638839840888977,
-0.23652330040931702,
-0.5419319272041321,
-0.4042647182941437,
-0.14792713522911072,
0.07288991659879684,
0.3754273056983948,
-0.09025929868221283,
0.4640848636627197,
0.010084651410579681,
-0.21114426851272583,
0.6674326658248901,
-0.27541685104370117,
-0.12110835313796997,
0.29156482219696045,
0.5475199818611145,
-0.5727147459983826,
1.2954269647598267,
0.07845918089151382,
-0.09857464581727982,
0.34008297324180603,
0.20864953100681305,
-0.6527521014213562,
-0.08874896168708801,
-0.10118937492370605,
0.3565653860569,
0.3013225197792053,
-0.2706005573272705,
0.6642792820930481,
0.024253971874713898,
0.004786431789398193,
-0.012004906311631203,
0.03413036838173866,
-0.07820956408977509,
0.1376372128725052,
-0.4061649441719055,
0.7086101174354553,
0.05859627574682236,
0.10758712142705917,
0.4223175644874573,
0.04480353742837906,
-0.22015315294265747,
0.1526593267917633,
-0.012323270551860332,
-0.3923255205154419,
0.14370298385620117,
0.4336166977882385,
0.09763067215681076,
-0.9472165703773499,
0.06347738951444626,
-0.015107784420251846,
0.3427884876728058,
-0.3560071885585785,
-0.15750794112682343,
0.5124542117118835,
0.16528131067752838,
-0.301737904548645,
0.8071783781051636,
0.43710774183273315,
-0.3804013133049011,
0.454685777425766,
-0.33159589767456055,
-0.34380051493644714,
0.21484938263893127,
0.410853773355484,
0.18533018231391907,
-0.12892958521842957,
-0.35510483384132385,
0.7096595168113708,
0.5231351852416992,
-0.3851318657398224,
0.15813007950782776,
-0.4098232388496399,
0.09379366040229797,
-0.03710372745990753,
-0.04033401980996132,
0.2367660105228424,
0.542680025100708,
-0.1535780280828476,
0.5895991325378418,
-0.3950444757938385,
0.019637499004602432,
-0.22465656697750092,
0.32390597462654114,
-0.2264053374528885,
0.4223776161670685,
-0.5861635208129883,
0.40246033668518066,
-0.12344027310609818,
-0.5525964498519897,
-0.45979949831962585,
-0.3637498915195465,
0.5910268425941467,
0.1877383291721344,
-0.14923608303070068,
0.502069890499115,
0.6631624698638916,
0.1837502419948578,
0.3117847740650177,
-0.8852059841156006,
0.007689449470490217,
-0.7489656805992126,
0.5058349370956421,
-0.29156363010406494,
0.2133512943983078,
0.7620425820350647,
0.34281396865844727,
-0.18924491107463837,
0.1772492229938507,
-0.38735631108283997,
-0.02350122109055519,
0.5746392607688904,
0.0420905202627182,
0.14509201049804688,
0.07823226600885391,
0.3348241150379181,
-0.13367992639541626,
0.15648087859153748,
-0.4676817059516907,
0.032881829887628555,
0.7183883786201477,
-0.29060250520706177,
-0.15266871452331543,
-0.2438160926103592,
0.240633025765419,
0.11367418617010117,
0.6688618063926697,
-0.5593448877334595,
0.3065871298313141,
-0.22475872933864594,
-0.2330031841993332,
0.866288423538208,
0.01323678344488144,
-0.014522122219204903,
-0.611572265625,
0.6593506336212158,
0.30672767758369446,
-0.17712470889091492,
0.11149882525205612,
-0.25757721066474915,
0.3800954520702362,
0.07485140860080719,
-0.7540576457977295,
-0.39334556460380554,
0.31230035424232483,
0.3980979323387146,
-0.6791336536407471,
0.15969127416610718,
-0.7762086987495422,
-0.3932870030403137,
0.07946062088012695,
0.23428194224834442,
-0.1185888797044754,
0.3081859350204468,
-0.5909773111343384
] |
260934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20German%20Confederation | North German Confederation | The North German Confederation () was a German federation that existed from July 1867 to December 1870. It is the first period of the German nation state, which is known today as the Federal Republic of Germany.
The Confederation came into existence after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 over the lordship of two small Danish duchies (Schleswig-Holstein) claimed by Prussia in 1866. After its victory, Prussia made Austria and its allies to accept the dissolution of the German Confederation (an association of states). The peace treaty allowed Prussia to create a federal state in Northern Germany. On July 1st, 1867, the North German Confederation had a federal constitution.
The constitution established a constitutional monarchy with the Prussian king as the holder of the . This was the position of a head of state. Laws could only be enabled with the consent of the (a parliament based on universal male suffrage) and the Federal Council (, a representation of the states). During the three and a half years of the Confederation, a conservative-liberal cooperation undertook important steps to unify (Northern) Germany with regard to law and infrastructure. The political system (and the political parties) remained essentially the same in the years after 1870.
During its existence, there were tensions between the North German Confederation and the Second French Empire, which was ruled by the French Emperor Napoleon III. In summer 1870, a dispute over a new king for Spain escalated into the Franco-Prussian war. In this situation, the south German states of Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Württemberg and Bavaria joined the North German Confederation. On 1 January 1871, the country adopted a new constitution, which was written under the title of a new "German Confederation" but already gave it the name "German Empire" in the preamble and article 11.
The Confederation had nearly 30 million inhabitants, of whom 80% lived in Prussia. This is ca. 75% of the population of the German Empire (1871).
Creation of the North German Confederation
Prussia's plans to unify Germany
For most of 1815–1848, Austria and Prussia worked together and used the German Confederation as a tool to suppress liberal and national ambitions in the German population. In 1849, the National Assembly in Frankfurt elected the Prussian king as the Emperor of a Lesser Germany (a Germany without Austria). The king refused and tried to unite Germany with the Erfurt Union of 1849–1850. When the union parliament met in early 1850 to discuss the constitution, the participating states were mainly only those in Northern and Central Germany. Austria and the southern German states Württemberg and Bavaria forced Prussia to give up its union plans in late 1850.
In April and June 1866, Prussia proposed a Lesser Germany again. Corner stone of the proposal was the election of a German parliament based on universal male suffrage. The proposal explicitly mentioned the Frankfurt election law of 1849. Otto von Bismarck, the minister-president of Prussia, wanted to gain sympathy within the national and liberal movement of the time. Austria and its allies refused the proposal. In summer 1866 Austria and Prussia fought with their respective allies in the Austro-Prussian War.
Aftermath of the 1866 war
Prussia and Austria signed a Nikolsburg preliminary (26 July) and a final peace treaty of Prague (23 August). Austria affirmed the Prussian view that the German Confederation was dissolved. Prussia was allowed to create a "closer federation" (einen engeren Bund) in Germany north of the river Main. Bismarck had already agreed on this limitation with the French emperor Napoleon III prior to the peace talks.
The liberals in the Prussian parliament favored a wholesale annexation of all North German territories by Prussia. In a similar way, Sardinia–Piemont had created the kingdom of Italy. But Bismarck chose a different approach. Prussia incorporated (in October 1866) only the former military opponents Hannover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, the free city of Frankfurt and the Hesse-Homburg area of Hesse Darmstadt. These areas were combined into the two new Prussian provinces of Hannover and Hesse-Nassau. Schleswig and Holstein also became a Prussian province.
On 18 August 1866, Prussia and a larger number of North and Central German states signed a Bündniß (alliance). The treaty created a military alliance for one year. It also affirmed that the states wanted to form a federal state based on the Prussian proposals of June 1866. They agreed to have a parliament elected to discuss a draft constitution. Later in 1866, other states joined the treaty. Saxony and Hesse-Darmstadt, former enemies in the war of 1866, had to agree their accession to the new federation in their respective peace treaties (Hesse-Darmstadt only joined with its northern province, Upper Hesse).
Towards a federal constitution
Bismarck sought advice from conservative and democratic politicians and finally presented a draft constitution to the other state governments. A major factor in determining the form the new federal government would take was the aftermath of the recently concluded American Civil War, which had seen the southern states forcibly re-incorporated into the United States of America and slavery abolished. While few Germans were particularly sympathetic toward the precise institution (i.e., slavery) which had precipitated civil war in America, the prevailing viewpoint outside the U.S. at this time was that the slaves had only been emancipated as a reprisal for Southern secession from the American Union. With this in mind, many Catholics especially in Southern Germany feared that Prussia might one day might attempt to engineer a similar sort of secession crisis within a united Germany and use it as a pretext to launch a violent repression against Catholicism throughout Germany.
Thus, it was Bismarck's intention to make the new federal state look like a confederation in the tradition of the German Confederation and explains the name of the country and several provisions in the draft constitution - Bismarck needed to make the federal state more attractive (or at least less repulsive) to southern German states which might later join.
At the same time, in late 1866, Prussia and the other states prepared the election of a North German parliament. This konstituierender Reichstag was elected in February 1867 based on state laws. The konstituierender Reichstag gathered from February to April. In close talks with Bismarck, it altered the draft constitution in some significant points. The konstituierender Reichstag was not a parliament but only an organ to discuss and accept the draft constitution. After that, the state parliaments (June 1867) ratified it so that on 1 July the constitution was enabled. In August, the first Reichstag of the new federal state was elected.
Four years of legislation
During the roughly three and a half years of the North German Confederation its major action existed in legislation unifying Northern Germany. The Reichstag decided on laws concerning, for example:
free movement of citizens within the territory of the Confederation (1867)
a common postal system (1867–1868)
common passports (1867)
equal rights for the different religious denominations (1869)
unified measures and weights (with the obligatory introduction of the metric system)
penal code (1870)
The North German Confederation also became a member of the Zollverein, the German customs union of 1834.
Political system
The North German Constitution of 16 April 1867 created a national parliament with universal suffrage (for men above the age of 25), the Reichstag. Another important organ was the Bundesrat, the 'federal council' of the representatives of the state governments. To adopt a law, a majority in the Reichstag and in the Bundesrat was necessary. This gave the allied governments, meaning the states (and, depending on the state, their princes), an important veto.
Executive power was vested in a chancellor, being the only responsible federal minister of the country. There was no formal cabinet, and in the time of the North German Confederation there were only two government departments anyway: the Bundeskanzleramt as the general office of the chancellor, and, since early 1870, the foreign office.
The chancellor was installed and dismissed by the Bundespräsidium. This office belonged automatically to the Prussian king (art. 11). The holder was de facto the head of state of the North German Confederation. (Bismarck wanted to avoid the title Präsident with its republican air.)
For all intents and purposes, the Confederation was dominated by Prussia. It had four-fifths of the confederation's territory and population – more than the other 21 members combined. The Prussian king was a kind of head of state. Chancellor Bismarck was also prime minister and foreign minister of Prussia. In that role he instructed the Prussian votes in the Bundesrat. Prussia had 17 of 43 votes in the Bundesrat despite being by far the largest state but could easily get a majority by making alliances with the smaller states.
Customs Union
In June 1867 a conference took place between Prussia and the south German states, who were not members of the North German Confederation. After pressure from Prussia, new Customs Union (Zollverein) treaties were signed the following month. Henceforth, the governing bodies of the Customs Union were the Bundesrat and Reichstag of the North German Confederation, augmented by representatives of the south German governments in the former and members from these states elected in the same way as the others in the latter. When augmented thus for customs matters, the institutions were known as the Federal Customs Council and the Customs Parliament (Zollparlament).
On 1 January 1868, the new institutions came into force. Bismarck hoped that the Zollverein might become the vehicle of German unification. But in the 1868 Zollparlament election the South Germans voted mainly for anti-Prussian parties.
On the other hand, the two Mecklenburg duchies and three Hanseatic cities were initially not members of the Customs Union. The Mecklenburgs and Lübeck joined soon after the North German Confederation was formed. Eventually, after heavy Prussian pressure, Hamburg acceded to the Customs Union in 1888. Bremen joined at the same time. Despite this, all these states fully participated in the federal institutions, even while outside the Customs Union and not directly affected by their decisions in that regard.
Transition to the German Empire (1870–71)
In mid-1870, a diplomatic crisis concerning the Spanish throne led eventually to the Franco-Prussian War. During the war, in November 1870, the south German states of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden (together with the parts of Hesse-Darmstadt that were left out of the Confederation) joined the North German Confederation. At this occasion, the country adopted a new constitution, and the name of the federal state was changed to Deutsches Reich (German Empire).
According to a minority among German experts, the North German Confederation and the southern states created a new federal state (the German Empire). Indeed, Bismarck allowed the south German states to save face and therefore used a terminology suggesting a new creation. But Kotulla emphasizes that legally only an accession of the southern states to the North German Confederation was possible; the legal basis for such an accession was art. 79 of the North German federal constitution.
The new name of the enlarged North German Confederation was originally Deutscher Bund (German Confederation), but on 10 December 1870 the Reichstag of the North German Confederation had adopted the name Deutsches Reich (German Realm or German Empire) and granted the title of German Emperor to the King of Prussia as Bundespräsidium of the Confederation. On 1 January 1871 the new constitution gave the country the name 'German Empire' and the title of Emperor to King William of Prussia. He accepted the title on 18 January 1871. This latter date was later regarded as the 'creation of the Empire' (Reichsgründung), although it had no constitutional meaning.
A new Reichstag was elected on 3 March 1871. The Empire received its definite constitution on April 16th, 1871. The three constitutions (1867, January 1871 and April 1871) were nearly identical. It took roughly a decade to develop the country into a fully grown federal state, with several governmental departments (a kind of ministries), responsible state secretaries (a kind of ministers, 1878) and an imperial court (Reichsgericht, 1879).
Postage stamps
One of the functions of the confederation was to handle mail and issue postage stamps.
List of member states
All of the member states had already belonged to the German Confederation of 1815-66. Austria and the south German states Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and the Grand Duchy of Hesse (Hesse-Darmstadt) remained outside of the North German Confederation. Though, the northern province Oberhessen of the Grand Duchy of Hesse did join.
In northern and central Germany, Prussia
had gathered a number of allies that joined the North German Confederation via the August treaties (Augustverträge) of August 1866;
annexed four former enemy states (Hanover, Kurhessen, Nassau, Frankfurt) which became parts of Prussia (October 1866);
included its own territories formerly outside the Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation, namely its nucleus East Prussia and the Prussian-conquered Polish territories (Province of Posen and West Prussia), in the new state, thus formally annexing them into Germany
forced the remaining states into the North German Confederation via the peace treaties.
Lauenburg is sometimes mentioned as one of the member states, sometimes not. It was one of the three duchies that had earlier belong to Danmark. Lauenburg was a state with the Prussian king as duke until 1876, when it became a part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein.
See also
North German Constitution
Former countries in Europe after 1815
German unification
References
Further reading
Craig, Gordon A. Germany, 1866–1945 (1978) pp. 11–22 online edition
Hudson, Richard. "The Formation of the North German Confederation." Political Science Quarterly (1891) 6#3 pp: 424–438. in JSTOR
Nipperdey, Thomas. Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck: 1800-1866 (1996), very dense coverage of every aspect of German society, economy and government
Pflanze, Otto. Bismarck and the Development of Germany, Vol. 1: The Period of Unification, 1815–1871 (1971)
Taylor, A.J.P. Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman (1967) online edition
Modern history of Germany
Former confederations
Kingdom of Prussia
Kingdom of Saxony
1860s in Germany
1870s in Germany
1860s in Prussia
1870s in Prussia
States and territories established in 1867
States and territories disestablished in 1871
1867 establishments in Germany
1871 disestablishments in Germany
1867 establishments in Prussia
1870s disestablishments in Prussia
19th century in Germany
19th century in Prussia | [
-0.005171274766325951,
0.043458033353090286,
0.4208943247795105,
-0.026861708611249924,
-0.696191668510437,
0.0016162864631041884,
0.7572579979896545,
0.562933623790741,
-0.5508274435997009,
-0.33677196502685547,
0.14625602960586548,
-0.6645118594169617,
-0.154831662774086,
1.0922433137893677,
-0.2945655584335327,
0.3196408748626709,
0.08397321403026581,
0.33966538310050964,
-0.3371603488922119,
-0.219476580619812,
-0.3981740474700928,
-0.36107388138771057,
0.8380985856056213,
0.3276291787624359,
0.19455361366271973,
-0.5647738575935364,
0.9078102707862854,
-0.1657453328371048,
-0.16473397612571716,
-0.09136128425598145,
0.4424282908439636,
0.2512235641479492,
-0.07829437404870987,
-0.06184769421815872,
-0.2297862023115158,
0.22070294618606567,
-0.025670334696769714,
-0.5929704904556274,
-0.4399111568927765,
-0.7871228456497192,
-0.11288300901651382,
0.2950279116630554,
0.15494956076145172,
0.3212595283985138,
0.14162302017211914,
-0.09724148362874985,
-1.6611100435256958,
0.4787367284297943,
-0.48476094007492065,
-0.26799842715263367,
-0.8847302198410034,
-0.11146670579910278,
0.4697484076023102,
0.5262588262557983,
-0.27461493015289307,
0.01952672377228737,
-0.48812052607536316,
-0.15126216411590576,
-0.2079353779554367,
-0.4765346050262451,
0.41789400577545166,
-0.016668997704982758,
0.4753440320491791,
0.12967273592948914,
0.08606915175914764,
0.13098834455013275,
-0.3274485766887665,
1.0540101528167725,
-0.13190917670726776,
-0.7630122303962708,
-0.39087140560150146,
0.04134119674563408,
-0.012110035866498947,
-0.019795462489128113,
0.6119301915168762,
-0.5581792593002319,
0.32317835092544556,
-0.19165807962417603,
-0.11739922314882278,
-0.04877149313688278,
-0.4961513578891754,
0.31594809889793396,
0.63295978307724,
-0.2819957733154297,
0.8314732909202576,
-0.2850457727909088,
-0.9074268937110901,
-0.04750308766961098,
-0.2956415116786957,
0.24506224691867828,
-0.3173640966415405,
0.23930655419826508,
0.26485931873321533,
-0.12189549952745438,
0.04148666560649872,
-0.04257537052035332,
-0.0836629644036293,
0.0542389452457428,
0.16504454612731934,
0.25192350149154663,
0.28479522466659546,
0.2911270260810852,
0.3768463730812073,
0.0046874419786036015,
-0.8611388206481934,
-0.4294721186161041,
0.05962815135717392,
-0.11715232580900192,
-0.08714371919631958,
0.02437177300453186,
-0.5522503852844238,
-0.16635490953922272,
0.21792589128017426,
0.3895026743412018,
0.09415127336978912,
0.13417275249958038,
-0.5690469741821289,
-0.391802579164505,
0.6733189225196838,
0.16095204651355743,
-0.13891935348510742,
0.4267483353614807,
-0.3724110722541809,
0.6493270993232727,
-0.09666293114423752,
0.30076390504837036,
-0.3976735770702362,
0.05531488358974457,
-0.6808035969734192,
-0.22456756234169006,
0.8315514326095581,
0.5412922501564026,
0.19175416231155396,
-0.17850933969020844,
-0.19042153656482697,
-0.08632349222898483,
0.5051848292350769,
0.19633716344833374,
0.19618168473243713,
0.08528156578540802,
-0.9454305768013,
-0.20407791435718536,
-0.3087036609649658,
-0.0019140045624226332,
-0.13445836305618286,
-0.23719286918640137,
-0.04947556555271149,
-0.3422296345233917,
-0.27098461985588074,
0.09996860474348068,
0.029837753623723984,
0.17910043895244598,
-0.18935038149356842,
0.3262043297290802,
-0.21517738699913025,
0.7058156728744507,
0.5254530906677246,
-0.25319719314575195,
0.9805049896240234,
0.17225563526153564,
-0.05360601842403412,
0.73835289478302,
-0.180753692984581,
0.06458621472120285,
0.5472968220710754,
-0.3066173195838928,
-0.31623345613479614,
0.17606613039970398,
-0.08332931995391846,
0.11471563577651978,
-0.01866855099797249,
-0.07110927999019623,
0.03835931420326233,
0.22266042232513428,
-0.0891338437795639,
-0.2302922159433365,
0.2434893250465393,
0.4100816249847412,
0.10598967969417572,
-0.3900040090084076,
-0.6398115158081055,
0.35522064566612244,
0.6600803136825562,
0.15610918402671814,
-0.1787121593952179,
0.781772792339325,
0.11863544583320618,
-0.22042173147201538,
-0.4916827380657196,
0.18652983009815216,
0.483123779296875,
-0.7678335309028625,
0.22637183964252472,
-0.7959046363830566,
1.288027048110962,
0.105094775557518,
-0.20744222402572632,
0.1641046106815338,
-0.8069826364517212,
0.4094243347644806,
0.2696300745010376,
-0.5397401452064514,
-0.13013853132724762,
0.5216917395591736,
0.5332077145576477,
0.447597861289978,
-0.11407411843538284,
0.16655483841896057,
-0.1584482342004776,
0.449003666639328,
-0.12718547880649567,
-0.43993887305259705,
0.3848089575767517,
0.29135245084762573,
-0.12076807022094727,
-0.3097650706768036,
-0.5518782138824463,
0.5495677590370178,
0.11438918113708496,
0.18607006967067719,
0.6451234221458435,
-0.13435491919517517,
-0.4530971348285675,
0.7311559915542603,
0.2480178326368332,
0.06317181885242462,
0.10426969081163406,
0.8416637182235718,
0.09756765514612198,
-0.23368440568447113,
0.374612957239151,
0.6216443777084351,
0.047233521938323975,
-0.08056026697158813,
0.8194319605827332,
-0.6798797249794006,
-0.4068230092525482,
0.02704579196870327,
-0.5324651002883911,
-0.3141716420650482,
0.14865423738956451,
-0.022734900936484337,
-0.16725866496562958,
0.5211072564125061,
-0.20116816461086273,
0.27256619930267334,
0.07035943120718002,
0.3221094310283661,
-0.004393036477267742,
0.017981374636292458,
0.11961419880390167,
0.19849757850170135,
0.05233689025044441,
-0.31817832589149475,
-0.23766659200191498,
-0.3825996220111847,
0.4344009757041931,
-0.8149530291557312,
0.19199977815151215,
0.490172415971756,
0.5583850741386414,
-0.3329872786998749,
-0.842679500579834,
-0.4805279076099396,
0.024242248386144638,
-0.5471190214157104,
-0.4174942672252655,
-0.1408899575471878,
-0.29654842615127563,
0.0003237562195863575,
0.4273582100868225,
0.3859943449497223,
-0.12337649613618851,
-0.17931821942329407,
-0.2571917474269867,
-0.37095189094543457,
-0.21411733329296112,
0.06487089395523071,
-0.9242614507675171,
-0.055149853229522705,
-0.7078830599784851,
0.42869487404823303,
-0.17491844296455383,
-0.4759076237678528,
-0.04075062647461891,
-0.4974489212036133,
0.26367661356925964,
-0.5045738816261292,
0.15667623281478882,
-0.3150126039981842,
0.27961403131484985,
0.42454251646995544,
-0.6735342741012573,
-0.4066462218761444,
-0.4345107078552246,
0.4491533041000366,
-0.12604700028896332,
0.4258406460285187,
0.5723766684532166,
0.054807212203741074,
-1.1011815071105957,
0.18237534165382385,
-0.1261892318725586,
0.06985991448163986,
-0.007809857372194529,
-0.5167388319969177,
-0.5024080276489258,
-0.3723676800727844,
-5.689845561981201,
-0.10994047671556473,
-0.47083091735839844,
-0.07701384276151657,
-0.025470510125160217,
0.5561966896057129,
0.28865373134613037,
0.18527330458164215,
0.2502248287200928,
-0.12091498076915741,
0.09004386514425278,
-0.13766925036907196,
-0.7559139728546143,
0.6433303356170654,
0.208921417593956,
0.07971253991127014,
0.41949549317359924,
0.08982428908348083,
-0.2768586277961731,
-0.5751174092292786,
-0.34858086705207825,
-0.24910126626491547,
0.44024378061294556,
0.47160425782203674,
0.7307363748550415,
-0.014868538826704025,
-0.18627601861953735,
0.029446793720126152,
-0.567833423614502,
-0.25921130180358887,
-0.15692885220050812,
-0.4001857340335846,
0.04377029836177826,
-0.5793219208717346,
-0.11570989340543747,
-0.06487016379833221,
0.6330684423446655,
1.280975103378296,
-0.10751502960920334,
-0.2984328269958496,
-0.05857451632618904,
0.7108112573623657,
-0.28555724024772644,
-0.08226299285888672,
0.7832340002059937,
-0.3848475217819214,
-0.687653660774231,
-0.0025557985063642263,
-0.9694581627845764,
0.7908146977424622,
-0.29108691215515137,
0.15850166976451874,
0.27534037828445435,
-0.04500141739845276,
-0.2107570320367813,
-0.022338218986988068,
-0.11114564538002014,
-0.2385805994272232,
-0.9429646134376526,
0.3904654085636139,
0.4895382821559906,
0.0007216594531200826,
-0.11608210951089859,
-0.6915104985237122,
-0.35616835951805115,
-0.3511293828487396,
-0.6605584621429443,
0.6512999534606934,
0.5923519134521484,
0.08102691173553467,
-0.338408499956131,
0.3566320836544037,
0.242228165268898,
-0.5829232931137085,
-0.13184180855751038,
-0.5989831686019897,
-0.33463555574417114,
-0.37369203567504883,
0.47812992334365845,
0.5349079370498657,
-0.11321307718753815,
0.02965090610086918,
0.12588728964328766,
0.6431678533554077,
0.5363785624504089,
0.5057400465011597,
0.21372216939926147,
0.23588737845420837,
-0.09642226248979568,
0.1298339068889618,
-0.024888107553124428,
-0.5660709142684937,
0.3439510762691498,
0.08269277960062027,
0.08489133417606354,
0.5041652321815491,
-0.30994129180908203,
-0.2926444411277771,
0.1270718276500702,
-0.28358563780784607,
0.8029388189315796,
-0.335152268409729,
-0.2967664301395416,
0.354610413312912,
0.4482554495334625,
0.008138327859342098,
0.22263602912425995,
0.3943279981613159,
0.20762887597084045,
0.356087863445282,
-0.26149412989616394,
-0.24841520190238953,
-0.4086816608905792,
0.056226979941129684,
0.2594241797924042,
-0.3839069902896881,
-0.796344518661499,
0.6982054114341736,
0.1211937665939331,
0.1542515754699707,
-0.08612879365682602,
0.11670418083667755,
0.1863010972738266,
-0.11565905809402466,
0.008272640407085419,
-0.13874725997447968,
-0.12834855914115906,
0.31289246678352356,
0.13325287401676178,
0.5698091387748718,
-0.035250525921583176,
-0.3697878420352936,
0.06806109845638275,
-0.3885082006454468,
0.3735136091709137,
-0.10573863983154297,
-0.2657495439052582,
0.01270595658570528,
-0.4647197425365448,
-0.26678043603897095,
0.021478069946169853,
0.048498786985874176,
-0.5639820694923401,
0.38789457082748413,
-0.26214930415153503,
0.07043477147817612,
0.1573828160762787,
0.13012053072452545,
-0.426225483417511,
0.30672329664230347,
-0.3662387430667877,
-0.19764141738414764,
0.4406004250049591,
0.06790828704833984,
-0.15374445915222168,
-0.18159367144107819,
1.088778018951416,
0.5930471420288086,
0.2682395875453949,
-0.6006889343261719,
-0.1415485292673111,
-0.35797661542892456,
-0.5619693994522095,
0.4780290424823761,
0.5956484079360962,
-0.3635633587837219,
-0.7246248126029968,
-0.24854633212089539,
0.05136522278189659,
0.6014192700386047,
0.14923173189163208,
-0.2538830637931824,
-0.3645724058151245,
-0.02605714090168476,
0.19351236522197723,
0.2965817451477051,
-0.15717428922653198,
-0.5234796404838562,
-0.16515880823135376,
-0.2051529884338379,
-0.3814567029476166,
-0.21302388608455658,
-0.64765864610672,
0.12892867624759674,
0.04768228903412819,
0.24118554592132568,
-0.3711561858654022,
0.15887032449245453,
0.36228036880493164,
0.20670221745967865,
1.0656938552856445,
-0.2586178481578827,
0.07506541162729263,
0.3496280014514923,
-0.37995755672454834,
-0.4799644649028778,
-0.14096751809120178,
0.23927687108516693,
0.21771179139614105,
-0.4978673458099365,
0.07681343704462051,
0.43565264344215393,
-0.0974506065249443,
-0.36291950941085815,
0.07558724284172058,
-0.6144598722457886,
0.5002757906913757,
-0.3328709006309509,
-0.5865458250045776,
0.3563230037689209,
-0.6485322713851929,
-0.30637818574905396,
-0.25988709926605225,
0.39331766963005066,
-0.1652453988790512,
-0.17916475236415863,
0.3332270681858063,
-0.15537835657596588,
-0.3410123288631439,
0.26951462030410767,
-0.23246045410633087,
0.0329911895096302,
-0.5186268091201782,
0.011439742520451546,
-0.6485568284988403,
0.2600087821483612,
0.3747025430202484,
0.13931751251220703,
-0.0726495236158371,
-0.37603282928466797,
0.6461719870567322,
-0.09159445017576218,
-0.13895966112613678,
0.033880237489938736,
0.44478824734687805,
0.16526034474372864,
0.25496387481689453,
0.17383673787117004,
0.1791534423828125,
0.5890933871269226,
0.46954581141471863,
0.8966667652130127,
0.33301520347595215,
-0.9062836766242981,
0.21948769688606262,
-0.3956926167011261,
0.2600419521331787,
-0.23587968945503235,
-0.028001582249999046,
-0.090998575091362,
0.09047368913888931,
-0.3239322006702423,
-0.8465136289596558,
-0.4658256769180298,
0.5494961142539978,
0.17132960259914398,
-0.14138057827949524,
0.5613011121749878,
0.028317369520664215,
-0.34795936942100525,
-0.6242778897285461,
0.0008845575503073633,
-0.2143440544605255,
0.21815277636051178,
-0.058110661804676056,
-0.13008363544940948,
-0.6231436729431152,
-0.30508342385292053,
0.14055223762989044,
-0.6589590311050415,
-0.15102456510066986,
-0.1518585979938507,
0.4546208083629608,
-0.1805466115474701,
0.15507294237613678,
-0.05247427523136139,
0.28304368257522583,
-0.28432098031044006,
0.6321830153465271,
0.15589316189289093,
-0.598115086555481,
-0.5876156687736511,
0.16056331992149353,
-0.42378896474838257,
0.13889813423156738,
-1.13280189037323,
-0.7241049408912659,
0.05063985288143158,
-0.913465142250061,
-0.178724005818367,
-0.23478996753692627,
0.16399039328098297,
0.17177605628967285,
-0.00047711306251585484,
-0.2645166218280792,
-0.007646928541362286,
-0.03997613489627838,
0.14523744583129883,
0.5119021534919739,
0.642100989818573,
-0.2879346013069153,
0.5402161478996277,
-0.07407232373952866,
-0.554031252861023,
0.3806610107421875,
0.37892648577690125,
-0.3165736794471741,
0.09774221479892731,
-0.019107215106487274,
0.29762890934944153,
0.5845038294792175,
-0.23411287367343903,
-0.5986450910568237,
0.40279123187065125,
-0.44898951053619385,
0.3084377348423004,
0.7002372741699219,
-0.7428777813911438,
0.2485765963792801,
-0.11276701092720032,
0.5542131662368774,
0.4696095287799835,
0.19603043794631958,
0.3336908519268036,
0.4665457606315613,
0.42462608218193054,
0.5734760165214539,
-0.06536217778921127,
-0.6921638250350952,
0.08380795270204544,
-0.18575970828533173,
-0.13156168162822723,
0.03303899988532066,
0.2588024437427521,
-0.5800872445106506,
-0.24524962902069092,
0.20590026676654816,
0.07393781840801239,
-0.22241245210170746,
0.7238816618919373,
-0.2381824553012848,
0.6066644191741943,
-0.5251678228378296,
-0.20334383845329285,
0.3140653967857361,
0.15520517528057098,
-0.593831479549408,
-0.07007933408021927,
0.5741948485374451,
0.422140896320343,
0.8604775667190552,
-0.1294223666191101,
0.006656323559582233,
-0.5226712226867676,
-0.1900702267885208,
-0.17618964612483978,
0.5503541231155396,
0.2031482309103012,
-0.11143402010202408,
-0.20868508517742157,
0.2633300721645355,
0.09564799070358276,
0.48029273748397827,
0.02192930318415165,
-0.11195993423461914,
0.20475627481937408,
-0.17841240763664246,
-0.1564793735742569,
-0.43742620944976807,
0.08516448736190796,
0.4677054286003113,
-0.6904181838035583,
0.13939622044563293,
0.2364107370376587,
-0.03865092992782593,
-0.08075319230556488,
0.4252109229564667,
0.2709197700023651,
0.27800190448760986,
0.2994045913219452,
-0.41845160722732544,
0.3556043207645416,
0.025467539206147194,
-0.45735791325569153,
-0.183454692363739,
-0.5234087705612183,
-0.023127708584070206,
0.19890111684799194,
0.09828869253396988,
0.05837143957614899,
-0.35745689272880554,
-0.4908238649368286,
0.5241254568099976,
-0.16785098612308502,
-0.37080609798431396,
-0.08540491759777069,
-0.32212620973587036,
0.7531282901763916,
0.5922268033027649,
-0.5599379539489746,
0.2857888638973236,
0.3917410373687744,
0.2798740565776825,
0.03788306191563606,
0.46737775206565857,
0.5557646751403809,
-0.29724565148353577,
0.3425304889678955,
0.2094518542289734,
0.3014379143714905,
0.06711439788341522,
0.05486356467008591,
-0.3135683238506317,
0.4687733054161072,
-0.10738369822502136,
-0.03439764678478241,
1.0137172937393188,
-0.2621094882488251,
-0.265718936920166,
-0.06558895856142044,
-0.024949906393885612,
-0.35249394178390503,
0.04936302825808525,
0.38090357184410095,
0.4062276780605316,
0.16361567378044128,
0.4674401581287384,
0.16958093643188477,
-0.1273021697998047,
0.9964982271194458,
-0.32703885436058044,
-0.5148403644561768,
-0.2470189929008484,
-0.42636314034461975,
-0.5611507296562195,
0.11268361657857895,
0.21871383488178253,
0.011191864497959614,
0.3477467894554138,
-0.6335673928260803,
-0.23151248693466187,
-0.10274189710617065,
0.6470879316329956,
-0.34980738162994385,
0.5491513609886169,
0.038655836135149,
0.30765092372894287,
-0.060309987515211105,
-0.9179744124412537,
0.30857744812965393,
-0.036787472665309906,
0.0885319709777832,
0.2867595851421356,
-0.04119754582643509,
0.3923311233520508,
-0.382039874792099,
0.07568278163671494,
-0.9942997097969055,
0.5490230917930603,
0.2328745424747467
] |
260936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misamis%20Occidental | Misamis Occidental | Misamis Occidental (; Subanen: Sindepan Mis'samis; ) is a province located in the region of Northern Mindanao in the Philippines. Its capital is the city of Oroquieta. The province borders Zamboanga del Norte and Zamboanga del Sur to the west and is separated from Lanao del Norte by Panguil Bay to the south and Iligan Bay to the east. The province of Misamis was originally inhabited by Subanens who were an easy target by the sea pirates from Lanao.
The province is named after the early settlement of the Spaniards at the entrance to the Panguil Bay. The name Misamis is believed to have been derived from the Subanen word Kuyamis which is a variety of coconut, the staple food of the early settlers. During the years the name persisted as an inference of the geographical location, and upon the advent of the Spanish settlers, the word kuyamis easily gave way to the more convenient pronounceable but corrupted word Misamis.
History
The area of now Misamis Occidental was first occupied by Subanen and later Visayans settled in the coastal areas. The name Misamis is derived from Subanen word kuyamis which is a variety of coconut. During the 1750s was the time that the coastal villages in Southern Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao suffered attacks from bands of Muslim pirates, who burned houses and crops, and captured people to be sold as slaves in Maguindanao, Sulu, Borneo or the islands now known as Indonesia. In response, the colonial government in Manila created a flotilla and appointed a Spanish Jesuit missionary, José Ducos, as its commander.
After several successful battles against the pirates, when some peace had been restored, it was decided to build a stone fort at the mouth of Panguil Bay, at a place called Misamis, and Ducos was put in charge of the construction. The construction began in 1756. It was officially called “Fuerte de la Concepción y del Triunfo”.
1818 — Mindanao was organized into five politico-military districts, one of which was the Segundo Distrito de Misamis, the largest district in Mindanao. This area was composed of today's Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental, Camiguin, Bukidnon, Lanao, Zamboanga del Norte, and the northern part of Cotabato.
1850 — the town of Misamis became the capital of the district of Misamis until February 27, 1872, when the Spanish Governor General Carlos María de la Torre y Navacerrada issued a decree declaring Cagayan the permanent capital of Segundo Distrito de Misamis. During this era, the name of the town was Cagayan de Misamis.
November 2, 1929 — Legislative Act No. 3537 passed, dividing the old province of Misamis into Misamis Occidental and Misamis Oriental, which took effect on January 1, 1930. Misamis Occidental comprised the original nine towns of Baliangao, Lopez Jaena, Tudela, Clarin, Plaridel, Oroquieta, Aloran, Jimenez, and Misamis. Don Jose Fortich Ozamiz became the first governor.
January 6, 1930 — the provincial council of Misamis Occidental, selected Oroquieta to become the capital town (cabecera) of the province.
1935 — the Provincial Capitol Building, commonly called Capitolio, begun and became the seat of executive and legislative power of the province, in the town of Oroquieta.
May 6, 1942, the Japanese Imperial forces landed in Misamis Occidental, beginning their brief occupation of the province during World War II. In 1945, combined American and Philippine Commonwealth forces liberated the province, and with the help of the recognized guerilla units, defeated the Japanese forces. During World War II, Misamis became the capital of the Free Philippines as the seat of government of the Free Philippines then was the Capitolio. The United States Forces in the Philippines (USFIP) under Col. Wendell Fertig based in Misamis Occidental, was the rallying point for the guerrillas in Mindanao. This was historically significant because it is the only time in Philippine history when its capital was in Mindanao, in the region then known as Misamis. The Free Philippine Government was then issuing Misamis Occidental emergency notes. Late President Quezon, upon knowing that Oroquieta was made a capital of the Free Philippines and that the town was issuing emergency notes, authorized the Printing of the Mindanao emergency note.
July 16, 1948 — the town of Misamis became a chartered city by virtue of Republic Act 321, making the 4th city in Mindanao after Zamboanga, Davao and Marawi, also renamed Misamis to Ozamiz after a World War II hero José Ozámiz who hailed from the province of Misamis Occidental and who at one time also served as its governor and congressional representative of the Lone District of Misamis Occidental, Senator of the Philippines, a delegate to the 1935 Constitutional Convention that resulted in the creation of the 1935 Constitution for the Philippine Commonwealth Government.
Aug. 24, 1981 - Members of a fanatical pseudo-religious paramilitary sect called the "Rock Christ" strafed the house of the Gumapons, a Subanon family, in Barrio Lampasan, Tudela, Misamis Occidental. Ten of the twelve persons in the house, including an infant, were killed.
May 2010 — the people of Misamis Occidental elected their first female governor, Herminia M. Ramiro.
Geography
Misamis Occidental is located near the narrow strip of land linking Northwestern Mindanao, to the North-central part of the island. Covering a total area of , the province is bounded on the northeast by the Mindanao Sea, east by the Iligan Bay, southeast by the Panguil Bay, and the west by the Zamboanga del Norte and Sur. Except along the coastal area, hilly and rolling land characterized the provincial terrain. Towards the western border, the terrain is particularly rugged.
Administrative divisions
Misamis Occidental comprises 14 municipalities and 3 component cities, which are organized into two legislative districts and further subdivided into 490 barangays.
Demographics
The population of Misamis Occidental in the was people, with a density of .
The dense population along the coast consists mainly of ethnic Cebuanos. Thus, Cebuano is the lingua franca of the province. Most of the native Subanens live in the interior uplands.
Religion
As of 2013, Roman Catholicism remains the predominant faith of the people of Misamis Occidental having 70 percent affiliation and the second most members are with the Iglesia Filipina Independiente or Aglipayan Church with 20% while several Protestant Churches as well as Islam are the minorities.
Economy
The province economy depends firstly on fishing, secondly on coconuts, thirdly on rice. The province has of coastline fronting the rich fishing grounds of Panguil and Iligan bays. It also has the biggest area of brackish water fishponds in the region. Tangub City is a fishing port on Panguil Bay famous for seafood. Coconut is the chief crop. This is processed into oil, desiccated coconut, and coir, most of which are shipped to Cebu. Coconut processing is the main industry in Oroquieta City. Other crops grown are rice, corn, abaca, coffee, cacao and rubber.
Resources
Wood is the major forest product. Predominant species are the lauan group, apitong, tanguige yakal, and Philippine mahogany. There is also an abundant supply of bamboo, rattan and various vines. Forest land in the province has an area of 66,002.46 hectares; 53,262 hectares of which are considered a national park (which has legal implications).
The province has a considerable deposit of clay especially in the municipalities of Lopez Jaena and Concepcion. Plaridel is the largest in rice production, and the longest coastal town in the province.
There are also an abundant sources of sand and gravel.
The province is traditionally a net exporter of various commodities. Historical data from the Ozamiz Port District of the Bureau of Customs show that outgoing commodities, which is mainly of coconut products, far outweigh incoming cargoes.
Being a coco-based province, major manufacturing firms in Misamis Occidental are engaged in the production of crude coconut oil, cooking oil, lard, margarine, laundry soap and desiccated coconut. Other products are furniture, ceramics gifts toys and housewares, processed food like banana chips and marine products.
Locally fabricated agri-industrial machines and equipment are also available in the province.
Tourism and attractions
Langaranan Festival Plaridel, Misamis Occidental
Baobaon Islets Plaridel, Misamis Occidental
Shang's Resort Plaridel, Misamis Occidental
Century-Old Nazareno Dam Plaridel, Misamis Occidental
Caluya Shrine Sapang Dalaga, Misamis Occidental
Baliangao Protected Landscape and Seascape
Binalbal Festival, Tudela, Misamis Occidental
Christmas Symbols Festival, Tangub City
Dalit Festival, Tangub City
Dampawan Festival, Concepcion, Misamis Occidental - September
Fuerte de la Concepcion y del Triunfo, Ozamiz City
Hoyohoy Highland Stone Chapel & Adventure Park, Tangub City
Immaculate Conception Cathedral Pipe Organ, Ozamiz City
Inug-og Festival, Oroquieta City
Misamis Occidental Aquamarine Park
Mount Malindang Range Natural Park and Lake Duminagat
Pas'ungko S'g Mis. Occ. Festival of all Festivals - November
Sapang Dalaga Falls
Suman Festival, Clarin, Misamis Occidental - Clarin, the Suman Capital of Misamis Occidental
Sinakbang Festival, Sinacaban, Misamis Occidental
Government
Congressman:
1st District: Rep. Diego "Nonoy" C. Ty, C.E.
2nd District: Rep. Henry "Henz" S. Oaminal
Governor:
Philip T. Tan
Vice Governor:
Aurora Virginia "Jiejie" M. Almonte
Board Members:
1st District:
Lel M. Blanco, CPA, LLB
Ruvy "Alay" D. Ala
Winston "DonDon" V. Catane
Roseanne Marie "Tata" L. Paylaga-Lim
Agnes C. Villanueva, CPA
2nd District:
Tito B. Decina
Elsa F. Navarro
Emeterio B. Roa, Sr.
Heinjie B. Estaño
Nemesio D. Lahaylahay, Sr.
Ex-Officio
Sancho "Sunny" S. Oaminal (ABC)
Eduardo "Tata" C. Cebedo (PCL)
Alyssia Ann D. Pao (SK)
Juanidy M. Viña (IPMR)
Former governors
Diego Ty Deling
Anselmo Bernad
Gella Caay
Loreto Leo S. Ocampos
José Ozámiz
Gedeon G. Quijano
Henry Y. Regalado Sr.
Atty. Ernie D. Clarete
Gorgonio F. Buaquiña II
William Chiongbian
Benito Chiongbian
Herminia Ramiro
See also
Laguindingan Airport, the first international airport in Northern Mindanao region.
References
External links
Official website
Philippine Standard Geographic Code
Local Governance Performance Management System
Provinces of the Philippines
Northern Mindanao
States and territories established in 1939
1939 establishments in the Philippines
Zamboanga Peninsula | [
-0.5377745628356934,
0.1814941018819809,
-0.0017376849427819252,
0.12435923516750336,
-0.04866892844438553,
0.08437881618738174,
0.05647260695695877,
1.1843446493148804,
-0.31398114562034607,
-0.3401672840118408,
-0.5147083401679993,
0.27757763862609863,
-0.27710846066474915,
-0.05915576592087746,
0.045358091592788696,
0.7560383081436157,
0.5832405090332031,
0.566264271736145,
-0.560572624206543,
-0.6279540657997131,
-0.03887983784079552,
-1.0073063373565674,
0.39194542169570923,
-0.09428783506155014,
0.8917585611343384,
0.1945246458053589,
0.39828410744667053,
0.5176238417625427,
0.5855939388275146,
-0.06167958304286003,
-0.01581648550927639,
0.06557212024927139,
-0.26438745856285095,
0.1321548968553543,
0.01662351004779339,
0.43950390815734863,
-0.11371734738349915,
-0.479060560464859,
-0.30306366086006165,
0.1462051272392273,
0.12565404176712036,
-0.22312942147254944,
0.2243814319372177,
0.3169199228286743,
0.7245007157325745,
-0.8553289771080017,
-1.2041429281234741,
0.8204321265220642,
-1.0077400207519531,
0.33963119983673096,
-1.4864603281021118,
0.9072346091270447,
-0.42262977361679077,
0.010980135761201382,
-0.12436877936124802,
0.30770206451416016,
-0.46343499422073364,
0.12083499878644943,
-0.3136882781982422,
0.09680673480033875,
-0.25953593850135803,
0.5977823734283447,
-0.2423245906829834,
0.12782913446426392,
-0.5038069486618042,
0.09699054062366486,
0.14649704098701477,
0.48586612939834595,
-0.32675182819366455,
-0.5275700092315674,
-0.3296271860599518,
0.8122256398200989,
0.12276182323694229,
0.2499784529209137,
-0.09968893229961395,
-0.5331519246101379,
-0.3825456500053406,
0.40756669640541077,
-0.22430360317230225,
0.010629156604409218,
-0.04901311546564102,
0.1568746268749237,
0.2168179750442505,
-0.22775045037269592,
0.06507772952318192,
0.3278749883174896,
-0.28323403000831604,
-0.3228435814380646,
0.031933385878801346,
0.315008282661438,
-0.2322872281074524,
-0.190054252743721,
0.062276680022478104,
-0.02344322018325329,
-0.03233688697218895,
-1.0250723361968994,
-0.30937448143959045,
-0.12318037450313568,
-0.20339751243591309,
0.5984606742858887,
-0.30058902502059937,
0.5338587760925293,
0.6873781085014343,
0.3749443590641022,
-0.5115838646888733,
-0.37553760409355164,
-0.282975435256958,
-0.10829603672027588,
-0.538952648639679,
-0.04854751378297806,
-0.46993520855903625,
0.28376248478889465,
0.5565891861915588,
0.28962039947509766,
0.1413252204656601,
0.1466573178768158,
0.3256792724132538,
-0.1136583685874939,
0.11641702055931091,
-0.7135180234909058,
0.16465486586093903,
0.203658327460289,
-0.6075417399406433,
-0.060396693646907806,
0.5934337973594666,
-0.37925055623054504,
-0.10492270439863205,
-0.4722541272640228,
-0.6075863242149353,
0.3900664448738098,
-0.20765410363674164,
0.3848501443862915,
-0.2917883098125458,
0.572876513004303,
0.3707905411720276,
-0.7525333166122437,
-0.3103543221950531,
0.577966570854187,
0.2440388798713684,
-0.33348220586776733,
-1.4312279224395752,
0.23247431218624115,
-0.5615144968032837,
-0.5504801273345947,
0.508423388004303,
-0.40709230303764343,
-0.004036855883896351,
-0.8511702418327332,
-0.910980761051178,
-0.6174765825271606,
0.4206595718860626,
0.08836204558610916,
-0.2880653440952301,
0.09398776292800903,
-0.7532031536102295,
-0.2673287093639374,
0.92210853099823,
0.20171716809272766,
0.2514277398586273,
0.23976029455661774,
-0.2511071264743805,
-0.2480495572090149,
0.4047917127609253,
-0.5030115246772766,
-0.28128427267074585,
-0.1416965276002884,
0.6938640475273132,
1.1044105291366577,
0.5398332476615906,
0.22682520747184753,
-0.16391904652118683,
0.173261359333992,
0.3122520446777344,
-0.7840508818626404,
0.06006961315870285,
-0.059860002249479294,
-0.23391079902648926,
0.13676446676254272,
-0.4269650876522064,
-0.3967183828353882,
-0.7462782859802246,
0.74420166015625,
0.18485014140605927,
0.07046004384756088,
-0.16786637902259827,
0.2651967406272888,
0.4843063950538635,
0.14823821187019348,
-0.052860092371702194,
0.6357782483100891,
-0.2265072464942932,
-0.24813471734523773,
0.09846040606498718,
-0.4186120331287384,
0.5647748708724976,
0.7139028310775757,
-0.342340350151062,
0.5928882360458374,
-0.3478097915649414,
0.7375244498252869,
-0.7384540438652039,
-0.5784206390380859,
0.6446747779846191,
0.2668289840221405,
-0.22834354639053345,
0.692898690700531,
0.11277441680431366,
0.5962283611297607,
0.6999066472053528,
1.4314090013504028,
0.12858548760414124,
-0.5365387201309204,
0.1161515936255455,
0.7812750339508057,
0.07530855387449265,
-0.9105795621871948,
0.3366047441959381,
-0.4972551465034485,
0.00914774276316166,
-0.17778806388378143,
0.22130565345287323,
0.38592204451560974,
-0.5000064373016357,
0.7733396291732788,
-0.17516928911209106,
0.633858859539032,
0.5256068110466003,
0.35140666365623474,
0.7316989898681641,
-0.21486341953277588,
0.715088427066803,
-0.28508928418159485,
0.7417603731155396,
-0.3727109730243683,
-0.2880522608757019,
-0.08176303654909134,
-0.12945005297660828,
-0.675321638584137,
0.299583375453949,
-0.637927770614624,
-0.24637705087661743,
-0.07716591656208038,
-0.7288374304771423,
-0.22492244839668274,
0.43677347898483276,
0.25202009081840515,
-0.46060094237327576,
0.20735226571559906,
0.1661347597837448,
0.37136179208755493,
-0.03185662627220154,
0.196652352809906,
0.3687523603439331,
-0.3621619641780853,
-0.18169516324996948,
0.05629251152276993,
0.059104740619659424,
-0.1270616054534912,
0.5985069870948792,
-0.21810893714427948,
-0.48061519861221313,
0.36447960138320923,
-0.10654185712337494,
0.29458948969841003,
-0.5399770736694336,
-0.679163932800293,
0.3934948444366455,
0.1339944303035736,
-0.5139540433883667,
-0.041233669966459274,
0.052024029195308685,
-0.38361668586730957,
-0.5933822393417358,
-0.1306055784225464,
-0.2833437919616699,
-0.43110722303390503,
0.12861724197864532,
0.1672065109014511,
-1.2219996452331543,
-0.44605597853660583,
0.3759782314300537,
1.0218533277511597,
0.25083982944488525,
-0.30672258138656616,
-0.898042619228363,
-0.1281663477420807,
0.4468238949775696,
-0.6152054667472839,
-0.3993432819843292,
0.2922433316707611,
0.046105414628982544,
0.029035992920398712,
-0.2182435691356659,
0.5954484939575195,
-0.1993868499994278,
-0.24297092854976654,
-0.034276653081178665,
-0.11391174048185349,
0.9835872054100037,
-1.1210075616836548,
-0.0665532797574997,
-0.31228548288345337,
-0.16989290714263916,
-0.016355661675333977,
-0.024660170078277588,
0.17716258764266968,
-0.2643495500087738,
0.6258703470230103,
-5.185261249542236,
0.013641883619129658,
-0.3835599422454834,
-0.5529131293296814,
0.06693175435066223,
-0.6967130899429321,
-0.00669632526114583,
-0.44539299607276917,
0.3898892104625702,
0.21111276745796204,
-0.07544819265604019,
-0.0750681534409523,
0.18212127685546875,
0.12122257798910141,
-0.047829560935497284,
0.2983829975128174,
0.05401589348912239,
0.15779955685138702,
-0.06543759256601334,
0.6039950847625732,
-0.19798114895820618,
-0.5013338923454285,
0.10861459374427795,
0.3552321791648865,
0.5777368545532227,
0.3677390515804291,
0.1430213451385498,
-0.7613646388053894,
-0.4138501286506653,
-0.4461136758327484,
-0.10256392508745193,
-0.5034783482551575,
0.5775443911552429,
0.25426068902015686,
-0.3381851613521576,
-0.6478959918022156,
1.0179977416992188,
0.3973996043205261,
0.13223880529403687,
-0.1189710795879364,
0.2364809662103653,
-0.26972246170043945,
0.22635342180728912,
0.2689782977104187,
0.5908414125442505,
0.10935628414154053,
-0.4939088225364685,
-0.47387874126434326,
0.0924217477440834,
0.6448116302490234,
0.6484909057617188,
0.26593512296676636,
-0.4431275725364685,
-0.21376051008701324,
-0.040360789746046066,
-0.11010788381099701,
0.7116518616676331,
-0.9100837707519531,
-1.1152220964431763,
0.3902570307254791,
1.0118000507354736,
0.32762444019317627,
-0.6665318012237549,
-0.43997523188591003,
0.2008882313966751,
0.12474296241998672,
0.04431435465812683,
0.258687824010849,
0.928562343120575,
-0.1343303620815277,
-0.6611436009407043,
0.3214806616306305,
-0.3133905529975891,
-0.3114834129810333,
-0.014939703978598118,
-0.12159892171621323,
-0.994782567024231,
0.020075680688023567,
-0.031609803438186646,
-0.08691269904375076,
-0.7078421115875244,
0.25724613666534424,
0.04250001162290573,
0.5992439985275269,
0.09142065793275833,
-0.6526724696159363,
0.09717890620231628,
0.4720156788825989,
0.12432726472616196,
0.4196070432662964,
0.2972089350223541,
-0.39613232016563416,
0.838665246963501,
0.1655799299478531,
-0.14017535746097565,
0.30884507298469543,
0.2633839547634125,
0.3843238353729248,
0.19180701673030853,
-0.7635602355003357,
0.5482953190803528,
-0.3643744885921478,
0.2806258499622345,
0.4008726477622986,
-0.12670603394508362,
-0.3897838890552521,
0.01106608659029007,
0.2807549834251404,
-0.09839356690645218,
-0.2145010083913803,
-0.06617709994316101,
-0.1264459490776062,
-0.3915664255619049,
0.1626817137002945,
0.18339747190475464,
-0.11682094633579254,
-0.21855928003787994,
0.06012608855962753,
0.3435395658016205,
0.12292365729808807,
-0.10435212403535843,
-0.09518153220415115,
-0.3914174437522888,
0.6357945799827576,
-0.4768946170806885,
-0.3983265459537506,
-0.19057545065879822,
0.72398442029953,
0.36804506182670593,
-0.04440353438258171,
0.5345056653022766,
-0.4728548526763916,
0.5323598384857178,
-0.4899910092353821,
0.10749589651823044,
-0.23621240258216858,
0.16454845666885376,
-0.03211241960525513,
0.11826131492853165,
-0.22182151675224304,
0.283347487449646,
-0.36777350306510925,
-0.14565736055374146,
0.25299182534217834,
0.14051394164562225,
-0.1673351377248764,
-0.33626583218574524,
-0.7170273661613464,
-0.9241078495979309,
0.2942466139793396,
-0.1533307582139969,
-1.0279157161712646,
-0.23113304376602173,
-0.09635177999734879,
-0.1452355831861496,
-0.12915152311325073,
0.17351730167865753,
0.027548236772418022,
-0.012991179712116718,
-0.39322927594184875,
0.4418049454689026,
-0.5563983917236328,
-0.3675828278064728,
0.12385720759630203,
0.022711042314767838,
-0.10953910648822784,
-0.1240982711315155,
-0.3380530774593353,
-0.26762446761131287,
1.1620216369628906,
0.2939262390136719,
-0.3743315041065216,
-0.5708845257759094,
-0.29162341356277466,
0.5574220418930054,
-0.5275893211364746,
0.36367377638816833,
0.3838464319705963,
-0.029327647760510445,
0.10658899694681168,
-0.5005946159362793,
-0.4330798387527466,
-0.3494260013103485,
0.8000797033309937,
0.4315358102321625,
-0.6774594783782959,
-0.6055479049682617,
-0.08937179297208786,
-0.7956916093826294,
-0.5010504722595215,
0.7705997228622437,
0.1807943880558014,
-0.1917642205953598,
0.03888208046555519,
-0.4354807138442993,
0.28353047370910645,
-0.43400025367736816,
0.4238322675228119,
0.21269185841083527,
0.22927136719226837,
-0.3619256317615509,
0.34707972407341003,
-0.3013544976711273,
0.829216718673706,
-0.13465948402881622,
-0.20974701642990112,
0.4659269154071808,
0.23386375606060028,
-0.7793012261390686,
-0.059523262083530426,
-0.839340329170227,
-0.24518729746341705,
-0.1438611000776291,
0.4189784526824951,
-0.13149116933345795,
-0.10207872092723846,
0.09855661541223526,
-0.3223572373390198,
-0.29526329040527344,
-0.15315669775009155,
-0.4287572205066681,
0.027018990367650986,
0.4796879291534424,
-0.021827051416039467,
0.18432076275348663,
1.2424838542938232,
0.30339035391807556,
-0.6832515001296997,
0.8530762791633606,
-0.33723732829093933,
0.5275524258613586,
-0.03028535470366478,
0.5307368040084839,
0.4555288553237915,
-0.5557740926742554,
0.20398445427417755,
0.04651537537574768,
0.2453555017709732,
0.3315422236919403,
0.8279426097869873,
0.4563937187194824,
0.4094958007335663,
0.00018882055883295834,
-0.6856420636177063,
0.02501835860311985,
0.24615126848220825,
-0.0399000458419323,
-0.2928541600704193,
-0.20811057090759277,
0.40046462416648865,
0.15943863987922668,
-0.40975451469421387,
-0.09000734984874725,
-0.06371872127056122,
0.7935720682144165,
-0.06741209328174591,
-0.2865365445613861,
0.390985906124115,
0.007869705557823181,
0.2594895362854004,
0.3154849410057068,
0.2600187063217163,
0.37847504019737244,
0.3279374837875366,
0.1285332888364792,
-0.27352893352508545,
-0.5093727707862854,
-0.2862831950187683,
0.8221063613891602,
0.6841157078742981,
-0.5961806178092957,
-0.198358416557312,
0.3882260322570801,
-0.19401735067367554,
0.0583505742251873,
-0.3632686138153076,
0.3589670658111572,
-0.5579318404197693,
0.16461800038814545,
-0.5152518153190613,
-1.1506574153900146,
-0.27397215366363525,
-0.48196619749069214,
-0.512825071811676,
0.13269448280334473,
-0.54534912109375,
-0.10329864174127579,
0.2852482497692108,
-0.47768527269363403,
0.5833913087844849,
-0.07724608480930328,
-0.1351013481616974,
0.10159684717655182,
-0.5432445406913757,
-0.30675625801086426,
-0.1632647067308426,
-0.056271012872457504,
0.4470801055431366,
-0.032846804708242416,
0.32704561948776245,
-0.8640120029449463,
0.03066803514957428,
0.09272032976150513,
-0.008228610269725323,
-0.22740438580513,
-0.2937604784965515,
0.40173640847206116,
-0.45281121134757996,
-0.06519855558872223,
0.04978778585791588,
0.11913904547691345,
0.23608997464179993,
0.338010311126709,
0.5379630923271179,
-0.44197505712509155,
0.8186169266700745,
0.8158993721008301,
-0.4018090069293976,
-0.09879504144191742,
0.878566324710846,
0.37779197096824646,
-0.14008671045303345,
0.01992848329246044,
0.3088175356388092,
0.16554050147533417,
0.9408100247383118,
0.04529871046543121,
-0.8719857931137085,
0.31957074999809265,
0.3319224417209625,
-0.1346983164548874,
-0.15117506682872772,
-0.6854260563850403,
0.35057148337364197,
-0.4058486819267273,
-0.5848026275634766,
0.09820254892110825,
-0.7812234163284302,
0.1624315083026886,
0.6581889390945435,
0.5850882530212402,
0.9482594728469849,
-0.008677052333950996,
0.15017111599445343,
0.01698296144604683,
-0.041593704372644424,
0.44520965218544006,
-0.0005414445768110454,
0.43368029594421387,
-0.3081205189228058,
0.7170203328132629,
0.3635968863964081,
0.46242374181747437,
0.10428357869386673,
0.09789600223302841,
0.43870118260383606,
0.02131008543074131,
-0.18699763715267181,
-0.6308408975601196,
-0.1942594349384308,
-0.09769875556230545,
-0.12567530572414398,
-0.6388283967971802,
-0.0846155434846878,
-0.09274899959564209,
-0.9332287907600403,
0.36684373021125793,
0.43101605772972107,
-0.8146671652793884,
0.1464894860982895,
-0.10216464102268219,
0.4454791843891144,
-0.002366116503253579,
-0.3429885804653168,
0.07256737351417542,
0.7737607955932617,
-0.12840428948402405,
0.6839175224304199,
-0.6817885637283325,
0.06810828298330307,
0.17272795736789703,
0.4068484902381897,
0.1838703155517578,
-0.7178306579589844,
0.4225839078426361,
-0.011362798511981964,
0.4474942088127136,
0.17213274538516998,
0.02410699613392353,
0.4717572331428528,
0.054065581411123276,
-0.6136007308959961,
-0.2912134528160095,
0.20782063901424408,
0.28735947608947754,
-0.31215041875839233,
-0.41738593578338623,
1.2683968544006348,
0.5924584269523621,
-0.5060418844223022,
0.49546435475349426,
-0.19612343609333038,
0.3407452404499054,
-0.3812519311904907,
-0.4173409640789032,
-0.12527117133140564,
0.459916889667511,
0.33687537908554077,
-0.8989343643188477,
-0.15630784630775452,
0.2819288671016693,
0.3693721890449524,
0.2130219042301178,
0.4381231665611267,
-0.38305580615997314,
0.23807644844055176,
0.41394081711769104,
-0.3783401548862457,
0.5500474572181702,
-0.5539454817771912,
0.5703346133232117,
-0.4159243106842041,
-0.7187854647636414,
0.7259920239448547,
-0.30155670642852783,
-0.1587405651807785,
-0.2627262473106384,
0.7787005305290222,
-0.6740864515304565,
0.9378829002380371,
0.5140942931175232,
-0.38833141326904297,
-0.6711513996124268,
0.32687658071517944,
0.19596482813358307,
0.12648960947990417,
0.26739534735679626,
0.3568269610404968,
0.12615978717803955,
-0.04785340279340744,
-0.3180007040500641,
-0.5395665168762207,
0.050748348236083984,
-0.7535275220870972,
-0.02088066376745701,
-0.31712815165519714,
-0.655095100402832,
0.17789481580257416,
-1.0645878314971924,
0.6940838098526001,
-0.0767040029168129,
-0.12141027301549911,
0.24510736763477325,
-0.3094627261161804,
-0.3495872914791107,
-0.05095982924103737,
0.09861131757497787,
-0.1400858610868454,
0.30478984117507935,
-0.13185012340545654
] |
260938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas%20Chuquet | Nicolas Chuquet | Nicolas Chuquet (; born ; died ) was a French mathematician. He invented his own notation for algebraic concepts and exponentiation. He may have been the first mathematician to recognize zero and negative numbers as exponents.
In 1475, Jehan Adam recorded the words "bymillion" and "trimillion" (for 1012 and 1018) and it is believed that these words or similar ones were in general use at that time.
In 1484, Chuquet wrote an article Triparty en la science des nombres, which was unpublished in his lifetime. Most of it, however, was copied without attribution by Estienne de La Roche in his 1520 textbook, l'Arismetique. In the 1870s, scholar Aristide Marre discovered Chuquet's manuscript and published it in 1880. The manuscript contained notes in de la Roche's handwriting. His article shows a huge number divided into groups of six digits, and in a short passage he states that the groups can be called:
"million, the second mark byllion, the third mark tryllion, the fourth quadrillion, the fifth quyillion, the sixth sixlion, the seventh septyllion, the eighth ottyllion, the ninth nonyllion and so on with others as far as you wish to go.
In a second passage, he wrote:
... Item lon doit savoir que ung million vault mille milliers de unitez, et ung byllion vault mille milliers de millions, et [ung] tryllion vault mille milliers de byllions, et ung quadrillion vault mille milliers de tryllions et ainsi des aultres : Et de ce en est pose ung exemple nombre divise et punctoye ainsi que devant est dit, tout lequel nombre monte 745324 tryllions 804300 byllions 700023 millions 654321. Exemple : 745324'8043000'700023'654321 ...
Item: one should know that a million is worth a thousand thousand units, and a byllion is worth a thousand thousand millions, and tryillion is worth a thousand thousand byllions, and a quadrillion is worth a thousand thousand tryllions, and so on for the others. And an example of this follows, a number divided up and punctuated as previously described, the whole number being seven hundred forty-five thousand three hundred and twenty-four tryllions, 804300 byllions 700023 millions 654321 ...
In the extract from Chuquet's manuscript, the transcription and translation provided here all contain an original mistake: one too many zeros in the 804300 portion of the fully written out example: 745324'8043000 '700023'654321 ...
Chuquet was, however, the original author of the earliest work using of a systematic, extended series of names ending in -illion or -yllion. The system in which the names million, billion, trillion, etc. refer to powers of one million is sometimes referred to as the Chuquet system.
In 1514, Budaeus introduced the term Milliard or Milliart for 1012, which was widely publicised around 1550 by the influential Jacques Peletier du Mans. Milliard was reduced to 109 around the end of the 17th century, leaving the modern Long scale system. This system is sometimes referred to as the Chuquet-Peletier system.
Much later, in France and in the US, a different system, the short scale, became established where the term billion signifies 109.
Last century, England and other English-speaking countries joined the US and some countries in using the short scale system; whereas, France rejoined Germany, much of Europe, and some other countries in the Chuquet-Peletier, or long scale, system.
See also
English-language numerals
Jacques Peletier du Mans
List of numbers
Long and short scales
Names of large numbers
References
15th-century births
15th-century deaths
French Roman Catholics
Scientists from Paris
Medieval French mathematicians
Numeral systems
15th-century French mathematicians
15th-century French writers
Deaths in France | [
-0.6735695600509644,
0.3160090446472168,
-0.9897298812866211,
0.06288200616836548,
-0.2544914186000824,
0.7899161577224731,
0.49974092841148376,
0.31428685784339905,
-0.3163434863090515,
-0.7065697908401489,
-0.2881791591644287,
-0.4184196889400482,
-0.31772011518478394,
0.20891503989696503,
-0.06852952390909195,
0.20490682125091553,
0.020388269796967506,
-0.30588850378990173,
-0.3587774932384491,
-0.44678837060928345,
-0.12642456591129303,
0.1993093490600586,
-0.29724422097206116,
-0.16506411135196686,
-0.4849609136581421,
0.41514453291893005,
-0.566535234451294,
0.3048264682292938,
0.08236100524663925,
-0.0370054729282856,
-0.11821731925010681,
0.6865030527114868,
0.08919932693243027,
-0.6244989633560181,
-0.4910823702812195,
0.47404158115386963,
0.10445395112037659,
0.1918449103832245,
0.7678159475326538,
0.10765154659748077,
0.26248443126678467,
0.19142159819602966,
0.08781689405441284,
0.3262655436992645,
0.018273742869496346,
-0.4490121304988861,
-1.7048701047897339,
0.17129802703857422,
-0.5360547304153442,
-0.6282435655593872,
0.3016068935394287,
-0.055400095880031586,
0.8016061782836914,
0.8371682167053223,
-0.6666175127029419,
0.5895146131515503,
-0.5110747218132019,
-0.047713275998830795,
0.582680881023407,
-0.22432434558868408,
0.4299139976501465,
0.2819352149963379,
0.3824597895145416,
0.19289010763168335,
0.1982366442680359,
0.5642516016960144,
-0.3439340591430664,
0.09319135546684265,
0.16734635829925537,
0.07500100880861282,
0.09633727371692657,
0.5891302227973938,
0.23973685503005981,
-0.09030674397945404,
0.05141640082001686,
-0.37159058451652527,
-0.10843954980373383,
0.22654682397842407,
-0.09112893790006638,
0.29882144927978516,
-0.08082332462072372,
-0.07067488878965378,
1.1853053569793701,
0.023731611669063568,
0.3227711021900177,
0.7301733493804932,
-0.316530704498291,
0.41808098554611206,
-0.5796420574188232,
-0.32307541370391846,
-0.6348251700401306,
-0.17481552064418793,
0.618463397026062,
0.015853706747293472,
-0.1574586033821106,
0.4032752513885498,
0.3989706039428711,
0.1388757973909378,
0.011535227298736572,
-0.13706356287002563,
-0.2818889915943146,
-0.03656626492738724,
0.3812496066093445,
-0.24791008234024048,
0.08047309517860413,
0.006031956057995558,
-0.7496556043624878,
-0.17855685949325562,
-0.4084756374359131,
-0.5513643622398376,
-0.8373537659645081,
0.37766075134277344,
0.055257029831409454,
0.20644447207450867,
0.03374375030398369,
0.2813890874385834,
0.15912586450576782,
-0.2144293338060379,
0.0688389465212822,
0.27234184741973877,
-0.5243216753005981,
-0.054740019142627716,
-0.19296424090862274,
0.3131618797779083,
-0.5616280436515808,
0.46960070729255676,
0.2428695112466812,
0.34289368987083435,
-0.06804224848747253,
0.012576508335769176,
0.41459164023399353,
1.0559580326080322,
0.14238440990447998,
-0.022371558472514153,
-0.24574173986911774,
-0.26680848002433777,
-0.08443126827478409,
0.41518667340278625,
-0.7871907949447632,
0.3161972761154175,
-0.8079805970191956,
-0.13010776042938232,
-0.6322351694107056,
-0.04381554201245308,
-0.20410847663879395,
0.5530350804328918,
0.00666821887716651,
-0.31987079977989197,
0.07796779274940491,
0.4401092231273651,
-0.9260562658309937,
0.08395924419164658,
-0.4613460898399353,
-0.5099226236343384,
-0.6113824248313904,
0.7671973705291748,
0.3963736891746521,
0.34759801626205444,
0.06470514833927155,
0.0543154813349247,
0.14337456226348877,
-0.06307318061590195,
-0.21950122714042664,
-0.16952887177467346,
0.3137616515159607,
-0.586478590965271,
0.05991574749350548,
-0.26613208651542664,
-0.20769211649894714,
0.37958410382270813,
-0.7116727828979492,
-0.3274688422679901,
0.3620917797088623,
-0.6228620409965515,
-0.029647773131728172,
-0.2062385529279709,
0.022357512265443802,
0.055277593433856964,
0.6276907324790955,
0.08431380987167358,
-0.5887733697891235,
0.24440662562847137,
0.03578364476561546,
-0.1803373545408249,
0.5893079042434692,
0.5400879383087158,
0.6812064051628113,
-0.09609191864728928,
0.48443982005119324,
-0.3833596110343933,
-0.6568514108657837,
-0.32639187574386597,
-0.3205355405807495,
-0.16401931643486023,
1.1405892372131348,
0.4377230405807495,
-0.5324023365974426,
0.48266807198524475,
0.006895716302096844,
0.5932220816612244,
-0.9832729697227478,
-0.09414200484752655,
0.14547410607337952,
0.6667104363441467,
0.45102542638778687,
1.5414280891418457,
0.17605096101760864,
-0.2261512279510498,
0.3372240662574768,
0.6136718392372131,
0.4593049883842468,
-0.429711252450943,
0.5393132567405701,
0.12187460064888,
-0.6534038186073303,
-0.11704296618700027,
-0.8244302272796631,
-0.226187065243721,
-0.018756791949272156,
-0.16892792284488678,
0.34494850039482117,
0.07127448171377182,
0.11797276884317398,
1.3650929927825928,
0.028941035270690918,
1.09745454788208,
0.441294401884079,
0.6859375834465027,
0.28881746530532837,
-0.8220195770263672,
-0.45760977268218994,
-0.1198900043964386,
0.1294793337583542,
-0.3899395763874054,
-0.00151036586612463,
0.24647189676761627,
-0.14207668602466583,
-0.7863121628761292,
0.10470046103000641,
-0.33178839087486267,
0.1228676438331604,
0.9007757902145386,
0.031529225409030914,
0.2945254445075989,
-0.12449023872613907,
0.3001022934913635,
-0.5888213515281677,
-0.0036967555060982704,
0.2297450304031372,
-0.2181098461151123,
0.08858098834753036,
0.7201642394065857,
0.0980631560087204,
-0.1060362160205841,
-0.3020733594894409,
-0.1915588527917862,
0.9248244166374207,
-0.056327421218156815,
0.30054959654808044,
0.14162039756774902,
0.023714600130915642,
-0.07345330715179443,
0.017301155254244804,
0.21514800190925598,
0.14036422967910767,
-0.4393672049045563,
-0.022044625133275986,
-0.4831524193286896,
0.7734107971191406,
-0.09902746975421906,
0.14770476520061493,
-0.5824539661407471,
0.11475010216236115,
-0.8407201766967773,
-0.1509438455104828,
-0.1796097755432129,
-0.7917420864105225,
-0.0755392462015152,
-0.831888735294342,
-0.1837865114212036,
0.05282594636082649,
0.7232528924942017,
-1.0341790914535522,
0.5267300605773926,
-0.17742887139320374,
0.15386614203453064,
-0.12098267674446106,
-0.3279118537902832,
0.6365067958831787,
-0.29362615942955017,
-0.5862861275672913,
-0.032285552471876144,
-0.8630494475364685,
0.07431073486804962,
0.26023662090301514,
0.12986016273498535,
-0.37648463249206543,
-0.9536683559417725,
0.13062137365341187,
-0.6256395578384399,
-0.8168178796768188,
-0.00420598778873682,
-0.06678464263677597,
-0.09000711143016815,
0.14748182892799377,
0.16118818521499634,
0.11639346182346344,
0.23982827365398407,
-4.929895877838135,
0.311717689037323,
-0.17583397030830383,
0.2004118114709854,
-0.015194972045719624,
0.3549659848213196,
0.5743932127952576,
-0.01593031920492649,
-0.539217472076416,
-0.17103004455566406,
-0.3120175302028656,
-0.1405927836894989,
-0.6344718337059021,
0.8452451825141907,
0.5822562575340271,
0.978318452835083,
0.5592854619026184,
0.025786584243178368,
0.2639217674732208,
0.031565625220537186,
-0.562377393245697,
0.14558126032352448,
-0.11093275994062424,
-0.0708729699254036,
0.10547530651092529,
0.13746285438537598,
-0.04859624058008194,
0.34314966201782227,
-1.4028770923614502,
-0.09574027359485626,
-0.4846363961696625,
-0.09228760004043579,
-0.1321854591369629,
0.09990014135837555,
-0.10435515642166138,
-0.15511074662208557,
0.13716456294059753,
0.5631349086761475,
0.06752873212099075,
0.4685259461402893,
-0.5111325979232788,
0.7775222063064575,
-0.4056316912174225,
1.0298314094543457,
-0.3453771770000458,
-0.484868586063385,
-0.6979706883430481,
0.421584814786911,
-0.162689670920372,
0.1705862283706665,
-0.10984639823436737,
-0.39756837487220764,
0.43585339188575745,
-0.14281952381134033,
-0.09884518384933472,
-0.30763643980026245,
0.4177391231060028,
-0.08948429673910141,
-1.2247258424758911,
0.157966747879982,
0.7603484988212585,
-0.8405757546424866,
0.44752925634384155,
-0.8124231696128845,
0.28862789273262024,
-0.4296201169490814,
0.130701944231987,
-0.171881303191185,
0.2099277526140213,
-0.2851845324039459,
0.19767160713672638,
0.8378611207008362,
-0.29209887981414795,
-0.9087594747543335,
-0.17980214953422546,
-0.12814132869243622,
-0.1775587648153305,
-0.056871719658374786,
0.006784815341234207,
0.24087876081466675,
-0.07333005219697952,
-0.7684067487716675,
-0.540108323097229,
1.0692260265350342,
0.5064266920089722,
0.46584805846214294,
-0.09264550358057022,
0.42620018124580383,
-0.8493867516517639,
0.15456053614616394,
0.30074724555015564,
-0.14408399164676666,
0.8664952516555786,
0.17398415505886078,
0.2855391204357147,
0.34279143810272217,
0.23566649854183197,
-0.03947024419903755,
0.05863875895738602,
-0.009271117858588696,
-0.3580259680747986,
-0.46007388830184937,
0.1467161625623703,
-0.34799957275390625,
0.44482338428497314,
-0.47401005029678345,
-0.03272678703069687,
0.6658504009246826,
1.1065163612365723,
1.0848437547683716,
0.1054881140589714,
0.4754747450351715,
-0.2704877257347107,
0.13750620186328888,
0.26125532388687134,
-0.22905667126178741,
-0.1887497901916504,
-0.17387747764587402,
-0.06599396467208862,
-0.046619512140750885,
-0.20170563459396362,
0.3532464802265167,
0.08107365667819977,
0.1506025344133377,
0.6186122894287109,
-0.015328004024922848,
0.07307418435811996,
-0.12772414088249207,
-0.4483543932437897,
-0.37587085366249084,
-0.25299087166786194,
0.9400817155838013,
0.0955846905708313,
0.034191329032182693,
0.23353970050811768,
-0.5861010551452637,
-0.6266381740570068,
-0.34621867537498474,
0.34353432059288025,
-0.7603453993797302,
0.6804822087287903,
-0.26991239190101624,
-0.21027709543704987,
0.31441766023635864,
0.38787248730659485,
0.08484753966331482,
0.2159644514322281,
0.21247872710227966,
-0.7744220495223999,
1.249608039855957,
0.10255046933889389,
-0.7821754813194275,
0.6166753172874451,
0.05135577917098999,
-0.11460556834936142,
0.07143878936767578,
-0.538041889667511,
0.08123136311769485,
0.32480093836784363,
0.24536073207855225,
0.1860169619321823,
0.1573409140110016,
-0.7952362895011902,
0.22979964315891266,
0.38593512773513794,
-0.1097685694694519,
-0.1938195526599884,
-0.07266239821910858,
-1.0746278762817383,
0.7772552371025085,
0.13225795328617096,
-0.3764990568161011,
-0.08231781423091888,
-1.1453368663787842,
0.1881452053785324,
-0.3436931073665619,
0.520820677280426,
0.26016607880592346,
0.3247443437576294,
-0.5838164687156677,
0.13748686015605927,
-0.5133826732635498,
-0.726629912853241,
0.4670639932155609,
0.7646974325180054,
-0.14202623069286346,
-0.5365682244300842,
-0.5256182551383972,
0.19512967765331268,
-0.25762295722961426,
0.6286837458610535,
-0.5963003039360046,
-0.4240095019340515,
0.5677254796028137,
-0.054745566099882126,
-0.4210212528705597,
0.3663956820964813,
0.28848469257354736,
-0.41493698954582214,
-0.4639013409614563,
-0.2015274465084076,
0.2789337933063507,
0.14033202826976776,
0.3754769265651703,
0.3597497045993805,
-1.187183141708374,
-0.20448540151119232,
-0.32954031229019165,
-0.7757583260536194,
0.7084233164787292,
-0.568586528301239,
-0.5915305614471436,
0.21695825457572937,
0.23944774270057678,
-0.47773197293281555,
0.010167224332690239,
0.5619246959686279,
0.09701831638813019,
-1.1046627759933472,
-0.5875827670097351,
-0.2886849045753479,
0.025184178724884987,
-0.25478944182395935,
-0.6708592772483826,
-0.6210757493972778,
-0.23683498799800873,
0.1270798295736313,
0.32794296741485596,
0.8594187498092651,
0.11161214858293533,
-0.11602912843227386,
0.03308781236410141,
-0.09060998260974884,
-0.20764654874801636,
-0.15147775411605835,
-0.35047414898872375,
0.32016685605049133,
0.33097127079963684,
-0.47368019819259644,
-0.6882219910621643,
0.3682837188243866,
0.9468058347702026,
0.5146030783653259,
-0.13909101486206055,
0.11140844225883484,
0.033216651529073715,
0.2621977627277374,
0.03856832534074783,
0.232389897108078,
0.12675893306732178,
-0.2194889932870865,
0.043249379843473434,
-1.137945532798767,
-0.41473129391670227,
0.7345181703567505,
0.4981759786605835,
-0.36098963022232056,
0.11128048598766327,
0.8179366588592529,
0.19027696549892426,
-0.13715681433677673,
-0.057529326528310776,
-0.2353619784116745,
-0.2897002398967743,
-0.32879525423049927,
0.17343458533287048,
0.1762971729040146,
-0.15323013067245483,
0.4138840138912201,
-0.25805389881134033,
0.43224653601646423,
-0.9971112012863159,
-0.8998520970344543,
0.9003317356109619,
-0.19878028333187103,
0.339623361825943,
0.6407015919685364,
0.15778133273124695,
0.5949261784553528,
-0.6609547734260559,
-0.44755762815475464,
0.42932385206222534,
0.2242783010005951,
-0.19558855891227722,
-0.015812046825885773,
0.21511772274971008,
-0.2411264032125473,
0.5282378792762756,
-0.05114840343594551,
0.3368555009365082,
-1.193078637123108,
0.5208509564399719,
0.43464913964271545,
0.25822317600250244,
0.1845845729112625,
0.49949386715888977,
-0.3382701277732849,
0.900038480758667,
0.03604639321565628,
-0.2127348631620407,
-0.5166484117507935,
0.6264497637748718,
0.9801970720291138,
-0.3390856385231018,
0.5653504729270935,
0.5085777640342712,
-0.26852262020111084,
0.006939441431313753,
-0.38266128301620483,
0.03062751516699791,
0.5977325439453125,
0.22896935045719147,
-0.41634660959243774,
-0.033893294632434845,
-0.6211249232292175,
0.022685891017317772,
0.6454020738601685,
-0.6747509837150574,
-0.41286948323249817,
0.09479507058858871,
0.08158852159976959,
-0.3245154917240143,
0.6641700863838196,
-0.9274505376815796,
0.11179039627313614,
0.4275747239589691,
-0.08949090540409088,
-0.24779124557971954,
-0.8674287796020508,
-0.5181659460067749,
-0.025704946368932724,
-0.24940820038318634,
-0.6310670971870422,
0.3836272656917572,
-0.23223623633384705,
-0.2454102486371994,
-0.1921636015176773,
-0.7363036274909973,
0.09047523885965347,
-0.24155080318450928,
0.6890987753868103,
1.1046022176742554,
-0.5200921297073364,
-0.08854615688323975,
-0.6023210883140564,
0.38796570897102356,
-0.42403125762939453,
0.6199662685394287,
-0.48764944076538086,
0.20855122804641724,
0.7218278050422668,
0.1892821341753006,
0.5228071212768555,
-0.04275555536150932,
-0.028869671747088432,
0.03340809792280197,
0.4164418876171112,
0.08138582110404968,
0.11419658362865448,
-0.24777637422084808,
0.34397491812705994,
-0.04541831463575363,
0.6433401107788086,
-0.2112610638141632,
-0.11299450695514679,
0.19546173512935638,
0.1798151135444641,
-0.3761390149593353,
0.25378113985061646,
-0.009216420352458954,
-0.5298736691474915,
-0.4205786883831024,
-0.10562866181135178,
0.9575461149215698,
0.20350594818592072,
-0.48574379086494446,
0.2231072187423706,
0.3058912754058838,
-0.20323260128498077,
-0.09895730018615723,
-0.18635176122188568,
-0.09776057302951813,
-0.18753843009471893,
-0.29027464985847473,
0.21763013303279877,
0.07492324709892273,
-0.21095804870128632,
0.3891963064670563,
-0.09783415496349335,
0.13817225396633148,
0.2141537368297577,
-0.4696727395057678,
-0.17954517900943756,
0.027339398860931396,
-0.3262343406677246,
0.5739535093307495,
-0.8205145001411438,
0.808759331703186,
0.38657572865486145,
-1.0292389392852783,
0.22532854974269867,
0.2149907797574997,
0.2951822876930237,
-0.4613887369632721,
0.17164142429828644,
-0.023370377719402313,
-0.3578139543533325,
0.718807578086853,
-0.8190634846687317,
0.4747955799102783,
-0.33189165592193604,
-0.059717368334531784,
-0.8076241612434387,
0.3670254945755005,
-0.03354964405298233,
-0.09992264211177826,
0.07287424802780151,
-0.1755935102701187,
-0.4339480698108673,
0.32571396231651306,
0.173027902841568,
-0.07277120649814606,
-0.08383109420537949,
0.16197660565376282,
-0.3576720356941223,
0.08148640394210815,
0.5802105665206909,
-0.20968785881996155,
0.394920289516449,
0.17991767823696136,
-0.0038954890333116055,
0.38506177067756653,
-0.8399000763893127,
-0.029754221439361572,
0.2594397962093353,
-1.2321605682373047,
1.168380856513977,
0.4574281573295593,
0.4137876033782959,
-0.3984788954257965,
-0.0008547734469175339,
0.23039785027503967,
-0.037211425602436066,
0.22761300206184387,
-2.2233362197875977,
-0.13664492964744568,
-0.7470812797546387,
-0.3566673696041107,
0.3757249712944031,
0.3584683835506439,
0.6130355596542358,
0.09268714487552643,
0.38966891169548035,
-0.7014394402503967,
0.19181431829929352,
0.2398868352174759,
-0.1579156219959259,
-0.6510605216026306,
0.2785157561302185,
0.653853714466095
] |
260940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanao%20del%20Norte | Lanao del Norte | Lanao del Norte (Cebuano: Amihanang Lanao; ; Maranao: Pangotaraan Ranao) officially the Province of Lanao del Norte, is a province in the Philippines located in the Northern Mindanao region. Its capital is Tubod.
The province borders Lanao del Sur to the southeast, Zamboanga del Sur to the west, Illana Bay to the southwest, Iligan Bay to the north, Iligan City to the northeast, and is separated from Misamis Occidental by Panguil Bay to the northwest. According to the , the province has a total population of people.
Situated within Lanao del Norte is the highly urbanized city of Iligan, which is governed independently from the province.
History
The province of Lanao existed from 1914 until 1959. In 1959, Republic Act No. 222 was passed by the Philippine Congress, partitioning Lanao into two provinces: Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur. The new province was inaugurated on July 4, with Iligan City as its capital.
The province then consisted of the municipalities of Baloi, Kauswagan, Bacolod, Maigo, Kolambugan, Tubod, Baroy, Lala, Kapatagan, Karomatan and the following municipal districts that got converted into regular municipalities of Matungao, Pantao Ragat, Munai, Tangcal, and Nunungan.
In 1977, President Ferdinand E. Marcos signed Resolution No. 805, s. 1977 of the Sangguniang Panlalawigan (Parliamentary Bill No. 586) sponsored by Assemblyman Abdullah D. Dimaporo, into Presidential Decree 181 transferring the province's capital from Iligan City to the municipality of Tubod.
In October 1984, inaugural ceremonies were held to celebrate the occasion of the transfer of the Provincial Capitol from Poblacion, Tubod to the Don Mariano Marcos Government Center (now Governor Arsenio A. Quibranza Provincial Government Center) at Pigcarangan, in Tubod.
Despite the outbreak of the conflict of the MILF led by Abdullah Commander Bravo Goldiano Macapaar bin Sabbar and the Philippine Army in Kauswagan in March 2000, through the provincial government's effort, peace and order was restored in the province.
In 2018, the Bangsamoro Organic Law was passed into law; this law provided for the establishment of a new Bangsamoro autonomous region to replace the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. According to this law, the six municipalities of Munai, Tagoloan, Pantar, Baloi, Tangcal, and Nunungan would be incorporated into this new region should a majority of voters in both the affected municipality and the parent province vote in favor of inclusion of the aforementioned municipalities in the proposed autonomous region in a plebiscite. The plebiscite was held the following year. A majority of voters in the affected municipalities voted in favor of inclusion in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region; however, the rest of Lanao del Norte voted strongly against, and as a result, none of the six municipalities are included in the new autonomous region. The provincial government of Lanao del Norte had campaigned against the inclusion of the six municipalities into the region.
Geography
Lanao del Norte is a rugged province that ranges from the coastal shorelines in the north to the high plateaus and mountains in the south. It has also diverse flora and fauna.
Lanao del Norte covers a total area of occupying the southwestern section of the Northern Mindanao region in Mindanao. When Iligan is included for geographical purposes, the province's land area is . The province is bordered by Lanao del Sur to the southeast, Zamboanga del Sur to the west, Illana Bay to the southwest, Iligan Bay to the north, the city of Iligan to the northeast, and Panguil Bay to the northwest.
Administrative divisions
Lanao del Norte comprises 22 municipalities. The city of Iligan administers itself independently as a highly urbanized city.
Demographics
The population of Lanao del Norte in the was people, with a density of . When Iligan is included for geographical purposes, the province's population is 1,019,013 people, with a density of .
The people in Lanao del Norte are a mixture of Maranaos and Cebuanos, with some Zamboangueños, Tausugs, Yakan, and Sama-Bajau. Historically, immigrants who came from the Christian provinces of Mindanao, Visayas and Luzon tended to settle in the northern part of Lanao while the Maranaos inhabited the south. There are also a minority of Higaonons settling in the hinterlands of Iligan.
The Maranao had settled in the area long before the arrival of the Spaniards in the Philippines. Like other groups, they possess their own culture which makes them quite unique. Their language, customs, traditions, religion, social system, costumes, music, and other features are factors that make Lanao peculiar and distinct from other Philippine provinces.
The main languages are Maranao and Cebuano, with the latter being the native language of majority of the citizens of the province. Aside from this, Filipino (Tagalog) and English are understood and spoken.
Religion
According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) report in 2015, 44.19% of the population of Lanao del Norte were adherents of Islam(predominantly Sunnites). Other sizeable Islamic sects are Ahmadiya, Sufism, Shia etc. Other religions include different sects of Christianity, Buddhism and other beliefs.
Economy
The economy in Lanao del Norte is predominantly based on agriculture and fishing. Factories are mostly based in Iligan City. Lanao del Norte is the home of Agus Power plants 4-7 that stretch from Balo-i to Iligan City. It serves major parts of power supply in Mindanao. Tourism is also a growing economy in the province.
Politics and government
Salvador T. Lluch was the first Governor of Lanao del Norte. Second was Mohammad Ali Dimaporo, from January 1960 to September 1965 when Governor Dimaporo ran and won the congressional seat of the province. By operation of the law of succession, Vice Governor Arsenio A. Quibranza became the third Provincial Chief Executive of the province. By the mandate of the inhabitants, Governor Quibranza was elected Governor in 1967 and almost unanimously re-elected in 1971 and again in 1980.
By virtue of the power and impact of the People Power Revolution on EDSA on February 25, 1986, local government all over the Philippines changed the political atmosphere overnight. Lanao del Norte became one among the many provinces affected by the sudden changes brought by the "Snap Election" in February 1986. Local heads of offices and employees particularly those holding political positions were destabilized but with the installation of President Corazon Aquino as president, OIC Atty. Francisco L. Abalos became the appointed governor of the province on March 3, 1986. On February 2, 1988, Atty. Abalos was elected as governor of the province.
In the Synchronized National Election of May 11, 1992, Congressman Abdullah D. Dimaporo, a legislator and economist, was elected Provincial Governor. The Provincial government embarked on a comprehensive planning and set the groundwork for the development of the province.
In the 1998 national and local elections, Imelda Quibranza-Dimaporo, wife of Governor Abdullah D. Dimaporo was elected as Provincial Governor until 2007, and from 2016 up to present.
The eldest son of former Governor and now 2nd district representative Abdullah D. Dimaporo and incumbent Gov. Imelda Q. Dimaporo, Mohammad Khalid Q. Dimaporo enter the politics in the province from 2007 until 2016.
See also
Lanao
Lanao del Sur
References
External links
Philippine Standard Geographic Code
Provinces of the Philippines
Northern Mindanao
States and territories established in 1959
1959 establishments in the Philippines | [
-0.3589754104614258,
0.06946220993995667,
0.010361249558627605,
0.19273421168327332,
-0.19577157497406006,
-0.12552371621131897,
-0.1674848049879074,
0.9045214653015137,
-0.3617584705352783,
-0.3207857012748718,
-0.40065276622772217,
0.28060269355773926,
-0.4394201636314392,
0.12085554003715515,
-0.20375394821166992,
1.0300145149230957,
0.7321539521217346,
0.5514235496520996,
-0.087744802236557,
-0.7974978089332581,
-0.49549368023872375,
-0.7601277232170105,
0.4468517303466797,
0.3966784179210663,
0.7666111588478088,
0.2761427164077759,
0.29921796917915344,
0.5900350213050842,
0.613649845123291,
0.06543970853090286,
0.01661418005824089,
0.0117086973041296,
-0.2525813579559326,
0.4555872678756714,
-0.023135755211114883,
0.3112829327583313,
-0.4393175542354584,
-0.5402798652648926,
-0.6238505244255066,
0.19691437482833862,
-0.13105781376361847,
-0.26868510246276855,
-0.33081257343292236,
0.1856338083744049,
0.6777094602584839,
-0.7463620901107788,
-0.7309631109237671,
0.7043442726135254,
-1.2170065641403198,
0.3255457878112793,
-1.4725723266601562,
0.9788945317268372,
-0.8238532543182373,
0.23202237486839294,
-0.027669930830597878,
0.04430688917636871,
-0.47624471783638,
0.19034041464328766,
-0.4001036584377289,
-0.124557264149189,
0.04439568147063255,
0.364797979593277,
0.004521859809756279,
0.20999230444431305,
-0.4355827271938324,
-0.11846292018890381,
0.2310573011636734,
0.38421574234962463,
-0.7228383421897888,
-0.5753109455108643,
-0.02958259917795658,
0.7966766953468323,
0.11090567708015442,
-0.0382477305829525,
-0.15530134737491608,
-0.6867080926895142,
-0.20520509779453278,
-0.08537124842405319,
-0.1683730185031891,
0.2408789098262787,
0.11655587702989578,
0.08569332957267761,
0.09536083042621613,
0.2337372750043869,
0.4489155411720276,
0.32329386472702026,
-0.5167433619499207,
-0.07891131937503815,
-0.1357889026403427,
0.5299746990203857,
-0.3925616145133972,
0.4554416537284851,
0.26019683480262756,
-0.15977843105793,
0.03713095933198929,
-0.34382766485214233,
-0.3846553862094879,
-0.10809338092803955,
-0.0640372782945633,
0.07433415204286575,
-0.10481727123260498,
0.33098745346069336,
0.9627158641815186,
0.4186253845691681,
-0.8165234923362732,
-0.31512880325317383,
0.07079683989286423,
0.12310248613357544,
-0.5188489556312561,
-0.07179083675146103,
-0.22920922935009003,
0.22111651301383972,
0.2427324801683426,
0.7066627740859985,
0.47155213356018066,
0.2951105535030365,
-0.025440970435738564,
-0.18118438124656677,
-0.0833471417427063,
-0.5884896516799927,
-0.030458176508545876,
0.42342108488082886,
-0.287494957447052,
0.31345856189727783,
0.5991564989089966,
-0.33125343918800354,
0.10758042335510254,
-0.36613357067108154,
-0.5517948269844055,
0.18548721075057983,
0.030614705756306648,
0.26869383454322815,
-0.41514214873313904,
0.17529724538326263,
-0.20509794354438782,
-0.23068101704120636,
-0.3317089080810547,
0.6251357793807983,
0.2397121638059616,
-0.5425134301185608,
-1.5178941488265991,
0.15925481915473938,
-0.08835065364837646,
-0.2309277057647705,
0.4590729773044586,
-0.1863989681005478,
-0.05723534896969795,
-0.4395780861377716,
-0.6632530093193054,
-0.6331914067268372,
0.06392312794923782,
0.2185472697019577,
-0.23782147467136383,
-0.11718638986349106,
-0.5865210294723511,
-0.09625627845525742,
1.2827072143554688,
0.3170740604400635,
0.6055887937545776,
0.37547507882118225,
-0.023783572018146515,
-0.01665448397397995,
0.15943829715251923,
-0.3466604948043823,
0.167972594499588,
-0.3376564383506775,
0.5573006272315979,
1.0693116188049316,
0.23954437673091888,
-0.06784245371818542,
-0.306148886680603,
-0.42591217160224915,
-0.10889610648155212,
-0.8523367643356323,
-0.43318405747413635,
-0.6695752143859863,
-0.28038904070854187,
0.34306445717811584,
-0.3040500283241272,
-0.620736300945282,
-0.5943699479103088,
0.8117707967758179,
0.1414557695388794,
-0.22021959722042084,
-0.5173085927963257,
0.11983822286128998,
0.35529592633247375,
0.07332795113325119,
-0.4875928461551666,
0.6629762649536133,
0.11249891668558121,
-0.42297568917274475,
-0.02130192518234253,
0.11158313602209091,
0.4475245177745819,
0.44702357053756714,
-0.12454875558614731,
0.8254032135009766,
-0.4141540825366974,
0.516115128993988,
-0.6460315585136414,
0.03135789558291435,
0.8523527979850769,
-0.24533069133758545,
-0.626133143901825,
0.4165992736816406,
0.17102943360805511,
0.7778273820877075,
0.3013846278190613,
1.1184922456741333,
-0.05912021920084953,
-0.519422173500061,
-0.017444781959056854,
0.46811673045158386,
0.043201711028814316,
-0.9316650032997131,
0.0914156511425972,
-0.3316761255264282,
-0.007434296887367964,
0.3084779381752014,
0.39957576990127563,
0.2262149602174759,
-0.28831616044044495,
0.9186859130859375,
0.46024686098098755,
0.9908684492111206,
0.5047370195388794,
0.5296720862388611,
0.4743117094039917,
0.18795382976531982,
0.16894209384918213,
-0.09747553616762161,
0.6921730637550354,
-0.2104903906583786,
-0.1923035830259323,
-0.21576038002967834,
-0.5089900493621826,
-0.617563784122467,
-0.0023590223863720894,
-0.42459920048713684,
-0.22940437495708466,
-0.4683189392089844,
-0.6138569712638855,
-0.2156480997800827,
0.7736666798591614,
0.2895173132419586,
-0.4526238739490509,
-0.09820998460054398,
0.2994176745414734,
0.41466695070266724,
-0.14146164059638977,
0.4247552752494812,
0.34621894359588623,
-0.4982283115386963,
0.0681663304567337,
-0.1729786992073059,
-0.1449560970067978,
-0.2909298241138458,
0.7318491339683533,
-0.3634284734725952,
-0.5138311982154846,
0.07632134854793549,
-0.14304500818252563,
0.42263948917388916,
-0.5593231320381165,
-0.5770524740219116,
0.34971854090690613,
-0.12541601061820984,
-0.03974442556500435,
-0.146652489900589,
0.14008304476737976,
-0.4058433473110199,
-0.30537575483322144,
-0.27783316373825073,
0.1833116114139557,
-0.5178302526473999,
0.4827079474925995,
0.12159986793994904,
-0.7518296837806702,
-0.4446156919002533,
0.03201010823249817,
0.6155669093132019,
0.10835618525743484,
-0.6863282918930054,
-0.17398227751255035,
-0.2023201286792755,
0.3040829300880432,
-0.4756797254085541,
-0.2279783934354782,
0.2302483320236206,
-0.13229817152023315,
-0.34307917952537537,
-0.38529014587402344,
0.45573288202285767,
0.002599971368908882,
-0.27442800998687744,
-0.11700455099344254,
0.23093633353710175,
0.5792295932769775,
-0.8531261086463928,
-0.3693366050720215,
0.16268661618232727,
-0.14964117109775543,
0.17109210789203644,
-0.0080584567040205,
-0.14473789930343628,
0.14380526542663574,
0.5746670961380005,
-5.395099639892578,
-0.07380972057580948,
-0.5356704592704773,
-0.31370091438293457,
-0.1618339568376541,
-0.39729151129722595,
-0.1084258183836937,
-0.4176894426345825,
0.5460264086723328,
-0.300921231508255,
0.06423909217119217,
-0.12623107433319092,
-0.040129680186510086,
0.18624868988990784,
0.1907591074705124,
0.2603285312652588,
0.2895646393299103,
0.25558269023895264,
0.1682480275630951,
0.17982152104377747,
-0.29555436968803406,
-0.3592091500759125,
0.07984121888875961,
0.41298285126686096,
0.21758411824703217,
0.20963715016841888,
0.28918710350990295,
-0.6188941597938538,
-0.41276437044143677,
-0.6074849963188171,
-0.4509357213973999,
-0.04225104674696922,
0.44434115290641785,
-0.05210786685347557,
-0.12199540436267853,
-0.680397093296051,
0.9957094788551331,
0.6345266103744507,
0.20110872387886047,
0.012127510271966457,
0.1427907943725586,
-0.10584670305252075,
0.19961956143379211,
-0.129597470164299,
0.4468720853328705,
0.01810794696211815,
-0.386956125497818,
-0.41818562150001526,
-0.2582351565361023,
0.9742582440376282,
0.43117648363113403,
-0.10459187626838684,
-0.10910194367170334,
-0.24961888790130615,
0.07126603275537491,
-0.07190532237291336,
0.45800602436065674,
-0.7754020690917969,
-1.3594688177108765,
0.5264807343482971,
0.46721622347831726,
0.22988039255142212,
-0.5963250398635864,
-0.4753284156322479,
0.3488578498363495,
0.5666780471801758,
-0.0583060085773468,
-0.10971849411725998,
0.7065600752830505,
-0.02834230475127697,
-0.6229404807090759,
0.4802028238773346,
-0.3527238965034485,
-0.404208779335022,
-0.11634865403175354,
-0.43662354350090027,
-0.527533233165741,
0.4819655120372772,
0.07389586418867111,
-0.1699870228767395,
-0.7940996289253235,
0.07345099002122879,
0.0036266795359551907,
0.8599068522453308,
0.2314302623271942,
-0.7352045774459839,
0.16668060421943665,
0.42763689160346985,
0.13321512937545776,
0.3904254734516144,
0.40019503235816956,
-0.1123485341668129,
0.7420125603675842,
0.4024864137172699,
-0.16087926924228668,
0.1330948770046234,
-0.0020058092195540667,
0.5451058745384216,
0.029437996447086334,
-0.7829673886299133,
0.6066524982452393,
-0.19604653120040894,
-0.14665770530700684,
-0.00652606226503849,
-0.2529480755329132,
-0.030658449977636337,
0.32769617438316345,
0.1886022686958313,
-0.5122862458229065,
-0.6570481657981873,
-0.13067254424095154,
-0.3775145709514618,
-0.21913029253482819,
0.25482720136642456,
0.7051518559455872,
-0.17224885523319244,
-0.22302891314029694,
0.3664647042751312,
-0.2725585401058197,
-0.1796926110982895,
0.015552908182144165,
0.43128523230552673,
-0.0007152817561291158,
0.637773334980011,
-0.26781928539276123,
-0.6237063407897949,
-0.3951943814754486,
0.7898659706115723,
0.37935400009155273,
0.08452852070331573,
0.6535226702690125,
-0.28854960203170776,
0.8577786087989807,
-0.22456426918506622,
0.2931814193725586,
0.03400275483727455,
0.20993497967720032,
-0.46543946862220764,
0.15838582813739777,
-0.19466230273246765,
0.27032604813575745,
-0.11155172437429428,
-0.0783998966217041,
0.2137196958065033,
-0.13936583697795868,
-0.16757211089134216,
-0.6584328413009644,
-0.07371274381875992,
-0.8758143782615662,
0.15154464542865753,
-0.44966569542884827,
-1.071871042251587,
0.17945662140846252,
-0.24914859235286713,
0.11485255509614944,
-0.15528756380081177,
0.3745168149471283,
0.06197814643383026,
0.3863874673843384,
0.1610632687807083,
0.33198627829551697,
-0.7928230166435242,
-0.40968257188796997,
0.2383265495300293,
-0.2410174012184143,
0.31175267696380615,
-0.28274837136268616,
0.0007262573926709592,
-0.22315889596939087,
0.7236171364784241,
0.30893340706825256,
-0.5470117926597595,
-0.5616792440414429,
-0.1143382117152214,
0.5195266604423523,
-0.09420114010572433,
-0.0029870355501770973,
0.24692270159721375,
-0.0696515440940857,
0.5787639021873474,
-0.21979984641075134,
-0.623117208480835,
-0.1949140429496765,
0.717802107334137,
0.7081936597824097,
-0.07081104815006256,
-0.7550476789474487,
-0.23837514221668243,
-0.27590706944465637,
0.3903888165950775,
0.5086523294448853,
0.020863762125372887,
0.19859139621257782,
0.13161224126815796,
0.07159758359193802,
0.19541628658771515,
-0.11432314664125443,
0.4834667444229126,
0.4187394082546234,
0.21792197227478027,
-0.3675946891307831,
0.2812103033065796,
-0.11718590557575226,
0.7132518291473389,
-0.30435100197792053,
-0.14192187786102295,
0.2001919150352478,
0.28634828329086304,
-0.9329541921615601,
0.00003623569864430465,
-0.6945877075195312,
-0.29343873262405396,
0.26965391635894775,
0.4267691373825073,
-0.5603947639465332,
0.01605471409857273,
0.2694742977619171,
-0.5316818356513977,
-0.1365540772676468,
-0.2949875593185425,
-0.5346704125404358,
0.13919606804847717,
0.3208096921443939,
-0.19938473403453827,
0.09211882948875427,
1.2202385663986206,
0.3921148478984833,
-0.6569388508796692,
0.5898917317390442,
-0.47820815443992615,
0.21978910267353058,
-0.12570849061012268,
0.49138206243515015,
0.1046355664730072,
0.1112525686621666,
-0.17544719576835632,
0.3315467834472656,
0.6337754726409912,
0.30469661951065063,
0.6658524870872498,
0.15021824836730957,
0.791407585144043,
-0.11761270463466644,
-0.9073604941368103,
0.23922099173069,
0.05716327577829361,
0.6427939534187317,
-0.1122632548213005,
-0.291564017534256,
-0.10385190695524216,
0.38929709792137146,
-0.4130459725856781,
-0.2790736258029938,
0.012826689518988132,
0.7184984683990479,
-0.3068615794181824,
-0.4287150502204895,
0.22705930471420288,
0.1295912265777588,
0.17618316411972046,
-0.051193080842494965,
0.0005679340101778507,
-0.01123613491654396,
0.006033420097082853,
0.5412180423736572,
-0.2848037779331207,
-0.7760744690895081,
-0.30486157536506653,
0.5188026428222656,
0.5507933497428894,
0.010502676479518414,
-0.516707181930542,
0.3637710213661194,
-0.2957473695278168,
0.10883749276399612,
0.125799760222435,
0.2337220460176468,
-0.16067688167095184,
0.2217048853635788,
-0.40378105640411377,
-0.9296592473983765,
-0.31017446517944336,
-0.09004857391119003,
-0.5635107159614563,
0.17393945157527924,
-0.6131883263587952,
-0.2486581951379776,
0.30273109674453735,
0.03235616162419319,
0.8861581683158875,
-0.0022363909520208836,
-0.17143064737319946,
-0.48876047134399414,
-0.8728267550468445,
-0.2046247124671936,
-0.24911394715309143,
0.37741509079933167,
0.6271268725395203,
0.05291629582643509,
0.25062549114227295,
-0.7994429469108582,
-0.2240377962589264,
-0.1520775854587555,
0.06241695582866669,
-0.22636398673057556,
-0.10212835669517517,
0.07503297179937363,
-0.2084093987941742,
0.0011614116374403238,
0.5596258640289307,
0.1785576045513153,
0.3020794093608856,
0.43119966983795166,
0.5433719754219055,
-0.628663182258606,
0.7441855669021606,
1.1548699140548706,
-0.5033437013626099,
-0.11223500221967697,
0.6103529334068298,
0.038903672248125076,
-0.028368739411234856,
-0.07253287732601166,
0.6382108330726624,
0.2728796601295471,
0.7522299885749817,
-0.06444815546274185,
-0.8290318846702576,
0.27568021416664124,
0.5026385188102722,
0.3644270896911621,
-0.30008432269096375,
-0.300712525844574,
0.25019776821136475,
-0.6035569310188293,
-0.2844861149787903,
0.10739585012197495,
-0.40550708770751953,
-0.42003342509269714,
0.3979067802429199,
0.5379582047462463,
0.5598934888839722,
-0.5657488703727722,
0.03317924961447716,
0.028992218896746635,
0.05016767233610153,
0.2577551007270813,
0.09078363329172134,
-0.1315118372440338,
-0.30219128727912903,
0.4999079406261444,
0.13633182644844055,
0.17894858121871948,
0.019402237609028816,
0.3763197064399719,
0.621393084526062,
-0.1934521347284317,
-0.3269420564174652,
-0.16459739208221436,
-0.41957229375839233,
-0.13276728987693787,
0.07078409940004349,
-0.16442173719406128,
0.30246445536613464,
-0.44226959347724915,
-0.6372561454772949,
0.44185391068458557,
0.13693715631961823,
-0.5482240915298462,
0.07879625260829926,
-0.4279606342315674,
0.05834607034921646,
-0.035482097417116165,
0.07021648436784744,
-0.3794074058532715,
0.37707963585853577,
-0.5712279677391052,
0.6224992275238037,
-0.5983560085296631,
0.07047799229621887,
-0.16879934072494507,
0.27956491708755493,
0.17932520806789398,
-0.9889988899230957,
0.20708617568016052,
-0.11215656995773315,
0.007645962759852409,
-0.22796326875686646,
0.1047382727265358,
0.7129732966423035,
-0.06074640154838562,
0.0736023411154747,
-0.21498635411262512,
0.5794088244438171,
-0.11328472942113876,
-0.17216750979423523,
-0.2303573191165924,
1.060383915901184,
0.7618650197982788,
-0.14806661009788513,
0.237015038728714,
-0.040449511259794235,
0.25459250807762146,
-0.1221657544374466,
-0.2005661129951477,
-0.02351922169327736,
0.08081246167421341,
0.09699354320764542,
-0.5322008728981018,
-0.3385598063468933,
-0.017077401280403137,
0.44872069358825684,
-0.2964058518409729,
0.5124371647834778,
-0.31232741475105286,
0.6298409700393677,
0.39189186692237854,
-0.5341119170188904,
0.4046303331851959,
-0.18723101913928986,
0.4684007167816162,
-0.5131802558898926,
-0.7110276818275452,
0.7125809788703918,
0.19439329206943512,
-0.08809186518192291,
-0.49923089146614075,
0.4145393967628479,
-1.199509859085083,
0.5656092166900635,
0.03627663105726242,
-0.362789511680603,
-0.8331179022789001,
-0.14060162007808685,
-0.24217599630355835,
-0.07783136516809464,
0.04814555495977402,
0.5021206736564636,
0.430548757314682,
0.04826836660504341,
-0.47681811451911926,
-0.35902759432792664,
0.18962879478931427,
-0.5694718956947327,
0.25344350934028625,
-0.9844260811805725,
-0.16576026380062103,
0.22174595296382904,
-1.004454255104065,
0.8454235196113586,
0.10129142552614212,
0.4126729369163513,
0.4988073706626892,
-0.10490049421787262,
-0.48202425241470337,
0.06311742216348648,
0.2700887620449066,
-0.30831846594810486,
0.4211810231208801,
-0.00813307985663414
] |
260944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Talbut%20Onions | Charles Talbut Onions | Charles Talbut Onions (C. T. Onions) (10 September 1873 – 8 January 1965) was an English grammarian and lexicographer and the fourth editor of the Oxford English Dictionary.
Life
Onions was born in Edgbaston, Birmingham, the eldest son of Ralph John Onions and Harriet, daughter of locksmith John Talbut. The Onions family were traditionally bellows-makers, but Ralph Onions was a designer and embosser in metal. Charles Onions said he was "the first not to make (his) living by using (his) hands". The name "Onions" derives from the Welsh "Einion".
Onions early came under the influence of A. J. Smith, the headmaster of the King Edward VI Camp Hill School, where Onions received his first contact with lexicography. He obtained a London BA in 1892 and an MA in 1895, both while attending Mason College (which later became the University of Birmingham).
James Murray invited Onions to join the staff of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) at Oxford in 1895, and in 1914 he began independent editorial work with his own assistants. His Shakespeare Glossary was published in 1911; he co-edited Shakespeare's England: an account of the life and manners of his age (2 volumes; 1916) and, in 1933, he co-edited the OED Supplement with William Craigie. Following the death of William Little in 1922, he assumed the editorship of the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary.
Onions served as a fellow and librarian of Magdalen College, Oxford. He was president of the Philological Society from 1929 to 1933 and was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1938. On completion of the OED, the universities of Oxford, Leeds, and Birmingham conferred honorary degrees upon him. Onions was appointed a Commander of The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire in 1934. In 1945 he succeeded R. W. Chambers as honorary director of the Early English Text Society and worked to extend its publishing program. He was editor of Medium Aevum, the journal of the Society for the Study of Medieval Languages and Literature, from its inception in 1932 to 1956. Onions' last twenty years were largely devoted to completing The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology (1966), which treated over 38,000 words and went to press just prior to his death.
Personal life
In 1907 he married Angela (1883–1941), daughter of Rev. Arthur Blythman, rector of Shenington, and they had seven sons and three daughters. During World War I, Onions served in British naval intelligence where his knowledge of German proved a significant asset. For much of his life, Onions had a stutter.
Archives
Onions' letters are held at the Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham.
References
1873 births
1965 deaths
British lexicographers
Etymologists
Shakespearean scholars
People from Edgbaston
People educated at King Edward VI Camp Hill School for Boys
Linguists of English
Alumni of University of London Worldwide
Alumni of the University of London
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Chief editors of the Oxford English Dictionary
Corresponding Fellows of the Medieval Academy of America
Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford
Fellows of the British Academy
People with speech impediment
English librarians
Royal Navy personnel of World War I | [
-0.27390313148498535,
1.0268510580062866,
-0.5474754571914673,
-0.5232300162315369,
-0.8730800151824951,
0.8023958206176758,
0.5392014980316162,
0.6644418835639954,
-0.24083073437213898,
-0.2251075804233551,
-0.303092360496521,
0.03329148888587952,
-0.2020477056503296,
0.4883068799972534,
0.05675399675965309,
0.6068944334983826,
0.2911391854286194,
0.9712362885475159,
0.09418350458145142,
-0.4711015224456787,
0.44879722595214844,
-0.6315209865570068,
0.020692072808742523,
-0.3078133463859558,
0.40674659609794617,
0.06144503131508827,
0.5651248693466187,
0.13631916046142578,
0.04330572113394737,
-0.028025252744555473,
0.12030071020126343,
0.8934891819953918,
0.7371315360069275,
-0.8645886182785034,
0.4528808295726776,
-0.15832053124904633,
0.4222438335418701,
-0.28705814480781555,
0.13305410742759705,
-0.5658995509147644,
0.039813488721847534,
-0.027686014771461487,
0.9034008383750916,
0.3305160701274872,
0.3687416613101959,
-0.09087461978197098,
-1.5918409824371338,
0.04663830250501633,
-0.8091893196105957,
-0.1424211710691452,
0.10287503898143768,
-0.32218295335769653,
0.7498455047607422,
-0.38591495156288147,
0.28688159584999084,
0.98710036277771,
-0.8973479270935059,
0.1813986748456955,
0.6450104713439941,
0.5963362455368042,
0.03547997400164604,
0.3024522662162781,
0.06931368261575699,
0.1909664273262024,
-0.11012303084135056,
0.6922691464424133,
-0.2937963008880615,
1.138648509979248,
-0.2234351634979248,
0.11683610081672668,
0.13622279465198517,
-0.10945365577936172,
0.4201788604259491,
0.593765377998352,
-0.08600082248449326,
-0.1844424307346344,
-0.07959023863077164,
0.046474259346723557,
-0.07573430240154266,
-0.5365821123123169,
-0.4077152907848358,
-0.45530474185943604,
0.5529822111129761,
0.054066579788923264,
0.44864389300346375,
1.0076780319213867,
-0.6287134289741516,
-0.1606042981147766,
0.0375974215567112,
0.9305598735809326,
-0.8238743543624878,
-0.008924612775444984,
0.23567529022693634,
0.4090695083141327,
-0.15830862522125244,
-0.4425049424171448,
-0.21972903609275818,
0.17085181176662445,
0.466838538646698,
0.310676246881485,
-0.22790171205997467,
0.9110029339790344,
0.5955497026443481,
0.17843465507030487,
-0.8061286807060242,
0.3706311583518982,
-0.9964087009429932,
-0.3257254958152771,
-0.11676136404275894,
-1.4146108627319336,
-0.23925992846488953,
0.24358078837394714,
-0.6792888641357422,
0.112596794962883,
-0.09937186539173126,
0.7471452355384827,
0.6311734318733215,
0.1546282172203064,
-0.3254261910915375,
-0.052502188831567764,
0.0666053369641304,
0.9197736978530884,
-0.6046728491783142,
0.2307160496711731,
-0.31487852334976196,
0.39532119035720825,
-0.009454535320401192,
0.28456440567970276,
0.613993227481842,
0.22003157436847687,
0.07238069921731949,
0.5749557614326477,
-0.24188868701457977,
-0.955021858215332,
-0.3351730704307556,
-0.7566617727279663,
0.44917386770248413,
0.43383198976516724,
0.04223526641726494,
-0.4115934371948242,
-1.309996485710144,
-0.30441588163375854,
-1.129478096961975,
-0.39527446031570435,
0.6359815001487732,
0.35249802470207214,
-0.26100629568099976,
0.24009455740451813,
0.6469707489013672,
0.26681390404701233,
0.1480989158153534,
-0.5153467655181885,
-0.4646933078765869,
0.15717434883117676,
-0.24856290221214294,
0.3010239005088806,
0.264251708984375,
-0.01795976422727108,
0.4959773123264313,
0.38419461250305176,
0.11499256640672684,
0.09354317933320999,
0.2505379617214203,
0.041183412075042725,
-0.20188245177268982,
-0.2766885459423065,
0.6177093982696533,
-0.36687731742858887,
-0.595991849899292,
0.5988757014274597,
-0.824417233467102,
0.0012361631961539388,
0.3431260585784912,
-1.0567240715026855,
0.5313915014266968,
0.1873522698879242,
0.20015352964401245,
0.34001344442367554,
0.21420732140541077,
-0.39431482553482056,
-0.3524211049079895,
-0.26617786288261414,
0.6103858947753906,
-0.15755589306354523,
0.38856741786003113,
0.041217099875211716,
0.5746819972991943,
-0.2235078513622284,
0.35772594809532166,
0.5230132937431335,
-0.5152494311332703,
-0.236715629696846,
0.48779892921447754,
-0.4130772650241852,
0.5602130889892578,
0.5695847868919373,
0.031136445701122284,
0.5088112354278564,
0.4006650745868683,
0.4451306164264679,
-0.3850739002227783,
0.2908412218093872,
0.5223932862281799,
-0.33180856704711914,
-1.4151774644851685,
1.7034062147140503,
0.19363750517368317,
-0.47182804346084595,
0.9060294032096863,
0.6845915913581848,
0.927260160446167,
-0.5283833742141724,
0.055712416768074036,
-0.6283271312713623,
0.019038673490285873,
0.30087798833847046,
0.5096269249916077,
0.3231695592403412,
-0.3491504192352295,
-0.6249982118606567,
0.2624732553958893,
0.29941874742507935,
-0.4041785001754761,
0.8438636064529419,
-0.5257105231285095,
0.900031566619873,
0.03673454001545906,
0.09029138833284378,
-0.09386825561523438,
-0.22939591109752655,
0.5612629055976868,
-0.36438098549842834,
-0.18085724115371704,
-0.6072275638580322,
-0.473040908575058,
0.29618918895721436,
-0.2672896683216095,
-0.46026262640953064,
0.5402999520301819,
0.06130563095211983,
0.597842812538147,
0.2576483488082886,
-0.7164075374603271,
-0.3863394856452942,
0.0609627403318882,
0.10723236203193665,
-0.024902917444705963,
0.16678638756275177,
0.5459941625595093,
-0.3095405399799347,
0.41568756103515625,
0.1752808690071106,
0.3426728844642639,
-0.8122335076332092,
0.6506133675575256,
0.0059181097894907,
-0.5647538900375366,
0.021104097366333008,
0.07897540926933289,
0.1367160528898239,
-0.10790765285491943,
0.5768323540687561,
-0.1411154717206955,
0.04851064458489418,
-0.4260627031326294,
-0.16297459602355957,
-0.5964930653572083,
-0.09050118923187256,
-0.12603354454040527,
-0.5745096206665039,
0.3683672249317169,
-0.36790791153907776,
-0.6039595007896423,
-1.8638445138931274,
0.04866108298301697,
-0.08405178040266037,
0.15944457054138184,
0.18470749258995056,
-1.2078797817230225,
-0.14869312942028046,
0.24815738201141357,
1.1397994756698608,
-0.10633847117424011,
-0.01901162415742874,
-0.6456692814826965,
0.2034783661365509,
0.2700510025024414,
-0.3877088725566864,
-0.37406429648399353,
-0.17611044645309448,
-0.10816681385040283,
0.0919182151556015,
-0.5482621192932129,
0.4620250463485718,
-0.3107307553291321,
-0.44186437129974365,
-0.0980633944272995,
-0.3685203492641449,
0.43760332465171814,
-0.7669974565505981,
0.2657569646835327,
0.4093170166015625,
-0.32988670468330383,
-0.09708376228809357,
-0.5211420059204102,
0.2047753930091858,
0.007005707826465368,
-0.18289494514465332,
-4.143165111541748,
-0.01752409152686596,
-0.7823771238327026,
0.07167775183916092,
0.3302150070667267,
-0.7872068285942078,
0.4157968759536743,
-0.7366155982017517,
0.005090245045721531,
0.11878189444541931,
-0.1808091700077057,
-0.48836055397987366,
0.02005957067012787,
0.4268300235271454,
0.7614997625350952,
0.7320793271064758,
0.6504417061805725,
-0.4495529234409332,
0.9215860962867737,
-0.07930464297533035,
0.45062699913978577,
0.06201011314988136,
-0.3213919699192047,
0.08427299559116364,
-0.12253498286008835,
0.5308002829551697,
0.051093097776174545,
0.3332716226577759,
-1.251541256904602,
0.014797644689679146,
-0.1428249478340149,
0.398004949092865,
0.11419196426868439,
-0.6585242748260498,
-1.3034672737121582,
-0.6014122366905212,
0.540136456489563,
0.1877855360507965,
0.4496793746948242,
-0.42410531640052795,
-0.2021726369857788,
0.1474238932132721,
0.18224477767944336,
0.27321210503578186,
0.525668203830719,
0.006213000975549221,
-0.6869285702705383,
-0.4526579678058624,
0.06481721997261047,
0.6560708284378052,
0.23091383278369904,
-0.5243765115737915,
0.8752581477165222,
0.2397983819246292,
-0.38665658235549927,
-0.4273047149181366,
0.6733729839324951,
0.08949800580739975,
-0.3877761662006378,
-0.006245650816708803,
0.6004736423492432,
0.0171000137925148,
0.478008508682251,
-0.1490425020456314,
-0.16698050498962402,
-0.4908718168735504,
0.5428978204727173,
0.26586785912513733,
-0.015582925640046597,
-0.0978480651974678,
-0.22192694246768951,
0.7761914730072021,
-0.14372655749320984,
-0.7586926817893982,
0.1365557760000229,
-0.36150702834129333,
-0.6118003726005554,
0.41862791776657104,
-0.16059769690036774,
0.07568729668855667,
0.3952274024486542,
-0.3052103817462921,
-0.6112260222434998,
1.128559947013855,
-0.23577983677387238,
-0.4018154442310333,
-0.04337305575609207,
-0.08904826641082764,
-0.6963298320770264,
-0.374950110912323,
0.21957869827747345,
-0.638434648513794,
0.1130010262131691,
0.20956632494926453,
-0.4462893605232239,
-0.1032075434923172,
1.0683774948120117,
-0.1316017210483551,
0.07304447889328003,
-0.4402599632740021,
0.10683508962392807,
-0.5431596636772156,
-0.08930893242359161,
-0.7738198637962341,
0.0547543466091156,
-0.45356476306915283,
-0.2727925479412079,
0.9021282196044922,
0.5839349031448364,
-0.05226684734225273,
-0.1803516447544098,
-0.20812898874282837,
-0.6985169649124146,
-0.13494355976581573,
1.0344432592391968,
-0.07628834247589111,
-0.13320568203926086,
0.28134945034980774,
0.4967873990535736,
0.4226221442222595,
0.13482479751110077,
0.6036908626556396,
0.1760062575340271,
0.045786671340465546,
0.5879765152931213,
-0.7198324203491211,
0.7632527351379395,
0.14996106922626495,
-0.5952707529067993,
0.2072654664516449,
-0.3685872554779053,
0.18690542876720428,
-0.4848552346229553,
-0.206719771027565,
-0.5896391272544861,
-0.8398731350898743,
-0.6574832797050476,
-0.19823163747787476,
-0.28831958770751953,
-0.22282558679580688,
-0.2258782833814621,
0.20611107349395752,
-0.29723623394966125,
0.7223761081695557,
-0.13552892208099365,
1.0025734901428223,
0.4770491421222687,
-0.09285634756088257,
-0.9999474883079529,
0.7453597187995911,
0.19423845410346985,
-0.6800757050514221,
0.7028261423110962,
-0.752984344959259,
0.22033052146434784,
0.14229704439640045,
0.01071195863187313,
0.48709478974342346,
-0.21460285782814026,
-0.39983996748924255,
0.4922284781932831,
0.331689715385437,
-0.7045236229896545,
0.328358918428421,
0.1465623527765274,
-0.44507744908332825,
0.08723128587007523,
-1.0740197896957397,
-0.49937865138053894,
1.098408579826355,
-0.25795596837997437,
-0.003089556470513344,
-0.9549293518066406,
0.06356015801429749,
0.6445736885070801,
-0.16668280959129333,
0.31720709800720215,
0.10041177272796631,
0.3481580317020416,
-0.40167567133903503,
-0.06867635250091553,
-0.018586978316307068,
0.22818894684314728,
1.1449260711669922,
0.36341774463653564,
-0.5302757620811462,
-0.8713673949241638,
-0.5481390953063965,
-0.397137314081192,
0.4301026463508606,
-0.26247406005859375,
-0.03225584700703621,
0.7583990693092346,
0.047744255512952805,
-0.6215476989746094,
-0.6593356132507324,
0.435244083404541,
0.5006765723228455,
-0.3492419719696045,
-1.3363031148910522,
0.5469502806663513,
0.8131130933761597,
-0.08031275868415833,
0.6988267302513123,
0.3925955593585968,
-1.0916908979415894,
0.42427581548690796,
0.4829043745994568,
-0.9671410322189331,
0.7350307703018188,
0.19829577207565308,
-1.2085494995117188,
0.8019022941589355,
0.24323207139968872,
-0.50239497423172,
-0.13221803307533264,
0.5675084590911865,
0.22380883991718292,
-0.3017183244228363,
-0.7761744856834412,
-0.14259900152683258,
-1.248210072517395,
-0.005097447894513607,
-0.3468921482563019,
-0.7067059874534607,
0.5644059181213379,
0.21277117729187012,
0.11758722364902496,
0.8022581934928894,
-0.3657369017601013,
0.06870027631521225,
0.04085731506347656,
0.4993937909603119,
0.6410020589828491,
0.3716181516647339,
0.8853145837783813,
-0.7134202718734741,
0.5755007266998291,
0.07380460202693939,
0.22268334031105042,
0.32693910598754883,
0.9078449606895447,
0.2693992257118225,
-0.12858623266220093,
-0.3948926627635956,
0.3158167600631714,
0.14432279765605927,
-0.4630410373210907,
-0.33679091930389404,
0.4954623878002167,
0.08841101825237274,
-0.23785102367401123,
-0.30205219984054565,
-0.8584813475608826,
0.8855198621749878,
-0.5681591033935547,
-0.07962560653686523,
0.32136109471321106,
-0.31809934973716736,
0.08505649864673615,
-0.16715028882026672,
1.1309607028961182,
0.46525123715400696,
1.3646657466888428,
0.11544906347990036,
0.07975891977548599,
-0.4795980155467987,
-0.4108037054538727,
0.7739459872245789,
-0.20289334654808044,
-0.4463289976119995,
-0.5765990018844604,
0.2568124234676361,
0.5468881130218506,
-0.3289414942264557,
0.13878852128982544,
0.1826888471841812,
-1.0967044830322266,
0.0820540115237236,
-0.9537160396575928,
0.025818031281232834,
0.3612683117389679,
0.7051342129707336,
-0.47127828001976013,
0.31783193349838257,
-0.2531767189502716,
-0.8046379089355469,
0.10078685730695724,
-0.5096377730369568,
0.6113172173500061,
-0.34331247210502625,
0.24746911227703094,
-0.30309227108955383,
0.08783616125583649,
0.23848827183246613,
0.4603191316127777,
-0.4672417938709259,
-0.11733521521091461,
-0.4278431534767151,
0.04828442260622978,
-0.9000846147537231,
0.8297392725944519,
0.5796558856964111,
-0.4675593078136444,
0.5860442519187927,
0.5950824022293091,
0.12270274758338928,
-0.38405436277389526,
-0.07562520354986191,
-0.308575302362442,
-0.04991527646780014,
0.18084406852722168,
0.04851820319890976,
0.4972657859325409,
0.20304523408412933,
0.19060339033603668,
0.07600444555282593,
-0.840502142906189,
-0.15347743034362793,
0.9759521484375,
-0.05933287739753723,
-0.23704023659229279,
0.8160677552223206,
0.34827446937561035,
-0.19829161465168,
1.0986353158950806,
-0.7679850459098816,
-0.6855325698852539,
0.39068102836608887,
-0.18684539198875427,
-0.4636673033237457,
-0.14012020826339722,
-1.1425762176513672,
0.6219924688339233,
-0.03390241414308548,
0.3183577060699463,
0.17626093327999115,
-0.7965503334999084,
-0.04551592841744423,
0.5675444602966309,
0.09413241595029831,
0.6968657374382019,
-0.060187432914972305,
-0.6870705485343933,
-0.24656902253627777,
-0.07417547702789307,
-0.22643093764781952,
0.06138388812541962,
0.5611559152603149,
0.49854928255081177,
0.30873268842697144,
-0.2302519530057907,
0.19344229996204376,
-0.350233793258667,
-0.20645610988140106,
0.12851466238498688,
-0.18159371614456177,
-0.08569177240133286,
-0.419849157333374,
-0.9066312313079834,
-0.5558449625968933,
-0.6445482969284058,
0.08568643778562546,
0.04514968395233154,
0.12133030593395233,
-0.20523393154144287,
0.011074814014136791,
-0.6993663907051086,
-0.3873809278011322,
1.1138900518417358,
0.08918313682079315,
-0.6010043621063232,
0.34781697392463684,
0.3107862174510956,
0.4399847686290741,
0.27223774790763855,
-0.5575857162475586,
-0.20331312716007233,
0.05247395858168602,
0.3832983374595642,
-0.484596312046051,
-0.2510967552661896,
-0.5415046811103821,
-0.4265443682670593,
0.11467037349939346,
0.2715758979320526,
-0.711364209651947,
0.14018303155899048,
-0.32994261384010315,
-0.09600885212421417,
0.09557944536209106,
0.038604676723480225,
-0.1266632229089737,
0.09197887778282166,
-0.2415049523115158,
-0.016999008134007454,
-0.6685822606086731,
0.5778120756149292,
-0.10043419152498245,
-0.13409429788589478,
-0.29990261793136597,
0.5359523296356201,
0.47796571254730225,
0.643010675907135,
0.13507488369941711,
-0.019182734191417694,
-0.5709007978439331,
0.46173596382141113,
-0.5601003170013428,
0.49415627121925354,
-0.4109138548374176,
0.20116208493709564,
-0.4760008156299591,
0.38585811853408813,
-0.23802317678928375,
0.15810254216194153,
0.1448988914489746,
-0.483035147190094,
-0.5924257040023804,
-0.27176743745803833,
-0.19647784531116486,
-0.7859329581260681,
0.10330472141504288,
0.9128705263137817,
-0.39549243450164795,
-0.29233407974243164,
0.14513897895812988,
0.3577960729598999,
-0.4447358250617981,
0.40380653738975525,
0.18601679801940918,
0.9262086153030396,
-0.30788591504096985,
-0.3938809931278229,
-0.48527291417121887,
-0.4286680221557617,
0.6652354001998901,
1.0019620656967163,
0.3199853003025055,
-0.03285953402519226,
-0.19484151899814606,
-0.9281105399131775,
-0.20459142327308655,
0.3976227641105652,
-3.1637723445892334,
-0.25153878331184387,
0.5059189796447754,
-0.8209396600723267,
-0.05995921045541763,
0.3123354911804199,
-0.12367354333400726,
-0.46558451652526855,
0.03440101817250252,
-0.1207844540476799,
0.3058123290538788,
0.004355011507868767,
0.23902705311775208,
-0.7454936504364014,
0.1471661776304245,
-0.1629391312599182
] |
260948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Watson%20Fowler | Henry Watson Fowler | Henry Watson Fowler (10 March 1858 – 26 December 1933) was an English schoolmaster, lexicographer and commentator on the usage of the English language. He is notable for both A Dictionary of Modern English Usage and his work on the Concise Oxford Dictionary, and was described by The Times as "a lexicographical genius".
After an Oxford education, Fowler was a schoolmaster until his middle age and then worked in London as a freelance writer and journalist, but was not very successful. In partnership with his brother Francis, beginning in 1906, he began publishing seminal grammar, style and lexicography books. After his brother's death in 1918, he completed the works on which they had collaborated and edited additional works.
Biography
Youth and studies
Fowler was born on 10 March 1858 in Tonbridge, Kent. His parents, the Rev. Robert Fowler and his wife Caroline, née Watson, were originally from Devon. Robert Fowler was a Cambridge graduate, clergyman and schoolmaster. At the time of Henry's birth he was teaching mathematics at Tonbridge School, but the family soon moved to nearby Tunbridge Wells. Henry was the eldest child of eight, and his father's early death in 1879 left him to assume a leading role in caring for his younger brothers and sister (Charles, Alexander, [Edward] Seymour, Edith, Arthur, Francis and [Herbert] Samuel).
Henry Fowler spent some time at a boarding school in Germany before enrolling at Rugby School in 1871. He concentrated on Latin and Greek, winning a school prize for his translation into Greek verse of part of Percy Bysshe Shelley's play Prometheus Unbound. He also took part in drama and debating and in his final year served as head of his house, School House. He was greatly inspired by one of his classics teachers, Robert Whitelaw, with whom he kept up a correspondence later in life.
In 1877 Fowler began attending Balliol College, Oxford. He did not excel at Oxford as he had at Rugby, earning only second-class honours in both Moderations and Literae Humaniores. Although he participated little in Oxford sport, he did begin a practice that he was to continue for the rest of his life: a daily morning run followed by a swim in the nearest body of water. He left Oxford in 1881, but was not awarded a degree until 1886, because he failed to pass his Divinity examination.
Teaching
Trusting in the judgment of the Balliol College master that he had "a natural aptitude for the profession of Schoolmaster", Fowler took up a temporary teaching position at Fettes College in Edinburgh. After spending two terms there, he moved south again to Yorkshire (present-day Cumbria) to begin a mastership at Sedbergh School in 1882. There he taught Latin, Greek and English, starting with the first form, but soon switching to the sixth form. He was a respected but uninspiring teacher, earning the nickname "Joey Stinker" owing to his propensity for tobacco smoking.
Several of the Fowler brothers were reunited at Sedbergh. Charles Fowler taught temporarily at the school during the illness of one of the house masters. Arthur Fowler had transferred from Rugby to Sedbergh for his last eighteen months at school and later became a master there. Samuel, the troublesome youngest brother, was sent to Sedbergh, probably to be taken care of by Henry and Arthur, but he stayed only a year before leaving the school, and of him nothing further is known. Henry Fowler made several lifelong friends at Sedbergh, who often accompanied him on holiday to the Alps. These included Ralph St John Ainslie, a music teacher and caricaturist; E. P. Lemarchand, whose sister eventually married Arthur Fowler; Bernard Tower, who went on to become headmaster at Lancing; and George Coulton, who was to write the first biography of Henry Fowler.
Despite being the son of a clergyman, Fowler had been an atheist for quite some time, though he rarely spoke of his beliefs in public. He had the chance of becoming a housemaster at Sedbergh on three occasions. The third offer was accompanied by a long discussion with the headmaster, Henry Hart, about the religious requirements for the post, which included preparing the boys for confirmation in the Church of England. This was against Fowler's principles, and when it became clear that no compromise on this matter was possible, he resigned.
London
In the summer of 1899 Fowler moved to a house at 14 Paultons Square, Chelsea, London (where there is now a blue plaque in his honour), and sought work as a freelance writer and journalist, surviving on his meagre writer's earnings and a small inheritance from his father. In his first published article, "Books We Think We Have Read" (1900), he first discusses the habit among Englishmen of pretending a familiarity with certain books—such as the works of Shakespeare or books considered "juvenile"—then proceeds to recommend that the savouring of these books should be "no tossing off of ardent spirits, but the connoisseur's deliberate rolling in the mouth of some old vintage". In "Outdoor London", published a year later in the short-lived Anglo-Saxon Review, Fowler describes the sights and sounds of his new home, praising its plants, its Cockney inhabitants, and its magical night scenes.
Writing partnership
In 1903, he moved to the island of Guernsey, where he worked with his brother Francis George Fowler. Their first joint project was a translation of the works of Lucian of Samosata. The translation, described by The Times as of "remarkable quality", was taken up by the Oxford University Press and published in four volumes in 1905. Their next work was The King's English (1906), a book meant to encourage writers to be stylistically simple and direct and not to misuse words. This book "took the world by storm".
Fowler collected some of his journalistic articles into volumes and published them pseudonymously, including More Popular Fallacies (1904) by "Quillet", and Si mihi —! (1907) by "Egomet". In 1908, on his fiftieth birthday, he married Jessie Marian Wills (1862–1930). It was an exceptionally happy, but childless, marriage.
The Oxford University Press commissioned from the Fowler brothers a single-volume abridgement of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), which was published as the Concise Oxford Dictionary in 1911. The Concise Oxford has remained in print ever since, being regularly revised.
The next commission for the brothers was a much smaller, pocket-sized abridgement of the OED at the same time they were working on Modern English Usage; work on both began in 1911, with Henry Fowler concentrating on Modern English Usage and Francis on the pocket dictionary. Neither work was complete at the start of World War I.
In 1914, Fowler and his younger brother volunteered for service in the British army. To gain acceptance, the 56-year-old Henry lied about his age. Both he and Francis were invalided out of the army in 1916 and resumed work on Modern English Usage. In 1918, Francis died aged 47 of tuberculosis, contracted during service with the BEF. After his brother's death, Henry Fowler and his wife moved to Hinton St George in Somerset, where he worked on the Pocket Oxford Dictionary and Modern English Usage, which he dedicated to his brother.
Later years
A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, published in 1926, considered by many to be the definitive style guide to the English language, "made the name of Fowler a household word in all English-speaking countries". The Times described it as a "fascinating, formidable book". Winston Churchill directed his officials to read it. The success of the book was such that the publishers had to reprint it three times in the first year of publication, and there were twelve further reprints before a second edition was finally commissioned in the 1960s.
On the death of its original editor in 1922, Fowler helped complete the first edition of the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, under the editorship of C.T. Onions.
In 1929 Fowler republished Si mihi—! under his own name as If Wishes were Horses, and another volume of old journalistic articles under the title Some Comparative Values.
On 26 December 1933, Fowler died at his home, "Sunnyside", Hinton St George, England, aged 75.
Legacy
Currently, The King's English and Modern English Usage remain in print. The latter was updated by Sir Ernest Gowers for the second edition (1965) and largely rewritten by Robert Burchfield for the third (1996). A Pocket edition () edited by Robert Allen, based on Burchfield's edition, is available online to subscribers of the Oxford Reference On-line Premium collection.
A biography of Fowler was published in 2001 called The Warden of English. The author was Jenny McMorris (1946–2002), archivist to the Oxford English Dictionary at the Oxford University Press. The Times described the book as "an acclaimed and meticulously researched biography". The Word Man, a play about Fowler's life and career by the writer Chris Harrald, was broadcast on BBC Radio 4's Afternoon Play on 17 January 2008.
Published works
Books
More Popular Fallacies. London: Elliot Stock, 1904.
with F. G. Fowler, trans. The Works of Lucian. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905.
with F. G. Fowler. The King's English. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1906.
Sentence Analysis. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1906.
Si Mihi! London: Brown, Langham, 1907.
reissued as If Wishes Were Horses. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1929.
Between Boy and Man. London: Watts, 1908.
with F. G. Fowler. The King's English, abridged edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908.
with F. G. Fowler. Concise Oxford Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1911 [2nd edition, 1929].
with F. G. Fowler. Pocket Oxford Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924.
A Dictionary of Modern English Usage. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926. [Wordsworth Edition reprint, 1994, .]
Some Comparative Values. Oxford: Blackwell, 1929.
Rhymes of Darby to Joan. London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1931.
with W. Little and J. Coulson. Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1933.
Articles
"Books We Think We Have Read". Spectator, 20 January 1900.
"Outdoor London". Anglo-Saxon Review, June 1901.
"Irony and Some Synonyms". Gentleman's Magazine, October 1901, 378.
"Quotation". Longman's Magazine, January 1901, 241.
"On Hyphens, 'Shall' & 'Will', 'Should' 'Would' in the Newspapers of Today". Society for Pure English, Tract 6. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921.
"Note on 'as to'". Society for Pure English Tract 8. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1922.
"Grammatical Inversions". Society for Pure English Tract 10. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1923.
"Preposition at End". Society for Pure English Tract 14. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1923.
"Split Infinitive, &c." Society for Pure English Tract 15. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1923.
"Subjunctives". Society for Pure English Tract 18. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924.
"Notes on fasci, fascisti, broadcast(ed)". Society for Pure English Tract 19. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925.
"Italic, Fused Participles, &c." Society for Pure English Tract 22. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925.
"Ing". Society for Pure English Tract 26. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927.
"Comprise". Society for Pure English Tract 36. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925.
See also
Popular Fallacies, Charles Lamb
Notes
Sources
Burchfield, Robert, 3rd ed. Modern English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1996,
Coulton, G. C. H. W. Fowler. The Society for Pure English, Tract no. 43, 1935, a memoir by his friend and former colleague at Sedbergh School
Gowers, Sir Ernest., 2nd ed. Modern English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1965
McMorris, Jenny, The Warden of English: The Life of H.W. Fowler, Oxford University Press, 2001.
Onions, C. T. (ed). Shorter Oxford Dictionary, first edition, Oxford University Press, 1933
Sheidlower, Jesse. "Elegant Variation and All That". Review of The New Fowler's Modern English Usage, by H. W. Fowler and ed. R. W. Burchfield. Atlantic Monthly, December 1996: 112–118, https://www.theatlantic.com/issues/96dec/fowler/fowler.htm.
External links
The King's English at Bartleby.com
1858 births
1933 deaths
English lexicographers
Schoolteachers from Kent
English male journalists
People from Tonbridge
Guernsey people
People educated at Rugby School
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Writers of style guides
Tuberculosis deaths in England | [
0.213287815451622,
0.8822261691093445,
-0.8138067722320557,
-0.7096813917160034,
-0.10494884103536606,
0.859154462814331,
1.0182830095291138,
-0.04961712658405304,
0.04331134259700775,
-0.44718196988105774,
-0.262864887714386,
0.129778191447258,
-0.3226065933704376,
-0.0882355123758316,
-0.16049842536449432,
-0.03102954663336277,
-0.35819533467292786,
-0.23624832928180695,
-0.08337587863206863,
0.08648407459259033,
-0.5145646333694458,
-0.08817935734987259,
0.35430487990379333,
-0.16812004148960114,
-0.23661135137081146,
-0.21562297642230988,
0.560320258140564,
-0.2601841390132904,
-0.21361544728279114,
-0.4094167947769165,
0.42599543929100037,
0.10476775467395782,
0.714176595211029,
0.05798112973570824,
-0.8856551647186279,
-0.034607041627168655,
-0.38291746377944946,
-0.5187049508094788,
0.21793924272060394,
0.1099829375743866,
-0.240997314453125,
-0.1579061895608902,
0.5235034227371216,
-0.35933688282966614,
-0.11988310515880585,
-0.30153828859329224,
-2.391388416290283,
0.12988601624965668,
-0.35093146562576294,
0.028816115111112595,
-0.4715961217880249,
0.6009126305580139,
1.3137269020080566,
-0.026271771639585495,
-0.20912137627601624,
0.8494322299957275,
-0.32349520921707153,
-0.05121173337101936,
0.08266282826662064,
-0.457194060087204,
0.36686599254608154,
0.17597632110118866,
0.5724955797195435,
0.23048518598079681,
0.46014854311943054,
0.6681026220321655,
-0.9233536124229431,
0.3332846760749817,
-0.49542999267578125,
-0.02408185787498951,
-0.3707370162010193,
-0.15436626970767975,
0.24457299709320068,
0.7151982188224792,
-0.0399085134267807,
-0.3148181736469269,
0.05418241769075394,
0.24634316563606262,
-0.2389136701822281,
-0.19092842936515808,
-0.47850674390792847,
0.07772116363048553,
0.5437530279159546,
0.20656532049179077,
0.0438874252140522,
0.32068079710006714,
-0.14049091935157776,
0.7537906169891357,
-0.42533963918685913,
0.12108553200960159,
0.40280717611312866,
-0.32161745429039,
-0.04526892304420471,
-0.3471197187900543,
-0.19839388132095337,
0.4995670020580292,
-0.05480935424566269,
0.312052845954895,
-0.3174574375152588,
-0.11668945848941803,
-0.2853528559207916,
0.191553995013237,
0.617607057094574,
0.05268470197916031,
-0.7134189605712891,
0.30756884813308716,
-0.18236325681209564,
-0.33793047070503235,
0.5386319160461426,
0.19715334475040436,
-0.49370867013931274,
-0.14437463879585266,
-0.04172360524535179,
0.0213270653039217,
0.023297719657421112,
0.4990837872028351,
0.29055243730545044,
0.05003548413515091,
-0.51844322681427,
-0.1800825595855713,
-0.16091549396514893,
0.04402279853820801,
0.3408978283405304,
0.13616131246089935,
-0.8218652009963989,
-0.11352425813674927,
-0.016446521505713463,
0.3062509298324585,
0.12810459733009338,
0.10799402743577957,
0.2634742856025696,
1.1354321241378784,
-0.1409766674041748,
-0.23016968369483948,
-0.3874266743659973,
-0.17690801620483398,
0.18579669296741486,
0.21102988719940186,
-0.5211632251739502,
0.8113229274749756,
-0.24285970628261566,
0.33001118898391724,
-0.3404870331287384,
0.035429440438747406,
-0.047617558389902115,
-0.21175289154052734,
-0.2683248519897461,
-0.007654850836843252,
-0.3300274610519409,
0.07421156764030457,
-0.11113456636667252,
0.138107568025589,
0.0642581507563591,
-0.17194582521915436,
-0.014867914840579033,
0.7980663776397705,
0.4373781681060791,
0.10361071676015854,
0.06786774098873138,
0.23302431404590607,
-0.1574990153312683,
-0.3652089536190033,
-0.6350000500679016,
-0.0478886179625988,
0.0847090631723404,
-0.03266672044992447,
-0.016798576340079308,
0.062458932399749756,
-0.08748017251491547,
0.23240332305431366,
0.15833745896816254,
-0.42892858386039734,
0.688928484916687,
-0.17716854810714722,
-0.41007667779922485,
0.1374644935131073,
0.5894424319267273,
0.24293623864650726,
0.6002762913703918,
-0.5557509064674377,
-0.9035289883613586,
-0.41938516497612,
0.5202147960662842,
0.5005301237106323,
0.7631456851959229,
0.15240591764450073,
0.6235728859901428,
-0.3210859000682831,
0.24194221198558807,
-0.37648820877075195,
-0.2192307710647583,
-1.1872258186340332,
0.15502488613128662,
-0.8304412364959717,
0.8579673171043396,
0.48029857873916626,
-0.15054404735565186,
0.5722842216491699,
0.07198567688465118,
1.1129001379013062,
0.487577348947525,
0.12478671967983246,
-0.4593338668346405,
0.08303796499967575,
0.14237602055072784,
0.4679988920688629,
-0.05822449550032616,
0.39192643761634827,
-0.20199546217918396,
0.48423147201538086,
0.2728666365146637,
-0.4045279026031494,
0.22821417450904846,
0.036182649433612823,
-0.6256039142608643,
-0.3050524592399597,
0.045897699892520905,
-0.36041122674942017,
0.4412553012371063,
-0.4465518593788147,
0.5170574188232422,
0.0558314248919487,
0.09768225252628326,
0.45779651403427124,
0.0220907274633646,
0.27565544843673706,
0.11693719029426575,
0.18321593105793,
-0.1773804873228073,
-1.0918748378753662,
-0.3617393672466278,
-0.07034891098737717,
0.7404116988182068,
-0.6622729897499084,
0.5349131226539612,
-0.31459325551986694,
-0.26637810468673706,
-0.29388782382011414,
0.059035032987594604,
0.22067205607891083,
0.1659899204969406,
-0.05909371376037598,
-0.4335220754146576,
0.22507643699645996,
0.43036532402038574,
0.1385018229484558,
-0.005128669086843729,
0.11232338845729828,
0.1258738487958908,
0.2540915906429291,
0.7784044146537781,
0.4741893708705902,
0.4640883505344391,
0.21264678239822388,
-0.5881708264350891,
0.45403000712394714,
0.06898581236600876,
0.038830142468214035,
0.6777060031890869,
0.5748476982116699,
0.34776026010513306,
0.41760724782943726,
-0.11735599488019943,
0.3858291804790497,
0.20070992410182953,
-0.23049961030483246,
0.23677034676074982,
-0.6246706247329712,
-0.22186556458473206,
-0.2885173559188843,
0.20080812275409698,
0.15263797342777252,
-0.1045256108045578,
0.4857419431209564,
0.4480533003807068,
0.09011619538068771,
0.022601788863539696,
-0.13469010591506958,
-0.7047642469406128,
-0.3040481507778168,
0.19722352921962738,
0.7691206932067871,
-0.42609018087387085,
-0.24385419487953186,
-0.1753484159708023,
-0.5635038614273071,
-0.35465696454048157,
-0.7046716809272766,
0.01681295782327652,
-0.07640404254198074,
-0.3658938407897949,
1.0376850366592407,
-0.30925607681274414,
-0.16339543461799622,
-0.44322311878204346,
0.05581482872366905,
-0.47027066349983215,
-0.6175908446311951,
0.10321569442749023,
-0.15096096694469452,
-0.5675609111785889,
0.1819620132446289,
0.22029653191566467,
0.26627132296562195,
0.21890664100646973,
0.23933017253875732,
-0.3574380576610565,
-0.20833800733089447,
-5.470333576202393,
-0.0730738714337349,
0.16930684447288513,
-0.610556423664093,
0.36359184980392456,
0.6542978882789612,
0.13300612568855286,
-0.278554230928421,
-0.07901405543088913,
0.17325431108474731,
0.35945674777030945,
-0.04273834079504013,
0.1980087012052536,
0.17311206459999084,
0.8447914719581604,
0.20471277832984924,
0.32050296664237976,
-0.1309146136045456,
0.394774466753006,
0.18803387880325317,
0.44750359654426575,
0.21396183967590332,
0.3810490369796753,
0.5702008008956909,
0.3355084955692291,
-0.06237713620066643,
-0.37727776169776917,
0.2574879825115204,
-0.7285163402557373,
-0.4393329918384552,
0.5944841504096985,
-0.2484104335308075,
0.16776813566684723,
0.035797733813524246,
-0.5015627145767212,
-0.00912934634834528,
0.6187308430671692,
1.1836248636245728,
-0.05320218950510025,
-0.07813196629285812,
0.05214595049619675,
-0.28734415769577026,
-0.7728160619735718,
-0.012686006724834442,
-0.13128772377967834,
0.08990753442049026,
-0.5022057294845581,
-0.29970476031303406,
0.029527340084314346,
0.4382253885269165,
-0.35694068670272827,
0.27496322989463806,
0.04542506858706474,
0.2886418104171753,
-0.34773075580596924,
0.16552479565143585,
0.18278804421424866,
-0.02440757118165493,
-0.5099067091941833,
-0.4572768807411194,
0.6151339411735535,
-0.7735096216201782,
0.05309322848916054,
-0.49570661783218384,
-0.37369850277900696,
-0.6277919411659241,
-0.17958016693592072,
0.2400774508714676,
0.05636848509311676,
0.15380246937274933,
-0.45139265060424805,
0.8573847413063049,
0.3246905505657196,
-0.9729792475700378,
-0.44052451848983765,
-0.4743601083755493,
0.009536471217870712,
-0.07138178497552872,
-0.16917304694652557,
-0.0004920141655020416,
-0.12251173704862595,
-0.746355414390564,
-0.17867088317871094,
0.9810858964920044,
0.4023202061653137,
-0.18699485063552856,
-0.9031718373298645,
0.05268107354640961,
-0.12878787517547607,
-0.3925802409648895,
0.2918659746646881,
-0.2464931458234787,
-0.5784268379211426,
0.3310236930847168,
0.9198155403137207,
-0.013711078092455864,
-0.2968311607837677,
0.6312782764434814,
0.4872167408466339,
-0.024466190487146378,
-0.6925963163375854,
-0.2656092643737793,
0.18958736956119537,
-0.15032532811164856,
0.292772501707077,
0.0661892220377922,
-0.9255304932594299,
0.283806711435318,
0.5182314515113831,
-0.30659371614456177,
-0.21563473343849182,
0.21508245170116425,
-0.6872516870498657,
0.7432213425636292,
-0.8162558078765869,
-0.06951948255300522,
0.23350723087787628,
0.13519799709320068,
0.3398023843765259,
0.2349289208650589,
-0.6644591093063354,
0.2525760233402252,
-0.24923789501190186,
0.21837428212165833,
-0.6126530170440674,
-0.15628018975257874,
0.2822699248790741,
0.0032243896275758743,
-1.1177146434783936,
-0.5000154376029968,
-0.0327923446893692,
0.45640259981155396,
0.010179302655160427,
0.14433656632900238,
-0.21498118340969086,
-0.2366648018360138,
-0.29523658752441406,
0.2570512890815735,
-0.22620798647403717,
-0.20134589076042175,
-0.07384475320577621,
-0.3156910240650177,
0.3195049464702606,
-0.11913397908210754,
0.750817060470581,
-0.0417291596531868,
-0.015604407526552677,
-0.16205230355262756,
-0.4443996250629425,
0.2520778477191925,
0.3515389859676361,
-0.05139719322323799,
0.152689591050148,
-0.39090362191200256,
-0.5840394496917725,
0.15597380697727203,
-0.4068810045719147,
0.38868826627731323,
-0.7826774716377258,
-0.3075887858867645,
-0.03684761002659798,
0.05929551646113396,
-0.5040419101715088,
-0.2764686048030853,
0.4322947859764099,
-0.08167669177055359,
-0.3247336447238922,
0.09039939939975739,
-0.31311658024787903,
0.510646402835846,
0.25526607036590576,
-0.20095433294773102,
-0.5961640477180481,
-0.1431889683008194,
0.5111551284790039,
0.3740427792072296,
-0.03437582775950432,
-0.1874723583459854,
-0.13465237617492676,
0.13903401792049408,
-0.06064220517873764,
-0.2332896590232849,
-0.4407346248626709,
0.45200300216674805,
0.35913142561912537,
0.0029544569551944733,
-0.02923239767551422,
-0.42521047592163086,
-0.4067859947681427,
-0.46247267723083496,
-0.07649348676204681,
-0.3960053324699402,
0.8992740511894226,
0.7298025488853455,
-0.6808162331581116,
-0.2149457335472107,
0.4911850690841675,
0.08644198626279831,
-0.5748051404953003,
-0.5717905759811401,
0.033876918256282806,
-0.004227778408676386,
-0.3503258526325226,
-0.5491055250167847,
-0.017074232921004295,
-1.0017155408859253,
-0.3116667568683624,
-0.7542409896850586,
-0.5692505240440369,
0.7028568983078003,
-0.36044543981552124,
-0.6728227138519287,
-0.4598132073879242,
0.020575108006596565,
-0.34177687764167786,
-0.6131693720817566,
-0.4317489266395569,
0.7291039824485779,
-0.10744202882051468,
-0.6516978144645691,
-0.4354110658168793,
-0.2393275499343872,
-0.20889157056808472,
0.152082160115242,
-0.20047102868556976,
-0.011660782620310783,
0.1678595393896103,
0.09357252717018127,
1.1426336765289307,
-0.44531068205833435,
-0.029963089153170586,
-0.013028371147811413,
0.26350265741348267,
1.121358871459961,
-0.08494000881910324,
-0.006714257411658764,
-0.3692019581794739,
0.07373793423175812,
0.14768050611019135,
-0.13457930088043213,
0.7270181179046631,
1.1460703611373901,
0.03600214421749115,
-0.2842131555080414,
-0.08576557040214539,
-0.24933075904846191,
0.42603105306625366,
-0.563346266746521,
-0.16080006957054138,
0.6875872611999512,
-0.10830437391996384,
-0.18827800452709198,
-0.40060627460479736,
-0.05990640074014664,
0.34847137331962585,
-0.7163234949111938,
-0.286773145198822,
-0.02275608293712139,
-0.058318961411714554,
0.14974351227283478,
0.2198324054479599,
0.23336051404476166,
0.3220812678337097,
0.5357210040092468,
0.0380859412252903,
0.6090222597122192,
0.18244430422782898,
-0.0009586411179043353,
0.6922242045402527,
0.16853301227092743,
-0.35854101181030273,
-0.3966955840587616,
-0.9355989098548889,
0.27899590134620667,
-0.23662476241588593,
-0.7171807885169983,
0.5056183338165283,
-0.25904032588005066,
1.1274592876434326,
0.04799923673272133,
-0.5990673303604126,
-0.41729265451431274,
0.4714197516441345,
-0.8557000160217285,
-0.4709527790546417,
-0.618058979511261,
0.05845978483557701,
-0.4304744601249695,
-0.6143887639045715,
0.09403018653392792,
-0.8272935152053833,
0.4471721947193146,
-0.20800024271011353,
0.11688316613435745,
-1.0369893312454224,
-0.05197455734014511,
-0.4562893211841583,
0.04574861750006676,
-0.34471815824508667,
-0.4799923598766327,
-0.10294584929943085,
0.6536036729812622,
0.4327141344547272,
-0.23793849349021912,
0.5349190831184387,
0.08050990104675293,
-0.2755855321884155,
-0.04501521587371826,
-0.05140740051865578,
-0.3479362726211548,
-0.02659888006746769,
0.00783509761095047,
0.5294895172119141,
1.034206748008728,
-0.4888017475605011,
-0.31454265117645264,
0.009674428962171078,
-0.4018305242061615,
-0.3394882082939148,
-0.01702772080898285,
0.15607427060604095,
-0.3818761110305786,
0.4463473856449127,
-0.5811881422996521,
-0.534358561038971,
0.79218989610672,
0.48430219292640686,
-0.23013068735599518,
-0.2817921042442322,
0.753901481628418,
0.06344696879386902,
-0.0748327299952507,
0.02917148731648922,
0.41124212741851807,
0.14191557466983795,
-0.4595663845539093,
-0.09938117116689682,
0.030388763174414635,
0.26122361421585083,
0.41876938939094543,
0.24346038699150085,
0.7635188102722168,
0.5741817355155945,
0.19932256639003754,
-0.06377637386322021,
0.05000515654683113,
-0.42560574412345886,
0.33284807205200195,
0.025293434038758278,
0.30492329597473145,
0.5820293426513672,
0.6840696334838867,
0.17576855421066284,
-0.314197301864624,
0.033929046243429184,
0.17048490047454834,
0.4954732358455658,
-0.6235299110412598,
-0.2573787569999695,
0.3175821304321289,
0.16657356917858124,
0.2107774168252945,
0.3755703270435333,
-0.6700266599655151,
-0.24511264264583588,
0.07924330234527588,
0.5082365274429321,
-0.48609673976898193,
0.19441570341587067,
0.5284630060195923,
0.45128077268600464,
-0.19573968648910522,
-0.07542282342910767,
0.28752008080482483,
0.3086453378200531,
0.4026470184326172,
0.8667729496955872,
0.196457639336586,
0.5014630556106567,
-0.31083476543426514,
-0.0776112824678421,
0.21124878525733948,
-0.37814754247665405,
-0.029050910845398903,
0.266683965921402,
-0.0616830475628376,
-0.2657569646835327,
0.4220777451992035,
-0.33728817105293274,
-0.3826456665992737,
-0.33477726578712463,
-0.8506352305412292,
-0.6468309164047241,
-0.20244693756103516,
-1.0543183088302612,
-0.2325974404811859,
-0.4783112406730652,
0.9385145306587219,
0.5129011273384094,
-0.3935271203517914,
0.015175580978393555,
-0.07012426853179932,
0.08205798268318176,
0.24558581411838531,
-0.19286371767520905,
0.33389967679977417,
0.10453315079212189,
0.23296807706356049,
-0.8431622385978699,
0.3309316635131836,
0.43887779116630554,
0.44259655475616455,
-0.37083131074905396,
0.11260181665420532,
-0.3415309190750122,
0.2799787223339081,
0.28260499238967896,
-0.32852283120155334,
-0.37896308302879333,
-0.09109009057283401,
0.5413935780525208,
0.4462641775608063,
0.12142682075500488,
-0.20022238790988922,
-0.09617376327514648,
0.44465482234954834,
0.4527612328529358,
0.3866908848285675,
-0.4018228352069855,
0.7485422492027283,
-0.7399535179138184,
0.22495214641094208,
-0.2849266231060028,
-0.3474796712398529,
0.17837239801883698,
0.2951689064502716,
0.010738246142864227,
0.3535400331020355,
-0.031064413487911224,
-0.5598109364509583,
0.4587130546569824,
0.11552945524454117,
0.23399224877357483,
0.29761266708374023,
-0.110527902841568,
-0.03497952222824097,
0.09681963920593262,
-0.056748729199171066,
0.28372013568878174,
0.5914189219474792,
0.25830987095832825,
0.015626970678567886,
-0.26871246099472046,
-0.38965460658073425,
0.8527106642723083,
-0.24199368059635162,
0.060690246522426605,
-0.2977086007595062,
0.7564516067504883,
0.14930889010429382
] |
260950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20the%20Philippines | List of cities in the Philippines | The following is a list of chartered cities in the Philippines. Philippine cities are classified into three groups: highly urbanized cities (), independent component cities (), and component cities ().
Classes
Highly urbanized cities are local government units autonomous from provinces that have a minimum population of 200,000 and an annual income of at least 50 million (in 1991 constant prices). Independent Component Cities are cities outside of provincial jurisdiction (although some are allowed to participate in the election of provincial officials) that have not yet attained the 'highly urbanized' status, while Component Cities are those under a province's jurisdiction. In addition, each city is classified into six income brackets according to income in a four-year period. For instance, First-class cities have an income of 400 million or more, while Sixth-class cities earn less than 80 million in a four-year period.
Each city is governed by both the Local Government Code of 1991 and the city's own municipal charter, under the laws of the Republic of the Philippines.
Map
List
There are 146 cities of the Philippines as of September 7, 2019. Thirty-three of these are highly urbanized cities (), five are independent component cities (), with the rest being component cities () of their respective provinces. City charter documents, if available, could be accessed by clicking on the related external link ( indicates Commonwealth Act, for Republic Act).
See also
List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines
List of metropolitan areas in the Philippines
References
External links
Philippine Standard Geographic Code (PSGC)
Philippines
Cities | [
0.21515682339668274,
0.19437719881534576,
-0.08121402561664581,
0.383099228143692,
-0.6066493391990662,
-0.1563349813222885,
0.027975866571068764,
1.5463132858276367,
-0.8170634508132935,
0.017280807718634605,
-0.10622022300958633,
0.25695130228996277,
0.025410160422325134,
0.22186754643917084,
0.21127532422542572,
0.023861225694417953,
0.6546492576599121,
0.8685122132301331,
-0.18681223690509796,
-0.5580018758773804,
-0.313203364610672,
-0.2303309440612793,
0.47673946619033813,
0.18893127143383026,
0.4837207794189453,
0.1305045634508133,
0.5161451101303101,
0.03537554293870926,
-0.32983818650245667,
0.028123807162046432,
0.22058194875717163,
0.6385135054588318,
-0.05147537961602211,
0.4578291177749634,
-0.05493513122200966,
-0.20802998542785645,
-0.005261786747723818,
-0.7266457080841064,
-0.16531071066856384,
-0.198867529630661,
-0.02577994391322136,
-0.39710354804992676,
0.14458605647087097,
0.4572153091430664,
0.3269532322883606,
-0.6587269902229309,
-1.6501526832580566,
-0.09370000660419464,
-1.002273440361023,
0.25531867146492004,
-0.6976394653320312,
-0.07646561414003372,
-0.012413021177053452,
0.4730278551578522,
0.11752882599830627,
0.7112568020820618,
-0.3216996192932129,
0.30972883105278015,
-0.5169386267662048,
0.20648591220378876,
0.40220993757247925,
0.31731629371643066,
0.11077409982681274,
0.262079656124115,
0.2938729524612427,
0.2188529372215271,
0.41252195835113525,
0.2676144242286682,
-0.36388587951660156,
0.04586165398359299,
-0.2213948667049408,
0.14719943702220917,
0.025210054591298103,
0.217397540807724,
-0.7346569299697876,
-0.31701546907424927,
-0.07880380749702454,
-0.07547386735677719,
-0.4314437210559845,
-0.6065186262130737,
-0.2361789047718048,
0.17307035624980927,
0.5262229442596436,
-0.5654678344726562,
0.3031145930290222,
0.034938931465148926,
-0.7001391649246216,
-0.4151928126811981,
-0.43748146295547485,
0.8456858992576599,
-0.2612241208553314,
0.4432300627231598,
0.4729281961917877,
0.2163037806749344,
-0.16232439875602722,
-0.37239840626716614,
-0.8185374140739441,
0.1256514936685562,
0.028468290343880653,
0.7372260689735413,
0.06836996972560883,
0.09411494433879852,
0.7339277863502502,
0.2397955358028412,
-0.5851194858551025,
-0.4502083361148834,
-0.4496999680995941,
0.4880060851573944,
-0.1378277838230133,
-0.4455655813217163,
-0.5136693716049194,
0.05200500786304474,
0.42827314138412476,
0.08248582482337952,
0.21362844109535217,
0.29514530301094055,
0.7548955082893372,
-0.07101212441921234,
-0.26920124888420105,
-0.569212019443512,
-0.3829304873943329,
0.6668077707290649,
0.018311113119125366,
-0.18579977750778198,
0.45894187688827515,
0.4604205787181854,
0.6485670208930969,
-0.010998954065144062,
0.2098691314458847,
0.6204238533973694,
-0.43347662687301636,
0.49073299765586853,
-0.27376705408096313,
-0.17906491458415985,
0.05814843252301216,
-0.6684560775756836,
-0.470348984003067,
0.6873910427093506,
0.008022287860512733,
-0.3236652910709381,
-0.9937924146652222,
0.16975176334381104,
-0.9448977112770081,
0.2110058218240738,
0.4810106158256531,
-0.2875029146671295,
-0.2994435429573059,
-0.750002384185791,
-0.7809277176856995,
0.26597344875335693,
-0.19510221481323242,
0.1364806592464447,
-0.19485749304294586,
0.8464117646217346,
-0.3096887767314911,
0.47037383913993835,
0.9902097582817078,
-0.3456094264984131,
0.49469515681266785,
0.5885294079780579,
0.02545786462724209,
-0.25102129578590393,
0.1375419646501541,
-0.38372156023979187,
-0.6128332614898682,
-0.106065534055233,
0.5391486287117004,
0.5006227493286133,
0.08790876716375351,
0.296054869890213,
-0.6989215016365051,
-0.18357063829898834,
-0.0863671600818634,
-0.8146421313285828,
0.007237452082335949,
-0.5115888714790344,
0.5647197365760803,
-0.020852889865636826,
-0.21556676924228668,
0.04575851559638977,
-0.9056665897369385,
0.19697636365890503,
0.016587765887379646,
-0.1372964233160019,
0.15930086374282837,
-0.15268008410930634,
0.6483567357063293,
0.4571141302585602,
0.09648965299129486,
0.2733123004436493,
0.4470727741718292,
-0.014299172908067703,
0.3733169436454773,
-0.3018437922000885,
0.467494398355484,
0.04470111057162285,
-0.28592291474342346,
0.4714794158935547,
-0.011765820905566216,
0.35127580165863037,
-0.6410703063011169,
-0.3383663296699524,
0.5837118029594421,
0.12529490888118744,
-0.726698100566864,
0.9336344599723816,
0.6186984181404114,
0.7629700303077698,
0.3369764983654022,
0.808028519153595,
0.5236256122589111,
-0.41506800055503845,
-0.16121825575828552,
-0.259004145860672,
0.20045818388462067,
-0.6176245808601379,
-0.2719464600086212,
-0.034444231539964676,
0.29107242822647095,
-0.4087158739566803,
1.3248889446258545,
0.1089494600892067,
0.1625782996416092,
0.5832627415657043,
0.21296367049217224,
0.5919367671012878,
-0.204421728849411,
0.023044349625706673,
0.7425749897956848,
-0.35120663046836853,
0.6428945660591125,
-0.4452712833881378,
0.5785990953445435,
-0.4774754047393799,
-0.33736926317214966,
-0.0759875476360321,
-0.5881764888763428,
-0.33644482493400574,
-0.22503291070461273,
0.10495013743638992,
0.1495128571987152,
0.19295421242713928,
-0.8246510028839111,
0.08010221272706985,
0.4688971936702728,
0.5013058185577393,
-0.6518223285675049,
-0.37359026074409485,
0.3530435562133789,
0.07225773483514786,
0.8761430382728577,
-0.15179580450057983,
0.1430377960205078,
-0.6769015192985535,
0.18168297410011292,
-0.04332462698221207,
-0.30691495537757874,
-0.3647194504737854,
0.2180992215871811,
-0.621010422706604,
-0.4977943003177643,
0.27910304069519043,
-0.07461362332105637,
0.7159866690635681,
-0.35659271478652954,
-0.4204035699367523,
0.20452789962291718,
-0.1550411731004715,
-0.30633988976478577,
0.2694639563560486,
0.25613340735435486,
-0.3160800337791443,
-0.589689314365387,
-0.9714773297309875,
0.6058786511421204,
-0.06677773594856262,
-0.17957308888435364,
0.5026953220367432,
-0.7811468243598938,
-0.19063319265842438,
-0.30295464396476746,
0.7901648879051208,
-0.09156033396720886,
-0.8139611482620239,
-0.3884319067001343,
-0.20234796404838562,
-0.12370062619447708,
-0.4116169810295105,
-0.08219393342733383,
-0.23887374997138977,
-0.46184638142585754,
-0.3575764000415802,
-0.28419020771980286,
-0.052328918129205704,
0.31761011481285095,
-0.4376981258392334,
0.17286011576652527,
0.14423412084579468,
0.010867265053093433,
-0.8603917360305786,
-0.33285123109817505,
0.03533291444182396,
-0.30172446370124817,
-0.28306782245635986,
0.1653819978237152,
0.3682912588119507,
-0.08357256650924683,
0.5406387448310852,
-5.321133613586426,
0.33197295665740967,
-0.2520753741264343,
-0.7960056066513062,
0.2590014636516571,
-0.4538172483444214,
0.25150546431541443,
-0.47727081179618835,
0.2498358190059662,
-0.21340389549732208,
-0.07439523190259933,
-0.1411774605512619,
-0.047147784382104874,
0.9446855187416077,
0.17252151668071747,
1.1202925443649292,
0.3396081030368805,
-0.3596171438694,
0.27797189354896545,
0.3061922490596771,
0.3102933168411255,
-0.37788984179496765,
0.07040470838546753,
0.4948509931564331,
0.30438873171806335,
0.35026225447654724,
-0.37283962965011597,
-0.0691753476858139,
-0.8366085886955261,
-0.13058963418006897,
-0.267469197511673,
-0.07971964031457901,
0.3321458399295807,
-0.33959391713142395,
-0.4950735569000244,
-0.0038657935801893473,
0.9499840140342712,
0.6348002552986145,
-0.17773911356925964,
-0.8571756482124329,
-0.6862982511520386,
0.09771723300218582,
-0.14906089007854462,
0.43849608302116394,
0.514460563659668,
-0.486003577709198,
-0.7867769002914429,
0.13420110940933228,
-0.3474326729774475,
0.8487756848335266,
0.13443103432655334,
0.06322265416383743,
0.6600726842880249,
0.21130023896694183,
-0.2705819606781006,
-0.8977825045585632,
0.525978147983551,
0.12447821348905563,
-0.7847752571105957,
0.44765233993530273,
0.5971139669418335,
0.26684150099754333,
-0.09374378621578217,
-0.6029279232025146,
0.2303924560546875,
-0.09005376696586609,
-0.6065109372138977,
-0.11654244363307953,
-0.032161351293325424,
-0.019960079342126846,
-0.5785253047943115,
0.2593366801738739,
-0.6350513696670532,
-0.9045537114143372,
0.19768637418746948,
-0.24209611117839813,
-0.436578631401062,
0.2855628728866577,
0.5169828534126282,
0.006551017984747887,
-0.5025798678398132,
0.3926006555557251,
-0.4137125313282013,
0.492727130651474,
-0.27087128162384033,
-0.25235751271247864,
-0.13490553200244904,
0.06680692732334137,
-0.3430585265159607,
-0.5113444328308105,
0.3367137312889099,
-0.21535547077655792,
0.6278589963912964,
0.7157151699066162,
0.31158238649368286,
0.2375059574842453,
0.5982748866081238,
-0.03644055500626564,
0.39928969740867615,
-0.7519761323928833,
0.564365804195404,
-0.002714228117838502,
-0.3701186776161194,
-0.1942346841096878,
-0.008023878559470177,
-0.4207257926464081,
0.16703857481479645,
0.7161151766777039,
-0.3548758924007416,
-0.5467941164970398,
-0.14048105478286743,
-0.11323148757219315,
-0.6300134062767029,
-0.4733443260192871,
0.7397922873497009,
0.1300896555185318,
-0.4731619656085968,
0.414350301027298,
0.2276209592819214,
0.3213435113430023,
0.19605888426303864,
0.33016857504844666,
0.19859595596790314,
0.6665014028549194,
-0.21328669786453247,
-0.5964139103889465,
-0.5407702922821045,
0.45158928632736206,
0.35533279180526733,
-0.19038279354572296,
0.42153042554855347,
0.5764022469520569,
0.6138639450073242,
0.10049738734960556,
-0.02754008024930954,
-0.11134503781795502,
0.0212409645318985,
-0.03919469192624092,
0.605104386806488,
-0.7653229832649231,
0.42765671014785767,
0.1578931212425232,
-0.23918743431568146,
0.06693357974290848,
0.24757498502731323,
0.26437023282051086,
-0.3051014244556427,
-0.06154782325029373,
-0.5152489542961121,
0.11501280218362808,
-0.1344715803861618,
-1.045925498008728,
0.30167534947395325,
-0.262793630361557,
-0.4862944781780243,
-0.2736701965332031,
0.3014290928840637,
0.5652757287025452,
-0.04211151972413063,
-0.47554847598075867,
0.4121038317680359,
-0.6216789484024048,
-0.5740095973014832,
0.6547184586524963,
0.06821781396865845,
-0.5728057026863098,
0.08281659334897995,
0.18051917850971222,
0.192836731672287,
1.1571671962738037,
0.6286351680755615,
0.35762494802474976,
-0.9172124862670898,
-0.14935146272182465,
0.1978338360786438,
-0.7859670519828796,
0.3765086233615875,
0.19477561116218567,
-0.06685322523117065,
0.09241917729377747,
-0.009843423031270504,
-0.5292739868164062,
-0.11446305364370346,
0.6049526929855347,
0.48321154713630676,
0.2689051628112793,
-0.3244406282901764,
-0.16083134710788727,
-0.38607022166252136,
0.23047038912773132,
0.23257344961166382,
0.4522082209587097,
-0.02527008205652237,
0.3246592879295349,
-0.6428074836730957,
-0.6790479421615601,
0.01858787052333355,
0.4537256956100464,
0.1253557652235031,
-0.27586403489112854,
0.10050217062234879,
0.6353312730789185,
-0.5892753601074219,
0.24302424490451813,
0.21396610140800476,
-0.2605810761451721,
0.009564508683979511,
0.2624059319496155,
-0.07306940108537674,
-0.19952313601970673,
-0.4696977138519287,
-0.2749623954296112,
-0.29102712869644165,
0.1730014532804489,
-0.2508106529712677,
-0.2623891532421112,
0.32691216468811035,
-0.5575441718101501,
-0.6621275544166565,
-0.2531221807003021,
0.2934563159942627,
0.12125323712825775,
0.03788583725690842,
-0.27619585394859314,
-0.037007059901952744,
1.3543674945831299,
0.3814690411090851,
-0.693687379360199,
0.3473229706287384,
-0.31589385867118835,
-0.10035106539726257,
-0.20401357114315033,
0.2059035748243332,
0.10278889536857605,
-0.48548486828804016,
0.24179743230342865,
-0.20442815124988556,
0.5933482050895691,
-0.31137534976005554,
0.23636886477470398,
-0.7468598484992981,
0.8097449541091919,
-0.0351979061961174,
-1.169492244720459,
-0.27817049622535706,
0.5263912081718445,
-0.06038180738687515,
-0.2745780348777771,
-0.45124587416648865,
0.18153783679008484,
-0.2209995985031128,
-0.696509063243866,
-0.4457910358905792,
-0.3826785683631897,
0.8189446926116943,
-0.14811086654663086,
-0.4164981245994568,
0.4663160741329193,
0.1761789321899414,
-0.148348867893219,
-0.01490958221256733,
-0.12390349805355072,
-0.3530274033546448,
0.4180121421813965,
0.2776588201522827,
-0.5313453078269958,
-0.36161258816719055,
-0.44933727383613586,
0.2996066212654114,
0.06649240106344223,
-0.41217032074928284,
-0.4748861491680145,
0.17505565285682678,
-0.10966379195451736,
0.3740503489971161,
-0.27149587869644165,
0.016513653099536896,
-0.4801139235496521,
0.5560520887374878,
-0.29757556319236755,
-0.6086413860321045,
0.1756114810705185,
-0.1055930033326149,
-0.26039010286331177,
0.299203097820282,
-0.4569260776042938,
-0.5898170471191406,
0.3077623248100281,
-0.45857083797454834,
0.43898677825927734,
-0.21951094269752502,
-0.31706562638282776,
-0.1759929209947586,
0.36109432578086853,
-0.253756582736969,
-0.02654421702027321,
0.45183125138282776,
0.20530155301094055,
-0.0006059212028048933,
0.22566291689872742,
-0.3291298747062683,
0.5376054644584656,
0.33953821659088135,
-0.07087000459432602,
0.4935064911842346,
0.18353858590126038,
0.2485695779323578,
-0.5597994327545166,
-0.4305945336818695,
-0.1832629144191742,
0.16699767112731934,
0.09648215025663376,
0.352222204208374,
0.7260711193084717,
-0.4311025142669678,
0.07779251784086227,
0.33512234687805176,
-0.9064129590988159,
0.29823216795921326,
0.6318838596343994,
-0.09201786667108536,
-0.4591509699821472,
-0.14094525575637817,
0.5943440794944763,
0.05706530436873436,
0.5960034728050232,
0.2749474048614502,
-0.7185484170913696,
0.6602593660354614,
-0.22704875469207764,
0.44538015127182007,
0.3688649535179138,
-0.7320855259895325,
0.23581662774085999,
-0.5782942771911621,
-0.24565060436725616,
0.04377830773591995,
-0.3449001908302307,
-0.3208639621734619,
0.27024874091148376,
0.4661619961261749,
0.4213535487651825,
-0.5327871441841125,
-0.017842374742031097,
-0.15912280976772308,
0.2333994358778,
-0.09658291935920715,
0.1928918957710266,
-0.04818965494632721,
-0.08387621492147446,
0.20926958322525024,
0.42239314317703247,
0.15936140716075897,
0.16807255148887634,
0.20824956893920898,
-0.009839464910328388,
-0.04354684054851532,
-0.10091635584831238,
0.08563882857561111,
-0.6908384561538696,
0.32297229766845703,
0.25031912326812744,
0.2079264372587204,
0.2966209948062897,
-0.09697224199771881,
-0.40345266461372375,
0.2829256057739258,
0.6138305068016052,
-0.840146541595459,
0.6837210655212402,
0.16756576299667358,
0.4893300235271454,
-0.4738679826259613,
-0.4541511535644531,
-0.07530543953180313,
0.6725819706916809,
-0.05876806750893593,
0.01779232546687126,
-0.08217738568782806,
-0.11395007371902466,
-0.38120731711387634,
0.37155768275260925,
-0.6557413339614868,
-0.6905987858772278,
-0.26728683710098267,
0.349634051322937,
-0.5219425559043884,
0.7754198908805847,
-0.00022867790539748967,
0.40403878688812256,
-0.41920843720436096,
0.060865141451358795,
0.22511854767799377,
0.7823370695114136,
-0.10692385584115982,
-0.051328789442777634,
-0.6696405410766602,
0.8017799258232117,
0.3398088216781616,
-0.35068976879119873,
-0.3018013834953308,
-0.14747114479541779,
0.09516739845275879,
0.13261930644512177,
-0.11204808950424194,
-0.07723316550254822,
-0.06204783543944359,
0.199828639626503,
0.04129508137702942,
0.37520071864128113,
-0.219601571559906,
0.5600075721740723,
-0.05746196582913399,
0.1385064572095871,
-0.3409404754638672,
0.8892896175384521,
0.804654061794281,
-0.13187123835086823,
-0.13639608025550842,
0.14639011025428772,
0.11788387596607208,
-0.6145955324172974,
-0.3716779947280884,
0.9218528866767883,
0.39589497447013855,
-0.4405486285686493,
0.15558496117591858,
0.4999264180660248,
-0.9525719881057739,
0.3979127109050751,
-0.06270777434110641,
-0.5595294833183289,
-0.30847108364105225,
0.06719750165939331,
-0.3491304814815521,
0.48681867122650146,
0.6073498725891113,
0.4310755729675293,
0.45096004009246826,
-0.06888043135404587,
-0.39620792865753174,
-0.08608453720808029,
0.31947439908981323,
0.024435069411993027,
-1.3412582874298096,
-0.22549721598625183,
0.08941225707530975,
0.3887856900691986,
-0.8588351607322693,
0.7727115750312805,
0.1111091822385788,
-0.2266610860824585,
0.4124017655849457,
-0.15153706073760986,
0.035350263118743896,
0.15138284862041473,
0.39325711131095886,
-0.44918951392173767,
0.7257068753242493,
-0.0379260815680027
] |
260951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creswell%20Crags | Creswell Crags | Creswell Crags is an enclosed limestone gorge on the border between Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, England, near the villages of Creswell and Whitwell. The cliffs in the ravine contain several caves that were occupied during the last ice age, between around 43,000 and 10,000 years ago. Its caves contain the northernmost cave art in Europe. The evidence of occupation found in the rich series of sediments that accumulated over many thousands of years is regarded as internationally unique in demonstrating how prehistoric people managed to live at the extreme northernmost limits of their territory during the Late Pleistocene period.
The caves contain occupation layers with evidence of flint tools from the Mousterian, proto-Solutrean, Creswellian and Maglemosian cultures. They were seasonally occupied by nomadic groups of people during the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. Evidence of Neolithic, Bronze Age, Roman and post-medieval activity has also been found there. There is evidence of Neanderthal occupation 50,000–60,000 years ago, a brief Gravettian occupation around 32,000 years ago and use of all the main caves during the Magdalenian around 14,000 years ago. The site is open to the public and has a visitor centre with a small museum of objects associated with the caves, including a stuffed cave hyena.
As a result of its unique features, Creswell Crags has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). It has also been put forward as a potential World Heritage Site.
In 2005–06, the B6042 road was re-routed from its path through the gorge, by approximately to the north, to minimise traffic impact on the site.
Neanderthal and Upper Palaeolithic occupation
Creswell Crags and Whitwell Gap
Before Creswell village was built around the colliery in the late 19th century, there were only farms around the entrance to the Crags. The local Anglo Saxon villages were Whitwell, Elmton and Thorpe (Salvin). Creswell was the name of the farm nearest to the colliery site, and so a drop-off point for materials used in the building of the colliery. At that time Creswell Crags was known locally as Whitwell Crags. The Crags may be what was referred to by the Anglo Saxon poets who recorded King Alfred's grandson, King Edmund, conquering the 5 boroughs from the Viking Earls in 942 AD, reaching as far as Dore and "Hwitan Wylles Geat" (the Whitwell Gap).
Caves
The most occupied caves were:
Mother Grundy's Parlour, which has produced numerous flint tools and split bones and was occupied until Mesolithic times.
Robin Hood's Cave, the location of a bone engraved with a horse's head and evidence that its occupants hunted and trapped woolly rhinoceros and Arctic hare.
The Pin Hole, the location of the Pinhole Cave Man, a human figure engraved on bone and discovered in the 1920s, and an ivory pin with etched lines.
Church Hole, with more than 80 engravings on its walls and occupied intermittently until Roman times.
Finds
A bone engraved with a horse's head and other worked bone items along with the remains of a variety of prehistoric animals have been found in excavations since 1876, including hyenas and hippopotami. The "Ochre Horse" was found on 29 June 1876 at the back of the western chamber in the Robin Hood Cave.
In 2003, the Ochre Horse was estimated to be between 11,000 and 13,000 years old.
Cave art
In April 2003, engravings and bas-reliefs were found on the walls and ceilings of some of the caves, an important find as it had previously been thought that no British cave art existed. The discoveries, made by Paul Bahn, Sergio Rippoll and Paul Pettitt, included an animal figure at first thought to be an ibex but later identified as a stag. Later finds included carvings on the ceiling of Church Hole Cave, the rarity of which made the site one of international importance.
To this day the finds at Creswell Crags represent the most northerly finds in Europe. Their subject matter includes representations of animals including bison and, arguably, several different bird species. Some workers, however, consider that the "bird" figures are more likely to be female anthropomorphs. The engravers seem to have made use of the naturally uneven cave surface in their carvings and it is likely that they relied on the early-morning sunlight entering the caves to illuminate the art.
Thin layers of calcium carbonate flowstone overlaying some of the engravings were dated using the uranium-series disequilibrium method, which showed the oldest of these flowstones to have formed at least 12,800 years ago. This provides a minimum age for the underlying engraving. The scientists and archaeologists concluded that it was most likely the engravings were contemporary with evidence for occupation at the site during the late glacial interstadial around 13,000–15,000 years ago. Most of the engravings are found in Church Hole Cave on the Nottinghamshire side of the gorge. Since this discovery, however, an engraved reindeer from a cave on the Gower Peninsula has yielded two minimum dates (through uranium-series dating) of 12,572 years BP and 14,505 years BP.
Not all of the figures identified as prehistoric art are in fact human made. An example given by archaeologists Paul Bahn and Paul Pettitt is the 'horse-head', Which they say is ""highly visible and resembles a heavily maned horse-head... lacks any trace of work: it is a combination of erosion, black stains for the head, and natural burrow cast reliefs for the mane." Others are a 'bison-head' which they think may be natural and a 'bear' image which "lacks any evidence of human work." Notwithstanding they believe that more figures may be discovered in the future.
The site was the subject of the BBC Radio 4 documentaries Unearthing Mysteries, Nature and Drawings on the Wall, and featured in the 2005 BBC Two television programme Seven Natural Wonders, as one of the wonders of the Midlands. In the Drawings on the Wall (Episode 1) Dr Paul Pettitt was interviewed about the so-called 'naked ladies' engravings in Church Hole Cave.
World Heritage Site nomination
Creswell Crags first applied for World Heritage Site status in 1986, but was unsuccessful. Since then further research and development has been carried out and, in 2011, it was again put forward for consideration. In 2012 it was added to the United Kingdom's 'tentative list' – an essential prerequisite to formal nomination, evaluation and potential inscription as a World Heritage Site. The Tentative List identifies the universal outstanding value of Creswell Crags as being:The outstanding landscape of a narrow limestone gorge containing a complex of caves having long-intact palaeoenvironmental cave and gorge sediment sequences, containing rich cultural archaeological remains as well as diverse animal bone, plant macro- and micro-fossil assemblages
In situ Palaeolithic rock art on the walls and ceilings of caves, dated directly to 13,000 years ago, providing direct cultural associations with Late Magdalenian human groups operating at extreme northern latitudes
In addition, Creswell Crags' significance has been enhanced by the discovery of a number of pieces of portable art made of engraved bone – the UK's only known figurative Ice Age art – as well as assemblages of bone, stone and ivory tools.
See also
William Boyd Dawkins
Hamburg culture
Ahrensburg culture
Palaeolithic art
Swanscombe
References
Further reading
Bahn, P. "The Cresswell Caves Rock Art", Appendix VII in: Beckensall, S., (2009), Prehistoric Rock Art in Britain, Stroud, Amberley Publishing, .
A. W. G. Pike, M. Gilmour, P. Pettitt, R. Jacobi, S. Ripoll, P. Bahn and F. Muñoz (2005) "Verification of the age of the Palaeolithic rock art at Creswell," Journal of Archaeological Science 32, 1649–1655.
External links
Creswell Crags website
BBC News article on the cave art
Listen to a BBC Radio 4 Programme – Unearthing Mysteries
Listen to a BBC Radio 4 Programme – Nature, The Animal Image
1876 archaeological discoveries
Archaeological sites in Derbyshire
Canyons and gorges of England
Caves of Derbyshire
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Derbyshire
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Nottinghamshire
Escarpments of England
Archaeological sites in England
2003 archaeological discoveries
Neanderthal sites
Scheduled monuments in Derbyshire
Scheduled monuments in Nottinghamshire
Paleoanthropological sites
Caves containing pictograms
Mousterian | [
-0.43386587500572205,
0.7320143580436707,
0.33274132013320923,
-0.7386496663093567,
-0.02604498527944088,
0.7288246750831604,
0.9990251064300537,
0.11268942058086395,
-0.4083325266838074,
0.20821239054203033,
-0.031407102942466736,
0.3152327537536621,
0.09000808745622635,
0.3513685166835785,
-0.599621057510376,
-0.14315013587474823,
0.06857366114854813,
0.3899335563182831,
0.4222739338874817,
-1.0727399587631226,
0.5998542308807373,
-0.7660881876945496,
-0.1183352917432785,
-0.03916609659790993,
0.2455320805311203,
0.2803705632686615,
0.6759738326072693,
-0.02287631668150425,
0.46587052941322327,
-0.07363106310367584,
0.18831153213977814,
1.0698339939117432,
-0.0561356320977211,
-1.0048637390136719,
0.4759408235549927,
0.09100470691919327,
0.4492337107658386,
-0.07806084305047989,
-0.3110780715942383,
-0.17397795617580414,
0.3385411202907562,
0.12815631926059723,
-0.4258621335029602,
0.4671882390975952,
-0.10244286805391312,
0.0828656479716301,
-0.9355342388153076,
-0.07493601739406586,
-0.37651923298835754,
-0.6405073404312134,
-0.6893084645271301,
1.2239476442337036,
0.12798722088336945,
0.08522449433803558,
0.608561635017395,
0.45201295614242554,
-0.3190630376338959,
0.17185573279857635,
0.8799516558647156,
0.215194970369339,
-0.20708046853542328,
0.49560225009918213,
-0.31268805265426636,
-0.2425297051668167,
-0.910629153251648,
0.3606400489807129,
0.2904362380504608,
0.7726884484291077,
-0.5436050891876221,
0.16936610639095306,
-0.34852293133735657,
0.02642200142145157,
0.35507842898368835,
0.3399927318096161,
-0.40686243772506714,
0.8296353816986084,
-0.47819167375564575,
0.19706061482429504,
-0.1432926505804062,
0.023576313629746437,
0.8937023878097534,
0.3864998519420624,
0.9259703159332275,
0.6727639436721802,
0.3624134957790375,
-0.035892512649297714,
-0.45812997221946716,
0.0007286045583896339,
-0.5163279175758362,
0.732622504234314,
-0.36533236503601074,
-0.09219136834144592,
-0.42345094680786133,
-0.215111643075943,
0.5173697471618652,
-0.2657858729362488,
0.07204192876815796,
0.007943034172058105,
0.060323771089315414,
0.3756765127182007,
0.11090927571058273,
0.37295809388160706,
0.08602454513311386,
-0.16967810690402985,
-0.4792453944683075,
0.18361328542232513,
-0.7587089538574219,
-0.2155086100101471,
0.060385365039110184,
0.18629023432731628,
-0.9104350805282593,
0.0026630668435245752,
-0.2573091685771942,
0.30846214294433594,
-0.23472024500370026,
0.10327456146478653,
0.40968161821365356,
-0.45067673921585083,
-0.06545696407556534,
-0.08461752533912659,
0.41955387592315674,
0.854342520236969,
-0.024852007627487183,
0.338055282831192,
0.2747291922569275,
0.2574833333492279,
0.35154080390930176,
-0.02062116749584675,
-0.30239996314048767,
0.40792033076286316,
-0.290549099445343,
0.5517298579216003,
0.2397868037223816,
-0.27534452080726624,
0.2217969298362732,
-0.8664514422416687,
0.013155268505215645,
0.03019554354250431,
0.5074637532234192,
1.197145700454712,
0.012787284329533577,
0.04720846936106682,
0.15083405375480652,
-0.3529292047023773,
0.9401241540908813,
0.03027912601828575,
-0.2596931755542755,
-1.1535866260528564,
-0.4495771825313568,
0.008411825634539127,
0.41198670864105225,
0.3348916471004486,
-0.009379971772432327,
-0.4776059091091156,
-0.42273351550102234,
0.680453896522522,
0.47634631395339966,
-0.28055229783058167,
0.028212688863277435,
-0.42805007100105286,
0.11081407964229584,
-0.15715022385120392,
-0.03734740987420082,
0.10932622849941254,
0.14361700415611267,
0.04139745980501175,
0.40072619915008545,
-0.6662040948867798,
-0.1697942167520523,
0.5479885935783386,
-0.6236255168914795,
0.06121397763490677,
0.7783297896385193,
-0.45167380571365356,
-0.17217080295085907,
-0.46325403451919556,
1.0950226783752441,
0.7909231185913086,
0.3131828010082245,
0.07162651419639587,
-0.6768478155136108,
0.13126863539218903,
-0.05164261907339096,
-0.19870935380458832,
-0.03560182452201843,
0.052665069699287415,
0.6426723003387451,
0.06749821454286575,
-0.09759791940450668,
-0.3411388397216797,
-0.5044834017753601,
-0.35602810978889465,
0.6721967458724976,
-0.31020084023475647,
1.901718020439148,
-0.13721542060375214,
-0.03353152051568031,
-0.06288158893585205,
-0.274777352809906,
0.5443664193153381,
-0.013692949898540974,
-0.14333690702915192,
0.29546505212783813,
-0.521968424320221,
-0.8450217843055725,
-0.32874709367752075,
0.08956990391016006,
-0.25446033477783203,
0.10455983877182007,
-0.3940090835094452,
-0.39313438534736633,
-0.36906611919403076,
-0.13395418226718903,
-0.11747889220714569,
-0.05536511912941933,
-0.2748569846153259,
0.19725629687309265,
0.33474743366241455,
0.3961695730686188,
-0.7570891976356506,
0.9194870591163635,
0.41559791564941406,
0.26679661870002747,
-0.04818084090948105,
-0.06375467777252197,
0.9035159945487976,
0.05894055217504501,
-0.14041532576084137,
-0.5243280529975891,
-1.0978329181671143,
-0.1619245558977127,
0.3615230321884155,
0.17718546092510223,
-0.22151008248329163,
0.16990287601947784,
-0.20367425680160522,
-0.3374529778957367,
-0.9089339971542358,
-0.1257997304201126,
-0.7808190584182739,
-0.1511688381433487,
0.30779191851615906,
-0.531984269618988,
0.6669177412986755,
0.2297297865152359,
0.40913277864456177,
0.4925662577152252,
0.8143327236175537,
-0.4216136336326599,
0.22726726531982422,
-0.19819201529026031,
0.6023107171058655,
0.26187610626220703,
0.36359530687332153,
0.10475226491689682,
-0.012203785590827465,
0.34969139099121094,
0.05015736445784569,
0.08141942322254181,
0.3953779637813568,
-0.10809261351823807,
-0.2093583047389984,
-0.330951988697052,
0.5459520816802979,
-0.10497188568115234,
-0.0640660896897316,
0.31517985463142395,
-0.8882254958152771,
0.4938761591911316,
-0.19028937816619873,
-0.04315447062253952,
-0.7262028455734253,
-0.17395219206809998,
0.68547523021698,
0.35916849970817566,
0.11332288384437561,
0.3773520588874817,
-0.06496626883745193,
-0.32177725434303284,
-0.03369922935962677,
0.34888941049575806,
0.7215350270271301,
0.05321602150797844,
0.06869038194417953,
-0.40818342566490173,
0.2864031493663788,
0.3617481291294098,
-0.3612532913684845,
-0.1480391025543213,
-0.06615456193685532,
-0.10734236240386963,
1.0105746984481812,
0.05385947600007057,
0.3672619163990021,
-0.7321968674659729,
0.6358807682991028,
-0.3346485495567322,
0.2638629376888275,
0.8118681907653809,
-0.15999649465084076,
0.04374128580093384,
0.6631547808647156,
-0.7746661305427551,
-0.11460833251476288,
0.2766653895378113,
-0.30982235074043274,
-0.49963298439979553,
-0.7572021484375,
-5.2088236808776855,
0.6981802582740784,
0.16233417391777039,
-0.4009978473186493,
0.6095260977745056,
0.3602444529533386,
0.026104340329766273,
-0.6310823559761047,
-0.6550540328025818,
0.3401573896408081,
0.2941018342971802,
-0.22524741291999817,
-0.23288068175315857,
0.5424599051475525,
0.605559229850769,
0.6110773086547852,
0.3102584779262543,
0.10762132704257965,
0.36786913871765137,
-0.20151947438716888,
-0.04369092360138893,
0.1693461537361145,
0.05115818977355957,
-0.12286341935396194,
0.08531688898801804,
0.5456530451774597,
-0.5222705602645874,
-0.5363972783088684,
-0.791333019733429,
-0.07047708332538605,
0.31454843282699585,
-0.19065824151039124,
0.07321454584598541,
0.45403432846069336,
-0.845694363117218,
0.08966071903705597,
0.2610141932964325,
-0.00610598549246788,
0.6053034663200378,
-0.43061497807502747,
-0.39833471179008484,
0.373957097530365,
-0.4233509302139282,
-0.2089105248451233,
0.9592170119285583,
-0.2057156264781952,
-0.5564020276069641,
-0.231003999710083,
-0.21611939370632172,
0.8025011420249939,
-0.1424049735069275,
0.001829751767218113,
0.8389040231704712,
-0.32457607984542847,
0.17068374156951904,
-0.029293449595570564,
0.47937798500061035,
0.019888339564204216,
-0.46395227313041687,
0.5653238892555237,
-0.29991528391838074,
-0.3419418931007385,
-0.3895178437232971,
-0.5867360234260559,
-0.3350623846054077,
-0.5650563836097717,
-0.19217801094055176,
0.23821228742599487,
0.20938892662525177,
0.26894283294677734,
-0.08823585510253906,
0.04109105095267296,
-0.4734954535961151,
-0.5461744666099548,
0.005229275673627853,
-0.7569087147712708,
0.15979187190532684,
0.018731925636529922,
0.04724588990211487,
0.5979648232460022,
-0.33810779452323914,
-0.23023363947868347,
0.17084760963916779,
0.4551244378089905,
0.2951643764972687,
-0.41889646649360657,
-0.453545480966568,
-0.3920314908027649,
-0.06485558301210403,
-1.301214575767517,
-0.016970660537481308,
-0.794542133808136,
0.023735543712973595,
0.5093500018119812,
-0.17235994338989258,
0.42953571677207947,
0.03924476355314255,
0.16896788775920868,
0.07874079048633575,
-0.08742909878492355,
0.21420298516750336,
-0.2821842432022095,
0.18667368590831757,
-0.2628839910030365,
-0.5314958691596985,
-0.8003401160240173,
-0.09655238687992096,
0.2846671938896179,
0.2953261733055115,
-0.25417399406433105,
0.01740526221692562,
-0.3176911175251007,
-0.8213172554969788,
-0.14336392283439636,
-0.5314667820930481,
-0.2704055607318878,
-0.3749220371246338,
0.0365770198404789,
0.25593000650405884,
0.23176701366901398,
0.2345382273197174,
0.5701906085014343,
0.2052232027053833,
-0.530722975730896,
-0.1564996838569641,
-0.2027316838502884,
0.7080684900283813,
0.21527047455310822,
-0.4246266186237335,
0.39554542303085327,
-0.19177654385566711,
-0.1490243673324585,
-0.0437680259346962,
-0.09126745909452438,
0.09647350758314133,
0.06126769632101059,
-0.46209844946861267,
-0.31035590171813965,
0.15446744859218597,
0.590356171131134,
0.8584257364273071,
0.3619724214076996,
-0.2939755320549011,
0.18345916271209717,
0.574480414390564,
0.39725273847579956,
-0.2513658106327057,
0.027248870581388474,
-0.9395370483398438,
0.49367377161979675,
-0.6884710192680359,
0.31087079644203186,
-0.636970043182373,
-0.8550687432289124,
0.7396532893180847,
-0.5176888704299927,
-0.37402719259262085,
0.361465722322464,
-0.10221496969461441,
-0.43595725297927856,
-0.032137494534254074,
0.23048633337020874,
-0.7028293609619141,
0.48104217648506165,
-0.23727308213710785,
-0.4647510349750519,
-0.3876626789569855,
-0.29379114508628845,
-0.6604613661766052,
0.2703551948070526,
0.4048914611339569,
-0.29265084862709045,
-0.26805469393730164,
0.08288963884115219,
-0.19019712507724762,
0.13919466733932495,
-0.13178035616874695,
0.19888439774513245,
-0.1457674652338028,
-0.024482207372784615,
-0.5028475522994995,
-0.010805889032781124,
0.04131782054901123,
-0.26560813188552856,
0.23338665068149567,
-0.508701503276825,
-0.7333714365959167,
0.24931226670742035,
0.34169167280197144,
-0.4561125338077545,
0.39505934715270996,
-0.38436177372932434,
0.422044575214386,
0.08685344457626343,
0.13161002099514008,
-0.27354323863983154,
0.3144559860229492,
0.19481949508190155,
0.2172500640153885,
-0.5839216709136963,
-0.10737989097833633,
-0.02786119468510151,
-0.5578747391700745,
0.7914836406707764,
0.4368702471256256,
-0.8540950417518616,
0.1893206238746643,
0.884343683719635,
-0.5977181792259216,
0.7687554955482483,
-0.3563131093978882,
-1.2309504747390747,
0.19350484013557434,
0.22784169018268585,
-0.477177232503891,
-0.12784551084041595,
0.14540477097034454,
0.2547507584095001,
-0.14745287597179413,
-0.30707868933677673,
-0.02525204047560692,
-0.42548465728759766,
-0.613191545009613,
-0.07456181943416595,
-0.947789192199707,
0.17203927040100098,
0.4033413827419281,
-0.27994388341903687,
0.6305651664733887,
-0.678188681602478,
-0.4366922378540039,
-0.19094440340995789,
0.5727850794792175,
0.5020152926445007,
0.393709272146225,
0.1278221607208252,
-0.18107470870018005,
-0.03390957787632942,
0.5961052179336548,
0.20663584768772125,
0.007214994635432959,
1.4453526735305786,
0.7170107960700989,
-0.6352046728134155,
-0.25857043266296387,
0.7966738939285278,
0.45020943880081177,
-0.6035141348838806,
-0.8996586203575134,
0.26807984709739685,
0.31747519969940186,
-0.39150065183639526,
-0.32042092084884644,
-0.36629459261894226,
0.6697089076042175,
0.16766135394573212,
-0.015431271865963936,
-0.08772458136081696,
0.2112143635749817,
-0.008389944210648537,
-0.004079014528542757,
-0.1712389588356018,
-0.19735100865364075,
0.19294437766075134,
0.4441681206226349,
-0.4288698732852936,
0.024481790140271187,
-0.5533270239830017,
0.04489873722195625,
-0.6991714835166931,
0.18266010284423828,
-0.0384456031024456,
-0.5080769062042236,
-0.11578696221113205,
-0.49910470843315125,
0.5574475526809692,
0.26847293972969055,
-1.0558345317840576,
0.07563286274671555,
-0.41687703132629395,
-0.5808619260787964,
-0.2595524489879608,
0.2298768162727356,
-0.3056001365184784,
0.1822856068611145,
-0.20675937831401825,
0.09847376495599747,
-0.4104880094528198,
-0.05112912133336067,
0.0760277584195137,
-0.5011736154556274,
0.050260353833436966,
-0.2225579023361206,
-0.3267349600791931,
0.38746121525764465,
0.2968534231185913,
0.35642924904823303,
0.09478858858346939,
-0.23193849623203278,
-0.017768144607543945,
-0.5167617201805115,
0.7538573145866394,
-0.08256743103265762,
-0.7672389149665833,
0.1245572417974472,
0.1916249841451645,
-0.4546355903148651,
-0.7431989908218384,
0.20824582874774933,
0.20083816349506378,
-0.22026894986629486,
0.5080634951591492,
0.11463191360235214,
0.8769335150718689,
-0.5524312853813171,
-0.5618394017219543,
-0.09510421752929688,
-0.7437362670898438,
0.2181326001882553,
0.4641420841217041,
-0.20392660796642303,
0.33366164565086365,
0.7501502633094788,
0.28540685772895813,
-0.41628146171569824,
1.1533559560775757,
-0.8198659420013428,
0.1048741415143013,
-0.2435949593782425,
0.5909498929977417,
-0.2256694734096527,
-0.8736518025398254,
-0.5155693292617798,
-0.167749285697937,
0.1660880297422409,
-1.0170162916183472,
-0.26538047194480896,
-0.290650874376297,
-0.10915643721818924,
0.328821063041687,
-0.1647239774465561,
0.07094282656908035,
0.15364766120910645,
-0.06607042253017426,
-0.5100567936897278,
0.09852460771799088,
0.39794450998306274,
0.228163942694664,
-0.3958308696746826,
-0.005375544540584087,
0.36391010880470276,
0.18578341603279114,
-0.14217832684516907,
-0.1197030171751976,
0.23587459325790405,
0.6094104647636414,
0.31562480330467224,
0.4276445209980011,
-0.972137451171875,
0.6759041547775269,
0.4364502727985382,
0.5390017628669739,
-0.08312452584505081,
-0.1615697145462036,
-0.43744921684265137,
-0.036797020584344864,
0.3178246021270752,
-0.11909611523151398,
-0.2998259663581848,
0.5175304412841797,
0.27922043204307556,
0.2358546406030655,
-0.08265788853168488,
0.18170306086540222,
-0.44987642765045166,
-0.4600884020328522,
-0.20924478769302368,
0.5538500547409058,
0.18019559979438782,
-0.5114123821258545,
0.007978705689311028,
0.40149474143981934,
0.09318166226148605,
-0.46346521377563477,
0.9839717149734497,
-0.4077671766281128,
-0.21051742136478424,
0.31942397356033325,
-0.26689720153808594,
-0.5543521046638489,
0.04222213476896286,
0.57546067237854,
-0.09617788344621658,
-0.027102485299110413,
-0.6822546720504761,
-0.18187962472438812,
0.3932732343673706,
1.0468780994415283,
0.4861685335636139,
0.053174976259469986,
0.22036466002464294,
0.19891709089279175,
-0.42006543278694153,
0.2528511583805084,
-0.3066127300262451,
0.31604066491127014,
-0.485656201839447,
-0.17977380752563477,
0.12500430643558502,
0.35843637585639954,
0.3188362419605255,
0.4424591660499573,
-0.34837019443511963,
0.46106600761413574,
-0.2733648717403412,
0.2824009954929352,
0.28645461797714233,
-0.047757912427186966,
-0.14861313998699188,
-0.6300339698791504,
0.07407312095165253,
-0.15510332584381104,
0.6389397978782654,
-0.045544564723968506,
0.5278149247169495,
0.12845130264759064,
0.20196279883384705,
-0.6345797777175903,
-0.5621647238731384,
0.284168541431427,
-0.12301009893417358,
-0.12751396000385284,
-0.43545979261398315,
0.3337649703025818,
-0.2749958336353302,
-0.5854207277297974,
0.27431222796440125,
0.695359468460083,
0.4146302342414856,
-0.5443196296691895,
-0.007495270110666752,
-0.45869889855384827,
0.5632653832435608,
0.12182089686393738,
0.5807337760925293,
0.14127753674983978,
-0.42054125666618347,
-1.0377681255340576,
-0.6156899929046631,
0.20311276614665985,
0.7257663011550903,
-0.13002681732177734,
0.04328777268528938,
-0.5520890951156616,
-0.1526557356119156,
-0.7730097770690918,
-0.22330635786056519,
-0.24476300179958344,
-0.282335102558136,
-0.5316545963287354
] |
260952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle%20Starr | Belle Starr | Myra Maybelle Shirley Reed Starr (February 5, 1848 – February 3, 1889), better known as Belle Starr, was an American outlaw who gained national notoriety after her violent death.
She associated with the James–Younger Gang and other outlaws. She was convicted of horse theft in 1883. She was fatally shot in 1889 in a case that is still officially unsolved. Her story was popularized by Richard K. Fox — editor and publisher of the National Police Gazette — and she later became a popular character in television and films.
Early life
Belle Starr was born Myra Maybelle Shirley on her father's farm near Carthage, Missouri, on February 5, 1848. Most of her family members called her May. Her father, John Shirley, prospered raising wheat, corn, hogs and horses, though he was considered to be the "black sheep" of a well-to-do Virginia family which had moved west to Indiana, where he married and divorced twice. Her mother, Elizabeth "Eliza" Hatfield Shirley, was John Shirley's third wife and a distant relative to the Hatfields of the famous family feud. In the 1860s, Belle's father sold the farm and moved the family to Carthage, where he bought a livery stable and blacksmith shop on the town square.
May Shirley received a classical education and learned piano, while graduating from Missouri's Carthage Female Academy, a private institution that her father had helped to found.
During the Civil War
May's brother, John A. M. "Bud" Shirley, six years older than she, was active in Jasper County among the irregular forces known as bushwhackers, guerilla bands organized to resist the federal troops who had been sent to compel Missouri to join the war against the Confederacy. May was reputed to have actively supported her brother in these efforts, perhaps as a spy, but exactly how and to what extent is obscured by the much-embroidered Belle Starr legend. Bud Shirley was killed by federal troops in late June 1864. Soon after,sick at heart over Bud’s death and his business ruined by the theft and destruction, [John Shirley] disposed of his property, loaded his family and household goods into two Conestoga wagons, and set out for Texas ... Shirley’s destination was Scyene, a small settlement ten miles southeast of Dallas. Myra [May], a dutiful daughter, drove one of the wagons.
After the Civil War
Following the war, members of the Reed family also moved to Texas and, according to Collin County marriage records, James C. Reed and Mira [sic] M. Shirley were married there on November 1, 1866. Two years later, she gave birth to her first child, Rosie Lee (nicknamed Pearl). Belle always harbored a strong sense of style, which fed into her later legend. A crack shot, she used to ride sidesaddle while dressed in a black velvet riding habit and a plumed hat, carrying two pistols, with cartridge belts across her hips. Reed turned to crime and was wanted for murder in Arkansas, which caused the family to move to California, where their second child, James Edwin (Eddie), was born in 1871.
Later returning to Texas, Reed was involved with several criminal gangs. While Reed initially tried his hand at farming, he would grow restless and fell in with bad company—the Starr clan, a Cherokee Indian family notorious for whiskey, cattle, and horse thievery in the Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), as well as his wife's old friends the James and Younger gangs. In April 1874, despite a lack of any evidence, a warrant was issued for her arrest for a stagecoach robbery by her husband and others. Reed was killed in August of that year in Paris, Texas, where he had settled down with his family.
Marriage to Sam Starr
Allegedly, Belle was briefly married for three weeks to Charles Younger, uncle of Cole Younger in 1878, but this is not substantiated by any evidence. There are numerous claims that Belle's daughter Pearl Reed was actually Pearl Younger, but in Cole Younger's autobiography (quoted in Glen Shirley's "Belle Starr and her times"), he discounted that as rubbish and stated what he knew truly of Belle.
In 1880, she married a Cherokee man named Sam Starr and settled with the Starr family in the Indian Territory. There, she learned ways of organizing, planning and fencing for the rustlers, horse thieves and bootleggers, as well as harboring them from the law. Belle's illegal enterprises proved lucrative enough for her to employ bribery to free her colleagues from the law whenever they were caught.
In 1883, Belle and Sam were arrested by Bass Reeves, charged with horse theft and tried before "The Hanging Judge" Isaac Parker in Fort Smith, Arkansas; the prosecutor was United States Attorney W.H.H. Clayton. She was found guilty and served nine months at the Detroit House of Corrections in Detroit, Michigan. Belle proved to be a model prisoner, and during her time in jail, she won the respect of the prison matron. In contrast, Sam was incorrigible and assigned to hard labor.
In 1886, she eluded conviction on another theft charge, but on December 17, Sam Starr was involved in a gunfight with his cousin Law Officer Frank West. Both men were killed, and Belle's life as an outlaw queen—and what had been the happiest relationship of her life—abruptly ended with her husband's death.
By her marriage to Sam Starr, she was an aunt to Henry Starr.
Unsolved murder
For the last 2+ years of her life, gossips and scandal sheets linked her to a series of men with colorful names, including Jack Spaniard, Jim French and Blue Duck, after which, in order to keep her residence on Indian land, she married a relative of Sam Starr, Jim July Starr, who was some 15 years younger than she was.
On February 3, 1889, two days before her 41st birthday, she was killed. She was riding home from a neighbor's house when she was ambushed. After she fell off her horse, she was shot again to make sure she was dead. Her death resulted from shotgun wounds to the back and neck and in the shoulder and face. Legend says she was shot with her own double-barrel shotgun.
According to Frank "Pistol Pete" Eaton, her death was due to different circumstances. She had been attending a dance. Frank Eaton had been the last person to dance with Belle Starr when Edgar Watson, clearly intoxicated, had asked to dance with her. When Belle Starr declined, he later followed her. When she stopped to give her horse a drink at a creek on the way home, he shot and killed her. According to Frank Eaton, Watson was tried, convicted, and executed by hanging for the murder.
However, another story says that there were no witnesses and that no one ever was convicted of the murder. Suspects with apparent motive included her new husband and both of her children as well as Edgar J. Watson, one of her sharecroppers, because he was afraid she was going to turn him in to the authorities as an escaped murderer from Florida with a price on his head. Watson, who was killed in 1910, was tried for her murder, but was acquitted, and the ambush has entered Western lore as "unsolved".
One source suggests her son, whom she had allegedly beaten for mistreating her horse, may have been her killer.
Story becomes popularized
Although an obscure figure outside Texas throughout most of her life, Belle's story was picked up by the dime novel and National Police Gazette publisher Richard K. Fox, who made her name famous with his novel Bella Starr, the Bandit Queen, or the Female Jesse James, published in 1889 (the year of her murder). This novel still is cited as a historical reference. It was the first of many popular stories that used her name.
Children
Eddie Reed, Belle's son, was convicted of horse theft and receiving stolen property in July 1889. Judge Parker sent him to prison in Columbus, Ohio. Rosie Reed, Belle's daughter, also known as Pearl Starr, became a prostitute to raise funds for Eddie's release. She eventually obtained a presidential pardon in 1893. Eddie became a deputy in Fort Smith and killed two outlaw brothers named Crittenden in 1895, and was himself killed in a saloon in Claremore, Oklahoma on December 14, 1896.
Pearl operated several bordellos in Van Buren and Fort Smith, Arkansas, from the 1890s to World War I.
See also
List of unsolved murders
Appearances in the arts
Movies and television series
She was portrayed by Betty Compson in a 1928 silent film Court Martial.
In a 1938 Hopalong Cassidy movie Heart of Arizona she was portrayed by Natalie Moorhead.
Sally Payne appeared as Belle Starr in the Roy Rogers western Robin Hood of the Pecos (1941).
Gene Tierney played the title role in the big-budget film Belle Starr (1941). It made no pretense to accuracy but was a success, and it increased Hollywood's interest in the character. In three equally fictionalized treatments, Isabel Jewell played Starr in Badman's Territory and Daughter of Belle Starr (both 1946), and Jane Russell played the role in Montana Belle (1952).
In 1954, former Miss Utah Marie Windsor played Starr in the premiere episode of Jim Davis's television series Stories of the Century.
In 1957, Jeanne Cooper, later a soap opera star, played Belle Starr in an episode of Dale Robertson's Tales of Wells Fargo. In this episode, Starr calls herself Mrs. Reed. There is mention of "Hanging Judge" Isaac Parker, and the episode makes mention of his sentencing Starr to a comparatively short prison term in a correctional facility at Detroit. In 1960, Cooper again played Belle Starr in an episode of the TV series Bronco titled "Shadow of Jesse James".
In 1959, Jean Willes portrayed Starr in the Maverick episode "Full House" opposite James Garner.
In 1960, Lynn Bari played Belle in the premiere episode, titled "Perilous Passage", of the short-lived NBC western Overland Trail.
In 1961, Carole Mathews appeared as Belle in "A Bullet for the D.A.", an episode of Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews.
In 1965, Sally Starr, a television host from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, played the character for laughs in The Three Stooges' feature film The Outlaws Is Coming.
In 1968, Elsa Martinelli starred as Belle Starr in The Belle Starr Story, a Spaghetti Western directed by Lina Wertmüller.
In 1975, Brooke Tucker appeared as Belle Starr alongside Marty Ingels as Billy the Kid in "They Went Thataway", the ninth episode of The Ghost Busters.
In 1977, Florence Henderson appeared as Belle Starr in Storybook Squares, a version of Hollywood Squares for children.
Elizabeth Montgomery portrayed Belle in the 1980 television movie Belle Starr, made by Hanna-Barbera.
Pamela Reed portrayed Belle Starr in the 1980 Hollywood film The Long Riders.
In 1995, Belle Starr was portrayed in season 3 of Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman in an episode titled "Baby Outlaws" as a 14-year-old outlaw who falls under the care of the good doctor and her family. This episode takes place in 1870, when Belle actually would have been 22.
In 2007, independent filmmaker Ron Maxwell optioned the film rights to novelist Speer Morgan's 1979 book Belle Starr. In the December 2008 issue of Chronicles: A Magazine of American Culture, Maxwell is mentioned as being the director of a forthcoming film titled Belle Starr.
The 2010 film Bass Reeves is a fictionalized version of lawman Bass Reeves's life, and it features a depiction of Belle Starr.
In the 2013 series 'Quick Draw!, a fictionalized account of Belle Starr portrays her as the deceased spouse of the protagonist Sheriff John Henry Hoyle. She is referenced as wife to Cole Younger and Sam Starr. Arden Myrin appears in two episodes as Belle Starr, and Alexia Dox appears as Pearl Starr as a series regular.
A late 2014 episode of The Pinkertons features Sheila Campbell as Belle Carson at the beginning of Belle's exploits as an outlaw (highly fictionalized, with the name Belle Starr as her fantasy persona and an affair with Jesse James in Kansas City).
Amber Sweet plays Belle Starr in the 2019 film Hell on the Border, written and directed by Wes Miller.
Literature and music
Woody Guthrie wrote a song titled "Belle Starr."
Emmylou Harris and Mark Knopfler's 2006 collaboration All the Roadrunning features a track titled "Belle Starr," written by Harris.
Sissy Spacek wrote the song "Some Small Crime" about Starr and sang it with Levon Helm on The Midnight Special in 1980.
The 'ghost of Belle Starr' is mentioned in "Tombstone Blues" on Bob Dylan's album Highway 61 Revisited (1965). Belle Starr is mentioned by Dylan in the lyrics of "Seeing The Real You at Last" on the album Empire Burlesque (1985).
Belle Starr (1979) was the first novel of American author and editor Speer Morgan.
The Legend of Belle Starr (1979) was a historical novel by Stoney Hardcastle.
The unsolved murder of Belle Starr is the basis for the Douglas C. Jones novel The Search for Temperance Moon (1991). A character based on Pearl Starr, Belle's daughter, is featured as a bordello owner in Fort Smith, Arkansas.
Pulp western author J.T. Edson featured Belle Starr in several of his Floating Outfit series of novels as the love interest of Mark Counter, one of the three lead protagonists in the series. Edson's novel Guns in the Night features Belle Starr's being murdered when pregnant with Mark Counter's child after which the Floating Outfit team to catch her murderer.
One of the more distinctive adaptations of the legend of Belle Starr was made by the Japanese manga artist Akihiro Ito, who in 1993 created a manga known as Belle Starr Bandits, loosely based on historical figures, facts and events. She had an appearance in the manga Gun Blaze West from Nobuhiro Watsuki, as one of J.J.'s (Jesse James) gang members.
Belle Starr appeared as a caricature in the 1995 Belle Starr album of the Lucky Luke comics series, illustrated by Morris and written by Xavier Fauche.
The 2009 historical novel The Branch and the Scaffold by Loren D. Estleman deals in part with Belle Starr's life in the Indian Nations as her path crossed that of Judge Isaac Parker.
Peter Mattheissen's historical fiction (The Killing of Mr. Watson Trilogy and now Shadow Country) includes the story of E.J. Watson's murdering Belle Starr.
American country singer Michael Martin Murphey sings about Belle Starr's life in a song titled "Belle Star" on his album Cowboy Songs III: Rhymes of the Renegades.
The band Rival Sons recorded the song "Belle Starr" as the eighth song on their 2014 album, Great Western Valkyrie.
References
Further reading
External links
Detailed biography of Belle Starr
Belle Starr, Article by Richard D. Arnott
Belle Starr esoteric biography at 4dbios
1848 births
1889 deaths
1889 murders in the United States
19th-century American criminals
19th-century American women
American bootleggers
American female organized crime figures
American murder victims
American outlaws
Deaths by firearm in Oklahoma
Female murder victims
Gunslingers of the American Old West
Hatfield family
James–Younger Gang
Outlaws of the American Old West
People from Carthage, Missouri
People from Dallas
People from Oklahoma
People murdered in Oklahoma
Unsolved murders in the United States | [
0.3964523673057556,
-0.4134237766265869,
-1.0466117858886719,
-0.06181878596544266,
0.41575661301612854,
0.2792357802391052,
1.2034708261489868,
-0.13726338744163513,
-0.19877511262893677,
-0.1093086525797844,
0.3950692415237427,
0.5077990889549255,
-0.5815475583076477,
0.5337876677513123,
-0.9199729561805725,
0.3448123335838318,
0.22001191973686218,
0.12279494851827621,
-0.06031244620680809,
-0.3873152732849121,
0.24556733667850494,
-0.5175801515579224,
0.46758008003234863,
0.2310713827610016,
0.16788801550865173,
0.36273765563964844,
-0.6161972880363464,
-0.1901339739561081,
0.15312379598617554,
0.5683363080024719,
-0.4824645519256592,
0.2253759652376175,
0.9972217082977295,
0.15553775429725647,
-0.9740518927574158,
0.5621246695518494,
-0.42566874623298645,
-0.16715680062770844,
-0.6339967250823975,
0.40521880984306335,
-0.5609197616577148,
-0.3603968322277069,
0.15804272890090942,
-0.23258189857006073,
0.21171683073043823,
-0.36600449681282043,
-1.5031228065490723,
0.260541170835495,
-0.26441827416419983,
-0.5267499089241028,
-0.16732382774353027,
0.9325666427612305,
-0.22329197824001312,
0.3603460490703583,
0.24246588349342346,
0.22755219042301178,
-0.17897936701774597,
-0.30759143829345703,
-0.017802495509386063,
-0.17208081483840942,
0.002280967077240348,
0.08867716044187546,
0.8091325163841248,
-0.337952196598053,
0.18881264328956604,
0.5515598654747009,
0.031198900192975998,
0.35307037830352783,
0.14553740620613098,
-0.23196274042129517,
0.3530149459838867,
0.7778041958808899,
0.6344696879386902,
0.05717962607741356,
-0.16727279126644135,
0.051130324602127075,
0.19108213484287262,
-0.42079880833625793,
0.2414398044347763,
0.35830003023147583,
0.007479098625481129,
-0.3505614995956421,
0.5930221676826477,
0.6445779800415039,
0.020118430256843567,
-0.2927401661872864,
-0.8609693050384521,
0.01995611935853958,
-0.018389688804745674,
0.3069319725036621,
-0.061076849699020386,
-0.05074261873960495,
-0.09466288238763809,
0.2135981172323227,
-0.27590665221214294,
0.04435083642601967,
0.3435911238193512,
0.3967805504798889,
-0.355380654335022,
-0.30140042304992676,
0.10425412654876709,
-0.5519177317619324,
0.23158542811870575,
0.004497596528381109,
0.23038199543952942,
0.18950282037258148,
0.3977903723716736,
-0.14897353947162628,
0.40587955713272095,
-0.33340492844581604,
-0.3709474802017212,
0.22823913395404816,
0.2517560124397278,
-0.40166616439819336,
0.058507196605205536,
-0.08883428573608398,
0.20294764637947083,
-0.34205061197280884,
0.05143420770764351,
-0.628331184387207,
0.13018453121185303,
-0.506624162197113,
-0.021866871044039726,
0.2952900230884552,
-0.2617744505405426,
-0.08011791110038757,
-0.1772119402885437,
0.16611088812351227,
0.34980106353759766,
0.6551501750946045,
0.6428033709526062,
0.5348479747772217,
-0.22545406222343445,
-0.22807994484901428,
-0.2123497873544693,
-0.20792140066623688,
-0.1404678374528885,
0.0017881537787616253,
-0.11438246071338654,
0.03213489055633545,
-0.7761988043785095,
0.3759298026561737,
-0.46758684515953064,
0.14917819201946259,
0.6365574598312378,
-0.17342384159564972,
0.04223848506808281,
0.07871566712856293,
-0.6216678023338318,
-0.31573235988616943,
-0.0321616493165493,
-0.2786088287830353,
0.09542741626501083,
-0.49370673298835754,
-0.2748962342739105,
0.3011966347694397,
0.22936950623989105,
-0.3795187771320343,
-0.18628324568271637,
-0.011952205561101437,
-0.2685866951942444,
0.2883966267108917,
0.05863172188401222,
-0.010121315717697144,
0.4631398320198059,
-0.23229385912418365,
0.4356977939605713,
-0.29161345958709717,
-0.39151570200920105,
0.20832283794879913,
-0.32977503538131714,
0.5701147317886353,
0.39864423871040344,
0.061795562505722046,
-0.876908540725708,
0.11312735080718994,
-0.020572664216160774,
0.19775962829589844,
-0.2766968905925751,
-0.272052139043808,
-0.5456396341323853,
0.26659390330314636,
-0.03128257393836975,
-0.1287069171667099,
0.2091589868068695,
0.1941273957490921,
0.40622270107269287,
0.141250878572464,
-0.46055394411087036,
-0.5217402577400208,
-0.5951197743415833,
-0.40630853176116943,
0.2005179077386856,
0.3533412516117096,
0.6410154104232788,
-0.55352783203125,
-0.05884962156414986,
0.7420775890350342,
-0.2056467980146408,
-0.14408303797245026,
0.08116680383682251,
-0.461081862449646,
0.01730658859014511,
-0.8902698159217834,
-0.7297376394271851,
0.24821479618549347,
0.43557730317115784,
0.37068039178848267,
0.15177863836288452,
0.9411808848381042,
0.1533464938402176,
-0.631221354007721,
0.15535840392112732,
0.45636844635009766,
-0.19871217012405396,
-0.39711999893188477,
-0.5621965527534485,
-0.1544492095708847,
1.1939945220947266,
-0.2645091116428375,
0.001319676754064858,
0.060297925025224686,
-0.5360137224197388,
-0.0782015323638916,
-0.06228113919496536,
0.08817749470472336,
-0.6868303418159485,
-0.08748099952936172,
0.06528149545192719,
-0.4505767822265625,
-0.27782976627349854,
0.1963721364736557,
0.41658276319503784,
0.12432999908924103,
0.4450044333934784,
0.5378869771957397,
-0.03209344297647476,
-0.003429558826610446,
-0.14679455757141113,
-0.875117838382721,
0.19796591997146606,
0.3061865568161011,
0.1345972865819931,
0.46374958753585815,
-0.24621999263763428,
0.13144616782665253,
-0.45293793082237244,
-0.1019916757941246,
-0.008375845849514008,
0.006383683066815138,
0.5073087811470032,
0.6522059440612793,
0.6022992134094238,
0.021165158599615097,
0.6106290221214294,
-0.6818041801452637,
-0.2819066345691681,
-0.1417531669139862,
0.6503108739852905,
-0.09105011075735092,
0.37877073884010315,
-0.2794658839702606,
0.13716448843479156,
0.21855537593364716,
0.06531117856502533,
0.03342772275209427,
-0.6541406512260437,
-0.11583574116230011,
0.26675358414649963,
0.5654190182685852,
0.9447808265686035,
0.3941464126110077,
0.12613283097743988,
0.49933019280433655,
0.6022115349769592,
0.541497528553009,
-0.18353793025016785,
-0.08101842552423477,
-0.5720497965812683,
-0.3914828300476074,
0.14551931619644165,
0.48405683040618896,
0.7242515087127686,
-0.6228348016738892,
-0.2843345105648041,
-0.3417615592479706,
0.34114959836006165,
-0.08866462111473083,
-0.6455393433570862,
0.14747852087020874,
-0.6882611513137817,
0.5732082724571228,
-0.7229845523834229,
0.1651177555322647,
-0.24885700643062592,
0.11124105751514435,
-0.4141683876514435,
1.0071848630905151,
0.47264230251312256,
-0.4997893273830414,
-0.2592085301876068,
0.16083946824073792,
-0.1888437420129776,
-0.3146902024745941,
1.1662530899047852,
0.41741427779197693,
0.16478636860847473,
0.30757373571395874,
-5.2544403076171875,
0.8650929927825928,
-0.44871827960014343,
-0.7218045592308044,
-0.08374710381031036,
0.13632450997829437,
-0.036976736038923264,
0.1764291673898697,
0.17924271523952484,
0.1537604182958603,
0.5655007362365723,
0.1022091954946518,
0.14354826509952545,
-0.4261571168899536,
-0.42557811737060547,
-0.0630064457654953,
0.1528182327747345,
-0.33372554183006287,
0.10907039046287537,
0.2839955985546112,
0.3487280309200287,
-0.5515536069869995,
-0.5003234148025513,
0.6690617203712463,
0.14752398431301117,
0.0733257606625557,
0.048031240701675415,
-0.48088958859443665,
0.055237554013729095,
-0.5684046745300293,
-0.02967802807688713,
-0.13768480718135834,
-0.9648085236549377,
-0.2930056154727936,
0.6818189024925232,
0.04533911496400833,
0.10803574323654175,
0.01252441480755806,
0.047200094908475876,
-0.1566833108663559,
-0.19909821450710297,
-0.1475193053483963,
-0.5301372408866882,
-0.08172117918729782,
0.49299904704093933,
0.016171930357813835,
0.11732836812734604,
-0.005909851286560297,
-0.5504046082496643,
0.14845307171344757,
0.2994464933872223,
-0.47403085231781006,
0.07098430395126343,
-0.30707013607025146,
0.4911244809627533,
-0.04036593437194824,
-1.0984716415405273,
-0.27848315238952637,
-0.8356415033340454,
0.27391213178634644,
0.4367770850658417,
-0.4828040301799774,
0.07658631354570389,
0.11190104484558105,
-0.31661418080329895,
0.11284300684928894,
0.2791913151741028,
-0.12233076989650726,
-0.15682460367679596,
-0.11484350264072418,
0.5545656085014343,
0.8830788731575012,
-0.05600452050566673,
-1.306126356124878,
0.6420326232910156,
0.3062867522239685,
-0.24713681638240814,
0.11972752213478088,
-0.9736137390136719,
-0.0932549387216568,
0.0943269282579422,
0.004738177172839642,
1.0817909240722656,
0.2784512937068939,
0.6710431575775146,
0.28689518570899963,
-0.3295392394065857,
0.28306323289871216,
-0.8388582468032837,
-0.08687064796686172,
-0.6710591316223145,
0.32794809341430664,
0.28533297777175903,
0.27324312925338745,
0.1807027906179428,
0.3590291440486908,
0.31418377161026,
0.15332627296447754,
-0.1228947713971138,
0.16213586926460266,
-0.23605136573314667,
-0.20049825310707092,
0.7512108087539673,
-0.4808683395385742,
-0.0831894725561142,
-0.4055624306201935,
0.18199655413627625,
0.22735002636909485,
0.3700959086418152,
-0.561144232749939,
0.04068209230899811,
-0.09402517974376678,
-0.5449711084365845,
0.14554280042648315,
0.3937322199344635,
-0.8503878116607666,
0.20290550589561462,
0.3974340856075287,
0.5229848027229309,
-0.2053777128458023,
0.30337995290756226,
0.5600033402442932,
-0.42093756794929504,
0.06697814911603928,
0.12729641795158386,
-0.9251188635826111,
0.2667348384857178,
0.10705197602510452,
-0.05702180787920952,
0.4757665991783142,
-0.5491437911987305,
0.27033889293670654,
-0.3545682430267334,
0.19173578917980194,
-0.6203981637954712,
-0.14169761538505554,
-0.7142109274864197,
-0.8378865122795105,
-0.12110787630081177,
0.25169992446899414,
0.1332917958498001,
-0.3340248465538025,
-0.16742664575576782,
0.11411973834037781,
0.5779181122779846,
-0.10609697550535202,
-0.1311645358800888,
-1.048166036605835,
-0.6768714189529419,
0.2215193212032318,
-0.7168208956718445,
0.16919845342636108,
0.005568843800574541,
-0.8614184260368347,
-0.43375158309936523,
0.04322382062673569,
0.39813798666000366,
-0.020060978829860687,
0.00802968256175518,
0.3672686517238617,
-0.6463753581047058,
-0.569238007068634,
-0.8269331455230713,
0.3554077744483948,
-0.8872348666191101,
0.26876509189605713,
-0.3676520586013794,
0.23056545853614807,
-0.2676791250705719,
0.6579666137695312,
-0.47301656007766724,
-0.9381586909294128,
0.16313627362251282,
0.3357449471950531,
0.26605650782585144,
-0.07990102469921112,
-0.5278485417366028,
-0.7068862915039062,
0.10768107324838638,
-0.3438848555088043,
-0.5198405981063843,
-0.052365172654390335,
-0.6920034289360046,
-0.10016816854476929,
0.18821603059768677,
0.012580753304064274,
-0.4991811215877533,
-0.07886908203363419,
-0.05261655151844025,
0.27404728531837463,
0.214931920170784,
-0.02636367827653885,
-0.10582510381937027,
1.0107795000076294,
-0.3658908009529114,
0.09309889376163483,
-0.13246147334575653,
0.06027529388666153,
0.32586222887039185,
0.015462430194020271,
-0.26066353917121887,
-0.5116243958473206,
0.3149544894695282,
-0.3668636083602905,
-0.28604331612586975,
-1.4205816984176636,
0.09948889911174774,
0.08449636399745941,
-0.5369092226028442,
0.6302412748336792,
-0.06618960946798325,
-0.379838228225708,
0.42090240120887756,
1.140400767326355,
0.30863046646118164,
-0.0030877445824444294,
1.0174000263214111,
0.20947003364562988,
-0.49134591221809387,
-1.0442631244659424,
-0.4370095729827881,
-0.3627808690071106,
-0.07926683872938156,
-0.038240280002355576,
-0.6713971495628357,
0.1252538561820984,
-0.21813331544399261,
-0.34851396083831787,
1.2162084579467773,
0.37830600142478943,
-0.6122875213623047,
0.4829561710357666,
-0.0955597311258316,
0.7126865983009338,
-0.058862894773483276,
-0.23638691008090973,
0.5359756946563721,
-0.02701428532600403,
-0.5186373591423035,
-0.18996259570121765,
0.6685429215431213,
1.102553367614746,
0.5396096110343933,
-0.057524003088474274,
-0.4932074248790741,
0.01043090783059597,
0.12694044411182404,
-0.24905243515968323,
-0.19816237688064575,
-0.22927027940750122,
0.3141295313835144,
-0.1677679419517517,
-0.4177802801132202,
0.08438766002655029,
0.8601894378662109,
-0.9269535541534424,
-0.18064744770526886,
-0.2580607533454895,
-0.016171056777238846,
0.04462173208594322,
0.5383138060569763,
0.18151839077472687,
0.13940654695034027,
0.09129316359758377,
-0.15949876606464386,
0.22492347657680511,
-0.35970747470855713,
-0.4931095242500305,
0.15546801686286926,
-0.4252166450023651,
0.5387258529663086,
0.31338173151016235,
-0.024218440055847168,
0.5926118493080139,
-0.39790078997612,
0.7189109921455383,
-0.08374690264463425,
-0.5246092081069946,
-0.411838173866272,
-0.34139207005500793,
-0.45159992575645447,
-0.08920682221651077,
-0.3969660699367523,
-0.2577633559703827,
0.17399762570858002,
-0.8689457178115845,
-0.026851439848542213,
-0.6873534917831421,
-0.63682621717453,
-0.05927719548344612,
0.024561569094657898,
0.7105985283851624,
0.5532260537147522,
-0.5457813739776611,
0.06867920607328415,
0.4365657567977905,
0.03231775760650635,
0.48601916432380676,
-0.10819314420223236,
0.12969431281089783,
-0.5759795308113098,
0.5245277881622314,
-0.26495838165283203,
-0.3024156391620636,
-0.6312813758850098,
-0.8439292907714844,
0.12491010129451752,
-0.1621122807264328,
-0.36682477593421936,
0.8757689595222473,
0.6040809750556946,
0.4902903735637665,
0.6743631958961487,
0.40657779574394226,
-0.9673499464988708,
0.12215034663677216,
0.35560694336891174,
-0.16801001131534576,
-0.39804407954216003,
0.1575346291065216,
-0.36383119225502014,
0.2497456669807434,
0.545486330986023,
0.04509272426366806,
0.745924174785614,
0.5699591040611267,
-0.07774920761585236,
0.6486713290214539,
0.09859047830104828,
1.050051212310791,
-0.10271868854761124,
-0.5352654457092285,
0.32617518305778503,
0.41627317667007446,
-0.2313554435968399,
-0.40885627269744873,
-0.2880607843399048,
-0.22810710966587067,
0.20001237094402313,
0.5243350267410278,
0.1565779745578766,
-0.043636880815029144,
0.23413337767124176,
0.5029549598693848,
0.6041876673698425,
0.12942878901958466,
0.20635446906089783,
0.134259432554245,
-0.16760045289993286,
-0.41333863139152527,
0.33936217427253723,
-0.4145815372467041,
0.1995646208524704,
-0.18445995450019836,
0.39557284116744995,
0.007872585207223892,
0.02664613351225853,
0.25795868039131165,
-1.0342847108840942,
-0.07046324014663696,
-0.3381820023059845,
-0.4445309340953827,
1.6138427257537842,
-0.39712032675743103,
-0.15199609100818634,
-0.1976771056652069,
-0.15911425650119781,
-0.03202178701758385,
-0.5885993242263794,
0.18324463069438934,
0.6035435795783997,
0.030684953555464745,
-0.43136581778526306,
0.5178576707839966,
0.06757507473230362,
0.4274301826953888,
0.9810815453529358,
-0.30782875418663025,
0.27838632464408875,
-0.47966280579566956,
-0.01713346131145954,
0.17378079891204834,
0.0015924073522910476,
-0.3277432322502136,
0.03612146154046059,
-0.5600775480270386,
0.01589035801589489,
-0.08817695826292038,
0.5370927453041077,
-0.8416076898574829,
0.7335929870605469,
-0.46697136759757996,
-0.07139433175325394,
-0.04854309558868408,
0.4074193835258484,
0.09549760818481445,
0.43072980642318726,
1.1142895221710205,
0.35333114862442017,
0.21191909909248352,
0.49633967876434326,
0.5055303573608398,
0.07601005584001541,
0.12981005012989044,
-0.857140302658081,
0.8056656122207642,
-0.19893603026866913,
-0.05369291082024574,
-0.07628566771745682,
0.4784367084503174,
-0.17615431547164917,
0.2400762140750885,
-0.3551082909107208,
0.3631740212440491,
-0.42015331983566284,
0.23318931460380554,
1.1395814418792725,
-0.2803122401237488,
-0.16276302933692932,
-0.6604099273681641,
-0.1087014377117157,
-0.25309428572654724,
-0.0988955870270729,
0.013624133542180061,
-0.1290130466222763,
0.5515073537826538,
-0.2272699624300003,
-0.91999351978302,
-0.002116486197337508,
0.5956268310546875,
0.1206207275390625,
-0.3401717245578766,
0.14267192780971527,
0.28086721897125244,
-0.2954469621181488,
-0.21087490022182465,
-0.13716208934783936,
0.17744873464107513,
0.33063384890556335,
-0.2702004611492157,
0.7057995796203613,
0.2813946306705475,
-0.33989477157592773,
-0.2506345808506012,
0.49051517248153687,
0.47048795223236084,
-0.608730137348175,
-0.4845796823501587,
0.23382820188999176,
0.8884328603744507,
-0.6726803183555603,
0.40159738063812256,
-0.21359899640083313,
-0.4962259829044342,
0.4068728983402252,
-0.09819478541612625,
0.589273989200592,
-0.4518938958644867,
0.3615352511405945,
-0.9610947966575623
] |
260955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor%20Lutze | Viktor Lutze | Viktor Lutze (28 December 1890 – 2 May 1943) was a German Nazi Party functionary and the commander of the Sturmabteilung ("SA") who succeeded Ernst Röhm as Stabschef and Reichsleiter. He died from injuries received in a car accident. Lutze was given an elaborate state funeral in Berlin on 7 May 1943.
Early life
Lutze was born in Bevergern, Westphalia, in 1890. He was employed by the Reichspost from 1907 until he joined the Prussian Army in 1912. He served with the 55th Infantry Regiment, and then fought in the 369th Infantry Regiment and 15th Reserve Infantry Regiment during the First World War. He served as a platoon leader and a company commander, losing an eye in combat. After discharge in 1919 with the rank of Oberleutnant, Lutze returned to his postal job, then became a salesman and a business manager. He also joined the Deutschvölkischer Schutz- und Trutzbund, the largest, most active and most influential anti-Semitic organization in the Weimar Republic.
Nazi Party and SA
Lutze joined the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP; Nazi Party) in 1922, and the SA in 1923. He became an associate of Franz Pfeffer von Salomon, the first leader of the SA. Together, they determined the structure of the organisation.
He also worked with Albert Leo Schlageter in the resistance/sabotage of the Belgian and French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923. He became the deputy Gauleiter for the Ruhr in 1926. His organization of the Ruhr for the SA became a model for other regions. In 1930, he was elected to the Reichstag as a representative for Hannover-Braunschweig. In October 1931, he organized a huge joint rally in Braunschweig (Brunswick) of SA and SS men to show both strength in strife-weary Germany and loyalty to their leader, Adolf Hitler. This was before Hitler came to national power as Chancellor of Germany in January 1933. Over 100,000 men attended the rally hosted by SA-Gruppe Nord under the leadership of Lutze. At the rally, the SA assured Hitler of their loyalty and Hitler in turn increased the size of the SA with the creation of 24 new Standarten (regiment-sized formations). Hitler never forgot this show of loyalty by Lutze. A badge was made to commemorate the event. Lutze rose through the ranks and by 1933 was a SA-Obergruppenführer. On 15 February 1933, he was appointed police president of the Prussian Province of Hanover and on 25 March 1933 became the Oberpräsident of the provincial government, serving until 28 March 1941.
Purge of Röhm
Lutze played an important part in the Night of the Long Knives (June–July 1934): he informed Hitler about Ernst Röhm's anti-régime activities. In preparation for the purge, both Heinrich Himmler and his deputy Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the SS Security Service (SD), assembled dossiers of manufactured evidence to suggest that Röhm planned to overthrow Hitler. Meanwhile, Göring, Himmler, Heydrich and Lutze (at Hitler's direction) drew up lists of those who should be liquidated, starting with seven top SA officials and including many more. The names of eighty-five victims are known; however, estimates place the total number killed at up to 200 people.
After the purge Lutze succeeded Röhm as Stabschef SA, but after the Night of the Long Knives, the SA no longer had as prominent a role as it had in the early days of the party. Lutze's major tasks included overseeing a large reduction in the SA, a task welcomed by the SS and by the regular armed forces. On 30 June 1934 Hitler issued a twelve-point directive to Lutze to clean up and re-organize the SA. On 20 July 1934, Lutze also was appointed to Röhm's position as a Reichsleiter, the second highest political rank in the Nazi Party. On 26 June 1935, he was made a member of the Hans Frank's Academy for German Law. He retained these positions until his death.
At the Nazi Party Congress in Nuremberg in September 1934, William L. Shirer observed Hitler speaking to the SA for the first time since the purge (Hitler absolved the SA from crimes committed by Röhm). Shirer also noted Lutze speaking there (Lutze reaffirmed the SA's loyalty). Shirer described Lutze as possessing a shrill unpleasant voice, and thought the "SA boys received him coolly". Leni Riefenstahl's film Triumph of the Will, however, shows the SA mobbing Lutze as he departs at the end of his evening-rally speech. His automobile can barely make it through the crowd. Alone among the speakers (apart from Hitler) Lutze receives the dramatic low-angle shots while standing solo at the podium. Riefenstahl's footage shows only Hitler, Himmler, and Lutze in the march to the World War I cenotaph, where they lay a wreath. The makers of the film give the then little-known Lutze some of the prestige of a party leader, so as to draw attention away from the former SA leader, Ernst Röhm. (Röhm had appeared often by the side of Hitler in the previous Riefenstahl film of the 1933 Party Congress Der Sieg des Glaubens. After the Night of the Long Knives and Röhm's murder, the film was withdrawn from circulation and all prints were ordered destroyed, probably by Hitler; the film is known today only from a copy found in the Film Archive of the German Democratic Republic in the 1980s.)
Foreign organisation
After the Anschluss, Lutze traveled to Austria to help reorganise the SA there.
In September 1938, SA Stabschef Lutze travelled to Passau to welcome Nazis who had returned from the Reichsparteitag in Nuremberg. Lutze stayed at "Veste Oberhaus" and seized the opportunity to meet Johann Nepomuk Kühberger, who had once helped to save Hitler from drowning in the Inn river. Now, he was a priest, and played the organ at Passau cathedral.
The reintroduction of military conscription in 1935 reduced the size of the SA significantly. Its most visible role after the purge was in assisting the SS in perpetrating the Kristallnacht in November 1938. In February 1939, Lutze reviewed a parade of 20,000 Blackshirts in Rome and then set off for a tour of Italy's Libyan frontier with Tunisia.
Lutze's death and funeral
In January 1939, the role of the SA was officially mandated as a training school for the armed forces with the establishment of the SA Wehrmannschaften (SA Military Units). Then in September 1939 with the start of World War II in Europe, the SA lost most of its remaining members to military service in the Wehrmacht (armed forces). Lutze maintained his position in the weakened SA until his death. On 1 May 1943 he was driving a car near Potsdam with his entire family. Driving too fast on a curve caused an accident that badly injured Lutze as well as killing his older daughter Inge and badly injuring his younger daughter. Viktor Lutze died during an operation in a hospital in Potsdam the next evening. News reports stated that the accident involved another vehicle, keeping the news of reckless driving from the public. Hitler ordered Joseph Goebbels to convey his condolences to Viktor's wife Paula and son Viktor. Goebbels, in his diaries, had described Lutze as a man of "unlimited stupidity" but upon his death decided he was a decent fellow. At the time of the accident, Lutze was 52 years old.
Hitler ordered a lavish state funeral on 7 May 1943 to take place in the Reich Chancellery. Hitler attended in person, something he rarely did at that stage in the war, and posthumously awarded Lutze the highest award of the Nazi Party, the German Order, 1st Class. Thereafter, Hitler appointed Wilhelm Schepmann to succeed Lutze as Stabschef SA, but by that time the organization had been thoroughly marginalized.
Decorations and awards
1914 Iron Cross 2nd Class
1914 Iron Cross 1st Class
1918 Wound Badge in Silver
Commander's Cross of the Order of Military Merit (Bulgaria) with War Decoration, 16.7.1918
1929 Nuremberg Party Day Badge, 1929
The Honour Cross of the World War 1914/1918 with Swords, 1934
Anschluss Medal, 1938
Sudetenland Medal, 1939
See also
Glossary of Nazi Germany
List of Nazi Party leaders and officials
References
Citations
Bibliography
Rosmus, Anna (2015). Hitlers Nibelungen, Samples Grafenau.
Further reading
Campbell, Bruce B. "The SA after the Röhm Purge", Journal of Contemporary History, 1993.
Hinton, David B. "Triumph of the Will: Document or Artifice?", Cinema Journal, Autumn 1975, pp. 49–50.
”Lutze, Nazi Leader, "Dies of His Injuries", New York Times, May 4, 1943, p. 3.
"Nazi Storm Troop Chief Badly Hurt in Accident", New York Times, May 3, 1943, p. 8 (It conveys the early story that Lutze's car collided with another).
Read, Anthony. The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle. W. W. Norton, 2005.
Shirer, William L. Berlin Diary, New York: Popular Library, 1940.
External links
1890 births
1943 deaths
German police chiefs
Members of the Academy for German Law
Members of the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic
Members of the Reichstag of Nazi Germany
Nazi Party officials
Nazi Party politicians
People from the Province of Westphalia
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 1st class
Recipients of the German Order (decoration)
Reichsleiters
Road incident deaths in Germany
Sturmabteilung officers
20th-century Freikorps personnel | [
-0.20839229226112366,
0.2821536362171173,
-0.3277835249900818,
-0.15794408321380615,
-0.5602984428405762,
0.900481104850769,
1.0943890810012817,
-0.19500739872455597,
-0.055239878594875336,
-0.5314676761627197,
-0.46730276942253113,
-0.2761043608188629,
0.02439325861632824,
0.23885832726955414,
0.4456633925437927,
-0.030471807345747948,
-0.18506652116775513,
0.1097026988863945,
-0.36031806468963623,
0.11939167976379395,
0.018091607838869095,
-0.29075807332992554,
0.15750852227210999,
0.05021820217370987,
-0.15893827378749847,
-0.08079996705055237,
0.5896490216255188,
-0.15217046439647675,
0.23702138662338257,
0.41765686869621277,
-0.037093304097652435,
0.6014381051063538,
0.1732688546180725,
0.012280149385333061,
-0.3508848249912262,
0.23872634768486023,
-0.33070069551467896,
-0.5031296610832214,
0.5430670380592346,
0.41034796833992004,
-0.4072435796260834,
0.5466271638870239,
0.06414926797151566,
-0.40467220544815063,
0.22591662406921387,
-0.7629680037498474,
-1.5262045860290527,
0.42540866136550903,
-0.5821399688720703,
-0.44605907797813416,
-0.21878643333911896,
-0.08756529539823532,
0.7472689747810364,
0.04614237695932388,
0.04097408056259155,
-0.2795916497707367,
-0.9051551222801208,
-0.36243104934692383,
0.12120009958744049,
-0.5904518961906433,
0.3822742700576782,
0.18262776732444763,
0.4310021698474884,
-0.05452144891023636,
0.6890799403190613,
0.09933643788099289,
0.20580925047397614,
0.7955582141876221,
0.0324225053191185,
-0.8349617719650269,
-0.1005873903632164,
-0.035896603018045425,
0.3912222981452942,
-0.25586998462677,
0.22169098258018494,
-1.0534745454788208,
-0.15215618908405304,
0.48299869894981384,
0.28637924790382385,
0.04548568278551102,
-0.48543742299079895,
-0.7040876150131226,
0.6033980250358582,
0.4035360515117645,
0.2750021517276764,
0.021839318796992302,
-0.4502420127391815,
0.08266094326972961,
-0.5649611353874207,
0.27004656195640564,
-0.05263938754796982,
-0.8561045527458191,
0.6014297008514404,
-0.42201003432273865,
0.09193360805511475,
0.24401187896728516,
0.32435154914855957,
0.8398842215538025,
-0.39022859930992126,
-0.38942983746528625,
0.3850838840007782,
0.018730659037828445,
0.06543730199337006,
-0.055200569331645966,
-0.49886325001716614,
0.19480624794960022,
0.30358436703681946,
-0.2882983386516571,
-0.2496965229511261,
0.04932578280568123,
-1.093550682067871,
-0.23951002955436707,
-0.3082093298435211,
-0.08907473087310791,
-0.07193685322999954,
-0.09926354140043259,
-0.2738967835903168,
-1.452250599861145,
-0.3995412588119507,
-0.31373274326324463,
-0.2456367164850235,
0.2779373824596405,
0.17294815182685852,
0.5897495150566101,
-0.37595856189727783,
-0.2965314984321594,
-0.1749834418296814,
0.3152255713939667,
-0.3214073181152344,
0.551389753818512,
0.8463292121887207,
0.8117311000823975,
-0.12301843613386154,
0.19740861654281616,
-0.15150563418865204,
-0.3966512382030487,
0.43495577573776245,
0.3060477375984192,
-0.6792546510696411,
0.16418518126010895,
-0.6091465353965759,
-0.10926492512226105,
-0.3715628981590271,
0.026287300512194633,
0.2801951467990875,
-0.2625264525413513,
-0.25736913084983826,
-0.22632931172847748,
0.0795692428946495,
-0.7170811891555786,
0.1367073357105255,
-0.2141546905040741,
-0.4690763056278229,
-0.6157649755477905,
-0.042019784450531006,
0.7419170141220093,
0.8325033187866211,
-0.29368069767951965,
0.5511241555213928,
0.10143991559743881,
0.7950145602226257,
0.16546523571014404,
-0.8151425719261169,
0.5223373174667358,
0.4246586859226227,
-0.03172439709305763,
-0.08678549528121948,
-0.24565832316875458,
-0.44621023535728455,
0.043852418661117554,
-0.4593220353126526,
0.26924341917037964,
-0.0477277897298336,
0.02496035397052765,
-0.3356305658817291,
0.8735650181770325,
0.07854477316141129,
-0.05715703219175339,
0.44334346055984497,
-0.6375649571418762,
-0.5626926422119141,
-0.09142021834850311,
0.027476122602820396,
0.6900728940963745,
0.3573535084724426,
0.17270401120185852,
-0.011444681324064732,
-0.4091469943523407,
0.47560954093933105,
-0.13452178239822388,
-0.4501194655895233,
-1.07624351978302,
0.5649691820144653,
0.07467839866876602,
1.0329357385635376,
0.12162519246339798,
-0.268607497215271,
0.799635112285614,
-0.28259697556495667,
0.19752222299575806,
-0.359156996011734,
-0.65073162317276,
-0.49756115674972534,
-0.10780791938304901,
-0.20629185438156128,
0.6214778423309326,
0.09685433655977249,
-0.3590920567512512,
-0.20015226304531097,
0.5374535918235779,
0.5570091605186462,
-0.7404454350471497,
-0.11235515773296356,
-0.17526042461395264,
-0.0852363258600235,
0.04151183366775513,
-0.9366540312767029,
-0.4271654486656189,
0.11924223601818085,
-0.14321668446063995,
0.37065964937210083,
-0.13167007267475128,
-0.2036328762769699,
0.5821138024330139,
0.03869129344820976,
0.3174534738063812,
0.018087247386574745,
0.12394103407859802,
-0.19917279481887817,
-0.7508445382118225,
0.6440857648849487,
0.0009018477867357433,
-0.005755510646849871,
0.35445836186408997,
0.5058435797691345,
0.4327346980571747,
0.08090560883283615,
0.0934419333934784,
0.18600739538669586,
-0.7936002612113953,
0.5243349671363831,
0.28059571981430054,
0.19792741537094116,
0.17272280156612396,
-0.09232168644666672,
0.19880852103233337,
0.07440977543592453,
0.20104044675827026,
-0.39792734384536743,
0.43806833028793335,
0.1008242517709732,
0.4514210820198059,
0.16785243153572083,
-0.46368011832237244,
-0.17838501930236816,
-0.3765466809272766,
0.47487160563468933,
-0.022828483954072,
0.15849317610263824,
0.2504507601261139,
0.746048092842102,
-0.1591055691242218,
0.04131012037396431,
0.28088992834091187,
-0.05840184539556503,
-0.18252980709075928,
-0.10403324663639069,
-0.3520306944847107,
0.4096619188785553,
0.05485278740525246,
0.22367724776268005,
-0.1685791313648224,
-0.15130333602428436,
0.2432956099510193,
-0.11437879502773285,
-1.0935559272766113,
-0.5762041807174683,
0.7852962613105774,
-0.3630582392215729,
-0.35025227069854736,
0.09231553226709366,
0.29771265387535095,
0.17338162660598755,
-0.487781286239624,
-0.3529137670993805,
-0.07299110293388367,
0.031494684517383575,
-0.06394793093204498,
0.13932916522026062,
0.14580273628234863,
-0.14668595790863037,
0.7264779210090637,
-0.6307213306427002,
-0.08046892285346985,
-0.15956205129623413,
0.4449613094329834,
-0.3196611702442169,
-0.6353793740272522,
0.8437042236328125,
0.16472923755645752,
-0.6675516963005066,
0.3003236651420593,
-0.13430997729301453,
0.15916360914707184,
-0.13134777545928955,
0.17380690574645996,
-0.12190049141645432,
0.1104927808046341,
-5.497954845428467,
-0.03845081478357315,
-0.04438592493534088,
-0.19337061047554016,
-0.16335748136043549,
0.22985577583312988,
0.519669234752655,
-0.08664273470640182,
-0.4571674168109894,
-0.5558074712753296,
0.6831387877464294,
0.04666266590356827,
0.0912536010146141,
0.46385008096694946,
0.5428574681282043,
0.5045090913772583,
0.4780791103839874,
-0.3340285122394562,
0.2415020912885666,
-0.03056510165333748,
-0.09828056395053864,
-0.1507231891155243,
0.19111278653144836,
0.1909307986497879,
0.055045973509550095,
0.03502747416496277,
-0.7206682562828064,
0.2572794258594513,
-0.6322775483131409,
-0.7803429961204529,
0.23709489405155182,
-0.09807474911212921,
-0.2940507233142853,
0.23213869333267212,
0.1217128336429596,
-0.7777135372161865,
0.24254943430423737,
0.8629004955291748,
-0.23631635308265686,
-0.10246393084526062,
0.12238004058599472,
0.3469184935092926,
-0.6684696078300476,
-0.13529333472251892,
0.587562084197998,
0.2552475929260254,
-0.3477533459663391,
0.7266464829444885,
-0.6661761403083801,
0.23434248566627502,
0.1315053403377533,
-0.39241907000541687,
-0.228170245885849,
0.3379054665565491,
0.287880539894104,
0.4248146712779999,
-0.478752464056015,
0.2873084545135498,
-0.5591391921043396,
0.28060200810432434,
0.085841603577137,
-0.1870020031929016,
0.3063878118991852,
-0.3709830641746521,
-0.24921676516532898,
0.2661394476890564,
-0.0432685911655426,
-0.2480073720216751,
0.2525939643383026,
-0.06733360141515732,
0.20396536588668823,
1.0010943412780762,
0.20053288340568542,
-0.9606823325157166,
-0.09749320149421692,
-0.8483613133430481,
-0.32628121972084045,
-0.12818145751953125,
-0.5166176557540894,
0.1281740516424179,
-0.03643382340669632,
-0.4755666255950928,
0.0795070007443428,
0.0030736704356968403,
0.987288773059845,
0.5430247783660889,
-0.01956242136657238,
0.4563009738922119,
0.137202188372612,
0.23336423933506012,
-0.2956007421016693,
-0.42326441407203674,
0.26391249895095825,
0.3505910038948059,
-0.5552251935005188,
0.10421231389045715,
-0.35433676838874817,
-0.08141672611236572,
0.035049740225076675,
0.18421146273612976,
0.29913565516471863,
-0.139286071062088,
-0.3559448719024658,
-0.6896332502365112,
0.6871970295906067,
0.45469778776168823,
0.7864392399787903,
0.08084432780742645,
0.5866283178329468,
0.18040268123149872,
-0.11298327147960663,
0.8660006523132324,
-0.2405131757259369,
-0.24653565883636475,
0.0898236632347107,
-0.6918805241584778,
-0.1592552661895752,
0.1674954742193222,
0.0691012367606163,
0.13745133578777313,
-0.3612831234931946,
0.019236477091908455,
-0.1575566679239273,
-0.5973089337348938,
0.04998853802680969,
-0.16043713688850403,
-0.008048921823501587,
-0.18934153020381927,
-0.10198996961116791,
0.5629529356956482,
0.09310503304004669,
1.3286902904510498,
-0.04884598031640053,
-0.2700498104095459,
0.04776104539632797,
-0.5967955589294434,
-0.16834570467472076,
-0.2590326964855194,
-0.1935715675354004,
-0.15723487734794617,
0.011240282095968723,
0.3631730079650879,
-0.1038024052977562,
0.285529762506485,
0.1778162717819214,
0.18223994970321655,
0.07954946905374527,
-0.19596202671527863,
-0.3434845209121704,
0.7725474834442139,
-0.18884481489658356,
-0.16048502922058105,
0.46835875511169434,
-0.49323195219039917,
-0.19914734363555908,
0.6024074554443359,
-0.28969693183898926,
0.12691491842269897,
-0.5251483917236328,
0.16518981754779816,
0.04622485116124153,
-0.4596880078315735,
-1.1178845167160034,
-0.03776111081242561,
0.24201230704784393,
0.009628421626985073,
-0.7883920669555664,
-0.4697955846786499,
-0.08098483085632324,
0.21505624055862427,
-0.7282002568244934,
-0.5561171770095825,
-0.4729059338569641,
0.31456059217453003,
-0.386138379573822,
0.15319208800792694,
-0.06687799841165543,
0.2610248029232025,
-0.11965961009263992,
-0.24398550391197205,
-0.12954871356487274,
0.6314082741737366,
-0.8866654634475708,
0.4491531252861023,
0.23058420419692993,
0.08609752357006073,
-0.7429290413856506,
0.09334627538919449,
-0.3225962519645691,
-0.2029108703136444,
-0.03162728250026703,
-0.3451527953147888,
0.17662930488586426,
0.4113234877586365,
-0.035436999052762985,
-0.397367924451828,
-0.06548545509576797,
-0.12648069858551025,
-0.034742679446935654,
-0.1373595893383026,
0.2629709243774414,
0.37593743205070496,
-0.06459376215934753,
-0.18418507277965546,
0.21844881772994995,
-0.36755627393722534,
0.3753649890422821,
0.5265666842460632,
0.04594758525490761,
0.5215322375297546,
-0.8495432138442993,
-0.8818780183792114,
0.009599851444363594,
0.8476150035858154,
-0.486157089471817,
0.4376915991306305,
0.357433021068573,
-0.09892908483743668,
-0.45644792914390564,
-0.05601450800895691,
-0.8141133189201355,
0.11268538981676102,
-0.30968546867370605,
0.0627874806523323,
-0.7212635278701782,
0.16326278448104858,
0.10665901005268097,
-0.08751486986875534,
1.1791685819625854,
0.2483864426612854,
0.5765438675880432,
-0.00030492417863570154,
0.0003212402807548642,
0.2753846347332001,
0.3415340483188629,
-0.05070826783776283,
0.47405001521110535,
0.12994562089443207,
-0.1877869963645935,
-0.19506540894508362,
0.7565758228302002,
1.1297779083251953,
0.42437711358070374,
-0.30391401052474976,
0.20613393187522888,
0.20355278253555298,
0.12035464495420456,
-0.4242403209209442,
-0.34994983673095703,
0.2183649241924286,
0.07434873282909393,
-0.19635017216205597,
-0.8055284023284912,
-0.16159698367118835,
1.0151432752609253,
0.1363460123538971,
-0.35455384850502014,
0.5911427736282349,
0.08828911930322647,
0.21119573712348938,
-0.3916236162185669,
0.5027363896369934,
0.6889369487762451,
0.008137630298733711,
-0.4608779549598694,
0.5826679468154907,
-0.27746835350990295,
-0.2084914892911911,
-0.27937230467796326,
-0.6434240937232971,
0.059077054262161255,
-0.2326425313949585,
-0.1303945928812027,
0.06837821006774902,
-0.14899994432926178,
0.23036465048789978,
0.07610457390546799,
-0.3103575110435486,
-0.1939789354801178,
-0.5396495461463928,
-0.9242871403694153,
-0.5831719040870667,
0.23656827211380005,
-0.35148903727531433,
-0.42160168290138245,
-0.9924792647361755,
-0.20789483189582825,
-0.1269601732492447,
-0.7053483128547668,
0.48520219326019287,
-0.31649962067604065,
0.025937648490071297,
-0.09465175122022629,
0.33031392097473145,
-0.21288393437862396,
0.36572906374931335,
-0.048099417239427567,
0.5636705756187439,
0.0734531432390213,
-0.05466508865356445,
0.23465672135353088,
0.5172284245491028,
0.6331667900085449,
0.18661323189735413,
0.19840094447135925,
0.39698782563209534,
-0.2880310118198395,
-0.6899770498275757,
0.12404059618711472,
-0.09562164545059204,
0.7114574313163757,
-0.40834474563598633,
-0.19227634370326996,
0.36254066228866577,
-0.627643346786499,
-0.12159902602434158,
0.6878650188446045,
-0.038385968655347824,
-0.37412601709365845,
-0.5096343159675598,
-0.022585846483707428,
0.3392731249332428,
0.7833034992218018,
-0.24029876291751862,
0.28446489572525024,
0.533064067363739,
0.33180639147758484,
0.10418986529111862,
-0.3382626473903656,
0.06824138760566711,
0.004145089536905289,
0.4532494843006134,
-0.2460644692182541,
0.5436629056930542,
-0.2847537100315094,
-0.05015319585800171,
0.1392078846693039,
-0.5642179250717163,
0.2518298029899597,
0.20711709558963776,
0.13741882145404816,
1.0284963846206665,
-0.11526899039745331,
-0.1494884490966797,
0.46588265895843506,
0.193228617310524,
0.02415536902844906,
0.4824092984199524,
0.034712355583906174,
0.41509076952934265,
0.1517067402601242,
-0.46180421113967896,
-0.34380459785461426,
-0.04955142363905907,
0.02527913823723793,
0.08296290040016174,
0.3312777578830719,
-0.2842648923397064,
-0.5336711406707764,
0.1567300707101822,
-0.07577848434448242,
-0.7706813812255859,
0.8254895806312561,
0.09904118627309799,
-0.48593083024024963,
0.26251593232154846,
-0.4179919958114624,
-0.9141541719436646,
0.30261361598968506,
-0.08569126576185226,
0.4816141426563263,
-0.22530236840248108,
-0.36429503560066223,
0.25384315848350525,
0.20575672388076782,
-0.22810052335262299,
0.6495715379714966,
-0.04111400619149208,
-0.080311618745327,
0.3064240515232086,
-0.45696523785591125,
0.5903674364089966,
0.16517029702663422,
-0.28025874495506287,
0.19246849417686462,
-0.41155654191970825,
-0.29198771715164185,
-0.14232268929481506,
0.3006136119365692,
-0.08968988060951233,
0.47065192461013794,
-0.6827400326728821,
0.001931577455252409,
-0.0060802330262959,
-0.12083553522825241,
0.005322310607880354,
-0.4163675606250763,
0.8776470422744751,
0.30323201417922974,
-0.02987542934715748,
-0.5293598771095276,
0.4286145567893982,
0.05384673550724983,
-0.055878687649965286,
0.04281284660100937,
0.12450027465820312,
-0.4210929870605469,
-0.3904775381088257,
0.19618107378482819,
0.8590662479400635,
0.1986818015575409,
0.21769046783447266,
-0.5114776492118835,
0.6329079270362854,
0.018588978797197342,
0.21624480187892914,
0.6152244806289673,
-0.45038285851478577,
-0.345186710357666,
-0.3622416853904724,
-0.1808248907327652,
-0.3827002942562103,
0.18258452415466309,
-0.14030951261520386,
-0.31566476821899414,
0.41143715381622314,
0.44136950373649597,
-0.027189917862415314,
0.2070852369070053,
0.7538639307022095,
-0.7419680953025818,
0.1960698813199997,
-0.4130702316761017,
-0.4495135247707367,
-0.4503468871116638,
-0.09402180463075638,
0.34595170617103577,
0.6219243407249451,
0.6100606918334961,
-0.389604389667511,
0.4579516649246216,
-0.4327273666858673,
0.17618738114833832,
-0.31489482522010803,
0.9688428640365601,
0.565121591091156,
-0.8683407306671143,
-0.48308154940605164,
-0.20388920605182648,
0.41383177042007446,
0.22387011349201202,
-0.06188109517097473,
0.801206111907959,
-0.8519872426986694,
0.4583248496055603,
0.6277391910552979,
-0.21043264865875244,
-0.13913613557815552,
0.6187945008277893,
-0.20560728013515472
] |
260958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle%20Drogo | Castle Drogo | Castle Drogo is a country house and mixed-revivalist castle near Drewsteignton, Devon, England. Constructed between 1911 and 1930, it was the last castle to be built in England. The client was Julius Drewe, the hugely successful founder of the Home and Colonial Stores. Drewe chose the site in the belief that it formed part of the lands of his supposed medieval ancestor, Drogo de Teigne. The architect he chose to realise his dream was Edwin Lutyens, then at the height of his career. Lutyens lamented Drewe's determination to have a castle but nevertheless produced one of his finest buildings. The architectural critic, Christopher Hussey, described the result: "The ultimate justification of Drogo is that it does not pretend to be a castle. It is a castle, as a castle is built, of granite, on a mountain, in the twentieth century".
The castle was given to the National Trust in 1974, the first building constructed in the twentieth century that the Trust acquired. The castle is a Grade I listed building. The gardens are Grade II* listed on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.
History
In 1910 Julius Drewe bought about south and west of the village of Drewsteignton in the belief that he was descended from the Drewe family that once lived here. Born Drew, the son of George Smith Drew and his wife Mary, née Peek, both from substantial families of grocers, Drewe added the "e" to his surname later in life. At the age of 18, Drewe was sent to China as a tea-buyer by his uncle, Francis Peek (c.1836–99), a partner in Liverpool tea-merchants Peek and Winch. Julius's great uncle, Richard Peek (1782–1867), one of the three brothers who founded Peek and Winch, was an abolitionist and philanthropist who was on the organising committee of the anti-slavery conventions held in London in 1840 and 1843. The Peek and Winch company later expanded into coffee, cocoa, rubber and spices, and owned plantations in the Dutch East Indies. In 1878, Drewe returned to Liverpool and opened the Willow Pattern Tea Store. In 1883, Drewe and John Musker (1846–1926) founded the Home and Colonial Trading Association (later Home and Colonial Stores), which sold teas selected in India by Drewe, alongside other groceries. By 1903, the company had 500 stores. By the time of his death in 1931 he had bought up an estate of 1,500 acres. Around 1910 he asked Edwin Lutyens to build him a castle. According to his son Basil, he did so on the advice of Edward Hudson, proprietor of Country Life magazine, who was both a patron and a champion of Lutyens. Drewe was now 54 years old, but he still had time, energy and money to create his new family seat. The budget was £50,000 for the castle, and a further £10,000 for the garden. Lutyens wrote privately of his concern over Drewe's ambitions; "I do wish he didn't want a castle but just a delicious loveable house with plenty of good large rooms in it". On 4 April 1911, Drewe's 55th birthday, the first foundation stone was laid.
Construction
The castle took many years to complete, with the First World War and the economic downturn causing many delays. One reason for the slow progress was the very limited number of craftsmen used. The writer Christopher Hussey records that "after the first year, every stone was laid by two men alone...Devon masons Cleeve and Dewdney". As significant, was Drewe's waning enthusiasm; his son and heir Adrian was killed on 12 July 1917, in early skirmishes prior to the Battle of Passchendaele. Drewe's daughter later recalled, "after my brother's death...the joy of life went out as far as my father and mother were concerned...my father really was somewhat of an invalid afterwards. Overall responsibility for the construction work was held by Drewe's agent, John Coates Walker, described in the most recent guide to the castle as "the unsung hero of the whole venture". Castle Drogo was finally completed in 1930, roughly a third of the size of Lutyens's 1911 designs, and only a year before Julius died; he had, however, been able to live in the house since around 1925. The catalogue prepared for the 1981 exhibition at the Hayward Gallery on Lutyens' work describes Drogo as "one of his finest buildings". It was built at the same time as Lutyens's work in New Delhi, resulting in many similarities in design.
Later use
After Julius's death, his wife Frances and her son Basil continued to live at the castle. During 1939–45, Frances and her daughter Mary ran the house as a home for babies made homeless during the bombings of London. Frances Drewe died in 1954 and Basil was then joined at Drogo by his son Anthony and his wife. In 1974, Anthony and his son, Dr Christopher Drewe, gave Castle Drogo, Whiddon Farm, several cottages in Drewsteignton, a financial dowry and of the surrounding land to the National Trust. It was the first 20th-century property the charity acquired. The writer and National Trust administrator James Lees-Milne recorded his impressions of the house and its owners in a diary entry dated 9 September 1976; "Reached Castle Drogo ... at eleven. Very satisfactory house of clean-cut granite. A new family aspiring to, rather arriving at, landed gentry-hood and now the representative living upstairs in a tiny flat, all within my lifetime".
The castle has been undergoing an extensive, five-year restoration. A new visitor centre with shop and café opened in the summer of 2009, after English Heritage required that industrial kitchen equipment such as that used by the previous café within the house, be removed from Grade I listed buildings. In February 2011, the National Trust launched a public appeal for money to fund necessary restoration work.
Architecture and description
The castle as constructed represents approximately one third of the building Lutyens originally planned. The intended building would have run the entire length of the ridge, forming three sides of a large courtyard. The existing structure broadly represents the planned eastern wing of the whole. It was to have been matched by a corresponding wing to the west, the two joined by a northern block enclosing the planned great hall. Drewe balked at the costs, although his own decision to double the thickness of all of the walls on grounds of authenticity was a significant factor in their escalation. Pre-war, the plan for the western wing was abandoned, and after the end of hostilities, which had seen the death of Drewe's eldest son, plans for the great hall were also set aside, with the undercroft, which had been constructed, becoming the crypt chapel.
The castle borrows styles of castle building from the medieval and Tudor periods, along with more minimalist contemporary approaches. A notable feature is the encasement of the service staircase, around which the main staircase climbs. Its defensive characteristics are purely decorative. Additionally, the castle had electricity and lifts from the outset, with power being supplied by two turbines on the river below. The castle is a Grade I listed building.
Exterior
The castle essentially comprises a three-storey main block, with a four-storey family and service wing to the side.
Interior
The main block comprises four reception rooms, the hall, the library, the dining room and the drawing room.
Gardens
The castle has a formal garden, designed by Lutyens with planting by George Dillistone, which contrasts with its setting on the edge of Dartmoor. In 1915, Lutyens brought in Gertrude Jekyll to assist with the planning. Jekyll's involvement appears to have been limited to designing the planting for the approach to the castle along the drive. The garden is noted for its rhododendrons and magnolias, herbaceous borders, rose garden, shrub garden and circular grass tennis court now used for croquet. The gardens are Grade II* listed.
Notes
Sources
External links
Castle Drogo information at the National Trust
Houses completed in 1930
Drogo
Gardens in Devon
Grade I listed buildings in Devon
Grade I listed castles
Grade I listed houses
Grade II* listed parks and gardens in Devon
Country houses in Devon
National Trust properties in Devon
Mock castles in England
Edwardian architecture
Historic house museums in Devon
Works of Edwin Lutyens in England | [
-0.6609472632408142,
0.7995371222496033,
0.3971443176269531,
-1.1064424514770508,
0.17506815493106842,
0.35655149817466736,
0.7897332906723022,
-0.49242010712623596,
-0.4190972149372101,
0.32373663783073425,
-0.28432705998420715,
0.15963426232337952,
-0.20896399021148682,
0.5264337658882141,
-0.8521226644515991,
0.11546415835618973,
0.05974864214658737,
0.09383516013622284,
0.5189027786254883,
-1.2520817518234253,
0.2842997610569,
-1.0229606628417969,
-0.726277768611908,
0.09217154234647751,
0.4756299555301666,
-0.26161009073257446,
0.6908897161483765,
-0.2444179803133011,
0.03737630695104599,
0.39070969820022583,
0.2779775559902191,
0.7344216108322144,
-0.3580961525440216,
-0.25204306840896606,
-0.23037852346897125,
-0.45228779315948486,
0.1383349597454071,
-0.5788349509239197,
-0.6378111243247986,
-0.233073890209198,
0.13108786940574646,
-0.31940293312072754,
-0.4790407121181488,
0.2273765206336975,
-0.6301084160804749,
-0.12417455017566681,
-0.9546624422073364,
0.17500081658363342,
-0.5566990971565247,
0.04661428928375244,
-0.8567739129066467,
0.7752217054367065,
0.023488974198698997,
-0.3436558246612549,
0.6294695734977722,
0.19336789846420288,
-0.6954939365386963,
0.2621252238750458,
0.7012006044387817,
-0.1380482316017151,
0.21565912663936615,
0.17873552441596985,
-0.016507120802998543,
-0.058876972645521164,
-0.2907118499279022,
-0.10503574460744858,
0.0404348261654377,
0.20454739034175873,
-0.6124044060707092,
0.048714734613895416,
-0.4451955556869507,
-0.0768480971455574,
0.33496952056884766,
0.655493974685669,
-0.3362732231616974,
0.6707084774971008,
-0.11835869401693344,
-0.11918617784976959,
0.5794059038162231,
0.03788894787430763,
0.6264123320579529,
-0.27472054958343506,
0.7501384019851685,
-0.11460820585489273,
0.6351495385169983,
0.1925470381975174,
-0.5657176375389099,
0.30400872230529785,
-0.5811089873313904,
0.3000171482563019,
-0.6322710514068604,
0.20206321775913239,
-0.7034796476364136,
0.24564409255981445,
0.31273168325424194,
-0.3764859735965729,
-0.19935619831085205,
0.16640734672546387,
0.0833975151181221,
0.7645242214202881,
0.038832612335681915,
0.13537734746932983,
0.38224196434020996,
-0.3229823410511017,
-0.6934224367141724,
-0.47763335704803467,
-0.80511075258255,
-0.056097447872161865,
0.03642253577709198,
-0.24649348855018616,
-0.7078577876091003,
0.3977837562561035,
-0.6292917728424072,
-0.03679651767015457,
-0.3193379044532776,
0.3947157859802246,
0.6520259380340576,
-0.14791375398635864,
-0.02730036899447441,
0.1766285002231598,
0.37518832087516785,
0.934362530708313,
-0.38297802209854126,
0.5593154430389404,
0.5357400178909302,
0.11849015206098557,
-0.10540363937616348,
0.09709583222866058,
-0.7468776702880859,
0.09005675464868546,
0.4501299262046814,
0.6021024584770203,
0.1018865704536438,
0.10566454380750656,
-0.13741284608840942,
-0.17700131237506866,
0.4073697328567505,
-0.3980666995048523,
0.7958831787109375,
0.7173359990119934,
-0.8443641662597656,
-0.024725113064050674,
-0.34570980072021484,
0.26971229910850525,
0.7200115919113159,
0.2744496762752533,
-0.16079360246658325,
-0.8646050095558167,
-0.17222246527671814,
-0.22006970643997192,
-0.142257422208786,
0.12910033762454987,
-0.3152517080307007,
-0.32549431920051575,
-0.12201889604330063,
0.2201995700597763,
0.2692479193210602,
-0.07744856923818588,
0.4539165794849396,
-0.49196064472198486,
-0.18108919262886047,
-0.20505666732788086,
0.26203373074531555,
0.15486106276512146,
0.9313946962356567,
-0.17488881945610046,
0.7265809774398804,
-0.5718703866004944,
-0.768591582775116,
-0.04791109636425972,
-0.7665379643440247,
0.5339162945747375,
0.6907868385314941,
0.15863914787769318,
-0.03831040486693382,
-0.17115308344364166,
0.8476040959358215,
0.5365986824035645,
0.15525400638580322,
-0.059365324676036835,
-0.8966848850250244,
-0.3711872100830078,
0.5435143709182739,
0.09089179337024689,
0.3671572506427765,
0.48511600494384766,
0.19767673313617706,
-0.4174734950065613,
-0.16309760510921478,
-0.33663132786750793,
-0.5989131927490234,
-0.3505638837814331,
0.3929128348827362,
-0.02423631213605404,
1.2770471572875977,
0.24345196783542633,
-0.2502165138721466,
0.2530544102191925,
-0.2160431146621704,
1.2416006326675415,
0.2667042911052704,
-0.4731374979019165,
0.7652338147163391,
-0.3198453187942505,
-0.36756575107574463,
-0.6516715288162231,
0.010263077914714813,
-0.3006754219532013,
0.20220047235488892,
0.13405224680900574,
-0.1234649047255516,
-0.06946483254432678,
0.07591862231492996,
1.1033897399902344,
0.03458145260810852,
-0.40619727969169617,
0.1375901848077774,
-0.39404168725013733,
0.5345645546913147,
-0.9904047846794128,
0.28114134073257446,
0.22774535417556763,
0.06272178888320923,
0.299274742603302,
-0.7960641980171204,
0.5570136904716492,
-0.2262883186340332,
-0.20399045944213867,
-0.2741555869579315,
-1.0339338779449463,
-0.5061298608779907,
0.671163022518158,
0.04929833114147186,
-0.6029011011123657,
0.5522262454032898,
-0.028301969170570374,
-0.28465917706489563,
-0.2391154021024704,
0.1163841113448143,
-0.7556113004684448,
0.25707921385765076,
-0.2413376420736313,
-0.2794981896877289,
0.5716530680656433,
0.33961957693099976,
0.6977990865707397,
0.5026232004165649,
1.1967802047729492,
-0.25908777117729187,
-0.5456202626228333,
0.5164107084274292,
0.24347567558288574,
0.7413216829299927,
0.32840317487716675,
-0.04092675447463989,
-0.4602148234844208,
-0.171119824051857,
0.3313446044921875,
-0.48677489161491394,
0.2595248222351074,
-0.07156787812709808,
0.38629043102264404,
-0.1844581514596939,
0.22815220057964325,
0.4328719973564148,
-0.4057561159133911,
0.02044467255473137,
-0.4777745008468628,
0.7920175194740295,
-0.1394065022468567,
-0.16537754237651825,
-0.9776341915130615,
-0.46608230471611023,
-0.013064787723124027,
0.12774421274662018,
0.03403552249073982,
-0.3233489394187927,
-0.18569380044937134,
-0.37325990200042725,
0.06319709122180939,
0.6841244697570801,
0.42757153511047363,
0.29603368043899536,
-0.1333489716053009,
-0.05980291590094566,
-0.4234253168106079,
0.4679001569747925,
-0.7926416993141174,
-0.4351753890514374,
0.0823691338300705,
-0.09629108756780624,
0.29519549012184143,
0.017317019402980804,
0.23312127590179443,
-0.5707604289054871,
0.6991945505142212,
-0.04334540665149689,
-0.3333100974559784,
-0.008905465714633465,
0.1333325356245041,
-0.0735752135515213,
0.07012485712766647,
-0.32189393043518066,
0.13676369190216064,
0.0965864434838295,
-0.41035354137420654,
0.19637684524059296,
-0.644231379032135,
-5.125698089599609,
-0.16194185614585876,
0.5170131325721741,
-0.38549402356147766,
0.3177777826786041,
0.06884805113077164,
0.39917853474617004,
-0.4599681496620178,
-0.33491525053977966,
-0.46901312470436096,
0.2707565724849701,
-0.2336384505033493,
0.04466817155480385,
0.41457849740982056,
1.1923298835754395,
0.7644614577293396,
0.9485746622085571,
-0.025528401136398315,
0.46427416801452637,
-0.25639188289642334,
-0.15941773355007172,
0.3209618330001831,
-0.19817619025707245,
-0.08973280340433121,
-0.0740107074379921,
1.1917184591293335,
-0.26618146896362305,
-1.0020350217819214,
-1.3118153810501099,
-0.774889349937439,
-0.1466292291879654,
0.11073590815067291,
0.2732495069503784,
0.13140420615673065,
-0.5329233407974243,
0.6291383504867554,
0.38411739468574524,
0.4138508141040802,
0.6856388449668884,
-0.4302920401096344,
0.3870656192302704,
0.11366832256317139,
-0.05503212288022041,
0.003458860097452998,
0.9736517071723938,
-0.8606353402137756,
-0.6441583037376404,
0.05665476992726326,
-0.3584403991699219,
0.7189515233039856,
-0.3148897886276245,
0.5934348106384277,
0.7935916185379028,
0.05354878306388855,
-0.32863616943359375,
0.7108818292617798,
0.35986465215682983,
0.11842766404151917,
-0.020646512508392334,
0.5699466466903687,
-0.15929880738258362,
-0.6839345097541809,
-0.031045926734805107,
0.22213423252105713,
-0.17302657663822174,
-0.30560103058815,
-0.0012320807436481118,
0.45302295684814453,
0.25385308265686035,
0.541752815246582,
-0.005204605869948864,
0.4418920576572418,
-0.07354623079299927,
-0.7848218679428101,
-0.10199179500341415,
-0.5522545576095581,
-0.37481680512428284,
-0.1422465741634369,
0.048755161464214325,
0.018156107515096664,
0.012868929654359818,
0.0127506572753191,
-0.10288000106811523,
0.1518431454896927,
-0.2687416672706604,
-0.8717049956321716,
-0.35982680320739746,
0.38397467136383057,
-0.47024446725845337,
-0.7290336489677429,
0.26618483662605286,
-0.5325689911842346,
0.12815140187740326,
0.501639187335968,
0.47085702419281006,
-0.015080869197845459,
0.6232501268386841,
-0.3898605704307556,
0.3685245215892792,
0.009237922728061676,
-0.45197951793670654,
-0.38173606991767883,
0.38359901309013367,
-0.48368099331855774,
-0.3231180012226105,
-0.21848587691783905,
-0.32925349473953247,
0.6652429699897766,
0.708280086517334,
0.07139187306165695,
0.32459166646003723,
-0.16847404837608337,
-0.23401996493339539,
-0.35131242871284485,
-0.2631089389324188,
-0.2771783769130707,
0.09461896121501923,
0.586452305316925,
0.006624802015721798,
-0.21565485000610352,
-0.22267527878284454,
-0.09864339232444763,
-0.1129010021686554,
-0.23493579030036926,
-0.6126356720924377,
0.04403063282370567,
1.0252845287322998,
0.031009534373879433,
-0.919614315032959,
0.4526854455471039,
-0.2021988332271576,
0.22229960560798645,
0.1295904815196991,
0.27059298753738403,
-0.4399662911891937,
-0.3843128979206085,
-0.4118413031101227,
-0.8176731467247009,
0.36727041006088257,
0.4209706783294678,
0.04022572934627533,
-0.019577544182538986,
0.06154787540435791,
0.5705781579017639,
-0.2162059098482132,
0.4338764548301697,
0.401456356048584,
0.5528064370155334,
-0.030206097289919853,
0.6125875115394592,
-0.8681740164756775,
0.45524516701698303,
0.20673733949661255,
-0.9153626561164856,
0.11509198695421219,
-0.1436293125152588,
0.212584987282753,
0.6831197142601013,
0.09183155745267868,
-0.10815729945898056,
-0.3017434775829315,
0.6347743272781372,
-0.576246440410614,
0.3052189350128174,
-0.03005160391330719,
0.007248453330248594,
-0.4222099483013153,
-0.11420243233442307,
-0.5029436945915222,
0.4009703993797302,
0.2700797915458679,
-0.9332797527313232,
-0.5989952683448792,
-0.11743470281362534,
-0.08177651464939117,
0.2741048336029053,
0.14332641661167145,
0.12188344448804855,
0.051222581416368484,
-0.032368503510951996,
-0.2831982672214508,
0.15578129887580872,
0.06937003880739212,
0.550152063369751,
0.3006819784641266,
-0.22243084013462067,
-0.6296119689941406,
0.0714438185095787,
0.32308778166770935,
-0.462574303150177,
0.24748167395591736,
-0.405697226524353,
0.5869339108467102,
0.4925689995288849,
0.0010935321915894747,
-0.6155934929847717,
0.6003304719924927,
-0.09351225942373276,
0.31156665086746216,
-0.36853066086769104,
-0.5795580744743347,
0.7271262407302856,
-0.26913800835609436,
0.25528717041015625,
0.47523412108421326,
-0.7374275922775269,
0.33146852254867554,
0.0894194096326828,
-0.04952451214194298,
0.9415414929389954,
-0.5179271697998047,
-1.1279006004333496,
0.3122116029262543,
0.6058474183082581,
-0.023204071447253227,
0.19034038484096527,
0.09790315479040146,
-0.35275012254714966,
-0.3167124390602112,
-0.2237659990787506,
-0.06823592633008957,
-0.6860952377319336,
-0.47384950518608093,
-0.10564456880092621,
-1.0073232650756836,
-0.1417984962463379,
0.1265859752893448,
-0.2893519699573517,
0.6487797498703003,
-0.761910617351532,
-0.22912703454494476,
0.45514601469039917,
0.17100951075553894,
0.6365900635719299,
0.11641396582126617,
0.19802328944206238,
0.19019731879234314,
0.05647200345993042,
0.527899980545044,
0.39944329857826233,
0.7924920320510864,
1.51585853099823,
0.903850793838501,
-0.0010673713404685259,
0.3054756224155426,
-0.06454397737979889,
-0.2397376447916031,
-0.6865406036376953,
-0.8155199885368347,
0.7893869280815125,
0.1068321168422699,
-0.012889129109680653,
-0.44536781311035156,
-0.11377708613872528,
0.888391375541687,
-0.4437249004840851,
0.2902042269706726,
-0.013749242760241032,
-0.058337192982435226,
0.36757251620292664,
0.06941229850053787,
0.5913743376731873,
-0.13359154760837555,
-0.15997235476970673,
0.18982119858264923,
-0.07823862135410309,
-0.050379421561956406,
-0.6487196683883667,
0.7259818911552429,
-0.24171927571296692,
-0.4410722255706787,
-0.2885271906852722,
-0.016219692304730415,
0.21808195114135742,
-0.12002934515476227,
0.1544003188610077,
-0.15448088943958282,
-0.49710503220558167,
0.49040138721466064,
-0.1140737235546112,
-0.9795414805412292,
0.026898985728621483,
0.6583208441734314,
-0.7300724387168884,
0.03148999437689781,
-0.15074092149734497,
0.12818382680416107,
-0.2129756510257721,
-0.3131709098815918,
-0.20059290528297424,
-0.48814845085144043,
-0.7441204190254211,
-0.04626043140888214,
0.05139603093266487,
0.04060419648885727,
-0.15268754959106445,
-0.37369847297668457,
0.27667945623397827,
-0.48886924982070923,
0.08908908814191818,
-0.8659088015556335,
1.1273164749145508,
-0.42828142642974854,
-0.2727068066596985,
0.2522934377193451,
-0.20085880160331726,
-0.08820092678070068,
-0.32792946696281433,
0.05924740806221962,
0.1100226491689682,
-0.37028318643569946,
-0.004956064745783806,
0.2430865317583084,
0.3691137731075287,
0.05642851069569588,
-0.261444091796875,
0.300413578748703,
-0.6795194745063782,
0.26788291335105896,
0.12063933163881302,
-0.33330434560775757,
-0.08443865180015564,
0.5477035641670227,
0.022417712956666946,
0.05628139153122902,
0.8457812666893005,
-0.9846625328063965,
-0.19979187846183777,
-0.07625056058168411,
0.5917099118232727,
-0.11923906207084656,
0.023198863491415977,
-0.06719110161066055,
0.5863837003707886,
-0.4629702866077423,
-0.4514365494251251,
0.043529096990823746,
0.16992193460464478,
0.16311229765415192,
0.44698962569236755,
-0.06235203519463539,
0.4237118363380432,
-0.18528985977172852,
-0.2811865210533142,
-0.43602222204208374,
-0.01751169003546238,
0.02489306777715683,
-0.21400704979896545,
0.03718268871307373,
0.4403896927833557,
0.5070111155509949,
0.04399379715323448,
0.08616672456264496,
-0.3738294541835785,
0.09280309081077576,
0.6638979315757751,
0.040040213614702225,
0.07633212953805923,
-0.5719179511070251,
0.6221634745597839,
0.1024005264043808,
-0.22357356548309326,
-0.22264190018177032,
0.34476733207702637,
-0.41916975378990173,
0.10706988722085953,
0.47329258918762207,
-0.33296310901641846,
-0.04733160138130188,
0.3692387342453003,
0.3425960838794708,
-0.014811519533395767,
0.38480082154273987,
-0.1291223019361496,
-0.19393859803676605,
0.03913285955786705,
-0.09370144456624985,
0.09135393798351288,
-0.00017369608394801617,
-0.5007611513137817,
-0.5491560101509094,
0.03074989654123783,
0.2199639230966568,
-0.5446122288703918,
0.752579927444458,
-0.7249274253845215,
-0.9633561968803406,
0.2915341556072235,
-0.5509464740753174,
-0.7098588347434998,
0.577979326248169,
-0.43334072828292847,
-0.5913498997688293,
-0.10158877074718475,
-0.5766081809997559,
-0.12038269639015198,
0.19748471677303314,
0.6922566890716553,
0.11856061965227127,
0.4602079391479492,
0.09598483890295029,
0.3109937608242035,
-0.7453976273536682,
0.1685124933719635,
-0.10691515356302261,
0.5071135759353638,
-0.500931978225708,
-0.03725447505712509,
-0.2707008719444275,
0.0862036868929863,
-0.0860811173915863,
-0.03704901412129402,
-0.10747422277927399,
0.5670361518859863,
-0.568327784538269,
0.3685595393180847,
0.47381192445755005,
0.026395533233880997,
-0.1341884434223175,
-0.6638281345367432,
0.15249107778072357,
-0.12669771909713745,
0.5332096815109253,
0.1552870124578476,
0.6114261150360107,
-0.02483021467924118,
0.5127163529396057,
-0.6282661557197571,
-0.742194652557373,
0.35265034437179565,
0.5301897525787354,
-0.08778310567140579,
-0.19918881356716156,
0.3721114993095398,
-0.7625234127044678,
0.43322962522506714,
0.32094407081604004,
1.154529333114624,
-0.06856410950422287,
-0.19736354053020477,
-0.42605334520339966,
-0.3120078444480896,
0.3147353231906891,
0.0914606899023056,
0.5337158441543579,
0.018170572817325592,
-0.28755784034729004,
-0.5331164002418518,
-0.21864576637744904,
0.11052421480417252,
0.7009572982788086,
-0.07549631595611572,
0.30547523498535156,
-0.22445692121982574,
-0.19434478878974915,
-0.12575888633728027,
-0.1908758580684662,
-1.1131792068481445,
-0.29861775040626526,
-0.31504493951797485
] |
260962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice%20of%20the%20peace | Justice of the peace | A justice of the peace (JP) is a judicial officer of a lower or puisne court, elected or appointed by means of a commission (letters patent) to keep the peace. In past centuries the term commissioner of the peace was often used with the same meaning. Depending on the jurisdiction, such justices dispense summary justice or merely deal with local administrative applications in common law jurisdictions. Justices of the peace are appointed or elected from the citizens of the jurisdiction in which they serve, and are (or were) usually not required to have any formal legal education in order to qualify for the office. Some jurisdictions have varying forms of training for JPs.
History
In 1195, Richard I ("the Lionheart") of England and his Minister Hubert Walter commissioned certain knights to preserve the peace in unruly areas. They were responsible to the King in ensuring that the law was upheld and preserving the "King's peace". Therefore, they were known as "keepers of the peace".
An act of 1327 had referred to "good and lawful men" to be appointed in every county in the land to "guard the peace"; such individuals were first referred to as conservators of the peace, or wardens of the peace. The title justice of the peace derives from 1361, in the reign of Edward III. The "peace" to be guarded is the sovereign's, the maintenance of which is the duty of the Crown under the royal prerogative. Justices of the peace still use the power conferred or re-conferred on them since 1361 to bind over unruly persons "to be of good behaviour". The bind over is not a punishment, but a preventive measure, intended to ensure that people thought likely to offend will not do so. The justices' alternative title of "magistrate" dates from the 16th century, although the word had been in use centuries earlier to describe some legal officials of Roman times.
In the centuries from the Tudor period until the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the JPs constituted a major element of the English (later British) governmental system, which in modern times has sometimes been termed a squirearchy (i.e., dominance of the land-owning gentry). For example, historian Tim Blanning notes that while in Britain the royal prerogative was decisively curbed by the Bill of Rights 1689, in practice the central government in London had a greater ability to get its policies implemented in the rural outlying regions than could contemporary absolute monarchies such as France – a paradox due especially to JPs belonging to the same social class as the Members of Parliament and thus having a direct interest in getting laws actually enforced and implemented on the ground.
Being an unpaid office, undertaken voluntarily and sometimes more for the sake of renown or to confirm the justice's standing within the community, the justice was typically a member of the gentry. The justices of the peace conducted arraignments in all criminal cases, and tried misdemeanours and infractions of local ordinances and bylaws. Towns and boroughs with enough burdensome judicial business that could not find volunteers for the unpaid role of justice of the peace had to petition the Crown for authority to hire a paid stipendiary magistrate.
The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 stripped the power to appoint normal JPs from those municipal corporations that had it. This was replaced by the present system, where the Lord Chancellor nominates candidates with local advice, for appointment by the Crown.
Until the introduction of elected county councils in the 19th century, JPs, in quarter sessions, also administered the county at a local level. Their many roles included regulating wages and food supplies, managing roads, bridges, prisons and workhouses and undertook to provide and supervise locally those services mandated by the Crown and Parliament for the welfare of the county. To this end they set the County Rate, where one was set at all.
Women were not allowed to become JPs in the United Kingdom until 1919, the first woman being Ada Summers, the Mayor of Stalybridge, who was a JP by virtue of her office. In October 1920 Summers was appointed a JP in her own right, alongside other pioneers including Edith Sutton and Miriam Lightowler OBE in Halifax. Emily Murphy of Edmonton, Canada, preceded her by some three and a half years. As at 2018 in England and Wales, about one-third of JPs are women.
In special circumstances, a justice of the peace can be the highest governmental representative, so in fact 'gubernatorial', in a colonial entity. This was the case in the Tati Concessions Land, a gold-mining concession (territory) in the Matabele kingdom, until its annexation by the British Bechuanaland protectorate.
Modern use
Australia
A justice of the peace in Australia is typically someone of good stature in the community who is authorised to witness and sign statutory declarations and affidavits and to certify copies of original documents.
In contrast to other national jurisdictions, there are no Federal level JPs in Australia, as this power is devolved to the State and Territory Governments. Where a Federal Government document or task requires the services of a JP, the rules of each individual State or Territory government will dictate if they have the authority to assist. Criteria for appointment vary widely, depending on the state.
Australian Capital Territory
In the Australian Capital Territory (Colloquially, "The ACT"), there is only the single level of 'Justice of the Peace'. They are appointed on an as-needed basis, and a potential appointee must be an Australian Citizen, and both a resident of, and enrolled on the electoral roll, of the territory. They must also not be an undischarged bankrupt, and consent to criminal history checks being undertaken prior to appointment.
Appointment is for life, unless a JP resigns, is suspended/dismissed from office, or resides outside of the ACT for a period of more than 12 consecutive months.
JPs for the ACT also cover the Australian External Territory of Norfolk Island, and the Internal Jervis Bay Territory, subject to local law variations in those two jurisdictions.
Queensland
In the state of Queensland, a "justice of the peace (qualified)" has the additional powers to issue search warrants and arrest warrants and, in conjunction with another justice of the peace (qualified) constitute a magistrates' court for exercising powers to remand defendants in custody, grant bail, and adjourn court hearings.
Some justices are appointed as justice of the peace (magistrates' court), usually in remote Aboriginal communities, to perform many of the functions that might otherwise fall to a stipendiary magistrate.
In Queensland, a lawyer may be appointed as a Justice of the Peace without further education or qualification and has the full powers of a JP (Magistrate's Court). A commissioner for declarations (C.dec) has powers limited to witnessing documents, witnessing statutory declarations, witnessing affidavits, witnessing and administering oaths and affirmations.
The first woman to become a JP in Queensland was Matilda (Maud) Hennessey of Mackay on 24 April 1918.
Victoria
Justices of the peace and bail justices, who are also volunteers, are appointed to serve a semi-judicial function in all areas of the Victorian community. The main official roles in the Victorian community include witnessing statutory declarations, witnessing affidavits and hearing bail matters outside court hours (bail justices only).
The first woman to become a JP in Victoria was Mary Catherine Rogers who, in 1920, became the first woman councillor in Australia when she was elected in the City of Richmond.
Justices of the peace (JPs) provide a service to the community as independent witnesses of statutory declarations, powers of attorney and affidavits. JPs, who are also volunteers, are selected through an extensive interview, written exam and practical testing. They are recommended by the state attorney-general and appointed by the governor-in-council, and it is their job to authorise and witness statutory declarations and affidavits within the state of Victoria. There are currently around 4,800 JPs serving in all areas of the state.
Bail justices
The role of a bail justice is to hear bail applications (under the Bail Act 1977) and to hear applications for interim accommodation orders for children (under the Children and Young Persons Act 1989) within Victoria. Bail justices, once appointed, may remain in their role until they turn 70 years of age (although they must be under 65 at the time of their appointment). They are often required to attend call outs and rule on bail applications or protection applications for children in danger on weekends and late at night when the courts are closed, but they can also witness Victorian statutory declarations and affidavits. Candidates must successfully complete a three-day training course run by the Department of Justice. Bail justices, who are also volunteers, also have some limited powers under federal legislation, including the power to conduct interstate extradition hearings and extending question time for federal police. Bail Justices may use the post-nominals BJ after their names.
New South Wales
The most common functions performed by a justice of the peace in New South Wales are to witness the signing of a statutory declaration, witness the signing of an affidavit and certify that a copy of an original document is a true copy.
JPs are appointed by the Governor of New South Wales for five-year terms. They are volunteers, who come from all walks of life and all sections of the community. JPs are people who are trusted to be honest, careful and impartial when performing the functions of a JP. They must not charge a fee or accept a gift for providing JP services, tell people what to write in a statutory declaration or affidavit or write it for them or give them legal advice.
Ways to find a JP in New South Wales include:
1. Search the JP Public Register. The register lists all JPs for each postcode area and provides a telephone contact number for JPs who serve the community directly.
2. Check a public listing of scheduled JP services to find when JPs are available at scheduled times and locations across the state.
In the early years of the Colony of New South Wales, justices of the peace had far greater responsibilities and broader roles in the administration of justice than now.
South Australia
In South Australia, there are two types of justices: justice of the peace and special justices.
A justice of the peace (JP) in South Australia is typically someone of good stature in the community who is authorised to witness and sign statutory declarations, affidavits, waiver rights, search warrants, drug warrants, divorce documents, and to certify copies of original documents and to witness the signing of power of attorney and guardianship documents, providing the JP is satisfied with the capability of the signatory.
A Special Justice (SJ) is a higher level of justice of the peace in South Australia; they sit on the bench of the magistrates' court hearing cases in the petty sessions division.
The South Australian Attorney-General has set up a web site to locate justices of the peace. The majority of metropolitan and many regional Councils (Local Government authorities) have a rotational justice of the peace in residence at nominated times.
South Australia's first women justices were appointed in July 1915.
Western Australia
Justices of the peace in Western Australia are appointed by the Governor who authorises them to carry out a wide range of official administrative and judicial duties in the community.
As well as presiding in the Magistrates Court, justices of the peace are regularly called upon by the WA Police to sign search warrants and authorise the issuing of summonses. The administrative tasks include witnessing affidavits and documents such as wills and statutory declarations.
"Visiting justices" are a special group of justices of the peace, appointed to preside over cases within the prison system.
JPs for Western Australia also cover the Australian External Territories of Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Christmas Island.
Belgium
In Belgium, the justices of the peace (, , ) function as the small claims courts in the country's judicial system; they stand at the bottom of the Belgian judicial hierarchy and only handle civil cases. There is a justice of the peace in each judicial canton of Belgium, of which there are 187 in total as of 2017. The justices of the peace have original jurisdiction over cases in which the disputed amount does not exceed 5,000 euro (as of September 2018), except for the matters over which another court or tribunal has exclusive jurisdiction. In addition, the justices of the peace have original jurisdiction over a number of matters irrespective of the disputed amount, such as cases involving the renting or leasing of real estate, evictions, easement, land consolidation, consumer credit or unpaid utility bills. The justices of the peace also have original jurisdiction in certain aspects of family law, most notably legal guardianships for incapacitated seniors, and the involuntary commitment of the mentally ill to psychiatric facilities. The judgments made by the justices of the peace can, with some exceptions, be appealed to the tribunals of first instance.
Canada
In Canada, justices of the peace play a role in the administration of justice at the provincial level. Justices are generally appointed by the lieutenant governors of Canada's provinces, and by the commissioners of Canada's territories, on the advice of their relevant premier or Attorney General. Canada made the second (first was in South Australia a year earlier) appointment in the then British Empire of a woman as a magistrate, namely Emily Murphy, who was sworn in as a police magistrate in the Women's Court of the City of Edmonton (Alberta) on 19 June 1916.
British Columbia
In British Columbia, pursuant to the Provincial Court Act, all judges are justices of the peace, and hence all of them are peace officers.
Northwest Territories
In the Northwest Territories, justices may hear summary conviction matters, municipal by-laws, and certain criminal matters. However, in more populated provinces justices usually preside over bail hearings and provincial offences courts. When not in a court session, a justice can perform other judicial functions, such as issuing search warrants.
Ontario
In Ontario, justices of the peace can preside over judicial interim release (bail) hearings and other criminal hearings. JPs can also exercise jurisdiction over provincial regulatory offences and municipal by-law prosecutions. JPs must retire by reaching the age of 65, but may continue working until 75 subject to the approval of the Chief Justice of the Ontario Court of Justice.
Quebec
In Quebec, there are two type of justices of the peace, administrative justice of the peace and presiding justice of the peace.
Administrative justice of the peace are court officers appointed by the Minister of Justice, and perform duties such as receiving criminal informations and issuing warrants. Presiding justice of the peace are appointed by commission under the Great Seal, and can try some criminal matters and issue warrants. They are appointed from advocates of at least ten years' standing and serve full-time until the age of 70.
Yukon
In Yukon, justices of the peace are lay officers of the court. They sit in the Justice of the Peace Court, which is part of the Territorial Court of Yukon.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, the historical functions of justices of the peace have been replaced by full-time, legally qualified magistrates. Nowadays, justices of the peace are essentially titles of honour given by the Government to community leaders, and to certain officials while they are in their terms of offices. They have no judicial functions, and their main duties include visiting prisons, institutions for young offenders and drug addicts, psychiatric hospitals, remand homes, places of refuge, reception and detention centres, administering statutory declarations, and serving as members of advisory panels.
India
In India, justices of the peace do exist, but they no longer occupy a prominent post. One of the famous justices in India was Kavasji Jamshedji Petigara.
Maharaja Prabirendra Mohan Tagore, who was the son of Maharaja Sir Prodyut Kumar Tagore KCSI of Calcutta, was designated a Justice of the Peace in 1932. He played a great part in saving more than 200 Muslim lives during the infamous riots that occurred during the 1947 partition of India, by sheltering Muslims around Calcutta, and within his palace.
Ireland
Justices of the peace existed in Ireland prior to 1922, sitting in a bench under the supervision of resident magistrates at petty sessions to try minor offences summarily, and with a county court judge (in his capacity of chairman of quarter sessions) and jury to try more serious offences at quarter sessions. In the Irish Free State the position was effectively abolished by the District Justices (Temporary Provisions) Act 1923 and permanently abolished by the Courts of Justice Act 1924. Their judicial powers were replaced by full-time, salaried, legally qualified district justices (now called district judges) and their quasi-judicial powers by unpaid lay peace commissioners. Peace commissioners may sign statutory declarations, and may issue summons and search warrants to the Garda Síochána (Irish police). A peace commissioner can witness the signature of an affidavit. In addition Peace Commissioners can sign custody agreements between legal guardians in relation to visitation etc . These agreements are legally binding and can be altered only by a Judge in the regular courts .Peace Commissioners are appointed on the basis of good character and usually prominent standing in their local communities.
Jamaica
A justice of the peace (JP), according to the Ministry of Justice, is a person of unquestionable integrity who seeks to promote and protect the rights of the individual and helps to provide justice to persons in a particular community. Additionally, the JP serves as a justice in petty court sessions, attends juvenile court sessions, issues summonses, considers applications for bail, explains and signs legal documents, sits on licensing panels, and gives counsel/advice. Any Jamaican citizen that can speak and write English is eligible to become a JP. Any club/organisation/citizen can recommend someone to become JP for a community. JPs are chosen under the Governor-General's discretion.
Malaysia
In Malaysia, justices of the peace (jaksa pendamai in Malay, also abbreviated JP) have largely been replaced in magistrates' courts by legally qualified (first-class) stipendiary magistrates. However, state governments continue to appoint justices of the peace as honours. In 2004, some associations of justices of the peace pressed the federal government to allow justices of the peace to sit as second-class magistrates in order to reduce the backlog of cases in the courts.
New Zealand
The legal framework for the office of Justice of the Peace within New Zealand is derived from the Act of Parliament 'Justices of the Peace Act 1957', and subsequent amendments.
There are two levels of this position within New Zealand: The standard level of 'Justice of the Peace', and a separate 'Judicial Justice of the Peace'. Persons so appointed may use the post-nominals JP and JJP respectively. A JP who is retired may apply to the Secretary for Justice for permission to use the post-nominals 'JP (retired)'.
Appointment as a JP is for life, until unless a voluntary resignation is tendered in writing, or a JP is suspended or dismissed from office due to misconduct, bankruptcy, or other specific reasons.
Justice of the Peace
A JP in New Zealand is someone of good stature in the community who is authorised to witness and sign a number of documents, including statutory declarations, affidavits, and producing certified copies of documents, amongst others. In some limited circumstances they may also perform citizenship ceremonies, and act as a 'Visiting Justice' in prisons. They are nominated for office by local Members of Parliament and appointed by the Governor-General. They must take both the Oath of Allegiance and the Judicial Oath.
Judicial Justice
If a local JP Federation determines that a need for one or more JJPs exists, they will issue a call for nominations to JPs in their territory. Following closure of nominations, a shortlist will be drawn up, and interviews undertaken. If a prospective applicant passes the interview stage, and the relevant training, exams, and assignments are successfully completed, they can be sworn in as a JJP. This means they can then be assigned to the bench in the relevant District Court to oversee minor criminal cases. These would involve tasks such as the exercise of powers to remand defendants in custody, grant bail, and adjourn court hearings.
Appointment as a JJP is at the pleasure of the Secretary for Justice, generally for a minimum of 5 years, and for as long as there is a need in the area an individual resides. Should an individual move abroad, to an area of New Zealand where the service is no longer required, or the local area no longer requires it, the JJP appointment will be terminated.
Issuing Officer
Prior to 2012 all JPs were able to issue search and arrest warrants, but with the passage of the NZ Act of Parliament "Search and Surveillance Act 2012", this power was spun off to the separate position of Issuing Officer.
Under the law, an Issuing Officer does not have to be a Justice of the Peace - Holders of some positions within the judicial system (e.g. Registrar or Deputy Registrar of a court) are Issuing Officers automatically under the law while serving in those roles, and cease to be so when they are not. For a JP or JJP to exercise this power after 2012, they must apply to become an Issuing Officer separately. The application process involves a further training course and exam, followed by a vetting and approval process by the Attorney-General. Appointment as an Issuing Officer is for a maximum of 3 years, and may be renewed for a further 3 years at expiry as needed.
Pakistan
Sections 22, 22-A and 22-B of the Code of Criminal Procedure Code, 1898 provide for the appointment of justices of the peace by the provincial governments, their powers and duties respectively. However, seldom are justices of the peace appointed in Pakistan outside the judiciary. Session and additional session judges act as ex-officio justices of the peace as per Section 25 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898. An Ex-officio Justice of the Peace may issue appropriate directions to the police authorities concerned on a complaint regarding-
(i) non-registration of a criminal case;
(ii) transfer of investigation from one police officer to another; and
(iii) neglect, failure or excess committed by a police authority in relation to its functions and duties.
Such functions being quasi-judicial in nature could not be termed as executive, administrative or ministerial.(PLD 2016 Supreme Court 581)
It is pertinent to note however, as many academics have pointed out, that there is great utility in the appointment of such justices especially in rural areas where enmity between rival groups can lead to the inability of registration of cognizable offences and biased judicial proceedings.
Singapore
Justices of the peace in Singapore derives their vested powers from statute law. They are appointed by the President of the Republic of Singapore, under the provisions of section 11(l) of the State Courts Act (Cap.321). The President may revoke the appointment of any justice of the peace. Newly appointed justices of the peace are required by section 17 of the State Courts Act, to take the oath of office and allegiance as set out in the schedule to the State Courts Act, before exercising the functions of their good office.
In their main role, JPs serve as visiting justices of Singapore prisons, mediators or neutral referees in the state courts. In addition, they regularly solemnise marriages in the Registry of Marriages or perform the duties of the magistrate conferred on them by any written law.
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, Justice of the Peace (JP) is an honorary post, with authorisation to witness and sign statutory declarations and affidavits as well as certify documents. Persons appointed as a Justice of the Peace may use the post-nominal JP. Current appointments are made under the Judicature Act No 02 of 1978, by the Minister of Justice at his/her discretion by publishing a list in The Gazette and appointee taking oaths before a high court, district court judge or magistrate with registrar of the supreme court recording it. There are four types of appointments of Justice of the Peace;
Justice of the Peace and Unofficial magistrate
Justice of the Peace for the Whole Island
Justice of the Peace for a Judicial District
Justice of the Peace (ex officio)
Senior Attorney at laws are appointed as Justice of the Peace and Unofficial magistrates to preside in the absence of a sitting Magistrate. Any citizen of Sri Lanka can apply to the Ministry of Justice giving his or her credentials to be appointed as a justice of the peace. However, the applicant should be one who has served the public and carries out social service and should be of good standing. These JPs would be appointed with legal authority in all parts of the island or limited to a judicial district. The President of Sri Lanka and his/her officers are ex officio justices of the peace. There about 100,000 JPs in the island.
The post was introduced in the island during the British colonial era by the Governor Frederick North in 1801 and was later reformed in 1871. Until 1938, appointments were made by the Governor, after which appointments were made by the Legal Secretary until 1947. After Ceylon gained its independence in 1948, appointments were made by the Governor General and the Minister of Justice. Justice of the Peace had the power to administer oaths and affirmations per the Courts Ordinance No. 1 on 1889 section 84 and they could formally appoint members of the public to act as special police officers in times of turmoil and riots. Since certain government officers were ex-officio justices of the peace, this allowed British colonial officers to appoint special police officers from the European planters in times of crisis such as the 1915 riots. The Village Councils Law (No. 6 of 1964) made the Chairman of the Village Council an ex officio justices of the peace for that village area.
Tonga
In 2014, for the first time, Justices of the Peace were authorised in Tonga. JPs are appointed by the Crown, but the Lord Chief Justice regulates their duties and defines their powers. The first JPs were warranted with duties including granting bail; issuing search warrants and subpoenas; taking affidavits, declarations and oaths; and having the power to witness documents. Term of office is one year and officials can be reappointed. The initial 19 JPs appointed were: ‘Aisea Ta’ofi and Sione Hinakau of Niuatoputapu; ‘Inoke Tuaimei’api of Niuafo'ou; Siosiua Hausia from ʻEua; Sione Palu, Sione Fakahua, Me’ite Fukofuka and Kisione Taulani of Ha’apai; Salesi Kauvaka, Viliami Pasikala, Haniteli Fa’anunu, Meli Taufaeteau and Moleni Taufa from Vava’u; and Salote Fukofuka, ‘Amelia Helu, ‘Ofa Likiliki, Tevita Fakatou, Sioape Tu’iono and Semisi Tongia of Tongatapu.
United Kingdom
England and Wales
A magistrates' court in England and Wales is composed of a bench of (usually three) JPs or magistrates, who dispense summary justice: that is, they decide on offences which carry up to six months in prison, to a maximum of one year of imprisonment over not less than two indictable offences, or an unlimited fine. They are advised on points of law and procedure by a legally qualified justices' clerk and their assistants. No formal qualifications are required but magistrates need intelligence, common sense, integrity and the capacity to act fairly. Membership is widely spread throughout the local area and drawn from all walks of life following a rigorous selection process. All magistrates are carefully trained before sitting and continue to receive training throughout their service. Magistrates are unpaid volunteers but they may receive allowances to cover travelling expenses and subsistence. Lay justices or magistrates must sit for a minimum of 26 sessions (half-days) per year, but some sit as much as a day a week, or possibly more. Magistrates can sit alone to hear issues such as warrant applications or many traffic offences under the new Single Justice Procedure.
In addition to the lay justices, there are a small number of district judges, formerly known as stipendiary magistrates. These are legally qualified members of the magistracy and will often hear cases alone. It is important to distinguish the district judge (magistrates' court) from the district judges who usually sit in the county court.
Magistrates' courts today can deal with minor offences (fines or imprisonment of up to six months for a single offence or 12 months for consecutive sentences, or both) and handle over 95% of the criminal cases in England and Wales and Northern Ireland. With more serious offences, magistrates are responsible for indictment and committal to the Crown Court (a task in former times dealt with by a grand jury). Magistrates also have a civil jurisdiction, such as a family jurisdiction, or appeals against decisions of government departments. Although they had a licensing jurisdiction dealing liquor, betting and clubs licensing applications, this was transferred under the Licensing Act 2003 to local authorities. The magistrates now act in licensing matters only as an appeal court from the decisions of the local authority.
Cardiff Magistrates' Court is the only court in the country which deals with offences under the Companies Act 2006, such as for late filing of accounts or directors' offences. Westminster Magistrates' Court has special responsibilities for dealing with all terrorism and extradition offences throughout the UK.
Until the Courts Act 2003 came into force, magistrates were tied to a particular area (see magistrates' courts committee, commission area, petty sessions area). This has now been changed such that they are assigned to local justice areas, but less strongly.
The Courts Act provides the current framework for appointment of the justices, which is done by the Lord Chancellor in the name of sovereign. Justices can also be removed by the same mechanism. District judges (magistrates' court) – previously known as stipendiary magistrates – must have a five years' general legal qualification, and are appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the Lord Chancellor.
Before 1714, magistrates were liable to be approached at any time and in any place by people legally recognised as paupers, appealing for aid if parish authorities refused to provide any. It was relatively common for these magistrates to write out, on the spot, an order requiring aid to be granted.
Scotland
Within the Scottish legal system justices of the peace are lay magistrates who currently sit in the justice of the peace courts. These courts were introduced in 2009 as a replacement for the district courts (established in 1975), which in turn replaced burgh police courts. Justices sit alone or in threes with a qualified legal assessor as convener or clerk of court. They handle many cases of breaches of the peace – drunkenness, minor assaults, petty theft, and offences under the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982.
The maximum sentencing power of a justice of the peace is 60 days imprisonment, or a fine up to £2,500, or both, and the ability to disqualify drivers.
In 2006, the Scottish Government announced its intention to unify the management of the sheriff and district courts in Scotland but retain lay justices, as part of its initiative to create a unified judiciary under the Lord President. Following the passage of the Criminal Proceedings etc. (Reform) (Scotland) Act 2007 the justice of the peace courts were implemented on a sheriffdom-by-sheriffdom basis.
In Glasgow, the volume of business required the employment of three solicitors as "stipendiary magistrates" who sat in place of the lay justices. The stipendiary magistrates' court had the same sentencing power as the summary sheriff court in summary proceedings, which was the ability to sentence an offender to up to one year in prison or fine them up to . Stipendiary magistrates were replaced by summary sheriffs.
Northern Ireland
In Northern Ireland, the situation initially continued as it had in pre-1922 Ireland. However, justices of the peace no longer sat out of petty sessions after 1935 (Summary Jurisdiction and Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1935). Since then, magistrates' courts in Northern Ireland have consisted of legally qualified resident magistrates (now known as district judges (magistrates' courts)) sitting alone, except in cases involving children, where two lay panelists sat with the magistrate. Justices of the peace were confined to the power to conduct committal hearings, bind persons over to the peace, sign warrants, summons, and other official documents. They were appointed by the Lord Chancellor on the recommendation of a committee in each county court division.
The Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 2002 introduced a new office of lay magistrate, to sit alongside resident magistrates at magistrates' courts in certain matters. Unlike in England and Wales, "lay magistrate" is the official title of the position, to distinguish from existing justices of the peace who do not sit in the magistrates' courts. The first lay magistrates were appointed in 2005. Two lay magistrates sit with the district judge (magistrates' court) in criminal proceedings involving children (replacing the former lay panelists) and Family Proceedings Court matters. The district judge (magistrates' court), who is a barrister or solicitor of at least seven years standing, presides over the bench. Most criminal justice functions of JPs were transferred to lay magistrates. It is expected that there will be no further appointments of justices of the peace in Northern Ireland, although those already appointed retain the title and any functions not transferred to lay magistrate under the 2002 Act.
United States
In some US states, the justice of the peace is a judge of a court of limited jurisdiction, a magistrate, or a quasi-judicial official with certain statutory or common law magisterial powers. Some states have special qualifications or unique features for the office.
The justice of the peace typically presides over a court that hears misdemeanor cases, traffic violations, and other petty criminal infractions. The justice of the peace may also have authority over cases involving small debts, landlord and tenant disputes, or other small claims court proceedings. Proceedings before justices of the peace are often faster and less formal than the proceedings in other courts. In some jurisdictions a party convicted or found liable before a justice of the peace may have the right to a trial de novo before the judge of a higher court rather than an appeal strictly considered.
A justice of the peace also performs civil marriages.
Arizona
A justice of the peace has the same jurisdiction as a municipal magistrate with respect to traffic and misdemeanor cases and restraining orders, though over cases whose affairs are not contained within the confines of a single municipality. Additionally, the Justice Court hears cases involving county ordinances (ordinances enacted by the board of supervisors that apply only to unincorporated areas), civil lawsuits up to a limit of $10,000, small claims cases up to $2,500 (up to $3,500 in Maricopa County), and issues evictions, called writs of restitution (after a forcible detainer or special detainer action (eviction) being successfully completed by a landlord). Justices of the peace, also called JPs, or Judges of the Justice Court, are elected in partisan elections for four-year terms from specific districts called precincts. They have the same authority and responsibility as all other judges in the state with respect to performing marriages, administrating oaths, adhering to the code of judicial conduct, and all aspects of justice administration. However, Arizona law does not require justices of the peace to be lawyers. Many justices of the peace are not legally trained, although all are required by the Arizona Supreme Court to complete a course at the Arizona Judicial College. As with JPs, municipal judges in Arizona are not required to be lawyers.
Arkansas
In Arkansas, a justice of the peace is an elected official equivalent to a county commissioner or county supervisor in some other states. Arkansas JPs sit on a county quorum court, composed of 9, 11, 13 or 15 JPs. The quorum court is a part-time body, elected from single-member districts, that has overall responsibility for county affairs. Among their responsibilities are passing the budget, creating new ordinances (at the misdemeanor level), setting property tax millage levels, and working with other elected officials. The full-time elected county administrator, who presides over the quorum court, is the county judge. Neither JPs nor the county judge have any judicial authority, though they do have the power to preside over civil marriages. Justices of the peace are elected every two years to these partisan offices.
Connecticut
Justices of the peace in Connecticut can preside over marriages. Unlike some states, Connecticut JPs are not penalized for refusing to perform such ceremonies.
Justices of the peace in Connecticut have the same general oath-giving powers as a notary public.
Florida
Florida had justices of the peace (with corresponding constables) from the time of its acquisition from Spain in 1821 until the Florida Constitution was amended in 1968 to abolish the post. From about 1940 to 1968, Florida counties had the ability to hold local referendums to allow county voters to abolish the post on a county-by-county basis. For example, Leon County, the location of Tallahassee, Florida's capital city, voted to abolish justices of the peace (and their associated constables) in the Fall elections of 1958. By 1958, the county commission had reduced the number of JOP districts from a turn-of-the-century peak of 13 districts to just two districts. The automobile age made the county sheriff able to patrol the entire county and made it possible for the citizenry to travel to the courthouse for legal proceedings.
Louisiana
Are elected to serve six-year terms as the judicial authority of a ward or district.
Have jurisdiction in civil matters when the amount in dispute does not exceed $5,000.
Do not have jurisdiction when a title to real estate is involved, when the state or any political subdivision is a defendant, or in successions or probate matters.
Can perform marriage ceremonies.
November 2015 Heather M Furello was Elected the youngest female Justice of the Peace in the United States, elected to serve Tensas Parish Ward 1 District 1 Newellton
Maine
In Maine, the office of the Justice of the Peace was merged with Notary Public, a process that took place from 1981 to 1988. The duties that were attached to the office of Justice of the Peace were fully transferred to the Notary Public in 1988. The office currently named as "Justice of the Peace" in Maine is a court officer, an attorney, involved in the process of issuing warrants and responding to complaints. The office however is not related to either the current Notary Public office or the previous Justice of the Peace office and is part of the Maine Bureau of Corporations, Elections & Commissions.
Massachusetts
Justices of the peace in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts are commissioned by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Council for seven-year terms. They are often called on to solemnize non-religious marriages, especially same-sex marriages, which certain religious officials are not willing to oversee.
Justices of the peace in Massachusetts have the same general oath-giving powers as a notary public, and are also empowered to issue certain writs.
Minnesota
In Minnesota, the office of the Justice of the Peace was abolished in 1977 (Minn. Stat. 487.35). It has not existed for 40-plus years although some people who offer private wedding officiant services erroneously claim to be Justices of the Peace, this term may not properly be used inasmuch as the office has been abolished. Under Minnesota law, however, judges, retired judges, court administrators, retired court administrators, and other public officials designated in statute may officiate or solemnize marriage ceremonies in addition to licensed or ordained ministers of any religious denomination who have filed their credentials with a county registrar (Minn, Stat. 517.04).
New York
Justice courts are courts in New York State that handle traffic tickets, criminal matters, small claims and local code violations such as zoning. Though justice courts constitutionally are part of the New York State Unified Court System, state law generally makes justice courts independent of New York's Office of Court Administration (OCA) and instead makes Justice Courts the responsibility of their sponsoring localities. Town justice courts are often called Town Court, and village justice courts are often called Village Court. City courts in New York State handle mostly the same types of cases but are not justice courts.
The official title for judges in Justice Courts is Justice, the same as in New York Supreme Court. However, in common usage, most people, including lawyers, call them Judge. Justices in Justice Court do not have to be lawyers. The vast majority are not. Many of these courts are in small towns and villages where none of the residents are lawyers. In the larger towns, the justices are almost always lawyers.
While Justices and their court clerks receive training from OCA, there is tremendous variability in how cases are handled. This includes court procedures and substantive results. Some courts will dismiss a traffic ticket if the officer does not appear for a trial, while others will adjourn the matter to give the officer another chance. In some courts the police prosecute their own tickets, while in others an Assistant District Attorney from the county or a town or village attorney will prosecute the tickets. This may even vary by the type of officer, with State Troopers and Deputies prosecuting their tickets and a town attorney prosecuting tickets written by the town police.
Larger towns can have very busy caseloads, including several sessions a week with dozens of cases at each session, and people may have to wait hours before their cases are heard. In some small towns the caseload is extremely light, and a court might meet once a month and have only a few cases.
All criminal prosecutions that occur in towns and villages are commenced in a justice court. Misdemeanors are handled exclusively in the justice court, while felonies generally move up to County Court before the case moves forward.
Similar matters in some places outside New York are handled by a justice of the peace.
Town and village Justices also possess limited powers of a New York notary public, ex-officio, only within the county in which the town or village for which they serve is located; they may administer oaths and affirmations and take acknowledgments and proofs of execution. Some Justices seek and obtain a formal New York notary public commission to permit free travel statewide and enjoy the additional privileges and international legal recognition of a notary public.
New Hampshire
New Hampshire justices of the peace are commissioned magisterial officers, appointed by the Governor and Executive Council to terms of five years, with the power to administer oaths, acknowledge instruments, perform marriage ceremonies and, effective 1 January 2008, solemnize civil unions for same-sex couples. They may also order compulsory mental examinations for good cause, act as a magisterial official regarding enforcement complaints on orders for isolation or quarantine issued by the Commissioner of Health and Human Services, administer oaths of office to public officials, take depositions and issue subpoenas. New Hampshire justices of the peace are also authorized, upon a showing of probable cause supported by affidavit, to issue arrest warrants, search warrants, administrative inspection warrants and by court appointment, to fix and receive bail in criminal cases.
North Carolina
Justices of the peace existed during the time of the Province of North Carolina (17121776. They were appointed by the colonial Governor and served in counties or districts. Justices were essential for conducting court business. After independence, the 1776 Constitution of North Carolina and an act passed by the North Carolina General Assembly of 1777 re-defined justices of peace in the State of North Carolina. Justices of the peace were authorized to marry and had other court duties and assisted in collecting taxes. Duties of the justices were further reduced after the 1868 North Carolina Constitution and inferior courts were abolished.
Texas
In Texas, JPs are elected on a partisan ballot every four years.
Texas does not require a JP to be an attorney in good standing. However, JPs are required to be "well versed in the law" and take mandatory classes to retain their office. New JPs are required to take 80 hours of legal, state-mandated classes the first year, and 20 hours each year thereafter during their tenure in office.
Sections 18 and 19 of Article V of the Texas Constitution, as well as Chapters 27 and 28 of the Texas Government Code, outline the duties of these Courts and their officers.
Under Section 18, the number of JPs (and associated constables) is dependent on the size of the county:
For counties with populations less than 18,000 (as determined by the census), the entire county shall be a one JP precinct, unless the Commissioners' Court determines that more are needed, in which case the court can divide the county into no more than four JP precincts.
For counties with populations at least 18,000 but less than 50,000, the number of JP precincts shall be no less than two nor more than eight.
For counties with populations 50,000 or greater, the number of JP precincts shall be no less than four nor more than eight.
In any county with population less than 150,000, if any precinct contains a city with 18,000 or more population, that precinct shall have two JPs.
In any county with population 150,000 or greater, each JP precinct may have more than one JP.
Special provisions apply to Chambers and Randall counties (must have no fewer than two nor more than six precincts) and to Mills, Reagan, and Roberts (the Constable office is abolished, with the Sheriff's office performing all duties).
Section 19 sets forth the minimum jurisdiction of the JP court:
Original jurisdiction in "criminal matters of misdemeanor cases punishable by fine only" (under the Texas Penal Code such offenses are called "Class C" misdemeanors, generally involving traffic offenses or public intoxication; however, in jurisdictions with a municipal court, if the traffic offense is written by a municipal police officer the municipal court will have jurisdiction, whereas if the offense is written by a state or county officer the JP court will hear the case),
Exclusive jurisdiction in "civil matters where the amount in controversy is $200 or less", and
"Such other jurisdiction as may be provided by law". Under this provision, the Legislature has raised the top limit on civil matters to $10,000 and assigned the JP courts, among others, the right to hear cases involving eviction as well as cases involving foreclosure and liens against personal property where the amount falls within the (revised) JP Court's jurisdiction.
JP cases are appealed to the county court level; the appeal results in a trial de novo. In criminal cases, cases beginning in justice court cannot be appealed beyond the county level court unless the fine is more than $100 or a constitutional matter is asserted.
In smaller counties without a coroner, the JP has the duty to perform inquests. The JP is also called out for any unattended deaths in the county.
A JP in a large precinct in a large county will work 5 days a week, 8 or more hours daily. Their duties will include, but are not necessarily limited to the following: trials of civil matters, both to a 6-person jury and to the bench, with an amount in controversy not exceeding $10,000.00. Trials of criminal matters involving traffic violations and class C misdemeanors punishable by fine only. Pre-trial motion dockets and show-cause hearings are held, and all discovery must be approved by the Judge in advance in civil cases. All criminal matters are controlled by the rules of criminal procedure and evidence. A much more restricted and smaller set of rules apply in civil matters unless, in the Judge’s discretion, it is believed to be in the best interests of justice to apply the standard rules of evidence and procedure. The court has the exclusive jurisdiction of evictions. A Texas JP Judge will also magistrate prisoners and set bail. The Judge will hear juvenile violations such as truancy, underage drinking and smoking. Warrants of Arrest, Alias, Search and Capias Profine are issued. Protective Orders can be issued and result in jail time if violated. Several administrative matters are heard including the finding of a Dangerous Dog, Occupational Drivers License and tow hearings. Many writs are issued such as writs of re-entry to apartments, possession of realty and to reinstate utilities a landlord may have turned off. A JP has contempt power of $100 and up to 3 days in jail per occurrence. A JP is also authorized to perform marriage ceremonies.
Vermont
Justices in Vermont are elected officials, serving two-year terms. They are elected from each town or city. They serve as election, poll, and town meeting officials, and sit on the boards of civil authority and tax abatement within their municipalities. When assembled as the board of civil authority, they have the authority to decide, in the first instance, election disputes and disagreements about whether a voter should be registered. They may perform civil marriages throughout the state and are eligible to serve as notaries without payment of the usual registration fee. Justices may also serve as a magistrate when commissioned by the Supreme Court.
The option to serve as a magistrate has never been invoked and likely never will be; in June 2019 Associate Justice of the Vermont Supreme Court Marilyn Skoglund described the idea of commissioning a justice of the peace as an actual magistrate as "a truly frightening idea" and stated that she had never heard of such a thing actually happening.
Replacement with other courts
In many states, the office of justice of the peace has been abolished or transferred to another court, such as the magistrate court. In larger cities, cases may be heard in a municipal court which has jurisdiction only within that city. Most efforts to abolish the office of justice of the peace have been led by the American Bar Association, which views non-lawyer judges as no longer necessary, as there are now far more persons with formal legal education than in the past when justices of the peace were first used.
California formerly had justice of the peace courts staffed by lay judges, but began phasing them out after a landmark 1974 decision in which the Supreme Court of California unanimously held that it was a violation of federal due process (under the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution) to allow a non-lawyer to preside over a criminal trial which could result in incarceration of the defendant. The court specifically recognized that in the aftermath of Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), it made no sense to allow a case to be tried before a layperson incapable of understanding the legal arguments of the attorney to whom the defendant was entitled under Gideon. In 1994, the remaining justice courts were consolidated into the municipal courts by the passage of Proposition 191, and in 1998, the electorate passed Proposition 220, which authorized the merger of the remaining municipal courts (the only remaining courts of inferior jurisdiction) into the superior courts (the courts of general jurisdiction). However, the judges affected by each merger in each county had to affirmatively consent, a process completed in 2001. Under current California law, all California judges must be licensed attorneys.
Notably, the Supreme Court of the United States sharply disagreed with California's analysis of the Fourteenth Amendment in the landmark case of North v. Russell, , in which the court held that Kentucky's use of nonlawyer judges in its police courts was not a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees of due process and equal protection of the laws.
See also
Justices of the Peace Act
References
External links
Common law
Gubernatorial titles
Judiciary of England and Wales
Legal professions | [
-0.16703811287879944,
0.1638883352279663,
-0.23905394971370697,
-0.1936064213514328,
0.16555023193359375,
0.5606085062026978,
0.7400928735733032,
0.3375681936740875,
-0.5894508361816406,
-0.26856639981269836,
-1.0280879735946655,
0.15517687797546387,
-0.43208885192871094,
0.3625550866127014,
-0.1752815991640091,
0.05246977135539055,
0.380889892578125,
0.3291313946247101,
0.1437457650899887,
-0.6672458052635193,
0.0809599906206131,
-0.028840908780694008,
-0.6359264254570007,
-0.35943618416786194,
0.21848812699317932,
0.02623540535569191,
0.36221781373023987,
0.5703468322753906,
-0.4380119740962982,
0.013333368115127087,
0.1415627896785736,
0.6106641888618469,
-0.11009760946035385,
-0.3872321546077728,
0.2281508892774582,
0.12736676633358002,
0.015686368569731712,
-0.3234211206436157,
-0.21611934900283813,
-0.16406427323818207,
0.5055549144744873,
-0.12184847146272659,
-0.25595712661743164,
-0.007469517178833485,
-0.8431921601295471,
-0.7964509725570679,
-1.63153874874115,
0.3704114854335785,
-0.11127238720655441,
0.2504088580608368,
-0.18011827766895294,
0.6916460394859314,
-0.11859254539012909,
-0.0062777274288237095,
-0.013240901753306389,
0.2502184212207794,
-0.41857725381851196,
0.06831039488315582,
0.6284494400024414,
0.13665984570980072,
0.4468524754047394,
-0.48140856623649597,
0.05170604586601257,
0.08651819080114365,
0.3470889627933502,
0.29020577669143677,
0.2609933316707611,
0.2818220853805542,
0.001772519899532199,
0.22573187947273254,
-0.4234655201435089,
-0.5005961656570435,
0.7010459899902344,
0.4900471568107605,
-0.6147404909133911,
0.15763604640960693,
0.4053286910057068,
-0.30892670154571533,
0.19432061910629272,
0.1250275820493698,
0.1520916223526001,
0.5429040193557739,
0.5386598706245422,
0.5233688950538635,
0.3323780596256256,
0.32500702142715454,
-0.8042349219322205,
-0.0990261510014534,
-0.6305940747261047,
0.7051675319671631,
0.003656185232102871,
0.7099444270133972,
0.10500757396221161,
-0.4079338312149048,
0.009782937355339527,
0.605101466178894,
0.7673039436340332,
-0.14987413585186005,
0.5329392552375793,
0.19057245552539825,
0.18949665129184723,
0.1659805178642273,
1.0242087841033936,
0.04266016185283661,
-0.13616663217544556,
0.0036765383556485176,
-0.4182646572589874,
-0.8975285887718201,
-0.101218082010746,
0.1966685652732849,
0.049991488456726074,
-0.05652372166514397,
-0.09542853385210037,
0.9107717871665955,
-0.4156739413738251,
0.36081740260124207,
0.2463158667087555,
-0.26544660329818726,
-0.3743256628513336,
-0.0619891993701458,
-0.3055857717990875,
-0.40067237615585327,
0.25324928760528564,
0.6005980372428894,
-0.03548714891076088,
-0.345828115940094,
0.3010251522064209,
0.11471916735172272,
-0.15474599599838257,
0.16496418416500092,
0.20890308916568756,
0.7025476694107056,
-0.15129239857196808,
-0.15371492505073547,
-0.05688110366463661,
-0.08793901652097702,
-0.14603696763515472,
-0.13866372406482697,
0.38175079226493835,
0.28269344568252563,
-0.6691759824752808,
0.16846951842308044,
-0.14071352779865265,
0.07643043249845505,
0.3427352011203766,
0.030060093849897385,
-0.3387787640094757,
-0.7024341821670532,
-0.1451425552368164,
0.08877494186162949,
-0.056233055889606476,
0.3457530736923218,
0.14598456025123596,
-0.15125611424446106,
-0.1847769021987915,
0.2890506088733673,
0.29768601059913635,
-0.10291147232055664,
-0.02250847965478897,
0.48697903752326965,
-0.637255072593689,
0.07101970165967941,
0.12097044289112091,
-0.5307148098945618,
-0.15257467329502106,
-0.2946220636367798,
0.04216933622956276,
0.029887773096561432,
-0.5891304016113281,
0.1075207069516182,
-0.2888886630535126,
0.20771706104278564,
0.09469170868396759,
-0.21868197619915009,
-0.0553818978369236,
0.1883043348789215,
0.7451031804084778,
0.24298454821109772,
0.6581965684890747,
-0.499557763338089,
-0.4754098057746887,
0.26415055990219116,
0.37273383140563965,
0.11826032400131226,
0.15241707861423492,
-0.48411041498184204,
-0.08023112267255783,
0.05199485644698143,
-0.10177725553512573,
-0.060275450348854065,
-0.6566005349159241,
0.26974666118621826,
-0.039240337908267975,
-0.5124926567077637,
0.6170161962509155,
0.16315782070159912,
-0.18967421352863312,
0.11822867393493652,
-0.06439505517482758,
1.114811897277832,
-0.015003249980509281,
-0.025163087993860245,
0.10846693813800812,
-0.47371339797973633,
-0.8001352548599243,
0.6699579358100891,
0.36435869336128235,
0.16435956954956055,
0.1953105628490448,
0.11817891895771027,
0.04318675026297569,
-0.41937369108200073,
0.2834368944168091,
-0.12923680245876312,
-0.21973447501659393,
0.07883407175540924,
-0.45685794949531555,
-0.4789530634880066,
-0.14714816212654114,
-0.25220614671707153,
0.8006206154823303,
0.4180392026901245,
0.3616345524787903,
1.2053871154785156,
-0.21216529607772827,
0.19589754939079285,
0.1790703535079956,
0.31456258893013,
-0.3104568421840668,
-0.7489641308784485,
0.02610495127737522,
0.051532067358493805,
0.1020142212510109,
-0.441756010055542,
-0.14867320656776428,
-0.4563184678554535,
-0.3132404386997223,
-0.30792346596717834,
-0.06173365190625191,
0.12355008721351624,
-0.3648100197315216,
-0.2662961184978485,
0.22453716397285461,
0.16811829805374146,
0.04428217187523842,
0.5966840386390686,
-0.2483028918504715,
0.05458904057741165,
0.0471656359732151,
0.2676660120487213,
0.6120408177375793,
0.05615939944982529,
0.41406458616256714,
-0.4965038299560547,
0.5322126150131226,
-0.48474109172821045,
0.21573060750961304,
0.29577866196632385,
-0.37591442465782166,
-0.06418942660093307,
-0.5796721577644348,
-0.49897709488868713,
0.28780362010002136,
-0.13307596743106842,
-0.5152489542961121,
-0.8177950978279114,
0.16812999546527863,
-0.07744497805833817,
0.2840334475040436,
0.4013284146785736,
0.6528622508049011,
0.16563838720321655,
0.1421118825674057,
-0.41018345952033997,
-0.05905190855264664,
-0.39920124411582947,
0.3690692186355591,
0.33498215675354004,
-0.4171740412712097,
-0.40999022126197815,
0.27314335107803345,
0.02321968600153923,
-0.24957209825515747,
-0.30350831151008606,
-0.11012792587280273,
-0.45308953523635864,
0.4775024950504303,
-0.5278017520904541,
-0.3480493426322937,
0.5387474298477173,
-0.49786055088043213,
0.3882218599319458,
0.2755882441997528,
0.21401305496692657,
0.5666252374649048,
0.16254553198814392,
-0.33829182386398315,
-0.0059988112188875675,
-0.16824866831302643,
-0.8397430777549744,
-0.18050870299339294,
0.2370847761631012,
0.17299354076385498,
0.2168198823928833,
0.359502375125885,
-0.2039918750524521,
-0.19407907128334045,
0.0057847467251122,
-5.499258995056152,
-0.2911495566368103,
-0.48762941360473633,
-0.5154324769973755,
-0.029293032363057137,
0.20996606349945068,
1.3949307203292847,
-0.34762880206108093,
-0.21842852234840393,
0.20641782879829407,
0.3477637469768524,
-0.348967969417572,
0.43119898438453674,
0.4307635724544525,
1.137001395225525,
-0.12974271178245544,
0.2964838743209839,
0.10068449378013611,
0.08235405385494232,
0.24432015419006348,
-0.1037202998995781,
-0.05593724921345711,
0.2891784608364105,
-0.32273760437965393,
-0.2515746057033539,
-0.17145122587680817,
0.1569168120622635,
-0.16529099643230438,
-0.47080716490745544,
-0.7022389769554138,
0.4447169303894043,
0.014201718382537365,
0.26577287912368774,
-0.20409733057022095,
-0.20794029533863068,
0.02196728251874447,
0.5697734355926514,
1.0651235580444336,
-0.20564258098602295,
0.3004927635192871,
-0.15646964311599731,
0.34599974751472473,
-0.01998506486415863,
0.32436707615852356,
0.20519477128982544,
-0.39232271909713745,
-0.651587963104248,
-0.016474366188049316,
-0.26814982295036316,
0.5096473693847656,
-0.3999917805194855,
0.548518717288971,
0.27293190360069275,
-0.03226897493004799,
-0.5348071455955505,
0.10949230939149857,
0.268276184797287,
-0.266682893037796,
-0.9427357912063599,
0.09350293129682541,
0.509890615940094,
-0.9176357388496399,
0.09979017823934555,
-0.06270229816436768,
-0.002736803609877825,
-0.39741250872612,
-0.7409171462059021,
-0.3578041195869446,
0.8590313196182251,
0.2893470525741577,
-0.19946610927581787,
-0.2222103476524353,
0.09863334894180298,
-0.9016557931900024,
-0.10242573171854019,
-0.6039074659347534,
0.26814931631088257,
0.3297082483768463,
0.42022904753685,
0.30094411969184875,
0.2466115802526474,
0.16055643558502197,
-0.1995905637741089,
0.20283539593219757,
-0.2749769389629364,
-0.49294954538345337,
-0.3014983534812927,
0.8107553124427795,
-0.33138132095336914,
-0.9106928110122681,
0.12630000710487366,
-0.14295294880867004,
0.12033506482839584,
0.5813133120536804,
0.16746319830417633,
0.04530157521367073,
-0.008880364708602428,
-0.2626572847366333,
-0.6496121883392334,
-0.4289166033267975,
-0.12468267977237701,
-0.3165823817253113,
-0.0023966568987816572,
-0.7487873435020447,
0.019812045618891716,
-0.3839694857597351,
-0.5191961526870728,
0.6117334365844727,
0.05125820264220238,
0.2655850648880005,
-0.07855989784002304,
-0.4215090572834015,
0.4475055932998657,
-0.13369950652122498,
-0.029588062316179276,
-0.394294798374176,
-0.28050336241722107,
0.5875954627990723,
0.0753762349486351,
0.1842677891254425,
-0.3598812222480774,
0.2787570655345917,
-0.10518760234117508,
-0.01164577528834343,
-0.7736331820487976,
-0.2551993131637573,
0.07818351686000824,
-0.1625843495130539,
0.2899768352508545,
0.23658931255340576,
0.45652955770492554,
0.6218727827072144,
0.022019002586603165,
0.6643037796020508,
0.04559776932001114,
-0.556437075138092,
-0.18338458240032196,
0.3646472990512848,
0.24734139442443848,
-0.053090669214725494,
0.497283011674881,
-0.17271845042705536,
-0.3156036138534546,
-0.03103162907063961,
0.8657060265541077,
0.026519285514950752,
-0.4035467803478241,
0.1416676789522171,
-0.2852557301521301,
1.0244208574295044,
-0.8749209642410278,
-0.1981506198644638,
-0.27587905526161194,
-0.8331943154335022,
0.06830235570669174,
-0.9001466035842896,
-0.4202868938446045,
-0.03015240654349327,
0.16592589020729065,
-0.9221698045730591,
-0.227825328707695,
0.04019787907600403,
-0.7544417381286621,
-0.06539728492498398,
0.46168458461761475,
-0.2369188368320465,
-0.7962018251419067,
0.19296127557754517,
-0.5200455188751221,
0.5920323729515076,
-0.5844223499298096,
-0.5647473335266113,
-0.3422771096229553,
-0.3554897904396057,
0.4674873650074005,
-0.005764647852629423,
0.6109784841537476,
0.4783730208873749,
-0.67363440990448,
-0.0030884328298270702,
-0.12927071750164032,
-0.06913604587316513,
-0.07704444974660873,
0.3932059109210968,
0.20387129485607147,
-0.37254250049591064,
0.5360139012336731,
-0.2354467213153839,
0.6523282527923584,
-0.3532733917236328,
0.6350327730178833,
-0.03337560594081879,
0.01569838635623455,
0.19769111275672913,
0.06788517534732819,
-0.3698277175426483,
0.38975438475608826,
-0.5035586357116699,
-0.3217092752456665,
-0.5797839760780334,
0.4947997033596039,
0.13668520748615265,
-0.4179666340351105,
0.360474556684494,
0.39313364028930664,
-0.9150239825248718,
-0.19463567435741425,
-0.11840792745351791,
-0.573978841304779,
0.4450715482234955,
-0.6854223608970642,
-0.34225937724113464,
0.29886361956596375,
0.8718190789222717,
-0.6963727474212646,
-0.5399311184883118,
0.5012843608856201,
0.01846124231815338,
0.3371303975582123,
-0.5204223990440369,
-0.005157397128641605,
-0.6046221256256104,
-0.4203405976295471,
0.056829605251550674,
-0.24737882614135742,
0.49669814109802246,
0.815615713596344,
-0.5828866362571716,
1.4469687938690186,
-0.10540040582418442,
-0.6685198545455933,
0.4883701801300049,
-0.035428792238235474,
-0.010452418588101864,
-0.3384059965610504,
0.10723205655813217,
-0.40196356177330017,
-0.32073643803596497,
-0.3359014689922333,
0.40359681844711304,
0.3085329830646515,
1.6947128772735596,
0.5817517042160034,
-0.5843934416770935,
-0.7350748181343079,
0.28443512320518494,
0.8527597784996033,
-0.46700793504714966,
-0.5131006240844727,
0.4097815752029419,
0.3745156228542328,
-0.04446982964873314,
-0.522895336151123,
-0.08045603334903717,
0.25696414709091187,
0.16064822673797607,
-0.2504778504371643,
0.23553895950317383,
0.42255347967147827,
0.12703676521778107,
0.38464289903640747,
-0.705980122089386,
0.17736274003982544,
-0.14056910574436188,
0.4049608111381531,
-0.08547376841306686,
-0.2147439420223236,
-0.6855775713920593,
0.5681467056274414,
-0.6738535761833191,
-0.04684097692370415,
-0.35390618443489075,
0.06507769972085953,
0.14254237711429596,
0.6408767700195312,
0.2139393389225006,
0.036037009209394455,
-0.04356339946389198,
0.23481501638889313,
-0.3782421946525574,
-0.0382344089448452,
0.1960815042257309,
0.1796617954969406,
-0.6740725040435791,
0.6929705142974854,
-0.4680427312850952,
0.32857292890548706,
0.3488828241825104,
-0.602530837059021,
-0.39759477972984314,
-0.29405462741851807,
-0.2135782539844513,
0.15567877888679504,
1.09121835231781,
-0.26787325739860535,
-0.17941409349441528,
0.022301223129034042,
0.3073730766773224,
0.20482118427753448,
0.25336363911628723,
-1.0056347846984863,
0.7597600817680359,
-0.0000948920423979871,
-0.8890615105628967,
0.03731634095311165,
0.19387410581111908,
-0.5471376180648804,
-0.017675146460533142,
0.02394862473011017,
-0.1245725005865097,
-0.36317935585975647,
0.17686785757541656,
0.31367647647857666,
0.6073193550109863,
-0.15770749747753143,
-0.5620042085647583,
0.3774912357330322,
-0.572464108467102,
0.21797746419906616,
0.19770635664463043,
-0.3098161220550537,
-0.11375810950994492,
0.3714611232280731,
-0.07934793084859848,
0.30863839387893677,
0.4596930742263794,
-0.18951405584812164,
0.1135173812508583,
0.33826640248298645,
0.321857750415802,
0.3566395044326782,
0.456989049911499,
-0.7004766464233398,
-0.29738977551460266,
-0.28539925813674927,
-0.2738424241542816,
0.03778579458594322,
-0.04444143548607826,
-0.12450294196605682,
0.48481348156929016,
0.6355646848678589,
0.3546772301197052,
-0.11180143803358078,
0.5051092505455017,
-0.04496053233742714,
0.28113093972206116,
0.4740433096885681,
0.09152030944824219,
0.19621379673480988,
-0.02670014090836048,
0.4328836500644684,
0.03962983936071396,
0.9859057068824768,
0.14553210139274597,
0.6760510802268982,
0.20585405826568604,
-0.13750869035720825,
0.1329280436038971,
-0.022039253264665604,
-0.2854585647583008,
-0.4110719561576843,
-0.07154534757137299,
0.2575744092464447,
0.15675339102745056,
-0.3623390793800354,
-0.5026551485061646,
0.4623968303203583,
-0.3650996685028076,
0.01627618633210659,
0.11780109256505966,
-0.011135876178741455,
-0.028095118701457977,
-0.10051434487104416,
0.5162471532821655,
0.20607610046863556,
-0.5703272819519043,
0.3676866888999939,
-0.0009521228494122624,
0.49134770035743713,
-0.11306126415729523,
0.35921862721443176,
-0.22458289563655853,
-0.17093820869922638,
-1.1749874353408813,
0.5128862261772156,
-0.19695568084716797,
-0.6404471397399902,
0.329958975315094,
-0.5012487173080444,
-0.18835920095443726,
0.3516485393047333,
0.15381935238838196,
-0.5190925002098083,
-0.29512980580329895,
-0.898754358291626,
0.4408532381057739,
0.2968336045742035,
0.9164442420005798,
0.41343486309051514,
-0.36501824855804443,
0.07762739807367325,
0.5517215132713318,
-0.6413942575454712,
-0.5093002319335938,
-0.028782499954104424,
0.6803584694862366,
-0.23191700875759125,
-0.18102118372917175,
-0.5305617451667786,
0.20603764057159424,
0.588255763053894,
-0.3302548825740814,
-0.0068389903753995895,
0.8187203407287598,
-0.24925965070724487,
0.14153480529785156,
1.0695382356643677,
-0.36560359597206116,
0.22190819680690765,
-1.0105170011520386,
0.522962212562561,
-0.2871507704257965,
0.8007030487060547,
0.011574087664484978,
0.10199785232543945,
-0.5316031575202942,
0.26213911175727844,
-0.049648161977529526,
-0.5399097800254822,
0.9735744595527649,
-0.5823960304260254,
0.7585840225219727,
-0.5184929966926575,
0.13573049008846283,
0.24453474581241608,
-0.11081390082836151,
-0.02371853031218052,
1.072035789489746,
0.15608589351177216,
-0.43585437536239624,
-0.356213241815567,
-0.0025560911744832993,
0.08730698376893997,
-0.40451475977897644,
-0.5790491104125977,
-0.2977277338504791,
-0.9608644843101501,
-0.3170008063316345,
-0.1679331511259079,
0.008654500357806683,
0.3691830039024353,
-0.07233790308237076,
0.2812364101409912,
-0.6650726199150085,
-0.14357398450374603,
-0.36277398467063904,
-0.2933538854122162,
-0.31742367148399353,
-0.234292671084404,
-0.0592770017683506
] |
260972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian%20II%20of%20Bavaria | Maximilian II of Bavaria | Maximilian II (28 November 1811 – 10 March 1864) reigned as King of Bavaria between 1848 and 1864.
Unlike his father, King Ludwig I, "King Max" was very popular and took a greater interest in the business of Government than in personal extravagance. Ascending the throne during the German Revolution of 1848, King Maximilian restored stability in his kingdom. The rest of his reign was characterized by attempts to maintain Bavarian independence during the wars of German Unification and to transform his capital city of Munich into a cultural and educational city.
Crown Prince
He was born in Munich, as the son of King Ludwig I and Queen Therese of Bavaria.
After studying at Göttingen and Berlin and travelling in Germany, Italy and Greece, he was introduced by his father into the council of state (1836). From the first he showed a studious disposition, declaring on one occasion that had he not been born in a royal cradle his choice would have been to become a professor. As crown prince, in the chateau of Hohenschwangau near Füssen, which he had rebuilt, he gathered about him an intimate society of artists and men of learning and devoted his time to scientific and historical study. The Wittelsbacher Palais was built for Maximilian as a Crown Prince Palace in Munich but only completed when he ascended the throne.
King
When the abdication of Ludwig I (20 March 1848) called him suddenly to the throne, his choice of ministers promised a liberal regime.
Domestic policy
In 1849 an uprising in the Bavarian Palatinate was broken down with the support of the Prussian Army.
Though from 1850 onwards his government tended in the direction of absolute monarchy, King Maximilian steered a moderate course between the extremes of Classical Liberalism, Prussian-inspired Pan-Germanism, and the so-called "Ultramontanes".
In his attempts to transform Bavaria into a center of culture, education, and the arts, he enraged conservative Catholics and Protestants by inviting a number of celebrated men of learning (e.g. Geibel, Liebig and Sybel) to Munich, regardless of their religious views.
Devoted to his family and his people, the King also financed studies of the art, costumes, dialects, and customs of the Bavarian peasantry. This was done in order to promote a separate national identity against Prussian-inspired Pan-Germanism.
In this, the King was assisted by his Personal Private Secretary, Franz Xaver von Schönwerth. A native of the Oberpfalz region of the Bavarian Kingdom, Ritter von Schonwerth's work collecting the folklore and traditions of his native district won him the admiration of the Brothers Grimm and made him a model for future folklore collectors.
Foreign policy
Maximilian II responded also to the demands of the people for a united German state, by attending the Frankfurt Assembly which intended to create such a state. The progress of the 1848 Revolution, however, gave him pause. The king strenuously opposed the unionist plans of the Frankfurt Parliament, refused to recognize the imperial constitution devised by it, and assisted Austria in restoring the federal diet and in carrying out the federal execution in Hesse-Kassel and Holstein. In the aftermath of the failure of the Frankfurt Assembly, Prussia and Austria continued to debate of which monarchy had the inherent right to rule Germany. The dispute between Austria and the Electoral Prince of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) was used by Austria and its allies (including Bavaria) to promote the isolation of Prussia in German political affairs. This diplomatic insult almost led to war when Austria, Bavaria and other allies moved troops through Bavaria towards Hesse-Kassel in 1850. However, the Prussian army backed down and accepted the principle of dual leadership. This event was known as the Punctation of Olmütz but also known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz" by Prussia. This event solidified the Bavarian kingdom's alliance with Austria against Prussia.
In his German policy Maximilian was guided by the desire to maintain the union of the princes. During the cold warfare between Austria and Prussia, King Maximilian and his ministers favored the former, which was a policy enthusiastically supported by both the Catholics and Protestants of the Bavarian Kingdom. Simultaneously, however, the King and his Ministers also attempted to preserve Bavaria's independence by trying to play both powers against each other. This policy continued under his son, King Ludwig II.
In 1863, however, the King supported the project of reform proposed by Austria at the .
Attempts by Austria to reorganize the loose and entirely decentralised German Confederation, were opposed by Prussia and therefore the other German princes did not act on the reform proposals. The failure of these plans, and the attitude of the Austrian Court towards the Confederation and the Schleswig-Holstein Question, disillusioned King Maximilian. The last days of his reign were spent attempting to deal with the new situation created by the outbreak of the war with Denmark.
Later life
In the summers of 1849 and 1855, King Maximilian travelled his kingdom. Between 24 June and 27 July 1858, he undertook a journey on foot through his country, which began in Lindau. However, because of frequent rain he repeatedly had to be carried physically.
In government policy, the King repeatedly requested the advice of his ministers and scholarly experts before making a decision, which led to long delays. In addition, King Maximilian often traveled to Italy and Greece, which also led to long delays.
After a brief and unexpected illness, King Maximilian died at Munich on 10 March 1864. He is buried in the Theatinerkirche there.
Cultural legacy
Maximilian offered Paul Heyse and other writers from North Germany large stipends.
Hans Christian Andersen visited "King Max" (as he called him) in his castle Starnberg, and wrote of him as a young, highly amiable man. The King, having read his novels and fairy tales, let Andersen know that he was deeply impressed by The Improvisatore, En Digters Bazar, The Little Mermaid and Paradisets Have. During the visit Andersen also read The Ugly Duckling.
Later Andersen visited the King at the Schloss Hohenschwangau.
Next to Hohenschwangau Castle also the Hambach Castle was reconstructed from 1844 for Crown Prince Maximilian by August von Voit. In 1849 King Maximilian II instructed the architect Eduard Riedel to redesign Berg Castle in neo-gothic style with several towers and a crenellate.
Maximilian II was the principal of the Maximilianstrasse and the Bavarian National Museum in Munich. Compared to his father, Maximilian preferred a new architectural style with strong reference to the Gothic Revival architecture which would combine the best features of historical models combined with then modern building technology. The neo-gothic Royal Mansion in Regensburg was built for Maximilian 1854–1856, the Royal Mansion in Berchtesgaden and the Royal Villa on Rose Island already in 1853. The hiking path in Upper Bavaria called Maximiliansweg is named after him, as he made a longer hike in the Bavaria alps in the summer of 1858.
The Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art was first established on 28 November 1853 by King Maximilian II.
Private life and family
While king, Maximilian was hampered by constant ill health which compelled him to be often abroad and, when at home, to live much in the countryside. The relationship with his father, who also has persisted in his architectural projects after his abdication, was mostly tense. By his wife, Marie Friederike Franziska Hedwig, daughter of Prince William of Prussia, who he married in 1842, he had two sons:
Ludwig II of Bavaria (25 August 1845 – 13 June 1886)
Otto, King of Bavaria (27 April 1848 – 11 October 1916)
both of whom became king, were declared insane, and deposed.
Honours
Ancestry
References
Works cited
External links
The King's portrait
1811 births
1864 deaths
19th-century Kings of Bavaria
House of Wittelsbach
Princes of Bavaria
Burials at the Theatine Church, Munich
Knights of the Order of Saint Joseph
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary | [
-0.5659021735191345,
0.9703307151794434,
0.15068300068378448,
0.4674157500267029,
-0.39778101444244385,
0.9150791764259338,
1.2753773927688599,
0.06425966322422028,
-0.44888362288475037,
-0.6758787035942078,
-0.3646937608718872,
-0.23980571329593658,
0.0005810413276776671,
0.5143858194351196,
-0.18915113806724548,
0.27091220021247864,
0.23797810077667236,
0.26308050751686096,
-0.16622592508792877,
-0.5860711336135864,
0.12584884464740753,
0.07896635681390762,
0.7722306251525879,
-0.031598132103681564,
-0.05339613929390907,
-0.4499545395374298,
0.7687399983406067,
0.22048361599445343,
0.07082319259643555,
0.14545531570911407,
0.33978259563446045,
0.05613696575164795,
-0.06304901838302612,
-0.26148363947868347,
-0.347982257604599,
-0.08781729638576508,
0.0029925245326012373,
-0.48074957728385925,
-0.06382396817207336,
-0.44610780477523804,
-0.387328565120697,
0.21635746955871582,
0.30965757369995117,
-0.4648847281932831,
0.010250388644635677,
-0.6077741980552673,
-1.4905563592910767,
0.014123708009719849,
-0.09011732786893845,
-0.24804848432540894,
-0.2774583399295807,
0.48896414041519165,
0.6527145504951477,
0.41933009028434753,
0.3649007976055145,
0.13913831114768982,
-1.1331167221069336,
-0.08465830236673355,
-0.49733448028564453,
0.18113404512405396,
0.48585695028305054,
0.17351286113262177,
0.07181832194328308,
-0.08408627659082413,
-0.16885942220687866,
-0.3808386027812958,
0.11258804798126221,
0.30656197667121887,
0.20586641132831573,
-0.6390836238861084,
-0.27111461758613586,
-0.44357097148895264,
0.08897673338651657,
-0.18521355092525482,
0.3839307725429535,
-0.6549602150917053,
0.14520005881786346,
0.22992445528507233,
0.030897632241249084,
-0.3894299566745758,
-0.33239495754241943,
-0.054887037724256516,
0.761600911617279,
0.2845541536808014,
0.16261768341064453,
-0.12048004567623138,
0.08026441186666489,
-0.15368852019309998,
-0.5651756525039673,
-0.10194821655750275,
-0.7101479768753052,
0.346353143453598,
0.5568644404411316,
-0.14032843708992004,
-0.27837851643562317,
-0.07712311297655106,
-0.21303249895572662,
0.25088369846343994,
-0.20049476623535156,
0.09362334758043289,
0.9023018479347229,
0.08212818950414658,
0.22554774582386017,
-0.010416907258331776,
-0.6250089406967163,
-0.3910742998123169,
-0.02559889294207096,
0.4689653217792511,
-0.45368584990501404,
0.3611687421798706,
-0.5657558441162109,
0.2094036191701889,
0.17141254246234894,
-0.1146407499909401,
-0.2773403227329254,
0.061712536960840225,
-0.31492719054222107,
-0.4184534549713135,
0.39740169048309326,
0.19525481760501862,
0.3307225704193115,
0.580866813659668,
-0.5254335999488831,
0.03789735957980156,
-0.27051788568496704,
0.034067362546920776,
0.03908953070640564,
-0.25902262330055237,
-0.17506396770477295,
0.1762521117925644,
0.8013488054275513,
0.9902668595314026,
0.430209755897522,
-0.5495021939277649,
0.23052828013896942,
-0.16865485906600952,
0.5928375124931335,
-0.31933465600013733,
0.07100049406290054,
0.11535909026861191,
-0.16312025487422943,
-0.6021127104759216,
-0.37199535965919495,
0.30448368191719055,
-0.3831324577331543,
-0.07781083136796951,
0.11644426733255386,
0.37581518292427063,
0.10700000822544098,
-0.37298983335494995,
-0.19755098223686218,
-0.4054587781429291,
-0.24756409227848053,
-0.5194603800773621,
-0.01640930585563183,
0.7730034589767456,
-0.03813417628407478,
-0.23137438297271729,
0.27005645632743835,
0.31039518117904663,
0.2660686671733856,
0.3572664260864258,
-0.49184009432792664,
-0.3061305284500122,
0.745000422000885,
0.1146957203745842,
0.1676173359155655,
0.4137362539768219,
-0.611526370048523,
-0.8394696712493896,
-0.029324660077691078,
0.15091334283351898,
-0.38442331552505493,
0.0637405514717102,
-0.07702966034412384,
0.3768472373485565,
0.7161124348640442,
0.42840299010276794,
0.5498013496398926,
-0.2526567578315735,
-0.3512016534805298,
0.14294423162937164,
-0.15211839973926544,
0.8447755575180054,
0.5618623495101929,
0.3996659815311432,
0.6610285639762878,
-0.5349308848381042,
0.4714963138103485,
-0.5024589896202087,
0.11363475024700165,
-0.2653903365135193,
0.37741801142692566,
-0.28266391158103943,
0.7367833256721497,
0.15437115728855133,
-1.1134401559829712,
-0.45428717136383057,
-0.14158013463020325,
0.9962989687919617,
0.176842600107193,
-0.8729843497276306,
0.10381747037172318,
0.18510276079177856,
-0.06650864332914352,
0.10325167328119278,
-0.5793007016181946,
-0.44350433349609375,
0.4508056640625,
0.9162721037864685,
0.3048887848854065,
-0.42164409160614014,
0.05793052539229393,
0.20765769481658936,
-0.6083468794822693,
0.15942595899105072,
-0.3581884205341339,
0.10269235074520111,
-0.35894033312797546,
-0.1794690638780594,
0.2927681505680084,
0.19732803106307983,
-0.39609968662261963,
0.656761646270752,
-0.06715132296085358,
0.8734370470046997,
-0.29621386528015137,
0.13931532204151154,
-0.5399402976036072,
-0.6603314876556396,
-0.04445210099220276,
0.323446124792099,
0.18340152502059937,
-0.38639259338378906,
0.8712670207023621,
-0.15528984367847443,
-0.36298471689224243,
-0.07612023502588272,
-0.4966418147087097,
-0.14315032958984375,
0.7264836430549622,
0.20669299364089966,
-0.015540383756160736,
0.16555938124656677,
-0.13575094938278198,
1.4227955341339111,
-0.002063850872218609,
-0.10885201394557953,
-1.4602845907211304,
-0.2943539619445801,
-0.03746452555060387,
0.5067161917686462,
-0.34716325998306274,
-0.4076713025569916,
-0.49076178669929504,
-0.6692361235618591,
0.15507946908473969,
-0.46262043714523315,
-0.5734901428222656,
0.892493724822998,
0.6477484107017517,
-0.08590494841337204,
0.2677386999130249,
-0.10784345120191574,
0.39982306957244873,
0.2653060853481293,
-0.16187451779842377,
-0.09411854296922684,
-0.6289371848106384,
0.4596197009086609,
-0.23812335729599,
-0.021801574155688286,
-0.528182864189148,
0.040530141443014145,
0.42637526988983154,
-0.011385345831513405,
-0.7231789231300354,
-0.023826176300644875,
-0.34015315771102905,
-0.46580183506011963,
0.35526371002197266,
0.8641577959060669,
-0.36486002802848816,
0.13637705147266388,
-0.9849548935890198,
0.17640146613121033,
0.6240487098693848,
-0.6146529316902161,
-0.06621056795120239,
-0.12487081438302994,
-0.13197839260101318,
0.34499019384384155,
0.09209137409925461,
-0.3732298016548157,
-0.18012547492980957,
0.7487108111381531,
-0.4034333825111389,
-0.0901368111371994,
0.4169003963470459,
0.5790423154830933,
-0.9826865196228027,
-0.27342459559440613,
-0.2813699543476105,
-0.05798102170228958,
0.34750694036483765,
-0.29750707745552063,
-0.6030846238136292,
0.05052279308438301,
-5.463088035583496,
-0.6106459498405457,
-0.21416394412517548,
-0.38881224393844604,
-0.059641432017087936,
0.4781283438205719,
-0.26695165038108826,
-0.09908100217580795,
0.1883261650800705,
-0.13782857358455658,
0.7704923152923584,
-0.22907958924770355,
0.10154373198747635,
0.5390453934669495,
0.3726055324077606,
-0.26586341857910156,
0.7327562570571899,
-0.4585338234901428,
0.06182704493403435,
-0.20979249477386475,
0.23283551633358002,
-0.06073292717337608,
0.24565769731998444,
0.3226476013660431,
0.41675734519958496,
0.018477749079465866,
0.28993117809295654,
-0.30271485447883606,
-0.5365704298019409,
-0.4580969512462616,
-0.11328122764825821,
-0.10910875350236893,
0.1892154961824417,
0.12713994085788727,
0.004459624644368887,
0.019512126222252846,
0.30917346477508545,
0.5363309979438782,
0.02916962094604969,
0.008261538110673428,
0.3723624348640442,
-0.1130605936050415,
-0.8187232613563538,
0.12448606640100479,
-0.10622724890708923,
-0.2665753960609436,
-0.5311042666435242,
0.840904176235199,
-0.9160539507865906,
0.3955788016319275,
-0.03803326189517975,
-0.10412414371967316,
0.41278406977653503,
-0.2848196029663086,
-0.2436733841896057,
0.4111033082008362,
-0.25985610485076904,
0.34565871953964233,
-0.5871957540512085,
0.37941935658454895,
0.3491792678833008,
-0.14781688153743744,
0.32070448994636536,
0.06643415987491608,
-0.28379908204078674,
-0.4330722987651825,
-0.4960339665412903,
0.3156993091106415,
0.7205339670181274,
0.5748720765113831,
0.06854336708784103,
0.4300011396408081,
0.39789626002311707,
-0.8414896130561829,
-0.15864479541778564,
-0.28815004229545593,
-0.19625650346279144,
-0.30626192688941956,
-0.241084024310112,
0.25259748101234436,
-0.12456575781106949,
0.14581793546676636,
0.1859195977449417,
0.7692893147468567,
0.5808916091918945,
0.5109454989433289,
-0.4231675863265991,
0.10860292613506317,
0.28198567032814026,
0.20847252011299133,
-0.019229495897889137,
-0.8319789171218872,
-0.3454381823539734,
0.019566431641578674,
-0.25464698672294617,
0.31341788172721863,
-0.09486893564462662,
-0.42235976457595825,
0.04149511829018593,
0.05076926574110985,
0.28801408410072327,
-0.03744906559586525,
-0.06953272223472595,
-0.14919151365756989,
-0.12833093106746674,
0.16160432994365692,
-0.11343478411436081,
-0.11295822262763977,
0.49890366196632385,
0.3362097442150116,
-0.30704328417778015,
-0.04768745228648186,
-0.5515719056129456,
-0.7222200632095337,
0.2228873074054718,
-0.9699442982673645,
-0.42035973072052,
0.4024427831172943,
0.5468322038650513,
-0.3525908291339874,
-0.4887480139732361,
-0.07488778233528137,
0.6524993181228638,
-0.21117064356803894,
-0.2845453917980194,
0.5080768465995789,
0.2428007423877716,
0.3634307086467743,
-0.3017213046550751,
0.05937869846820831,
-0.5286681056022644,
-0.07688261568546295,
-0.10000372678041458,
0.3728385865688324,
-0.14899183809757233,
0.19182617962360382,
0.03076588362455368,
-0.41711708903312683,
-0.1885477900505066,
-0.2433902472257614,
-0.427185982465744,
-0.2667066752910614,
-0.15179544687271118,
-0.044375937432050705,
0.013762542977929115,
-0.021481700241565704,
0.296241819858551,
-0.19992920756340027,
-0.40895023941993713,
0.9507822394371033,
-0.2748657464981079,
-0.28224220871925354,
0.88338303565979,
0.818058431148529,
-0.5835431218147278,
-0.03571825847029686,
0.2249244600534439,
0.546278178691864,
0.1641530692577362,
-0.08744914829730988,
-0.09424355626106262,
-0.18857574462890625,
-0.4784415066242218,
-0.06062881276011467,
0.41107049584388733,
0.5198920369148254,
-0.3900984525680542,
-0.2820238471031189,
-0.1853851079940796,
1.118686556816101,
0.48251909017562866,
-0.6026113033294678,
-0.29004088044166565,
0.2503809928894043,
0.24500365555286407,
-0.30594173073768616,
-0.1488719880580902,
0.09254757314920425,
0.3044803738594055,
-0.25939300656318665,
-0.1587350219488144,
-0.4740384519100189,
-0.3964715003967285,
-0.05745811387896538,
-0.06864600628614426,
0.4078344702720642,
-0.16858725249767303,
-0.8275790214538574,
-0.036466747522354126,
-0.1668086051940918,
0.2685249149799347,
-0.14073865115642548,
0.06614397466182709,
-0.10253454744815826,
-0.41193604469299316,
-0.5521000027656555,
0.007220052182674408,
0.41618654131889343,
0.05957699567079544,
-0.3435654938220978,
0.04910530522465706,
0.26633575558662415,
-0.3036363124847412,
-0.3081858456134796,
0.4372369050979614,
-0.6239855885505676,
0.3216898441314697,
0.38599494099617004,
0.3016611635684967,
0.45265910029411316,
-0.019849494099617004,
-0.8552997708320618,
-0.25927627086639404,
0.8770241141319275,
-0.6204720139503479,
0.2035786509513855,
0.382588267326355,
-0.21923507750034332,
-0.3258304297924042,
-0.4039653539657593,
-0.04092786833643913,
0.10522227734327316,
-0.44515225291252136,
-0.05385082960128784,
-0.3864452838897705,
-0.08684181421995163,
0.30330735445022583,
0.343187153339386,
0.4769446849822998,
-0.3459274172782898,
0.00843915343284607,
0.14144523441791534,
-0.2767019271850586,
0.5382226705551147,
0.22265291213989258,
-0.3977954089641571,
0.9186492562294006,
0.07864882797002792,
-0.6312270760536194,
0.25155946612358093,
0.7678751349449158,
1.022821068763733,
0.19993875920772552,
0.11605238914489746,
0.2683851718902588,
-0.3099495768547058,
-0.31234005093574524,
-0.37285420298576355,
-0.18949538469314575,
0.05615312606096268,
0.01674162782728672,
0.03159379959106445,
-0.5763949155807495,
-0.46451863646507263,
0.9513892531394958,
-0.5193983912467957,
0.010742002166807652,
0.2624177634716034,
-0.06089673191308975,
0.1744755208492279,
-0.6826807260513306,
0.8165403008460999,
0.9216839075088501,
0.012542570009827614,
0.3125587999820709,
0.09627710282802582,
0.22760175168514252,
0.2772789001464844,
-0.037890125066041946,
-0.12379775196313858,
0.04625159874558449,
-0.6634624004364014,
-0.014296441338956356,
-0.4238669276237488,
-0.006075465120375156,
0.33567070960998535,
-0.23323383927345276,
-0.38601765036582947,
0.31614142656326294,
0.10424070060253143,
-0.46630600094795227,
-0.03822106495499611,
0.11990281939506531,
-0.5812816619873047,
0.035626210272312164,
-0.8228407502174377,
-0.7613231539726257,
0.1252676546573639,
-0.528069794178009,
0.08286623656749725,
-0.12975533306598663,
0.13602054119110107,
-0.08654709905385971,
0.5149540305137634,
0.07278306037187576,
0.3881825804710388,
-0.20908650755882263,
0.20000015199184418,
-0.03691569343209267,
-0.11575403064489365,
0.16030333936214447,
0.6727008819580078,
0.4310905933380127,
-0.011765258386731148,
-0.12702639400959015,
0.3936096131801605,
-0.20983101427555084,
-0.8663135766983032,
-0.5883111357688904,
-0.21566884219646454,
0.9697564840316772,
-0.28122544288635254,
0.05604233965277672,
-0.12998448312282562,
-0.6629866361618042,
0.207913339138031,
0.6754242777824402,
-0.3287358582019806,
-0.5534306764602661,
-0.11659847944974899,
0.22522787749767303,
0.11794894933700562,
0.260000079870224,
-0.03811640292406082,
-0.14513114094734192,
0.1746658831834793,
0.1530347466468811,
0.031297627836465836,
0.24154679477214813,
0.20082072913646698,
-0.026054304093122482,
-0.09200923889875412,
-0.23246808350086212,
1.0205899477005005,
-0.1301211416721344,
0.20397859811782837,
0.27777472138404846,
-0.5068867802619934,
-0.3772232234477997,
0.43746688961982727,
0.11251434683799744,
0.5852388739585876,
-0.9117816090583801,
-0.01858542673289776,
0.6580899357795715,
0.05395692586898804,
-0.8884570598602295,
-0.21626383066177368,
0.7799164056777954,
0.29747411608695984,
0.84333336353302,
0.45626118779182434,
-0.1787787526845932,
-0.36229991912841797,
-0.192218616604805,
0.23838558793067932,
0.3428749740123749,
-0.02066248469054699,
-0.32316261529922485,
-0.015838077291846275,
0.22676318883895874,
-0.836638867855072,
0.9431729316711426,
-0.42985257506370544,
0.05120715871453285,
-0.07402589917182922,
-0.03970862925052643,
-0.019731024280190468,
0.10766693949699402,
-0.20520588755607605,
0.21394586563110352,
-0.41966167092323303,
-0.136491060256958,
-0.1548033207654953,
0.2240641564130783,
-0.24173273146152496,
0.49814239144325256,
-0.3367425203323364,
0.1906067430973053,
-0.23521384596824646,
-0.48545342683792114,
-0.01094762608408928,
-0.2610156536102295,
-0.6791378855705261,
-0.5000997185707092,
0.2555927038192749,
0.4667036831378937,
0.02040945366024971,
0.2677696645259857,
-0.3880349099636078,
0.009922272525727749,
-0.6678043007850647,
0.21075111627578735,
-0.6604710817337036,
-0.4933507740497589,
-0.3309074342250824,
-0.8610715866088867,
0.543398380279541,
0.377496600151062,
-0.4596571922302246,
0.9687960743904114,
-0.20748355984687805,
0.12210365384817123,
-0.10874457657337189,
-0.19468845427036285,
0.7634727954864502,
-0.13213683664798737,
-0.5169236063957214,
-0.4044223725795746,
0.2502698302268982,
-0.4739432632923126,
0.17420141398906708,
-0.3717547655105591,
0.5780371427536011,
-0.2635970711708069,
0.274200439453125,
0.6487302780151367,
-0.5347135663032532,
-0.0847061276435852,
-0.5299201607704163,
0.6162104606628418,
-0.32319381833076477,
0.4608767032623291,
0.06340256333351135,
0.31662580370903015,
0.03726040571928024,
0.6550150513648987,
0.34911537170410156,
0.4501745402812958,
0.4670528173446655,
-0.13058313727378845,
0.20635198056697845,
0.06180959939956665,
-0.08835671842098236,
-1.0314537286758423,
-0.18228015303611755,
0.8478312492370605,
0.013248003087937832,
-0.37374648451805115,
-0.6038336157798767,
-0.15414774417877197,
0.28289666771888733,
1.6452844142913818,
0.6506545543670654,
0.3162378966808319,
-0.6781710982322693,
0.011343344114720821,
-0.41549578309059143,
-0.06640748679637909,
-0.1391400396823883,
0.2825358808040619,
0.7209745049476624,
0.3385050594806671,
-0.3188930153846741,
0.9883169531822205,
-0.24869532883167267,
-0.1520785540342331,
-0.928924024105072,
0.09064019471406937,
0.2180365025997162
] |
260977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverboarding | Riverboarding | Riverboarding is a boardsport in which the participant lies prone on their board with fins on their feet for propulsion and steering. This sport is also known as hydrospeed in Europe and as riverboarding or white-water sledging in New Zealand, depending on the type of board used. Riverboarding includes commercial, recreational and the swiftwater rescue practice of using a high-flotation riverboard, designed for buoyancy in highly aerated water.
Origins
Riverboarding is believed to have originated in the late 1970s. It is claimed to have originated in France, where raft guides stuffed a burlap mail sack with life vests and went down rapids. Soon, riders adapted a personal submarine shell for their molds, and the plastic version of the riverboard was born. Sometime in the 1980s, Robert Carlson began running rivers in California, U.S.A. using an ocean bodyboard and ended up making his own board that was bigger and thicker and had handles. Later in 1986, Ged Hay began taking his body board down the Kawarau River near Queenstown while on his days off as a rafting guide.
European riders also developed a foam version (called a hydrospeed) of the plastic board to reduce weight and avoid injuring each other during collisions that sometimes resulted from one rider travelling downstream and another facing upstream while surfing a hydraulic. Today, homemade foam hydrospeeds are found primarily among European riders. A growing sport in North America, riverboarding has grown in popularity from media exposure and the emergence of commercial operators running riverboard trips.
Equipment
Riverboarders typically wear fins to provide the thrust to navigate in river currents, while a personal flotation device provides additional buoyancy. Wetsuits, booties and helmets are worn as protection from the cold and from rocks. Additionally, shin guards, gloves, knee pads, thigh pads, and elbow pads are sometimes worn for extra protection on shallow rivers. Instruction, board design, and gear continue to improve, making riverboarding safer and opening up the possibilities of rapids that can be run on a riverboard and new tricks that can be performed while surfing on the belly.
Rescue use
In rescue use, the board is used to support both rescuer and victim in the water during rescue. The rider must engage both mind and body—thinking about the best way to go down a river while using their fins for the propulsion to get out of harm's way. Riverboards can offer rescuers a valuable chase option to access victims swept downstream who may not be accessed by hand or rope.
Rivers
Several companies operate riverboarding or sledging excursions in New Zealand near Queenstown, Wanaka, and Rotorua. Several companies also operate guided riverboard trips in the United States near Missoula, Montana; Sacramento, California; Bend, Oregon, and eastern Tennessee. In South America, river boarding is popular on the Rio Fonce in San Gil, Colombia. One company based in Voss, Norway, offers riverboarding in several rivers in the area. In Europe the Soca river in Slovenia is a notable location with more extreme options available for more experienced riders.
In Canada, the Lachine rapids, on the Saint-Lawrence river near Montreal, boarding is also offered.
A commercial riverboarding operation commenced on the Tully River in Queensland, Australia, in 2014.
Records
Mike McVey currently holds the record for the tallest waterfall riverboarded with his descent of the 31-meter (101 ft) tall Metlako falls on Eagle Creek in Oregon.
Mike Horn previously held the record for the tallest waterfall riverboarded with his descent of a 22-meter (72 ft) tall waterfall on the upper reaches of the Pacuare River at Costa Rica.
See also
American River (North, Middle, and South Forks)
Clark Fork River
Kawarau River
Kern River
Truckee River
References
dailykayaking.com
Boardsports
Bodyboarding
Whitewater sports | [
0.08948440849781036,
-0.3544052839279175,
0.06308617442846298,
0.3719182312488556,
0.09404677897691727,
-0.22484040260314941,
0.16277147829532623,
-0.08313680440187454,
-0.6306161284446716,
-0.11311022192239761,
0.2677634060382843,
0.17122215032577515,
-0.16395466029644012,
-0.32657426595687866,
-0.022835874930024147,
0.5264475345611572,
0.17849767208099365,
-0.011435717344284058,
0.6359418034553528,
0.21118701994419098,
-0.70993971824646,
-0.17931389808654785,
0.2504715323448181,
-0.0627484917640686,
-0.12080609798431396,
-0.2061111330986023,
0.3135906457901001,
0.3589228093624115,
-0.5037513375282288,
0.21183940768241882,
0.21108630299568176,
0.7879363298416138,
0.22159364819526672,
-0.3504960834980011,
0.5496254563331604,
-0.5018478035926819,
-0.21566613018512726,
-0.49904119968414307,
-0.1879790723323822,
-0.3621765673160553,
-0.35064205527305603,
0.31247419118881226,
0.010702854953706264,
0.3364273011684418,
0.5754914283752441,
-0.26014983654022217,
-1.02471923828125,
0.144309863448143,
-0.4572877287864685,
0.06038182973861694,
-0.7092487215995789,
0.6918398141860962,
-0.14884917438030243,
0.6398564577102661,
0.654552698135376,
0.3095824718475342,
-0.08742329478263855,
0.18446679413318634,
0.03279709070920944,
0.1588437259197235,
0.7977269887924194,
0.3057272732257843,
-0.0665445625782013,
0.35923823714256287,
-0.1991158127784729,
-0.248528391122818,
0.02378646470606327,
0.06807979196310043,
-0.4519490599632263,
-0.5129405856132507,
0.22584465146064758,
0.14605259895324707,
-0.43146032094955444,
-0.5237789154052734,
0.02864665351808071,
-0.2664853632450104,
0.21939413249492645,
0.4955558478832245,
0.7589508295059204,
-0.3020161986351013,
0.4094691276550293,
0.4465363025665283,
0.3793165683746338,
0.9332783818244934,
0.08116208761930466,
0.25442391633987427,
-0.13638107478618622,
0.466230183839798,
0.33266401290893555,
0.5100005269050598,
-0.06786530464887619,
-0.1708671897649765,
0.4423394501209259,
-0.18055640161037445,
0.1219111755490303,
-0.048989854753017426,
-0.40345141291618347,
0.5096837878227234,
0.2453644573688507,
-0.46830207109451294,
0.36315613985061646,
-0.28124725818634033,
0.4465738534927368,
0.5177751779556274,
-0.029047414660453796,
0.2354293316602707,
-0.6249838471412659,
-0.3618151545524597,
0.6298835277557373,
0.3458046019077301,
-0.4372358024120331,
0.1854284703731537,
0.3857426047325134,
-0.37303411960601807,
-0.09419117867946625,
0.5216031074523926,
0.15731850266456604,
0.22826170921325684,
-0.36215245723724365,
0.022009719163179398,
-0.2578812837600708,
-0.3139626681804657,
0.300977885723114,
-0.41408002376556396,
0.05966721102595329,
0.4447840750217438,
0.7164719700813293,
0.44468337297439575,
-0.7452669143676758,
-0.3995616137981415,
0.5799775719642639,
0.07714269310235977,
-0.33069419860839844,
-0.10186727344989777,
-0.10642562806606293,
0.1901533156633377,
0.6334996819496155,
-0.5589524507522583,
0.6629753708839417,
0.41808244585990906,
-0.9302141666412354,
-0.7641236782073975,
-0.5480040907859802,
-0.5501684546470642,
0.343089759349823,
-0.04220430552959442,
0.36408495903015137,
-0.5876184701919556,
-0.7357531785964966,
0.1262475848197937,
0.08517207950353622,
0.5305901169776917,
-0.2484004646539688,
0.05770197883248329,
-0.04544058442115784,
0.4221835732460022,
0.27069011330604553,
-0.3865959644317627,
0.30240651965141296,
0.07698366791009903,
0.014078146778047085,
0.11169588565826416,
-0.5244312286376953,
0.0779801681637764,
0.40183281898498535,
-0.48783183097839355,
0.10948149859905243,
-0.12967243790626526,
0.13902625441551208,
0.5540334582328796,
0.11392758786678314,
0.8349170684814453,
0.2377493530511856,
-0.4677099585533142,
0.17429520189762115,
-0.500041127204895,
-0.006777849979698658,
0.6616179347038269,
0.5615144371986389,
-0.07546430826187134,
-0.584670901298523,
-0.03725431114435196,
0.4344397783279419,
-0.12172722816467285,
-0.0970669537782669,
-0.5823734998703003,
0.5069857835769653,
0.007813147269189358,
-0.1609896570444107,
-0.05446979030966759,
0.01573241502046585,
-0.4296748638153076,
0.36435648798942566,
-0.30687427520751953,
1.2500371932983398,
-0.0363783985376358,
-0.8597589731216431,
0.8889127969741821,
-0.2366575002670288,
0.4495640695095062,
-0.26376548409461975,
0.34219422936439514,
0.18556027114391327,
0.10089297592639923,
-1.4206783771514893,
0.07595840096473694,
0.24022088944911957,
-0.3038814067840576,
0.16832412779331207,
-0.4320363700389862,
0.10850227624177933,
-0.7726701498031616,
-0.6300488710403442,
-0.43120276927948,
-0.22112779319286346,
-0.05299696698784828,
-0.07185331732034683,
0.6596134901046753,
-0.034140340983867645,
0.09971817582845688,
0.7911281585693359,
-0.07997414469718933,
-0.16686195135116577,
0.3880902826786041,
0.14473259449005127,
0.452437162399292,
-0.654850959777832,
0.2472870945930481,
0.11423272639513016,
-0.48079371452331543,
-0.09816501289606094,
0.28012174367904663,
0.1273646056652069,
-0.2416612058877945,
-0.2476656585931778,
-0.16847848892211914,
0.22589632868766785,
-0.5950790643692017,
0.5877551436424255,
0.075994573533535,
-0.38544341921806335,
0.4241497814655304,
-0.35635918378829956,
0.1846713423728943,
0.11294267326593399,
-0.4140720069408417,
0.09662290662527084,
0.5688279271125793,
-0.3136311173439026,
0.10174072533845901,
0.2578216791152954,
0.48427486419677734,
0.14520783722400665,
-0.46834248304367065,
0.2677158713340759,
0.323598712682724,
-0.5579422116279602,
0.07991635054349899,
0.06609511375427246,
-0.08786509186029434,
-0.138275608420372,
0.5268299579620361,
-0.13528920710086823,
0.3555755615234375,
-0.32175612449645996,
-0.5250370502471924,
-0.42033591866493225,
-0.4770042598247528,
0.11971826106309891,
0.7253624200820923,
0.4866931438446045,
0.0165823083370924,
0.02463817596435547,
-0.22376157343387604,
-0.07488314807415009,
-0.4699791967868805,
0.22332683205604553,
-0.08185034990310669,
-0.15816807746887207,
-0.2985168397426605,
0.227383092045784,
0.5701629519462585,
0.6297440528869629,
-0.6446340084075928,
-0.3919728696346283,
0.08495830744504929,
0.05682426318526268,
0.5756735801696777,
-0.1434144228696823,
-0.07710301876068115,
0.159645214676857,
0.11574272066354752,
0.13491331040859222,
0.3444835841655731,
0.22177784144878387,
0.3303026556968689,
-0.32566317915916443,
0.5624766945838928,
0.5015773177146912,
0.47050708532333374,
-0.04898399859666824,
-0.10773877799510956,
0.02312830649316311,
-0.38171282410621643,
0.33509382605552673,
-0.2866306006908417,
-0.2091871052980423,
-0.2205413430929184,
-5.790982246398926,
-0.09524313360452652,
-0.4331340491771698,
-0.18733394145965576,
0.13953222334384918,
0.02387963980436325,
0.2222149521112442,
0.027108166366815567,
0.03135570138692856,
0.29497861862182617,
-0.03880905732512474,
0.184944748878479,
0.3032000958919525,
-0.3419317603111267,
0.58324134349823,
0.4901372194290161,
0.8739445805549622,
-0.4191683828830719,
-0.12933886051177979,
0.14670874178409576,
-0.34683555364608765,
0.512624979019165,
-0.40282851457595825,
0.1563153713941574,
0.02078576572239399,
0.07253190875053406,
-0.2498825639486313,
0.05272343009710312,
-0.34748905897140503,
-0.04386940971016884,
-0.267931193113327,
0.06786222755908966,
-0.19729483127593994,
-0.1714530885219574,
0.49191856384277344,
0.17681211233139038,
0.799508810043335,
0.48632070422172546,
0.16912797093391418,
-0.11962507665157318,
-0.579926609992981,
-0.12859544157981873,
0.06830862909555435,
-0.1733255833387375,
0.5615084171295166,
0.16675026714801788,
0.11905118077993393,
-0.00023033081379253417,
0.0033425346482545137,
0.5387353897094727,
0.3229246437549591,
-0.25971153378486633,
0.9263141751289368,
0.44367289543151855,
0.60304194688797,
-0.6482841372489929,
0.622882604598999,
-0.2787807285785675,
-0.11428869515657425,
0.30274417996406555,
0.5044936537742615,
-0.7910175919532776,
-0.0866844654083252,
-0.541761040687561,
0.4117283821105957,
-1.0839295387268066,
-0.4531377851963043,
-0.18544916808605194,
0.31575679779052734,
0.5858181715011597,
-0.385508269071579,
0.22156916558742523,
0.0419800691306591,
-0.7876203060150146,
0.30129554867744446,
-0.20783773064613342,
0.21495471894741058,
-0.42663463950157166,
0.1252547800540924,
-0.14060050249099731,
-0.6648759245872498,
-0.1841360479593277,
-0.6833443641662598,
0.18650223314762115,
0.15824149549007416,
-0.5748047232627869,
-0.04308683052659035,
-0.14070208370685577,
-0.13720004260540009,
0.09054672718048096,
0.9131795763969421,
0.0689922645688057,
0.09123879671096802,
-0.06883030384778976,
0.19606858491897583,
0.3147736191749573,
-0.22138044238090515,
-0.47806116938591003,
0.5528901815414429,
-0.6225972771644592,
0.24691927433013916,
0.020004546269774437,
0.22382071614265442,
-0.1912873089313507,
0.26704084873199463,
-0.10112889856100082,
0.1995985209941864,
0.19034068286418915,
0.5047432780265808,
-0.2245260626077652,
-0.46513572335243225,
0.10778600722551346,
-0.691182553768158,
0.508023738861084,
-0.0265321284532547,
0.3477352261543274,
-0.6643686294555664,
0.08431815356016159,
0.11775341629981995,
-0.22576841711997986,
-0.2507314383983612,
0.5884634256362915,
0.2175595611333847,
0.05348706245422363,
0.48225098848342896,
-0.4150473475456238,
-0.07597647607326508,
0.01434878259897232,
-0.04485763981938362,
0.2715250253677368,
0.9869155287742615,
0.23919707536697388,
0.26159748435020447,
0.19805236160755157,
-0.13025106489658356,
0.0415165089070797,
-0.395562082529068,
-0.13933074474334717,
0.20526617765426636,
-0.3389400243759155,
-0.10812348127365112,
-0.23012769222259521,
0.3265978991985321,
-0.03157758340239525,
0.6617465019226074,
0.6641033887863159,
-0.3443269729614258,
0.3102770447731018,
-0.41747450828552246,
1.1213322877883911,
-0.0055494047701358795,
-0.4123240113258362,
-0.5106119513511658,
-0.703025221824646,
0.2970598340034485,
-0.3067541718482971,
-0.018876146525144577,
-0.02618289738893509,
0.06807263940572739,
-0.8604392409324646,
0.30449122190475464,
-0.21862806379795074,
-0.9341406226158142,
-0.21098166704177856,
-0.5224810838699341,
0.47781968116760254,
-0.5537968277931213,
0.002116103656589985,
-0.040425099432468414,
-0.1832685023546219,
0.10366565734148026,
-0.5863108038902283,
-0.6987124681472778,
0.034513819962739944,
0.32750222086906433,
0.06946136057376862,
-0.32062965631484985,
0.2917864918708801,
-0.2936098873615265,
-0.6976281404495239,
-0.11801160126924515,
-0.20682695508003235,
-0.030423231422901154,
0.3789413273334503,
0.08541083335876465,
-0.40774741768836975,
0.0339386947453022,
0.2421673983335495,
-0.11657911539077759,
0.5818712115287781,
0.18809311091899872,
1.0328348875045776,
0.5607156157493591,
0.23063625395298004,
-0.012748746201395988,
0.13783980906009674,
0.11233941465616226,
0.6866002082824707,
-0.4416643977165222,
0.07736482471227646,
0.014135140925645828,
0.08362975716590881,
-0.1928166151046753,
0.510236918926239,
0.3472597301006317,
-0.15989983081817627,
0.20071446895599365,
0.215027317404747,
-0.4327729642391205,
-0.28923097252845764,
-0.2992849051952362,
-0.4670344591140747,
-0.24916940927505493,
0.1460321545600891,
-0.7644059658050537,
-0.0812690407037735,
0.022244831547141075,
-0.7823913097381592,
-0.12191259115934372,
-0.11507011204957962,
0.28463566303253174,
-0.3567669987678528,
-0.6343685984611511,
-0.36876600980758667,
-0.46591347455978394,
0.15538199245929718,
0.1846819818019867,
-0.07124675810337067,
0.7494959831237793,
0.05421894043684006,
-0.1430996209383011,
-0.7029150724411011,
-0.14051498472690582,
0.051988422870635986,
0.4512975215911865,
-0.011211652308702469,
-0.1577809453010559,
0.16462549567222595,
0.16317372024059296,
-0.16235624253749847,
0.13017527759075165,
0.943994402885437,
-0.06535565853118896,
-0.6527589559555054,
-0.014677055180072784,
0.22852233052253723,
-0.25846362113952637,
-0.42943844199180603,
-0.7653358578681946,
0.08026139438152313,
0.5473363995552063,
-0.2782571315765381,
-0.34472429752349854,
-0.06111268326640129,
0.3746597468852997,
-0.371716171503067,
-0.0024792738258838654,
-0.2486972063779831,
0.5574251413345337,
0.2063862532377243,
0.3688618540763855,
0.37377920746803284,
-0.978552520275116,
-0.2410990446805954,
0.13684038817882538,
-0.2789132595062256,
0.021025758236646652,
-0.21002908051013947,
-0.2677103877067566,
-0.2506862282752991,
-0.258145272731781,
-0.1903214454650879,
0.3107958734035492,
0.44766032695770264,
0.001930827391333878,
-0.0038006165996193886,
-0.10909324884414673,
-0.4900735318660736,
0.21587328612804413,
0.16662117838859558,
-0.3535248041152954,
0.3555290997028351,
-0.12866905331611633,
-0.3733827769756317,
-0.05527738109230995,
0.34783416986465454,
0.1330646574497223,
0.03884924203157425,
-0.32343971729278564,
-0.26175376772880554,
-0.20960436761379242,
-0.32022449374198914,
-0.6270368695259094,
0.40468326210975647,
0.10194952040910721,
0.22773593664169312,
0.41132378578186035,
-0.12571242451667786,
-0.5432379841804504,
0.3023781180381775,
-0.5946404337882996,
0.8136500120162964,
0.15945923328399658,
-1.2020869255065918,
0.057554639875888824,
-0.32920724153518677,
0.2785194516181946,
-0.8925877213478088,
0.5709713697433472,
0.5472835898399353,
0.31734803318977356,
-0.28512251377105713,
-0.24198026955127716,
0.8709684610366821,
-0.2673998475074768,
0.16947567462921143,
0.5176477432250977,
-0.1145578920841217,
0.31713590025901794,
0.28688302636146545,
-0.03871484473347664,
-0.4376533031463623,
0.5721519589424133,
-0.24182668328285217,
-0.021509744226932526,
-0.07611987739801407,
0.2641192376613617,
-0.5813223719596863,
0.3434549570083618,
0.7405998110771179,
0.6212677955627441,
-0.2926817834377289,
-0.4104216694831848,
0.11971297115087509,
-0.07664555311203003,
-0.11150386929512024,
0.0004090092843398452,
0.015538775362074375,
-0.8300607204437256,
-0.3077319264411926,
0.5886799693107605,
-0.1598004251718521,
-0.1869616061449051,
0.4909442663192749,
0.19695548713207245,
-0.13062921166419983,
0.6775897741317749,
-0.18077312409877777,
-0.45981281995773315,
-0.6205935478210449,
0.4506934583187103,
0.06743787974119186,
0.4405975043773651,
-0.6972997188568115,
0.5551870465278625,
-0.36114832758903503,
0.39924418926239014,
-0.4844779968261719,
-0.09378967434167862,
-0.21527166664600372,
0.21475836634635925,
-0.10948854684829712,
0.31569981575012207,
-0.8769424557685852,
0.03749110549688339,
-0.33379995822906494,
0.1789947748184204,
-0.48916900157928467,
-0.2681160271167755,
0.2984209656715393,
0.17856551706790924,
0.6470117568969727,
-0.3906219005584717,
0.2586461305618286,
-0.17095372080802917,
-0.18392400443553925,
0.010422276332974434,
0.029289403930306435,
0.40597984194755554,
-0.09756994247436523,
-0.07256957143545151,
-0.17440828680992126,
-0.22806039452552795,
-0.2747359871864319,
-0.13088345527648926,
-0.11204541474580765,
0.3320767283439636,
0.5393384695053101,
0.003842949867248535,
0.296867698431015,
-0.3983629643917084,
-0.5012274384498596,
-0.6215682625770569,
0.28617191314697266,
-0.5299130082130432,
-0.762268602848053,
-0.017601128667593002,
0.9725022912025452,
0.19591976702213287,
0.29254499077796936,
-0.35143083333969116,
0.06325510144233704,
-0.004864867776632309,
0.5405759215354919,
-0.8323801159858704,
0.46418723464012146,
-0.39168909192085266,
-0.3381870985031128,
-0.2691485583782196,
0.7780203223228455,
0.6061005592346191,
-0.029611414298415184,
0.19128960371017456,
-0.02960880473256111,
0.4179988503456116,
0.15327487885951996,
0.5490655303001404,
-1.0674171447753906,
-0.07086557894945145,
-0.4116158187389374,
-0.10616113990545273,
0.1209942176938057,
-0.37257620692253113,
0.4496179223060608,
-0.36107322573661804,
0.0842931792140007,
-0.16284140944480896,
-0.6465027332305908,
-0.778226375579834,
0.2540150284767151,
-0.8967955112457275,
-0.3299255669116974,
-0.6036022305488586,
0.5481736660003662,
0.13144269585609436,
-0.554975152015686,
0.009758209809660912,
0.5588799118995667,
0.5458223819732666,
-0.23363465070724487,
-0.09237324446439743,
0.2859964966773987,
-0.08618240803480148,
-0.17767350375652313,
-0.09110631793737411,
-0.5477390885353088,
-0.09397543966770172,
0.5752829313278198,
-0.5327849984169006,
-0.09048135578632355,
0.1714174449443817,
-0.25247883796691895,
-0.3173525631427765,
-0.31742778420448303,
0.44382205605506897,
0.20027458667755127,
0.3385009765625,
-0.8760334849357605,
-0.6760273575782776,
0.1362343579530716
] |
260979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bribery | Bribery | Bribery is defined by Black's Law Dictionary as the offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting of any item of value to influence the actions of an official, or other person, in charge of a public or legal duty. With regard to governmental operations, essentially, bribery is "Corrupt solicitation, acceptance, or transfer of value in exchange for official action."
Gifts of money or other items of value which are otherwise available to everyone on an equivalent basis, and not for dishonest purposes, is not bribery. Offering a discount or a refund to all purchasers is a legal rebate and is not bribery. For example, it is legal for an employee of a Public Utilities Commission involved in electric rate regulation to accept a rebate on electric service that reduces their cost for electricity, when the rebate is available to other residential electric customers. However, giving a discount specifically to that employee to influence them to look favorably on the electric utility's rate increase applications would be considered bribery.
A bribe is an illegal or unethical gift or lobbying effort bestowed to influence the recipient's conduct. It may be money, goods, rights in action, property, preferment, privilege, emolument, objects of value, advantage, or merely a promise to induce or influence the action, vote, or influence of a person in an official or public capacity.
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 has a target to substantially reduce corruption and bribery of all forms as part of international effort aimed at ensuring peace, justice and strong institutions.
Forms
Many types of payments or favors may be fairly or unfairly labeled as bribes: tip, gift, sop, perk, skim, favor, discount, waived fee/ticket, free food, free ad, free trip, free tickets, sweetheart deal, kickback/payback, funding, inflated sale of an object or property, lucrative contract, donation, campaign contribution, fundraiser, sponsorship/backing, higher paying job, stock options, secret commission, or promotion (rise of position/rank).
One must be careful of differing social and cultural norms when examining bribery. Expectations of when a monetary transaction is appropriate can differ from place to place. Political campaign contributions in the form of cash, for example, are considered criminal acts of bribery in some countries, while in the United States, provided they adhere to election law, are legal. Tipping, for example, is considered bribery in some societies, while in others the two concepts may not be interchangeable.
In some Spanish-speaking countries, bribes are referred to as "mordida" (literally, "bite"). In Arab countries, bribes may be called baksheesh (a tip, gift, or gratuity) or "shay" (literally, "tea"). French-speaking countries often use the expressions "dessous-de-table" ("under-the-table" commissions), "pot-de-vin" (literally, "wine-pot"), or "commission occulte" ("secret commission" or "kickback"). While the last two expressions contain inherently a negative connotation, the expression "dessous-de-table" can be often understood as a commonly accepted business practice. In German, the common term is Schmiergeld ("smoothing money").
The offence may be divided into two great classes: the one, where a person invested with power is induced by payment to use it unjustly; the other, where power is obtained by purchasing the suffrages of those who can impart it. Likewise, the briber might hold a powerful role and control the transaction; or in other cases, a bribe may be effectively extracted from the person paying it, although this is better known as extortion.
The forms that bribery take are numerous. For example, a motorist might bribe a police officer not to issue a ticket for speeding, a citizen seeking paperwork or utility line connections might bribe a functionary for faster service.
Bribery may also take the form of a secret commission, a profit made by an agent, in the course of his employment, without the knowledge of his principal. Euphemisms abound for this (commission, sweetener, kick-back etc.) Bribers and recipients of bribery are likewise numerous although bribers have one common denominator and that is the financial ability to bribe.
Overall, bribery is thought to be around one trillion dollars worldwide according to BBC news UK.
As indicated on the pages devoted to political corruption, efforts have been made in recent years by the international community to encourage countries to dissociate and incriminate as separate offences, active and passive bribery. From a legal point of view, active bribery can be defined for instance as the promising, offering or giving by any person, directly or indirectly, of any undue advantage [to any public official], for himself or herself or for anyone else, for him or her to act or refrain from acting in the exercise of his or her functions. (article 2 of the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (ETS 173) of the Council of Europe). Passive bribery can be defined as the request or receipt [by any public official], directly or indirectly, of any undue advantage, for himself or herself or for anyone else, or the acceptance of an offer or a promise of such an advantage, to act or refrain from acting in the exercise of his or her functions (article 3 of the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (ETS 173)).
The reason for this dissociation is to make the early steps (offering, promising, requesting an advantage) of a corrupt deal already an offence and, thus, to give a clear signal (from a criminal policy point of view) that bribery is not acceptable. Besides, such a dissociation makes the prosecution of bribery offences easier since it can be very difficult to prove that two parties (the bribe-giver and the bribe-taker) have formally agreed upon a corrupt deal. Besides, there is often no such formal deal but only a mutual understanding, for instance when it is common knowledge in a municipality that to obtain a building permit one has to pay a "fee" to the decision maker to obtain a favourable decision.
When examining the fact of bribe taking, we primarily need to understand that any action is affected by various elements; in addition, all these elements are interrelated. For instance, it would be wrong to indicate that the bribe-taker's motive is greediness as such, without examining causes of appearance of greediness in the personality of the particular bribe-taker. Largely, it is possible to confine oneself to the motive of greediness only in case if a bribe-taker tries to satisfy the primary (physical) needs. Yet, if money serves to satisfy secondary – psychological – needs, we should search for deeper motives of bribe taking.
Government
A grey area may exist when payments to smooth transactions are made. United States law is particularly strict in limiting the ability of businesses to pay for the awarding of contracts by foreign governments; however, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act contains an exception for "grease payments"; very basically, this allows payments to officials in order to obtain the performance of ministerial acts which they are legally required to do, but may delay in the absence of such payment. In some countries, this practice is the norm, often resulting from a developing nation not having the tax structure to pay civil servants an adequate salary. Nevertheless, most economists regard bribery as a bad thing because it encourages rent seeking behaviour. A state where bribery has become a way of life is a kleptocracy.
Recent evidence suggests that the act of bribery can have political consequences- with citizens being asked for bribes becoming less likely to identify with their country, region and/or tribal unit.
Tax treatment
The tax status of bribes is an issue for governments since the bribery of government officials impedes the democratic process and may interfere with good government. In some countries, such bribes are considered tax-deductible payments. However, in 1996, in an effort to discourage bribery, the OECD Council recommended that member countries cease to allow the tax-deductibility of bribes to foreign officials. This was followed by the signing of the Anti-Bribery Convention. Since that time, the majority of the OECD countries which are signatories of the convention have revised their tax policies according to this recommendation and some have extended the measures to bribes paid to any official, sending the message that bribery will no longer be tolerated in the operations of the government.
As any monetary benefit received from an illegal activity such as bribery is generally considered part of one's taxable income, however, as it is criminal, some governments may refuse to accept it as income as it may mean they are a party to the activity.
Medicine
Pharmaceutical corporations may seek to entice doctors to favor prescribing their drugs over others of comparable effectiveness. If the medicine is prescribed heavily, they may seek to reward the individual through gifts. The American Medical Association has published ethical guidelines for gifts from industry which include the tenet that physicians should not accept gifts if they are given in relation to the physician's prescribing practices. Doubtful cases include grants for traveling to medical conventions that double as tourist trips.
Dentists often receive samples of home dental care products such as toothpaste, which are of negligible value; somewhat ironically, dentists in a television commercial will often state that they get these samples but pay to use the sponsor's product.
In countries offering state-subsidized or nationally funded healthcare where medical professionals are underpaid, patients may use bribery to solicit the standard expected level of medical care. For example, in many formerly Communist countries from what used to be the Eastern Bloc it may be customary to offer expensive gifts to doctors and nurses for the delivery of service at any level of medical care in the non-private health sector.
Politics
Politicians receive campaign contributions and other payoffs from powerful corporations, organizations or individuals in return for making choices in the interests of those parties, or in anticipation of favorable policy, also referred to as lobbying. This is not illegal in the United States and forms a major part of campaign finance, though it is sometimes referred to as the money loop. However, in many European countries, a politician accepting money from a corporation whose activities fall under the sector they currently (or are campaigning to be elected to) regulate would be considered a criminal offence, for instance the "Cash-for-questions affair" and "Cash for Honours" in the United Kingdom.
A grey area in these democracies is the so-called "revolving door" in which politicians are offered highly-paid, often consultancy jobs upon their retirement from politics by the corporations they regulate while in office, in return for enacting legislation favourable to the corporation while they are in office, a conflict of interest. Convictions for this form of bribery are easier to obtain with hard evidence, a specific amount of money linked to a specific action by the recipient of the bribe. Such evidence is frequently obtained using undercover agents, since evidence of a quid pro quo relation can often be difficult to prove. See also influence peddling and political corruption.
Recent evidence suggests that demands for bribes can adversely impact citizen level of trust and engagement with the political process.
Business
Employees, managers, or salespeople of a business may offer money or gifts to a potential client in exchange for business.
For example, in 2006, German prosecutors conducted a wide-ranging investigation of Siemens AG to determine if Siemens employees paid bribes in exchange for business.
In some cases where the system of law is not well-implemented, bribes may be a way for companies to continue their businesses. In the case, for example, custom officials may harass a certain firm or production plant, officially stating they are checking for irregularities, halting production or stalling other normal activities of a firm. The disruption may cause losses to the firm that exceed the amount of money to pay off the official. Bribing the officials is a common way to deal with this issue in countries where there exists no firm system of reporting these semi-illegal activities. A third party, known as a White Glove, may be involved to act as a clean middleman.
Specialist consultancies have been set up to help multinational companies and small and medium enterprises with a commitment to anti-corruption to trade more ethically and benefit from compliance with the law.
Contracts based on or involving the payment or transfer of bribes ("corruption money", "secret commissions", "pots-de-vin", "kickbacks") are void.
In 2012, The Economist noted:
In addition, a survey conducted by auditing firm Ernst & Young (EY) in 2012 found that 15 percent of top financial executives are willing to pay bribes in order to keep or win business. Another 4 percent said they would be willing to misstate financial performance. This alarming indifference represents a huge risk to their business, given their responsibility.
Sport corruption
Referees and scoring judges may be offered money, gifts, or other compensation to guarantee a specific outcome in an athletic or other sports competition. A well-known example of this manner of bribery in the sport would be the 2002 Olympic Winter Games figure skating scandal, where the French judge in the pairs competition voted for the Russian skaters in order to secure an advantage for the French skaters in the ice dancing competition.
Additionally, bribes may be offered by cities in order to secure athletic franchises, or even competitions, as happened with the 2002 Winter Olympics. It is common practice for cities to "bid" against each other with stadiums, tax benefits, and licensing deals.
Prevention
Legislation
The U.S. introduced the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) in 1977 to address bribery of foreign officials. FCPA criminalized the influencing of foreign officials by companies through rewards or payments. This legislation dominated international anti-corruption enforcement until around 2010 when other countries began introducing broader and more robust legislation, notably the United Kingdom Bribery Act 2010. The International Organization for Standardization introduced an international anti-bribery management system standard in 2016. In recent years, cooperation in enforcement action between countries has increased.
Under 18 U.S. Code § 201 – Bribery of public officials and witnesses, the law strictly prohibits any type of promising, giving, or offering of value to a public official. A public official is further defined as anyone who holds public or elected office. Another stipulation of the law in place condemns the same kind of offering, giving, or coercing a witness in a legal case to changing their story. Under the U.S Code § 1503, influencing or injuring officer or juror generally, it clearly states that any offense under the section means you can be imprisoned for the maximum of 10 years and/or fined.
Businesses
Programs of prevention need to be properly designed and meet with international standards of best practice. To ensure respect for a program, whether it be on the part of employees or business partners, external verification is necessary. International best practices such as the Council for Further Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions, Annex 2; the ISO 26000 norm (section 6.6.3) or TI Business Principles for Countering Bribery are used in external verification processes to measure and ensure that a program of bribery prevention works and is consistent with international standards. Another reason for businesses to undergo external verification of their bribery prevention programs is that it means evidence can be provided to assert that all that was possible was done to prevent corruption. Companies are unable to guarantee corruption has never occurred; what they can do is provide evidence that they did their best to prevent it.
There is no federal statute under the U.S Law that prohibits or regulates any type of private or commercial bribery. There is a way for prosecutors to try people for bribery by using existing laws. Section 1346 of Title 18 can be used by prosecutors, to try people for ‘a scheme or artifice to deprive another of the intangible right to honest services,’ under the mail and wire fraud statutes. Prosecutors have always successfully prosecuted private company employees for breaching a fiduciary duty and taking bribes, under Honest services fraud.
There are also cases of successful prosecution of bribery in the case of international business. The DOJ has used the Travel Act, 18 USC Section 1952 to prosecute bribery. Under the Travel Act, it is against the law, domestically and internationally, to utilize‘the mail or any facility in interstate or foreign commerce’ with intent to ‘promote, manage, establish, carry on, or facilitate the promotion, management, establishment or carrying on, of any unlawful activity’.
Notable instances
Spiro Agnew, Republican, American Vice President who resigned from office in the aftermath of discovery that he took bribes while serving as Governor of Maryland.
John William Ashe, former President of the United Nations General Assembly (2013-2014) and key negotiator for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), was arrested 6 October 2015 and charged, along with five others, in a criminal complaint involving receiving bribes from Macau casino and real estate developer Ng Lap Seng.
Pakistan cricket spot-fixing controversy, Mohammad Asif, Mohammad Amir and Salman Butt, Pakistani cricketers found guilty of accepting bribes to bowl no-balls against England at certain times.
Duke Cunningham, United States Navy veteran and former Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from California's 50th Congressional District resigned after pleading guilty to accepting at least $2.4 million in bribes and under-reporting his income for 2004.
Gerald Garson, former New York Supreme Court Justice, convicted of accepting bribes to manipulate outcomes of divorce proceedings.
Andrew J. Hinshaw, Republican, former congressman from California's 40th district, convicted of accepting bribes.
John Jenrette, Democrat, former congressman from South Carolina's 6th district, convicted of accepting a bribe in the FBI's Abscam operation.
Ralph Lauren, clothing retailer, was found guilty of making illegal payments and giving gifts to foreign officials in an attempt to circumvent custom' inspections and paperwork.
Lee Myung-Bak, former South Korean president was found guilty of accepting nearly $6 million bribes from Samsung in exchange for a presidential pardon for Samsung Chairman Lee Kun-hee.
Donald "Buz" Lukens, Republican, former congressman from Ohio's 8th district, charged with delinquency of a minor and convicted of bribery and conspiracy.
Martin Thomas Manton, former U.S. federal judge convicted of accepting bribes.
Rick Renzi, Republican, former congressman from Arizona's 1st district, found guilty of 17 counts including wire fraud, conspiracy, extortion, racketeering, and money laundering.
Tangentopoli (Italian for "city of bribes") was a huge bribery scandal in early 1990s Italy, which brought down the whole system of political parties, when it was uncovered by the Mani pulite investigations. At one point roughly half of members of parliament were under investigation.
Dianne Wilkerson, Democrat, former Massachusetts state senator pleaded guilty to eight counts of attempted extortion.
See also
Ambitus
Bid rigging
Bribe Payers Index
Charbonneau Commission
Conflict of interest
Corruption by country
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act
Group of States Against Corruption (GRECO) of the Council of Europe
Influence peddling
ISO 37001 Anti-bribery management systems
Jury tampering
Kickback (bribery)
Largitio
Legal plunder
Lobbying
Match fixing
Money trail – Money loop
Organized crime
Pay to Play
Payola
Point shaving
Political corruption
Price fixing
Principal–agent problem
Transparency International
UK Bribery Act 2010
References
Corporate crime
Organized crime activity
Political corruption
White-collar criminals | [
0.10946706682443619,
0.11364324390888214,
-0.5924134850502014,
0.3800526261329651,
0.06813886016607285,
0.35557329654693604,
0.12275107204914093,
0.4047662615776062,
-0.12156544625759125,
0.060967717319726944,
-0.05606542155146599,
0.6350265145301819,
-0.5840497016906738,
0.04458412900567055,
-0.21718712151050568,
0.06862664222717285,
0.353346049785614,
0.6323028206825256,
0.6404793858528137,
0.11085319519042969,
-0.4262230098247528,
0.5587465763092041,
-0.23494704067707062,
-0.5392373204231262,
0.23400676250457764,
-0.12224537134170532,
0.10791270434856415,
-0.40420278906822205,
-0.7453082203865051,
-0.09558962285518646,
0.7278709411621094,
0.45941486954689026,
0.10939406603574753,
-0.3112764358520508,
-0.46349477767944336,
-0.4013230502605438,
0.12806478142738342,
-0.5253044962882996,
-0.09415058046579361,
-0.32735058665275574,
0.11398622393608093,
0.30472514033317566,
0.26050251722335815,
0.11617515236139297,
-0.5530961751937866,
-0.6746194362640381,
-1.0098532438278198,
0.5527659058570862,
-0.4304578900337219,
0.09203388541936874,
-0.6534677743911743,
0.19974912703037262,
-0.38260871171951294,
0.5279317498207092,
0.5960314273834229,
0.9472765922546387,
-0.6975120306015015,
-0.15926751494407654,
0.26177191734313965,
-0.5311149954795837,
0.6123173832893372,
0.3126295506954193,
0.5932721495628357,
-0.14907702803611755,
0.5698879957199097,
0.011224666610360146,
0.3113464415073395,
1.0473864078521729,
-0.5965830087661743,
-0.9650415778160095,
-0.060882944613695145,
0.22252236306667328,
0.0744069367647171,
0.0327964685857296,
-0.2173248529434204,
-0.11430452764034271,
0.25054436922073364,
0.29026803374290466,
-0.01887732557952404,
-0.19240932166576385,
-0.1243516355752945,
0.15056829154491425,
0.19340410828590393,
-0.10671448707580566,
0.3439810276031494,
-0.3092731535434723,
-0.6986943483352661,
0.5206227898597717,
0.27824899554252625,
-0.014896765351295471,
0.492352694272995,
0.32192784547805786,
0.5788243412971497,
-0.1567309945821762,
-0.23091723024845123,
-0.4365149438381195,
0.020429616793990135,
-0.2785699963569641,
0.4296351671218872,
0.3511493504047394,
-0.21879459917545319,
-0.40594643354415894,
0.42481353878974915,
-0.06014593318104744,
0.39903539419174194,
0.45473602414131165,
-0.18196606636047363,
-0.524674654006958,
-0.028202101588249207,
-0.023347632959485054,
0.23059925436973572,
0.1850874125957489,
-0.2952687740325928,
0.19663764536380768,
-1.0962542295455933,
0.25146543979644775,
0.049502067267894745,
-0.08913282305002213,
-0.42617741227149963,
-0.4710509479045868,
0.6131470799446106,
0.2709653377532959,
0.34262096881866455,
-0.19999413192272186,
0.1407221406698227,
-0.41194456815719604,
0.22235921025276184,
0.9899170994758606,
-0.32330912351608276,
-0.05988473817706108,
0.40521472692489624,
0.6025990843772888,
-0.11654113233089447,
0.20510341227054596,
-0.2948561906814575,
-0.6740725040435791,
0.06283561140298843,
0.2699941396713257,
0.5157275795936584,
0.0895262137055397,
-0.5655760765075684,
-0.3896349370479584,
-0.24479827284812927,
-0.022236302495002747,
0.05315482243895531,
0.011285150423645973,
0.6283288598060608,
-0.1684398204088211,
-0.05034642294049263,
-0.2074952870607376,
0.18144141137599945,
-0.020012177526950836,
0.35963040590286255,
0.11376155912876129,
0.3930714726448059,
0.32929596304893494,
0.5374459624290466,
-0.6130384802818298,
-0.20996679365634918,
0.09151187539100647,
0.28067222237586975,
-0.3730785846710205,
-0.6730892658233643,
-0.1686493158340454,
0.058720607310533524,
0.05091484263539314,
-0.0499020554125309,
0.4323485791683197,
0.39619380235671997,
0.49985262751579285,
-0.351678729057312,
0.6465091109275818,
0.4629284143447876,
-0.736716091632843,
0.43157342076301575,
0.5029165148735046,
-0.6767550110816956,
-0.17704951763153076,
1.0520591735839844,
0.28965383768081665,
-0.8118062019348145,
0.4335567057132721,
-0.08201389759778976,
-0.4177311658859253,
-0.07222097367048264,
-0.056376006454229355,
0.6786311268806458,
0.1786281168460846,
-0.2525201141834259,
-0.2151770144701004,
-0.4729200601577759,
-0.26951587200164795,
-0.01986817643046379,
-0.32788828015327454,
0.9039538502693176,
0.14193372428417206,
-0.04910411313176155,
0.4612467586994171,
0.11183542013168335,
0.10740233957767487,
-0.019745204597711563,
-0.22910445928573608,
0.20592597126960754,
-0.3490172028541565,
-1.2240066528320312,
0.294331431388855,
0.5267798900604248,
-0.05673016980290413,
0.047893255949020386,
0.4911980926990509,
0.21270400285720825,
-0.7979996800422668,
0.19901277124881744,
-0.6800777912139893,
-0.034779179841279984,
0.47482192516326904,
-0.8235415816307068,
0.6308498978614807,
0.4898355007171631,
-0.2873893976211548,
0.7711935639381409,
-0.053119365125894547,
-0.17002451419830322,
0.7770022749900818,
-0.0708693414926529,
0.8855760097503662,
-0.17179545760154724,
0.1698940396308899,
-0.1402759701013565,
-0.8553255796432495,
0.3343924283981323,
-0.0543040856719017,
0.8772900700569153,
-1.102278232574463,
-0.5838637351989746,
-0.08170966804027557,
0.03877972438931465,
-0.2852673828601837,
0.044747646898031235,
-0.09573613852262497,
0.3919340670108795,
0.5985249280929565,
-0.45387232303619385,
0.43609052896499634,
0.0137034822255373,
-0.1259680986404419,
-0.38770756125450134,
0.09699308127164841,
0.21755407750606537,
0.2910783588886261,
-0.027901533991098404,
0.45561814308166504,
-0.032386694103479385,
-0.9959137439727783,
0.4432728588581085,
-0.3570014238357544,
-0.12378263473510742,
0.11497225612401962,
0.48983898758888245,
-0.2577597498893738,
-0.7890598177909851,
0.4176614284515381,
-0.1852675974369049,
0.5436266660690308,
0.029818709939718246,
0.29795441031455994,
-0.47564685344696045,
0.07814713567495346,
0.025116611272096634,
0.11553265899419785,
1.172178864479065,
-0.43954208493232727,
-1.0723490715026855,
0.40527695417404175,
-0.1266116201877594,
-0.29204291105270386,
-0.22165434062480927,
0.610069990158081,
-0.2498820275068283,
-0.8843716382980347,
-0.21731191873550415,
0.46014201641082764,
-0.01346791721880436,
-0.6144840717315674,
-0.2360525131225586,
-0.7519352436065674,
-0.11252257227897644,
-0.482914000749588,
-0.19389188289642334,
-0.17541316151618958,
-0.5612764358520508,
0.2834397852420807,
-0.1950235664844513,
0.28504955768585205,
0.1599358171224594,
-0.2072581648826599,
-0.36764371395111084,
0.5494266748428345,
0.427238404750824,
-0.7069085240364075,
0.1596692055463791,
0.1320657730102539,
-0.4640108048915863,
-0.3718629777431488,
0.26986804604530334,
-0.24004292488098145,
0.005304892081767321,
-0.45447927713394165,
-5.551884174346924,
0.14542028307914734,
-0.3358311057090759,
-0.001088439836166799,
0.28996631503105164,
0.07277695089578629,
0.9765341877937317,
-0.28228825330734253,
-0.07631165534257889,
0.01745656505227089,
-0.16214025020599365,
0.06281986087560654,
0.24729330837726593,
-0.15461799502372742,
0.3795066773891449,
0.27011868357658386,
0.5694640874862671,
-0.8461549282073975,
0.14888504147529602,
0.6011928915977478,
-0.2758156955242157,
0.17971886694431305,
0.6351210474967957,
0.6480622291564941,
0.2208302617073059,
0.32887518405914307,
-0.008010814897716045,
-0.07171516865491867,
-0.2209462970495224,
0.08572278916835785,
0.2289404422044754,
-0.18579483032226562,
-0.09925466775894165,
-0.2537861466407776,
-0.6766073703765869,
-0.12965735793113708,
1.0254364013671875,
-0.43741458654403687,
-0.37307417392730713,
-0.255344957113266,
-0.6732091307640076,
0.18753917515277863,
0.176505908370018,
0.24284210801124573,
0.6364904046058655,
-0.32305508852005005,
-0.25291016697883606,
-0.5762981176376343,
-0.5239925980567932,
0.21676723659038544,
-0.07805907726287842,
0.4652349054813385,
0.21014878153800964,
0.4409276843070984,
-0.08351242542266846,
-0.14886315166950226,
0.2393016219139099,
0.2383335530757904,
-0.6329181790351868,
0.2999146282672882,
0.4927699863910675,
-0.47052162885665894,
-0.1183682307600975,
0.49728333950042725,
0.133182555437088,
-0.47247588634490967,
-0.17054378986358643,
-0.7552822828292847,
0.9772058725357056,
0.1898632049560547,
-0.164210706949234,
0.6649331450462341,
0.690161406993866,
-0.9000751972198486,
0.6311325430870056,
-0.083830825984478,
-0.0199452955275774,
0.24278295040130615,
0.625763475894928,
0.2027740478515625,
-0.44060710072517395,
0.04053976759314537,
-0.5518400073051453,
-0.015729736536741257,
0.3484607934951782,
-0.6679259538650513,
0.17546622455120087,
0.632432758808136,
-0.2354622781276703,
-0.4369472861289978,
1.0161665678024292,
0.2174079865217209,
0.32756197452545166,
0.6641219258308411,
-0.2712533473968506,
1.268284559249878,
-0.012544684112071991,
-0.2446841299533844,
0.003623249242082238,
-0.11009876430034637,
0.44057753682136536,
-0.5348796248435974,
-0.3815627992153168,
-0.7648524045944214,
-0.047166019678115845,
-0.4844711422920227,
-0.1517287641763687,
0.48974522948265076,
0.06932428479194641,
-0.3490939736366272,
0.37882664799690247,
0.0870262011885643,
-0.44933995604515076,
0.1756763607263565,
0.4410531520843506,
0.32776063680648804,
-0.44317445158958435,
0.2917497754096985,
0.6203287839889526,
-0.17094360291957855,
0.2593981623649597,
0.31132516264915466,
-0.4172447621822357,
0.18534454703330994,
-0.8185901641845703,
-0.8299856781959534,
-0.1512540876865387,
0.015724962577223778,
-0.00557490810751915,
-0.16507288813591003,
0.26217663288116455,
0.3941299021244049,
-0.6096194386482239,
-0.28551220893859863,
0.19274751842021942,
-0.08424689620733261,
-0.07662367075681686,
0.1415794938802719,
-0.32503122091293335,
-0.28418663144111633,
0.3036142587661743,
-0.40307509899139404,
-0.09536568075418472,
-0.14508163928985596,
0.5173292756080627,
-0.16531212627887726,
-0.20655997097492218,
-0.033797673881053925,
0.20966914296150208,
1.0069959163665771,
-0.49051064252853394,
-0.3406519293785095,
0.1403276026248932,
-0.47986623644828796,
0.3509795665740967,
0.10313041508197784,
0.24982959032058716,
-0.29972314834594727,
-0.14332856237888336,
-0.3430658280849457,
0.2089390754699707,
0.05105451121926308,
-1.050405502319336,
-0.017738018184900284,
-0.26878783106803894,
-0.2359413057565689,
-0.8236839771270752,
-0.5146486163139343,
0.01475349348038435,
0.8319565653800964,
-0.39570143818855286,
-0.6640289425849915,
-0.25449660420417786,
-0.43552181124687195,
0.5116910338401794,
-0.184755340218544,
-0.3499656319618225,
0.26044347882270813,
-0.6598097085952759,
-0.305349200963974,
0.060502056032419205,
-0.0930018275976181,
-0.47510576248168945,
0.5674453377723694,
0.412277489900589,
-0.30071938037872314,
0.00010343502799514681,
0.16402748227119446,
-0.28646862506866455,
-0.09922703355550766,
-0.42622148990631104,
0.0159781314432621,
0.7296159267425537,
0.29585281014442444,
-0.19943608343601227,
-0.4246665835380554,
-0.3834773600101471,
0.3901599943637848,
-0.29090848565101624,
-0.0508488230407238,
0.37734511494636536,
0.4860441982746124,
0.11919208616018295,
-0.4074760377407074,
0.029465606436133385,
-0.17650949954986572,
0.07978814095258713,
0.03686956688761711,
-0.6995888948440552,
0.6963586211204529,
-0.09518969058990479,
-0.06517468392848969,
-0.48022377490997314,
0.3271197974681854,
-0.4026538133621216,
-0.2717853784561157,
0.428657203912735,
-0.31573793292045593,
-0.5873911380767822,
-0.12469465285539627,
0.4420755207538605,
-0.5396096706390381,
-0.5364162921905518,
-0.14618782699108124,
-0.2768249213695526,
0.21805697679519653,
-0.011706165969371796,
-1.0837661027908325,
1.1123754978179932,
0.29008597135543823,
-0.4322942793369293,
0.0278642438352108,
0.021931767463684082,
0.4335744380950928,
0.03130221366882324,
0.4999849498271942,
0.04831455275416374,
0.5876158475875854,
-0.46067678928375244,
0.09499701857566833,
-0.18381951749324799,
0.7482267618179321,
0.06852931529283524,
-0.2362910509109497,
-0.22850549221038818,
1.1481927633285522,
0.058683738112449646,
-0.2986096739768982,
-0.34284815192222595,
-0.018684566020965576,
0.12743762135505676,
0.3617306351661682,
0.02768714912235737,
-0.2703762352466583,
0.040707655251026154,
-0.5559691786766052,
0.7365269064903259,
-0.13619202375411987,
0.29452288150787354,
0.6130439639091492,
-0.015533669851720333,
-0.4698064923286438,
-0.23704802989959717,
-0.26146402955055237,
0.24824662506580353,
-0.5531195402145386,
0.08177201449871063,
0.42231255769729614,
0.4141901433467865,
-0.43081432580947876,
-0.33313027024269104,
-0.4565986096858978,
0.22664648294448853,
0.7737154364585876,
0.08014557510614395,
0.005898949224501848,
-0.02713596448302269,
-0.42224958539009094,
-0.28079888224601746,
-0.11323883384466171,
-0.595655620098114,
-0.2946789860725403,
0.28853780031204224,
-0.8813096284866333,
0.054294221103191376,
-0.3630736768245697,
0.3166069984436035,
0.15980476140975952,
-0.40322014689445496,
-0.6011041402816772,
-0.47825202345848083,
-0.022957297042012215,
-0.13301779329776764,
0.48810693621635437,
-0.3947761654853821,
0.42653191089630127,
-0.497527539730072,
0.36377978324890137,
-0.3166688084602356,
0.23801133036613464,
-0.1470208764076233,
-0.15764637291431427,
-0.2551746368408203,
-0.6824709177017212,
0.12401877343654633,
0.39901527762413025,
-0.24321436882019043,
-0.724923312664032,
0.332663893699646,
-1.0870651006698608,
-0.05374870076775551,
-0.23199234902858734,
-0.020363032817840576,
-0.11191567033529282,
-0.44935402274131775,
-0.1767779439687729,
0.15204742550849915,
-0.397649347782135,
-0.0662161335349083,
0.33802902698516846,
0.26347166299819946,
-0.5192862153053284,
0.6816558837890625,
0.08410388231277466,
0.17531852424144745,
-0.017923269420862198,
-0.07171911746263504,
0.228953018784523,
0.2935539186000824,
-0.531940758228302,
0.5309603214263916,
0.5004279017448425,
-0.4170958399772644,
0.10824190825223923,
0.1827825903892517,
-0.6573808789253235,
0.2398705929517746,
-0.8884848952293396,
-0.2123601883649826,
0.5761542320251465,
0.31443727016448975,
0.37318459153175354,
0.04416397958993912,
-0.13706757128238678,
-0.6947754621505737,
0.42465680837631226,
0.30081725120544434,
-0.034542981535196304,
-0.8370577096939087,
0.6199169754981995,
0.5968656539916992,
0.14926141500473022,
0.07981351017951965,
-0.3831482529640198,
0.40906691551208496,
-0.6117885708808899,
-0.31966856122016907,
0.21860353648662567,
-0.6912851929664612,
-0.2932180166244507,
0.07733634859323502,
0.3973713517189026,
0.6216610670089722,
0.02758633717894554,
0.09053865820169449,
0.4803311824798584,
0.26380252838134766,
-0.2627594769001007,
-0.1727505475282669,
0.07194004207849503,
0.36206677556037903,
0.13178765773773193,
-0.4125523269176483,
0.05927372723817825,
0.32488662004470825,
0.09202419221401215,
0.5920217037200928,
0.1987997442483902,
0.4273405075073242,
-0.2580508589744568,
-0.1401970386505127,
-0.09497460722923279,
-0.23774904012680054,
-0.8119338154792786,
-0.00570108974352479,
0.23043280839920044,
-0.14845827221870422,
0.33867281675338745,
-0.3321387469768524,
-0.13387197256088257,
0.1872207373380661,
-0.1885330229997635,
0.019715283066034317,
0.8193798065185547,
-0.19960950314998627,
-0.30050861835479736,
-0.07544930279254913,
0.5062165856361389,
-0.15209801495075226,
-0.5384674668312073,
0.1396998018026352,
0.5956523418426514,
0.1093403697013855,
0.0938611775636673,
-0.46636298298835754,
0.6986069083213806,
-0.6833657622337341,
0.025893349200487137,
-0.5150033235549927,
0.09011925756931305,
0.4862581789493561,
-0.49609577655792236,
0.14218464493751526,
-0.4025466740131378,
0.3045201599597931,
0.2924360930919647,
0.3391779959201813,
0.07414139062166214,
-0.2475612461566925,
0.17101694643497467,
-0.05165933817625046,
0.13155871629714966,
0.17807044088840485,
0.6600608825683594,
-0.10306967794895172,
-0.012373363599181175,
0.7325290441513062,
0.05274462327361107,
-0.4802473783493042,
0.6960700154304504,
-0.6764175295829773,
-0.06197268143296242,
-0.6901565790176392,
0.41985270380973816,
0.5476344227790833,
-0.16309089958667755,
0.10434974730014801,
0.8007438778877258,
0.26251381635665894,
-0.3894962668418884,
0.34722259640693665,
0.07305514067411423,
0.31394991278648376,
-0.41022804379463196,
-0.03555872291326523,
-0.007247142028063536,
-0.18235185742378235,
-0.22635476291179657,
0.03601247817277908,
0.3331320285797119,
0.23803994059562683,
-0.573405921459198,
0.19475002586841583,
-0.2010766565799713,
-0.13283681869506836,
0.25564879179000854,
0.6995065808296204,
-0.4702998399734497,
-0.5757792592048645,
0.4349888563156128
] |
260982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Howe%2C%203rd%20Viscount%20Howe | George Howe, 3rd Viscount Howe | George Augustus Howe, 3rd Viscount Howe (c. 1725 – 6 July 1758) was a career officer and a Brigadier General in the British Army. He was described by James Wolfe as "the best officer in the British Army". He was killed in the French and Indian War in a skirmish at Fort Ticonderoga the day before the Battle of Carillon, an ultimately disastrous attempt by the British to capture French-controlled Fort Carillon.
Background
Howe's father was Emanuel Scrope Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe, and mother was Mary Sophia von Kielmansegg (a niece of King George I), and he had two notable younger brothers, Richard Howe, Earl Howe and William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe, as well as seven other siblings. George was born either on the Howe estate at Langar, Nottinghamshire, or at the Howe home on Albemarle Street, London.
Early career
Howe joined the army as an Ensign of the 1st Foot Guards in 1745 and saw service during the Flanders campaign of the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1746 he was made an aide-de-camp to the Duke of Cumberland who led the Allied Army in Flanders. In 1747 Howe fought at the Battle of Laufeld. He was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel in 1749 following the end of the war.
Ticonderoga campaign reforms
In 1758, in preparation for the attack on the French fort at Ticonderoga, which controlled access from Lake George to Lake Champlain, Lord Howe set about reforming General James Abercrombie's army for warfare in North America. He used his own 55th Regiment as an example for the rest of the army to follow. Howe had uniforms cut short, so that they came just to the men's waists, and all lace was removed from the coats as well. The cumbersome tricorn hats worn by the soldiers were cut down to brims of , resembling derby hats. Infantrymen were issued leggings made of wool, in place of their linen and hemp canvas gaiters. Excess uniforms and equipment were done away with. The men's hair was cut short, Dr. Richard Huck wrote; "we are an army of round heads." Officers were not immune to his changes either, and he made himself an example of this, cutting his hair short. He washed his own clothes, and took very little baggage into the field.
His changes did not only affect the uniforms of the army but its tactics as well. In the fall of 1757, Lord Howe had accompanied the famous ranger Major Robert Rogers on a scouting expedition. In the spring he again met with Rogers to discuss warfare and tactics in the North American theater. He began instructing the troops in Abercrombie's army in the manner of marching, forming, and fighting in the woods. One observer stated that Lord Howe had trained his 55th Regiment so well that they were as "dexterious as rangers."
Many historians have credited Lord Howe with the creation of light infantry, and have called the 55th Regiment a light infantry regiment, however that was not the case. While Lord Loudoun contemplated creating light infantry companies in each redcoat battalion, the idea was scrapped when Colonel Thomas Gage proposed to raise a regiment of Light Armed Foot, that became Gage's 80th Regiment. They wore brown uniforms, instead of red and were the first British light infantry regiment. At the Siege of Louisbourg, General Jeffery Amherst ordered his regiments to create light infantry companies. Those companies were then placed into a light infantry battalion under the command of Colonel George Scott of the 40th Regiment. The following year, as Commander-in-chief in North America, Amherst ordered each regiment in North America to create a light infantry company.
Seven Years War
On 2 February 1757, Howe was appointed Colonel, 3rd Battalion of the 60th Foot (the Royal Americans, later the King's Royal Rifle Corps), but transferred to command the 55th Regiment of Foot on 28 September 1757 while at Halifax. In December he was promoted to Brigadier General.
In 1758 he and the regiment were part of General James Abercrombie's failed attack, the Battle of Carillon at Fort Ticonderoga. England's Prime Minister William Pitt had wanted Howe in command of this expedition rather than Abercrombie, but Abercrombie had more political contacts and seniority, so Howe was made second-in-command. On 6 July Abercrombie's force marched north from the shore of Lake George in four columns. Howe led one of these columns, with the 55th regiment accompanied by a unit of Connecticut militia, with Major Israel Putnam as a scout and guide. They made contact with a French detachment that had been separated from the main force and a sharp skirmish ensued. They fought well, taking 148 prisoners, and causing an estimated 300 enemy casualties with limited losses to their own number. But one of those casualties was General Howe, who died in Putnam's arms.
Aftermath
Howe was widely mourned on both sides of the Atlantic. The Massachusetts Assembly (or general court) later voted £250 to place a monument in Westminster Abbey, something for which Howe's brothers were extremely grateful.
Genealogy
George Augustus was brother to Admiral Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, 4th Viscount and Sir William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe. The Family of Hoge quotes The Encyclopædia Britannica as having this to say about the Howes: "The friendliness of the brothers, Admiral Richard Howe and General William Howe, to the colonies led to their selection for the command of the British forces in the Revolutionary War. It was thought that they could negotiate a settlement with the American forces."
References
Bibliography
Stoetzel, Donald I. Encyclopedia of the French & Indian War in North America, 1754-1763. Heritage Books, 2008.
External links
1725 births
1758 deaths
British Army generals
British Army personnel of the French and Indian War
British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
Whig (British political party) MPs
British MPs 1747–1754
British MPs 1754–1761
Viscounts in the Peerage of Ireland
Grenadier Guards officers
55th Regiment of Foot officers
Royal American Regiment officers
British military personnel killed in the Seven Years' War | [
-0.6797968745231628,
0.48753824830055237,
-0.3694620430469513,
0.2790301442146301,
-0.5325868725776672,
0.9771837592124939,
0.7071942687034607,
-0.07763591408729553,
-0.5353501439094543,
-0.9636059403419495,
0.10234116017818451,
-0.7379195094108582,
-0.6580525636672974,
0.6642328500747681,
-0.16984766721725464,
0.8083846569061279,
-0.8340468406677246,
0.22980190813541412,
-0.3385838270187378,
-0.4701682925224304,
0.23512250185012817,
0.2913924753665924,
-0.25034844875335693,
-0.04174843057990074,
-0.05594067648053169,
0.10929843783378601,
0.37802889943122864,
-0.067470483481884,
-0.0011519669787958264,
0.056029513478279114,
-0.1742701530456543,
0.5828617811203003,
0.2863631546497345,
-0.036304324865341187,
-0.22782966494560242,
-0.800720751285553,
-0.1708327978849411,
-0.03740314766764641,
0.13885925710201263,
0.04029976949095726,
0.024893518537282944,
0.301495760679245,
1.0285251140594482,
0.0833243653178215,
0.07273183763027191,
-0.1269150823354721,
-1.8962613344192505,
-0.02113671973347664,
0.032780855894088745,
-0.44699209928512573,
0.38464927673339844,
-0.06802953779697418,
0.9057547450065613,
0.4296012222766876,
0.014149099588394165,
0.15248070657253265,
-0.8257513046264648,
-0.013160035014152527,
0.5002231597900391,
0.4769975244998932,
0.43781739473342896,
0.026114031672477722,
0.4828145503997803,
0.07039017975330353,
0.1214946061372757,
0.28982728719711304,
-0.30709347128868103,
0.8791503310203552,
-0.17783759534358978,
0.003084847703576088,
0.3216102123260498,
-0.0008873182814568281,
0.3718729317188263,
0.8717045187950134,
-0.015284409746527672,
0.39943501353263855,
-0.0787389874458313,
0.058095622807741165,
0.527555525302887,
-0.2861490845680237,
0.35642266273498535,
-0.413808673620224,
0.7698440551757812,
0.3948134183883667,
-0.3486369252204895,
0.8334552645683289,
-0.10130391269922256,
0.4523336887359619,
-0.35536643862724304,
0.4562976062297821,
-0.6123985648155212,
0.1997772753238678,
0.6297506093978882,
-0.022309081628918648,
-0.373195618391037,
0.48660004138946533,
-0.0024048194754868746,
-0.13422530889511108,
-0.26317471265792847,
-0.5349563360214233,
-0.14644916355609894,
0.2661222517490387,
0.5494011044502258,
0.31606724858283997,
-0.7016844153404236,
0.6076549291610718,
-0.26976990699768066,
0.09810485690832138,
-0.5780620574951172,
-0.4664544463157654,
-0.4919643700122833,
0.7375025749206543,
-0.7545417547225952,
-0.3318037986755371,
-0.30125951766967773,
0.35104799270629883,
0.5688642859458923,
-0.5696476101875305,
-0.37252795696258545,
-0.3773594796657562,
0.3849516212940216,
0.7886514067649841,
-0.8065494894981384,
0.04763124883174896,
-0.24877431988716125,
0.4415476620197296,
1.1246434450149536,
-0.3611678183078766,
0.8039249181747437,
0.3781338334083557,
0.0907745286822319,
1.5369822978973389,
-0.760650098323822,
-0.15667738020420074,
-0.037303049117326736,
-0.4767698347568512,
-0.08074746280908585,
0.4643031656742096,
-0.12472274899482727,
-0.343158096075058,
-0.8190329670906067,
-0.0750277191400528,
-0.845841646194458,
0.4634847939014435,
0.31077536940574646,
0.7357075810432434,
-0.06447355449199677,
0.5413712859153748,
-0.22749412059783936,
0.6002596616744995,
0.048626530915498734,
-0.07958172261714935,
0.036453116685152054,
-0.3848320543766022,
-0.02816893719136715,
0.0767831802368164,
0.8202802538871765,
-0.44824349880218506,
1.0002397298812866,
0.9284210205078125,
-0.17624327540397644,
0.06904035806655884,
-0.10630130767822266,
-0.3409227430820465,
0.45849165320396423,
0.048116911202669144,
0.42825695872306824,
-0.34637829661369324,
-0.2009478062391281,
0.4575656056404114,
-0.7884880304336548,
0.550723671913147,
0.03500436246395111,
-0.2585274279117584,
-0.14594802260398865,
0.6569514870643616,
0.826852023601532,
0.483235627412796,
0.19035644829273224,
-0.7431584596633911,
-0.6351711750030518,
-0.25463712215423584,
0.36744365096092224,
-0.5111072659492493,
0.2837516963481903,
0.5521879196166992,
0.4474559724330902,
-0.3096115291118622,
0.10327722877264023,
0.003698318265378475,
-0.2851981818675995,
-0.29201459884643555,
-0.2793116271495819,
-0.30072900652885437,
0.12804827094078064,
-0.2368551343679428,
-0.6235949993133545,
0.379401832818985,
0.9147133231163025,
1.1847593784332275,
-0.034278519451618195,
-0.09669309109449387,
0.3654046058654785,
0.2655133306980133,
0.3426487445831299,
0.9138439297676086,
-0.37496218085289,
0.4513980448246002,
0.3435305058956146,
0.9052191376686096,
0.5938640832901001,
-0.18070942163467407,
-0.2109624594449997,
0.44505783915519714,
0.4292449355125427,
-0.6308940052986145,
0.16043268144130707,
-0.3036642372608185,
-0.2204633355140686,
-0.08753469586372375,
0.31862014532089233,
0.08798304200172424,
-0.254568487405777,
1.254579782485962,
-0.0438687726855278,
1.1764631271362305,
-0.051427945494651794,
0.033376071602106094,
-0.8295190334320068,
-0.9064631462097168,
0.41093114018440247,
-0.12638378143310547,
-0.4532206356525421,
-0.4887009561061859,
0.07350660115480423,
-0.008225071243941784,
-0.17482589185237885,
-0.13164761662483215,
-0.14012542366981506,
0.28839343786239624,
0.18732129037380219,
0.4604402482509613,
-0.4228067696094513,
0.18704542517662048,
-0.22816339135169983,
0.8121793866157532,
0.24965986609458923,
-0.5118778944015503,
-0.5260422229766846,
-0.7849323153495789,
0.5990381836891174,
0.1162882149219513,
0.5103203654289246,
0.03766645863652229,
-0.030256275087594986,
-0.16849061846733093,
0.38366737961769104,
-0.08712948113679886,
-0.22411665320396423,
0.4945486783981323,
-0.27094101905822754,
0.7270306944847107,
0.5884966850280762,
0.22668085992336273,
0.04025861248373985,
-0.07639113813638687,
0.2765938937664032,
-0.31022825837135315,
0.14674431085586548,
-0.14781664311885834,
0.7661533355712891,
-0.865266740322113,
-0.7945009469985962,
-1.1244261264801025,
0.9641704559326172,
-0.030459750443696976,
-0.48183292150497437,
0.8222373723983765,
-0.6471441388130188,
-0.6810525059700012,
0.16306525468826294,
0.34735941886901855,
-0.9742674231529236,
0.17922544479370117,
-0.42840486764907837,
0.08207323402166367,
0.17145229876041412,
0.18073107302188873,
0.14087770879268646,
-0.3803996741771698,
-0.4672900140285492,
-0.1036866307258606,
0.05886714160442352,
-0.059980880469083786,
0.2708382308483124,
0.7493202090263367,
-0.09086266905069351,
-0.3657674193382263,
0.023339269682765007,
0.08836130797863007,
-0.7984310388565063,
0.08087223768234253,
0.16235196590423584,
-0.14614947140216827,
-0.0707041546702385,
-0.23055973649024963,
0.42013099789619446,
-0.03405145928263664,
-4.339541912078857,
-0.1497381329536438,
0.25101006031036377,
0.09201924502849579,
0.16582228243350983,
-0.18226055800914764,
0.9298396706581116,
-0.8224881887435913,
-0.03543245792388916,
0.07138688862323761,
1.2853310108184814,
-0.07821400463581085,
0.11146365851163864,
0.14940860867500305,
0.8922156095504761,
0.5546310544013977,
1.3348838090896606,
-0.08400219678878784,
0.5386986136436462,
0.017639361321926117,
-0.03201790899038315,
0.4976964592933655,
0.27315637469291687,
-0.31329113245010376,
0.8538616299629211,
0.20607301592826843,
0.3794437050819397,
-0.5466553568840027,
-1.061235785484314,
-0.45988038182258606,
0.07019385695457458,
0.7151809334754944,
0.5629218220710754,
-0.47530853748321533,
-0.975005567073822,
-0.5441190600395203,
0.28761327266693115,
0.8002001047134399,
0.33264219760894775,
-0.5956754684448242,
-0.1433955430984497,
0.12480659782886505,
-0.9024808406829834,
0.5663663744926453,
0.3443489372730255,
-0.5553860068321228,
-1.055835485458374,
1.0942431688308716,
0.20862500369548798,
0.5233216881752014,
-0.01864737458527088,
0.03579392656683922,
0.6194900870323181,
0.26806193590164185,
-0.5238814949989319,
0.35633596777915955,
-0.14686515927314758,
0.3043207824230194,
-0.6687273383140564,
0.00771764200180769,
1.1787400245666504,
-0.19101399183273315,
0.38686779141426086,
0.5248730778694153,
0.3614906072616577,
-0.8147269487380981,
0.007732386235147715,
-0.17203883826732635,
0.27198460698127747,
0.19074958562850952,
-0.07790452986955643,
0.6297644972801208,
0.5770217180252075,
-0.747072696685791,
0.08283910155296326,
-0.47706446051597595,
-0.37850308418273926,
0.38811153173446655,
0.11860029399394989,
-0.04303070530295372,
-0.09206787496805191,
-0.35808539390563965,
-0.8190346360206604,
1.4129000902175903,
0.21779367327690125,
0.2433355152606964,
-0.7165452241897583,
0.2995506823062897,
-0.5225769281387329,
-0.3841140568256378,
-0.024971531704068184,
-0.43550655245780945,
-0.3791353106498718,
0.9046096801757812,
0.16533009707927704,
-0.3870260715484619,
0.5394873023033142,
-0.33967816829681396,
0.46599942445755005,
-0.49640366435050964,
-0.44849857687950134,
-0.3359166979789734,
-0.6507673263549805,
-0.5757432579994202,
-0.02925034798681736,
-0.31577399373054504,
-0.4524552822113037,
0.5689257979393005,
0.38155561685562134,
-0.3743842542171478,
0.4398843050003052,
-0.13858246803283691,
0.1921064853668213,
-0.9426046013832092,
0.7035858631134033,
-1.0707049369812012,
-0.01563519425690174,
0.39902713894844055,
1.04438316822052,
0.07834336161613464,
-0.4632134735584259,
0.676994800567627,
-0.6962721943855286,
-0.21161046624183655,
-0.638862669467926,
0.4957541227340698,
0.7819570302963257,
-0.7379244565963745,
-0.6643083095550537,
0.07190053164958954,
0.27933791279792786,
0.43219947814941406,
-0.48346707224845886,
0.22994442284107208,
0.11852003633975983,
-0.7889509797096252,
0.05937505140900612,
0.02552192099392414,
0.7168447971343994,
-0.2642708420753479,
-0.21719789505004883,
0.059803370386362076,
-0.7248827219009399,
-0.010600229725241661,
0.2923484444618225,
0.6911015510559082,
0.9872899651527405,
0.15825818479061127,
0.1283143162727356,
0.6062819957733154,
-0.7105149626731873,
-1.2094838619232178,
0.6760311126708984,
-0.5882905721664429,
-0.3295116722583771,
-0.04836968332529068,
-0.5288150906562805,
-0.15408660471439362,
-0.6532868146896362,
-0.36298424005508423,
0.0099153658375144,
0.29396021366119385,
-0.5700664520263672,
-0.3761759400367737,
0.6734369993209839,
-0.292944073677063,
-0.520876407623291,
-0.13128656148910522,
-1.0445390939712524,
0.5682122111320496,
0.03594424948096275,
-0.4902132749557495,
-0.14457900822162628,
-0.6257880926132202,
0.3115035891532898,
0.1895761936903,
0.18725615739822388,
0.5493431687355042,
0.18118463456630707,
-0.6073781251907349,
0.3933147192001343,
0.08238766342401505,
-0.2030310034751892,
0.07650831341743469,
0.36632290482521057,
-0.5219556093215942,
-0.9811230301856995,
-0.23071934282779694,
0.1581275463104248,
-0.44900137186050415,
-0.8907071948051453,
0.0752863883972168,
1.006273865699768,
0.10590726882219315,
-0.48238345980644226,
-0.11167766153812408,
0.1869320422410965,
0.10396277904510498,
0.20308680832386017,
-0.7560531497001648,
-0.2509680986404419,
0.7224190831184387,
-0.25463810563087463,
0.006157855037599802,
0.14589938521385193,
-0.5978999733924866,
-0.17289289832115173,
-0.08466459810733795,
-0.28289470076560974,
0.7941368818283081,
-0.043494559824466705,
-0.9785192608833313,
-0.04061131551861763,
0.15234902501106262,
-0.3520425856113434,
0.21137741208076477,
0.1324712038040161,
0.3138267695903778,
0.164680615067482,
-1.0844640731811523,
-0.024303294718265533,
-0.28095731139183044,
-0.3677496612071991,
-0.6644347310066223,
-0.3053736388683319,
0.423832505941391,
0.027569452300667763,
-0.19088858366012573,
1.0403590202331543,
-0.38716936111450195,
-0.7029207944869995,
0.2518720328807831,
-0.2357008308172226,
0.35519200563430786,
-0.37845999002456665,
-0.04804575815796852,
0.29144424200057983,
0.09292490035295486,
-0.3532651960849762,
0.5664409399032593,
0.9911702275276184,
1.3452277183532715,
0.3375941514968872,
-0.7448347210884094,
0.5254907608032227,
0.07517682015895844,
0.18116123974323273,
-0.14455007016658783,
-0.3060274124145508,
0.489486426115036,
0.005544897634536028,
-0.7516008615493774,
-0.7645646929740906,
-0.4495225250720978,
0.46917295455932617,
-0.4495845139026642,
0.1562274545431137,
0.3190624415874481,
-0.18491625785827637,
0.2415478378534317,
-0.33596310019493103,
0.7451449632644653,
-0.09379002451896667,
0.23176169395446777,
0.5185523629188538,
0.7229223847389221,
-0.22704434394836426,
0.2817917764186859,
0.05749228224158287,
-0.2659473419189453,
-0.6528762578964233,
-0.6914346218109131,
-0.7523231506347656,
-0.23604007065296173,
-0.2464517503976822,
0.27156129479408264,
1.1100947856903076,
-0.7599998712539673,
0.5908711552619934,
-0.2508014738559723,
-0.4196864068508148,
0.03958212584257126,
0.9468477368354797,
-1.163298487663269,
-0.10125897824764252,
-1.2088271379470825,
-0.8355274200439453,
-0.1813124120235443,
-0.4237441122531891,
0.17265023291110992,
-0.2437836080789566,
-0.5397632122039795,
-0.35686126351356506,
-0.3036881387233734,
0.4365698993206024,
0.405318945646286,
-0.86407071352005,
-0.1890229731798172,
-0.09148824214935303,
0.005313131958246231,
-1.0246686935424805,
0.8059771656990051,
0.7475276589393616,
-0.16170549392700195,
0.9903163909912109,
0.17677763104438782,
-0.4450194239616394,
-0.9513306021690369,
0.11617531627416611,
0.041869718581438065,
0.2717350125312805,
-0.7235336899757385,
0.12860333919525146,
0.3669200539588928,
-0.5916969180107117,
-0.39384013414382935,
0.5667643547058105,
-0.49540817737579346,
-0.3017759621143341,
-0.1413872092962265,
-0.5649747252464294,
-0.4403163492679596,
0.49220848083496094,
0.377179890871048,
0.06469548493623734,
-0.030581803992390633,
-0.5491638779640198,
-0.2967827022075653,
0.1659182608127594,
0.050942547619342804,
0.12334521859884262,
-0.08118689805269241,
-1.5546226501464844,
1.0964142084121704,
-0.6494618058204651,
0.3249221742153168,
0.15104344487190247,
-0.6134082078933716,
-0.21936380863189697,
0.07529588043689728,
0.7372398376464844,
0.7030614614486694,
-0.4397270977497101,
-0.32268592715263367,
-0.11012326925992966,
0.4150129556655884,
-0.7108408212661743,
0.6778705716133118,
0.2681642472743988,
0.10756722837686539,
0.8348901271820068,
0.3084178864955902,
0.04915596917271614,
-1.0155653953552246,
-0.2874031364917755,
0.5710002183914185,
1.0346014499664307,
-0.5198793411254883,
-0.17053118348121643,
-0.8298010230064392,
-0.36050641536712646,
-0.9808064699172974,
0.6631736159324646,
-0.20241136848926544,
0.2547011971473694,
-0.6307191252708435,
0.24169959127902985,
-0.30482813715934753,
0.13048936426639557,
0.30344536900520325,
0.3252876102924347,
-0.39844298362731934,
0.27349594235420227,
-0.08210676163434982,
0.4619358777999878,
0.3655264675617218,
0.37626054883003235,
-0.571054995059967,
0.14634467661380768,
-0.5030152201652527,
-0.49387526512145996,
-0.3458889126777649,
-0.2504851520061493,
-0.7541313171386719,
-0.2687661647796631,
0.2999062240123749,
-0.4729197025299072,
0.3326157331466675,
-0.1729861944913864,
-0.13557134568691254,
0.6518012285232544,
-0.27924346923828125,
-0.172354593873024,
-0.072086401283741,
-0.9698312282562256,
-0.12249506264925003,
-0.35707879066467285,
0.40754434466362,
0.46689891815185547,
0.20278511941432953,
-0.44736963510513306,
0.3613365590572357,
-0.13671131432056427,
0.021443340927362442,
0.05833355709910393,
0.8094399571418762,
-0.48224520683288574,
-0.05104011669754982,
-1.489241361618042,
0.640644907951355,
-0.41842320561408997,
-0.2344679981470108,
-0.6425636410713196,
0.5303198099136353,
-0.007278368808329105,
-0.3160618543624878,
0.473014771938324,
-0.7570252418518066,
-0.8280859589576721,
-0.08165144175291061,
0.16562969982624054,
0.3307606279850006,
0.23339703679084778,
-0.018928775563836098,
-0.2456589788198471,
-0.6207647919654846,
0.12901641428470612,
-0.16252632439136505,
-0.39564162492752075,
0.4315319061279297,
-0.10622473806142807,
0.015513882972300053,
-0.6751413345336914,
-0.515778124332428,
-0.3450188934803009,
-0.2402598112821579,
0.6528873443603516,
1.0738111734390259,
-0.29461756348609924,
-0.25659066438674927,
-0.15554852783679962,
-0.22635628283023834,
0.6916086077690125,
0.6075652837753296,
-1.2820546627044678,
-0.7639531493186951,
0.041341766715049744,
-0.5649580359458923,
0.0939737856388092,
0.28642579913139343,
0.7534019351005554,
0.5549789071083069,
0.3329320549964905,
-0.291149765253067,
0.7777628898620605,
-0.18703612685203552,
-0.2623305022716522,
-0.6408907175064087,
0.1765722632408142,
0.4168916940689087
] |
260983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C4%99dzyzdroje | Międzyzdroje | Międzyzdroje (; ; ; ), in English known as Misdroy, is a city and a seaside resort in northwestern Poland on the island of Wolin on the Baltic coast. The city is located in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, and is a seat of the Kamień County and the municipality of Międzyzdroje. In 2016, it was inhabited by around 5,500 people.
The town is often referred to as The Pearl of the Baltic. It is situated between wide sandy beaches with high cliffs and the forests of the Woliński National Park (which includes a bison reserve). Międzyzdroje has a spa climate and is rich in tourist services.
History
Towards the very end of the 12th century two settled camps or settlements have been established within the present-day borders of the town. Both of these settlements, with a mining and agricultural focus, were property of the bishopric of Kamień Pomorski. The first initial name of the town appeared in the 15th century as Misdroige. According to sources, the early Slavic and Germanic settlers were involved primarily in agriculture, cattle-breeding, fishing, bee-keeping and hunting.
A tragic part in the history of the Pomerania region and Międzyzdroje (Misdroy) was the Thirty Years' War. It was then that the entire island of Wolin fell under the rule of the mighty Swedish Empire. In 1715 the island was annexed by Prussia due to a peace agreement made in Stockholm. A particularly noticeable increase in the number of inhabitants, mostly local but also foreign, was recorded throughout the 18th century. During this time, the village began to evolve into a luxurious spa resort as a result of strong English influence in the development of sea baths.
In the first half of the industrial 19th century, Europeans of different backgrounds began to visit Misdroy and appreciate its baths, health clinics and favourable climate. With the arrival of tourists and the development of the tourist sector in the area, the once small, insignificant fishing village rapidly transformed into a popular health resort. In 1835, the gender-segregated baths were constructed by English and German merchants and entrepreneurs. Wealthy industrialists and business magnates from Stettin (Szczecin), Berlin and London would erect their magnificent and extravagant villas along the Baltic shore.
One of the earliest public park was created in 1860 as an initiative of a wealthy Belgian merchant named Arnold Lejeune. A wooden pier on the Baltic sea was constructed and eventually upgraded in 1906. The pier was 360 metres in length and the coffee-house situated at its very end still operates to this day.
In 1899, Misdroy was connected via railway with nearby Szczecin (Stettin) and Świnoujście, which contributed to an even greater number of patient and tourist arrivals. Shortly before the outbreak of World War I, over 20,000 visitors were recorded, an astonishing and record-breaking number in that period.
20th century
Prior to World War II, Misdroy had around 4,000 permanent residents. It did not suffer destruction during the course of the war. After the shifting of Poland's in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, Międzyzdroje became part of the Polish People's Republic in 1945 and was granted town status.
The town's Polish name comes from its original 16th century meaning of the "town between salts springs", or Międzyzdroje in Polish.
International relations
Międzyzdroje was the birthplace of the Harvard World Model United Nations Conference in 1991.
Międzyzdroje is twinned with:
Bakhchysarai Raion, Ukraine / Russia
Čačak, Serbia
Helsingborg, Sweden
Izola, Slovenia
Lomma, Sweden
Sellin, Germany
Notable residents
Ernst Eiselen (1792 - 1846 in Misdroy), German gymnast and a promoter of the Jahn style of gymnastics
Hermann Wilhelm Ebel (1820 – 1875 in Misdroy), German philologist
Albert Sauer (1898–1945), German Nazi SS concentration camp commandant
Prince Claus of the Netherlands (1926–2002), husband of Queen Beatrix, he attended the Baltenschule Misdroy from 1938 until 1942
Grischa Huber (1944–2021), German actress
Wiesław Chmielewski (born 1957), Polish modern pentathlete
External links
Międzyzdroje (pl). Official website.
References
Spa towns in Poland
Cities and towns in West Pomeranian Voivodeship
Kamień County | [
-0.1440799981355667,
-0.1397835612297058,
0.5963466763496399,
-0.43726369738578796,
0.1253174990415573,
0.3230836093425751,
0.8532928228378296,
0.15378746390342712,
-0.30108442902565,
-0.1563113033771515,
-0.43155258893966675,
-0.058747127652168274,
0.03131870552897453,
0.5978374481201172,
-0.2454085797071457,
0.7052927017211914,
0.8792730569839478,
0.15142501890659332,
0.17864744365215302,
-0.5785897970199585,
0.29861634969711304,
-0.23733781278133392,
0.33153411746025085,
-0.22555658221244812,
0.022695934399962425,
-0.06033686175942421,
0.0047472272999584675,
0.35538002848625183,
-0.15598362684249878,
0.11147847771644592,
-0.2964440584182739,
0.4788512885570526,
-0.31970807909965515,
-0.11818350851535797,
0.39170143008232117,
0.6377002596855164,
-0.1410452425479889,
-0.649588406085968,
-0.7153019905090332,
-0.44800159335136414,
0.06396322697401047,
0.42267662286758423,
0.042461615055799484,
0.20083080232143402,
-0.07370307296514511,
-0.0205533504486084,
-0.7619540691375732,
0.6334363222122192,
-0.6363915801048279,
-0.33765527606010437,
-0.3725653886795044,
0.4740152060985565,
0.2378244549036026,
0.303682804107666,
-0.39360320568084717,
-0.0578681081533432,
-0.6221248507499695,
0.11056196689605713,
0.7422909140586853,
0.46057942509651184,
0.16949421167373657,
0.5143234133720398,
-0.23880009353160858,
0.3105998635292053,
0.27638736367225647,
0.2065085768699646,
-0.05736421421170235,
0.34291890263557434,
-0.3881804347038269,
-0.7015727758407593,
-0.09817290306091309,
0.2213778793811798,
0.2914264500141144,
-0.05562765523791313,
0.024478955194354057,
-0.1338014453649521,
-0.3845216631889343,
-0.21058034896850586,
0.1273011863231659,
0.4222955107688904,
0.1391853392124176,
-0.10119796544313431,
0.9867590069770813,
-0.39917048811912537,
0.9392878413200378,
-0.19769340753555298,
-0.39433223009109497,
0.37289103865623474,
-0.7474932670593262,
0.16882860660552979,
0.1626143455505371,
-0.10171970725059509,
0.3120378851890564,
-0.41420936584472656,
0.3468611240386963,
0.19902166724205017,
-0.46547171473503113,
0.4664115607738495,
-0.07483413070440292,
0.2973071038722992,
-0.5418351888656616,
0.9073869585990906,
0.13231994211673737,
0.3164716362953186,
-0.3179701566696167,
-0.6832497119903564,
-0.30273035168647766,
0.040158167481422424,
0.29972684383392334,
0.327330082654953,
-0.7619326114654541,
-0.19770841300487518,
-0.14640164375305176,
0.4140959680080414,
0.14850328862667084,
0.5851778984069824,
0.07512498646974564,
0.1249813437461853,
-0.05109789967536926,
0.2080199122428894,
-0.04692193493247032,
0.2828727662563324,
-0.2898818552494049,
0.07652392983436584,
0.015416109003126621,
-0.19499588012695312,
-0.00196545640937984,
-0.02939433418214321,
-0.43221649527549744,
0.26005738973617554,
0.1618344932794571,
0.7109185457229614,
-0.009632918983697891,
0.32746827602386475,
0.13773512840270996,
0.027780767530202866,
0.15213370323181152,
-0.19672280550003052,
0.5668245553970337,
0.5453985333442688,
-0.9716464877128601,
-0.06504955887794495,
-0.4849388301372528,
0.250277578830719,
0.3465575873851776,
-0.32803696393966675,
-0.20732617378234863,
-0.5013869404792786,
-0.13922680914402008,
-0.24837999045848846,
-0.17962557077407837,
0.19325537979602814,
-0.2513236701488495,
0.13914738595485687,
-0.47912055253982544,
0.2338583618402481,
-0.17109864950180054,
0.1020049899816513,
0.6091359853744507,
-0.01772197149693966,
-0.14515775442123413,
0.388826459646225,
0.5203588604927063,
0.28086259961128235,
-0.052435945719480515,
-0.177886962890625,
0.5284627079963684,
-0.16734559834003448,
0.2961210310459137,
0.24761998653411865,
-0.3000012934207916,
-0.039771467447280884,
0.6878792643547058,
-0.12039260566234589,
0.29399219155311584,
-0.11917303502559662,
0.7978137731552124,
-0.14358225464820862,
0.274111807346344,
-0.39166226983070374,
-0.6517505645751953,
0.07263201475143433,
-0.08411311358213425,
0.16535507142543793,
0.009361193515360355,
0.3171192705631256,
0.12670645117759705,
-0.04170357808470726,
-0.3689696490764618,
-0.43354350328445435,
-0.12672850489616394,
-0.534516453742981,
-0.020402982831001282,
-0.26176002621650696,
0.9234250783920288,
0.4531187117099762,
-0.21503180265426636,
0.17312920093536377,
-0.3376622796058655,
0.23739272356033325,
-0.5535687804222107,
-0.5998609662055969,
-0.12485373765230179,
0.1643294095993042,
-0.2706179916858673,
0.08781393617391586,
0.2108471691608429,
-0.12306813895702362,
0.26113590598106384,
0.2362549901008606,
0.09309522807598114,
-0.897962212562561,
0.7063621282577515,
-0.28602761030197144,
-0.5606432557106018,
-0.582463264465332,
0.09926819801330566,
0.029406718909740448,
-0.0680173709988594,
-0.29386821389198303,
0.6940288543701172,
-0.08821501582860947,
-0.5252861380577087,
0.21134716272354126,
-0.24114078283309937,
0.154779314994812,
0.18674002587795258,
0.19829998910427094,
-0.18822570145130157,
-0.3668486177921295,
-0.5933060050010681,
0.24764791131019592,
-0.13086962699890137,
-0.14246433973312378,
-0.13403405249118805,
-0.05546919256448746,
-0.060849595814943314,
-0.47832754254341125,
0.2156265676021576,
-0.671619713306427,
0.06837379932403564,
-0.21515494585037231,
0.04865725338459015,
-0.0625162124633789,
0.8570945858955383,
0.6506808400154114,
0.22162403166294098,
0.2689661979675293,
-0.10798946768045425,
-0.11148881912231445,
-0.5604284405708313,
0.1933029294013977,
0.07017254829406738,
-0.46095728874206543,
0.35169702768325806,
-0.10107023268938065,
0.341044545173645,
-0.13938945531845093,
0.05932295694947243,
0.29972657561302185,
-0.5245048999786377,
0.004541125614196062,
0.028150446712970734,
0.47247859835624695,
-0.14978450536727905,
0.03355344384908676,
0.30427631735801697,
-0.3176671266555786,
0.7836370468139648,
0.07076932489871979,
0.004879745654761791,
-0.824557363986969,
-0.32939666509628296,
-0.1642148643732071,
-0.16701330244541168,
0.1345588117837906,
0.279634028673172,
-0.024445943534374237,
-0.32601556181907654,
0.2503572702407837,
0.20714764297008514,
0.7514274716377258,
-0.18712118268013,
-0.7140578627586365,
0.10830996185541153,
-0.13686871528625488,
-0.01325482688844204,
-0.2481108158826828,
-0.6694694757461548,
-0.09147801250219345,
-0.6345174312591553,
0.03421139717102051,
-0.4888215959072113,
0.6790655255317688,
-0.5409875512123108,
0.18259312212467194,
-0.31371745467185974,
-0.16984803974628448,
0.34606292843818665,
-0.34795933961868286,
-0.7992857694625854,
-0.002552396384999156,
-0.6600374579429626,
0.4359149932861328,
0.418170690536499,
-0.18634063005447388,
-0.025650639086961746,
0.4758870303630829,
-5.727339744567871,
0.3625915050506592,
-0.2882094383239746,
0.18134765326976776,
0.44532695412635803,
-0.1065492182970047,
0.3804863393306732,
-0.2975143790245056,
0.3372725546360016,
0.13503322005271912,
0.1458197981119156,
-0.5926352143287659,
-0.3223746716976166,
0.5443677306175232,
0.3278057277202606,
0.33803337812423706,
0.30739033222198486,
-0.056329306215047836,
0.16212297976016998,
-0.5434319972991943,
-0.33148136734962463,
0.3915862441062927,
0.21002234518527985,
0.21920843422412872,
0.604708194732666,
0.6960752606391907,
-0.3592075705528259,
-0.24283090233802795,
-1.1429487466812134,
-0.7203817963600159,
-0.6597471237182617,
-0.21336065232753754,
0.17568287253379822,
0.2059747278690338,
0.4162760376930237,
0.31425967812538147,
0.6848335862159729,
0.6441358327865601,
0.723321259021759,
-0.15827451646327972,
-0.02324359491467476,
0.3799401819705963,
-0.20981933176517487,
-0.295280396938324,
0.6914995312690735,
-0.37648656964302063,
-0.7126702666282654,
0.18410658836364746,
-0.055272795259952545,
0.7398707866668701,
0.4971916377544403,
0.10908788442611694,
0.22711066901683807,
0.34651440382003784,
0.4190114736557007,
0.06529004871845245,
0.5161958336830139,
-0.2893824875354767,
-0.43228471279144287,
0.7468495965003967,
0.2166661024093628,
0.13367104530334473,
-0.39835837483406067,
-0.14830878376960754,
0.7008379697799683,
-0.4190349578857422,
-0.26358917355537415,
-0.20349900424480438,
0.10708446055650711,
0.20973077416419983,
0.18916969001293182,
0.530489444732666,
-0.5913177728652954,
-1.0212620496749878,
-0.019153587520122528,
-0.1726469099521637,
-0.8690574169158936,
-0.34931474924087524,
0.0009396609966643155,
0.4662419259548187,
-0.357984721660614,
0.11307777464389801,
-0.43262630701065063,
0.21855533123016357,
0.2360304445028305,
-0.3898588716983795,
0.14928074181079865,
0.3268912434577942,
-0.19508568942546844,
-0.5165324807167053,
0.4612913727760315,
-0.248614102602005,
0.6026358008384705,
-0.3291396200656891,
-0.263599693775177,
0.8299623727798462,
-0.27203768491744995,
0.14964136481285095,
0.32121938467025757,
-0.39905059337615967,
0.148395836353302,
-0.35158583521842957,
0.5539765954017639,
-0.2261618971824646,
0.37249451875686646,
-0.3201026916503906,
-0.10947738587856293,
-0.00032367947278544307,
1.2018784284591675,
-0.13618922233581543,
0.020900212228298187,
0.34412911534309387,
-0.6062955856323242,
-0.3636876046657562,
0.41198840737342834,
-0.5752770304679871,
-0.44838812947273254,
0.8539686799049377,
0.480093777179718,
0.08475633710622787,
-0.06218939647078514,
-0.2310599982738495,
-0.1509847193956375,
0.37370553612709045,
-0.5779014825820923,
-0.3040255010128021,
-0.1508762389421463,
0.45074930787086487,
-0.16176599264144897,
0.24471670389175415,
0.05791465938091278,
0.13294318318367004,
-0.13688842952251434,
-0.6284686326980591,
0.30594402551651,
0.14318326115608215,
-0.5721593499183655,
-0.5804410576820374,
0.13281157612800598,
0.35011571645736694,
0.29538553953170776,
-0.4215390980243683,
0.15286293625831604,
0.06392715871334076,
-0.01876051537692547,
0.5046969056129456,
-0.2368394136428833,
0.15749673545360565,
-0.357197642326355,
-0.08474044501781464,
-0.497351735830307,
0.05468098819255829,
0.09044813364744186,
-0.3294336795806885,
0.0397854708135128,
-0.14636187255382538,
0.08913449198007584,
0.5069485902786255,
0.4201023578643799,
-0.00372840347699821,
0.09997005760669708,
-0.2754233777523041,
-0.8612717390060425,
0.10761594027280807,
0.43861764669418335,
-0.6158417463302612,
-0.8051420450210571,
-0.3832232654094696,
0.12119413167238235,
0.16854403913021088,
0.19584433734416962,
-0.9251843094825745,
-0.9434263110160828,
-0.2137128859758377,
-0.09066861122846603,
-0.30727097392082214,
-0.2492692768573761,
0.46044662594795227,
-0.2982008457183838,
-0.0790306031703949,
0.5257592797279358,
0.029805494472384453,
0.09345993399620056,
0.9400649070739746,
0.17855921387672424,
-0.8667725324630737,
0.34539493918418884,
-0.09508607536554337,
-0.03985850512981415,
-0.2145949900150299,
0.37004736065864563,
-0.4021376073360443,
0.07139613479375839,
-0.060840338468551636,
0.4021300673484802,
-0.8625821471214294,
0.4116397798061371,
0.4935886859893799,
-0.5675996541976929,
0.11299074441194534,
0.0035505378618836403,
-0.029999854043126106,
-0.2605161666870117,
0.37150052189826965,
0.18732403218746185,
-0.394840270280838,
0.17312952876091003,
0.35952261090278625,
-0.4040268361568451,
-0.2849770784378052,
-0.9286936521530151,
-0.6909053921699524,
-0.08462519198656082,
0.8472413420677185,
-0.6037705540657043,
-0.21605338156223297,
-0.09217417240142822,
-0.3660953938961029,
-0.907119631767273,
-0.26321396231651306,
-0.1064227744936943,
-0.10812044888734818,
-0.18688459694385529,
-0.3718043863773346,
-0.5370154976844788,
0.2772669494152069,
-0.010292216204106808,
-0.2045576274394989,
-0.1445961594581604,
-0.8267502784729004,
0.5680473446846008,
-0.16678297519683838,
0.420132577419281,
0.2924792170524597,
0.19624854624271393,
-0.20722323656082153,
0.16544777154922485,
-0.4532066583633423,
0.7779901027679443,
0.6962940096855164,
1.0267767906188965,
0.5105767250061035,
0.048665888607501984,
0.16368335485458374,
0.11426890641450882,
-0.2507070004940033,
0.0946778804063797,
-0.11599969118833542,
-1.0135670900344849,
0.6237369775772095,
0.16169552505016327,
-0.05913566052913666,
-0.6175022721290588,
-0.2626167833805084,
1.0700141191482544,
-0.3214731216430664,
0.5908874869346619,
0.5135164856910706,
-0.3478676974773407,
0.5008768439292908,
-0.5619766712188721,
0.14007821679115295,
0.26460734009742737,
0.4014500081539154,
0.04890432208776474,
-0.07488222420215607,
-0.6601284742355347,
0.18568666279315948,
0.1723184585571289,
-0.6454252004623413,
-0.33411359786987305,
-0.299696683883667,
0.3797624111175537,
0.0290813185274601,
-0.2802029550075531,
0.16170622408390045,
-0.06567105650901794,
-0.0754527598619461,
0.258372962474823,
0.06370187550783157,
-1.0558912754058838,
-0.03132382035255432,
-0.4657374620437622,
-0.008627327159047127,
-0.4596683382987976,
-0.335183709859848,
0.06463900953531265,
0.027103783562779427,
-0.6386172771453857,
0.7748610973358154,
-0.23444205522537231,
-0.3019922375679016,
-0.27318254113197327,
0.1203017458319664,
0.18725813925266266,
-0.5668753981590271,
0.075132817029953,
0.1734333336353302,
-0.3783610463142395,
0.866287112236023,
-0.9141018986701965,
-0.22080188989639282,
-0.1052243784070015,
-0.7423162460327148,
0.29406487941741943,
0.10773871093988419,
-0.03565063327550888,
-0.2954116761684418,
0.2374127060174942,
-0.30611395835876465,
0.3164913058280945,
0.5248527526855469,
-0.0002590889926068485,
1.016503930091858,
-0.10270675271749496,
0.17102979123592377,
0.2731855809688568,
-0.31055885553359985,
0.23130351305007935,
0.20485565066337585,
0.30486544966697693,
-0.06377623230218887,
0.36393287777900696,
0.09596902132034302,
0.2958596348762512,
0.5373066663742065,
0.2777128219604492,
-0.40044867992401123,
-0.1878177672624588,
0.5928301215171814,
0.4337693452835083,
-0.34851765632629395,
-0.4713549315929413,
0.354840487241745,
-0.062003474682569504,
-0.5129299163818359,
0.18719705939292908,
-0.25179949402809143,
-0.4857137203216553,
0.5120489597320557,
0.5345418453216553,
0.26023200154304504,
-0.17052970826625824,
0.07588095217943192,
0.2603607475757599,
-0.04113254323601723,
0.7021177411079407,
-0.3712214231491089,
0.22381462156772614,
-0.2010628879070282,
0.23971927165985107,
0.16020160913467407,
0.06724231690168381,
-0.09296514838933945,
0.09424299746751785,
0.0034875692799687386,
-0.15625622868537903,
-0.4761650562286377,
-0.6416744589805603,
0.1662670373916626,
0.10902829468250275,
-0.5504112243652344,
-0.24828924238681793,
-0.030898068100214005,
0.08721818029880524,
-0.4124772846698761,
-0.04901907965540886,
-0.15068687498569489,
-0.14609777927398682,
0.06471966207027435,
0.37950849533081055,
0.08739560842514038,
-0.21990564465522766,
-0.3686980605125427,
-0.14182978868484497,
0.8628252744674683,
-0.019143901765346527,
0.5432431101799011,
0.3715190887451172,
-0.13852699100971222,
-0.21795228123664856,
0.6379634141921997,
0.3553425073623657,
0.21563032269477844,
-0.20027801394462585,
-0.37818023562431335,
0.09275499731302261,
-0.254020094871521,
-0.5378926396369934,
0.246510311961174,
-0.33309707045555115,
-0.2576785087585449,
-0.045428935438394547,
0.3488686680793762,
-0.40978914499282837,
-0.5780331492424011,
0.01154498290270567,
0.3550461232662201,
0.1569060981273651,
0.6343981623649597,
-0.03440462052822113,
0.09267638623714447,
-0.3865267336368561,
-0.019300803542137146,
-0.8239882588386536,
0.6358701586723328,
0.06340198963880539,
-0.22614775598049164,
-0.24716174602508545,
0.5659834742546082,
0.5776653289794922,
0.12626171112060547,
0.23496833443641663,
0.28539979457855225,
-0.1318798065185547,
0.5977242588996887,
0.7002100348472595,
-0.08655449748039246,
0.5906845331192017,
-0.7018476724624634,
-0.005126440431922674,
-0.22991026937961578,
0.1878039538860321,
-0.08695928752422333,
0.07948080450296402,
-0.29536885023117065,
0.4856627285480499,
0.001491064322181046,
-0.48027223348617554,
0.18391813337802887,
0.05488833412528038,
-0.0666729211807251,
-0.08625193685293198,
0.47692161798477173,
-0.28916528820991516,
0.07391351461410522,
0.42710357904434204,
1.1011626720428467,
0.3760882019996643,
-0.7796574234962463,
-0.13564734160900116,
0.1039959117770195,
-0.15111085772514343,
0.1931449919939041,
-0.240414097905159,
0.1995997428894043,
-0.6180729269981384,
-0.2748047113418579,
-0.7806728482246399,
-0.25620171427726746,
0.2810225784778595,
-0.5088391900062561,
0.28218385577201843,
0.01898946613073349,
0.021588753908872604,
-0.30099231004714966,
0.33236175775527954,
-0.676260769367218,
0.05956335738301277,
-0.1666163206100464
] |
260986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mielno | Mielno | Mielno (German: Groß Möllen) is a coastal town in Koszalin County, West Pomeranian Voivodeship, in north-western Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Mielno. It lies approximately north-west of Koszalin and north-east of the regional capital Szczecin. The town has a population of 3,200.
Mielno is a well-known tourist destination with sandy beaches on the Baltic Sea coast. It lies on a spit between the sea and the large Jamno lake. It is contiguous with the neighbouring resort of Unieście.
Nuclear power plant controversy
Gąski is one of three sites selected by Polish power company PGE in November 2011 to host a nuclear power station with a capacity of 3 gigawatts. In February 2012, residents voted overwhelmingly against the plan. Some 94 percent of the 2,389 people who took part in a referendum opposed the plant and only 5 percent supported it.
Notable people
Reni Jusis (born 1974 in Konin, raised in Mielno) is a female Polish pop singer, songwriter and producer.
Gallery
References
Mielno | [
-0.1803879737854004,
0.02015930414199829,
0.31808388233184814,
-0.8479552268981934,
0.06496604532003403,
0.6672343015670776,
0.8118317723274231,
0.09567511826753616,
-0.4765855073928833,
-0.45142558217048645,
0.18606899678707123,
0.13945822417736053,
-0.10051843523979187,
0.6256322860717773,
-0.3575156033039093,
0.20577111840248108,
0.7917778491973877,
0.13590680062770844,
-0.13075461983680725,
-0.8330870270729065,
0.5602418780326843,
-0.13715949654579163,
0.4190836250782013,
0.23688091337680817,
-0.29868242144584656,
0.37321147322654724,
-0.09071541577577591,
0.5383989214897156,
0.10993342101573944,
0.13422586023807526,
-0.2567139267921448,
0.5757408142089844,
-0.07465954124927521,
0.19655750691890717,
0.5676779747009277,
0.8019831776618958,
0.15897858142852783,
-0.4474625587463379,
-0.5716381072998047,
-0.13512957096099854,
-0.29989415407180786,
0.6773024797439575,
-0.03127376735210419,
0.22683818638324738,
-0.2898882329463959,
-0.25938767194747925,
-1.1231179237365723,
0.1583011895418167,
-0.6245827078819275,
-0.5789015293121338,
-0.38807573914527893,
0.2887515723705292,
0.36270859837532043,
-0.006935561075806618,
-0.46869218349456787,
0.23227278888225555,
-0.5870411992073059,
0.26325902342796326,
0.8252031803131104,
0.5894212126731873,
-0.06800942122936249,
-0.0473380871117115,
-0.1433749943971634,
-0.04672463238239288,
0.156749427318573,
-0.26225244998931885,
0.05259433388710022,
0.710923969745636,
-0.4978673458099365,
-0.7974172830581665,
-0.24164846539497375,
0.08131539821624756,
0.1571786254644394,
-0.059406694024801254,
-0.040164537727832794,
-0.31747159361839294,
-0.2658291757106781,
-0.822021484375,
0.17613787949085236,
0.24917592108249664,
-0.1810445487499237,
-0.30064842104911804,
1.619117021560669,
-0.02377406507730484,
0.8166701793670654,
-0.2928314507007599,
-0.2590296268463135,
0.8715526461601257,
-0.15180368721485138,
0.5829981565475464,
0.27573439478874207,
-0.4109710156917572,
-0.21387864649295807,
-0.5622208118438721,
0.7317917943000793,
0.4905746281147003,
-0.6059215068817139,
0.7598277926445007,
0.018411783501505852,
0.6630420684814453,
0.02474803850054741,
0.602044939994812,
0.5754145979881287,
0.40070295333862305,
-0.3578588366508484,
-0.9094399809837341,
-0.1631414145231247,
-0.40938660502433777,
0.49541687965393066,
0.6480848789215088,
-0.7938840985298157,
0.0921081155538559,
-0.6114506125450134,
0.2523229122161865,
-0.23256421089172363,
0.8197271823883057,
0.42379769682884216,
-0.05672111362218857,
-0.045006006956100464,
0.2943287193775177,
0.20255957543849945,
0.13175013661384583,
-0.23384758830070496,
0.13805796205997467,
0.11479673534631729,
0.3389522433280945,
0.055697549134492874,
-0.0857674777507782,
-0.32451632618904114,
0.7901478409767151,
0.14944855868816376,
1.3714674711227417,
-0.04370721057057381,
-0.27316373586654663,
0.09377516806125641,
0.04891408979892731,
0.13966858386993408,
-0.2032497078180313,
0.6283167600631714,
0.2769668400287628,
-0.885563313961029,
-0.0012554960558190942,
-0.33588331937789917,
0.16780011355876923,
0.2228587418794632,
-0.2412724792957306,
-0.7299824953079224,
-0.46583566069602966,
0.00963850412517786,
-0.5106052756309509,
-0.20074300467967987,
0.02687423676252365,
0.516315221786499,
0.18352989852428436,
-0.8645968437194824,
-0.11194709688425064,
-0.14001457393169403,
0.34966495633125305,
0.16342522203922272,
0.24819277226924896,
0.30680203437805176,
0.15811018645763397,
0.3544533848762512,
0.013817155733704567,
0.27777761220932007,
-0.08456748723983765,
0.507901132106781,
-0.3199196457862854,
0.5078532099723816,
0.2874239385128021,
-0.23312939703464508,
0.026872556656599045,
0.24175132811069489,
0.0020712553523480892,
0.31318163871765137,
-0.4370891749858856,
0.7518339157104492,
-0.17275242507457733,
0.11095662415027618,
-0.8535394668579102,
-0.9222388863563538,
-0.1792338788509369,
-0.26157712936401367,
0.4244305193424225,
0.446243017911911,
0.8643973469734192,
0.12572185695171356,
-0.3849414885044098,
-1.1039295196533203,
-0.8179739713668823,
0.18652558326721191,
-0.8657329678535461,
0.725081741809845,
-0.13361263275146484,
1.0337752103805542,
0.28229042887687683,
-0.10053074359893799,
-0.188539057970047,
-0.4362674057483673,
-0.45488741993904114,
-0.5325867533683777,
-0.562202513217926,
0.2889348864555359,
0.5212922096252441,
-0.7633942365646362,
-0.10767333209514618,
0.30794617533683777,
0.01475942600518465,
-0.31635916233062744,
0.5715661644935608,
-0.02413228526711464,
-0.5782467722892761,
0.14004568755626678,
0.19241559505462646,
-0.43017154932022095,
-0.2838212549686432,
0.39818936586380005,
-0.14627578854560852,
-0.32155320048332214,
-0.006933604367077351,
0.5065440535545349,
-0.15454800426959991,
-0.47233524918556213,
-0.028833111748099327,
0.12573128938674927,
-0.03297312930226326,
0.4472915232181549,
0.3576042056083679,
0.22389571368694305,
-0.5229252576828003,
-0.5552704334259033,
0.17541776597499847,
0.32497352361679077,
-0.28622379899024963,
-0.7156314849853516,
-0.16983897984027863,
0.06934855133295059,
-0.5429048538208008,
0.35500553250312805,
-0.7786231637001038,
-0.3505929708480835,
0.07986429333686829,
-0.01660117320716381,
0.6829827427864075,
0.5489057898521423,
0.7267188429832458,
-0.15733776986598969,
0.1918155550956726,
0.41666534543037415,
-0.04576781764626503,
-0.25753554701805115,
0.49236905574798584,
0.5906970500946045,
-0.8858439326286316,
-0.05343693494796753,
-0.53309166431427,
-0.0006670975126326084,
-0.27016785740852356,
0.17862552404403687,
0.5520955324172974,
-0.12662604451179504,
0.21679075062274933,
0.5320039987564087,
0.32670721411705017,
-0.7111851572990417,
-0.7701913118362427,
0.22447694838047028,
0.3471300005912781,
0.7599403858184814,
-0.13064508140087128,
0.9659978747367859,
-0.903289258480072,
-0.18352074921131134,
-0.035065632313489914,
0.48884522914886475,
0.11989519000053406,
-0.12630747258663177,
0.052813608199357986,
-0.487568199634552,
0.45385128259658813,
0.37061837315559387,
0.9669820666313171,
0.010042590089142323,
-0.7515159249305725,
0.24469545483589172,
0.031848106533288956,
0.10875207185745239,
-0.12479139119386673,
-0.669873058795929,
-0.1421101838350296,
-0.8610345125198364,
-0.25479450821876526,
-0.8584492802619934,
0.5699377059936523,
-0.5793947577476501,
-0.13828882575035095,
-0.7174639105796814,
-0.2349206805229187,
0.19447091221809387,
-0.21715828776359558,
-0.6063913106918335,
0.2559244930744171,
-0.6647713780403137,
0.47835615277290344,
-0.03358060121536255,
0.01176089234650135,
0.324341744184494,
0.17617058753967285,
-4.726147651672363,
0.3776552081108093,
-0.43568068742752075,
-0.030996114015579224,
0.27380651235580444,
-0.7512887120246887,
0.33698707818984985,
-0.689731776714325,
0.404483437538147,
0.35768529772758484,
0.2078166902065277,
-0.9366130828857422,
0.028554197400808334,
0.8476778268814087,
0.4894772171974182,
0.09041570127010345,
0.3156995177268982,
-0.39522430300712585,
0.13742798566818237,
-0.29574477672576904,
0.11505267769098282,
0.13955795764923096,
0.16002224385738373,
0.16991741955280304,
0.9274165034294128,
0.583536684513092,
-0.02267126366496086,
-0.4472554624080658,
-0.984460711479187,
-0.00794628169387579,
-0.43858420848846436,
-0.06754813343286514,
-0.10617773979902267,
-0.29995492100715637,
0.1942698359489441,
0.03692842647433281,
-0.026621852070093155,
0.5339542627334595,
0.779079020023346,
0.020885514095425606,
0.10477843880653381,
0.18252883851528168,
-0.46023884415626526,
-0.5311952233314514,
0.68422532081604,
0.0290265791118145,
-1.0501714944839478,
-0.4058187007904053,
-0.03307110071182251,
1.1907610893249512,
0.6404335498809814,
0.33915746212005615,
0.5487098693847656,
-0.336544007062912,
0.4227621555328369,
0.189218670129776,
-0.011722256429493427,
-0.5645180940628052,
-1.1138557195663452,
0.9446839690208435,
0.09312210232019424,
-0.018226899206638336,
-0.10816887766122818,
0.032843224704265594,
0.5741568803787231,
-0.20244912803173065,
0.11536943912506104,
-0.14656686782836914,
0.1779528707265854,
-0.5820896029472351,
0.38455238938331604,
0.5129151940345764,
-0.5208728909492493,
-0.8881157040596008,
-0.12973155081272125,
-0.09788764268159866,
-1.017116904258728,
-0.27631932497024536,
0.04286005720496178,
-0.5787511467933655,
0.3047204911708832,
0.332476943731308,
-0.1477659046649933,
0.25970175862312317,
0.12677328288555145,
-0.4319055676460266,
0.06092745438218117,
0.24836523830890656,
-0.5411490201950073,
-0.5493309497833252,
0.9268870949745178,
-0.19529099762439728,
0.2771269381046295,
-0.37868085503578186,
-0.6621525287628174,
0.6900708079338074,
0.03663622587919235,
0.12678390741348267,
-0.18011735379695892,
-0.6970170736312866,
0.053586337715387344,
-0.36343884468078613,
0.7931033968925476,
-0.733447253704071,
0.7111268043518066,
-0.4493267834186554,
0.07070143520832062,
-0.36259812116622925,
0.5902578234672546,
-0.10633447766304016,
0.3412976562976837,
0.22780098021030426,
-0.7021917104721069,
-0.24921315908432007,
0.5636893510818481,
-0.74017333984375,
-0.15730096399784088,
1.078941822052002,
0.4123208820819855,
0.1341068148612976,
0.48873278498649597,
-0.36497804522514343,
-0.10619531571865082,
0.09589696675539017,
-0.27091068029403687,
-0.08490066230297089,
0.1666014939546585,
0.780734658241272,
-0.6155770421028137,
0.30224376916885376,
-0.12637801468372345,
0.48442232608795166,
-0.803363025188446,
-0.2671385407447815,
0.06981673836708069,
-0.1854678988456726,
-0.5632871985435486,
-0.3860694468021393,
0.6291118264198303,
0.6596800684928894,
0.2147156447172165,
-0.23099522292613983,
-0.06490238010883331,
0.26323428750038147,
-0.5063052773475647,
1.1222659349441528,
-0.1265910565853119,
-0.09604714065790176,
-0.30710965394973755,
0.11154808849096298,
-0.9530788064002991,
-0.21789874136447906,
0.5459400415420532,
-0.846430778503418,
0.3575836718082428,
0.31311631202697754,
0.539940595626831,
0.42203623056411743,
0.24513821303844452,
-0.39204272627830505,
-0.038095276802778244,
0.3584158718585968,
-0.5406038165092468,
0.7817811369895935,
0.19108563661575317,
-0.26396802067756653,
-1.4069461822509766,
0.29009929299354553,
0.12654908001422882,
0.4134525954723358,
0.41265276074409485,
-0.7131686806678772,
-1.5643037557601929,
0.17829768359661102,
-0.6842734217643738,
-0.27594563364982605,
-0.5141373872756958,
0.34439322352409363,
-0.587799608707428,
0.3074488937854767,
0.3408089280128479,
0.372964084148407,
-0.26159238815307617,
0.9183602929115295,
0.280359148979187,
-1.126562476158142,
0.4889126420021057,
-0.041925929486751556,
-0.4285925030708313,
-0.47633329033851624,
0.3603099584579468,
-0.10351420193910599,
0.1576681286096573,
-0.1878814846277237,
0.2589760720729828,
-1.0980733633041382,
0.15752293169498444,
0.34280678629875183,
-0.6209699511528015,
0.2782840132713318,
0.10653237253427505,
0.5334689617156982,
-0.11731665581464767,
0.8934198617935181,
0.057478565722703934,
-1.0898696184158325,
0.15826307237148285,
0.4472525119781494,
-0.6026191115379333,
0.16766004264354706,
-1.021881103515625,
-0.531694233417511,
0.20274801552295685,
1.397247076034546,
-0.18855790793895721,
-0.04324016347527504,
0.5291401147842407,
-0.1315145641565323,
-1.0255931615829468,
-0.1299910992383957,
-0.27970340847969055,
0.0673992857336998,
-0.5545793771743774,
-0.323507159948349,
-0.798220157623291,
0.4617089331150055,
-0.12703154981136322,
-0.22349415719509125,
0.10465078055858612,
-1.1845332384109497,
0.6193291544914246,
0.09200944751501083,
0.85247802734375,
0.47433629631996155,
0.6168464422225952,
0.040681105107069016,
0.4800759553909302,
-0.40765753388404846,
0.7780396342277527,
0.4422806203365326,
0.7640355229377747,
0.34523168206214905,
0.43672123551368713,
0.5878010988235474,
0.4092901647090912,
-0.720520555973053,
0.5027636289596558,
-0.18046735227108002,
-1.2850390672683716,
0.6289154887199402,
0.1350913941860199,
-0.03996094688773155,
-0.846921443939209,
0.044058289378881454,
1.4169275760650635,
0.16081184148788452,
0.20948928594589233,
0.9704036712646484,
-0.12503160536289215,
0.5257823467254639,
-0.4880889058113098,
0.49615615606307983,
0.013532261364161968,
0.20295290648937225,
0.4605811536312103,
0.19598786532878876,
-0.08020704984664917,
0.34884756803512573,
0.26165807247161865,
-0.025820301845669746,
-0.8109874725341797,
-0.6745901703834534,
0.6132394671440125,
-0.3333412706851959,
-0.6207788586616516,
0.44795504212379456,
-0.39930692315101624,
-0.5796772837638855,
0.03982752189040184,
-0.030896112322807312,
-0.8817134499549866,
0.022458374500274658,
-0.6096072793006897,
0.007355628069490194,
-0.19796456396579742,
-0.629653811454773,
-0.3151324391365051,
0.38084372878074646,
-0.6223994493484497,
0.6652830839157104,
-0.38237833976745605,
-0.2569969594478607,
-0.3224114179611206,
-0.23982839286327362,
0.2436400055885315,
0.11276907473802567,
-0.05562743544578552,
-0.222488135099411,
-0.899065375328064,
0.7598555684089661,
-0.5906493663787842,
-0.03369854390621185,
0.016070183366537094,
-0.41779711842536926,
0.6389255523681641,
-0.3341156840324402,
-0.5989693403244019,
-0.09791065752506256,
0.35651203989982605,
-0.11734200268983841,
-0.13120341300964355,
0.12590543925762177,
-0.1523168683052063,
0.7105783224105835,
0.2036953866481781,
0.293403297662735,
0.6369916200637817,
-0.6157581806182861,
0.14619256556034088,
0.35479819774627686,
0.07201875001192093,
0.4371053874492645,
0.47533854842185974,
0.20095011591911316,
-0.01963217183947563,
0.8675874471664429,
-0.10711673647165298,
-0.05706804245710373,
-0.30022555589675903,
0.45772844552993774,
-0.11932342499494553,
-0.09393801540136337,
-0.5979089140892029,
0.6744210720062256,
-0.2762871980667114,
-0.5041302442550659,
-0.055506523698568344,
0.1305641233921051,
-0.5753459334373474,
0.14020521938800812,
0.6177358031272888,
0.9102191925048828,
-0.46867635846138,
-0.13450589776039124,
0.40631234645843506,
-0.30905309319496155,
0.25456032156944275,
-0.4046635925769806,
0.49784231185913086,
-0.31074222922325134,
0.01740516908466816,
0.23726220428943634,
-0.04995067045092583,
-0.5578342080116272,
-0.32496336102485657,
-0.1378692239522934,
0.043418753892183304,
-0.3474770784378052,
-0.6562960743904114,
0.4593588411808014,
-0.06243862956762314,
-1.0427067279815674,
0.31602972745895386,
0.28189316391944885,
0.15499672293663025,
-0.3472137153148651,
-0.2912689745426178,
0.3785909414291382,
-0.035693444311618805,
0.6636248826980591,
0.2789866328239441,
-0.372577041387558,
0.17309409379959106,
-0.49237608909606934,
-0.15116997063159943,
0.5242123007774353,
0.0573427714407444,
0.2998405694961548,
-0.2540581226348877,
-0.1956941783428192,
-0.42760252952575684,
0.783719003200531,
-0.24594056606292725,
0.1065712571144104,
-0.12140215933322906,
-0.6249335408210754,
0.2958977520465851,
-0.046753596514463425,
0.08708644658327103,
-0.2957126796245575,
0.07217316329479218,
-0.1148582473397255,
-0.43342724442481995,
0.457683801651001,
-0.6575216054916382,
-0.7853906750679016,
0.2544875741004944,
0.19334453344345093,
0.04144804924726486,
0.7599084377288818,
-0.10635725408792496,
0.3595537543296814,
-0.8072721362113953,
0.4046957194805145,
-0.821160614490509,
0.5607339143753052,
-0.0003485675260890275,
0.3150501251220703,
-0.8545867204666138,
0.2241513878107071,
0.8872689604759216,
0.502098560333252,
0.15639251470565796,
0.6017376780509949,
-0.2635660767555237,
0.12169355154037476,
0.48904141783714294,
-0.3159019649028778,
-0.011403629556298256,
-0.14625361561775208,
0.19651268422603607,
-0.6391180753707886,
0.3119473457336426,
-0.15420961380004883,
0.24648773670196533,
-0.4869914650917053,
-0.1758546531200409,
-0.5593385100364685,
0.2668779492378235,
0.06344147026538849,
-0.49323901534080505,
0.28045201301574707,
-0.08296012878417969,
-0.27225759625434875,
-0.3399083912372589,
0.554564356803894,
-0.39808833599090576,
0.9890974760055542,
0.3918708264827728,
-1.053031325340271,
-0.23753362894058228,
-0.410518616437912,
-0.5775228142738342,
0.3175816535949707,
-0.03576460853219032,
0.5456907153129578,
-0.07756922394037247,
-0.3141497075557709,
-0.9021435379981995,
-0.6611778736114502,
-0.13622801005840302,
-0.43720176815986633,
0.39392635226249695,
-0.06776558607816696,
-0.17336945235729218,
-0.02583991549909115,
0.4392050504684448,
-0.7529715895652771,
-0.026600975543260574,
-0.23868964612483978
] |
260987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Africa | East Africa | East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa is the eastern sub-region of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 19* territories make up Eastern Africa:
Due to the historical Omani Empire and colonial territories of the British East Africa Protectorate and German East Africa, the term East Africa is often (especially in the English language) used to specifically refer to the area now comprising the three countries of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. However, this has never been the convention in many other languages, where the term generally had a wider, strictly geographic context and therefore typically included Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.
Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and South Sudan are members of the East African Community. The first five are also included in the African Great Lakes region. Burundi and Rwanda are at times also considered to be part of Central Africa.
Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia are collectively known as the Horn of Africa. The area is the easternmost projection of the African continent.
Comoros, Mauritius, and Seychelles – small island nations in the Indian Ocean.
Réunion and Mayotte – French overseas territories also in the Indian Ocean.
Mozambique and Madagascar – often considered part of Southern Africa, on the eastern side of the sub-continent. Madagascar has close cultural ties to Southeast Asia and the islands of the Indian Ocean.
Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe – often also included in Southern Africa, and formerly constituted the Central African Federation (also known historically as the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland).
South Sudan and Sudan – collectively part of the Nile Valley. They are situated in the northeastern portion of the continent. Also members of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) free trade area.
Geography and climate
Some parts of East Africa have been renowned for their concentrations of wild animals, such as the "big five": the elephant, buffalo, lion, black rhinoceros, and leopard, though populations have been declining under increased stress in recent times, particularly those of the rhino and elephant.
The geography of East Africa is often stunning and scenic. Shaped by global plate tectonic forces that have created the East African Rift, East Africa is the site of Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya, the two tallest peaks in Africa. It also includes the world's second largest freshwater lake, Lake Victoria, and the world's second deepest lake, Lake Tanganyika.
The climate of East Africa is rather atypical of equatorial regions. Because of a combination of the region's generally high altitude and the rain shadow of the westerly monsoon winds created by the Rwenzori Mountains and Ethiopian Highlands, East Africa is surprisingly cool and dry for its latitude. In fact, on the coast of Somalia, many years can go by without any rain whatsoever. Elsewhere the annual rainfall generally increases towards the south and with altitude, being around at Mogadishu and at Mombasa on the coast, whilst inland it increases from around at Garoowe to over at Moshi near Kilimanjaro. Unusually, most of the rain falls in two distinct wet seasons, one centred on April and the other in October or November. This is usually attributed to the passage of the Intertropical Convergence Zone across the region in those months, but it may also be analogous to the autumn monsoon rains of parts of Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and the Brazilian Nordeste.
West of the Rwenzoris and Ethiopian highlands, the rainfall pattern is more typically tropical, with rain throughout the year near the equator and a single wet season in most of the Ethiopian Highlands from June to September – contracting to July and August around Asmara. Annual rainfall here ranges from over on the western slopes to around at Addis Ababa and at Asmara. In the high mountains rainfall can be over .
Rainfall in East Africa is characterised by two main rainfall seasons, the long rains from March–May and the short rains from October- December. Rainfall variability is influenced by both El Niño events and a positive Indian Ocean Dipole. El Nino events tend to increase rainfall except in the northern and western parts of the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands, where they produce drought and poor Nile floods. Similarly, a positive Indian Ocean Dipole result in warm sea-surface temperatures off the coast of East Africa and lead to increased rainfall over East Africa. Temperatures in East Africa, except on the hot and generally humid coastal belt, are moderate, with maxima of around and minima of at an altitude of . At altitudes of above , frosts are common during the dry season and maxima typically about or less.
The unique geography and apparent suitability for farming made East Africa a target for European exploration, exploitation and colonialization in the nineteenth century. Today, tourism is an important part of the economies of Kenya, Tanzania, Seychelles, and Uganda. The easternmost point of the continent, that is Ras Hafun in Somalia, is of archaeological, historical and economical importance.
History
Prehistory
According to the theory of the recent African origin of modern humans, the predominantly held belief among most archaeologists, East Africa is the area where anatomically modern humans first appeared. There are differing theories on whether there was a single exodus or several; a multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory. Some researchers have suggested that North Africa was the region of Africa from which modern humans who first trekked out of the continent.
According to both genetic and fossil evidence, it has been posited that archaic Homo sapiens evolved into anatomically modern humans in the Horn of Africa around 200,000 years ago and dispersed from there. The recognition of Homo sapien idaltu and Omo Kibish as anatomically modern humans would justify the description of contemporary humans with the subspecies name Homo sapiens sapiens. Because of their early dating and unique physical characteristics idaltu and kibish represent the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans as suggested by the Out-of-Africa theory.
In 2017 finds of modern human remains, dating to ca 300,000 years ago in Jebel Irhoud in Morocco, suggested that modern humans arose earlier and possibly in a larger area of Africa than previously thought.
East Africa is one of the earliest regions where Homo sapiens are believed to have lived. Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site of Olorgesailie, of the early emergence of modern behaviors associated with Homo sapiens, including: long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian), the use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points. It is observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is approximately contemporary to the earliest known Homo sapiens fossil remains from Africa (such as at Jebel Irhoud and Florisbad), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in Africa around the time of the emergence of Homo sapiens.
In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans, of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans/H. sapiens, representative of the earliest Homo sapiens, and suggested that Homo sapiens arose between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in South and East Africa.
The migration route of the "Out of Africa" theory probably occurred in East Africa however through Bab el Mandeb
Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (20 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts.
The major competing hypothesis is the multiregional origin of modern humans, which envisions a wave of Homo sapiens migrating earlier from Africa and interbreeding with local Homo erectus populations in multiple regions of the globe. Most multiregionalists still view Africa as a major wellspring of human genetic diversity, but allow a much greater role for hybridization.
Some of the earliest hominin skeletal remains have been found in the wider region, including fossils discovered in the Awash Valley of Ethiopia, as well as in the Koobi Fora in Kenya and Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.
The southern part of East Africa was occupied until recent times by Khoisan hunter-gatherers, whereas in the Ethiopian Highlands the donkey and such crop plants as teff allowed the beginning of agriculture around 7,000 B.C. Lowland barriers and diseases carried by the tsetse fly, however, prevented the donkey and agriculture from spreading southwards. Only in quite recent times has agriculture spread to the more humid regions south of the equator, through the spread of cattle, sheep and crops such as millet. Language distributions suggest that this most likely occurred from Sudan into the African Great Lakes region, since the Nilotic languages spoken by these pre-Bantu farmers have their closest relatives in the middle Nile basin.
Ancient history
Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the Red Sea coast of Sudan are considered the most likely location of the land known to the Ancient Egyptians as Punt. The old kingdom's first mention dates to the 25th century BC. The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut.
The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period c. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at the time ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency. The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom.
Bantu expansion
Between 2500 and 3000 years ago, Bantu-speaking peoples began a millennia-long series of migrations eastward from their homeland around southern Cameroon. This Bantu expansion introduced agriculture into much of the African Great Lakes region. During the following fifteen centuries, the Bantu slowly intensified farming and grazing over all suitable regions of East Africa, in the process making contact with Austronesian- and Arabic-speaking settlers on southern coastal areas. The latter also spread Islam to the coastal belt, but most Bantu remained African Traditional Religion adherents.
Over a period of many centuries, most hunting-foraging peoples were displaced and absorbed by incoming Bantu communities, as well as by later Nilotic communities. The Bantu expansion was a long series of physical migrations, a diffusion of language and knowledge out into and in from neighboring populations, and a creation of new societal groups involving inter-marriage among communities and small groups moving to communities and small groups moving to new areas.
After their movements from their original homeland in West Africa, Bantus also encountered in central east Africa peoples of Cushitic origin. As cattle terminology in use amongst the few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests, the Bantu migrants would acquire cattle from their new Cushitic neighbors. Linguistic evidence also indicates that Bantus most likely borrowed the custom of milking cattle directly from Cushitic peoples in the area.
On the coastal section of the African Great Lakes region, another mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African Swahili City States. The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people. With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Tanzania (particularly Zanzibar) and Kenya—a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast—the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loan-words as a consequence of these interactions.
The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the east coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta, Azania and Menouthias referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from AD 50 to AD 500, ultimately giving rise to the name for Tanzania. These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach central east Africa during their migration.
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large African Great Lakes kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda and Karagwe kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania.
Modern history
Arab and Portuguese eras
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to explore the region of current-day Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique by sea. Vasco da Gama visited Mombasa in 1498. Da Gama's voyage was successful in reaching India, which permitted the Portuguese to trade with the Far East directly by sea. This in turn challenged the older trading networks of mixed land and sea routes, such as the spice trade routes which utilized the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and camel caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean.
The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade routes between Europe and Asia. After traditional land routes to India had been closed by the Ottoman Turks, Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by da Gama to break the once Venetian trading monopoly. Portuguese rule in the African Great Lakes region focused mainly on a coastal strip centered around Mombasa. The Portuguese presence in the area officially began after 1505, when flagships under the command of Don Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa, an island located in what is now southern Tanzania.
In March 1505, having received from Manuel I of Portugal the appointment of viceroy of the newly conquered territory in India, he set sail from Lisbon in command of a large and powerful fleet, and arrived in July at Quiloa (Kilwa), which yielded to him almost without a struggle. A much more vigorous resistance was offered by the Moors of Mombasa. However, the town was taken and destroyed, and its large treasures went to strengthen the resources of Almeida. Attacks followed on Hoja (now known as Ungwana, located at the mouth of the Tana River), Barawa, Angoche, Pate and other coastal towns until the western Indian Ocean was a safe haven for Portuguese commercial interests. At other places on his way, such as the island of Angediva, near Goa, and Cannanore, the Portuguese built forts, and adopted measures to secure the Portuguese supremacy.
Portugal's main goal on the Swahili coast was to take control of the spice trade from the Arabs. At this stage, the Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purposes of controlling trade within the Indian Ocean and securing the sea routes linking Europe to Asia. Portuguese naval vessels were very disruptive to the commerce of Portugal's enemies within the western Indian Ocean and were able to demand high tariffs on items transported through the sea due to their strategic control of ports and shipping lanes. The construction of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 was meant to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region, but their influence was clipped by the British, Dutch and Omani Arab incursions into the Great Lakes region during the 17th century.
The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in the African Great Lakes region. They besieged Portuguese fortresses, openly attacked naval vessels and expelled the Portuguese from the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts by 1730. By this time, the Portuguese Empire had already lost its interest on the spice trade sea route due to the decreasing profitability of that business. The Arabs reclaimed much of the Indian Ocean trade, forcing the Portuguese to retreat south where they remained in Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique) as sole rulers until the 1975 independence of Mozambique.
Omani Arab colonization of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent city-states under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period. Like their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior. However, the creation of clove plantations, intensification of the slave trade and relocation of the Omani capital to Zanzibar in 1839 by Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region.
Arab governance of all the major ports along the Swahili coast continued until British interests aimed particularly at ending the slave trade and creation of a wage-labour system began to put pressure on Omani rule. By the late nineteenth century, the slave trade on the open seas had been completely outlawed by the British and the Omani Arabs had little ability to resist the British navy's ability to enforce the directive. The Omani presence continued in Zanzibar and Pemba until the Zanzibar Revolution in 1964. However, the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in the 1880s.
Period of European imperialism
Between the 19th and 20th century, East Africa became a theatre of competition between the major imperialistic European nations of the time. The three main colors of the African country were beige, red, and blue. The red stood for the English, blue stood for the French, and the beige stood for Germany during the period of colonialism. During the period of the Scramble for Africa, almost every country in the larger region to varying degrees became part of a European colonial empire.
Portugal had first established a strong presence in southern Mozambique and the Indian Ocean since the 15th century, while during this period their possessions increasingly grew including parts from the present northern Mozambique country, up to Mombasa in present-day Kenya. At Lake Malawi, they finally met the recently created British Protectorate of Nyasaland (nowadays Malawi), which surrounded the homonymous lake on three sides, leaving the Portuguese the control of lake's eastern coast. The British Empire set foot in the region's most exploitable and promising lands acquiring what is today Uganda, and Kenya. The Protectorate of Uganda and the Colony of Kenya were located in a rich farmland area mostly appropriate for the cultivation of cash crops like coffee and tea, as well as for animal husbandry with products produced from cattle and goats, such as goat meat, beef and milk. Moreover, this area had the potential for a significant residential expansion, being suitable for the relocation of a large number of British nationals to the region. Prevailing climatic conditions and the regions' geomorphology allowed the establishment of flourishing European style settlements like Nairobi, Vila Pery, Vila Junqueiro, Porto Amélia, Lourenço Marques and Entebbe.
The French settled the largest island of the Indian Ocean (and the fourth-largest globally), Madagascar, along with a group of smaller islands nearby, namely Réunion and the Comoros. Madagascar became part of the French colonial empire following two military campaigns against the Kingdom of Madagascar, which it initiated after persuading Britain to relinquish its interests in the island in exchange for control of Zanzibar off the coast of Tanganyika, an important island hub of the spices trade. The British also held a number of island colonies in the region, including the extended archipelago of Seychelles and the rich farming island of Mauritius, previously under the French sovereignty.
The German Empire gained control of a large area named German East Africa, comprising present-day Rwanda, Burundi and the mainland part of Tanzania named Tanganyika. In 1922, the British gained a League of Nations mandate over Tanganyika which it administered until Independence was granted to Tanganyika in 1961. Following the Zanzibar Revolution of 1965, the independent state of Tanganyika formed the United Republic of Tanzania by creating a union between the mainland, and the island chain of Zanzibar. Zanzibar is now a semi-autonomous state in a union with the mainland which is collectively and commonly referred to as Tanzania. German East Africa, though very extensive, was not of such strategic importance as the British Crown's colonies to the north: the inhabitation of these lands was difficult and thus limited, mainly due to climatic conditions and the local geomorphology. Italy gained control of various parts of Somalia in the 1880s. The southern three-fourths of Somalia became an Italian protectorate (Italian Somaliland).
Meanwhile, in 1884, a narrow coastal strip of Somaliland came under British control (British Somaliland). This Somaliland protectorate was just opposite the British colony of Aden on the Arabian Peninsula. With these territories secured, Britain was able to serve as gatekeeper of the sea lane leading to British India. In 1890, beginning with the purchase of the small port town of (Asseb) from a local sultan in Eritrea, the Italians colonized all of Eritrea.
In 1895, from bases in Somalia and Eritrea, the Italians launched the First Italo–Ethiopian War against the Orthodox Empire of Ethiopia. By 1896, the war had become a total disaster for the Italians and Ethiopia was able to retain its independence. Ethiopia remained independent until 1936 when, after the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, it became part of Italian East Africa. The Italian occupation of Ethiopia ended in 1941 during World War II as part of the East African Campaign.The French also staked out an East African outpost on the route to French Indochina. Starting in the 1850s, the small protectorate of Djibouti became French Somaliland in 1897.
Post-colonial period
Popular depictions
There are movies that have depicted East Africa in various forms. 7 Days in Entebbe, The Last King of Scotland, Out of Africa, Queen of Katwe, The Constant Gardener, Hotel Rwanda, The Good Lie, and Captain Phillips are a few of the critically acclaimed movies. In the video games Halo 2 and Halo 3, East Africa is one of the central locations for the campaigns.
Culture
Art
Architecture
Clothing
Cuisine
Music
Religion
Languages
In the Horn of Africa and Nile Valley, Afroasiatic languages predominate, including languages of the family's Cushitic (such as Beja, Oromo and Somali), Semitic (such as Amharic, Arabic and Tigrinya), and Omotic (such as Wolaytta) branches.
In the African Great Lakes region, Niger-Congo languages of the Bantu branch are most widely spoken. Among these languages are Kikuyu, Kinyarwanda, Kirundi, Kisukuma, Luganda and many others. Swahili, with at least 80 million speakers as a first or second language, is an important trade language in the Great Lakes area. It has official status in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.
Nilotic languages, such as Luo, Kalenjin, Maasai and Nuer, are spoken in lesser numbers, primarily in the African Great Lakes and Nile Valley.
Indo-European languages, such as English, French and Portuguese, remain important in higher institutions in some parts of the larger region.
Demographics
Eastern Africa had an estimated population of 260 million in 2000. This was projected to reach 890 million by 2050, with an average growth rate of 2.5% per annum. The 2000 population is expected to quintuple over the course of the 21st century, to 1.6 billion as of 2100 (UN estimates as of 2017). In Ethiopia, there is an estimated population of 102 million as of 2016.
Science and technology
Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa:
Astronomy
Metallurgy
Medicine
Agriculture
Textiles
Maritime technology
Architecture
Communication systems
Commerce
By country
Conflicts
Since the end of colonialism, several East African countries were riven with military coups, ethnic violence and oppressive dictators. The region has endured the following post-colonial conflicts:
Northern East Africa (Horn of Africa)
Ethiopian Civil War 1974–1991
Eritrean War of Independence 1961–1991
Eritrean-Ethiopian War 1998–2000
Ogaden War 1977–1978
Dijboutian Civil War 1991–1994
Somali Civil War 1991–2009
South Sudan
Second Sudanese Civil War 1983–2005
Internal Political-ethnic Conflict 2011–ongoing
South Sudanese Civil War 2013–2015
Southern East Africa (Southeast Africa)
Burundi Civil War 1993–2005 and the Genocide of Hutus in 1972 and genocide of Tutsis in 1993
Uganda-Tanzania War 1978–1979
Ugandan Bush War 1981–1986
Lord's Resistance Army insurgency in Uganda, South Sudan and Democratic Republic of the Congo ongoing
Rwandan Civil War 1990–1993 and the Rwandan genocide against the Tutsi
Zanzibar Revolution 1964
Outside Southeast Africa with Southeast African participation
First Congo War 1996–1997 and Second Congo War 1998–2003
Kivu Conflict (Laurent Nkunda Rebellion)
Kenya has enjoyed relatively stable governance. However, politics have been turbulent at times, including the attempted coup d'état in 1982 and the 2007 election riots.
Tanzania has known stable government since independence although there are significant political and religious tensions resulting from the political union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous state in the United Republic of Tanzania.
Tanzania and Uganda fought the Uganda-Tanzania War in 1978–1979, which led to the removal of Uganda's despotic leader Idi Amin.
Rwanda, Uganda and Burundi have each faced instability and ethnic conflict since independence, most notably the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the 1993 Burundi Genocide and subsequent Burundi Civil War. Rwanda and Uganda continue to be involved in related conflicts outside the region.
Djibouti, as well as the Puntland and Somaliland regions of Somalia, have also seen relative stability.
South Sudan peacefully seceded from Sudan in 2011, six and a half years after a peace agreement ended the Second Sudanese Civil War. South Sudanese independence was nearly derailed by the South Kordofan conflict, particularly a dispute over the status of the Abyei Area, and both Abyei and South Kordofan's Nuba Hills remained a source of tension between Juba and Khartoum .
Countries, capitals and largest cities
According to the CIA, as of 2017, the countries in the eastern Africa region have a total population of around 537.9 million inhabitants.
See also
Adal Sultanate
African historiography
Ajuran Sultanate
East African Campaign (World War I)
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sultanate of Zanzibar
References
Bibliography
Geography of Africa
Regions of Africa | [
-0.17043757438659668,
-0.35627481341362,
-0.4041588604450226,
-0.34241676330566406,
0.30376434326171875,
0.24928736686706543,
0.06340321153402328,
0.5399855971336365,
-0.6847357749938965,
-0.38239580392837524,
-0.18670138716697693,
-0.21021577715873718,
-0.4455586075782776,
0.7218672633171082,
0.288000226020813,
0.6494868993759155,
0.42880815267562866,
0.33075982332229614,
-0.11509816348552704,
-0.3121693730354309,
-0.2511780560016632,
0.3429720103740692,
0.364418625831604,
0.12577497959136963,
0.2843188941478729,
-0.6233201026916504,
0.8048570156097412,
0.13315798342227936,
0.516243040561676,
-0.30399370193481445,
-0.2569640576839447,
0.2650093734264374,
-0.28144437074661255,
0.264410138130188,
0.30922314524650574,
-0.4596388339996338,
-0.42940473556518555,
0.07453514635562897,
-0.3769266605377197,
-0.1580125242471695,
-0.47908416390419006,
0.02715052105486393,
0.44494563341140747,
0.8348393440246582,
0.29766491055488586,
-0.8416802883148193,
-0.8574516177177429,
0.7110703587532043,
-0.182607963681221,
-0.0679846927523613,
-0.4099138677120209,
0.33164700865745544,
0.1473049521446228,
0.19639994204044342,
0.004573635291308165,
0.17515569925308228,
-1.0002533197402954,
0.19856035709381104,
0.6411405205726624,
-0.5282562375068665,
0.5202549695968628,
0.13949592411518097,
-0.6351918578147888,
0.034896112978458405,
-0.4350985586643219,
0.10289710760116577,
0.02652794122695923,
0.6609907150268555,
-0.05488603189587593,
-0.14791302382946014,
-0.39353498816490173,
-0.06968364864587784,
-0.11414752900600433,
0.24369196593761444,
0.16652047634124756,
-0.6347604393959045,
0.5799088478088379,
-0.36899086833000183,
-0.32251957058906555,
-0.17461568117141724,
-0.06217470020055771,
-0.22820749878883362,
0.3164900541305542,
-0.20998086035251617,
0.39297711849212646,
-0.010645585134625435,
-0.42788103222846985,
-0.1353437453508377,
-0.19662147760391235,
0.20282486081123352,
0.06778286397457123,
-0.14432598650455475,
0.12897276878356934,
-0.1354556381702423,
-0.1041501984000206,
-0.5554046630859375,
0.20185095071792603,
-0.1493978500366211,
-0.0594792515039444,
0.0337638258934021,
-0.6785339117050171,
-0.21992863714694977,
0.4154488146305084,
0.10271140933036804,
-0.4530123770236969,
0.07364951819181442,
0.26656386256217957,
-0.006311880424618721,
-0.1640985608100891,
0.001258700154721737,
-0.9397522211074829,
-0.3002590835094452,
-0.06069269776344299,
-0.18477115035057068,
-0.5402864217758179,
0.17720520496368408,
0.0994425043463707,
-0.45024049282073975,
-0.3509579002857208,
-0.41219258308410645,
0.3617584705352783,
0.8248578906059265,
-0.22521162033081055,
0.7926830649375916,
-0.4913637936115265,
-0.10514111816883087,
0.36251455545425415,
-0.16473181545734406,
-0.7447846531867981,
0.4733712673187256,
0.4832715690135956,
0.2459637075662613,
-0.15632492303848267,
0.7133352756500244,
-0.3311583697795868,
0.08863265067338943,
0.4383622407913208,
0.7115266919136047,
0.46260493993759155,
-0.2535941004753113,
-1.1006171703338623,
-0.25430506467819214,
-0.3799290359020233,
0.43625110387802124,
-0.4736427068710327,
-0.8639483451843262,
0.2251729965209961,
-0.2209005355834961,
-0.3229932188987732,
-0.37327510118484497,
-0.05000368505716324,
-0.1231483742594719,
0.014229713007807732,
-0.16323480010032654,
-0.47098904848098755,
0.21218092739582062,
0.6228621006011963,
-0.3652854263782501,
0.4295539855957031,
-0.22900262475013733,
0.3485579788684845,
-0.35640886425971985,
0.4404699504375458,
-0.32813411951065063,
0.03048521652817726,
-0.021407848224043846,
0.3894396722316742,
0.4037203788757324,
-0.04340990632772446,
0.5922993421554565,
-0.35970649123191833,
-0.06685559451580048,
0.3795768618583679,
0.10725915431976318,
-0.8572660684585571,
0.12751823663711548,
0.13576160371303558,
0.5553018450737,
0.37535300850868225,
0.3940277397632599,
-0.4724639654159546,
0.05320587381720543,
-0.5203385353088379,
-0.33506524562835693,
0.004119156394153833,
0.295736163854599,
0.09507358074188232,
0.21707461774349213,
-0.05666850507259369,
0.4359220564365387,
-0.15300299227237701,
-0.6777223944664001,
-0.017603104934096336,
-0.38787776231765747,
0.3702632188796997,
-0.370068222284317,
-0.0502762608230114,
0.22394010424613953,
-0.4658651649951935,
0.3628978133201599,
-0.19234228134155273,
-0.3320237398147583,
0.39112889766693115,
0.15195320546627045,
-0.3048431873321533,
0.35351747274398804,
-0.15324766933918,
0.1712004691362381,
0.7303172945976257,
0.618040919303894,
-0.027014264836907387,
-0.0846257358789444,
0.0847664549946785,
-0.547143816947937,
0.8084290027618408,
0.5272737145423889,
-0.13188764452934265,
0.16947922110557556,
-0.41439682245254517,
-0.13673314452171326,
0.19545146822929382,
-0.3568759262561798,
0.1413862407207489,
0.3537312150001526,
0.20673613250255585,
0.11517822742462158,
0.4016725718975067,
0.32691019773483276,
0.5911068916320801,
-0.12384571880102158,
0.1362895667552948,
-0.11692757159471512,
0.6314533352851868,
-0.3821813464164734,
-0.348928302526474,
-0.24641507863998413,
0.19682689011096954,
-0.22926630079746246,
-0.1674807071685791,
-0.4092225134372711,
0.5427233576774597,
0.11715187877416611,
-0.5573272109031677,
-0.11459864675998688,
0.26984235644340515,
-0.0009395115193910897,
0.32175806164741516,
0.21811074018478394,
-0.6497905850410461,
0.04438665136694908,
0.1554803103208542,
0.21982762217521667,
0.6587008833885193,
-0.06524255126714706,
-0.09589731693267822,
-0.17126379907131195,
0.16189861297607422,
-0.47939449548721313,
1.1487635374069214,
-0.34298214316368103,
0.26685234904289246,
-0.07319796830415726,
0.015491855330765247,
0.10501544177532196,
0.27675291895866394,
-0.49353623390197754,
-0.2568112015724182,
-0.40218377113342285,
0.31685107946395874,
0.18630798161029816,
0.6813075542449951,
-0.00697210431098938,
-0.2564460039138794,
-0.07358284294605255,
-0.1063741147518158,
-0.4883684515953064,
0.4980171322822571,
-0.16225671768188477,
-0.20317649841308594,
-0.35674431920051575,
0.18873539566993713,
0.33794426918029785,
0.17444764077663422,
-0.6251170039176941,
0.08922122418880463,
-0.26873037219047546,
-0.1270298808813095,
-0.4568689167499542,
-0.07362881302833557,
0.30193889141082764,
0.3543236255645752,
0.35447677969932556,
-0.1968001127243042,
-0.16694766283035278,
-0.2044619917869568,
-0.1574336290359497,
-0.2696053087711334,
0.44430890679359436,
0.1618470996618271,
-0.8337822556495667,
-0.8463072776794434,
0.18365293741226196,
-0.3922058641910553,
0.17500118911266327,
-0.0651354044675827,
-0.05154060572385788,
-0.6698648929595947,
0.13182076811790466,
-5.755836009979248,
0.29320594668388367,
-0.7339983582496643,
0.09296983480453491,
-0.5798467397689819,
-0.25996077060699463,
0.5223280787467957,
0.2900892198085785,
0.055496398359537125,
-0.28411099314689636,
-0.1242518275976181,
0.015615932643413544,
-0.54283607006073,
0.42663609981536865,
0.04654888063669205,
1.178635597229004,
-0.31499266624450684,
0.1191139668226242,
0.21458813548088074,
0.3967771530151367,
-0.17147547006607056,
0.2899097502231598,
-0.4174012839794159,
0.0902046412229538,
0.46155083179473877,
0.4463901221752167,
-0.5221046805381775,
-0.0723530724644661,
-0.3291643559932709,
-0.42565691471099854,
-0.27780669927597046,
-0.6039255261421204,
-0.10058402270078659,
-0.2343669831752777,
0.3697625696659088,
0.13673217594623566,
-0.02226835861802101,
0.41862162947654724,
0.3118759095668793,
-0.1889900267124176,
-0.22541320323944092,
0.4294094443321228,
0.056850869208574295,
0.7601580023765564,
0.07554168999195099,
-0.1537601500749588,
-0.3487834930419922,
-0.3412250280380249,
0.10204098373651505,
1.1260021924972534,
-0.7661237716674805,
0.2914809286594391,
-0.2685275077819824,
0.08249078691005707,
0.12894751131534576,
0.030115513131022453,
0.06431616097688675,
0.061504945158958435,
0.03511360287666321,
0.08000677078962326,
0.6706959009170532,
-0.3953821063041687,
-0.08684317767620087,
-0.8338608145713806,
0.34110215306282043,
-0.07247263193130493,
-0.5431948900222778,
-0.043794434517621994,
0.24493733048439026,
0.014524140395224094,
0.051675572991371155,
0.06747831404209137,
-0.07862160354852676,
-0.6649796366691589,
-0.3937375843524933,
-0.4128998816013336,
-0.3762115240097046,
-0.5417978763580322,
0.09796163439750671,
0.10724731534719467,
-0.2714632749557495,
0.06051144376397133,
-0.09596610814332962,
0.295634925365448,
-0.25938063859939575,
-0.5271536707878113,
-0.6907880306243896,
0.2300736904144287,
-0.5562323927879333,
0.4801778197288513,
0.03950824588537216,
-0.4551602602005005,
0.59581458568573,
0.1919373869895935,
0.5115618109703064,
0.552277684211731,
0.19045446813106537,
-0.16191382706165314,
0.6394838094711304,
-0.7247270345687866,
0.37765830755233765,
-0.6479569673538208,
-0.2533401548862457,
0.10759823024272919,
0.033057667315006256,
0.028011705726385117,
0.00002545719689805992,
0.4088367223739624,
0.9912091493606567,
-0.3726799190044403,
0.3867540657520294,
0.14062942564487457,
-0.59956294298172,
-0.456851601600647,
0.5225947499275208,
0.08586630970239639,
-0.17166265845298767,
0.20391446352005005,
0.5295314788818359,
-0.08771849423646927,
-0.13172711431980133,
-0.003929079044610262,
-0.4363929033279419,
0.19608274102210999,
0.06399065256118774,
0.11138547211885452,
0.3222724199295044,
0.09927592426538467,
-0.29592177271842957,
0.4573255181312561,
-0.08764806389808655,
-0.2522662580013275,
0.15278781950473785,
-0.18754979968070984,
0.6326838135719299,
-0.2657540738582611,
0.3291652202606201,
-0.8579473495483398,
0.029294604435563087,
-0.3133651614189148,
-0.2895529568195343,
-0.34126201272010803,
0.29941555857658386,
0.6193470358848572,
0.19891995191574097,
0.2020944356918335,
-0.28495359420776367,
-0.35175520181655884,
-0.3375711143016815,
0.14105698466300964,
0.23114484548568726,
0.45546162128448486,
-0.09522039443254471,
-0.03267471492290497,
-0.7246902585029602,
-0.31861019134521484,
0.6151404976844788,
-0.20008374750614166,
0.43222251534461975,
-0.557456910610199,
0.6734444499015808,
-0.39487525820732117,
-0.7753310799598694,
0.4976710379123688,
0.1950804591178894,
-0.3817257583141327,
-0.5250096321105957,
-0.5618355870246887,
0.2544778287410736,
0.3645695447921753,
0.35879045724868774,
-0.816702127456665,
-0.12581975758075714,
-0.4650281071662903,
0.17368750274181366,
-0.21247923374176025,
-0.23407939076423645,
0.49429020285606384,
-0.3478674292564392,
-0.03846428915858269,
0.05959964543581009,
-0.3148650825023651,
-0.8492546677589417,
0.25000521540641785,
0.008818799629807472,
-0.030184082686901093,
-0.5966429710388184,
0.17692679166793823,
-0.1959882378578186,
-0.34992220997810364,
0.4349523186683655,
0.4150431752204895,
-0.5516803860664368,
0.33127155900001526,
-0.07696378231048584,
-0.24197126924991608,
-0.32617107033729553,
-0.11606190353631973,
-0.2730712294578552,
-0.09911486506462097,
-0.04620784893631935,
0.12285681813955307,
0.13667376339435577,
0.5199279189109802,
0.06136847659945488,
0.1564883142709732,
0.9348943829536438,
-0.17370516061782837,
-0.6695926785469055,
0.08500324189662933,
-0.624433696269989,
-0.23026123642921448,
-0.18870960175991058,
0.8349155187606812,
-0.4057143032550812,
0.9733072519302368,
0.13950365781784058,
0.16498114168643951,
0.4628821313381195,
0.12300175428390503,
0.2539607584476471,
-0.12829065322875977,
-0.20560190081596375,
-0.139211967587471,
-0.2068874090909958,
0.7937164306640625,
0.9547685384750366,
-0.07809820771217346,
-0.4884749948978424,
-0.07947329431772232,
-0.20634248852729797,
-0.21495506167411804,
-0.15895381569862366,
0.08219388127326965,
-0.3860309422016144,
0.4098597764968872,
0.22705884277820587,
0.032322995364665985,
0.42724889516830444,
0.8269827365875244,
0.5551621913909912,
0.22950473427772522,
0.22556784749031067,
-0.4404512345790863,
-0.08781106770038605,
0.41777223348617554,
0.06470471620559692,
-0.39705079793930054,
-0.4418215751647949,
0.06295575946569443,
0.07725658267736435,
-0.3499622046947479,
-0.4264813959598541,
-0.004829923156648874,
0.5885502099990845,
0.08966062217950821,
-0.1790555715560913,
0.4406758248806,
-0.22978554666042328,
-0.09506185352802277,
0.48203444480895996,
-0.34175264835357666,
0.036824628710746765,
0.0904056653380394,
-0.06896594166755676,
-0.5210093259811401,
-0.7011369466781616,
0.5160959362983704,
0.7161241769790649,
-0.28609520196914673,
0.2005780190229416,
0.08741724491119385,
0.4208352565765381,
0.36066383123397827,
0.3736112415790558,
0.28229478001594543,
-0.33210670948028564,
-0.7132573127746582,
-0.3774670660495758,
0.11517667770385742,
-0.7442485690116882,
-0.5481213331222534,
0.6157003045082092,
-0.15605971217155457,
0.5052378177642822,
-0.36985960602760315,
-0.11727796494960785,
-0.286496102809906,
-0.35774654150009155,
-0.37843629717826843,
-0.05160396173596382,
-0.5684406161308289,
0.24934229254722595,
-0.7403072118759155,
0.03088616579771042,
0.18570618331432343,
0.2906789779663086,
0.046630606055259705,
0.4051007032394409,
-0.10931699723005295,
-0.29170337319374084,
1.0724315643310547,
-0.028517210856080055,
-0.08421357721090317,
0.22952121496200562,
-0.040168751031160355,
0.0767720490694046,
0.024476928636431694,
0.199385404586792,
-0.05345793813467026,
0.3780565857887268,
-0.2570606470108032,
0.23986536264419556,
0.49722620844841003,
0.21990738809108734,
0.43751075863838196,
0.5730974674224854,
-0.2072175145149231,
0.6630771160125732,
0.3225928544998169,
0.44342347979545593,
0.34556660056114197,
-0.00812853965908289,
0.045735057443380356,
0.352216899394989,
0.6932410597801208,
-0.7280830144882202,
-0.06284639984369278,
0.05325214937329292,
0.09077197313308716,
0.22114849090576172,
0.42294448614120483,
-0.7546704411506653,
0.3489898145198822,
-0.41630253195762634,
-0.0030235201120376587,
0.6684313416481018,
-0.40310028195381165,
0.2110517919063568,
0.9901030659675598,
0.7807877659797668,
0.3327288329601288,
-0.21418875455856323,
-0.1745137721300125,
-0.6115564107894897,
-0.09303537011146545,
-0.3636636435985565,
-0.08585215359926224,
0.33942264318466187,
0.01861674152314663,
0.27556338906288147,
-0.4758845567703247,
0.11431238055229187,
-0.10144764930009842,
-0.07140959054231644,
-0.06457716971635818,
0.7801050543785095,
-0.09913870692253113,
-0.06871895492076874,
0.2262854129076004,
-0.08520793914794922,
0.5291942358016968,
0.3020358085632324,
0.16280324757099152,
0.1517362892627716,
0.2834782898426056,
-0.0423455685377121,
-1.139378547668457,
-0.20880499482154846,
0.09805838018655777,
0.49784478545188904,
0.11120770126581192,
0.4306009113788605,
-0.07203640043735504,
0.7566654682159424,
0.4939529299736023,
-0.49381381273269653,
0.3909212052822113,
0.42879047989845276,
0.1719444841146469,
-0.24771423637866974,
-0.8130717873573303,
0.04391615837812424,
-0.07400648295879364,
0.2919505834579468,
-0.3991785943508148,
0.23446695506572723,
0.2292422205209732,
-0.68250972032547,
0.1943122148513794,
-0.09512804448604584,
-0.9641129374504089,
0.22438295185565948,
-0.47352319955825806,
0.21432606875896454,
-0.21660363674163818,
-0.07604572921991348,
0.9377946853637695,
0.023271743208169937,
-0.5387929081916809,
0.21840977668762207,
0.16904175281524658,
0.05133741721510887,
0.25148046016693115,
-0.04938540980219841,
0.44602468609809875,
-0.33323296904563904,
-0.005376913584768772,
-0.5968625545501709,
0.6191225051879883,
0.5470110774040222,
-1.0336596965789795,
0.09576155245304108,
0.14497238397598267,
0.7110286355018616,
0.770056962966919,
-0.029182175174355507,
-0.42699506878852844,
-0.04280927777290344,
-0.3531343340873718,
-0.03941607102751732,
-0.7166697978973389,
-0.09661008417606354,
0.3335256576538086,
-0.18866191804409027,
-0.06701868027448654,
-0.08371951431035995,
0.7682464122772217,
-0.6172199845314026,
0.7900839447975159,
0.1673104465007782,
-0.18484152853488922,
-1.0241601467132568,
0.3991057276725769,
-0.5923886299133301,
-0.05651278421282768,
0.4683365523815155,
0.3323333263397217,
-0.2666133642196655,
-0.20653276145458221,
-0.346638560295105,
-0.26493942737579346,
0.3405073583126068,
-0.0882682204246521,
-0.35282835364341736,
-0.1951175481081009,
-0.5780606865882874,
-0.2580987215042114,
-0.8576379418373108,
0.944525957107544,
-0.3888702690601349,
-0.23858867585659027,
0.07906077057123184,
0.16019459068775177,
-0.08377061039209366,
-0.3340112566947937,
0.44054487347602844,
-0.39796701073646545,
0.6553676128387451,
-0.3362644612789154
] |
260989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20Ridley%2C%20Baron%20Ridley%20of%20Liddesdale | Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale | Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale, (17 February 1929 – 4 March 1993), was a British Conservative politician and government minister. As President of the Selsdon Group, a free-market lobby within the Conservative Party, he was closely aligned with Margaret Thatcher, and became one of her Ministers of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in 1979. Responsible for the Falkland Islands, he tried to resolve the long-running sovereignty issue with Argentina, which detected Britain's reluctance to defend the territory, and later invaded it.
As Secretary of State for Transport, Ridley performed a key function in building up coal stocks in advance of the 1984–85 miners' strike, which helped the government to defeat the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM). As Secretary of State for the Environment, Ridley opposed a low-cost housing development near his own property, earning him the title of "NIMBY" ("Not in My Back Yard"). He was also responsible for introducing the "poll tax" (formally known as the Community Charge), which was one of the main factors leading to Thatcher's resignation in 1990. He was created a life peer in 1992.
Background and education
Ridley was the second son of Matthew White Ridley, 3rd Viscount Ridley, and Ursula Lutyens, daughter of architect Sir Edwin Lutyens. His elder brother was Matthew White Ridley, 4th Viscount Ridley. He was educated at West Downs School, Winchester, Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford, where he gained a third in mathematical moderations in 1947 and a second-class degree in engineering science in 1951. A contemporary at Eton was Tam Dalyell, later Labour MP for West Lothian. The two men were not even able to agree on whether or not Dalyell had been Ridley's fag, though Dalyell greatly admired Ridley's skills as an artist, quoting his teacher as saying that Ridley was "more talented than his grandfather" Edwin Lutyens.
Ridley held a national service commission as a lieutenant in the 1st Battalion of The Loyal Regiment in 1947 and was later a Territorial Army captain in the Northumberland Hussars Yeomanry. He later became a civil engineer and company director.
Political career, 1955–1979
At the 1955 general election, Ridley unsuccessfully contested the safe Labour seat of Blyth. He was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Cirencester and Tewkesbury at the 1959 election. He was appointed as Parliamentary Private Secretary in 1962, and from 1964 he was a Select committee member before joining the front bench. In 1973, he co-founded the Selsdon Group, which was opposed to the abandonment of the radical 1970 manifesto by Edward Heath. He closed his keynote speech at the group's launch by citing the "Ten Cannots" of William J. H. Boetcker, adding that they "could well become the guiding principle of the Selsdon Group". The members of the group were seen as disloyal at the time but their ideas came to prominence in the Thatcher years.
In government, 1979–1990
When the Conservatives were returned to office at the 1979 general election, Ridley was appointed to the new Conservative government as Minister of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. In this position he was assigned responsibility for policy concerning the Falkland Islands, a position in which according to Patrick Cosgrave, he did not acquit himself well and "seriously misread the intentions of the Argentinian government". His first visit to the Islands was in July 1979, after which the Foreign Office considered the options, given that the idea of 'Fortress Falklands' was deemed unfeasible on the grounds of cost – Britain could not afford to maintain a sufficiently powerful military presence on the Islands to deter an invasion.
Ridley held a secret, informal meeting with his Argentine opposite number Carlos Cavandoli in September 1980, and the two sides broadly agreed a "leaseback" arrangement whereby nominal sovereignty would be given to Argentina but British administration would be maintained for a fixed number of years, likely 99, until the final handover, as well as co-operating on the Islands' economic development and exploitation of fish and potential oil resources. The meeting took place at a village hotel ten miles outside Geneva, Switzerland, under the pretext of a holiday for Ridley and his wife, so as to avoid Parliamentary and media accusations of a sell-out. Ridley returned to the Islands in November to try to persuade the Islanders to accept the proposal but they were unconvinced, and as he left islanders shouted abuse at him while playing a recording of "Rule, Britannia!". A prominent local islands politician, Adrian Monk, also made what the then Governor of the islands, Sir Rex Hunt, described as a 'Churchillian' explanation of the population's views in a Falklands radio broadcast on 2 January 1981. Likewise, Parliament gave the proposals a hostile reception, pointing out that British people should not be transferred, against their wishes, to the control of an Argentine military junta which had committed multiple human rights violations. In the face of this opposition, the Conservative government once again reiterated that the Islanders' wishes were 'paramount'.
In February 1981, with the support of the Islands' Councillors, the British government met Argentine representatives in New York but the British proposal for a sovereignty freeze was rejected by the junta. British intelligence reports continued to suggest that Argentina would invade the Islands only if it was convinced there was no prospect of eventual transfer of sovereignty.
Ridley advised that leaseback remained the only feasible solution and recommended that Britain initiate an education campaign to persuade the islanders. His fierce political opponent Tam Dalyell believed he was right and that but for Ridley's "confrontational style", "off-handed and offensive disdain" which upset both the islanders and the House of Commons, this policy could have avoided the war. The proposal was rejected by Lord Carrington who felt that any attempt to put pressure on Islanders would be counter-productive. However, the cumulative effect of stalled sovereignty negotiations, the British Nationality Act 1981 (which would deprive many Islanders of their rights as full British citizens), the announced withdrawal of , the shelving of plans to rebuild the Royal Marine barracks at Moody Brook, and the proposed closure of the British Antarctic Survey base at Grytviken on South Georgia, was to convince Argentina that Britain had no future interest in the Falkland Islands. Argentina invaded the islands in April 1982, beginning the Falklands War, but was repulsed in June of that year, with the islands remaining in British hands.
Financial Secretary to the Treasury
From 1981 to 1983 Ridley was the Financial Secretary to the Treasury.
Secretary of State for Transport
Following the 1983 election, Ridley, always regarded by Margaret Thatcher as "one of us", was a beneficiary of her move to cull the Tory wets and joined her cabinet as Secretary of State for Transport. In that role he played a major part in making preparations for a potential loss of coal supplies, which proved an important factor in deciding the outcome of the miners' strike. Ridley had long been acutely aware of the threat the trade unions could pose to the execution of Conservative policies and, in the wake of the Heath government's union difficulties, had authored the Ridley Plan, which set out means of dealing with the trade unions and was a prototype for later developments. The Thatcher government attached considerable importance to being properly prepared for a major miners' strike and backed down from a confrontation with the miners in its first Parliament. By the time that the miners did strike, from early March 1984, considerable efforts had been made in ensuring the availability of stockpiled coal at power stations, non-unionised transport workers and oil-fired generation plant.
He oversaw bus deregulation with the Transport Act 1985 as a precursor to privatisation of bus services. This led to a period of intense competition between rival bus companies, known at the time as the bus wars and the dramatic subsequent growth of Stagecoach Group, FirstGroup and the other major bus operators.
Never far from controversy, Ridley had to apologise following the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster in 1987, for remarking that he would not be pursuing a particular policy "with the bow doors open". The ship had capsized, with loss of 193 lives, as a result of sailing with its bow doors open.
Secretary of State for the Environment
As Secretary of State for the Environment from 1987 to 1989, he is credited with popularising the phrase NIMBY or Not in My Back Yard to describe those who instinctively opposed any local building development. It was soon revealed that Ridley opposed a low cost housing development near a village where he owned a property. More importantly, he was the Cabinet Minister responsible for the introduction of the 'Poll tax' (formally known as the Community Charge), a policy that brought a standing ovation at the Conservative Party conference at which it was announced, and riots across the country when it was implemented. Ridley had reduced the implementation timetable from 5 to 2 years, which made it much easier for opponents to identify 'losers' and gain support for protest.
Secretary of State for Trade and Industry
On 13 July 1990, he was forced to resign as Secretary of State for Trade and Industry after an interview was published by The Spectator. He had described the proposed Economic and Monetary Union as "a German racket designed to take over the whole of Europe" and said that giving up sovereignty to the European Union was as bad as giving it up to Adolf Hitler. The interview was illustrated with a cartoon depicting Ridley running away having added a Hitler moustache to a poster of the German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. While Ridley was not one of the most powerful government members, he was regarded as a Thatcherite loyalist and his departure was a significant break in their ranks. Margaret Thatcher herself resigned a few months later. Some commentators point to Ridley's resignation, its manner, and the European issue at its core, as leading indicators for the next decade of Conservative Party politics. On 8 November 1991, Ridley advised people to vote for anti-European candidates regardless of their parties.
Baron Ridley of Liddesdale
On 28 July 1992, Ridley was created a life peer as Baron Ridley of Liddesdale, of Willimoteswick in the County of Northumberland. Despite being a free-marketeer, in January 1993 Ridley spoke out against railway privatisation, and when in government, advised Thatcher against doing so. The final speech he gave was an address against the Maastricht Treaty on 17 February 1993 in the House of Lords, which he had always vehemently opposed and voted against in 1991. In an article for The Times written days before he died, he suggested that the rich should be taxed more to help Britain out of the recession.
At the 1996 Nicholas Ridley Memorial Lecture, Thatcher said of Ridley that,
Ridley was also secretary of the Canning Club, a councillor on Castle Ward Rural District Council and a member of the executive committee of the National Trust.
Personal life
Lord Ridley of Liddesdale was married to Clayre Campbell, daughter of Alistair Campbell, 4th Baron Stratheden and Campbell. They divorced in 1974. They had three daughters: social worker Susanna Rickett, designer and writer Jessica Ridley, and historian Jane Ridley, Professor of History at the University of Buckingham. He was a keen water colourist and photographer.
In 1990, asked to comment on the resignation of his cabinet colleague Norman Fowler who had given as the reason for his resignation the wish "to spend more time with my family", Ridley quipped that the last thing he wanted to do was spend more time with his family. Ridley's puppet on Spitting Image was always portrayed with a cigarette.
He died of lung cancer on 4 March 1993.
Arms
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
The Papers of Lord Ridley of Liddesdale held at Churchill Archives Centre
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
1929 births
1993 deaths
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
British Secretaries of State for the Environment
Deaths from cancer in England
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Conservative Party (UK) life peers
Councillors in Northumberland
Deaths from lung cancer
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Eton College
People educated at West Downs School
Secretaries of State for Transport (UK)
UK MPs 1959–1964
UK MPs 1964–1966
UK MPs 1966–1970
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
Younger sons of viscounts
Nicholas
Northumberland Hussars officers
Presidents of the Board of Trade
Lutyens family
Ridley | [
-0.44637295603752136,
0.07732158899307251,
-0.3076549768447876,
-0.7566397786140442,
-0.5002074241638184,
0.33456581830978394,
0.5932514071464539,
0.031086629256606102,
-0.2952319085597992,
-0.015158740803599358,
-0.25397616624832153,
0.2684456408023834,
-0.012413349002599716,
0.448310911655426,
0.3929354250431061,
0.08232872188091278,
-0.23985759913921356,
0.008298564702272415,
-0.5138529539108276,
-0.32810044288635254,
-0.058861035853624344,
-0.25016841292381287,
-0.25999346375465393,
0.5662114024162292,
-0.3846382200717926,
0.22717559337615967,
0.20098133385181427,
-0.2265220582485199,
0.0996311753988266,
-0.52547687292099,
0.7985979318618774,
0.8671792149543762,
0.028954025357961655,
-0.3097171485424042,
0.1431993842124939,
0.2342667579650879,
-0.10710206627845764,
-0.7927774786949158,
-0.4257020950317383,
0.3726862370967865,
-0.42128637433052063,
0.6076725721359253,
0.1171170026063919,
0.40830129384994507,
-0.09217537194490433,
-0.49737778306007385,
-1.564452052116394,
0.10311879217624664,
-0.6636849641799927,
-0.8461417555809021,
-0.1523156464099884,
0.1042933240532875,
0.9225520491600037,
0.1387278139591217,
0.43905478715896606,
0.19983679056167603,
-0.7306129336357117,
0.018199875950813293,
0.5847659111022949,
0.13040407001972198,
0.27192091941833496,
-0.2389661818742752,
0.2081262171268463,
-0.08865846693515778,
0.38773560523986816,
0.0972234383225441,
-0.3158370554447174,
0.7686110138893127,
-0.8279127478599548,
-0.3350643813610077,
-0.07307872176170349,
0.09462649375200272,
0.44577011466026306,
0.6779917478561401,
0.03490185737609863,
-0.11023648083209991,
-0.15002033114433289,
-0.10758902877569199,
0.5261036157608032,
-0.19335967302322388,
0.09388439357280731,
-0.23629970848560333,
0.4520840048789978,
0.4802272915840149,
0.4866553544998169,
0.17910581827163696,
-0.7145560383796692,
0.8913572430610657,
-0.32860079407691956,
0.8576348423957825,
-0.02686871774494648,
-0.3250526487827301,
0.2464819848537445,
-0.01293359324336052,
-0.5531098246574402,
0.08407067507505417,
-0.06668280065059662,
0.16181877255439758,
0.08637429028749466,
-0.3978869915008545,
0.17784646153450012,
0.558179497718811,
0.13003866374492645,
-0.2889932692050934,
-0.661137044429779,
0.10381912440061569,
-0.7527364492416382,
-0.6823922395706177,
0.04530593007802963,
0.21185991168022156,
-0.7238060832023621,
0.47436606884002686,
-0.9364708065986633,
0.03780345991253853,
0.05506480485200882,
0.27574342489242554,
0.18991689383983612,
-0.7932121157646179,
-0.6604489684104919,
0.04782082885503769,
-0.21604762971401215,
0.1383734941482544,
-0.40078967809677124,
0.14415998756885529,
-0.684758186340332,
0.19635960459709167,
0.2360990196466446,
0.16107891499996185,
0.04711266979575157,
0.9869346022605896,
0.5392530560493469,
1.4505053758621216,
-0.8580164909362793,
-0.3542303442955017,
-0.4724312126636505,
-0.9827471375465393,
0.4885375201702118,
0.08082035183906555,
0.07943125069141388,
0.031877633184194565,
-0.8308128118515015,
0.24022050201892853,
-0.621020495891571,
-0.17139311134815216,
0.4063616693019867,
0.02859504148364067,
-0.08209026604890823,
-0.277110755443573,
0.33428317308425903,
-0.4538220167160034,
0.8603708744049072,
-0.3470853865146637,
0.0019014375284314156,
-0.7042993903160095,
-0.5939592123031616,
0.9519901871681213,
0.8808927536010742,
0.34333640336990356,
-0.05037567764520645,
0.4591245651245117,
0.3864513635635376,
-0.3161255121231079,
0.2402215301990509,
-0.055094968527555466,
0.5585442781448364,
-0.09217313677072525,
-0.1528618186712265,
-0.5819249153137207,
0.20255856215953827,
0.7402859330177307,
-0.9445939064025879,
-0.17804521322250366,
0.376046359539032,
-0.621727466583252,
0.4650440812110901,
0.09179900586605072,
0.5819104313850403,
0.11510581523180008,
0.16069307923316956,
-0.7650943398475647,
-0.8242197632789612,
-0.40424221754074097,
0.46807506680488586,
0.05992567539215088,
0.659441351890564,
0.29670560359954834,
0.4403355121612549,
0.03567056357860565,
0.6497246026992798,
0.17122752964496613,
-0.49207764863967896,
-1.0575194358825684,
0.4285701513290405,
-0.16124221682548523,
0.687063992023468,
0.7417396306991577,
0.10069680213928223,
-0.19659334421157837,
0.33535704016685486,
1.053195595741272,
-0.4284008741378784,
0.22892363369464874,
-0.2086353898048401,
-0.5669780373573303,
-0.11561408638954163,
0.6425449252128601,
0.3896257281303406,
0.01926768384873867,
0.19764947891235352,
0.6252852082252502,
0.1421903818845749,
-1.1277809143066406,
0.05789612978696823,
0.6773548126220703,
0.1304004043340683,
-0.8908539414405823,
-0.4376119077205658,
-0.24564722180366516,
0.4533633589744568,
-1.0877575874328613,
-0.07437549531459808,
0.695387601852417,
-0.20289447903633118,
0.5376815795898438,
0.1172843724489212,
1.0575048923492432,
-0.05390043556690216,
0.24005034565925598,
-0.3337654769420624,
-0.643955647945404,
0.5389059782028198,
0.797903299331665,
0.17998290061950684,
-0.6384070515632629,
-0.18428994715213776,
-0.24840185046195984,
-0.4411044418811798,
-0.963267982006073,
0.324737012386322,
-0.08427316695451736,
0.26790744066238403,
-0.0935928225517273,
-0.9511653780937195,
0.1287182718515396,
-0.12252607196569443,
0.5498597025871277,
0.24174807965755463,
0.053617049008607864,
0.2523912489414215,
-0.1270410269498825,
0.4288422465324402,
0.5524566769599915,
0.14229921996593475,
0.03615720197558403,
0.042819175869226456,
0.18552875518798828,
-0.034283917397260666,
0.26222360134124756,
0.44785478711128235,
0.26640257239341736,
-0.1652197539806366,
0.5577408671379089,
0.07714934647083282,
0.29720786213874817,
-0.44360846281051636,
-0.4466928541660309,
-0.10871199518442154,
-0.36739295721054077,
0.47358348965644836,
-0.652572512626648,
0.0982416570186615,
-0.5955304503440857,
-0.0649070218205452,
-0.12171658128499985,
-0.5220455527305603,
-0.2634134590625763,
0.1545822024345398,
0.47658249735832214,
-0.7535464763641357,
-0.427299827337265,
0.6059275269508362,
0.9736567735671997,
-0.5763755440711975,
0.07934721559286118,
-0.3342287540435791,
0.4305468499660492,
0.23325727880001068,
0.050284478813409805,
0.20989899337291718,
-0.15929007530212402,
0.12067937850952148,
0.42968374490737915,
-0.1894788295030594,
0.46551603078842163,
-0.5131927132606506,
0.5979007482528687,
-0.31799939274787903,
-1.3142189979553223,
0.3821684718132019,
-0.41715261340141296,
-0.29617372155189514,
0.7957713007926941,
-0.336874395608902,
0.2311953455209732,
0.19464926421642303,
0.3355778157711029,
-0.33002573251724243,
-0.14748583734035492,
-4.573423862457275,
0.27307817339897156,
0.3146623969078064,
-0.07659369707107544,
0.3153761029243469,
0.300365686416626,
0.6906946897506714,
0.04525903984904289,
-0.301022469997406,
-0.4370165467262268,
-0.04114951565861702,
-0.6637731790542603,
0.21714353561401367,
0.639375627040863,
1.704194188117981,
0.7783867120742798,
1.5452795028686523,
-0.268279105424881,
0.776707112789154,
0.26504769921302795,
-0.12307601422071457,
0.04229259490966797,
-0.13985837996006012,
0.419924259185791,
-0.26916420459747314,
0.7489595413208008,
0.0272712130099535,
0.28137949109077454,
-1.1084595918655396,
-0.5328872799873352,
0.6256063580513,
0.24044185876846313,
-0.1639403998851776,
0.09182365238666534,
-0.644585371017456,
-0.292313814163208,
0.4517941474914551,
0.6211107969284058,
-0.26442793011665344,
-0.3447393476963043,
-0.10383342206478119,
0.3136133551597595,
-0.29570475220680237,
0.49893754720687866,
0.42356178164482117,
-0.24043557047843933,
-1.003798007965088,
0.1965661495923996,
-0.1785789132118225,
0.8593839406967163,
-0.012230788357555866,
0.6784868240356445,
0.18527336418628693,
0.04602811858057976,
-0.813857913017273,
0.07618653029203415,
0.5254932641983032,
0.028573796153068542,
-0.6524742841720581,
0.5188159942626953,
0.647600531578064,
-0.5097671151161194,
0.6139121055603027,
-0.01795029453933239,
0.22658999264240265,
0.31770628690719604,
0.039344802498817444,
-0.5564116835594177,
-0.20975162088871002,
0.16374103724956512,
-0.27239489555358887,
1.059923768043518,
-0.38646700978279114,
-0.9014878869056702,
-0.19824768602848053,
-0.3271583914756775,
0.11080967634916306,
0.06390658766031265,
0.03756152465939522,
-0.09409382194280624,
0.6352050304412842,
-0.9892511367797852,
0.1633376181125641,
1.319008708000183,
0.16536369919776917,
-0.6580435037612915,
-0.6103885769844055,
-0.31404098868370056,
-0.15444153547286987,
-0.4336635172367096,
0.07718407362699509,
-0.642359733581543,
-0.4537970721721649,
0.7501839399337769,
0.013276821933686733,
0.14307357370853424,
-0.23320718109607697,
0.25602492690086365,
0.1480514407157898,
-0.2287597507238388,
-0.24438585340976715,
-0.4247135519981384,
-0.3352149426937103,
-0.46080833673477173,
-0.03709794208407402,
-0.5749722719192505,
-0.05744527280330658,
0.4172663688659668,
-0.223399356007576,
-0.2934727668762207,
0.3931761384010315,
0.37287259101867676,
-0.433258056640625,
0.16035042703151703,
0.476384699344635,
-0.06554209440946579,
0.19253455102443695,
0.47787919640541077,
0.08079370111227036,
0.7301755547523499,
0.12017234414815903,
0.043947983533144,
0.11067797988653183,
-0.1257009208202362,
-0.5292067527770996,
-0.12059593945741653,
0.695914626121521,
-0.5382055640220642,
-0.6494872570037842,
0.2822588384151459,
0.013789613731205463,
0.6598590016365051,
0.10192825645208359,
-0.40396836400032043,
-0.287130206823349,
-0.7678599953651428,
-0.6767412424087524,
-0.15860500931739807,
0.14896968007087708,
0.21931858360767365,
0.5249696373939514,
0.15905384719371796,
-0.07932069152593613,
0.06914679706096649,
0.3829817473888397,
0.43584418296813965,
0.440389484167099,
-0.28956806659698486,
-0.4096422791481018,
0.47693389654159546,
-0.2013108879327774,
-0.1755950003862381,
-0.11045470833778381,
-1.0111298561096191,
-0.2422819882631302,
0.012717344798147678,
-0.42124292254447937,
0.073180191218853,
-0.28527167439460754,
-0.71137934923172,
-0.4891863465309143,
0.30200907588005066,
-1.3040252923965454,
0.26647937297821045,
0.3026527762413025,
0.025966940447688103,
-0.4690942168235779,
-0.7435541749000549,
-0.3625531792640686,
0.7230312824249268,
-0.1927935928106308,
-0.6881933212280273,
-0.18559378385543823,
-0.2778414189815521,
0.25268423557281494,
-0.11760301142930984,
0.025184793397784233,
-0.2384747415781021,
-0.6170926094055176,
-0.11828933656215668,
-0.16176408529281616,
0.49500131607055664,
-0.5793893933296204,
0.280104398727417,
0.7783920764923096,
-0.20597274601459503,
-1.2131296396255493,
-0.33666855096817017,
-0.05960233509540558,
-0.21272557973861694,
0.05850856378674507,
-0.324380487203598,
0.6684879660606384,
0.7930598258972168,
-0.37339815497398376,
-0.4896696209907532,
0.5778393149375916,
-0.6318942308425903,
0.000491454906295985,
-0.6466398239135742,
-0.018186084926128387,
0.8601205945014954,
0.5409907698631287,
0.20455540716648102,
-0.14037758111953735,
-1.5094470977783203,
-0.3840537667274475,
0.9020622372627258,
-0.4494071304798126,
1.1709572076797485,
-0.1489311009645462,
-0.6072466373443604,
0.26655206084251404,
0.409661203622818,
-0.6665650010108948,
0.1148323342204094,
0.3658040761947632,
-0.12430072575807571,
-0.015119400806725025,
-0.46100369095802307,
-0.9637559056282043,
-0.015742868185043335,
-0.4345606863498688,
-0.5592604279518127,
-0.7523648142814636,
0.22361762821674347,
0.26770713925361633,
-0.12824951112270355,
0.31767913699150085,
0.21122145652770996,
-0.5910248160362244,
-0.05499941110610962,
-0.06352494657039642,
0.11611396074295044,
-0.3014957010746002,
0.6185904145240784,
-0.007841210812330246,
0.5187649130821228,
0.5830002427101135,
0.26019537448883057,
0.8674245476722717,
1.2822637557983398,
0.7040044069290161,
-0.7440168857574463,
0.11855913698673248,
0.33516743779182434,
0.5110126733779907,
-0.07713214308023453,
-0.4970620274543762,
0.3692367970943451,
0.22782453894615173,
-0.1721881926059723,
-0.8108885884284973,
-0.9864730834960938,
0.6453472971916199,
-0.2073093205690384,
-0.2425377517938614,
-0.1297590583562851,
0.5438421368598938,
-0.1011657640337944,
-0.022116785869002342,
0.585254430770874,
0.05588901787996292,
0.41560906171798706,
0.24139302968978882,
0.5894672870635986,
0.743725061416626,
0.10963589698076248,
0.8735401630401611,
-0.5953049659729004,
-0.5521376729011536,
-0.5046221017837524,
-0.4912375509738922,
-0.016502171754837036,
-0.4327603578567505,
-0.5023807883262634,
0.6574645638465881,
-1.4045567512512207,
0.7017118334770203,
-0.9738976955413818,
-0.9045349359512329,
-0.26280492544174194,
1.1681486368179321,
-0.27319613099098206,
-0.4877035319805145,
-0.3213086426258087,
-0.3912464380264282,
-0.023476703092455864,
-0.35126394033432007,
-0.21254079043865204,
-0.513256311416626,
-0.28677091002464294,
-0.3552641272544861,
-0.08229245990514755,
-0.02618354558944702,
0.183699831366539,
-0.5214994549751282,
-0.12674397230148315,
-0.3267832100391388,
-0.4272652566432953,
-0.5255125761032104,
0.6996209621429443,
0.15967883169651031,
-0.2944372594356537,
0.6094217300415039,
0.24708902835845947,
-0.15122807025909424,
0.027780359610915184,
0.1690419614315033,
-0.08785030245780945,
0.33601948618888855,
-0.18231581151485443,
-0.04937279596924782,
1.2059272527694702,
-0.7873326539993286,
-0.27389952540397644,
0.5389921069145203,
-0.3717891275882721,
0.18524107336997986,
0.06135972589254379,
-0.2422710508108139,
0.24197746813297272,
0.2518438994884491,
0.053577784448862076,
0.07503000646829605,
0.776454508304596,
-0.27996841073036194,
0.13492664694786072,
0.3452411890029907,
0.4106060862541199,
-0.05785282701253891,
-0.59836745262146,
-0.66103595495224,
0.9244364500045776,
-0.3242160379886627,
0.141272634267807,
0.11061835289001465,
-0.9748119115829468,
-0.14120224118232727,
0.1842532753944397,
-0.26593321561813354,
0.9813874959945679,
0.07229333370923996,
-0.16293413937091827,
-0.7313851118087769,
0.27268120646476746,
-0.5079119801521301,
0.5246529579162598,
0.05472341552376747,
-0.42914140224456787,
0.4042435586452484,
0.3161770701408386,
0.4349660277366638,
-0.4897463917732239,
0.12822340428829193,
0.37217429280281067,
0.6925040483474731,
-0.4677034020423889,
-0.7306059002876282,
-0.4576619267463684,
-0.5775613784790039,
0.20951774716377258,
0.3380953371524811,
0.4507942795753479,
-0.4328532814979553,
-0.642271101474762,
0.04275916516780853,
-0.9631648659706116,
0.5437455177307129,
0.7630288004875183,
0.6973937749862671,
-0.3767845034599304,
-0.20692065358161926,
0.43263182044029236,
0.47232291102409363,
-0.19562625885009766,
0.7884385585784912,
0.09191860258579254,
-0.008700012229382992,
0.011203862726688385,
-0.5349909067153931,
0.34748587012290955,
-0.28512004017829895,
-0.5053637027740479,
0.16066235303878784,
-0.2325366884469986,
-0.7955214381217957,
0.3337240517139435,
0.2283426970243454,
-0.40184199810028076,
0.7491421699523926,
-0.45233944058418274,
-0.5092728137969971,
0.37160247564315796,
-0.9034663438796997,
0.4207810163497925,
-0.3935847878456116,
1.0724726915359497,
0.8060410022735596,
-0.6442296504974365,
-0.45938509702682495,
0.7171716094017029,
-0.34870636463165283,
0.5800645351409912,
-0.07763200253248215,
0.43265780806541443,
0.048131488263607025,
0.6184418797492981,
-1.2045996189117432,
0.5169031620025635,
-0.14567820727825165,
0.2871466279029846,
-0.2494848221540451,
0.6282819509506226,
0.38427412509918213,
-0.2566944658756256,
0.09492350369691849,
-0.39779049158096313,
-0.649206280708313,
0.032338399440050125,
0.17749693989753723,
-0.20877885818481445,
-0.20280060172080994,
-0.23818787932395935,
0.43328890204429626,
-0.21841470897197723,
-0.07310670614242554,
0.2810734808444977,
-0.6217052936553955,
0.7638464570045471,
-0.2467639446258545,
0.23089134693145752,
-0.5593814253807068,
-0.7962056994438171,
0.41141456365585327,
0.17803111672401428,
0.29376378655433655,
1.3296936750411987,
0.34987673163414,
-0.43288952112197876,
0.3226288855075836,
-0.4024295210838318,
-0.20281784236431122,
-0.27074867486953735,
-0.0699826255440712,
-0.23732686042785645,
0.15933482348918915,
-0.5516872406005859,
0.15091243386268616,
0.5125914216041565,
0.29410433769226074,
0.0071777538396418095,
0.272278755903244,
-0.8263447284698486,
0.21797700226306915,
-0.9808564186096191,
-0.18030257523059845,
-0.2435804158449173,
0.38092195987701416,
0.07501283288002014
] |
260990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20Tour%20de%20France | 2003 Tour de France | The 2003 Tour de France was a multiple stage bicycle race held from 5 to 27 July, and the 90th edition of the Tour de France. It has no overall winner—although American cyclist Lance Armstrong originally won the event, the United States Anti-Doping Agency announced in August 2012 that they had disqualified Armstrong from all his results since 1998, including his seven Tour de France wins from 1999 to 2005; the Union Cycliste Internationale has confirmed this verdict.
The event started and ended in Paris, covering proceeding clockwise in twenty stages around France, including six major mountain stages. Due to the centennial celebration, this edition of the tour was raced entirely in France and did not enter neighboring countries.
In the centenary year of the race the route recreated, in part, that of 1903. There was a special Centenaire Classement prize for the best-placed in each of the six stage finishes which match the 1903 tour - Lyon, Marseille, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Nantes and Paris. It was won by Stuart O'Grady, with Thor Hushovd in second place. The 2003 Tour was honored with the Prince of Asturias Award for Sport.
Of the 198 riders the favourite was again Armstrong, aiming for a record equalling fifth win. Before the race, it was believed that his main rivals would include Iban Mayo, Aitor González, Tyler Hamilton, Ivan Basso, Gilberto Simoni, Jan Ullrich, and Joseba Beloki but Armstrong was the odds-on favourite. Though he did go on to win the race, it is statistically, and by Armstrong's own admission, his weakest Tour from his seven-year period of dominance over the race.
Teams
The team selection was done in three rounds: in November 2002, the fourteen highest-ranking Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) teams would automatically qualify; four wildcard invitations were given in January 2003, and four more in mid-May. The race started with 22 teams of 9 cyclists.
The teams entering the race were:
Qualified teams
Invited teams
Pre-race favourites
Some notable cyclists excluded from the race were Mario Cipollini and Marco Pantani, whose teams and were not selected. Especially the absence of Cipollini, the reigning world champion, came as a surprise. The Tour organisation gave the reason that Cipollini had never been able to finish the race.
In the first round, the Coast team had been selected to compete, and in January 2003 they signed Jan Ullrich. Financial problems then almost prevented the team from starting, but after Bianchi stepped in as a new sponsor, Team Bianchi was allowed to take the place of Team Coast.
Route and stages
The highest point of elevation in the race was at the summit of the Col du Galibier mountain pass on stage 8.
Race overview
The Tour proved to be one more hotly contested than the previous years. Tyler Hamilton and Levi Leipheimer were involved in a crash early in the Tour. Leipheimer dropped out, Hamilton continued and got fourth place in the end while riding with a broken collarbone.
In the Alps, Gilberto Simoni and Stefano Garzelli, first and second in the Giro d'Italia earlier the same year, could not keep up with Lance Armstrong and the other favourites. The same held for last year's number 4, Santiago Botero. Joseba Beloki could, and was in second-place overall (just 40 seconds behind Armstrong) when he crashed on a fast descent from the Cote de La Rochette, shortly after passing the Col de Manse into Gap. The crash was a result of a locked brake, caused by a lack of traction from melting tar on the road, which led to the tyre coming off the rim. Beloki broke his right femur, elbow and wrist, and had to leave the Tour. Armstrong made a detour through the field beside the road to avoid the fallen Beloki. Armstrong was in yellow, but Jan Ullrich won the first time trial by one minute and 36 seconds. He and Alexander Vinokourov were both within very short distance from Armstrong.
Doping
Subsequent to Armstrong's statement to withdraw his fight against United States Anti-Doping Agency's (USADA) charges, on 24 August 2012, the USADA said it would ban Armstrong for life and stripped him of his record seven Tour de France titles. Later that day it was confirmed in a USADA statement that Armstrong was banned for life and would be disqualified from any and all competitive results obtained on and subsequent to 1 August 1998, including forfeiture of any medals, titles, winnings, finishes, points and prizes. On 22 October 2012, the Union Cycliste Internationale endorsed the USADA sanctions, and decided not to award victories to any other rider or upgrade other placings in any of the affected events.
Classification leadership and minor prizes
There were four main individual classifications contested in the 2003 Tour de France, as well as a team competition. The most important was the general classification, which was calculated by adding each rider's finishing times on each stage. There were time bonuses given at the end of each mass start stage. If a crash had happened within the final of a stage, not including time trials and summit finishes, the riders involved would have received the same time as the group they were in when the crash occurred. The rider with the lowest cumulative time was the winner of the general classification and was considered the overall winner of the Tour. The rider leading the classification wore a yellow jersey.
The second classification was the points classification. Riders received points for finishing in the highest positions in a stage finish, or in intermediate sprints during the stage. The points available for each stage finish were determined by the stage's type. The leader was identified by a green jersey.
The third classification was the mountains classification. Most stages of the race included one or more categorised climbs, in which points were awarded to the riders that reached the summit first. The climbs were categorised as fourth-, third-, second- or first-category and hors catégorie, with the more difficult climbs rated lower. The leader wore a white jersey with red polka dots.
The final individual classification was the young rider classification. This was calculated the same way as the general classification, but the classification was restricted to riders who were born on or after 1 January 1977. The leader wore a white jersey.
The final classification was a team classification. This was calculated using the finishing times of the best three riders per team on each stage; the leading team was the team with the lowest cumulative time.
There was special classification, the Centenaire, which combined times of riders across the six stages involving cities visited during 1903 Tour. The cities were: Lyon, on stage 6; Marseille, on stage 10; Toulouse, on stage 11; Bordeaux, on stage 17; Nantes, on stage 19; and Paris, on stage 20.
In addition, there was a combativity award given after each mass start stage to the rider considered, by a jury, to have "shown the greatest effort and demonstrated the greatest sporting spirit". The winner wore a red number bib the following stage. At the conclusion of the Tour, Alexander Vinokourov () won the overall super-combativity award.
There were also two special awards each with a prize of €5000, the Souvenir Henri Desgrange, given in honour of Tour founder and first race director Henri Desgrange to the first rider to pass the summit of the Col du Galibier on stage 8, and the Souvenir Jacques Goddet, given in honour of the second director Jacques Goddet to the first rider to pass the summit of the Col du Tourmalet on stage 15. Stefano Garzelli won the Henri Desgrange and Sylvain Chavanel won the Jacques Goddet.
In stage 1, David Millar wore the green jersey.
In stage 8, Rolf Aldag wore the polka-dot jersey.
Final standings
General classification
Points classification
Mountains classification
Young rider classification
Team classification
Centenaire classification
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
2003 Tour de France at Cyclingnews.com
Tour de France 2003
Tour de France by year
Tour de France | [
-0.26153039932250977,
0.21091590821743011,
-0.19857850670814514,
0.31879228353500366,
-0.6029077768325806,
0.052485141903162,
0.6444054841995239,
0.4535338878631592,
-0.08879724144935608,
-0.19615663588047028,
0.454658567905426,
0.6925545930862427,
0.1292753368616104,
-0.015375482849776745,
-0.5530001521110535,
0.40594878792762756,
0.607401967048645,
-0.42614227533340454,
0.36232489347457886,
-0.7197303175926208,
0.05015914514660835,
-0.10560394078493118,
0.16446428000926971,
-0.15785712003707886,
-0.37472519278526306,
0.3698568046092987,
0.29179996252059937,
0.7659276723861694,
0.0024625540245324373,
-0.1484011709690094,
0.24517615139484406,
0.48149511218070984,
-0.45237964391708374,
-0.30912771821022034,
0.3507276773452759,
-0.12955407798290253,
0.35592395067214966,
-0.9017772078514099,
-0.14779497683048248,
-0.38130778074264526,
0.2799079120159149,
0.36618903279304504,
-0.16313442587852478,
1.0681326389312744,
-0.08574967831373215,
0.3324609100818634,
-1.6276251077651978,
-0.11172455549240112,
-0.3682921230792999,
-0.014625424519181252,
0.10704044997692108,
0.43132033944129944,
0.11994479596614838,
0.8086385130882263,
0.3097190260887146,
0.5320001244544983,
-0.4806516170501709,
-0.146781325340271,
-0.6467922925949097,
0.3888327181339264,
0.07635321468114853,
0.7356206178665161,
0.1010955423116684,
0.4131505489349365,
-0.30456554889678955,
-0.18226757645606995,
0.8077656030654907,
0.8262967467308044,
0.550764799118042,
-0.5732170343399048,
0.19001376628875732,
-0.44472697377204895,
-0.059919457882642746,
0.08485207706689835,
-0.15393875539302826,
-1.1956626176834106,
0.053116727620363235,
-0.47531428933143616,
-0.6155658960342407,
-0.3379623591899872,
-0.4235175848007202,
-0.6791135668754578,
0.7926351428031921,
-0.022829335182905197,
0.22519974410533905,
0.24594825506210327,
-0.11887350678443909,
-0.43763837218284607,
-0.6747648119926453,
-0.16207855939865112,
-0.8977031111717224,
-0.3882438838481903,
0.057344838976860046,
-0.011123895645141602,
0.5909226536750793,
0.14719577133655548,
-0.3902067542076111,
0.4632558226585388,
0.5707667469978333,
0.13432453572750092,
0.5886420607566833,
0.47888001799583435,
0.013096692971885204,
0.134511798620224,
-0.5324180126190186,
-0.3948751986026764,
0.003868597326800227,
-1.6037051677703857,
-0.5024951100349426,
0.25625354051589966,
-0.2626264691352844,
0.13999609649181366,
-0.26088064908981323,
0.2750852704048157,
0.9175819158554077,
0.7393539547920227,
-0.1555374264717102,
-0.17988494038581848,
-0.5193890929222107,
0.3324488699436188,
-0.4245206117630005,
-0.1470850110054016,
0.10720016062259674,
0.2684166729450226,
-0.12845078110694885,
0.8897746801376343,
-0.13068623840808868,
0.4646359384059906,
-0.22566014528274536,
0.16229669749736786,
0.12480639666318893,
0.7211130857467651,
-0.21827659010887146,
-0.32784923911094666,
-0.07615332305431366,
0.028361491858959198,
0.6821237206459045,
0.2674170434474945,
-0.17513293027877808,
0.06481771171092987,
0.007200691383332014,
-0.12006343901157379,
-0.8504591584205627,
0.05837894231081009,
0.019362278282642365,
0.1316295713186264,
-0.10282201319932938,
-0.8352036476135254,
0.175399050116539,
-0.2853938341140747,
0.6300978064537048,
0.2247559279203415,
-0.1754816174507141,
-0.0994650274515152,
0.24147462844848633,
1.436061143875122,
0.024703996255993843,
0.4374821186065674,
-0.12291419506072998,
0.2848082482814789,
0.35571521520614624,
0.23736993968486786,
0.22511650621891022,
0.004742851480841637,
0.7201635241508484,
0.021824821829795837,
-0.08169945329427719,
-0.05424792692065239,
1.0005390644073486,
-0.3410889506340027,
-0.4813409745693207,
0.18929558992385864,
0.03607722371816635,
-0.6260316967964172,
0.005292386282235384,
0.4812999963760376,
1.314389944076538,
0.47730064392089844,
-0.1627984195947647,
0.1321883648633957,
-0.8082683682441711,
0.2484028935432434,
0.6984685063362122,
-0.1463489979505539,
1.143149971961975,
0.061685532331466675,
0.3561897873878479,
0.8074550628662109,
-0.3806869685649872,
0.22407935559749603,
-0.05187340825796127,
-0.6431472301483154,
0.7208164930343628,
-1.0448116064071655,
1.3790802955627441,
0.43296533823013306,
0.3760005831718445,
0.48213309049606323,
0.06292598694562912,
0.647412121295929,
-0.323153555393219,
0.26496103405952454,
0.7328950762748718,
-0.41955292224884033,
0.09694289416074753,
-0.16936764121055603,
-0.08494384586811066,
-1.1063048839569092,
-0.13658949732780457,
1.3783469200134277,
-0.40787458419799805,
-0.27362966537475586,
-0.0023148248437792063,
0.6133655905723572,
-0.631995439529419,
-0.35797375440597534,
0.3713436424732208,
0.870896577835083,
0.4475819766521454,
0.31241512298583984,
0.28130802512168884,
0.03940262645483017,
-0.4825667142868042,
0.9600175619125366,
-0.25144320726394653,
0.821401059627533,
-0.3410974144935608,
0.3479485511779785,
0.23490986227989197,
-0.1689186990261078,
-1.086880087852478,
1.1552788019180298,
0.3951736092567444,
-0.4454765319824219,
0.005123366601765156,
-0.009770075790584087,
-0.10976514220237732,
-1.1052242517471313,
-0.19162268936634064,
-0.06025569513440132,
0.2986438274383545,
-0.37009215354919434,
-0.5561009645462036,
0.43396109342575073,
-0.017587067559361458,
0.2937800884246826,
-0.12602056562900543,
0.5873335599899292,
-0.26425421237945557,
-0.9204477071762085,
0.11905813217163086,
-0.33769237995147705,
0.6740107536315918,
-0.21387624740600586,
-0.22559837996959686,
-0.14232824742794037,
0.2263411283493042,
-0.669603168964386,
0.13246940076351166,
0.710163950920105,
-0.27199825644493103,
-0.4735484719276428,
0.14595425128936768,
0.6626082062721252,
0.2784017324447632,
-1.1464108228683472,
-0.37142568826675415,
-0.38379013538360596,
-0.18210692703723907,
-0.04979001358151436,
-0.6199629306793213,
-0.10238928347826004,
-0.12202838808298111,
0.14079800248146057,
0.5610314011573792,
-0.05627875402569771,
-0.973651647567749,
0.788882851600647,
-0.26620200276374817,
0.024533601477742195,
-0.20050661265850067,
1.4121184349060059,
0.37473565340042114,
-0.007198058534413576,
-0.5117027759552002,
0.4867565929889679,
-0.3962898850440979,
-0.4702349901199341,
-0.07658617943525314,
-0.0028586098924279213,
0.3281683325767517,
0.38797178864479065,
-0.5799498558044434,
-0.04530395194888115,
-0.12547147274017334,
-0.24790436029434204,
-0.6424015164375305,
-0.6376744508743286,
-0.12272819876670837,
0.0908685103058815,
0.060680098831653595,
0.7174184918403625,
-0.36764636635780334,
0.06383371353149414,
0.7503494620323181,
-0.43334588408470154,
-0.9569495320320129,
-0.2152402549982071,
-4.729015350341797,
-0.20632199943065643,
0.4529419243335724,
-0.17151542007923126,
-0.5796714425086975,
0.07699530571699142,
0.3646828830242157,
-0.18128463625907898,
-0.31103789806365967,
0.09830248355865479,
0.15760864317417145,
0.16677750647068024,
-0.5849390625953674,
1.0077614784240723,
0.4860130548477173,
-0.300733745098114,
0.8724645376205444,
-0.3223104774951935,
1.0161268711090088,
0.2373373806476593,
0.2461574375629425,
-0.2653319835662842,
-0.01357983611524105,
-0.5002971291542053,
-0.07365880161523819,
0.22660554945468903,
-0.14359624683856964,
0.027155639603734016,
-0.9537995457649231,
0.060992129147052765,
-0.06960847228765488,
0.34803637862205505,
0.14210887253284454,
0.5784386396408081,
-0.22043634951114655,
-0.05933501571416855,
0.04872928559780121,
-0.05577319860458374,
-0.17400731146335602,
-0.49167725443840027,
-0.20323681831359863,
0.7637552618980408,
0.26732975244522095,
0.03761987015604973,
0.34812551736831665,
-0.2872295677661896,
0.01854320615530014,
0.4179251492023468,
0.2571983337402344,
1.1983799934387207,
0.4749212861061096,
-0.07344327867031097,
0.024757303297519684,
0.2131788730621338,
0.13596363365650177,
-0.6001655459403992,
0.2556440234184265,
-0.29835471510887146,
0.09623980522155762,
0.2048654705286026,
0.2591555118560791,
-0.4474070370197296,
0.4520280063152313,
-1.6935256719589233,
0.10630469769239426,
-0.18011610209941864,
-0.6228439807891846,
0.24190305173397064,
-0.3172312080860138,
0.6601572036743164,
-0.40264785289764404,
0.39668431878089905,
-0.6752816438674927,
-0.8625122308731079,
0.17524616420269012,
0.13216134905815125,
-0.2856762707233429,
0.14605145156383514,
0.1903262585401535,
-0.4061700701713562,
0.12443573027849197,
-0.214092418551445,
-0.3667060136795044,
-0.11055658757686615,
0.31059008836746216,
-0.48364198207855225,
0.21446888148784637,
0.3625585734844208,
0.009240235202014446,
-0.5554127097129822,
0.9523351192474365,
-0.11631529033184052,
0.3229060173034668,
0.4912509620189667,
-0.4523053765296936,
0.17982983589172363,
-0.014948314055800438,
0.5017784833908081,
0.2853626310825348,
-1.1047314405441284,
0.23075507581233978,
0.014251135289669037,
0.9958829879760742,
0.29605352878570557,
-0.4044376313686371,
-0.5133863091468811,
-0.3868236541748047,
-0.40944722294807434,
0.2631807029247284,
0.5486713647842407,
-0.10753711313009262,
-0.44339519739151,
-0.7612084746360779,
-0.002935925731435418,
-0.07312973588705063,
-0.27324140071868896,
-0.12882231175899506,
0.14631910622119904,
0.3721901774406433,
0.35676950216293335,
0.11617758125066757,
0.5478774905204773,
-0.10995737463235855,
0.1356929987668991,
1.7149802446365356,
0.3461640179157257,
-0.282730370759964,
0.2653532922267914,
-0.17654305696487427,
0.5975524187088013,
0.7700400948524475,
0.33245164155960083,
0.31079065799713135,
0.16195359826087952,
0.6690390110015869,
-0.20316334068775177,
-0.7677099704742432,
-0.44410425424575806,
-0.04568740725517273,
0.21955059468746185,
0.2878679633140564,
0.06466320902109146,
-0.39369386434555054,
-0.08477809280157089,
0.12066429853439331,
0.008271233178675175,
-0.37401747703552246,
-0.7956954836845398,
0.1715286672115326,
1.2151724100112915,
-0.41785886883735657,
0.31037434935569763,
-0.10930513590574265,
-0.3991258144378662,
-0.29431894421577454,
0.5339279770851135,
-0.022556975483894348,
0.11407320946455002,
-0.11934259533882141,
-1.2626363039016724,
0.20083826780319214,
-0.47560158371925354,
-0.4841383397579193,
0.6435540914535522,
0.7110786437988281,
-0.6082202792167664,
-0.23522499203681946,
-0.9392765164375305,
-0.7175431251525879,
0.39166343212127686,
0.26510053873062134,
-0.23933374881744385,
-0.811028242111206,
0.03817617520689964,
0.09001170843839645,
-0.15133878588676453,
0.003347489284351468,
0.33409935235977173,
-0.43007326126098633,
-0.9774771928787231,
-0.029889080673456192,
0.10047931969165802,
-0.23228339850902557,
0.05584929138422012,
0.8678268790245056,
-0.7028749585151672,
-0.5466031432151794,
0.18015924096107483,
0.48726531863212585,
-0.6790982484817505,
0.7816643118858337,
0.3422410488128662,
0.002789254765957594,
0.4381333291530609,
-0.44523799419403076,
-1.0679295063018799,
0.30613481998443604,
0.07934803515672684,
0.258598655462265,
-0.12515300512313843,
-0.3603006601333618,
0.2557995617389679,
-0.14354446530342102,
0.625931441783905,
0.3952937424182892,
-0.6620715856552124,
0.5038384795188904,
0.34452587366104126,
-0.06773902475833893,
0.1407136470079422,
-0.4275939166545868,
-0.8928208351135254,
-0.4019659161567688,
-0.3884730637073517,
-0.7498114705085754,
0.12024139612913132,
0.35254237055778503,
-0.44440987706184387,
-0.9547157883644104,
0.3262895941734314,
-0.8942649960517883,
-0.8770958185195923,
-0.9726122617721558,
-0.9104285836219788,
-0.9534217715263367,
-0.18686509132385254,
0.745624840259552,
-0.027814658358693123,
-0.013008608482778072,
-0.6962454915046692,
0.3469148874282837,
0.1416303813457489,
-0.09866269677877426,
-0.3624388873577118,
0.2048829197883606,
-0.7771859169006348,
0.344035267829895,
0.17842257022857666,
0.2611892521381378,
0.16952739655971527,
0.5223053693771362,
0.9473350644111633,
0.35965248942375183,
-0.7514942288398743,
0.13805146515369415,
-0.15480342507362366,
0.07572628557682037,
-0.5394341945648193,
-0.07035792618989944,
0.15068188309669495,
-0.28264573216438293,
0.0030482280999422073,
-1.0224146842956543,
-0.4764699637889862,
0.35783708095550537,
-0.17047280073165894,
-0.7464901804924011,
-0.3027562201023102,
0.36176127195358276,
0.17177614569664001,
0.007976091466844082,
-0.29962512850761414,
-0.5795358419418335,
-0.16498878598213196,
0.6081039309501648,
-0.007751442026346922,
-0.08679892867803574,
-0.17991165816783905,
-0.36109215021133423,
-0.2458697110414505,
-0.1466047316789627,
-0.49834850430488586,
-0.385190486907959,
0.4503544270992279,
-0.19599463045597076,
-0.2566528022289276,
-0.20420973002910614,
-0.8168817758560181,
0.5007868409156799,
0.11221671104431152,
-0.445254921913147,
0.168767049908638,
-0.1227300688624382,
0.7787511348724365,
-0.4403972625732422,
-0.38419032096862793,
-0.8408867120742798,
0.3640457093715668,
-0.32084178924560547,
0.26822370290756226,
0.3784332275390625,
-0.3723914325237274,
-0.5218266844749451,
-0.2282852977514267,
0.06800316274166107,
0.3673943281173706,
-0.2303641140460968,
0.5306507349014282,
-0.6173494458198547,
0.9291889667510986,
-0.39201620221138,
0.5387075543403625,
0.8254496455192566,
-0.6519796252250671,
-0.20127587020397186,
0.2057565599679947,
0.6966950297355652,
-0.024521363899111748,
0.5610154271125793,
0.43372687697410583,
0.42253655195236206,
0.33225059509277344,
-0.2950364351272583,
0.633829653263092,
-0.9579861164093018,
0.23990574479103088,
0.2971391975879669,
-0.7743465304374695,
0.24002397060394287,
-0.030400218442082405,
0.07663585990667343,
0.3799012303352356,
0.13159309327602386,
-0.2649564743041992,
0.22675436735153198,
1.465559482574463,
-0.22864001989364624,
-0.45346105098724365,
0.12795846164226532,
-0.13919556140899658,
0.6789896488189697,
-0.16291207075119019,
-0.8262218832969666,
0.46627819538116455,
-0.24802260100841522,
0.15384364128112793,
-0.1929061859846115,
-0.5687483549118042,
-0.044105976819992065,
-0.30725720524787903,
0.33432161808013916,
-0.10267794877290726,
-0.2823657691478729,
0.2031596302986145,
0.5420555472373962,
0.3675086200237274,
-0.24846412241458893,
-0.4067910313606262,
0.6447447538375854,
-0.1775895655155182,
0.5662423372268677,
0.18671919405460358,
0.22678373754024506,
-0.562248706817627,
0.13960663974285126,
-0.09856197237968445,
0.1369187980890274,
0.1026124358177185,
-0.2812426686286926,
0.42675524950027466,
1.112396001815796,
-0.2289155125617981,
0.464165598154068,
-0.09951482713222504,
-0.6033082008361816,
0.29881551861763,
-0.1580396145582199,
0.26950931549072266,
-0.27450335025787354,
0.8207827210426331,
-0.10377837717533112,
0.04158410057425499,
-0.409382164478302,
-0.5191683769226074,
-0.1628093421459198,
-0.2649843394756317,
0.3504239618778229,
-0.3965314030647278,
-0.5165442824363708,
0.25452888011932373,
-0.19836117327213287,
0.03125038743019104,
-0.19720394909381866,
-0.7680391073226929,
-0.6223677396774292,
0.23909738659858704,
-0.20338618755340576,
0.2476143091917038,
0.024437190964818,
-0.3080849349498749,
0.3985957205295563,
-0.5129420161247253,
-0.2526843249797821,
-0.7021278142929077,
-1.1435848474502563,
-0.4641607403755188,
0.04061410203576088,
0.6573446989059448,
0.33118313550949097,
-0.35663720965385437,
-0.04041961580514908,
-0.10773245245218277,
-0.4089093506336212,
0.8104697465896606,
-0.13600677251815796,
0.41967812180519104,
-0.6085448861122131,
0.04392290860414505,
-0.30696290731430054,
-0.022057875990867615,
0.2299743890762329,
0.26819610595703125,
0.2330128401517868,
0.40442022681236267,
-0.40964239835739136,
-0.19691866636276245,
0.4583059251308441,
-0.10595349967479706,
-0.2210242748260498,
0.13327839970588684,
-0.40411633253097534,
0.3863254487514496,
-0.1244945302605629,
0.7034536004066467,
-0.16472528874874115,
0.21343475580215454,
0.16799813508987427,
-0.5095487236976624,
0.16166959702968597,
0.4119367003440857,
0.7131686806678772,
-0.2865690588951111,
-0.7868332862854004,
-0.6434133052825928,
-0.5536490678787231,
-0.9304625988006592,
0.8664190769195557,
0.05624895915389061,
0.49965161085128784,
0.4353255331516266,
0.06992558389902115,
-0.6484892964363098,
0.26700901985168457,
0.03900466859340668,
-0.5484974384307861,
-0.7957332730293274,
0.3896470069885254,
-0.019387098029255867,
-0.3432975113391876,
-0.06783252954483032,
0.6946713924407959,
0.5398856997489929,
0.1323762834072113,
-0.7576301693916321,
0.3059278726577759,
-0.07747682929039001,
0.06932621449232101,
-0.9960976243019104,
0.2985600531101227,
-0.13628755509853363
] |
260992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashby%20de%20la%20Zouch%20Castle | Ashby de la Zouch Castle | Ashby de la Zouch Castle is a ruined fortification in the town of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire, England. The castle was built by William, Lord Hastings, a favourite of Edward IV, after 1473, accompanied by the creation of a park. Constructed on the site of an older manor house, two large towers and various smaller buildings had been constructed by 1483, when Hastings was executed by Richard, Duke of Gloucester. The Hastings family used the castle as their seat for several generations, improving the gardens and hosting royal visitors.
During the English Civil War of the 1640s, Henry, a younger son in the Hastings family, became a Royalist commander in the Midlands. He based himself out of the castle until he was forced to surrender it after a long siege. A fresh rebellion occurred in 1648, leading Parliament to slight the castle in order to prevent it being used militarily: the two towers were badly damaged with gunpowder and undermining. Parts of the remaining castle were turned into a new house and continued to be used by members of the Hastings family for many years, although they moved their main residence to Donington Hall.
The castle became famous after it featured in Sir Walter Scott's novel Ivanhoe in 1819, and its owner, Francis Rawdon, opened the ruins to visitors. Restoration work was carried out over the course of the next century, but by 1932 the Rawdon family could no longer afford to maintain the castle. It passed into the guardianship of the Ministry of Works, who carried out extensive repairs and opened the castle gardens. In the 21st century, the castle is managed by English Heritage as a tourist attraction, receiving 15,164 visitors in 2015. The historian John Goodall considers the site to be an "outstanding example of a late medieval castle", with its grounds forming "one of the best-preserved and most important" examples of an early Tudor garden.
History
11th–15th centuries
A manor had existed at Ashby-de-la-Zouch from at least 1086, when the location was known as Ascebi. The lands were acquired by Robert de Beaumont, the Count of Meulan and later Earl of Leicester, in 1100. He established the Belmeis family there as his tenants and, after the Belmeis family line died out in 1160, the earls of Leicester reassigned the estate to the le Zouch family, from whom the manor took its later name.
At some point during this period, a manor house was constructed on the same site as the later castle, with a hall and a solar. A settlement grew up alongside the house and, by 1334, the town was probably the sixth-largest in the county. By the mid-1300s, the manor house reportedly included a hall, a chamber, a long house containing service facilities, and was surrounded by a dovecote, orchard and a rabbit warren, accompanied by a deer park. The hall and solar were rebuilt by the le Zouches during the second half of the 14th century, but the building remained what the historian Norman Pounds has called a "rather modest manor house".
The le Zouch line died out in 1399, leaving the inheritance of the family estates uncertain. The manor probably passed to Sir Hugh Burnell and, around 1420, onto James Butler, the Earl of Ormond and Wiltshire. The Wars of the Roses broke out in England during 1455 between the rival supporters of the Lancastrian and Yorkist factions. James, a Lancastrian, was captured at the Battle of Towton by the Yorkist leader Edward IV in 1461 and executed; the Crown seized his estates, including the manor of Ashby de la Zouch.
Ashby de la Zouch was converted into a castle by William, Lord Hastings, a favourite of Edward IV; as a minor nobleman he had fought alongside Edward at Towton, but was then knighted and later became the chamberlain of the royal household and the Lieutenant of Calais. William acquired extensive estates across the Midlands during the wars, much of them confiscated from his enemies. Amongst these was Ashby de la Zouch, which was given to William in 1462. His father, Sir Leonard, had maintained the family seat at nearby Kirby Muxloe, but after 1471 William began to use Ashby de la Zouch as his primary residence.
In 1474, Edward granted William the right to crenellate, or fortify, four of his manors and to build deer parks around them. William set about developing the old manorial complex at Ashby de la Zouch with new buildings, and was authorised to create a huge park around it. His intent appears to have been to construct a substantial castle, similar to the royal fortifications at Tutbury and Nottingham, with four huge towers. Work appears to have already started on the site the year before permission was formally given, although it is uncertain whether this referred to the construction of the castle's chapel, or if William had already begun work on the first tower, gambling that the King would subsequently approve it.
Edward IV died in 1483, leaving the kingdom to his young son, Edward V, but his uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, had his own ambitions for the throne. Lord Hastings was unwilling to support the deposition of Edward V and, as a consequence, Richard summarily executed him that June, ahead of his own coronation. Ashby de la Zouch Castle, only partially completed, and Lord Hastings' other estates were then restored to his widow, Katherine.
16th–17th centuries
The castle passed to William's son, Edward Hastings, who appears to have spent little time at the property, although he hosted a visit from Henry VIII in 1503. It was then inherited by his son, George, who was a royal favourite of Henry VIII and made the Earl of Huntington in 1529, which led to him rebuilding parts of the castle in brick and redesigning the gardens. Henry Hastings inherited the castle in 1560, where he maintained a household of 77 servants. Henry Hastings used it to imprison Mary Queen of Scots in 1569 after she was accused of plotting against Elizabeth I, although he spent most of his time at York, where he led the Council of the North.
It passed onto his younger brother, George, who entertained Queen Anne, Princess Elizabeth, and Prince Henry there on 22 June 1603. The Countess of Derby was welcomed in August 1607 with the Masque at Ashby Castle. His grandson, Henry hosted James I three times between 1612 and 1617, and Charles I in 1634. The gardens were redeveloped, probably to provide a suitable venue for these royal visits. By now, however, several generations of excessive expenditure meant that the family estates had been much diminished, and the family was having trouble maintaining their lavish lifestyle and former prominence in the region.
In 1642, the English Civil War broke out between the supporters of Charles I and Parliament. Henry Hasting briefly joined the royalist cause before his death in 1643, but his eldest son Ferdinando, who inherited the family earldom, remained neutral during the conflict. Ferdinando's younger brother Henry, however, became a key Royalist commander in the Midlands. The castle was strategically well-placed, linking the Royalist territories in the north and the west of England, and giving easy access to the River Trent. Henry used the castle as his base of operations across the region, protecting it by establishing smaller outposts near Donnington and Shardlow. Buildings in the town of Ashby de la Zouch were pulled down to provide materiel to refortify the castle and town, tunnels were dug and an "Irish fort" constructed to help protect the castle.
In early 1643, Parliament placed Newark under siege, and the garrison at Ashby was sent to relieve it. As part of a larger force under Prince Rupert, they forced the surrender of the Parliamentary force. By late 1644, the war turned against the King, and the Parliamentary forces based at nearby Coleorton had contained the garrison in the castle. King Charles passed through the castle in May 1645 on his way to besiege Leicester, but the following month his forces were defeated at the Battle of Naseby; the King briefly stayed at the castle once again as he retreated west. By now, the Royalist cause was largely lost.
Henry returned to the castle from Leicester in September, where another 600 Royalist soldiers soon joined him and its 60-man garrison, carrying out raids on Parliamentary convoys and the garrison at Coleorton. Plague broke out at the end of the year, forcing the besiegers to retreat to Leicester, while the garrison temporarily abandoned the castle buildings and occupied the neighbouring park. Once the epidemic passed, Parliament began to raid the town and Henry worked through Ferdinando to agree the surrender of the castle on good terms: this was achieved in February 1646, and allowed for the release of himself, the garrison and their weapons.
In May 1648, a Royalist rebellion broke out in Kent. There were fresh Parliamentary concerns about Henry Hastings and fears grew that he might reoccupy Ashby de la Zouch Castle. Lord Grey – a rival of the Hastings family in Leicestershire – was put in charge of the castle in August, which was used to hold Royalist prisoners, including James Hamilton, the Duke of Hamilton. Parliamentary worries about the security of the castle persisted and, possibly because of Henry's involvement in the recent rebellion, William Bainbrigg was ordered in November to slight the castle to put it beyond military use. He carried out his orders immediately, demolishing one side of the Great Tower and the Kitchen Tower, undermining the foundations and deploying gunpowder charges.
The Hastings family suffered financially as a result of the war, and Ferdinando was imprisoned for debt in 1653. The family moved to Donington Hall, although some of the remains of the castle were repaired to form a house called Ashby Place, which lay on the north side of the site in the old outer court. Selina Hastings, the Countess of Huntingdon, lived there after 1746. With the deterioration of the castle and the departure of the Hastings, the neighbouring town also fell into decline. With the death of Francis Hastings in 1789, the castle was inherited by Francis Rawdon, who later became the Earl of Moira.
18th–21st centuries
In 1819, Sir Walter Scott's novel Ivanhoe featured a scene involving a tournament at Ashby de la Zouch Castle; the novel was immensely popular and made the location famous. Edward Mammatt, Francis Rawdon's agent, repaired the castle ruins and opened them to visitors, whom Rawdon hoped to attract to the Ivanhoe Baths which he opened nearby. Ashby Place, which had become used as a House of Industry, was pulled down in 1830 and a new house, Ashby Manor, was built in its place. Work continued throughout the 19th century to repair the castle ruins, although they remained mostly covered in ivy.
A local architect, Thomas Fosbrooke, carried out the first archaeological investigation of the site in 1900, and extensive restoration work took place the following years. The Rawdon family were given a government grant for further repairs in 1912 and they began to start charging visitors for entry. The family found themselves unable to afford to maintain the castle, and by the early 1930s the walls had become unstable and dangerous. The castle was placed into the guardianship of the Ministry of Works in 1932, who carried out repairs, replacing some stonework and opening up the surrounding grounds to visitors.
In the 21st century, the castle is managed by English Heritage as a tourist attraction, receiving 15,164 visitors in 2015. An archaeological investigation of the castle gardens was carried out in 2006. The site is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and a scheduled monument.
Architecture and landscape
Architecture
The ruins of Ashby de la Zouch Castle are located close to the centre of the modern town, and comprise two large towers and associated buildings arranged around a court, with formal gardens to the south. Lord Hastings probably intended his castle to ultimately have four large towers, enclosing the interior buildings with a curtain wall to a regular design, but only half of these towers were completed by the time of his death. The outer court that lay to the north of the surviving complex has been lost; having been converted into first Ashby Place, and then Ashby Manor, it is now occupied by the Manor House Preparatory School. The historian John Goodall considers Ashby de la Zouch to form an "outstanding example of a late medieval castle".
The Kitchen Tower stands on the north-west corner of the castle and was intended to supply Lord Hasting's large household. The tower only had two storeys, as the ground floor kitchen had a very high, high vaulted ceiling, and its walls were thick and made of yellow sandstone. The well-lit kitchen had several hearths and an oven for cooking, a well and a cellar for storage. Above the kitchen was a large room, probably used as a winter parlour. One wall of the tower was slighted in 1648. An underground passage, probably dating from the English Civil War, links the Great Tower with the Kitchen Tower.
Alongside the tower, separated for fire safety by a roofed passageway, was a two-storey service range, including a buttery and pantry. The castle's Great Hall was adapted from the medieval original, and would originally have been subdivided by a line of arches. It was heated by a central heath and the lord and his guests would have eaten on a raised dais at the far end of the hall. The building was raised in height, given new windows and reroofed in the second half of the 17th century. The Great Chamber was a two-storey building, originally with a parlour on the ground level, with a chamber above it used for entertaining guests. Running north from the Great Chamber was a range of buildings used by the senior household staff.
The large chapel, and built of grey sandstone, lies alongside the Great Chamber, and would originally had an altar on a dais at the north end. One corner of the chapel remains in use as a burial site by the modern Hastings family. An inner, or chapel, court would have been formed by a range of buildings, since lost, stretching between the chapel and the Great Tower. The historian Anthony Emery notes that the castle would have formed a "palace fortress", with the sizeable chapel and adjacent towers constituting symbols of Hastings' power and authority.
The Great Tower was a large structure of grey sandstone, tall, formed of a four-storey tower, internally, linked to a smaller seven-storey tower or turret, across. The ground floor contained the basement and the entrance-way, protected by a portcullis. The first floor held the kitchen, and had a fire-proof stone-vaulted roof. The upper floors consisted of a parlour and a separate great chamber for the lord, with a withdrawing chamber to one side, all with grander windows than the lower levels, with excellent views of the gardens and the parkland beyond. A treasure chamber, accessible only from the upper storeys using a ladder, was built into the first floor. Emery considers the "richness of the upper rooms and the tower's planning and design qualities" to be outstanding, and likens it to the Yellow Tower of Gwent at Raglan Castle.
Gardens and parkland
The current gardens to the south of the castle date from around 1530; they occupy , and include two sunken areas, separated by a walkway. The eastern area may have been intended to imitate defensive bastion works, and it originally featured a circular brick tower in the middle of it. The site would originally have had a brick wall running all the way around it, of which only the south-east edge survives. Two brick towers survive at the southern corners, one resembling a clover-leaf, the other with an octagonal design, and would have originally been used as banqueting houses. Beyond the gardens would have been an area planted with trees, called "the wilderness", and smaller compartmented garden and ponds. A triangular building called "the Mount" was built in the wilderness in the early 17th century, and is now a private house. John Goodall considers them to be "one of the best-preserved and most important early Tudor gardens in England".
The original park probably lay just to the south of the castle, incorporating the current gardens; it was probably expanded to around by William Hastings, and was later named the "Little Park". The original boundaries of the other two parks associated with castle to the north and west, Great Park and Prestop Park, are uncertain.
See also
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
List of castles in Leicestershire
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
English Heritage visitors' page
Castles in Leicestershire
Grade I listed buildings in Leicestershire
English Heritage sites in Leicestershire
Ruins in Leicestershire
Scheduled monuments in Leicestershire
Ashby-de-la-Zouch | [
-0.8329058289527893,
0.21104668080806732,
-0.3257245123386383,
-0.7889657020568848,
-0.13562144339084625,
0.5001148581504822,
1.0276929140090942,
0.006692124996334314,
-0.36679431796073914,
-0.09784790128469467,
-0.5130475163459778,
-0.011892464011907578,
-0.48261600732803345,
0.5318911671638489,
-0.8828912973403931,
0.09925990551710129,
0.25961628556251526,
0.48185768723487854,
0.42031505703926086,
-1.1346369981765747,
0.4927874505519867,
-0.8040465712547302,
-0.23613137006759644,
0.36366888880729675,
0.7008640766143799,
-0.015162848867475986,
0.6476035714149475,
-0.17909342050552368,
-0.08863676339387894,
-0.060159362852573395,
0.1856735795736313,
0.8858095407485962,
-0.16293923556804657,
-0.692832350730896,
-0.07148751616477966,
-0.06966128945350647,
0.11070819199085236,
-0.654543936252594,
-0.486790269613266,
-0.3670458495616913,
0.15878869593143463,
0.08628520369529724,
-0.4302592873573303,
0.30434882640838623,
-0.5013381242752075,
0.007239105179905891,
-1.0508278608322144,
0.11438415199518204,
-0.7402754426002502,
-0.26516127586364746,
-0.5571197271347046,
0.32563456892967224,
0.16486212611198425,
-0.2668282389640808,
0.47068095207214355,
0.431153804063797,
-1.0426957607269287,
-0.4157261252403259,
1.1611541509628296,
0.48513850569725037,
0.7300307750701904,
0.26815032958984375,
0.007548199035227299,
0.009007187560200691,
-0.3732963502407074,
-0.39407363533973694,
-0.30576276779174805,
0.18079622089862823,
-0.2811022698879242,
-0.47767263650894165,
-0.31373676657676697,
-0.04405399411916733,
0.6185569167137146,
0.22914186120033264,
-0.7432072758674622,
0.5523778200149536,
0.02217816561460495,
0.24359190464019775,
0.31082361936569214,
-0.573677659034729,
0.34194204211235046,
-0.10334683954715729,
1.1082525253295898,
-0.2861159145832062,
0.46923181414604187,
0.7363470792770386,
-1.1291372776031494,
0.1421668529510498,
-0.4193096160888672,
0.4826500415802002,
-0.6364054083824158,
0.01715373434126377,
-0.8367742300033569,
0.25262972712516785,
0.18460768461227417,
0.24762161076068878,
0.24861781299114227,
0.39257341623306274,
0.21791665256023407,
0.6942285895347595,
-0.2939974069595337,
0.30378928780555725,
0.6667414903640747,
-0.05233991891145706,
-0.4745309054851532,
-0.24062401056289673,
-0.6933826208114624,
-0.14096468687057495,
-0.5731881856918335,
-0.40870219469070435,
-0.6562376618385315,
0.6957264542579651,
-0.5035340189933777,
-0.0323830172419548,
-0.16676057875156403,
0.5581306219100952,
0.9940099716186523,
-0.07224983721971512,
-0.026867566630244255,
0.5508021116256714,
0.020592723041772842,
1.0192621946334839,
-0.5121694207191467,
0.5774180293083191,
0.32037070393562317,
0.0735907256603241,
0.5466506481170654,
0.22794653475284576,
-0.3114869296550751,
0.3722642660140991,
0.4619749188423157,
0.9465888142585754,
0.23390305042266846,
-0.17106761038303375,
-0.040413785725831985,
-0.45728522539138794,
0.4811721742153168,
-0.20706994831562042,
0.4441010653972626,
0.22811442613601685,
-1.0880473852157593,
-0.10752904415130615,
-0.25774532556533813,
0.11494976282119751,
0.6890409588813782,
0.38427355885505676,
-0.4462563693523407,
-0.5671221613883972,
0.35078495740890503,
-0.27657026052474976,
-0.33874550461769104,
-0.3733328580856323,
-0.655657947063446,
-0.24824675917625427,
-0.8631162047386169,
-0.37245669960975647,
0.2458520382642746,
-0.21306660771369934,
0.016314374282956123,
-0.09420490264892578,
-0.2358711212873459,
-0.27915477752685547,
0.17904607951641083,
0.452083945274353,
0.43465444445610046,
0.03384380787611008,
0.8394201397895813,
-0.17137721180915833,
-0.7072896957397461,
0.22857551276683807,
-0.8685644865036011,
0.14821843802928925,
0.5403022766113281,
-0.39508143067359924,
-0.11261830478906631,
0.10924722999334335,
1.5376067161560059,
0.7893040776252747,
0.6690983176231384,
-0.1521037369966507,
-0.8489141464233398,
-0.40380632877349854,
0.6229478120803833,
0.024013686925172806,
0.5506749749183655,
0.7928414344787598,
0.2304055243730545,
-1.1151436567306519,
-0.7211254835128784,
-0.307021826505661,
-0.6723694205284119,
-0.26131272315979004,
0.30813294649124146,
-0.34628966450691223,
1.022861123085022,
0.0945298820734024,
-0.01677369512617588,
0.37738701701164246,
0.011394488625228405,
1.0090391635894775,
0.2669041156768799,
-0.5318014621734619,
0.8971601128578186,
-0.33989477157592773,
-0.5448218584060669,
-0.3800800144672394,
0.0917067900300026,
-0.41396594047546387,
0.24435797333717346,
0.5291112661361694,
0.006757951807230711,
0.10679865628480911,
0.2589970529079437,
1.0918254852294922,
0.10422242432832718,
-0.423554003238678,
-0.14968763291835785,
-0.04092377424240112,
0.7057322263717651,
-1.103762149810791,
0.06166688725352287,
-0.02523282915353775,
-0.06653523445129395,
0.3951719403266907,
-0.5862411856651306,
0.7034540176391602,
0.2515186369419098,
-0.18294773995876312,
-0.1662043184041977,
-1.1887164115905762,
-0.174544095993042,
0.27224892377853394,
0.06791309267282486,
-0.395831435918808,
0.12045833468437195,
-0.01772155612707138,
-0.4756125509738922,
-0.07162895798683167,
0.03260580450296402,
-0.551855206489563,
0.23794522881507874,
0.256008505821228,
-0.35865023732185364,
0.4974595010280609,
0.2386038452386856,
0.727728545665741,
0.35657116770744324,
1.1018306016921997,
0.04986356943845749,
-0.572823166847229,
0.6064066886901855,
0.47589656710624695,
1.0369755029678345,
-0.017874278128147125,
0.4832340180873871,
-0.3946366608142853,
-0.0670110210776329,
0.18100205063819885,
-0.23750868439674377,
0.24973668158054352,
0.31726065278053284,
0.39101025462150574,
0.015392674133181572,
0.4799821972846985,
0.303676575422287,
-0.39537593722343445,
-0.1866481602191925,
-0.6482045650482178,
0.14588719606399536,
-0.45629313588142395,
0.2073718160390854,
-0.9439239501953125,
-0.22891367971897125,
-0.00839009415358305,
0.46368443965911865,
-0.0495787039399147,
-0.6454243659973145,
0.3333040177822113,
-0.33506420254707336,
0.48356467485427856,
0.7837823033332825,
0.8812358379364014,
-0.2033786177635193,
0.005973953753709793,
-0.23263929784297943,
-0.19954004883766174,
0.9542308449745178,
-0.6669914722442627,
-0.1839696168899536,
-0.2327423393726349,
-0.3526913821697235,
-0.13035817444324493,
-0.5550474524497986,
0.2836120128631592,
-0.2768634557723999,
0.42444929480552673,
-0.33823126554489136,
0.02859167382121086,
-0.12197889387607574,
0.0028288078028708696,
0.017779124900698662,
0.8213907480239868,
-0.5749909281730652,
0.3771655559539795,
0.219625785946846,
-0.21939349174499512,
0.23275847733020782,
-0.4515400528907776,
-4.4085283279418945,
0.22725462913513184,
0.5113398432731628,
-0.040804531425237656,
0.2711448073387146,
-0.09070820361375809,
0.444898396730423,
-0.514828085899353,
-0.48138442635536194,
-0.3528078496456146,
0.1010817289352417,
-0.17780724167823792,
-0.08957161009311676,
0.23536361753940582,
1.2162681818008423,
0.050975579768419266,
0.739648699760437,
-0.09640714526176453,
0.3250751495361328,
-0.10667967796325684,
-0.27420660853385925,
0.23057277500629425,
0.16355419158935547,
-0.00237322598695755,
-0.20087601244449615,
0.7208390235900879,
0.04965239763259888,
-0.6225476264953613,
-1.361464262008667,
-0.6937047243118286,
-0.2635071575641632,
-0.15325407683849335,
0.35286781191825867,
0.32682132720947266,
-1.0494667291641235,
0.9157190918922424,
0.08480484038591385,
0.7347540855407715,
1.0894087553024292,
-0.5843145251274109,
0.27061590552330017,
0.5998730659484863,
-0.11946339160203934,
0.42711782455444336,
0.6439014673233032,
-1.0588035583496094,
-1.072013020515442,
0.2612612545490265,
-0.2908068001270294,
1.1285079717636108,
-0.18542464077472687,
0.33547428250312805,
0.5596802830696106,
0.1528470814228058,
-0.5687494874000549,
0.05224194377660751,
0.5380588173866272,
-0.08812269568443298,
-0.08533959090709686,
0.7016668915748596,
-0.205417662858963,
-0.5492787957191467,
0.056286390870809555,
-0.10210335999727249,
0.18188369274139404,
-0.6485626101493835,
0.07640302926301956,
0.680724561214447,
-0.03994142264127731,
0.6271058320999146,
0.04860512912273407,
0.8693003058433533,
-0.25123241543769836,
-0.8388928771018982,
-0.05450848862528801,
-0.10804391652345657,
-0.5670376420021057,
-0.3061980903148651,
0.28004202246665955,
0.13361194729804993,
0.4409848153591156,
-0.4230917692184448,
-0.051947034895420074,
0.057786181569099426,
-0.024037254974246025,
-0.8512560725212097,
-0.0850309506058693,
0.5370897054672241,
-0.8215398192405701,
-0.576385498046875,
0.24161462485790253,
-0.5460823774337769,
0.16285134851932526,
0.7926201224327087,
-0.011222271248698235,
0.4823509752750397,
0.40521976351737976,
-0.48926839232444763,
0.4660862684249878,
-0.12889626622200012,
-0.28457361459732056,
-0.29830917716026306,
0.3976368308067322,
-0.7526831030845642,
-0.44021424651145935,
-0.035641200840473175,
-0.2926821708679199,
0.8282296657562256,
0.6179102063179016,
0.31634578108787537,
-0.0560617633163929,
-0.05309088155627251,
-0.13212572038173676,
-0.40531235933303833,
-0.08672995865345001,
-0.7706937193870544,
-0.3102448880672455,
0.46426764130592346,
0.3953729569911957,
-0.05264022573828697,
0.12244363129138947,
0.02308451570570469,
0.0023447470739483833,
-0.08930426836013794,
-0.631881594657898,
0.08553241193294525,
1.075726866722107,
0.3511764109134674,
-0.5614523887634277,
0.13092076778411865,
-0.7466169595718384,
0.28553617000579834,
-0.23483026027679443,
0.2163356989622116,
-0.35682883858680725,
-0.7180281281471252,
-0.18264377117156982,
-0.674802839756012,
-0.010327162221074104,
0.21424448490142822,
0.157883882522583,
0.07020087540149689,
0.2797122001647949,
0.27586978673934937,
-0.24369817972183228,
0.4274652600288391,
0.6500519514083862,
0.3206510841846466,
-0.6213793158531189,
0.5792649984359741,
-1.2655994892120361,
-0.20081539452075958,
0.6520225405693054,
-0.7117975354194641,
0.11052362620830536,
-0.15252484381198883,
0.41895759105682373,
0.8364253044128418,
-0.25574982166290283,
-0.48672357201576233,
0.4349416494369507,
0.44110897183418274,
-0.8147817254066467,
0.6132854223251343,
0.23409011960029602,
0.17380216717720032,
0.02439621090888977,
-0.3556482791900635,
-1.0171089172363281,
0.7628798484802246,
0.36625024676322937,
-0.556641697883606,
-0.6431527137756348,
-0.17900635302066803,
-0.10971784591674805,
-0.3312082588672638,
0.05456351488828659,
0.10033385455608368,
-0.10904694348573685,
-0.4530641734600067,
-0.2154594212770462,
0.18913200497627258,
0.035943325608968735,
0.8778296709060669,
0.22260600328445435,
-0.7786692976951599,
-0.5984076261520386,
0.1549241691827774,
0.29790037870407104,
-0.7254540920257568,
-0.16533178091049194,
-0.6927325129508972,
0.40347668528556824,
0.2901941239833832,
0.0017069610767066479,
-0.7485779523849487,
0.33805638551712036,
-0.028442544862627983,
0.23618155717849731,
-0.65608811378479,
-0.16166365146636963,
0.9360567331314087,
-0.3688604235649109,
0.8945915102958679,
0.6633585095405579,
-0.625981867313385,
0.0807795375585556,
0.5205073952674866,
-0.25005707144737244,
1.1685714721679688,
-1.05753755569458,
-1.336019515991211,
0.04043580964207649,
0.7784525156021118,
-0.07862983644008636,
-0.24667726457118988,
-0.25629401206970215,
0.028831398114562035,
-0.3248514235019684,
-0.17593185603618622,
-0.20236949622631073,
-0.6984307765960693,
-0.46434637904167175,
-0.09392622113227844,
-0.9411244988441467,
0.2771189510822296,
0.4600978195667267,
-0.17930670082569122,
1.4088068008422852,
-0.6686123013496399,
-0.3438522517681122,
0.8134472966194153,
0.6110134720802307,
0.8404554128646851,
-0.12034327536821365,
-0.008707073517143726,
0.2664273679256439,
-0.04192471504211426,
-0.12507322430610657,
0.5002034306526184,
0.5508143901824951,
1.426424503326416,
0.7637773752212524,
-0.12519758939743042,
0.3205750286579132,
-0.11638133227825165,
-0.3955119550228119,
-0.2928016483783722,
-0.7921518087387085,
0.6003375053405762,
-0.38724783062934875,
-0.27383989095687866,
-0.5097737908363342,
-0.21442566812038422,
0.9616445302963257,
-0.44490137696266174,
0.07093483209609985,
0.1286131590604782,
0.230950266122818,
0.30888184905052185,
0.14345385134220123,
0.20686237514019012,
-0.4170196056365967,
0.45809072256088257,
-0.0882139652967453,
-0.13238832354545593,
0.2605026364326477,
-0.34510111808776855,
0.853162944316864,
-0.43477579951286316,
-0.861225426197052,
-0.7119043469429016,
-0.143932044506073,
0.6267665028572083,
-0.02811029925942421,
-0.32568463683128357,
0.4436284005641937,
-0.4352867305278778,
0.514960765838623,
-0.4201478362083435,
-0.7917410135269165,
0.00584528548642993,
0.8970463871955872,
-0.8962905406951904,
0.40384238958358765,
-0.4307408332824707,
-0.20550408959388733,
-0.12061828374862671,
-0.10110064595937729,
-0.2214798480272293,
-1.3182662725448608,
-0.42824316024780273,
0.0773223266005516,
0.33914682269096375,
-0.02221774123609066,
0.219170480966568,
-0.8577607274055481,
0.31239643692970276,
0.220864400267601,
-0.10038422048091888,
-1.1086152791976929,
0.7421543598175049,
-0.13797511160373688,
-0.3714016079902649,
0.10696975886821747,
-0.040444474667310715,
-0.40717843174934387,
-0.22535423934459686,
-0.53951495885849,
0.3954313099384308,
-0.9735924005508423,
0.2548151910305023,
0.4068514108657837,
0.5041314959526062,
-0.1192726194858551,
-0.21468818187713623,
0.1886381059885025,
-0.6754652261734009,
-0.2500849962234497,
-0.06117169186472893,
-0.5223808288574219,
0.05843580886721611,
0.8705235719680786,
0.25893113017082214,
-0.5033048391342163,
1.0976693630218506,
-0.7378461360931396,
-0.35533639788627625,
-0.11070768535137177,
0.5146024823188782,
-0.3321656584739685,
0.14896385371685028,
-0.40295660495758057,
1.3647702932357788,
-0.6196337342262268,
-0.3740730583667755,
-0.15405817329883575,
-0.6750505566596985,
0.4536888301372528,
0.5672805309295654,
-0.29768070578575134,
0.31107598543167114,
-0.1420440971851349,
-0.3792368173599243,
-0.6640533208847046,
0.32950785756111145,
0.1908654421567917,
-0.257034569978714,
-0.0046678869985044,
0.011999417096376419,
0.4736548066139221,
0.0826367735862732,
0.13066591322422028,
0.14348185062408447,
-0.06236094981431961,
0.7018479704856873,
0.48926055431365967,
0.36241281032562256,
-0.6850876808166504,
0.32609498500823975,
-0.08359728008508682,
-0.3364807665348053,
0.23338204622268677,
-0.2278386950492859,
-0.34924882650375366,
-0.08639707416296005,
0.4191623628139496,
-0.031113142147660255,
0.008091584779322147,
0.03902481868863106,
0.8060131072998047,
-0.10921993851661682,
0.5086556077003479,
-0.31578329205513,
0.3501688838005066,
0.09651114046573639,
-0.19411486387252808,
0.6375113725662231,
0.19767476618289948,
-0.5041923522949219,
0.07418686896562576,
0.6086829304695129,
0.25378215312957764,
-0.7125663161277771,
0.13449424505233765,
-0.9738368391990662,
-1.0342525243759155,
0.49046286940574646,
-0.3320600986480713,
-1.0572748184204102,
0.262807697057724,
-0.18965719640254974,
-1.0347580909729004,
-0.33315327763557434,
-0.4380955398082733,
0.20716242492198944,
-0.22815634310245514,
0.6410062313079834,
0.31257864832878113,
0.36762934923171997,
-0.04916618764400482,
0.45151516795158386,
-1.1484121084213257,
0.6225523948669434,
0.1732029914855957,
0.8876127600669861,
-0.5297952890396118,
0.0599052757024765,
-0.5732873678207397,
0.1491955816745758,
0.07877003401517868,
-0.19667324423789978,
0.017604850232601166,
0.8253344893455505,
-0.3477829098701477,
0.03926270082592964,
0.39898940920829773,
0.10792925208806992,
-0.5325863361358643,
-0.9784703254699707,
0.38096052408218384,
-0.1253076195716858,
0.6158657670021057,
-0.09190530329942703,
0.21521401405334473,
-0.21762411296367645,
0.7386013865470886,
-0.8607496023178101,
-0.6710492372512817,
0.21401351690292358,
0.39888501167297363,
-0.1990974098443985,
-0.33008819818496704,
-0.42129042744636536,
-1.0126616954803467,
0.29551762342453003,
0.3901394307613373,
0.9550873637199402,
0.3307707607746124,
-0.30578330159187317,
-0.28852421045303345,
-0.35608384013175964,
0.15927588939666748,
0.11526508629322052,
0.0876556783914566,
0.06223951280117035,
-0.048227112740278244,
-0.6536585092544556,
0.15034015476703644,
0.44948118925094604,
0.3988276720046997,
0.21335457265377045,
0.31328824162483215,
-0.4324873089790344,
0.013740905560553074,
0.003740182612091303,
-0.20572832226753235,
-1.1950170993804932,
-0.496343731880188,
-0.2013922780752182
] |
260994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Esperanto%20Congress | World Esperanto Congress | The World Esperanto Congress (, UK) is an annual Esperanto convention. It has the longest tradition among international Esperanto conventions, with an almost unbroken run for 113 years. The congresses have been held since 1905 every year, except during World War I, World War II, and the COVID-19 pandemic. Since the 1920s, the Universal Esperanto Association has been organizing these congresses.
These congresses take place every year and, over the 30 years from 1985 through 2014, have gathered an average of about 2,000 participants (since World War II it has varied from 800 to 6,000, depending on the venue). The average number of countries represented is about 60. Some specialized organizations also gather a few hundred participants in their annual meetings. The World Congress usually takes place in the last week of July or first week of August, beginning and ending on a Saturday (8 days in total). For many years ILERA has operated an amateur radio station during the conventions.
Until 1980, meetings were held in Europe and the United States, with the exception of Japan in 1965. Since then, other countries have been Brazil, Canada, China, Cuba, South Korea, Australia, Israel, Vietnam and Argentina.
History
Statistics
Countries
Countries by number of times as host:
Continents
Of the 102 congresses that have happened so far, 84 were hosted in Europe, 8 in Asia, 6 in North America, 3 in South America, 1 in Australia/Oceania and none in Africa.
Cities
Cities by number of times as host:
The remaining cities hosted the event only once.
See also
Language festival
Notes
References
External links
Photos of the World Congresses in the Bildarchiv Austria
Esperanto meetings
Recurring events established in 1905
1905 establishments in France
Esperanto in France | [
0.14488324522972107,
-0.037749018520116806,
0.35401055216789246,
-0.12719476222991943,
-0.6126659512519836,
-0.5417653918266296,
0.011068145744502544,
0.79702228307724,
-0.4667377471923828,
0.11068651080131531,
-0.7705226540565491,
-0.02868298813700676,
-0.08051370829343796,
0.3760439157485962,
-0.15768581628799438,
-0.06053836643695831,
0.17879341542720795,
0.07841121405363083,
-0.2809935510158539,
-0.6730939149856567,
-0.1637585461139679,
0.15831002593040466,
0.35797688364982605,
-0.07340820133686066,
-0.12537524104118347,
0.13122567534446716,
0.2575972080230713,
-0.13884951174259186,
-0.15717065334320068,
-0.08121263980865479,
-0.017262326553463936,
0.6545920372009277,
0.32701683044433594,
-0.5664547085762024,
0.01711769588291645,
-0.3411383330821991,
0.1503412127494812,
-0.33559587597846985,
0.008815430104732513,
-0.4327797293663025,
0.3781507611274719,
-0.032264430075883865,
0.21909989416599274,
0.3485839068889618,
0.10732097923755646,
-0.28836941719055176,
-1.4765598773956299,
0.358620822429657,
-1.1352951526641846,
0.1583499014377594,
-0.6212024688720703,
0.2730203866958618,
0.5906490683555603,
0.7440285682678223,
0.06082488223910332,
0.7805981636047363,
-0.7144835591316223,
0.2661215364933014,
-0.026648223400115967,
-0.20855870842933655,
0.13167822360992432,
0.35977351665496826,
-0.2866802513599396,
0.43881186842918396,
0.6428148150444031,
-0.07413014769554138,
0.2053373008966446,
0.038285672664642334,
-0.38764387369155884,
-0.6712512969970703,
-0.31024616956710815,
-0.6329056620597839,
-0.08908748626708984,
0.20334435999393463,
0.11200771480798721,
-0.7121955752372742,
-0.15315856039524078,
-0.23353351652622223,
0.20745396614074707,
0.07976004481315613,
0.18033519387245178,
-0.009418207220733166,
1.030943512916565,
-0.23975443840026855,
0.894665539264679,
0.07126326113939285,
-0.7426051497459412,
-0.18542058765888214,
-0.6834174990653992,
0.40270429849624634,
0.08370639383792877,
-0.6405954360961914,
0.7316852807998657,
-0.022327255457639694,
0.7254251837730408,
0.24181967973709106,
0.17026007175445557,
-0.01153114065527916,
-0.24396878480911255,
0.20357702672481537,
0.1574782133102417,
0.29361093044281006,
0.3131371736526489,
-0.09090772271156311,
-0.6056355237960815,
-0.480014830827713,
-0.5921446681022644,
-1.3125468492507935,
1.210250735282898,
-0.14440038800239563,
-0.2430993765592575,
0.3772878646850586,
0.12471085786819458,
-0.19565077126026154,
-0.012626945972442627,
-0.1667768955230713,
0.6348803043365479,
-0.008248331025242805,
-0.15453867614269257,
0.0030704522505402565,
0.3704271614551544,
1.0219014883041382,
0.3263176679611206,
0.3059798777103424,
-0.02976040728390217,
0.6472898721694946,
0.31892499327659607,
0.6605628728866577,
-0.35546189546585083,
-0.4604175090789795,
0.3481117784976959,
0.12094656378030777,
0.10286111384630203,
-0.7965484857559204,
-0.10652344673871994,
0.4409666061401367,
0.4752853810787201,
-0.29940006136894226,
0.21190597116947174,
0.5787458419799805,
-0.24046295881271362,
-0.265036940574646,
-1.05208158493042,
-0.13795390725135803,
0.6023757457733154,
0.32812488079071045,
-0.5383968949317932,
-0.5367363691329956,
-0.2623448073863983,
-0.030046580359339714,
0.4372154474258423,
0.23705065250396729,
-0.38048532605171204,
0.0883515477180481,
0.3391796052455902,
0.4835560917854309,
0.6833343505859375,
-0.2867881655693054,
0.7577959895133972,
0.16631877422332764,
-0.089289590716362,
-0.5743520855903625,
-0.22315186262130737,
0.08092115074396133,
0.03908699378371239,
-0.2519589066505432,
-0.09869305789470673,
0.16874662041664124,
-0.07377990335226059,
0.10157587379217148,
-0.2444223314523697,
0.6409134864807129,
0.5509410500526428,
-0.2613667845726013,
-0.1223350241780281,
-0.6674303412437439,
0.8337035775184631,
0.25068676471710205,
0.5476047396659851,
0.08226334303617477,
-0.7854140996932983,
-0.4105728268623352,
-0.11448759585618973,
-0.28274691104888916,
0.5970431566238403,
-0.053094785660505295,
0.13384050130844116,
0.02449602633714676,
-0.3823258876800537,
0.45555973052978516,
0.018712515011429787,
-0.4638887941837311,
-0.6614235043525696,
-0.9723848700523376,
1.3737168312072754,
0.08864594995975494,
0.2069043666124344,
0.8555750846862793,
-0.02568935975432396,
0.4062623977661133,
-0.39404067397117615,
0.4347904324531555,
0.45170995593070984,
0.47932106256484985,
-0.20256689190864563,
0.7799012660980225,
-0.03654130548238754,
-0.03507373481988907,
0.05742384493350983,
0.6853531002998352,
0.05126361921429634,
-0.23362283408641815,
0.37953293323516846,
0.17765499651432037,
-0.43535175919532776,
-0.5531818866729736,
-0.14679160714149475,
0.5710017681121826,
-0.018269887194037437,
0.46534308791160583,
1.4496080875396729,
0.21864381432533264,
0.15113531053066254,
0.16091012954711914,
-0.2015247493982315,
0.14293232560157776,
0.0912676528096199,
0.9607703685760498,
0.5318655371665955,
-0.6593316197395325,
0.5916927456855774,
0.23742298781871796,
0.360958993434906,
-0.327760249376297,
-0.033442698419094086,
-0.5456984043121338,
-0.13911977410316467,
-0.6396672129631042,
0.23087260127067566,
0.34678253531455994,
-0.01298806257545948,
0.5154576897621155,
-0.6610493659973145,
0.7074294090270996,
0.12958765029907227,
0.6365377306938171,
0.21354275941848755,
0.41364869475364685,
0.0075498162768781185,
0.3057663142681122,
0.6814867258071899,
-0.03896651417016983,
0.014902839437127113,
-0.42217904329299927,
-0.4962526261806488,
0.19791120290756226,
-0.008006029762327671,
-0.35784950852394104,
0.6568692326545715,
0.3891068696975708,
0.017320286482572556,
-0.7727988958358765,
-0.24646347761154175,
0.5121132135391235,
-0.1320641189813614,
-0.7790907621383667,
-0.548658013343811,
-0.6270322203636169,
0.13174617290496826,
0.2581903338432312,
0.581132709980011,
0.28380510210990906,
-0.15380187332630157,
-0.4345529079437256,
-0.2885262966156006,
-0.25877806544303894,
-0.3344329595565796,
0.20554961264133453,
-0.4941207468509674,
-0.5832783579826355,
-0.3929845690727234,
0.04825375974178314,
-0.24407097697257996,
-0.001946530188433826,
-0.43632015585899353,
0.3499142825603485,
-0.029110874980688095,
-0.792573094367981,
0.22050704061985016,
-0.5034226179122925,
0.14038270711898804,
0.1718134880065918,
0.017559392377734184,
-0.021657854318618774,
0.23239535093307495,
0.4130023419857025,
-0.11158490926027298,
0.12301087379455566,
-0.2858177721500397,
-0.2078915536403656,
0.1085888147354126,
0.20800402760505676,
-0.43443062901496887,
-0.2651360332965851,
0.6802828311920166,
-0.25561755895614624,
-0.2819483280181885,
-0.4021701216697693,
-5.530737400054932,
0.007555663585662842,
-0.8706980347633362,
0.2660655081272125,
-0.14270462095737457,
-0.025228064507246017,
0.8762285709381104,
-0.15855789184570312,
-0.38028445839881897,
0.06728125363588333,
-0.4786255657672882,
-0.2054869383573532,
-0.18831512331962585,
1.0114312171936035,
0.3262014389038086,
0.5915687084197998,
-0.03503879904747009,
-0.0031117964535951614,
0.21775691211223602,
0.11985540390014648,
-0.14291159808635712,
-0.05227452516555786,
0.32477110624313354,
0.6445848941802979,
0.7234201431274414,
0.6265073418617249,
-0.3635554611682892,
-0.035214267671108246,
0.02201741933822632,
0.08834829181432724,
-0.07677270472049713,
0.16899888217449188,
-0.21065925061702728,
-0.5050765872001648,
0.2895805537700653,
0.1665177196264267,
0.9800247550010681,
0.09956469386816025,
0.31710901856422424,
-0.09321901202201843,
0.04589743912220001,
0.7050840854644775,
-0.18016843497753143,
-0.11852696537971497,
0.17379581928253174,
-0.3325194716453552,
-0.3445114195346832,
-0.11320527642965317,
-0.558914840221405,
0.5135461091995239,
-0.1387435346841812,
-0.34226223826408386,
0.45730745792388916,
-0.2963912785053253,
-0.09166539460420609,
-0.4873203933238983,
0.23379525542259216,
0.06252166628837585,
0.15281376242637634,
-0.7755319476127625,
0.35374459624290466,
-0.5052523612976074,
0.2131451666355133,
-1.200679063796997,
-0.5999755263328552,
-0.18793638050556183,
-0.7471798658370972,
-0.13604292273521423,
0.40275561809539795,
0.12756825983524323,
-0.34669992327690125,
-0.20955513417720795,
-0.44585829973220825,
-0.6869556903839111,
-0.07761255651712418,
-0.3247646391391754,
-0.029191186651587486,
0.09297674149274826,
0.13149815797805786,
0.102203868329525,
-0.3930744230747223,
0.02142086811363697,
-0.7117840647697449,
0.6788546442985535,
-0.09983854740858078,
-0.862531840801239,
-0.003133503720164299,
0.09959110617637634,
-0.728611171245575,
-0.23979109525680542,
0.4384060502052307,
0.15641804039478302,
-0.3457566499710083,
0.2681633532047272,
0.485817015171051,
0.13051284849643707,
0.10615111887454987,
0.10033705830574036,
0.6848076581954956,
-0.22438840568065643,
0.04240509867668152,
-0.4855719208717346,
-0.04942546784877777,
-0.39582163095474243,
0.015999067574739456,
0.32974380254745483,
-0.3049468994140625,
0.6008538603782654,
0.992500901222229,
0.15357623994350433,
-0.1290402114391327,
-0.4190616011619568,
-0.7008748054504395,
-0.17317451536655426,
-0.39620310068130493,
0.20472174882888794,
-0.34169429540634155,
0.44815486669540405,
-0.18968595564365387,
0.14343057572841644,
-0.31666919589042664,
0.24735014140605927,
-0.5547441244125366,
0.37587758898735046,
0.014577694237232208,
-0.2421649843454361,
-0.16886159777641296,
0.043982937932014465,
-0.33200234174728394,
-0.1661803126335144,
-0.07770927995443344,
0.15872743725776672,
0.14340844750404358,
-0.32984185218811035,
0.5145568251609802,
0.4844339191913605,
-0.23868896067142487,
-0.04037782549858093,
0.33881136775016785,
-0.31812843680381775,
0.19692228734493256,
-0.2377306967973709,
-0.06596039235591888,
-0.20343293249607086,
0.2051907181739807,
0.3912620544433594,
-0.22448861598968506,
-0.06460832059383392,
0.022327695041894913,
0.5204637050628662,
0.34422335028648376,
-0.12226013839244843,
0.26831865310668945,
0.34967300295829773,
-0.08499062806367874,
-0.12734033167362213,
-0.009313910268247128,
0.5384875535964966,
-0.01805558241903782,
-0.010424346663057804,
0.009475699625909328,
-0.6844622492790222,
-0.9514569640159607,
0.03533192723989487,
0.9084402322769165,
-0.6230363249778748,
-0.3492153584957123,
-0.010550012812018394,
-0.5522393584251404,
0.3688444197177887,
0.10083537548780441,
0.33359262347221375,
-0.3723198175430298,
-0.14433857798576355,
-0.26950952410697937,
-0.21508611738681793,
-0.07709389179944992,
-0.0519229918718338,
0.4310213029384613,
-0.203585684299469,
0.1951267123222351,
-0.1102590411901474,
-0.2738962471485138,
0.1662335842847824,
0.1531451940536499,
-0.31628867983818054,
0.4133285880088806,
0.23362940549850464,
-0.008772220462560654,
-0.049988750368356705,
-0.019297538325190544,
0.855003297328949,
0.34069347381591797,
-0.25866785645484924,
-0.5759056210517883,
-0.9048991203308105,
-0.17407242953777313,
0.7658441662788391,
-0.6268070340156555,
-0.274725079536438,
0.30923646688461304,
0.32285118103027344,
-0.28378191590309143,
0.10313399136066437,
-0.46010997891426086,
-0.7000517845153809,
0.08980762213468552,
-0.30985745787620544,
-0.22730933129787445,
0.40536201000213623,
-0.5919867157936096,
-0.4209824502468109,
-0.13930316269397736,
-0.048020754009485245,
-0.656217634677887,
-0.04363422095775604,
0.19776757061481476,
-0.10666549950838089,
-0.21146617829799652,
0.22539234161376953,
-0.06036866456270218,
0.3245798349380493,
-0.7516219615936279,
-0.30987584590911865,
-0.31213849782943726,
0.5013112425804138,
0.49345067143440247,
-0.4534546732902527,
0.42285484075546265,
-1.0185258388519287,
0.04119743034243584,
0.03485449403524399,
-0.09815529733896255,
-0.31690341234207153,
0.09059476852416992,
0.006700025871396065,
-0.4880762994289398,
0.2770788371562958,
-0.22867877781391144,
0.36346614360809326,
0.11119737476110458,
0.08811741322278976,
0.3235609233379364,
-0.6000596880912781,
-0.4597246050834656,
0.4091610014438629,
0.42229345440864563,
-0.5019939541816711,
-0.6669074296951294,
-0.597955584526062,
0.36084598302841187,
-0.036527711898088455,
-0.732906699180603,
-0.14723984897136688,
0.18803152441978455,
-0.38282862305641174,
-0.8578950762748718,
0.26959213614463806,
-0.03578607365489006,
-0.2027982473373413,
0.5518856048583984,
-0.0018101546447724104,
-1.108999490737915,
0.3034170866012573,
0.08278197795152664,
0.3959718644618988,
-0.20498692989349365,
-0.4421561062335968,
-0.8005488514900208,
-0.10778141021728516,
0.22406388819217682,
0.18465878069400787,
0.35598546266555786,
0.2940109372138977,
0.398354172706604,
-0.40967512130737305,
0.02083117887377739,
-0.6839209198951721,
0.14915429055690765,
-0.037868402898311615,
0.34440240263938904,
0.5853551626205444,
0.49203789234161377,
-0.2278863489627838,
0.35239070653915405,
-0.8869777917861938,
-0.6509789824485779,
0.23374789953231812,
-0.11514133960008621,
-0.02473585121333599,
-0.37484756112098694,
-0.22463752329349518,
-0.35404065251350403,
0.2228785902261734,
-0.46322381496429443,
-0.32115522027015686,
0.18282173573970795,
-0.3854796588420868,
-0.03612362593412399,
-0.20885461568832397,
-0.8322977423667908,
0.6683425307273865,
0.7009954452514648,
-0.9205334782600403,
0.47605130076408386,
0.07793418318033218,
-0.33233577013015747,
0.06674512475728989,
-0.04239702597260475,
0.3847233057022095,
0.40949758887290955,
-0.32758644223213196,
0.10220471024513245,
0.8429270386695862,
-0.5882706046104431,
0.5411770939826965,
0.42876529693603516,
-1.0508352518081665,
0.3329034745693207,
0.0869390070438385,
0.4274977743625641,
0.08092709630727768,
0.27506858110427856,
0.28001460433006287,
-0.004179110750555992,
0.130938321352005,
-0.25501587986946106,
-0.28799453377723694,
0.3631642460823059,
-0.3426310420036316,
0.43381789326667786,
0.47451695799827576,
-0.1448878049850464,
0.43931010365486145,
-0.6178788542747498,
-0.8629334568977356,
-0.3489764332771301,
-0.3447965383529663,
-0.4926711618900299,
0.575979471206665,
0.6027564406394958,
0.7682104110717773,
-0.29122382402420044,
0.12637725472450256,
-0.23990629613399506,
-0.054815951734781265,
-0.47710028290748596,
0.5926868915557861,
-0.011422977782785892,
0.3448750972747803,
0.855909526348114,
0.06609206646680832,
0.10130106657743454,
-0.6123543977737427,
0.1887553483247757,
-0.3234860301017761,
0.33779868483543396,
0.01328933797776699,
0.4417819082736969,
-0.45404481887817383,
0.06485296040773392,
0.547785758972168,
0.12517009675502777,
0.3264786899089813,
0.621170699596405,
0.7845181226730347,
0.3014726936817169,
-0.33481183648109436,
0.42478707432746887,
-0.08429250121116638,
0.2528667151927948,
-0.13557156920433044,
-0.2476755678653717,
0.0673423483967781,
-0.47574368119239807,
0.21623224020004272,
0.3185398280620575,
-0.05479145050048828,
0.0709276869893074,
0.08344114571809769,
-0.8094635605812073,
0.1647486835718155,
-0.4404201805591583,
0.05140027031302452,
0.03348546847701073,
-0.20756793022155762,
0.14289289712905884,
0.2965232729911804,
-0.4864114224910736,
-0.026045946404337883,
-0.28838682174682617,
-0.3889487683773041,
-0.6499500870704651,
0.0023940401151776314,
-0.34074270725250244,
-0.42632803320884705,
-0.04637441784143448,
0.38623201847076416,
0.0985613465309143,
-0.01687202788889408,
-0.2497667521238327,
-0.19466529786586761,
0.5919827222824097,
0.015333513729274273,
0.18411000072956085,
0.1478988081216812,
-0.25792238116264343,
0.03980504721403122,
-0.7023774981498718,
0.7620018124580383,
0.6524194478988647,
0.23872387409210205,
0.21017584204673767,
1.0017629861831665,
0.1597355157136917,
0.6953023076057434,
0.4055612087249756,
-0.4601013958454132,
-0.030621415004134178,
-0.02258049137890339,
-0.7727441191673279,
0.045713186264038086,
0.13554738461971283,
0.3054065704345703,
0.35911163687705994,
-0.30237722396850586,
0.9007348418235779,
0.1088339239358902,
-0.7988808155059814,
0.15237902104854584,
-0.2843952178955078,
-0.2891796827316284,
-0.5220564603805542,
0.33077454566955566,
-0.8558950424194336,
0.16983641684055328,
0.365075945854187,
0.4262444078922272,
0.6882696747779846,
-0.3211028277873993,
-0.40468162298202515,
0.19706161320209503,
0.6091615557670593,
0.34775587916374207,
-0.4149489402770996,
-0.022395888343453407,
-0.2873373031616211,
-0.25184744596481323,
-0.6003499627113342,
0.16414077579975128,
0.5293158888816833,
-0.17525754868984222,
-0.319129079580307,
0.14101877808570862,
0.34050634503364563,
0.39561498165130615,
0.34832412004470825,
-0.6217727065086365,
0.7101714015007019,
0.782626211643219
] |
260996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Slater | Christian Slater | Christian Michael Leonard Slater (born August 18, 1969) is an American actor and producer. He made his film debut with a leading role in The Legend of Billie Jean (1985) and gained wider recognition for his breakthrough role as Jason "J.D." Dean, a sociopathic high school student, in the satire Heathers (1989). He has received critical acclaim for his title-role in the USA Network television series Mr. Robot (2015–2019), for which he earned the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film in 2016, with additional nominations in 2017 and 2018.
Born in New York City to a theatrical family, Slater made his television debut at the age of eight on the ABC soap opera One Life to Live. He attended the Dalton School, the Professional Children's School, and the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts. In the 1990s, Slater starred in a number of big-budget films, including Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991), Interview with the Vampire (1994), Broken Arrow (1996), and Hard Rain (1998) as well as cult films like Pump Up the Volume (1990) and True Romance (1993). His other notable films include roles in 3000 Miles to Graceland (2001), Windtalkers (2002), Alone in the Dark (2005), Bobby (2006), Nymphomaniac (2013), King Cobra (2016), The Wife (2017), The Public (2018), and We Can Be Heroes (2020). Combined with his film roles, Slater has also starred in television shows such as My Own Worst Enemy (2008), Breaking In (2011–2012), Mind Games (2012), Dirty John (2020), and Dr. Death (2021).
In addition to his live-action roles, Slater has had an extensive voice-acting career, with roles in FernGully: The Last Rainforest (1992), The Ten Commandments (2007), Igor (2008), and Mune: Guardian of the Moon (2017). He narrated the second season of Prehistoric Planet (2002–2003) and the Discovery Channel documentary miniseries Dinosaur Planet (2003), and voiced the character Slater in Archer (2014–2016), Ushari in The Lion Guard (2016–2019), Ren in the Star Wars franchise (2021–present), and Rand Ridley in Inside Job (2021). He has also been the voice of Floyd Lawton / Deadshot in the DC Animated Movie Universe since 2017.
Early life
Slater was born in New York City in 1969, the son of Michael Hawkins (born Thomas Knight Slater), an actor also known as Michael Gainsborough; and Mary Jo Slater (née Lawton), an acting agent turned casting executive and producer. He has a maternal half-brother, Ryan Slater, who also became an actor. His great-uncle was radio personality Bill Slater. He attended the Dalton School, the Professional Children's School and the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts.
Career
1977–1989: Early success
Slater started acting from an early age. His first television role was at the age of eight on the ABC soap opera One Life to Live. Following a run on Ryan's Hope, he made his Broadway debut as the lisping Winthrop Paroo opposite Dick Van Dyke in the 1980 revival of The Music Man. Additional Broadway credits include Copperfield, Merlin, Macbeth, Side Man, and The Glass Menagerie. In addition he has performed in London's West End in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and Swimming With Sharks.
Slater made his big screen debut in 1985's The Legend of Billie Jean, playing Billie Jean's brother Binx. Though expected to be a big hit, the film fell short at the box office. It has gained a cult following. His career improved with his role in The Name of the Rose (1986) alongside Sean Connery. Slater played Connery's apprentice monk while they investigated a series of murders at a Benedictine abbey. Slater followed this by playing Junior Tucker in Francis Ford Coppola's Tucker: The Man and His Dream (1988) starred in Gleaming the Cube and appeared in Beyond the Stars (both 1989).
At the age of 19, Slater played the dark character J.D. in the 1989 film Heathers alongside Winona Ryder. Heathers was billed as the teen film of 1989. (It was later adapted as a musical in 2014, and was highly successful.) Slater beat out many other actors such as Brad Pitt for the part, and his performance drew comparison with a young Jack Nicholson. After Heathers, Slater had offers to play more troubled youths, including as a rebellious teen in Pump Up the Volume (1990) and a wild gunman in Young Guns II (1990), in which Slater acted alongside Emilio Estevez and Kiefer Sutherland.
1990–1999: Box office success
In 1991, Slater was cast as Will Scarlett in the Hollywood big budget production of Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves alongside Kevin Costner, Morgan Freeman and Alan Rickman. The film was a commercial success, taking US$390 million worldwide, and Slater became one of the major A-list stars of the 1990s. With Slater being a big Star Trek fan (in addition to his mother, Mary Jo Slater, serving as the casting director for the film), he accepted a cameo role in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, shortly after playing Charlie Luciano in the crime drama Mobsters. The following year he starred in Kuffs. In 1993, Slater tried to expand his film genre, playing opposite Marisa Tomei in Untamed Heart and playing Clarence Worley in True Romance, written by Quentin Tarantino, which received many rave reviews. In his review of True Romance, Roger Ebert awarded the movie 3 stars out of 4 and said, "the energy and style of the movie are exhilarating. Christian Slater has the kind of cocky recklessness the movie needs."
He gained the role of the interviewer Daniel Molloy in Interview with the Vampire (1994) after the death of his friend River Phoenix, who was originally cast. Slater subsequently donated his earnings from the film to Phoenix's favorite charities. He played the character of Lewis in the romance film Bed of Roses in 1996 opposite Mary Stuart Masterson then that of Riley Hale in the big-budget John Woo film Broken Arrow (1996), which also starred John Travolta. In 1998 Slater appeared in Hard Rain alongside Morgan Freeman. The same year he also starred in the comedy Very Bad Things opposite Cameron Diaz.
2000–present: Television roles, Mr. Robot
Since 2000 Slater has mixed TV work with leading roles in mainly lower budget films, along with supporting roles in a few mainstream productions. He appeared in the successful The West Wing and Alias TV series. He was also part of Hollywood films, including Bobby and 3000 Miles to Graceland. He has also worked as a voice-over artist in productions, including the character of 'Pips' in the successful Australian animated film FernGully: The Last Rainforest, The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius, and TV documentaries, including Prehistoric Planet and Dinosaur Planet. Slater also voiced the character John Watson a.k.a. "Wonko the Sane" in BBC Radio 4's production of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.
Slater starred in the television series My Own Worst Enemy in 2008 and The Forgotten in 2009. In 2011 he co-starred in the action film The River Murders, with Ray Liotta and Ving Rhames. Also in 2011, he starred in the television series, Breaking In, which ran for two seasons. Slater co-starred with Ving Rhames in the film Soldiers of Fortune (2012), and in the Sylvester Stallone action thriller Bullet to the Head (2013), directed by Walter Hill. He co-starred in the 2014 television series, Mind Games, which was cancelled after five episodes were aired. He was part of the ensemble in Lars von Trier's controversial film, Nymphomaniac.
In October 2014, Slater signed on for his title role in the television series on USA Network Mr. Robot. Slater plays a computer hacker, "Mr. Robot," who recruits Rami Malek's character, Elliot, into Slater's band of hackers called fsociety. The series premiered on June 24, 2015 and concluded in 2019 with its fourth season. For his performance, he earned the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film in 2016, with additional nominations in 2017 and 2018.
Prior to beginning his role in Mr. Robot, Slater announced in 2013 that he was developing and making a film based on Will Viharo's 1993 neo-noir novel Love Stories Are Too Violent for Me, the first of three works to feature Vic Valentine. However, the success of Mr. Robot and contracts for additional seasons has delayed his being able to develop his adaptation.
Slater voices the character "Slater" on the FX original series Archer. He also provided the voice of Ushari the Egyptian Cobra in The Lion Guard. He also made a short film for HP called The Wolf, which shows how easily malware can spread on unprotected printers and computers. In 2018, Christian Slater appeared in The Public, the latest film by Emilio Estevez. At the world premiere of the film at the Toronto Film Festival, Slater discussed his role, Josh Davis, with Ikon London Magazine:
"He (Josh Davis) is definitely the character in the movie who represents that side of politics where he is not as open-hearted as you’d like him to be. He is definitely the guy who feels this is all a mess. And he is a law and order politician in this movie. So hopefully, he is the kind of guy you love to hate".
Personal life
In 2000, Slater married Ryan Haddon, the daughter of model Dayle Haddon. They have two children, Jaden Christopher (born 1999) and Eliana Sophia (born 2001). In 2003, Haddon was arrested for assaulting Slater during an argument at a Hard Rock Cafe while on vacation in Las Vegas. Haddon allegedly threw a glass and cut Slater's neck, which required 20 stitches. Haddon was charged with domestic battery, booked at Las Vegas' Clark County Detention Center, and freed after posting a bond. They announced a separation over Christmas 2004. Slater was living in London at the time, performing in a stage version of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest. The couple officially separated in 2005 and divorced in 2007.
On December 2, 2013, Slater married his girlfriend Brittany Lopez in Florida after three years of dating. On August 16, 2019, their daughter Lena was born.
Slater practices Kempo Karate and divides his time between Coconut Grove in Miami, Florida and Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan.
Arrests and convictions
Slater has had difficulties with substance abuse in his career and later received treatment. At one time he said, "Work is my hobby, staying sober is my job." After living in recovery, he said in 2009, "Work is my job, and having adventures with my kids. My kids are all-important".
The illusion of being very cool, that drinking is the hip thing to do and that you'll seem like Clark Gable. You go to a party and have a drink and feel like a superhero when the truth is you're looking rather foolish. Showing up for life 24/7 straight and sober can be tough if you're riddled with insecurities. Actually, the fastest way of knowing who you are is to know who you're not.
In 1989, Slater was arrested for drunk driving. He was sentenced to ten days in jail. In 1994, he was arrested when he tried to board a commercial plane with a gun in his luggage. He was sentenced to 3 days of community service. In 1997, Slater was convicted of punching his girlfriend, Michelle Jonas, and assaulting a police officer while under the influence of heroin, cocaine, and alcohol. He had consumed them for two days straight and had little to no sleep. He was treated for more than 100 days in a rehabilitation facility while on bail, and then was sentenced to a three-month term in jail, followed by three months in a residential rehab center. He was released from prison after 59 days on the basis of good behavior. On May 24, 2005, Slater was arrested in Manhattan, New York, after he allegedly groped a woman on the street. Slater was charged with third-degree sexual abuse and was held at the 19th precinct in Manhattan. The charges were later dropped from lack of evidence and on the condition that Slater kept out of trouble for six months.
Charity work
Slater has been a supporter of several charities, including 21st Century Leaders, Global Green, and Whatever It Takes. Slater appeared in an educational video on behalf of Nelson Mandela’s 46664 charity for AIDS awareness. He has also worked to promote humanitarian work in South Africa. In early May 2009, Slater visited wounded and recovering soldiers of Walter Reed Army Medical Center for the USO. On December 10, 2009, Slater visited Hattiesburg, Mississippi, where he contributed work for the television show Extreme Makeover: Home Edition. The episode aired on March 21, 2010.
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Christian Slater's Official Site
1969 births
Living people
American male child actors
American male film actors
American male soap opera actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American people convicted of assault
Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe (television) winners
Dalton School alumni
Male actors from New York City
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors | [
-0.1315460354089737,
-0.24745452404022217,
-0.11392763257026672,
-0.10533624142408371,
0.5846800208091736,
0.5117608904838562,
0.3136967122554779,
0.3471529483795166,
-0.02690148539841175,
-0.10194409638643265,
0.055264491587877274,
0.5634938478469849,
0.15411828458309174,
0.2864028811454773,
-0.018426166847348213,
0.8858819007873535,
-0.09810920059680939,
0.3037077486515045,
-0.22496704757213593,
-0.5403108596801758,
-0.7821705937385559,
-0.28986531496047974,
0.46873462200164795,
0.49829280376434326,
-0.7351812124252319,
0.9841206669807434,
-0.3141562342643738,
0.0943097174167633,
-0.16962914168834686,
-0.22548702359199524,
-0.00655485549941659,
-0.32194048166275024,
0.4228295087814331,
-0.43356508016586304,
0.050506189465522766,
0.2605777978897095,
-0.2772025465965271,
-0.04493920877575874,
-0.3231344223022461,
-0.008619636297225952,
-0.19265329837799072,
0.028758350759744644,
0.10484293103218079,
-0.22172975540161133,
-0.42795804142951965,
-0.310313880443573,
-1.2441129684448242,
0.13781464099884033,
-0.6448831558227539,
-1.17229163646698,
0.042789142578840256,
0.16491684317588806,
0.29087263345718384,
-0.16168801486492157,
0.6747985482215881,
-0.37888291478157043,
-0.14376375079154968,
-0.27399906516075134,
0.2571505308151245,
-0.06154019385576248,
-0.03586529940366745,
-0.23682890832424164,
0.07698041200637817,
-0.7976396679878235,
0.05105261877179146,
0.015013906173408031,
0.1242605522274971,
0.4452807903289795,
-0.050714656710624695,
-1.0797946453094482,
0.20537002384662628,
0.19182345271110535,
0.08584504574537277,
-0.4843575656414032,
0.3671639859676361,
0.00962797086685896,
0.1834891438484192,
0.19931310415267944,
0.07489136606454849,
0.19806356728076935,
0.026722805574536324,
-0.06530702114105225,
0.4833097755908966,
0.7004686594009399,
-0.17290714383125305,
0.35106489062309265,
0.1216249093413353,
-0.11657372862100601,
-0.38308030366897583,
0.222215473651886,
-0.5980993509292603,
0.036040641367435455,
-0.20487165451049805,
0.49382713437080383,
0.211689293384552,
-0.8428193926811218,
-0.16687123477458954,
0.39755818247795105,
0.3385050296783447,
-0.2563120424747467,
-0.0972619503736496,
-0.16868652403354645,
0.14085888862609863,
-0.6520341634750366,
-0.07362069934606552,
0.05540116876363754,
0.06653724610805511,
0.2202267199754715,
-0.9133486151695251,
0.0881982073187828,
-0.26053500175476074,
0.42984142899513245,
-0.14256009459495544,
0.1335570216178894,
0.17102007567882538,
0.4044739902019501,
0.1259506642818451,
-0.7667928338050842,
-0.6980025172233582,
0.13735419511795044,
0.09432893991470337,
0.4379650056362152,
-0.09256210178136826,
0.5204165577888489,
-0.4434020519256592,
-0.0027125743217766285,
-0.015918076038360596,
0.02195168472826481,
-0.2817102372646332,
-0.27375856041908264,
0.3349839746952057,
0.7822877764701843,
-0.08932939916849136,
-0.020192213356494904,
-0.6526174545288086,
-0.3117799162864685,
0.06955063343048096,
-0.18308527767658234,
-0.24535076320171356,
-0.09564058482646942,
-0.3881862759590149,
-0.7193170785903931,
-0.11044266074895859,
-0.2299319952726364,
0.23589704930782318,
-0.26696455478668213,
0.08519801497459412,
-0.48916077613830566,
-0.38567087054252625,
0.34369325637817383,
-0.29227596521377563,
0.8039463758468628,
0.011789153330028057,
-1.0739319324493408,
-0.447396457195282,
0.2833820581436157,
1.111410140991211,
-0.038061849772930145,
-0.044638633728027344,
-0.12654586136341095,
0.05399796739220619,
-0.2542399764060974,
-0.13708776235580444,
-0.40603163838386536,
0.9395685791969299,
-0.5598938465118408,
0.3170490562915802,
-0.43126192688941956,
-0.20627102255821228,
0.02571023814380169,
-0.34157976508140564,
0.5845999121665955,
0.22443018853664398,
-0.29189151525497437,
-0.5657690763473511,
-0.006418019533157349,
-0.10893002897500992,
0.47568947076797485,
0.28980687260627747,
-0.3474650979042053,
-0.3672700524330139,
-0.09616000205278397,
0.15762761235237122,
-0.2376980036497116,
0.004319625906646252,
0.15986904501914978,
0.17640219628810883,
-0.10865870863199234,
0.2605053782463074,
0.05811874195933342,
-0.46091264486312866,
-0.2890251576900482,
0.14590071141719818,
-0.1867404580116272,
0.1780371218919754,
-0.018170975148677826,
-0.3339805006980896,
0.26004695892333984,
0.45273661613464355,
0.2382461577653885,
-0.6524677872657776,
-0.21428291499614716,
-0.009411212988197803,
0.002393777249380946,
-0.017224397510290146,
-0.014639669097959995,
0.9530268311500549,
-0.0027315260376781225,
0.35563352704048157,
0.13178856670856476,
-0.09948614984750748,
-0.9189901947975159,
0.28937265276908875,
0.5969347953796387,
-0.09809748083353043,
-0.7993623614311218,
-1.0178450345993042,
-0.16810506582260132,
0.40588709712028503,
-0.2225802093744278,
0.07160923629999161,
0.38224345445632935,
-0.16555285453796387,
0.28969594836235046,
-0.004386881832033396,
1.0520507097244263,
-0.36981257796287537,
-0.0651971697807312,
0.07024355977773666,
-0.1822417676448822,
0.30066943168640137,
0.4751124382019043,
-0.6999108791351318,
-0.8526114821434021,
-0.34994271397590637,
0.19565615057945251,
0.2804095149040222,
-0.5612578392028809,
-0.4585263729095459,
-0.6311553120613098,
0.6505641937255859,
0.5500406622886658,
-0.6271313428878784,
0.06850338727235794,
-0.04838641732931137,
0.0019493445288389921,
0.287301242351532,
0.03955196961760521,
-0.561233401298523,
0.16229864954948425,
-0.04413073882460594,
0.21147985756397247,
0.11010792851448059,
0.06273974478244781,
0.1968355029821396,
-0.017644990235567093,
-0.2076576203107834,
-0.07194697111845016,
-0.008085585199296474,
0.5112964510917664,
0.5247495174407959,
-0.21262165904045105,
-0.3251131474971771,
-0.4931679964065552,
-0.7378883361816406,
0.15514922142028809,
-0.05713842064142227,
-0.5379528403282166,
0.1910782903432846,
0.4004914462566376,
0.13447389006614685,
-0.21051360666751862,
-0.25567251443862915,
0.24328753352165222,
0.34889113903045654,
0.31889206171035767,
0.21127188205718994,
-0.22222359478473663,
-0.06413067877292633,
-0.7820237278938293,
0.0793491005897522,
0.4136374890804291,
-0.1078677549958229,
-0.3010801672935486,
-0.10896122455596924,
-0.852810800075531,
-0.12685978412628174,
-0.09265445172786713,
0.18924017250537872,
-0.01402444951236248,
-0.1630498170852661,
0.5322670340538025,
0.08983856439590454,
0.49345600605010986,
-0.32711613178253174,
0.041342854499816895,
0.30391812324523926,
-0.1398954689502716,
0.11833453923463821,
0.1483580470085144,
-0.2736375629901886,
0.49149075150489807,
-0.03665316104888916,
0.16271266341209412,
0.6277984976768494,
0.053699687123298645,
-0.4045034646987915,
-0.2830469608306885,
-5.6392364501953125,
-0.010441895574331284,
0.37268906831741333,
0.04745049774646759,
0.7753110527992249,
-0.006617624778300524,
0.42927485704421997,
-0.11744704097509384,
0.027065448462963104,
0.17594055831432343,
0.0594291016459465,
-0.034058429300785065,
-0.06951669603586197,
0.04359210655093193,
0.5139655470848083,
0.015086854808032513,
0.6228640079498291,
-0.41443827748298645,
0.14095765352249146,
0.5500094890594482,
-0.22883610427379608,
-0.3664449453353882,
-0.13582690060138702,
-0.048460472375154495,
-0.05930377542972565,
0.029894331470131874,
-0.8763787150382996,
0.38837096095085144,
-0.4599980115890503,
-0.15922518074512482,
-0.430602490901947,
0.11541764438152313,
-0.715754508972168,
0.012988449074327946,
0.09203537553548813,
0.04976307973265648,
0.7004333734512329,
-0.30807051062583923,
0.17309732735157013,
-0.4757750332355499,
0.19642333686351776,
0.3705432713031769,
-1.4421908855438232,
-0.002535994630306959,
0.7076846957206726,
-0.3642793893814087,
-0.21402829885482788,
-0.013936609029769897,
-0.3822501301765442,
0.1966606229543686,
0.6034402251243591,
0.14164161682128906,
-0.043771907687187195,
0.02284044586122036,
0.7649427056312561,
-0.3195655643939972,
-0.08010184019804001,
0.362873911857605,
-0.6910601258277893,
0.3140011429786682,
0.2825745642185211,
0.21768972277641296,
0.05872425436973572,
0.29088228940963745,
0.2104485183954239,
-0.02009151317179203,
0.5286844372749329,
0.07093742489814758,
0.3302575647830963,
-0.7151398062705994,
-0.2839739918708801,
-0.05110111087560654,
0.539889395236969,
-1.0760023593902588,
0.48085761070251465,
-0.4589228332042694,
0.20484858751296997,
0.04440179094672203,
-0.800815224647522,
-0.39401140809059143,
-0.09837378561496735,
-0.37079840898513794,
0.6314805746078491,
0.5262455940246582,
0.5544422268867493,
0.05846910923719406,
-0.4164787530899048,
0.156840980052948,
-0.09223024547100067,
-0.7449302077293396,
-0.8043359518051147,
-0.387029767036438,
0.055411163717508316,
0.16283884644508362,
0.015767496079206467,
0.2653731405735016,
0.3188358247280121,
0.6808963418006897,
-0.23127728700637817,
0.2683960497379303,
0.25676754117012024,
-0.6432347297668457,
0.24254070222377777,
-0.6269657611846924,
0.6610959768295288,
0.04472768306732178,
0.6487389802932739,
0.23820288479328156,
0.6257147789001465,
0.07661578059196472,
0.30363303422927856,
0.6508187651634216,
-0.3412070870399475,
0.015059933066368103,
0.0701817125082016,
0.0767979845404625,
-0.6313970685005188,
0.15576794743537903,
-0.02160990983247757,
0.6793485879898071,
-0.12094539403915405,
0.12693966925144196,
-0.11420100182294846,
0.3255910277366638,
-0.08593336492776871,
-0.524651825428009,
-0.0552545040845871,
0.03378196060657501,
0.22063308954238892,
0.09662529081106186,
-0.7132760286331177,
0.4533897936344147,
-0.0491432324051857,
-0.3552827537059784,
0.43080171942710876,
0.10093645751476288,
-0.3882054388523102,
-0.12671905755996704,
0.0000760332404752262,
0.4173135459423065,
0.15997529029846191,
0.023948360234498978,
0.2090877890586853,
0.28481948375701904,
0.37505272030830383,
-0.3759669363498688,
0.52775639295578,
0.6150272488594055,
-0.03940654918551445,
0.401955783367157,
0.3592911660671234,
0.34316205978393555,
0.7184779047966003,
-0.7410409450531006,
-0.012281589210033417,
0.17317433655261993,
-0.20635470747947693,
-0.16349704563617706,
0.5629620552062988,
-0.07662216573953629,
0.30895915627479553,
-0.4915359616279602,
-0.790213942527771,
-0.033907387405633926,
0.11178988963365555,
0.22072553634643555,
-0.6766595840454102,
0.062346067279577255,
-0.37067070603370667,
0.07393769919872284,
0.17752626538276672,
-0.594535768032074,
-0.4896635413169861,
0.04101163148880005,
-0.1133575290441513,
0.27574390172958374,
-0.47573596239089966,
-0.5487226247787476,
-0.3027838170528412,
0.24729298055171967,
0.09466882050037384,
-0.06424564868211746,
-0.575475811958313,
-0.5170738101005554,
-0.06716000288724899,
-0.07333187013864517,
-0.6605839133262634,
-0.0072278548032045364,
-0.15077242255210876,
0.4607910215854645,
-0.001014623325318098,
-0.33220720291137695,
0.4040621519088745,
0.49200060963630676,
0.11092789471149445,
-0.22355709969997406,
0.28957638144493103,
0.23638994991779327,
0.45762965083122253,
-0.2585822641849518,
-0.20850355923175812,
0.4449521601200104,
-0.7413839101791382,
0.33842745423316956,
0.37148356437683105,
-0.2533411681652069,
-0.28358763456344604,
0.205295592546463,
0.13042470812797546,
0.15263955295085907,
-0.27266794443130493,
-0.056572962552309036,
-0.3519858419895172,
0.06809306889772415,
-0.2912025451660156,
0.24266307055950165,
0.9360933899879456,
-0.0031614708714187145,
0.3894127607345581,
-0.2312980741262436,
-0.5142959356307983,
-0.4445013999938965,
-0.411780446767807,
-0.06913508474826813,
-0.43266984820365906,
0.17317572236061096,
0.46917444467544556,
-0.34238287806510925,
0.1789475679397583,
0.2467820942401886,
-0.04475465789437294,
-0.1641622930765152,
0.17833741009235382,
0.7232195138931274,
-0.16327644884586334,
-0.04216492176055908,
-0.37412017583847046,
0.722511351108551,
-0.18813717365264893,
-0.13959883153438568,
0.5734050869941711,
1.0718408823013306,
-0.1775071620941162,
0.16503548622131348,
0.6812940239906311,
0.6208049058914185,
0.424408495426178,
-0.19667339324951172,
-0.3228030204772949,
-0.1220017522573471,
0.5668204426765442,
-0.06040777266025543,
-0.00990530289709568,
0.2893630564212799,
0.3617549240589142,
-0.6381779313087463,
0.35108649730682373,
-0.09640087187290192,
-0.10718454420566559,
-0.36692970991134644,
-0.07969266921281815,
-0.289629727602005,
-0.5296245813369751,
0.013727379962801933,
-0.57364422082901,
0.13748396933078766,
-0.3037455976009369,
-0.0853966623544693,
-0.12127355486154556,
-0.6802026033401489,
-0.007380425930023193,
-0.04208605736494064,
0.14044395089149475,
0.9339929223060608,
-0.32248926162719727,
0.7782315611839294,
0.5289987921714783,
-0.19219501316547394,
-0.41730132699012756,
0.049523886293172836,
-0.6912599802017212,
0.3367680013179779,
-0.357767254114151,
-1.247838020324707,
0.022469637915492058,
-0.46856769919395447,
-0.11027689278125763,
-0.18482212722301483,
-0.35846439003944397,
-0.05045466870069504,
-0.12024354189634323,
0.5557247996330261,
-0.4567820727825165,
-0.3089233934879303,
-0.15963149070739746,
-0.1398867815732956,
-0.1331128180027008,
0.89922696352005,
0.46503114700317383,
0.11950965225696564,
0.03750776872038841,
0.6689671874046326,
0.5285708904266357,
-0.3983036279678345,
0.1249445453286171,
-0.23180553317070007,
-0.5194604396820068,
-0.3273109793663025,
0.15702544152736664,
0.24418534338474274,
0.31976577639579773,
-0.01372017152607441,
0.38406479358673096,
0.475050151348114,
-0.10667701810598373,
-0.012912196107208729,
0.9038559198379517,
-0.20771633088588715,
-0.13258343935012817,
0.028305718675255775,
-0.5303540229797363,
-0.09809789806604385,
0.9221683740615845,
-0.7824610471725464,
0.678230345249176,
0.6565163731575012,
0.5370952486991882,
0.33326300978660583,
-0.06862623244524002,
0.5330377817153931,
-0.10764525085687637,
-0.44711723923683167,
0.2534446120262146,
0.5889461040496826,
-0.07897195965051651,
-0.5808932781219482,
0.5911229252815247,
0.32955461740493774,
0.18590335547924042,
0.13255535066127777,
-0.7054376602172852,
0.40617069602012634,
0.11829306930303574,
0.14089126884937286,
0.27773284912109375,
-0.21907182037830353,
0.048266299068927765,
0.08695413917303085,
-0.5107357501983643,
0.1360042542219162,
-0.010176202282309532,
-0.07684067636728287,
0.29873794317245483,
-0.28835293650627136,
0.8211521506309509,
-0.8978078961372375,
0.22092390060424805,
0.17553496360778809,
-0.5995830297470093,
-0.12490934133529663,
0.12944941222667694,
-0.800244927406311,
1.4519884586334229,
0.36215054988861084,
-0.38779565691947937,
-0.084801085293293,
-0.2166816145181656,
-0.5569479465484619,
-0.3617423474788666,
0.17693424224853516,
0.19836567342281342,
0.06537949293851852,
-0.19393903017044067,
0.70679771900177,
0.23033611476421356,
0.02263256534934044,
0.4974764883518219,
-0.1830608993768692,
-0.5388389825820923,
-0.0718790665268898,
-0.7986622452735901,
-0.019411060959100723,
-0.16916804015636444,
-0.13913041353225708,
0.014652969315648079,
0.1329554170370102,
-0.0729495957493782,
0.31168505549430847,
0.1464729607105255,
-0.025549322366714478,
0.9486396312713623,
-0.21160756051540375,
0.008100437931716442,
0.1271047592163086,
-0.8256356716156006,
0.07953356206417084,
-0.5209422707557678,
0.7566453218460083,
0.282650887966156,
0.29823365807533264,
0.3316722512245178,
1.0076563358306885,
0.3258908689022064,
0.2932041585445404,
-0.2344704568386078,
-0.2475302666425705,
-0.6174222230911255,
0.4024524688720703,
-0.6976693868637085,
0.1292097121477127,
0.3458510637283325,
-0.29406964778900146,
-0.5757503509521484,
-0.26754820346832275,
0.3100473880767822,
0.20288464426994324,
0.466452956199646,
0.4054306149482727,
-0.037409521639347076,
-0.20942312479019165,
-0.2737009525299072,
0.887204110622406,
0.3229483366012573,
0.10544119030237198,
-0.011004077270627022,
0.695765495300293,
-0.1664559692144394,
-0.220206618309021,
-0.4669662117958069,
0.10692179203033447,
-0.5085193514823914,
0.10938926786184311,
-0.7889518737792969,
0.41269317269325256,
-0.5283331871032715,
-1.225817322731018,
0.7516862750053406,
0.9375156760215759,
0.5488673448562622,
-0.574329137802124,
0.21654978394508362,
0.16247549653053284,
-0.028842438012361526,
-0.3967913091182709,
-0.07529003173112869,
-0.08267231285572052,
0.3195612132549286,
0.0440271832048893,
0.10853870213031769,
0.37098392844200134,
0.07867549359798431,
-0.6976128220558167,
0.1522645652294159,
-0.47993624210357666,
-0.34890425205230713,
-0.06308140605688095,
0.08381454646587372,
-0.0706198588013649,
0.9429644346237183,
-0.41817688941955566
] |
261001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Marys%20River%20%28Michigan%E2%80%93Ontario%29 | St. Marys River (Michigan–Ontario) | The St. Marys River, sometimes written St. Mary's River, drains Lake Superior, starting at the end of Whitefish Bay and flowing southeast into Lake Huron, with a fall of . For its entire length it is an international border, separating Michigan in the United States from Ontario, Canada.
The twin cities of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, and Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan are connected across the St. Marys River by the Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge. The St. Marys Rapids are just below the river's exit from Lake Superior and can be bypassed by huge freight ships through the man-made Soo Locks and the Sault Ste. Marie Canal.
Two of the Ontario tributaries of this river are the Garden River and the Bar River. Other Canadian tributaries include Fort Creek, the Root River, the Little Carp River, the Big Carp River, the Lower Echo River, Desbarats River, and the Two Tree River. The American tributaries to the St. Marys River are the Gogomain River, the Munuscong River, the Little Munuscong River, the Charlotte River, and the Waiska River.
History
Before Europeans arrived, Ojibwe (Chippewa) Indigenous Americans fished, traded, and maintained a portage around the rapids of the St. Marys River, which they referred to as , meaning "at the cascading rapids". French explorer Étienne Brûlé was the first European to travel up the rapids in about 1621. In 1641 Jesuit priests Isaac Jogues and Charles Raymbault ventured the same route as Brûlé, finding many Ojibwe at the rapids, and named it Sault Ste. Marie. Sault (Middle and early Modern French spelling of ) means "jump"; hence, the secondary meaning "rapids" because the water 'jumps.'
Fort St. Joseph was built on the Canadian shore in 1796 to protect a trading post, and ensure continued British control of the area. The fort fulfilled its role in the War of 1812.
The first modern lock was completed in May 1855 by Erastus Corning's St. Mary's Falls Ship Canal Company, and was known as the "American Lock". Today, there are four parallel locks on the American side of the river, although only two are in regular use. The Soo Locks became part of the Great Lakes Waterway system in 1959.
Partially due to the American refusal of passage through the Soo Locks during the Wolseley Expedition, a Canadian Lock was built in 1895. The current Canadian Lock is used for recreational boats and is a National Historic Site of Canada.
During World War II, the Soo Locks and the St. Marys River waterway were heavily guarded by U.S. and Canadian forces coordinated by the U.S. Army's Central Defense Command. During the waterway's usable season from March through November, 90 percent of the United States' iron ore production for domestic use passed through it in 1939, making the waterway critical to maintaining war production. A battalion of infantry, stationed at nearby Fort Brady, provided security beginning just after the outbreak of the European war in September 1939; this was reduced to a company in mid-1940 and replaced by a military police battalion in May 1941. After Pearl Harbor in December 1941, fear of possible air or paratroop attacks by German forces led to a major expansion of defence measures. Scenarios envisioned included U-boats in Hudson Bay launching attack aircraft, and one-way bombing or paratroop missions along a great circle route from German-occupied Norway. Units deployed included the 131st Infantry Regiment, an anti-aircraft regiment, and a barrage balloon battalion for a total in mid-1942 of 7,000 troops in the area. Canada provided an anti-aircraft battalion, elements of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, barracks and defensive positions for some of the U.S. force, and a warning system of 266 aircraft observation posts of the Aircraft Identity Corps extending northward to Hudson Bay. This was augmented by five U.S.-staffed radar stations in northern Ontario. By late 1943, with no threat emerging and spare components stockpiled in the event of lock damage, the U.S. forces were cut to 2,500 troops, and the AA and air warning defences were abandoned. In January 1944 the garrison was further reduced to a single military police battalion.
Islands
Drummond Island (Michigan)
Neebish Island (Michigan)
St. Joseph Island (Ontario)
Squirrel Island (Ontario / Garden River First Nation)
Sugar Island (Michigan)
Whitefish Island (Ontario / Batchewana First Nation)
Lime Island (Michigan)
Works
Bridges
The Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge, a steel truss arch bridge, takes road traffic across the river. Directly to the west is the Sault Ste. Marie International Railroad Bridge, which carries rail traffic on a single set of tracks.
Power plants
The Edison Sault Electric Hydroelectric Plant, located at the eastern end of the Sault Ste. Marie Power Canal which runs between Lake Superior and Lake Huron through the city south of the American locks, is one of the longest hydroelectric plants in the world at in length. The plant consists of 74 three-phase generators capable of generating 25 to 30 megawatts. It was completed in 1902. The hydro plant is faced with stone quarried during the excavation of the Sault Ste. Marie Power Canal.
The United States Army Corps of Engineers owns and operates a hydroelectric generating plant directly north of the American locks.
Finally, the Francis H. Clergue Generating Station, owned and operated by Brookfield Renewable Energy, Inc., is a hydroelectric generating plant located directly north of the Canadian lock with a generating capacity of 52 MW. It was completed in 1981.
Canal
The Edison Sault Power Canal is used to power the Saint Marys Falls Hydropower Plant at its eastern end. The canal separated downtown Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, from its mainland, making it an island. It was begun in September 1898 as the Michigan Lake Superior Power Company Canal, but completed by Edison Sault Electric Company in June 1902. Measured from its headgates to its end at the power plant, it is in length, between wide, and deep. The water runs down the canal at speeds upwards of .
Locks
The American Soo Locks are the major transportation route around the St. Marys Rapids, but the Canadian Sault Ste. Marie Canal is still used by recreational and tour boats.
Other works
A set of compensating works are located at the mouth of the rapids, which are used to control the outflow of water from Lake Superior. The works consists of 16 gates, half of which are on the American side, and the other half on the Canadian side of the river. They were completed between 1901 and 1921. This flow is controlled by the International Joint Commission.
A concrete berm was constructed along the north side of the rapids as remedial works to protect fish spawning habitat from lower outflow through the rapids. This was due, in part, to an increase of water outflow from the three hydroelectric dams.
Pollution
The Saint Marys River is listed as a Great Lakes Areas of Concern in the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement between the United States and Canada.
See also
List of rivers of Michigan
List of rivers of Ontario
References
External links
Canadian Heritage web site for St. Marys River
GreatLakes.net Real time Water levels on St. Marys River (with map)
Great Lakes Waterway
Sault Ste. Marie
Canadian Heritage Rivers
Border rivers
Rivers of Michigan
Rivers of Algoma District
Straits of Michigan
Straits of Canada
International rivers of North America
Canada–United States border
Tributaries of Lake Huron
Rivers of Chippewa County, Michigan
Landforms of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario | [
-0.505957841873169,
0.5849005579948425,
0.05047749727964401,
0.055498845875263214,
0.12111391872167587,
0.8293830752372742,
1.0515798330307007,
0.904556930065155,
0.0976889580488205,
-1.1205066442489624,
-0.03981456160545349,
0.6170090436935425,
0.2518109977245331,
0.3799452781677246,
-0.23581157624721527,
0.21123568713665009,
-0.2514219880104065,
0.5298305749893188,
0.7069069147109985,
-0.8426267504692078,
-0.14219039678573608,
-0.13173162937164307,
0.5416010022163391,
0.6482414603233337,
0.10715518146753311,
0.45876646041870117,
0.45706695318222046,
0.06510131806135178,
0.2737500071525574,
-0.017640693113207817,
0.20749551057815552,
0.5865070819854736,
0.5514549612998962,
-0.49493151903152466,
0.10887368023395538,
-0.3754747211933136,
0.12949714064598083,
-0.34079229831695557,
-0.5601538419723511,
-0.5065954923629761,
-0.38794592022895813,
-0.015784457325935364,
-0.23315641283988953,
0.36226925253868103,
0.7290307879447937,
0.4542788565158844,
-1.5743054151535034,
-0.6889663934707642,
-1.0362651348114014,
0.11726038157939911,
-0.26951122283935547,
0.16428780555725098,
0.24465471506118774,
0.09533059597015381,
-0.2311505824327469,
0.36196473240852356,
-0.7370501160621643,
0.4550771117210388,
0.25898903608322144,
0.09745325148105621,
0.41770634055137634,
0.35337311029434204,
-0.21309225261211395,
0.6126734614372253,
-0.20249657332897186,
-0.11174674332141876,
0.2784128189086914,
0.4572475254535675,
-0.9830551147460938,
-0.297288715839386,
0.3014441430568695,
-0.4676048457622528,
-0.04226728901267052,
0.5510014295578003,
-0.15563425421714783,
-0.1757008582353592,
-0.41243067383766174,
0.0016712448559701443,
-0.20336183905601501,
-0.24583525955677032,
0.21894490718841553,
0.6640679836273193,
0.6369569897651672,
0.5884791612625122,
0.26671329140663147,
0.5056625604629517,
-0.4549620449542999,
-0.011153202503919601,
0.09605121612548828,
0.8486262559890747,
-1.0953410863876343,
0.20057713985443115,
0.36155247688293457,
-0.1626090705394745,
0.372317373752594,
0.21516352891921997,
-0.07189816981554031,
0.17032666504383087,
0.3210690915584564,
0.3257432281970978,
-0.258552610874176,
-0.15967987477779388,
0.5092001557350159,
0.24154427647590637,
-0.8097800612449646,
-0.35698792338371277,
-0.3545610308647156,
-0.1302681267261505,
0.26142916083335876,
-1.0612764358520508,
-0.11265719681978226,
0.6447960734367371,
-0.3526950478553772,
0.08714956790208817,
0.06061071902513504,
0.10699976235628128,
0.4726085364818573,
-0.4093571901321411,
-0.3950483202934265,
-0.4237326681613922,
0.7248451709747314,
-0.10086506605148315,
0.365867555141449,
-0.48088714480400085,
0.24983562529087067,
0.30707982182502747,
0.033879999071359634,
-0.39606043696403503,
0.24871501326560974,
0.050929855555295944,
0.06912998110055923,
1.0504610538482666,
-0.15973296761512756,
-0.9273812174797058,
-0.6362715363502502,
-0.5802431702613831,
0.2540420591831207,
0.056965336203575134,
-0.06478838622570038,
0.3446139693260193,
-0.682798445224762,
-0.1778837889432907,
-1.2662732601165771,
-0.5798198580741882,
0.19752652943134308,
0.4017161428928375,
-0.532213568687439,
0.059286732226610184,
0.3704584836959839,
-0.1280718594789505,
0.32561179995536804,
0.39583805203437805,
-0.6547442674636841,
0.2879314422607422,
-0.11699816584587097,
0.330922931432724,
0.976323127746582,
0.0378238819539547,
0.11046738177537918,
0.8984367847442627,
0.19461989402770996,
0.7760522365570068,
0.5060274004936218,
-0.45493948459625244,
-0.14300379157066345,
-0.1746469885110855,
0.17001798748970032,
-0.6640642285346985,
0.1709979623556137,
-0.20280255377292633,
0.12219228595495224,
-0.2529480755329132,
0.3850381076335907,
-0.5007747411727905,
0.06421434134244919,
-0.3947276175022125,
0.6423534750938416,
0.773425817489624,
0.04165458679199219,
-0.56510990858078,
-0.47888869047164917,
0.46330776810646057,
-0.10358786582946777,
-0.17699146270751953,
-0.5582435727119446,
0.2930191457271576,
0.5785089135169983,
0.1769506186246872,
-0.34568479657173157,
0.3685770034790039,
0.7464521527290344,
-0.4763038456439972,
0.31876999139785767,
-0.47946080565452576,
0.5181074142456055,
0.25584760308265686,
-0.5241401195526123,
0.19777680933475494,
-0.16059021651744843,
0.0001901303039630875,
-0.3983629643917084,
-0.06381065398454666,
0.21952594816684723,
-0.6044347882270813,
-1.6357382535934448,
1.109427571296692,
-0.0191984623670578,
-0.31987136602401733,
0.4617219865322113,
0.48417916893959045,
0.02821715548634529,
-0.4102291762828827,
-0.2540089786052704,
-0.08509055525064468,
0.503062903881073,
-0.21607081592082977,
0.05889890715479851,
-0.4994206130504608,
0.19562794268131256,
-0.15207307040691376,
0.5758154392242432,
0.1423373967409134,
0.6313321590423584,
0.03573017194867134,
-0.7261409163475037,
0.05100344493985176,
0.16396668553352356,
0.3538592755794525,
-0.14822009205818176,
-0.6362919807434082,
-0.07016317546367645,
0.4081669747829437,
0.21520192921161652,
-0.032032761722803116,
-0.26711535453796387,
-0.5732880234718323,
0.09629933536052704,
-0.11552242189645767,
0.8002498745918274,
0.5332522392272949,
0.3125876784324646,
-0.14574891328811646,
-0.5419245958328247,
0.2025461196899414,
0.1614699810743332,
0.17005351185798645,
0.8516069054603577,
0.05982514098286629,
-0.39628738164901733,
-0.5662388801574707,
0.4124593734741211,
0.22237105667591095,
0.42375826835632324,
0.026202697306871414,
0.32478004693984985,
-0.1438751369714737,
0.027228975668549538,
-0.007349879015237093,
-0.2962028682231903,
0.2667732834815979,
-0.21409593522548676,
-0.24739933013916016,
-0.3739696145057678,
0.039961256086826324,
-0.2042507827281952,
-0.1694621741771698,
-0.6423583030700684,
-0.4761694669723511,
0.29516151547431946,
0.2787960469722748,
0.03417253866791725,
0.1512202024459839,
-0.016916101798415184,
-1.6453440189361572,
0.5722143650054932,
1.0444152355194092,
0.004434088245034218,
0.23137861490249634,
-0.27843865752220154,
-0.29962247610092163,
0.07096610963344574,
0.9790179133415222,
-0.037389349192380905,
-0.3355686664581299,
-0.1088968962430954,
0.27823367714881897,
0.19430185854434967,
0.05918406322598457,
-0.19920478761196136,
0.03504295274615288,
0.178537055850029,
-0.5302967429161072,
-0.06329071521759033,
0.16277633607387543,
0.3143664300441742,
-0.5017033815383911,
0.3399069905281067,
0.18901480734348297,
0.35995981097221375,
-0.5416542887687683,
-0.45932331681251526,
0.8351055979728699,
-0.0029134112410247326,
-0.05451811105012894,
0.2745611071586609,
-0.38353481888771057,
0.1774214506149292,
-0.03465143218636513,
-5.202068328857422,
-0.503718912601471,
-0.40026965737342834,
0.06764863431453705,
0.38731977343559265,
-0.7330767512321472,
0.15482333302497864,
-0.036480799317359924,
-0.3470528721809387,
0.0098212119191885,
0.17107082903385162,
0.05683566629886627,
-0.20525123178958893,
0.053084325045347214,
0.5416345000267029,
-0.20129333436489105,
0.2825610935688019,
-0.5855185389518738,
0.12592563033103943,
0.024267619475722313,
-0.06952878087759018,
0.037300243973731995,
0.00620363000780344,
-0.11595088988542557,
0.10138514637947083,
0.6423982977867126,
-0.12741027772426605,
-0.3644256889820099,
-0.7382857203483582,
-0.18117129802703857,
-0.2502368092536926,
-0.09711701422929764,
0.10875088721513748,
-0.613195538520813,
-0.02020672895014286,
-0.4674430191516876,
0.020575400441884995,
0.7786294221878052,
1.223654866218567,
-0.47815316915512085,
-0.20635798573493958,
0.10521543771028519,
0.27756941318511963,
0.06629595905542374,
0.2709718346595764,
-0.27622976899147034,
-0.9198408126831055,
-0.23976726830005646,
-0.21401779353618622,
0.7606686353683472,
-0.030468149110674858,
-0.3080500662326813,
1.0260051488876343,
-0.3156358599662781,
0.3347490429878235,
-1.1114460229873657,
0.6078673601150513,
-0.2138344794511795,
0.26074326038360596,
0.2031792849302292,
-0.037140458822250366,
-0.22304606437683105,
0.038977738469839096,
0.19463999569416046,
-0.1489914357662201,
-0.6354389786720276,
-0.33533546328544617,
0.15473252534866333,
0.13256563246250153,
0.1098138689994812,
-0.45635828375816345,
0.24599017202854156,
-0.26363280415534973,
-0.6643826365470886,
-0.614104688167572,
-0.323081374168396,
-1.2213033437728882,
0.5326990485191345,
0.39159566164016724,
-0.31084564328193665,
-0.03929269686341286,
-0.16698656976222992,
0.4211489260196686,
1.0387498140335083,
0.0920608788728714,
-0.2751345932483673,
-0.019885223358869553,
-0.008307794108986855,
-0.3632580041885376,
-0.33170172572135925,
-0.13757722079753876,
0.07538753002882004,
0.5472155213356018,
0.22868403792381287,
0.1484687477350235,
-0.12078837305307388,
0.7714058756828308,
-0.1996230036020279,
-0.2775377631187439,
-0.9481370449066162,
0.6578006744384766,
-0.19670067727565765,
0.33861029148101807,
-0.500456690788269,
-0.27840456366539,
-0.42327719926834106,
-0.12934398651123047,
0.06920650601387024,
0.3421003520488739,
-0.2921748161315918,
-0.2948561906814575,
-0.7393898963928223,
-0.5526994466781616,
-0.5914919972419739,
0.23786631226539612,
0.2011636197566986,
-0.5706849098205566,
0.5587656497955322,
0.29286864399909973,
0.39247170090675354,
-0.00738338241353631,
0.5223517417907715,
0.042979300022125244,
0.19560573995113373,
0.5427035689353943,
0.05791158229112625,
0.5368618965148926,
0.5155001878738403,
-0.6980159878730774,
0.7581109404563904,
-0.038536593317985535,
-0.305686354637146,
0.15550200641155243,
-0.5450779795646667,
-0.0396902933716774,
-0.0985194519162178,
-0.21653535962104797,
-0.3706144392490387,
0.27611005306243896,
-0.20850372314453125,
0.03335365280508995,
0.464891642332077,
-0.30759501457214355,
0.5572675466537476,
-0.23347768187522888,
0.8993690013885498,
-0.2783399224281311,
-0.031217698007822037,
-0.18645866215229034,
0.45169875025749207,
-0.48287904262542725,
-0.8215779662132263,
0.017377760261297226,
-0.21297204494476318,
0.1514783799648285,
-0.53738933801651,
0.04313134774565697,
0.037011418491601944,
0.031592026352882385,
0.3843151926994324,
0.7067493796348572,
-0.13892097771167755,
-0.7367254495620728,
0.1320744901895523,
-0.0948818102478981,
0.39455699920654297,
0.10540219396352768,
-0.48170289397239685,
-0.334526002407074,
0.5594474673271179,
0.3427094519138336,
0.29373008012771606,
-0.6078721880912781,
0.01499455701559782,
0.08566127717494965,
-0.1844780594110489,
-0.08069753646850586,
0.2707412838935852,
0.35289624333381653,
0.06905829906463623,
-0.10947372019290924,
-0.4901571571826935,
0.006499586161226034,
0.6417416334152222,
0.14137952029705048,
-0.6420047879219055,
-0.09777054935693741,
-0.10222672671079636,
-0.0695258229970932,
0.7649744749069214,
0.01920415461063385,
-0.2842378318309784,
0.1677081286907196,
0.4440860152244568,
-0.08287900686264038,
0.06791853159666061,
0.14866867661476135,
0.39539602398872375,
0.04578312858939171,
-0.19927078485488892,
0.26217690110206604,
0.2898975908756256,
-0.5360049605369568,
0.624053418636322,
-0.24696463346481323,
-0.650844395160675,
0.5065008997917175,
0.5279231071472168,
-0.7440446615219116,
0.2646917998790741,
0.6013494729995728,
-0.44265151023864746,
0.887050449848175,
0.5938306450843811,
-0.7314773201942444,
0.11982845515012741,
0.25021907687187195,
0.24533648788928986,
-0.4935295879840851,
-0.32345670461654663,
-0.5100620985031128,
-0.08657722175121307,
-0.22460594773292542,
-0.2757147550582886,
-0.1489538848400116,
0.8517057299613953,
0.5707188844680786,
-0.10213429480791092,
0.3085266351699829,
-0.43414372205734253,
-0.3596506714820862,
-0.005075417459011078,
0.3760659396648407,
-0.17351849377155304,
0.7679610252380371,
0.05002937465906143,
0.19161193072795868,
-0.09190727025270462,
-0.07743686437606812,
0.17676489055156708,
-0.20120325684547424,
0.6026664972305298,
-0.16236281394958496,
-0.5488075017929077,
-0.05026731267571449,
0.35172808170318604,
0.21598590910434723,
-0.4335450828075409,
-0.5078686475753784,
0.08418653160333633,
0.6001312732696533,
-0.23159930109977722,
-0.4054923951625824,
-0.6265713572502136,
0.9987916946411133,
-0.3031911551952362,
-0.15863820910453796,
0.06087837740778923,
-0.18218281865119934,
0.2892272174358368,
-0.0727362260222435,
-0.378877192735672,
-0.06768941879272461,
0.9095017910003662,
0.42756766080856323,
-0.1603139489889145,
-0.33978208899497986,
-0.33120641112327576,
0.28512677550315857,
-0.27173954248428345,
0.1462744176387787,
-0.04450536146759987,
-0.15624643862247467,
0.15454863011837006,
-0.44489964842796326,
-0.24550677835941315,
-0.41874343156814575,
-0.10926132649183273,
0.5857029557228088,
-0.0060931104235351086,
0.24094590544700623,
0.42141157388687134,
-0.15314503014087677,
-0.1365133821964264,
0.699842095375061,
-0.08475786447525024,
0.15023908019065857,
0.2104008048772812,
0.04880859702825546,
0.6995496153831482,
0.14560304582118988,
-0.20289666950702667,
0.08922883123159409,
-0.16710947453975677,
-0.27963003516197205,
0.057945940643548965,
0.16515104472637177,
-0.020868200808763504,
-0.07520196586847305,
-0.04218505322933197,
-1.0891642570495605,
0.5155484676361084,
0.12791115045547485,
-0.41988781094551086,
0.27434584498405457,
0.4199024736881256,
-0.43931102752685547,
-0.16550084948539734,
-0.4649607539176941,
-0.17487895488739014,
0.5325745344161987,
0.3552958071231842,
0.12258248776197433,
0.48266956210136414,
-0.25030165910720825,
0.4082745909690857,
0.07644178718328476,
-0.692852258682251,
0.05290854349732399,
0.0828874260187149,
-0.45707616209983826,
-0.006042610853910446,
0.5858131051063538,
0.4256037771701813,
0.037512507289648056,
1.0105432271957397,
-0.38306477665901184,
-0.9664077162742615,
0.34721773862838745,
0.7174327969551086,
-0.09065625071525574,
-0.0019045287044718862,
-0.9446595311164856,
0.6744610667228699,
-0.5952459573745728,
-0.37242865562438965,
0.28535953164100647,
-0.45906591415405273,
-0.520835816860199,
0.3057536780834198,
0.5986005663871765,
0.38610541820526123,
-0.701467752456665,
0.012047545053064823,
-0.02751702070236206,
-0.06822580099105835,
0.14460089802742004,
-0.00599018344655633,
-0.6374300718307495,
0.061596114188432693,
0.15767188370227814,
-0.4699946939945221,
-0.1688293069601059,
0.17453010380268097,
-0.012408190406858921,
0.03238367289304733,
0.4977248013019562,
-0.6118745803833008,
-0.13527292013168335,
-1.5496532917022705,
-0.31633955240249634,
0.2960756719112396,
-0.10611235350370407,
-0.055228088051080704,
-0.20671391487121582,
-0.4412088692188263,
0.6963251233100891,
-0.6752904653549194,
-0.14172028005123138,
0.0988430380821228,
-0.29040971398353577,
0.3092210590839386,
-0.010050899349153042,
0.04917340725660324,
0.49697232246398926,
0.3508950173854828,
-0.4260852038860321,
0.2005666345357895,
-0.024306517094373703,
-0.15787972509860992,
-0.40279319882392883,
0.511470377445221,
-0.2590102553367615,
-0.18594859540462494,
-0.0697857216000557,
-0.39536866545677185,
0.2805643081665039,
0.007215891964733601,
-0.6093508005142212,
-0.25817471742630005,
-0.1253642588853836,
-0.1830103099346161,
0.2904706597328186,
0.27969297766685486,
-0.5579536557197571,
-0.23754538595676422,
-0.5636284947395325,
0.5540550351142883,
0.35586440563201904,
0.7585296034812927,
0.22883610427379608,
0.3357822000980377,
-0.17383314669132233,
0.3421798348426819,
-0.13234272599220276,
0.4113273024559021,
-0.6037740707397461,
-0.34859949350357056,
-0.23384526371955872,
0.2371084988117218,
0.000043206673581153154,
0.44638583064079285,
-0.4841401278972626,
0.5845513343811035,
-0.15544132888317108,
0.4990677833557129,
0.7280527353286743,
-0.3024725019931793,
0.23573125898838043,
-0.10476168990135193,
0.012521276250481606,
-0.4129812717437744,
0.41957420110702515,
0.5122895240783691,
0.012686421163380146,
-0.4524398446083069,
-0.6032760739326477,
-0.06720758229494095,
-0.3381569981575012,
-0.4606172740459442,
-0.10438738763332367,
0.040611717849969864,
-0.08271327614784241,
1.0051965713500977,
-0.11641015857458115,
0.0561286024749279,
0.20134375989437103,
0.1710641235113144,
0.42625555396080017,
-0.15648891031742096,
-0.46119076013565063,
-0.012769216671586037,
0.48364582657814026,
0.31640878319740295,
-2.7770678997039795,
-0.3399454951286316,
-0.3607617914676666,
-0.4604332149028778,
-0.16726461052894592,
-0.10036927461624146,
0.14602698385715485,
-0.03507198020815849,
-0.03055577352643013,
0.2100256234407425,
-0.09120243042707443,
-0.3315769135951996,
0.6828665733337402,
-0.6787884831428528,
0.12962238490581512,
0.4160911738872528
] |
261002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic%20sign | Traffic sign | Traffic signs or road signs are signs erected at the side of or above roads to give instructions or provide information to road users. The earliest signs were simple wooden or stone milestones. Later, signs with directional arms were introduced, for example the fingerposts in the United Kingdom and their wooden counterparts in Saxony.
With traffic volumes increasing since the 1930s, many countries have adopted pictorial signs or otherwise simplified and standardized their signs to overcome language barriers, and enhance traffic safety. Such pictorial signs use symbols (often silhouettes) in place of words and are usually based on international protocols. Such signs were first developed in Europe, and have been adopted by most countries to varying degrees.
International conventions
Various international conventions have helped to achieve a degree of uniformity in Traffic Signing in various countries.
Categories
Traffic signs can be grouped into several types. For example, Annexe 1 of the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals (1968), which on 30 June 2004 had 52 signatory countries, defines eight categories of signs:
A. Danger warning signs
B. Priority signs
C. Prohibitory or restrictive signs
D. Mandatory signs
E. Special regulation signs
F. Information, facilities, or service signs
G. Direction, position, or indication signs
H. Additional panels
In the United States, Canada, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand signs are categorized as follows:
Regulatory signs
Warning signs
Guide signs
Street name signs
Route marker signs
Expressway signs
Freeway signs
Welcome signs
Informational signs
Recreation and cultural interest signs
Emergency management (civil defense) signs
Temporary traffic control (construction or work zone) signs
School signs
Railroad and light rail signs
Bicycle signs
In the United States, the categories, placement, and graphic standards for traffic signs and pavement markings are legally defined in the Federal Highway Administration's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices as the standard.
A rather informal distinction among the directional signs is the one between advance directional signs, interchange directional signs, and reassurance signs. Advance directional signs appear at a certain distance from the interchange, giving information for each direction. A number of countries do not give information for the road ahead (so-called "pull-through" signs), and only for the directions left and right. Advance directional signs enable drivers to take precautions for the exit (e.g., switch lanes, double check whether this is the correct exit, slow down).
They often do not appear on lesser roads, but are normally posted on expressways and motorways, as drivers would be missing exits without them. While each nation has its own system, the first approach sign for a motorway exit is mostly placed at least from the actual interchange. After that sign, one or two additional advance directional signs typically follow before the actual interchange itself.
History
The earliest road signs were milestones, giving distance or direction; for example, the Romans erected stone columns throughout their empire giving the distance to Rome. According to Strabo, Mauryas erected signboards at distance of 10 stades to mark their roads. In the Middle Ages, multidirectional signs at intersections became common, giving directions to cities and towns.
In 1686, the first known Traffic Regulation Act in Europe is established by King Peter II of Portugal. This act foresees the placement of priority signs in the narrowest streets of Lisbon, stating which traffic should back up to give way. One of these signs still exists at Salvador street, in the neighborhood of Alfama.
The first modern road signs erected on a wide scale were designed for riders of high or "ordinary" bicycles in the late 1870s and early 1880s. These machines were fast, silent and their nature made them difficult to control, moreover their riders travelled considerable distances and often preferred to tour on unfamiliar roads. For such riders, cycling organizations began to erect signs that warned of potential hazards ahead (particularly steep hills), rather than merely giving distance or directions to places, thereby contributing the sign type that defines "modern" traffic signs.
The development of automobiles encouraged more complex signage systems using more than just text-based notices. One of the first modern-day road sign systems was devised by the Italian Touring Club in 1895. By 1900, a Congress of the International League of Touring Organizations in Paris was considering proposals for standardization of road signage. In 1903 the British government introduced four "national" signs based on shape, but the basic patterns of most traffic signs were set at the 1908 International Road Congress in Paris. In 1909, nine European governments agreed on the use of four pictorial symbols, indicating "bump", "curve", "intersection", and "grade-level railroad crossing". The intensive work on international road signs that took place between 1926 and 1949 eventually led to the development of the European road sign system. Both Britain and the United States developed their own road signage systems, both of which were adopted or modified by many other nations in their respective spheres of influence. The UK adopted a version of the European road signs in 1964 and, over past decades, North American signage began using some symbols and graphics mixed in with English.
In the U.S., the first road signs were erected by the American Automobile Association (AAA). Starting in 1906, regional AAA clubs began paying for and installing wooden signs to help motorists find their way. In 1914, AAA started a cohesive transcontinental signage project, installing more than 4,000 signs in one stretch between Los Angeles and Kansas City alone.
Over the years, change was gradual. Pre-industrial signs were stone or wood, but with the development of Darby's method of smelting iron using coke-painted cast iron became favoured in the late 18th and 19th centuries. Cast iron continued to be used until the mid-20th century, but it was gradually displaced by aluminium or other materials and processes, such as vitreous enamelled and/or pressed malleable iron, or (later) steel. Since 1945 most signs have been made from sheet aluminium with adhesive plastic coatings; these are normally retroreflective for nighttime and low-light visibility. Before the development of reflective plastics, reflectivity was provided by glass reflectors set into the lettering and symbols.
New generations of traffic signs based on electronic displays can also change their text (or, in some countries, symbols) to provide for "intelligent control" linked to automated traffic sensors or remote manual input. In over 20 countries, real-time Traffic Message Channel incident warnings are conveyed directly to vehicle navigation systems using inaudible signals carried via FM radio, 3G cellular data and satellite broadcasts. Finally, cars can pay tolls and trucks pass safety screening checks using video numberplate scanning, or RFID transponders in windshields linked to antennae over the road, in support of on-board signalling, toll collection, and travel time monitoring.
Yet another "medium" for transferring information ordinarily associated with visible signs is RIAS (Remote Infrared Audible Signage), e.g., "talking signs" for print-handicapped (including blind/low-vision/illiterate) people. These are infra-red transmitters serving the same purpose as the usual graphic signs when received by an appropriate device such as a hand-held receiver or one built into a cell phone.
Then, finally, in 1914, the world's first electric traffic signal is put into place on the corner of Euclid Avenue and East 105th Street in Cleveland, Ohio, on August 5.
Africa
Mauritius
Road signs in Mauritius are regulated by the Traffic Signs Regulations 1990. They are particularly modelled on the British road signs since Mauritius is a former British colony. Mauritius has left-hand traffic.
Sierra Leone
Road signs in Sierra Leone are standardized road signs and closely follow those used in Italy with certain distinctions. They are written in English.
Angola
Road signs in Angola are particularly modelled on the Portuguese road signs since Angola is a former Portuguese colony.
Asia
Cambodia
Road signs in Cambodia using Helvetica for English text.
China
Warning signs in China are triangular with a black border, yellow background and black symbol.
Mandatory signs generally follow European conventions (circular with red border/blue circle) with some local variations.
Direction signs are:
Green for expressways
Brown for tourist attractions
And blue for other roads.
Occasionally black on white is used for directions to local facilities.
Hong Kong
Hong Kong's traffic signs follow the British road sign conventions and are bi-lingual in English and Chinese (English on top, and Traditional Chinese characters at the bottom).
India
Road signs in the Republic of India are similar to those used in some parts of the United Kingdom, except that they are multilingual. Most urban roads and state highways have signs in the state language and English. National highways have signs in the state language and English
Indonesia
Iran
Road signs in Iran mainly follow the Vienna Convention. Signs are in Persian and English.
Israel
Road signs in Israel mainly follow the Vienna Convention, but have some variants.
Japan
Road signs in Japan are either controlled by local police authorities under or by other road-controlling entities including Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, local municipalities, NEXCO (companies controlling expressways), under . Most of the design of the road signs in Japan are similar to the signs on the Vienna Convention, except for some significant variances, such as stop sign with a red downward triangle. The main signs are categorized into four meaning types:
Guidance (white characters on blue in general – on green in expressways),
Warning (black characters and symbols on yellow diamond),
Regulation (red or blue circle, depending on prohibition or regulation),
And instruction (mostly white characters or symbols on blue square).
Macau
Road signs in Macau are inherited from pre-1994/1998 reform Portuguese road signages. They are written in Chinese and Portuguese.
North Korea
Pakistan
Philippines
Road signs in the Philippines are standardized in the Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual, published by the Department of Public Works and Highways. Philippine road signage practice closely follow those used in Europe, but with local adaptations and some minor influences from the US MUTCD and Australian road signs. However, some road signs may differ by locale, and mostly diverge from the national standard. For example, the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) has used pink and light blue in its signage for which it has been heavily criticised.
Road signs in the Philippines are classified as:
Regulatory signs
Warning signs
Guide signs
Expressway signs
Traffic instruction signs
Regulatory road signs – other than the stop and give way signs – are generally circular, with (for prohibitions) a black symbol on a white background within a red border, or (for mandatory instructions) a white symbol on a blue background. In some cases circular regulatory signs are placed on white rectangular panels together with text supplementing their meanings.
Most warning signs display a black symbol on a white background within a red-bordered equilateral triangle. Since 2012, however, a more visibly distinctive design (taken from that used for school signs in the US) has been adopted for pedestrian-related signs: these consist of a fluorescent yellow-green pentagon with black border and symbol. Additional panels may be placed below signs to supplement their meanings.
Guide signs are divided into directional signs, service area signs, route markers, and tourist-related signs, with influence from both American and Australian practice. Directional signs use a green background with white letters and arrows. Service area signs use a blue background with white letters, arrows, and symbols. Tourist-related signs use a brown background with white letters, arrows, and symbols. The route marker sign, excluding the AH26 route marker, is based on the Australian National Route marker, but reserved for future use.
Signs on expressways mostly take elements from Australian motorway/freeway signs. Exit signs, wrong way signs and start/end of expressway signs are very similar to Australian freeway signage. Traffic instruction signs are textual signs used to supplement warning and regulatory signs.
Saudi Arabia
Road signs in Saudi Arabia frequently show their text both in Arabic and English. Road signs also indicate which part of the road is for Muslims, and which part is for non-Muslims, for instance near Mecca.
Singapore
Singapore's traffic signs closely follow British road sign conventions, although the government has introduced some changes to them.
South Korea
Sri Lanka
Road signs in Sri Lanka are standardized road signs and closely follow those used in Europe with certain distinctions. A number of changes have introduced road signs that suit local roads and systems. Sri Lankan government announced by a gazette that aimed to give signage a face-lift and introduce over 100 new road traffic signs.
Thailand
United Arab Emirates
Vietnam
Road signs in Vietnam are standardized road signs closely follow those used in China with certain distinctions. They are written in Vietnamese.
Europe
The standardization of traffic signs in Europe commenced with the signing of the 1931 Geneva Convention concerning the Unification of Road Signals by several countries. The 1931 Convention rules were developed in the 1949 Geneva Protocol on Road Signs and Signals.
In 1968, the European countries signed the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic treaty, with the aim of standardizing traffic regulations in participating countries in order to facilitate international road traffic and to increase road safety. Part of the treaty was the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, which defined the traffic signs and signals. As a result, in Western Europe the traffic signs are well standardized, although there are still some country-specific exceptions, mostly dating from the pre-1968 era.
The principle of the European traffic sign standard is that certain shapes and colours are to be used with consistent meanings:
Triangular signs (black symbols on a white or yellow background) warn of dangers. The Vienna Convention additionally allows an alternative shape for such signs, namely a right-angled diamond – although in Europe this shape is regularly used only in the Republic of Ireland.
Regulatory signs are round: those indicating a prohibition or limit are black on white (or yellow) with a red border; those giving a mandatory order are white on blue.
Informational and various other secondary signs are of rectangular shape.
The animals which may be depicted on warning signs include cattle, deer, ducks, elk, frogs, horses, sheep, monkeys (in Gibraltar), and polar bears (on Svalbard). The Convention allows any animal image to be used.
Directional signs ("guide signs" in American parlance) have not been harmonized under the convention, at least not on ordinary roads. As a result, there are substantial differences in directional signage throughout Europe. Differences apply to the choice of typeface, arrows and, most notably, colours. The convention does, however, specify that the type of directional signage used should, for each country, distinguish limited-access roads ("motorways") from ordinary, all-purpose roads.
Directional signage on motorways uses:
white-on-green in, for example, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Greece, Italy, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey
white-on-blue in, for example, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Republic of Ireland, Spain, and the United Kingdom.
Differences are greater for non-motorways:
White-on-blue in Italy, Switzerland, Sweden, the Czech Republic, Greece, Cyprus, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Turkey, and the Netherlands (in this case the same as on motorways).
White-on-green in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Poland, France, Hungary, and Portugal (only on the few primary roads that still have not been transformed in motorways),
Black-on-yellow in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Luxembourg, Norway, Slovenia, Serbia, and Croatia.
Red-on-white in Denmark (though white-on-blue on motorway exits and all overhead gantries)
Black-on-white in Austria and Spain.
The black-on-white signposting of secondary roads distinguishes them from primary roads in Finland, France, Portugal, the Republic of Ireland, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. In Germany, Hungary, Italy, Romania, and Sweden black-on-white indicates urban-only roads or urban destinations.
The signposting of road numbers also differs greatly, except that European route numbers, if displayed, are always indicated using white characters on a green rectangle. European route numbers are, however, not signed at all in the United Kingdom.
The Convention recommends that certain signs – such as "STOP", "ZONE", etc. – be in English; however, use of the local language is also permitted. If a language uses non-Latin characters, a Latin-script transliteration of the names of cities and other important places should also be given. Road signs in the Republic of Ireland are bilingual, using Irish and English. Wales similarly uses bilingual Welsh–English signs, while some parts of Scotland have bilingual Scottish Gaelic–English signs. Finland also uses bilingual signs, in Finnish and Swedish. Signs in Belgium are in French, Dutch, or German depending on the region. In the Brussels Capital Region, road signs are in both French and Dutch. Signs in Switzerland are in French, German, Italian, or Romansh depending on the canton.
European countries – with the notable exception of the United Kingdom, where distances and lengths are indicated in miles, yards, feet, and inches, and speed limits are expressed in miles per hour – use the metric system on road signs.
For countries driving on the left, the convention stipulates that the traffic signs should be mirror images of those used in countries driving on the right. This practice, however, is not systematically followed in the four European countries driving on the left; United Kingdom, Cyprus, Malta and the Republic of Ireland. The convention permits the use of two background colours for danger and prohibition signs: white or yellow. Most countries use white, with a few – such as Finland, Iceland, Poland, and Sweden – opting for yellow as this tends to improve the winter-time visibility of signs in areas where snow is prevalent. In some countries, such as France or Italy, white is the normal background colour for such signs, but yellow is used for temporary signage (as, for example, at road works).
European traffic signs have been designed with the principles of heraldry in mind; i.e., the sign must be clear and able to be resolved at a glance. Most traffic signs conform to heraldic tincture rules, and use symbols rather than written texts for better semiotic clarity.
Croatia
Croatian road signs follow the Vienna convention (SFR Yugoslavia was the original signatory for Croatia, which is now a contracting party itself). The most common signs are:
Yellow and black signs for direction.
Blue and white signs for information.
White-on-green signs are used on the highways.
In the first years following Croatia's independence, its traffic signs were the same as in the rest of the former Yugoslavia. In the early 2000s, replacement of the yellow background of warning signs began, and new signs now use a white background.
The signage typeface is SNV, as with the other countries of the former Yugoslavia.
Iceland
Road signs in Iceland mainly follow the Vienna Convention, but use a variant of the colour scheme and minor design changes similar to the signs in Sweden.
Ireland
Until the partition of Ireland in 1922 and the independence of the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland), British standards applied across the island. In 1926 road sign standards similar to those used in the UK at the time were adopted. Law requires that the signs be written in both Irish and English.
In 1956, road signs in the Republic were changed from the UK standard with the adoption of US-style "diamond" signs for many road hazard warnings (junctions, bends, railway crossings, traffic lights). Some domestic signs were also invented, such as the keep-left sign (a black curved arrow pointing to the upper-left, although some are similar to the European "white arrow on blue disk" signs), while some other signs are not widely adopted outside Ireland, such as the no-entry sign (a black arrow pointing ahead in a white circle with a red slashed circumference).
Directional signage is similar to current United Kingdom standards. The same colours are used for directional signs in Ireland as in the UK, and the UK Transport and Motorway fonts are used. Unlike Wales and Scotland, where Welsh and Gaelic place-names use the upright Transport face, Irish place-names are rendered in an italic face.
In January 2005 Ireland adopted metric speed limits. Around 35,000 existing signs were replaced and a further 23,000 new signs erected bearing the speed limit in kilometres per hour. To avoid confusion with the old signs, each speed limit sign now has "km/h" beneath the numerals. Also, since the adoption of signs based on the Warboys Committee standard in 1977, Irish directional signs have used the metric system; however, unlike with the later speed limit changeover, there was no effort made to change the existing signage, and many finger posts still remain on rural roads with distances in miles, although the numbers continue to decline as roads are improved.
In late 2007 Ireland began an extensive programme of sign and post replacement. Good examples are the M1 (Dublin–Dundalk) and the M50 (Dublin). While being mostly the same as the old signs, it is welcome as a lot of the signs were damaged/stained. About half of the new posts are now two medium posts with crosshatched metal posts in-between instead of one large pole to minimise the damage in case of a crash.
Latvia
Road signs in Latvia largely adhere to Vienna Convention guidelines. In detailed design they closely resemble the signs used in Germany.
Netherlands
Road signs in the Netherlands follow the Vienna Convention. Directional signs (which have not been harmonized under the convention) always use blue as the background colour. The destinations on the sign are printed in white. If the destination is not a town (but an area within town or some other kind of attraction), that destination will be printed in black on a separate white background within the otherwise blue sign.
The Netherlands always signposts European road numbers where applicable (i.e., on the advance directional signs, the interchange direction signs and on the reassurance signs). Dutch national road numbers are placed on a rectangle, with motorways being signposted in white on a red rectangle (as an Axx) and primary roads in black on a yellow rectangle (as Nxx). When a motorway changes to a primary road, its number remains the same, but the A is replaced by the N. So at a certain point the A2 becomes N2, and when it changes to a motorway again, it becomes A2 again.
Signs intended for bike-riders always go on white signs with red or green letters.
The Dutch typeface, known as ANWB-Ee, is based on the US typeface. A new font, named ANWB-Uu (also known as Redesign), has been developed in 1997 and appears on many recent Dutch signs. On the motorways however the typeface remains the ANWB-Ee or a similar typeface. The language of the signs is typically Dutch, even though bilingual signs may be used, when the information is relevant for tourists.
Norway
Signs in Norway mostly follow the Vienna Convention, except the polar bear warning sign, which is a white bear on a black background and a red border.
These are the directional signs:
Signs for motorways are blue with white text
Those for regular roads to towns and cities are yellow with black lettering
Signs for industrial areas, commercial facilities etc. are white with black letters
Signs for tourist attractions, national parks, museums etc. are brown with white lettering
The signs for road numbering are rectangular, and have this colour scheme:
European routes (E6, E18, etc.) are green with white lettering
National routes are also green with white lettering
Province owned roads are white with black lettering
Municipality owned roads have the name of the road, instead of a number, and are white with black lettering
Poland
The road signs in Poland follow the Vienna convention. Poland chose yellow as the background colour for warning signs (an alternative allowed under the convention), rather than the much more widely adopted white. The typeface used on Polish road signs is a bespoke one, created in 1975, replaced the former signage typeface that resembles NT Cornelia typeface and specified by the Regulations of 3 July 2003, as amended. There are two fonts available for download, both being digitalisations of the original specification: one is Tablica Drogowa (freeware for non-commercial use, paid licence required otherwise), another is Drogowskaz (freeware for non-commercial use, see licence text for conditions of other use).
Sweden
The road signs in Sweden mostly follow the Vienna Convention with a few adaptations, however, allowed within the convention:
The background of warning signs is yellow
Warning signs for elk and reindeer
The background of direction signs is blue with white text
The background of motorway direction signs is green with white text
When applicable, the language is Swedish in Sweden.
The signage typeface Tratex is used exclusively in Sweden and is available as freeware.
Switzerland and Liechtenstein
Even though Switzerland is not a member of the EU, the road signs mostly follow the Vienna Convention with a few adaptations and exceptions. Road signs are categorized as follows:
Warning signs
Prohibition signs (Regulatory)
Mandatory instruction signs (Regulatory)
Priority signs
Conducting indication signs
Routing indication signs
Informational signs
Complementary panels
Road markings
Traffic lights
Police instructions
Distances and other measurements are displayed in metric units. Starting 2003, ASTRA-Frutiger is the typeface used to replace SNV, which is still used in several European countries.
Major exceptions from the norm are:
Signs use one of the four national languages corresponding to the location.
Destinations are spelled according to their local spelling, e.g. Genève for Geneva, also in German or Italian Switzerland.
Motor-/expressway signs are white text on green background.
Main road/route signs are white text on blue background.
Minor road/route signs are black text on white background.
Detour route signs are black text on orange background.
Bicycle and mountain bike routes, and routes for vehicle-like transport means are white text on falu red background.
Commercial direction signs are black text on grey background with a red dot.
Generally valid speed limit of 50 km/h valid within densely built-up areas, e.g. within urban settings, villages, or towns (starts with sign no. 2.30.1; ends with sign no. 2.53.1) – sometimes applicable even without producing the corresponding sign (no. 2.30.1) on minor roads after entering a settlement (sign no. 4.27) when densely built-up area begins.
On mountain roads, priority is given to, firstly, heavy vehicles (lorries and buses), and secondly, upwards-moving vehicles.
Mountain postal road sign (starts with sign no. 4.05 and ends with 4.06) indicating priority to public transport on (mountain) roads; drivers must follow instructions given by public bus drivers.
There are more priority signs than usual (often related to the Priority to the right rule).
United Kingdom
Traffic signing in the UK conforms broadly to European norms, though a number of signs are unique to Britain and direction signs omit European route numbers. The current sign system, introduced on 1 January 1965, was developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s by the Anderson Committee, which established the motorway signing system, and by the Worboys Committee, which reformed signing for existing all-purpose roads. (For illustrations of most British road signs, see 'Know your traffic signs' on the GOV.UK website.)
The UK remains the only Commonwealth country to use non-metric (Imperial) measurements for distance and speed, although "authorised weight" signs have been in metric tonnes since 1981 and there is currently a dual-unit (metric first) option for height and width restriction signage, intended for use on safety grounds. On motorways kilometre signs are visible at intervals of indicating the distance from the start of the motorway. (See Driver location sign).
Three colour schemes exist for direction signs:
On motorways they are blue with white lettering
On primary routes they are green with white lettering and yellow route numbers
A non-primary route has white signs with black lettering
A fourth colour scheme, black on yellow, is seen on temporary signs, for example marking a diversionary route avoiding a road closure.
Two typefaces are specified for British road signs. Transport "Medium" or Transport "Heavy" are used for all text on fixed permanent signs and most temporary signage, depending on the colour of the sign and associated text colour; dark text on a white background is normally set in "Heavy" so that it stands out better. However route numbers on motorway signs use a taller limited character set typeface called "Motorway".
Signs are generally bilingual in all parts of Wales (English/Welsh or Welsh/English), and similar signs are beginning to be seen in parts of the Scottish Highlands (English/Scottish Gaelic).
All signs and their associated regulations can be found in the Traffic Signs Regulations and General Directions, as updated by the TSRGD 2008, TSRGD 2011 and TSRGD 2016 and complemented by the various chapters of the "Traffic Signs Manual".
Northern America and Oceania
Colour schemes
The Northern American, Australian, and New Zealand colours normally have these meanings. These are standard but exceptions may exist, especially outside the US:
red with white for stop signs, yield, and forbidden actions (such as No Parking)
green with white letters for informational signs, such as directions, distances, and places
brown with white letters for signs to parks, historic sites, ski areas, forests, and campgrounds
blue with white symbols (or business logos) for rest areas, food, gasoline, hospitals, lodging, and other services
white with black (or red) letters for regulatory signs, such as speed limits (or parking)
yellow with black letters and symbols for warning signs, such as curves and school zones
orange with black letters for temporary traffic control zones and detours associated with road construction
purple for "lanes restricted to use only by vehicles with registered electronic toll collection (ETC) accounts", such as EZPass.
black with white letters or arrows for lane use.
The US Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices prescribes four other colours:
fluorescent yellow-green with black symbols for school zone, school bus stop, pedestrian, playground, and bicycle warning signs
fluorescent pink with black letters and symbols for incident management signs
coral and light blue, which are unassigned but reserved for potential future use.
Regulatory signs are also sometimes seen with white letters on red or black signs. In Quebec, blue is often used for public services such as rest areas; many black-on-yellow signs are red-on-white instead.
Many US states and Canadian provinces now use fluorescent orange for construction signs.
Highway symbols and markers
Every state and province has different markers for its own highways, but use standard ones for all federal highways. Many special highways – such as the Queen Elizabeth Way, Trans-Canada Highway, and various auto trails in the U.S. – have used unique signs. Counties in the US sometimes use a pentagonal blue sign with yellow letters for numbered county roads, though the use is inconsistent even within states.
Units
Distances on traffic signs generally follow the measurement system in use locally: that is to say, the metric system in all countries of the world except Burma, Liberia, the United Kingdom, and the United States – although the metric system is used in the UK for all purposes other than the display of road distances and the defining of speed limits, and in the US the Federal Department of Transportation has developed (very rarely used) metric standards for all signs.
Languages
Where signs use a language, the recognized language/s of the area is normally used. Signs in most of the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand are in English. Quebec uses French, while the New Brunswick, Jacques-Cartier, and Champlain bridges, in Montreal (as well as some parts in the West Island), use both English and French, and a number of other provinces and states, such as Ontario, Manitoba, and Vermont use bilingual French–English signs in certain localities. Puerto Rico (a US territory) and Mexico use Spanish. Within a few miles of the US–Mexico border, road signs are often in English and Spanish in places like San Diego, Yuma, and El Paso. Indigenous languages, mainly Nahuatl as well as some Mayan languages, have been used as well.
In Canada, pictorial signs are common compared to the US, where many signs are simply written in English.
Typefaces
The typefaces predominantly used on signs in the US and Canada are the FHWA alphabet series (Series B through Series F and Series E Modified). Details of letter shape and spacing for these alphabet series are given in "Standard Alphabets for Traffic Control Devices", first published by the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) in 1945 and subsequently updated by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). It is now part of Standard Highway Signs (SHS), the companion volume to the MUTCD which gives full design details for signfaces.
Initially, all of the alphabet series consisted of uppercase letters and digits only, although lowercase extensions were provided for each alphabet series in a 2002 revision of SHS. Series B through Series F evolved from identically named alphabet series which were introduced in 1927.
Straight-stroke letters in the 1927 series were substantially similar to their modern equivalents, but unrounded glyphs were used for letters such as B, C, D, etc., to permit more uniform fabrication of signs by illiterate painters. Various state highway departments and the federal BPR experimented with rounded versions of these letters in the following two decades.
The modern, rounded alphabet series were finally standardized in 1945 after rounded versions of some letters (with widths loosely appropriate for Series C or D) were specified as an option in the 1935 MUTCD and draft versions of the new typefaces had been used in 1942 for guide signs on the newly constructed Pentagon road network.
The mixed-case alphabet now called Series E Modified, which is the standard for destination legend on freeway guide signs, originally existed in two parts: an all-uppercase Series E Modified, which was essentially similar to Series E, except for a larger stroke width, and a lowercase-only alphabet. Both parts were developed by the California Division of Highways (now Caltrans) for use on freeways in 1948–1950.
Initially, the Division used all-uppercase Series E Modified for button-reflectorized letters on ground-mounted signs and mixed-case legend (lowercase letters with Series D capitals) for externally illuminated overhead guide signs. Several Eastern turnpike authorities blended all-uppercase Series E Modified with the lowercase alphabet for destination legends on their guide signs.
Eventually, this combination was accepted for destination legend in the first manual for signing Interstate highways, which was published in 1958 by the American Association of State Highway Officials and adopted as the national standard by the BPR.
Uses of non-FHWA typefaces
The US National Park Service uses NPS Rawlinson Roadway, a serif typeface, for guide signage; it typically appears on a brown background. Rawlinson has replaced Clarendon as the official NPS typeface, but some states still use Clarendon for recreational signage.
Georgia, in the past, used uppercase Series D with a custom lowercase alphabet on its freeway guide signs; the most distinctive feature of this typeface is the lack of a dot on lowercase i and j. This was discontinued since 2012. More recent installations appear to include the dots.
The Clearview typeface, developed by US researchers to provide improved legibility, is permitted for light legend on dark backgrounds under FHWA interim approval. Clearview has seen widespread use by state departments of transportation in Arkansas, Arizona, Illinois, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Virginia. The Kansas Turnpike Authority has also introduced Clearview typeface to some of its newer guide signs along the Kansas Turnpike, but the state of Kansas continues to use the FHWA typefaces for signage on its non-tolled Interstates and freeways.
In Canada, the Ministry of Transportation for the Province of British Columbia specifies Clearview for use on its highway guide signs, and its usage has shown up in Ontario on the Don Valley Parkway and Gardiner Expressway in Toronto and on new 400-series highway installations in Hamilton, Halton and Niagara, as well as street signs in various parts of the province. The font is also being used on newer signs in Alberta, Manitoba, and Quebec.
It is common for local governments, airport authorities, and contractors to fabricate traffic signs using typefaces other than the FHWA series; Helvetica, Futura and Arial are common choices.
New Zealand
New Zealand road signs are generally influenced both by American and European practices.
Warning signs are diamond-shaped with a yellow background for permanent warnings, and an orange background for temporary warnings. They are somewhat more pictorial than their American counterparts. This is also true for Canadian signage.
Regulatory signs also follow European practice, with a white circle with a red border indicating prohibitive actions, and a blue circle indicating mandatory actions. White rectangular signs with a red border indicate lane usage directions. Information and direction signs are rectangular, with a green background indicating a state highway, a blue background for all other roads and all services (except in some, where directional signage is white), and a brown background for tourist attractions.
Before 1987, most road signs had black backgrounds – diamonds indicated warnings, and rectangles indicated regulatory actions (with the exception of the Give Way sign (an inverted trapezium), and Stop sign and speed limit signs (which were the same as today)). Information signs were yellow, and direction signage was green on motorways and black everywhere else.
Latin America and the Caribbean
Road signs in Caribbean and Latin America vary from country to country. For the most part, conventions in signage tend to resemble United States signage conventions more so than European and Asian conventions. For example, warning signs are typically diamond-shaped and yellow rather than triangular and white. Some variations include the "Parking" and "No Parking" signs, which contain either a letter E or P, depending on which word is used locally for "Parking" (Spanish estacionamiento or parqueo, Portuguese estacionamento), as well as the Stop sign, which usually reads "Pare" or "Alto". Notable exceptions include speed limit signs, which follow the European conventions, and the "No Entry" sign, often replaced with a crossed upwards arrow.
Colombia
Traffic signs in Colombia are classified into three categories:
Warning signs
Mandatory signs
Information signs.
Warning signs are very similar to warning signs in United States. They are yellow diamond-shaped with a black symbol (the yellow colour is changed to an orange colour in areas under construction). In certain cases, the yellow colour is shifted to fluorescent yellow (in the School area sign and Chevron sign).
Mandatory signs are similar to European signs. They are circular with a red border, a white background and a black symbol. Stop sign and Yield sign are as European, except the word "Stop" is changed for "Pare" and the Yield sign has no letters; it is a red triangle with white centre.
Information signs have many shapes and colours. Principally they are blue with white symbols and in many cases these signs have an information letter below the symbol.
Haiti
Road signs in Haiti are standardized road signs closely follow those used in France with certain distinctions. They are written in French and Haitian Creole.
Suriname
Road signs in Suriname are particularly modelled on the Dutch road signs since Suriname is a former Dutch colony, although traffic drives on the left.
Automatic traffic sign recognition
Cars are beginning to feature cameras with automatic traffic sign recognition, beginning with the Opel Insignia. It mainly recognizes speed limits and no-overtaking areas.
Image gallery
See also
Button copy
Comparison of European traffic signs
Comparison of traffic signs in English-speaking countries
Comparison of MUTCD-influenced traffic signs
Duck crossing
Exit number
Fingerpost
Gantry (transport)
Glossary of road transport terms
List of public signage typefaces
Off-Network Tactical Diversion Route
One-way traffic
Road surface marking
Road marking machine
Road signs in Canada
Road signs in the United States
Rules of the road
Street sign theft
Tourist sign
Traffic light
Traffic sign design
Variable-message sign
Warning sign
References
External links
Asia
Pakistani Traffic Rules and Road Signs
Indian Traffic Rules and Signals
The Road User's Code: The Language of the Road by the Transport Department of the Government of the Hong Kong SAR
Europe
Signs and markings British traffic signs from the Highway Code
Danish traffic signs
securite-routiere.gouv.fr
Know Your Traffic Signs - Department for Transport (UK)
German traffic signs and signals
Norma 8.,1-IC Style manual for road signs in Spain
North America
Canada
Government of Quebec traffic control devices library - Extensive list of all road signs and signals from the Quebec Transport Ministry
Road Signs in Ontario, from the Ontario Ministry of Transportation.
ICBC – Signs, signals and road markings from ICBC
United States
Federal Highway Administration publications:
Part 2: Signs from the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
Standard Highway Signs and Markings
Manual of Traffic Signs – private website based on the MUTCD
Ensuring That Traffic Signs Are Visible at Night: Federal Regulations Congressional Research Service
Traffic Signs Evolution Since 1925 to Present
Typefaces
Public domain fonts used on road signs
Other
Traffic signs in Russian Federation
A collection of street signs and traffic lights
Photos of directional signage on motorways
Road signs
Traffic signs in Croatia
Road safety
Street furniture
Symbols | [
0.9985196590423584,
0.6558398604393005,
0.2703785002231598,
-0.0392451211810112,
0.12227733433246613,
0.25465187430381775,
0.39633312821388245,
0.7214978337287903,
-0.25605329871177673,
-0.8154489398002625,
-0.2734367847442627,
0.11998815834522247,
-0.06825412809848785,
0.0067308214493095875,
0.013073633424937725,
0.5505374073982239,
0.26969149708747864,
0.5680883526802063,
0.11777123063802719,
-0.03952619433403015,
-0.1729273945093155,
-0.3557831943035126,
0.19266676902770996,
-1.015932559967041,
0.1851845234632492,
0.32864561676979065,
0.13449726998806,
0.2004014253616333,
-0.35008159279823303,
0.27980825304985046,
0.557908833026886,
1.0991841554641724,
0.2420520931482315,
0.2426723688840866,
-0.029571883380413055,
-0.27951285243034363,
0.37704822421073914,
-0.5064383149147034,
-0.1523493081331253,
-0.008321654051542282,
-0.2294950634241104,
-0.36918142437934875,
0.042797550559043884,
0.234632670879364,
0.030680490657687187,
-0.31043511629104614,
-1.589394211769104,
0.1883692741394043,
-0.6163149476051331,
-0.04589229077100754,
-0.6560364365577698,
0.6757678389549255,
-0.3591872751712799,
0.9331082701683044,
0.03305746614933014,
0.11467262357473373,
-0.36973708868026733,
-0.2972295582294464,
0.43213149905204773,
-0.36835673451423645,
0.5048461556434631,
0.3216356337070465,
-0.43498167395591736,
0.35077619552612305,
0.25730398297309875,
-0.44369539618492126,
-0.09743260592222214,
0.6791380643844604,
-0.17488478124141693,
-0.372782438993454,
-0.4714094400405884,
-0.41038253903388977,
0.19797378778457642,
-0.06474709510803223,
-0.48167693614959717,
-0.019330287352204323,
0.3779713809490204,
-0.3846815824508667,
-0.7348204255104065,
-0.4186772406101227,
0.25063520669937134,
0.645247220993042,
0.4566410779953003,
0.28686243295669556,
0.0546431802213192,
0.42300957441329956,
-0.5250769853591919,
0.03111349232494831,
-0.03316356614232063,
0.15390105545520782,
0.08417107909917831,
-0.12031715363264084,
0.23119674623012543,
-0.05135216563940048,
-0.1046704649925232,
0.49511101841926575,
0.5441332459449768,
0.578575849533081,
0.536108672618866,
0.25449883937835693,
0.49389365315437317,
-0.06626646220684052,
0.9261114597320557,
0.04712419956922531,
-0.32639816403388977,
-0.28114640712738037,
0.07109905779361725,
0.18361873924732208,
-0.003032458247616887,
-0.4997559189796448,
-0.26933392882347107,
-0.08315368741750717,
-0.30273810029029846,
0.3083118498325348,
-0.036339275538921356,
0.8497364521026611,
0.4621749222278595,
0.6419965624809265,
-0.21446506679058075,
0.0006151753477752209,
0.036054063588380814,
0.06649334728717804,
-0.04735879600048065,
0.12368655204772949,
0.14918643236160278,
0.5262085795402527,
-0.006735270842909813,
0.5773700475692749,
-0.5030606985092163,
0.5284921526908875,
-0.2321072667837143,
0.8627803921699524,
-0.4573226273059845,
-0.38108766078948975,
-0.2662307322025299,
0.03188534453511238,
0.469611257314682,
-0.3683929443359375,
0.7072663903236389,
0.3038403391838074,
-0.6826176643371582,
-0.6247437596321106,
-0.8037431240081787,
-0.5294389128684998,
0.3408786952495575,
0.23060601949691772,
0.46589887142181396,
-0.5130016207695007,
-0.6358184814453125,
0.23065796494483948,
0.004976039752364159,
-0.40894898772239685,
-0.041273634880781174,
0.3707732856273651,
-0.07183828204870224,
0.23435087502002716,
0.23683133721351624,
0.32306015491485596,
-0.2552160322666168,
-0.22816218435764313,
-0.150344580411911,
0.47608232498168945,
-0.4357270896434784,
0.310440331697464,
0.31550997495651245,
0.014804530888795853,
-0.4030362069606781,
-0.22134433686733246,
0.4105693995952606,
0.036810845136642456,
-0.19312641024589539,
0.0924779400229454,
-0.12627694010734558,
0.028582759201526642,
0.07040147483348846,
0.14587511122226715,
0.5350774526596069,
0.058252930641174316,
0.282075434923172,
0.26846879720687866,
-0.5529205203056335,
0.1897905319929123,
0.7578079104423523,
0.4574463963508606,
-0.39286836981773376,
-0.3981472849845886,
0.24189431965351105,
-0.1686018705368042,
-0.5200555324554443,
-0.7312052249908447,
-0.20002493262290955,
-0.4017776548862457,
-0.07174202799797058,
-0.8175544738769531,
0.7297663688659668,
-0.220304936170578,
-0.2354983538389206,
0.4882301390171051,
-0.037220779806375504,
0.6906092762947083,
0.012657358311116695,
-0.01566402241587639,
0.3429115116596222,
-0.18208609521389008,
-0.7146314382553101,
1.4705599546432495,
0.3679129481315613,
-0.44462478160858154,
-0.01598978601396084,
-0.09739525616168976,
0.456793874502182,
-0.9306122660636902,
0.10694129019975662,
0.597593367099762,
0.25427839159965515,
0.19554868340492249,
-0.005292735528200865,
-0.044142697006464005,
-0.5744925737380981,
-0.3949067294597626,
0.03857744485139847,
-0.15448801219463348,
-0.29153314232826233,
0.49380776286125183,
-0.4675353169441223,
-0.059933852404356,
-0.20178300142288208,
0.2113921344280243,
0.3093075156211853,
-1.167161464691162,
0.2825435996055603,
0.1289743334054947,
0.1830446422100067,
-0.4300263226032257,
-0.6664254069328308,
-0.08232487738132477,
0.6099333763122559,
0.009686875157058239,
0.25898927450180054,
-0.09091808646917343,
-0.7689666152000427,
-0.33153295516967773,
-0.29379186034202576,
-0.4075089693069458,
0.057753533124923706,
-0.3879033923149109,
0.4185192584991455,
0.42835745215415955,
0.09070820361375809,
0.24059879779815674,
0.12670214474201202,
0.06399159133434296,
0.13870136439800262,
-0.6864694952964783,
-0.0012941703898832202,
0.016380950808525085,
-0.07322032004594803,
-0.41788405179977417,
0.15492366254329681,
-0.2658902704715729,
-0.28037625551223755,
-0.04012301191687584,
0.28689906001091003,
0.14766791462898254,
-0.7419289946556091,
-0.6026157736778259,
-0.22478054463863373,
0.2177588790655136,
0.011267058551311493,
0.584382176399231,
0.3643714189529419,
0.38707831501960754,
-0.3486143946647644,
-1.2963277101516724,
-0.06920387595891953,
0.10192263126373291,
0.5728983879089355,
0.41786032915115356,
0.005741079803556204,
0.304470032453537,
0.34046652913093567,
0.009482714347541332,
0.8203347325325012,
-0.5338903665542603,
0.023506535217165947,
-0.5385850071907043,
0.6385149955749512,
-0.06831672042608261,
-0.6469282507896423,
-0.2105061262845993,
-0.3609764873981476,
0.6372458338737488,
-0.04494236782193184,
0.7894225120544434,
0.5479239821434021,
0.5688966512680054,
-0.2392207831144333,
-0.13685494661331177,
0.6512048244476318,
-0.14689163863658905,
0.1390789896249771,
0.5085323452949524,
-0.38413459062576294,
0.16655483841896057,
-0.05562002956867218,
0.2546825110912323,
-0.6350377798080444,
-0.1539638638496399,
-5.503721714019775,
0.45051079988479614,
0.10334167629480362,
-0.7241342663764954,
-0.17672321200370789,
0.010520409792661667,
0.7709349393844604,
-0.058455873280763626,
0.03023673966526985,
-0.19264103472232819,
-0.019466450437903404,
0.22774232923984528,
0.20674368739128113,
0.36357584595680237,
0.8063587546348572,
-0.003493733936920762,
0.825724184513092,
-0.2675986588001251,
0.2549413740634918,
0.282776802778244,
-0.3044271469116211,
-0.5505392551422119,
0.23393310606479645,
0.3130664527416229,
-0.30036303400993347,
0.23940488696098328,
-0.22515463829040527,
0.6135109066963196,
-0.08901049196720123,
-0.15137942135334015,
0.8882803916931152,
-0.12388312071561813,
-0.5246933698654175,
-0.4546017050743103,
-0.21562708914279938,
0.45344674587249756,
-0.2261284440755844,
-0.04869724065065384,
-0.47859182953834534,
-0.12515445053577423,
-0.1587703973054886,
0.5580080151557922,
0.5967076420783997,
0.1925967037677765,
0.391650527715683,
0.09436788409948349,
-0.16032008826732635,
-0.3278539180755615,
-0.2315744161605835,
0.7002630233764648,
-0.16125480830669403,
0.3867438733577728,
0.7631047964096069,
-0.1672370284795761,
0.11379233747720718,
0.16272328794002533,
0.42346078157424927,
-0.41901007294654846,
-0.7574176788330078,
-0.06415411829948425,
0.38898253440856934,
-0.7481967806816101,
-0.5640254616737366,
-0.04994718357920647,
0.507166862487793,
-0.41248074173927307,
-0.5541610717773438,
-0.627745509147644,
0.5454303622245789,
0.07462719082832336,
-0.3665028512477875,
0.6551756858825684,
-0.016891011968255043,
-0.7469585537910461,
0.033867936581373215,
-0.7735480070114136,
0.22119872272014618,
-0.29949721693992615,
0.07635440677404404,
-0.30814749002456665,
-0.3761642873287201,
0.436794638633728,
-0.2371549904346466,
-0.3052939474582672,
0.20595231652259827,
0.0802384540438652,
-0.009054835885763168,
0.23884059488773346,
-0.47834691405296326,
-0.38756263256073,
1.1722074747085571,
0.379810094833374,
0.08700741827487946,
-0.16306185722351074,
0.5044769048690796,
0.2600773274898529,
0.1211458072066307,
-0.1505860686302185,
-0.11273753643035889,
-0.5360815525054932,
0.8841221928596497,
-0.03238599747419357,
0.3741314709186554,
-0.5048804879188538,
-0.04919479042291641,
-0.2531472444534302,
-0.7059758305549622,
0.29378950595855713,
0.03767107427120209,
-0.2391851246356964,
-0.2623101770877838,
0.0471871942281723,
-0.2173476219177246,
-0.5648248195648193,
0.11599157005548477,
0.486443430185318,
0.14559617638587952,
0.2730974853038788,
0.02175072394311428,
-0.7328826189041138,
0.19362927973270416,
0.385731965303421,
-0.4945323169231415,
-0.2059958577156067,
-0.39566943049430847,
0.20049482583999634,
-0.3575734496116638,
0.07565242052078247,
0.2961341440677643,
-0.05191361531615257,
0.9491530060768127,
0.7225175499916077,
-0.09956929087638855,
0.11914245784282684,
-0.10702240467071533,
-0.5111844539642334,
-0.43618112802505493,
0.2321426421403885,
0.4739396572113037,
-0.2235545814037323,
-0.0059842136688530445,
-0.35318195819854736,
0.1598166674375534,
0.07801663875579834,
1.0831469297409058,
0.21587945520877838,
-0.9461967349052429,
-0.06698007881641388,
0.11429758369922638,
0.3290473222732544,
-0.3018156588077545,
-0.587073564529419,
-0.43357446789741516,
-0.6350911855697632,
0.8941542506217957,
-0.20810428261756897,
0.1929161697626114,
0.007342395838350058,
-0.01774785667657852,
-0.918634295463562,
0.02780836448073387,
0.40166714787483215,
-0.5500506162643433,
-0.14734017848968506,
-0.23441265523433685,
0.012025219388306141,
0.36321842670440674,
-0.04460415244102478,
0.15036387741565704,
0.6746020913124084,
-0.1450270414352417,
-0.811441957950592,
-0.6516226530075073,
-0.007784815039485693,
-0.10874307155609131,
0.14671781659126282,
-0.30382034182548523,
0.17560693621635437,
-0.01858014240860939,
-0.7542980909347534,
-0.41780561208724976,
-0.0885976180434227,
0.20733898878097534,
0.37646186351776123,
0.2667029798030853,
-0.5106519460678101,
-0.5151911377906799,
0.1530986726284027,
0.04157041385769844,
-0.48417773842811584,
0.0930728167295456,
-0.5500872135162354,
0.04217352718114853,
-0.2072548121213913,
-0.17654109001159668,
-0.8496773838996887,
-0.23737449944019318,
-0.2698891758918762,
-0.0910147950053215,
-0.4840359389781952,
-0.04642966017127037,
0.2519597113132477,
-0.8725721836090088,
0.2396858036518097,
0.1522083580493927,
-0.510119616985321,
0.5552754998207092,
0.3928709328174591,
-0.7856737971305847,
0.32376548647880554,
-0.5021312236785889,
-0.425409197807312,
-0.4921409785747528,
0.1902005523443222,
-0.28732383251190186,
-0.29397597908973694,
0.015499788336455822,
-0.2518118619918823,
-0.25795888900756836,
-0.318238228559494,
-0.01086398120969534,
0.07124655693769455,
-0.6847944259643555,
0.3093078136444092,
0.045165322721004486,
0.24476858973503113,
0.1439492255449295,
-0.9524147510528564,
0.9220513701438904,
0.330900639295578,
-0.44319626688957214,
0.08484239131212234,
0.18708695471286774,
0.47656750679016113,
-0.11267382651567459,
-0.3893817067146301,
-0.637055516242981,
-0.3670732378959656,
0.09805569797754288,
0.669863760471344,
-0.18603681027889252,
0.7298333048820496,
-0.15712058544158936,
-0.638632595539093,
0.1128215491771698,
0.1462581753730774,
0.2315366268157959,
-0.38581493496894836,
-0.782071053981781,
0.25033923983573914,
0.03578988462686539,
-0.4384828209877014,
-0.44187453389167786,
0.059183526784181595,
0.5120086669921875,
0.25863561034202576,
-0.5574352145195007,
0.028082791715860367,
0.8314781188964844,
0.5256636738777161,
0.03841026872396469,
-0.46360868215560913,
0.27586522698402405,
0.4874255657196045,
-0.09328719228506088,
-0.45952293276786804,
-0.2147025614976883,
-0.18602107465267181,
0.5147287249565125,
-0.3666624128818512,
0.2056172788143158,
-0.4563486874103546,
1.1022175550460815,
0.14870905876159668,
0.5024274587631226,
-0.30086803436279297,
0.056320153176784515,
-0.3091390132904053,
0.1620800942182541,
-0.018722549080848694,
0.22643831372261047,
-0.0007494126330129802,
0.32655274868011475,
-0.12519396841526031,
0.2394809126853943,
-0.3589515686035156,
0.20156987011432648,
0.47980865836143494,
-0.3363227844238281,
-0.3583637773990631,
-0.5192719101905823,
0.1416231244802475,
-0.341194748878479,
0.2732098698616028,
-0.07958552986383438,
0.7436050772666931,
0.4740373194217682,
0.5380759835243225,
-0.1807885617017746,
0.05651714652776718,
-0.4504232406616211,
0.5546531677246094,
-0.09804636985063553,
-1.0460628271102905,
0.010251392610371113,
0.2382456511259079,
0.2503919005393982,
-0.5127125382423401,
0.26304492354393005,
-0.4109121263027191,
-0.229623481631279,
-0.06492350995540619,
0.5322781205177307,
1.1348389387130737,
0.1242450550198555,
0.20450663566589355,
0.4009600281715393,
-0.5651370882987976,
0.23329249024391174,
0.3862933814525604,
0.2241710126399994,
-0.040151871740818024,
0.32718589901924133,
-0.25191622972488403,
-0.010634529404342175,
0.5910922288894653,
0.47430649399757385,
-0.174235537648201,
0.3004803955554962,
0.3614712655544281,
0.3895147144794464,
0.16921022534370422,
-0.01000247709453106,
0.1906813383102417,
-0.19247443974018097,
-0.26337912678718567,
0.4155823290348053,
-0.3114491105079651,
-0.1888914257287979,
0.013688493520021439,
-0.412995845079422,
0.18958160281181335,
0.26073068380355835,
0.3396301865577698,
-0.10551769286394119,
0.4040911793708801,
0.29155778884887695,
0.5924116969108582,
-0.7937021851539612,
0.1275949627161026,
0.04358527064323425,
0.08457181602716446,
-0.09527649730443954,
0.35112446546554565,
0.22290344536304474,
-0.770900547504425,
0.014649045653641224,
-0.2549707293510437,
-0.39468470215797424,
-0.8938701152801514,
-0.014540893957018852,
0.6879016757011414,
0.04828276112675667,
-0.5154838562011719,
-0.2463940680027008,
-0.009227109141647816,
0.7023977637290955,
-0.4526362717151642,
0.06470184773206711,
0.5033442378044128,
0.3657037913799286,
0.5011525750160217,
-0.5948511958122253,
0.5160171985626221,
-0.24072571098804474,
-0.058511462062597275,
0.26422396302223206,
0.06043846160173416,
-0.08758016675710678,
-0.3614928126335144,
0.16439080238342285,
0.15911127626895905,
-0.15221980214118958,
-1.0688817501068115,
-0.03714289516210556,
-0.3517550230026245,
-0.3709205090999603,
0.2138819843530655,
-0.33229005336761475,
-0.04829743131995201,
-0.2361452281475067,
0.0597463995218277,
-0.15645842254161835,
-0.9164707064628601,
-0.30590036511421204,
0.17926405370235443,
0.39483189582824707,
1.0116735696792603,
-0.06885898113250732,
-0.3054926097393036,
-0.2819822430610657,
0.35222044587135315,
0.006095369346439838,
-0.26045167446136475,
-0.5723069906234741,
0.5511516332626343,
0.06336244940757751,
0.35016903281211853,
0.12008751183748245,
0.4188130795955658,
-0.10585161298513412,
-0.0923289805650711,
0.2019471377134323,
-0.2922857701778412,
-0.28398317098617554,
0.11567652225494385,
0.41481921076774597,
-0.31549400091171265,
0.1286451518535614,
-0.3379177451133728,
0.5542140007019043,
0.07138362526893616,
0.267634779214859,
0.07604853808879852,
-0.3188348412513733,
-0.006483932491391897,
0.11218148469924927,
-0.04234800860285759,
0.5252684354782104,
0.06532461941242218,
-0.06437326967716217,
-0.32706332206726074,
-0.4836702346801758,
-0.41004207730293274,
-0.3579959571361542,
-0.11255166679620743,
0.49732619524002075,
0.2758350074291229,
0.9396300315856934,
-0.25621941685676575,
0.24344460666179657,
-0.32744160294532776,
0.2529829740524292,
-0.07047795504331589,
-2.07411789894104,
-0.23822373151779175,
-0.31013041734695435,
0.036608871072530746,
-0.3142262399196625,
0.41046398878097534,
0.2476430982351303,
-0.4730442464351654,
-0.11405245214700699,
0.24859097599983215,
0.4299975037574768,
0.10891935974359512,
0.14242658019065857,
-0.35402747988700867,
-0.7193202376365662,
0.3127018213272095
] |
261004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sault%20Ste.%20Marie | Sault Ste. Marie | Sault Ste. Marie is a cross-border region in Canada and the United States. Formerly a single settlement from 1668 to 1817, it was subsequently divided by the establishment of the Canada–US border in the area.
Settlements after the divide are Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario (pop. 74,948), a city in Canada, and Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan (population 16,542), a city in the United States.
See also
HMCS Sault Ste. Marie, a Royal Canadian Navy minesweeper during World War II
Saint Mary's River (disambiguation)
Sault Ste. Marie Canal
Sault Ste. Marie | [
-0.7768727540969849,
0.662756085395813,
-0.4147462844848633,
-0.0644872710108757,
-0.216420978307724,
1.1005589962005615,
1.11846923828125,
0.947684645652771,
-0.07299221307039261,
-1.0541794300079346,
-0.23345230519771576,
0.08666404336690903,
0.3570890724658966,
0.39606937766075134,
0.28228217363357544,
0.7776419520378113,
-0.774994969367981,
0.6067700386047363,
0.6147699356079102,
-0.5849052667617798,
-0.26000380516052246,
-0.08054457604885101,
0.262386679649353,
0.6013558506965637,
0.13691654801368713,
0.26045849919319153,
0.5556538105010986,
-0.13112756609916687,
-0.21730554103851318,
0.1665649712085724,
0.4045686423778534,
0.6466918587684631,
0.28089800477027893,
-0.28975751996040344,
-0.20118844509124756,
-0.5850182771682739,
0.5552257299423218,
-0.6245437860488892,
-0.168326273560524,
-0.048997942358255386,
-0.07611256837844849,
0.006962724030017853,
0.1512409895658493,
-0.03750161826610565,
0.48674067854881287,
-0.028313102200627327,
-1.9051406383514404,
-0.260503888130188,
-0.4749978184700012,
-0.11031167209148407,
-0.2936073839664459,
0.05476118624210358,
0.6386038064956665,
0.2155144065618515,
0.0008608573698438704,
0.8402045965194702,
-0.8193811774253845,
0.8301190733909607,
0.7144217491149902,
0.05083739385008812,
0.8478816747665405,
0.6647303104400635,
0.4604318141937256,
0.16359613835811615,
-0.49536582827568054,
-0.18639425933361053,
-0.0971953421831131,
0.27605652809143066,
-0.4894084930419922,
-0.48171693086624146,
-0.299653559923172,
-0.48651501536369324,
0.3320387899875641,
0.8512721657752991,
0.11872948706150055,
-0.34244558215141296,
-0.11917798966169357,
-0.3393040597438812,
0.17039822041988373,
-0.33898866176605225,
0.060331519693136215,
0.41970813274383545,
0.38810932636260986,
0.39381155371665955,
0.4460159242153168,
1.1592063903808594,
-0.5180659890174866,
-0.21060127019882202,
0.2757835388183594,
0.3713597059249878,
-1.5131653547286987,
0.33105871081352234,
0.13791224360466003,
-0.2845284342765808,
0.005617459770292044,
0.0005426779971458018,
0.48748713731765747,
0.46138226985931396,
0.3593026399612427,
0.4915257692337036,
-0.24483300745487213,
0.015695538371801376,
0.7335703372955322,
0.2736136317253113,
-1.1220859289169312,
-0.44962573051452637,
-0.7929098606109619,
-0.16882656514644623,
0.03560391068458557,
-1.4555935859680176,
-0.34561336040496826,
0.24695506691932678,
-0.8082961440086365,
0.05347851663827896,
-0.21315057575702667,
-0.024077920243144035,
0.3132947087287903,
-0.9102155566215515,
-0.5930522680282593,
-0.14763906598091125,
0.1355103999376297,
-0.07144604623317719,
-0.08459661900997162,
-0.2632592022418976,
-0.5875566005706787,
0.3646021783351898,
0.0021309375297278166,
-0.6402431726455688,
0.7290011048316956,
0.09725648909807205,
0.14945276081562042,
0.9743542075157166,
-0.35999006032943726,
-0.5746772885322571,
-0.6176091432571411,
-0.4569641649723053,
0.041640911251306534,
0.0602157786488533,
-0.0028858580626547337,
0.03949744999408722,
-0.7428848743438721,
-0.6786700487136841,
-1.5197827816009521,
-0.2605811655521393,
0.39494168758392334,
0.397136390209198,
-0.2986080050468445,
0.11043224483728409,
0.45392441749572754,
-0.3474137485027313,
-0.027123620733618736,
-0.18593761324882507,
-0.14699360728263855,
0.11017712205648422,
0.14757099747657776,
0.6259531378746033,
0.23719927668571472,
-0.0734277069568634,
0.2932521402835846,
1.0468686819076538,
0.37688979506492615,
0.3651961088180542,
0.32996466755867004,
-0.06360462307929993,
0.11565650999546051,
0.039104729890823364,
0.21980395913124084,
-0.62770015001297,
0.5046500563621521,
0.1885267198085785,
0.024870527908205986,
-0.13791440427303314,
0.4357139468193054,
-0.6447833180427551,
0.09791860729455948,
0.025882022455334663,
0.6797192692756653,
0.48983827233314514,
-0.2559147775173187,
-0.700429379940033,
-0.6357135772705078,
0.1221640482544899,
0.34069034457206726,
-0.05649624019861221,
-0.09984418004751205,
-0.29217010736465454,
0.5201173424720764,
-0.07255741208791733,
-0.36945053935050964,
0.285917192697525,
-0.23946605622768402,
-0.6801105737686157,
1.0971451997756958,
-0.166222482919693,
1.3309731483459473,
0.34395623207092285,
-0.2830736041069031,
0.07867132127285004,
-0.15594153106212616,
0.05416225269436836,
-0.3387467861175537,
-0.22031868994235992,
0.4829389750957489,
-0.19691061973571777,
-1.2560334205627441,
1.4220097064971924,
0.09111756831407547,
-0.49666348099708557,
0.07670308649539948,
0.8704083561897278,
0.06033509597182274,
-0.5381151437759399,
-0.049826446920633316,
0.2915906608104706,
-0.08769943565130234,
-0.27654388546943665,
0.3056735694408417,
-0.0860310047864914,
-0.2159910649061203,
-0.645213782787323,
0.28346359729766846,
0.46367713809013367,
0.02213817834854126,
0.13888338208198547,
-0.6502018570899963,
0.2580004632472992,
0.2255547046661377,
0.7450148463249207,
-0.06386047601699829,
-0.28465864062309265,
0.4215545952320099,
-0.10238929092884064,
0.6415539979934692,
-0.40027520060539246,
-0.21884335577487946,
-0.384650856256485,
-0.4242108464241028,
-0.5708471536636353,
0.17330318689346313,
0.04128418117761612,
0.2170933187007904,
0.02508312650024891,
-0.6529830098152161,
-0.13606736063957214,
0.18221300840377808,
0.07414324581623077,
0.23801980912685394,
-0.03533613681793213,
0.2047010064125061,
-0.6618987321853638,
0.4879089593887329,
-0.06835458427667618,
0.19032247364521027,
-0.13978196680545807,
0.9196879863739014,
0.24180355668067932,
0.45275768637657166,
-0.21908751130104065,
-0.48804786801338196,
0.04150296002626419,
0.0886930376291275,
0.034327346831560135,
-0.31128406524658203,
-0.02374369092285633,
0.04356738552451134,
-0.42071840167045593,
-0.28990229964256287,
-0.1215052381157875,
-0.2916080057621002,
0.6440478563308716,
0.24006254971027374,
0.014169597066938877,
-0.26327767968177795,
-1.9153879880905151,
0.6984597444534302,
1.1524739265441895,
0.07551086694002151,
0.5997599363327026,
-0.33246612548828125,
0.26537832617759705,
0.12474048882722855,
1.0628849267959595,
-0.16282281279563904,
-0.30726131796836853,
-0.07302480936050415,
0.5110401511192322,
0.42197227478027344,
-0.29906678199768066,
-0.061155546456575394,
0.2787834703922272,
0.05022053048014641,
-0.2480834573507309,
-0.48487037420272827,
-0.14580823481082916,
0.49752748012542725,
-0.1872262954711914,
-0.08807411044836044,
0.2823426127433777,
0.47072622179985046,
-0.2919740378856659,
-0.35033175349235535,
0.28931596875190735,
-0.3842756450176239,
-0.12002909928560257,
0.23321039974689484,
-0.32076165080070496,
-0.08003591746091843,
-0.13862541317939758,
-4.611472129821777,
0.08340198546648026,
-0.4561406970024109,
-0.6514850854873657,
0.2542600631713867,
-0.6560243368148804,
0.18890443444252014,
-0.17896980047225952,
-0.16102775931358337,
0.07509934902191162,
0.1699381321668625,
-0.03557001054286957,
-0.1851952224969864,
-0.057525306940078735,
0.6186943650245667,
0.23503059148788452,
0.8623418807983398,
-0.3850712478160858,
0.7458488345146179,
-0.17430512607097626,
0.2789430022239685,
-0.18765775859355927,
-0.11535363644361496,
-0.20681598782539368,
0.5378201007843018,
0.8433087468147278,
0.1225585862994194,
-0.25435584783554077,
-0.5508074760437012,
-0.34077781438827515,
-0.14529989659786224,
0.023058289662003517,
0.1025015115737915,
-0.9426991939544678,
-0.27419283986091614,
-0.5085750222206116,
0.30828291177749634,
0.1710992455482483,
1.1120749711990356,
-0.5350980162620544,
-0.21974675357341766,
0.0939507931470871,
0.16714181005954742,
0.1897096484899521,
0.22285515069961548,
-0.30120140314102173,
-0.6498149633407593,
0.23164188861846924,
-0.297409325838089,
0.7653532028198242,
0.020624633878469467,
0.1605767160654068,
0.9105146527290344,
0.23703821003437042,
0.5012772083282471,
-0.9756463170051575,
0.2481711208820343,
-0.2956553101539612,
0.05441765859723091,
0.07038865238428116,
0.4677191376686096,
-0.19141830503940582,
-0.2638317346572876,
-0.3633056581020355,
-0.23859839141368866,
-0.46341967582702637,
0.325329452753067,
-0.18839944899082184,
0.10948936641216278,
-0.09358145296573639,
-0.20028404891490936,
0.3965238630771637,
-0.10967724770307541,
-0.7242562174797058,
-0.24138660728931427,
-0.24653275310993195,
-0.8512201309204102,
0.6641805768013,
0.318293958902359,
-0.39169129729270935,
0.05728035420179367,
-0.33794960379600525,
-0.36939090490341187,
0.8873801231384277,
0.14484234154224396,
0.18118631839752197,
-0.2570861577987671,
-0.03655671700835228,
-0.2895284593105316,
-0.25896474719047546,
-0.14240658283233643,
0.17287461459636688,
-0.053923625499010086,
0.33865976333618164,
-0.05864930897951126,
-0.6885682344436646,
0.9427733421325684,
-0.3530839681625366,
-0.39165836572647095,
-0.8527836203575134,
0.6073140501976013,
-0.1669793725013733,
-0.03876252844929695,
-0.251577764749527,
-0.542735755443573,
-0.6689718961715698,
-0.6084576845169067,
0.13769851624965668,
0.47916942834854126,
0.16622519493103027,
-0.3440929651260376,
-0.7053602337837219,
-0.63895183801651,
-0.11919809132814407,
0.8058450222015381,
-0.035778217017650604,
-0.3632653057575226,
0.6867262125015259,
0.8832467794418335,
0.49393603205680847,
-0.12484325468540192,
0.0006844375166110694,
0.012447012588381767,
0.3294178545475006,
0.4564652740955353,
0.4919792413711548,
0.7423645257949829,
0.2417948693037033,
-1.0614871978759766,
0.14554700255393982,
0.38828110694885254,
-0.3228306174278259,
-0.3476106524467468,
-0.6007544994354248,
-0.2336820662021637,
-0.5604130029678345,
-0.3430120646953583,
-0.16544795036315918,
0.07348120957612991,
-0.3729832172393799,
-0.302951455116272,
0.48861825466156006,
-0.5487983226776123,
0.5842205286026001,
-0.2772294878959656,
0.5838887691497803,
0.2682476341724396,
-0.5486681461334229,
-0.20788317918777466,
0.5187053680419922,
-0.8593142628669739,
-0.9923778176307678,
0.21352319419384003,
-0.3911342918872833,
0.11449932307004929,
-0.38010066747665405,
0.16715379059314728,
0.06692221760749817,
-0.07380600273609161,
0.42453891038894653,
0.7641920447349548,
-0.1641426384449005,
-0.6878568530082703,
0.675618588924408,
-0.17862734198570251,
0.04257943108677864,
-0.2876906991004944,
-0.4534831643104553,
-0.6149396896362305,
0.22844207286834717,
-0.24654965102672577,
0.04950974881649017,
-1.068251371383667,
0.2475249171257019,
0.7451689839363098,
-0.2746593952178955,
-0.3345833122730255,
0.045309387147426605,
0.7590389251708984,
-0.25161290168762207,
-0.06660554558038712,
-0.16383273899555206,
-0.10588620603084564,
0.9577390551567078,
-0.25858354568481445,
-0.3068293035030365,
-0.1948441118001938,
-0.30654439330101013,
0.12136129289865494,
0.6710693836212158,
0.07405868917703629,
-0.5186260342597961,
0.17123526334762573,
0.29251575469970703,
-0.2026834934949875,
-0.5629099011421204,
0.41122978925704956,
0.04139542579650879,
-0.014507001265883446,
-0.35325801372528076,
0.2480650693178177,
0.8022763133049011,
-0.16778750717639923,
0.9316030144691467,
0.0030496905092149973,
-0.3194676339626312,
0.4455191493034363,
0.49471262097358704,
-0.7351285815238953,
0.6827300190925598,
0.24644827842712402,
-0.36947956681251526,
1.039618968963623,
1.1390845775604248,
-0.2183380424976349,
-0.19504186511039734,
0.31435859203338623,
0.48434513807296753,
-0.2469276487827301,
-0.32468998432159424,
-0.3482822775840759,
-0.09894198924303055,
-0.601066529750824,
-0.41579321026802063,
-0.5163729190826416,
0.8722207546234131,
0.7399634718894958,
-0.2249215990304947,
0.7635242342948914,
-0.7933834791183472,
0.004008071031421423,
0.1931547224521637,
0.5051941275596619,
-0.22053317725658417,
0.5595398545265198,
0.25327378511428833,
-0.33014976978302,
0.07820968329906464,
0.02711029164493084,
0.4173254668712616,
0.5956050157546997,
1.0486968755722046,
0.2516891062259674,
-0.719344973564148,
-0.1828921139240265,
0.10829567164182663,
0.5588058829307556,
-0.3303605318069458,
-0.5607365369796753,
0.36769789457321167,
-0.393889456987381,
-0.6827849745750427,
-0.6578381061553955,
-0.4409564733505249,
1.1878023147583008,
-0.06644358485937119,
-0.0609092190861702,
0.7942063808441162,
-0.25172168016433716,
0.32260486483573914,
-0.04819104075431824,
0.5415705442428589,
0.22845225036144257,
0.5617875456809998,
0.4428991675376892,
0.4031203091144562,
0.20031368732452393,
-0.10526975989341736,
0.5093063116073608,
0.21333183348178864,
-0.3925735354423523,
-0.5093244314193726,
0.18169690668582916,
0.14238712191581726,
-0.62589031457901,
-0.4183428883552551,
0.1011519655585289,
-0.26457732915878296,
0.32175973057746887,
-0.3480932414531708,
0.7598549127578735,
0.23392854630947113,
0.1064537912607193,
-0.028681866824626923,
0.7879757881164551,
-0.7714748382568359,
-0.5046684145927429,
0.2331296056509018,
0.011830040253698826,
0.7406666874885559,
-0.14685294032096863,
0.0584876649081707,
-0.06317459046840668,
0.5359465479850769,
-0.22108209133148193,
0.12293866276741028,
-0.45186731219291687,
-0.44553011655807495,
-0.11872788518667221,
0.4643229842185974,
-0.9336091876029968,
0.8274650573730469,
-0.23435628414154053,
0.0498872846364975,
0.6512525081634521,
0.32346442341804504,
-0.38363024592399597,
0.00652236258611083,
-0.2333250790834427,
-0.1547650694847107,
0.5061370730400085,
0.46305155754089355,
0.3438681662082672,
0.30167320370674133,
-0.7449610829353333,
0.016272047534585,
0.31726500391960144,
-0.6671571135520935,
-0.7259763479232788,
0.031035730615258217,
-0.6577330827713013,
-0.2885352075099945,
0.6726276278495789,
0.26329687237739563,
-0.2165132611989975,
0.7246363162994385,
-0.23334431648254395,
-0.4087391495704651,
0.1751021444797516,
0.37211179733276367,
-0.14314837753772736,
0.23743711411952972,
-0.9651637077331543,
0.8897075057029724,
-0.5439008474349976,
0.04807616397738457,
0.0714317187666893,
-0.5480300784111023,
-0.4156455397605896,
0.715219259262085,
0.14672760665416718,
-0.013917377218604088,
-0.5980817675590515,
-0.17797480523586273,
-0.06962767243385315,
0.37514907121658325,
0.15817934274673462,
0.2681686580181122,
-0.14837577939033508,
-0.19563204050064087,
-0.029177434742450714,
-0.021765602752566338,
-0.11869314312934875,
0.3088107705116272,
-0.6819521188735962,
0.14467372000217438,
0.3093888461589813,
-0.636437714099884,
-0.4775191843509674,
-1.3907930850982666,
-0.29790690541267395,
-0.5978082418441772,
0.8193240165710449,
-0.09194754809141159,
-0.19571128487586975,
-0.49421823024749756,
0.5080803036689758,
-0.6723665595054626,
0.22167226672172546,
-0.12557625770568848,
-0.1841549128293991,
0.10958752036094666,
0.10021854937076569,
-0.27522340416908264,
0.7316668033599854,
0.7592989802360535,
-0.09643527120351791,
-0.00999979767948389,
0.37056589126586914,
0.07009264081716537,
-0.1868397742509842,
0.48230236768722534,
-0.21230816841125488,
-0.3601871132850647,
0.13178962469100952,
-0.5653412342071533,
-0.2522835433483124,
0.5052592754364014,
0.06309166550636292,
-0.16729971766471863,
0.37302055954933167,
-0.17658662796020508,
0.20547939836978912,
0.08858706802129745,
-0.6001431345939636,
0.2668263912200928,
-0.746444582939148,
-0.07850579172372818,
0.06950055062770844,
0.1525467336177826,
-0.14818060398101807,
0.5638600587844849,
-0.20812949538230896,
-0.37209323048591614,
0.03870606794953346,
0.4247480630874634,
-0.3968149423599243,
-0.10784542560577393,
-0.5570325255393982,
0.19247236847877502,
-0.39226388931274414,
0.19591525197029114,
-0.7195361852645874,
0.15231962502002716,
-0.5317251086235046,
0.3909927010536194,
0.5033939480781555,
-0.42660483717918396,
-0.4050946533679962,
-0.017524221912026405,
0.2188396155834198,
-0.09234342724084854,
1.0327280759811401,
0.46122506260871887,
-0.3122291564941406,
-0.9553803205490112,
-0.9487996101379395,
0.08801264315843582,
0.09338773787021637,
-0.16746172308921814,
0.40180715918540955,
-0.07589803636074066,
-0.2507432699203491,
0.19004687666893005,
0.01562056690454483,
0.338664710521698,
0.03808794170618057,
0.09250856935977936,
0.49837133288383484,
-0.2124304473400116,
-0.13436086475849152,
-0.5529587864875793,
0.5581305027008057,
0.5016157031059265,
-3.1392059326171875,
0.00643101055175066,
-0.3917348086833954,
-0.5780960321426392,
0.07420744746923447,
0.014818154275417328,
0.5062664151191711,
0.3875885307788849,
0.018381115049123764,
-0.047396209090948105,
0.017365600913763046,
-0.21464967727661133,
0.39468440413475037,
-0.7359052896499634,
0.7079784870147705,
0.20255376398563385
] |
261007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signing | Signing | Signing may refer to:
Using sign language
Signature, placing one's name on a document
Signature (disambiguation)
Manual communication, signing as a form of communication using the hands in place of the voice
Digital signature, signing as a method of authenticating digital information
See also
Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages, the Wikipedia policy of signing Talk pages | [
0.7494298815727234,
0.41676849126815796,
0.16756778955459595,
0.12700636684894562,
0.15210053324699402,
-0.26296934485435486,
0.3608362376689911,
0.008129269815981388,
-0.41362234950065613,
-0.5265297293663025,
-0.2434304654598236,
0.2895875573158264,
0.06595240533351898,
-0.080582395195961,
-0.19323556125164032,
-0.17538566887378693,
0.04101166874170303,
0.5480604767799377,
-0.152568981051445,
-0.5825046896934509,
-0.6258541345596313,
-0.09987573325634003,
-0.09459081292152405,
-0.8414756655693054,
0.435345858335495,
0.1937417834997177,
-0.11532625555992126,
-0.617257297039032,
-1.0835131406784058,
0.015713373199105263,
0.28278616070747375,
-0.11419080197811127,
0.18681158125400543,
0.41659843921661377,
-0.123407281935215,
-0.05491705983877182,
-0.35489633679389954,
-0.43968555331230164,
0.04900407791137695,
-0.7549044489860535,
-0.38815054297447205,
-0.20133934915065765,
0.2072555422782898,
0.38862094283103943,
-0.27099287509918213,
-0.5894069075584412,
-1.2656842470169067,
0.339553564786911,
-0.30143865942955017,
0.1827344298362732,
-0.3922998905181885,
0.21096909046173096,
-0.0528176911175251,
0.7345530390739441,
0.20301853120326996,
-0.05841886252164841,
-0.5243911147117615,
-0.5417540669441223,
0.10552800446748734,
-0.5524784326553345,
0.4423511028289795,
0.26659223437309265,
-0.1828346699476242,
0.011363661848008633,
0.6645782589912415,
0.06629703938961029,
0.10176686197519302,
0.38747408986091614,
-0.47951051592826843,
-0.5842137932777405,
-0.27685022354125977,
-0.3001263439655304,
-0.24761490523815155,
-0.3912779986858368,
0.06702777743339539,
0.08441120386123657,
0.34089145064353943,
0.13254454731941223,
-0.013006456196308136,
0.11624094098806381,
0.18951018154621124,
0.725220263004303,
0.23579251766204834,
-0.08865141123533249,
0.4903475046157837,
0.16880840063095093,
-0.7444630265235901,
0.20055675506591797,
-0.08049704134464264,
-0.2313976287841797,
0.4032309055328369,
-0.31756091117858887,
-0.24524055421352386,
-0.08608973026275635,
-0.03649262711405754,
0.48672276735305786,
-0.09403762966394424,
0.3806469440460205,
0.09948771446943283,
0.0006971003604121506,
0.06443001329898834,
-0.6278228163719177,
0.7573428750038147,
-0.16274599730968475,
-0.39363253116607666,
-0.007973816245794296,
-0.6165745258331299,
0.35358333587646484,
0.8592565059661865,
-0.12205873429775238,
0.09073267877101898,
0.022622622549533844,
-0.007598895579576492,
0.2770974338054657,
-0.057698965072631836,
0.3030255138874054,
0.00750445993617177,
0.2736400365829468,
-0.3646503686904907,
-0.25894251465797424,
0.016724949702620506,
0.5836441516876221,
0.4349834620952606,
-0.29678261280059814,
0.3041333258152008,
0.4070858359336853,
0.27578532695770264,
0.9831246733665466,
-0.7594956755638123,
-0.6011691689491272,
-0.2017119973897934,
1.2730107307434082,
0.33116766810417175,
0.07739109545946121,
0.13351528346538544,
0.28674089908599854,
0.4094402492046356,
-0.2955843508243561,
0.514372706413269,
0.05217882990837097,
-0.4007883667945862,
-0.14661264419555664,
-0.537207841873169,
0.27443596720695496,
0.39570844173431396,
-0.03277607634663582,
0.08244368433952332,
-0.14911819994449615,
-0.03505386412143707,
0.5162718296051025,
-0.421730637550354,
-0.41445720195770264,
0.4291042983531952,
0.25675734877586365,
-0.315413236618042,
0.4514409601688385,
0.4507129192352295,
-0.29533571004867554,
0.08195169270038605,
-0.5326460003852844,
0.46877041459083557,
0.028905468061566353,
-0.8232715725898743,
0.5406323671340942,
0.18719691038131714,
-0.25425705313682556,
-0.5242767333984375,
0.4700489044189453,
0.16981633007526398,
-0.15246029198169708,
0.1576174944639206,
0.34659144282341003,
-0.21990616619586945,
-0.4518512785434723,
-0.290581613779068,
0.13899767398834229,
0.27372491359710693,
0.3544480800628662,
0.7224029898643494,
0.20969516038894653,
-0.6638772487640381,
0.36980634927749634,
0.10324808955192566,
-0.14775484800338745,
-0.06571647524833679,
0.15583406388759613,
0.10714252293109894,
0.3078896105289459,
-0.48845672607421875,
-0.2571329176425934,
-0.29352083802223206,
-0.0023793315049260855,
0.025408761575818062,
-0.6831684708595276,
0.9718421101570129,
-0.06464146822690964,
-0.4192775785923004,
1.6700385808944702,
-0.21727773547172546,
0.6415051817893982,
-0.15245206654071808,
0.33665528893470764,
0.426046758890152,
-0.10750062763690948,
0.028296370059251785,
0.7505267262458801,
0.4812379777431488,
0.13919897377490997,
0.325600802898407,
0.0014859886141493917,
0.7421925663948059,
-0.08852620422840118,
0.18237614631652832,
0.1003972515463829,
-0.2888517677783966,
0.1999303549528122,
-0.5200669169425964,
-0.0034740206319838762,
-0.12335553020238876,
-0.08756938576698303,
0.9475063681602478,
-0.020117005333304405,
0.30810123682022095,
0.5075705051422119,
-0.19723471999168396,
0.6173180341720581,
-0.6452269554138184,
0.29759666323661804,
0.6150614619255066,
-0.7982956171035767,
0.04556700214743614,
-0.12588238716125488,
0.5087853074073792,
-0.21835821866989136,
-0.014184474013745785,
-0.19727300107479095,
0.30197852849960327,
-0.26409900188446045,
0.05865080654621124,
0.38329777121543884,
-0.11309053003787994,
-0.15269461274147034,
-0.1809988021850586,
0.09826367348432541,
0.3354068100452423,
0.5286738276481628,
0.17328612506389618,
0.362604558467865,
-0.09834800660610199,
0.409706711769104,
0.5098025798797607,
0.39451006054878235,
-0.2766883969306946,
-0.532414972782135,
0.10200544446706772,
0.04056601971387863,
-0.3941497802734375,
-0.2652541697025299,
0.14599063992500305,
0.06337478011846542,
-0.05476908013224602,
-0.12233825027942657,
-0.0788596123456955,
0.5142102837562561,
-0.613204300403595,
-0.3187130093574524,
-0.37363195419311523,
-0.08394397795200348,
0.11700840294361115,
0.6308127045631409,
0.2724986672401428,
0.20883451402187347,
-0.7917172312736511,
0.08254392445087433,
-0.1887953281402588,
0.0580836720764637,
0.26558876037597656,
-0.05499901622533798,
-0.13143813610076904,
-0.5476245880126953,
-0.24189910292625427,
0.1402089148759842,
0.294179230928421,
-1.1103633642196655,
0.17587114870548248,
-0.9351979494094849,
-0.13289985060691833,
-0.5091601014137268,
-0.4029858708381653,
-0.6004574298858643,
0.07906407862901688,
0.8784050345420837,
0.637739896774292,
0.2827862501144409,
0.6882646083831787,
-0.0408732146024704,
0.32755500078201294,
0.5831680297851562,
0.4196145832538605,
0.16897638142108917,
0.04100688174366951,
0.14642393589019775,
-0.027527332305908203,
-0.4501487612724304,
0.3980509638786316,
0.04316538944840431,
-0.09549279510974884,
-0.6054888367652893,
-5.8464226722717285,
0.22083647549152374,
0.22453778982162476,
-0.2313809096813202,
-0.2040044516324997,
0.033363226801157,
1.1406584978103638,
-0.2578423321247101,
-0.3256886303424835,
-0.012646623887121677,
-0.05092331022024155,
0.7410763502120972,
0.15305016934871674,
0.22972875833511353,
0.14046332240104675,
0.5361243486404419,
0.5228689312934875,
0.006912308279424906,
-0.08793176710605621,
0.763808012008667,
-0.5386695265769958,
0.33869174122810364,
0.3450321853160858,
0.6037271618843079,
0.5372147560119629,
-0.007701218128204346,
-0.5015830993652344,
-0.055983223021030426,
0.3115801215171814,
0.01821904070675373,
-0.017659734934568405,
0.030246326699852943,
0.24442294239997864,
-0.21000252664089203,
-0.3815096318721771,
0.13472138345241547,
0.7092745900154114,
0.2961539328098297,
-0.5822698473930359,
-0.6573651432991028,
0.07271900773048401,
0.5255114436149597,
0.29188838601112366,
-0.6640361547470093,
0.18491986393928528,
-0.14068584144115448,
-0.027476049959659576,
-0.523433268070221,
-0.44818219542503357,
0.36164820194244385,
-0.2406574934720993,
-0.2112223505973816,
0.20339961349964142,
0.03953910619020462,
0.39541172981262207,
-0.396851509809494,
0.5314768552780151,
0.03804921358823776,
-0.729229748249054,
0.34631451964378357,
0.18882305920124054,
-0.8190326690673828,
-0.34676414728164673,
-1.1028494834899902,
-0.017930055037140846,
-0.3474229872226715,
-0.8768624067306519,
-0.7020207047462463,
0.8850880265235901,
0.5364605188369751,
-0.08239954710006714,
0.5357029438018799,
0.5503436923027039,
-0.5064040422439575,
-0.005090828984975815,
-0.7158487439155579,
-0.3803165853023529,
-0.18471691012382507,
-0.26060330867767334,
0.027373183518648148,
-0.016293082386255264,
0.13649550080299377,
-0.43142297863960266,
0.14036114513874054,
0.32010552287101746,
0.020543215796351433,
0.2090168446302414,
0.21779915690422058,
-0.36835554242134094,
-0.30742329359054565,
1.1359460353851318,
0.2940855324268341,
-0.27982157468795776,
0.12421425431966782,
-0.015789147466421127,
0.06752952933311462,
0.23520180583000183,
-0.06053733825683594,
0.023123521357774734,
-0.06769714504480362,
0.8821324110031128,
0.12792924046516418,
0.11838733404874802,
-1.0948690176010132,
-0.17873087525367737,
0.13801492750644684,
-0.8744480609893799,
0.27344459295272827,
0.3255529999732971,
-0.15748977661132812,
-0.8546754121780396,
0.15921182930469513,
-0.4737416207790375,
-0.23839935660362244,
-0.3417528569698334,
0.32317596673965454,
-0.2852105498313904,
-0.014265486039221287,
0.3116997480392456,
-0.6036930084228516,
0.23963871598243713,
0.5416097044944763,
-0.13055378198623657,
-0.21475651860237122,
-0.8357685208320618,
-0.43838468194007874,
-0.3161223530769348,
0.38203948736190796,
-0.16073746979236603,
-0.34055832028388977,
0.2420472502708435,
0.1304243505001068,
-0.06341205537319183,
0.16529731452465057,
0.0373888835310936,
0.04708214849233627,
-0.04315043240785599,
-0.002254992723464966,
0.05060572177171707,
-0.6343839764595032,
0.15716040134429932,
-0.7996715903282166,
0.02368323691189289,
0.17548754811286926,
0.6402009129524231,
-0.1059252917766571,
-0.7196703553199768,
-0.1742839217185974,
-0.42653703689575195,
0.7900679707527161,
0.013775922358036041,
-0.7530150413513184,
0.03853514790534973,
0.13024000823497772,
0.38852813839912415,
-0.1899520307779312,
0.2395668476819992,
0.06086299195885658,
0.449893057346344,
-0.5044208765029907,
-0.02431350015103817,
-0.11751532554626465,
0.21783016622066498,
-0.04863139986991882,
0.42716607451438904,
-0.7087047100067139,
-0.7610807418823242,
-0.11041402071714401,
-0.36306247115135193,
0.6451399326324463,
-0.0063870567828416824,
-0.05670209601521492,
-0.7381314635276794,
-0.4830676019191742,
0.21643197536468506,
-0.0894547551870346,
-0.29965391755104065,
0.6480585336685181,
-0.0229689609259367,
-0.14080168306827545,
0.2647012174129486,
-0.44447198510169983,
0.1550423949956894,
-0.23302343487739563,
0.2951609194278717,
-0.3234077990055084,
0.4490683674812317,
-0.08084758371114731,
-0.3206750154495239,
-0.1871684044599533,
-0.031526945531368256,
0.07400474697351456,
0.3136007487773895,
-0.39301615953445435,
-0.005419608671218157,
-0.5449146628379822,
-0.08356104791164398,
0.2685895264148712,
-0.1389583945274353,
0.06587274372577667,
0.3629709482192993,
0.42206627130508423,
-1.0118496417999268,
-0.21818973124027252,
0.24444924294948578,
-0.01727631874382496,
0.27492034435272217,
-0.20507751405239105,
-0.41436153650283813,
0.05826208367943764,
-0.3437344431877136,
-0.4318304657936096,
-0.6624225974082947,
0.037272874265909195,
-0.3025779724121094,
0.07362539321184158,
0.014161256141960621,
-0.4447766840457916,
-0.33939918875694275,
0.14865195751190186,
0.5782584547996521,
0.29084762930870056,
-0.17819157242774963,
0.06508206576108932,
0.3220142126083374,
0.20170928537845612,
-0.09661217778921127,
0.37251967191696167,
0.4985848665237427,
-0.1522013247013092,
-0.08009113371372223,
-0.36162999272346497,
0.27226826548576355,
0.0660976842045784,
-0.06176743283867836,
-0.2835569381713867,
-0.1416977345943451,
-0.07641657441854477,
-0.05868285149335861,
0.09876569360494614,
0.3390238285064697,
0.9604118466377258,
-0.38778215646743774,
-0.9741973876953125,
-0.5353105664253235,
0.4825241267681122,
-0.12408427894115448,
-0.0064146192744374275,
-0.628170907497406,
0.1672850400209427,
0.2745116949081421,
0.21903522312641144,
-0.27678000926971436,
0.04640132933855057,
0.18619240820407867,
0.4309019148349762,
-0.09397606551647186,
0.14419043064117432,
0.11170307546854019,
0.13925427198410034,
0.5343756079673767,
-0.28018704056739807,
-0.18285538256168365,
0.028767503798007965,
0.7928707599639893,
-0.19328950345516205,
-0.29808032512664795,
0.25096940994262695,
-0.15040886402130127,
-0.3526853024959564,
-0.2888299226760864,
-0.009343031793832779,
0.49731624126434326,
0.1108180582523346,
0.2540281116962433,
0.14980082213878632,
-0.33141905069351196,
0.17803740501403809,
-0.30612441897392273,
0.2921735644340515,
-0.1582667976617813,
-0.23576009273529053,
0.06172766536474228,
-0.15819990634918213,
0.145019993185997,
-0.2320106327533722,
0.2686092257499695,
0.09550388157367706,
-0.26826903223991394,
-0.6979870796203613,
-0.5736522078514099,
0.4825490117073059,
-0.33295542001724243,
0.7925674319267273,
-0.17795994877815247,
0.09850901365280151,
0.32958152890205383,
0.39663946628570557,
0.08636024594306946,
0.07204270362854004,
-0.16436143219470978,
0.1749950498342514,
0.45228448510169983,
-0.5485827326774597,
0.39405184984207153,
0.2060798853635788,
-0.0732942745089531,
-0.6978276968002319,
-0.07929258793592453,
-0.17342117428779602,
-0.27883949875831604,
-0.19949883222579956,
0.4142927825450897,
0.13239972293376923,
0.009233814664185047,
-0.32664424180984497,
0.5950554013252258,
-0.508023738861084,
-0.39102980494499207,
0.08377251029014587,
0.3663676083087921,
-0.7050362229347229,
0.24689926207065582,
-0.23992320895195007,
-0.41681620478630066,
0.3123459219932556,
-0.10196059197187424,
-0.24901261925697327,
0.18868610262870789,
0.2865041196346283,
0.9202905297279358,
0.3882277011871338,
0.2957383990287781,
-0.12501145899295807,
0.02158849872648716,
-0.4394005537033081,
0.128245547413826,
-0.17622284591197968,
-0.7881292104721069,
0.6100667119026184,
0.12797406315803528,
0.40883439779281616,
-0.27944275736808777,
0.030398687347769737,
-0.14472298324108124,
0.17098960280418396,
0.11012286692857742,
0.5331684947013855,
-0.07850073277950287,
0.34698212146759033,
0.748387336730957,
-0.16062650084495544,
-0.38736963272094727,
0.06029196083545685,
-0.0731474906206131,
-0.5892084240913391,
0.20222096145153046,
-0.4772705137729645,
-0.585166335105896,
-0.3027310371398926,
-0.045072849839925766,
0.7090468406677246,
0.5619170069694519,
-0.10705240815877914,
-0.37270021438598633,
-0.1252741664648056,
0.6761701107025146,
0.3397992253303528,
0.14331859350204468,
0.022869694977998734,
0.26080164313316345,
0.2737163007259369,
-0.4918709695339203,
0.45742419362068176,
0.08843032270669937,
-0.49866771697998047,
0.6478146314620972,
0.2105390578508377,
-0.266395628452301,
-0.39038321375846863,
-0.20736800134181976,
-0.21951505541801453,
-0.33917245268821716,
-0.5238562822341919,
0.12609057128429413,
0.044160280376672745,
-0.10755632817745209,
0.2875363230705261,
-0.42914608120918274,
-0.16496151685714722,
-0.44379574060440063,
-0.35579714179039,
-0.026122169569134712,
0.054638996720314026,
-0.3334609866142273,
0.09906382858753204,
-0.34370651841163635,
1.0097867250442505,
-0.14501284062862396,
-0.32180550694465637,
-0.29709556698799133,
-0.08823160082101822,
0.43340861797332764,
-0.3580045998096466,
-0.11617674678564072,
0.6211370229721069,
-0.7947254180908203,
0.023649537935853004,
-0.3999704122543335,
0.14727634191513062,
0.2129632830619812,
0.3007061183452606,
-0.12372234463691711,
0.12999911606311798,
-0.20278526842594147,
0.5322995781898499,
0.4094803035259247,
0.108919657766819,
-0.18156912922859192,
-0.1330987960100174,
-0.015487328171730042,
0.32087990641593933,
0.5663874745368958,
0.14287252724170685,
-0.11711321026086807,
0.30404040217399597,
-0.09305775910615921,
0.5346540808677673,
-0.3082681894302368,
0.21533071994781494,
-0.6009593605995178,
-0.2943275570869446,
-0.20328962802886963,
0.41656461358070374,
-0.6902816891670227,
0.0978998914361,
-0.17883357405662537,
0.44164466857910156,
0.1624358892440796,
-0.46907275915145874,
0.1133638396859169,
0.20791254937648773,
0.47025322914123535,
0.4858744442462921,
-0.6615055799484253,
-0.019641119986772537,
-0.3131072521209717,
-0.15541431307792664,
-0.7107381820678711,
-0.18839113414287567,
0.2245142012834549,
-0.498925119638443,
0.19847892224788666,
-0.18218190968036652,
-0.2692737281322479,
0.6483399271965027,
-0.09586771577596664,
-0.388339638710022,
-0.4106871485710144,
0.5821250677108765
] |
261011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcheline%20Bertrand | Marcheline Bertrand | Marcia Lynne "Marcheline" Bertrand (May 9, 1950 – January 27, 2007) was an American actress and humanitarian. She was the former wife of actor Jon Voight, and the mother of actress Angelina Jolie and actor James Haven.
Early life
Born at St. Francis Hospital in Blue Island, Illinois, Bertrand was brought up in the nearby small town of Riverdale. Her parents were Lois June (née Gouwens) and Rolland F. Bertrand. She had two younger siblings: a sister, Debbie, and a brother, Raleigh. In 1965, Bertrand's family moved from the Chicago area to Beverly Hills, California, where she attended Beverly Hills High School from sophomore year through graduation.
Bertrand's father was of French-Canadian descent, and her mother was of Dutch and German ancestry, with ancestors who had immigrated to the United States in the mid-19th century. Bertrand claimed to be of Iroquois ancestry through her father's line, although her only known Native American ancestor is a Huron woman born in 1649 in present-day Quebec. According to her daughter, Bertrand was often wrongly identified as a French actress because of her name; she said, "My mom is as far from French Parisian as you can get. She grew up in a bowling alley that my grandparents owned."
Film career
During her early years as an actress, Bertrand studied with Lee Strasberg. In 1971, she played Connie in the episode "Love, Peace, Brotherhood and Murder" on the fourth season of the television show Ironside. A decade later, she appeared in a minor role in 1982's Lookin' to Get Out, a film co-written by and starring her former husband, Jon Voight. The following year, Bertrand played her final film role in the 1983 comedy The Man Who Loved Women, a remake of the 1977 French film of the same name.
Bertrand then turned her attention toward producing. In 1983, she founded Woods Road Productions with her then-partner, Bill Day. In 2005, Bertrand was the executive producer of the documentary Trudell, which chronicles the life and work of her partner, John Trudell, a Santee Sioux musician and activist. Trudell was an official selection at the Sundance Film Festival and the Tribeca Film Festival, and it won the Special Jury Prize for Best Documentary at the Seattle International Film Festival.
Humanitarian work
Bertrand and her partner, John Trudell, founded the All Tribes Foundation, to support the cultural and economic survival of Native peoples. By 2007, the foundation had issued over $800,000 in grants to reservation-based programs that strengthen tribal ways of life and safeguard a future for Native communities.
On International Women's Day in 2003, Bertrand and Trudell produced a benefit concert for Afghan women refugees in conjunction with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Bertrand, who was diagnosed with ovarian cancer in 1999, also founded the Give Love Give Life organization with Trudell; their objective was to raise public consciousness about ovarian and other gynecological cancers through music. The first Give Love Give Life concert was held in February 2004 at The Roxy in West Hollywood. Bertrand and Trudell worked to organize strategic support in the music and film community for Johanna's Law, legislation to fund national outreach and education about the signs and symptoms of gynecological cancers, which was signed into law on January 12, 2007. To benefit the Women's Cancer Research Institute at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, a second Give Love Give Life concert was held at the Gibson Amphitheater in Los Angeles in February 2007, a month after Bertrand died from cancer.
Personal life
Bertrand married actor Jon Voight on December 12, 1971. Following a miscarriage in 1972, they had two children, James Haven and Angelina Jolie. Both children became actors. Bertrand and Voight separated in 1976, publicly citing Voight's adultery. Bertrand filed for divorce in 1978, which was finalized in 1980.
Following her legal separation from Voight, Bertrand began a relationship with documentary filmmaker Bill Day. They lived together for eleven years but never married. During her later life, Bertrand was in a relationship with activist and musician John Trudell.
At the time of her death, Bertrand had three grandchildren by her daughter. Another granddaughter, who was born the following year, was given the middle name "Marcheline" in her honor.
Bertrand was Roman Catholic.
Death
Toward the end of her life, Bertrand preferred her privacy and did not grant interviews. After a nearly eight-year battle with ovarian and breast cancer, she died aged 56 on January 27, 2007, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, in the company of her children. Bertrand's mother and sister also died of cancer. Her daughter explained, "My grandmother also died young; so, my mother always thought it could happen to her."
Filmography
References
External links
Marcheline Bertrand memorial page
Marcheline Bertrand's will
Official site of Give Love Give Life
1950 births
2007 deaths
American film actresses
Film producers from Illinois
American people of French-Canadian descent
American people of Dutch descent
American people of German descent
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from ovarian cancer
People from Blue Island, Illinois
Voight family
20th-century American actresses
American television actresses
People from Riverdale, Illinois
20th-century Roman Catholics
21st-century Roman Catholics
Catholics from Illinois
American women film producers
21st-century American women | [
-0.3296242952346802,
-0.1473156213760376,
-0.7293682098388672,
-0.26193633675575256,
-0.09530878812074661,
0.9289286136627197,
0.7191048264503479,
-0.0010051436256617308,
-0.10588159412145615,
0.03617461770772934,
-0.14172306656837463,
0.4131008982658386,
0.08681424707174301,
0.25869041681289673,
-0.40188246965408325,
0.3595222532749176,
0.30658453702926636,
0.19103017449378967,
-0.2614366412162781,
-0.6081621646881104,
-0.5786766409873962,
-0.035334743559360504,
0.0926944836974144,
0.32391422986984253,
-0.35179030895233154,
0.8736135363578796,
-0.21304811537265778,
0.09281296283006668,
0.5613715052604675,
0.03038731962442398,
0.18841521441936493,
-0.03868522867560387,
0.6917082071304321,
-0.3845928907394409,
-0.5697011351585388,
0.4885686933994293,
-0.22527050971984863,
-0.049258872866630554,
-0.5064842104911804,
-0.14588768780231476,
-0.5030993223190308,
-0.2148362100124359,
0.17512230575084686,
-0.11475417017936707,
-0.22081853449344635,
-0.1543913334608078,
-1.8859702348709106,
0.2876770794391632,
-0.37951070070266724,
-0.6239534020423889,
-0.2661384344100952,
0.40832197666168213,
1.3690638542175293,
-0.011664090678095818,
0.13637861609458923,
-0.323207825422287,
-0.5985808372497559,
-0.10733750462532043,
0.014210766181349754,
-0.6793539524078369,
0.19769386947155,
0.020857537165284157,
0.3147360682487488,
-0.5923981666564941,
0.005533886607736349,
0.24646101891994476,
0.34577974677085876,
0.14525212347507477,
0.2605992257595062,
-0.6044391989707947,
0.31801214814186096,
0.6145459413528442,
0.9216538071632385,
0.17362727224826813,
-0.007047872990369797,
-0.3172641694545746,
0.8758919835090637,
-0.29222893714904785,
0.28158432245254517,
0.2169453203678131,
-0.06047294661402702,
0.1656322330236435,
-0.01349873561412096,
0.31167834997177124,
0.16792596876621246,
-0.36848679184913635,
-0.04202624410390854,
0.5134564638137817,
-0.47913268208503723,
0.2558792233467102,
-1.1046565771102905,
-0.5552294254302979,
-0.12366923689842224,
0.265859454870224,
-0.07515785843133926,
-0.0704927146434784,
0.4783601760864258,
-0.17693257331848145,
0.575295627117157,
0.19341140985488892,
-0.3369317054748535,
-0.4917457401752472,
0.04747606813907623,
-0.3476923108100891,
-0.6409157514572144,
0.21761198341846466,
0.0844334289431572,
-0.6414480805397034,
-0.5287947058677673,
0.22666403651237488,
-0.12092016637325287,
-0.42446112632751465,
-0.36432212591171265,
-0.4329320192337036,
-0.053511593490839005,
0.264177143573761,
0.2638542950153351,
0.1171923577785492,
-0.9354727268218994,
0.006926144007593393,
0.3549460768699646,
-0.47538435459136963,
-0.11582749336957932,
-0.16855956614017487,
-0.6803082227706909,
0.1504650115966797,
-0.21611244976520538,
-0.006767145823687315,
-0.08060489594936371,
0.7786165475845337,
0.27604377269744873,
0.7458998560905457,
-0.4084464907646179,
-0.7107348442077637,
-0.3987375497817993,
-0.4534674286842346,
0.5762036442756653,
0.059632640331983566,
-0.07840007543563843,
-0.2583894729614258,
-0.02990649826824665,
0.6823875904083252,
-0.930796205997467,
0.0029584523290395737,
0.7356042265892029,
-0.2944088876247406,
0.1805245280265808,
0.6654488444328308,
-0.007856938987970352,
-0.38667458295822144,
-0.5433934926986694,
-0.135605126619339,
0.2952573299407959,
-0.5984920263290405,
-0.7787888050079346,
0.4054598808288574,
0.685471773147583,
-0.13071680068969727,
-0.08635640889406204,
0.21260125935077667,
0.7397627830505371,
0.2932126820087433,
0.18059034645557404,
0.14559988677501678,
0.5579661130905151,
0.1501542627811432,
-0.39173170924186707,
-0.46947529911994934,
0.1627592295408249,
0.2018815129995346,
-0.20614244043827057,
0.3905186057090759,
0.0427192822098732,
-0.1725771427154541,
-1.0495222806930542,
0.4210211932659149,
-0.009041487239301205,
0.414686381816864,
-0.5824121236801147,
-0.2741033434867859,
-0.5121476054191589,
0.15075795352458954,
-0.046168774366378784,
0.3059860169887543,
0.6679975390434265,
-0.09424417465925217,
0.14446178078651428,
-0.029384147375822067,
0.35291656851768494,
0.11219663172960281,
-0.8452556133270264,
-0.44355282187461853,
0.41614919900894165,
0.20498253405094147,
0.3823513388633728,
-0.04329415410757065,
-0.19163823127746582,
0.3837876319885254,
0.5017013549804688,
0.0724012479186058,
-0.5114960074424744,
-0.18623507022857666,
0.5235023498535156,
0.058534372597932816,
-0.10054086148738861,
0.4874234199523926,
0.6867560744285583,
0.0006929202354513109,
0.12543274462223053,
1.2132092714309692,
-0.2898118495941162,
-0.6084533929824829,
0.6979555487632751,
0.7728453278541565,
0.026266170665621758,
-1.1608071327209473,
-0.6843302845954895,
-0.3202793002128601,
0.44335564970970154,
-0.39109882712364197,
-0.41079971194267273,
0.33871087431907654,
-0.5091311931610107,
0.21509665250778198,
-0.562551736831665,
0.24621570110321045,
-0.18750129640102386,
-0.0606321282684803,
0.6492575407028198,
0.2577782869338989,
-0.0624239444732666,
0.5885108709335327,
0.021387062966823578,
-0.9900184273719788,
-0.07001618295907974,
0.10092897713184357,
0.38576778769493103,
-0.4846513271331787,
0.057900700718164444,
-0.6596258878707886,
-0.0757734477519989,
0.1703791469335556,
-0.6238129138946533,
0.138205885887146,
-0.40926456451416016,
-0.024563148617744446,
0.12683342397212982,
0.012443490326404572,
0.37491077184677124,
-0.07928397506475449,
0.25782936811447144,
0.8321316242218018,
0.4803631007671356,
0.03330835700035095,
0.21678367257118225,
0.3358447849750519,
0.3476996123790741,
0.27341198921203613,
0.9127980470657349,
0.13038106262683868,
0.3997734487056732,
-0.05023053660988808,
0.18235452473163605,
0.11804664134979248,
-0.1166989728808403,
-0.12324821203947067,
0.028352826833724976,
-0.45068952441215515,
0.007495960686355829,
0.08664006739854813,
0.2082088738679886,
-0.4584271311759949,
-0.24234390258789062,
0.1676374077796936,
0.04763910546898842,
0.864142656326294,
-0.3382694125175476,
0.3493708372116089,
-0.43158620595932007,
-1.0085463523864746,
0.5066367387771606,
0.785977303981781,
-0.4759918451309204,
-0.33040809631347656,
0.025696182623505592,
0.09832654893398285,
0.15479004383087158,
-0.3167494237422943,
-0.5512621998786926,
0.2971045672893524,
-0.3202264606952667,
0.5559430718421936,
-0.29640355706214905,
0.20454654097557068,
-0.007304464932531118,
-0.10052618384361267,
-0.2788139283657074,
0.15637150406837463,
-0.3395240604877472,
0.21810339391231537,
0.03766118735074997,
0.5095743536949158,
-0.1393156796693802,
0.07979992777109146,
0.5811962485313416,
0.191923588514328,
0.15761235356330872,
-0.20856650173664093,
-5.516458034515381,
0.2418699413537979,
0.5118349194526672,
-0.030880367383360863,
0.0185066107660532,
0.1309051364660263,
-0.06849829852581024,
-0.18286462128162384,
0.17639626562595367,
0.12104390561580658,
0.2155577689409256,
0.2548677623271942,
-0.5436662435531616,
0.21420758962631226,
0.38099974393844604,
0.2797149419784546,
0.3209764063358307,
-0.5204415321350098,
0.18497256934642792,
0.8689435124397278,
0.18034140765666962,
-0.281057208776474,
-0.06846064329147339,
0.15898661315441132,
-0.21162422001361847,
0.13355934619903564,
-0.05996213108301163,
0.15800128877162933,
-0.6308526992797852,
-0.14075180888175964,
0.1506240963935852,
-0.06233448162674904,
-0.5343944430351257,
0.00029558551614172757,
0.1452609747648239,
0.0986073762178421,
0.4771323502063751,
-0.6375446915626526,
-0.049363795667886734,
-0.6024055480957031,
-0.20962421596050262,
-0.12751172482967377,
-0.5413673520088196,
0.10494799166917801,
-0.14666099846363068,
-0.30862972140312195,
-0.2415090799331665,
-0.47965115308761597,
-0.03174445405602455,
0.7485453486442566,
0.24239639937877655,
0.14430244266986847,
0.5541298985481262,
-0.13507799804210663,
0.5501657128334045,
-0.35362908244132996,
0.02642158418893814,
-0.2592611610889435,
-0.7915393114089966,
0.16691625118255615,
0.17893166840076447,
-0.06823652982711792,
-0.1494828313589096,
-0.5369531512260437,
-0.19932609796524048,
-0.21900847554206848,
0.12879951298236847,
0.28181785345077515,
-0.4753800332546234,
-0.4296964108943939,
0.024562619626522064,
0.3233972489833832,
-0.2346695512533188,
-1.2080577611923218,
-0.1529427319765091,
-0.2728026807308197,
0.23661252856254578,
-0.11743856966495514,
-0.6100565791130066,
-0.49318382143974304,
0.29027900099754333,
-0.6056889295578003,
0.7130124568939209,
0.5082322955131531,
0.35251492261886597,
-0.2087613046169281,
-0.22798241674900055,
0.524075984954834,
-0.34513717889785767,
0.08102066814899445,
-0.34222179651260376,
0.1367664933204651,
-0.2989822030067444,
0.41995760798454285,
0.14655035734176636,
0.10866028070449829,
0.17063842713832855,
0.16141292452812195,
0.07094692438840866,
0.2464083731174469,
-0.2772007882595062,
-0.1530652940273285,
0.8579221367835999,
-0.24351193010807037,
0.3274650573730469,
-0.3410016894340515,
0.020844748243689537,
-0.06311945617198944,
0.8235892653465271,
-0.3640297055244446,
-0.19472800195217133,
0.4420067071914673,
0.08100491017103195,
-0.2974070608615875,
0.24154716730117798,
-0.18347714841365814,
-0.07335852831602097,
0.053181298077106476,
0.5081969499588013,
0.29659250378608704,
0.2797074317932129,
0.6629824042320251,
-0.6134383082389832,
0.40896475315093994,
0.23676647245883942,
0.3072744905948639,
-0.3053649067878723,
-0.287651389837265,
-0.36980509757995605,
0.4836953282356262,
-0.5735483765602112,
-0.02080959640443325,
0.03276476636528969,
0.4066079556941986,
0.3705258369445801,
-0.48804184794425964,
-0.3378089368343353,
-0.2860320508480072,
-0.11834084987640381,
-0.19782812893390656,
-0.029146093875169754,
-0.05259435623884201,
-0.5491691827774048,
0.2546650469303131,
0.4578484296798706,
-0.21241456270217896,
0.5492153167724609,
-0.5473563075065613,
-0.006148272193968296,
0.6611873507499695,
0.2875843644142151,
0.19369983673095703,
0.47344228625297546,
-0.5442160367965698,
-0.5037516355514526,
-0.1699826419353485,
-0.16446204483509064,
-0.3801555335521698,
0.32044747471809387,
0.10340367257595062,
-0.1468137800693512,
0.01356221828609705,
-1.0300309658050537,
0.27449148893356323,
-0.29006242752075195,
-0.19471581280231476,
0.144420325756073,
-0.7798263430595398,
-0.43006786704063416,
0.21742810308933258,
-0.14080393314361572,
-0.5616776347160339,
0.2649233937263489,
0.3376918137073517,
0.12004069983959198,
0.012952260673046112,
-0.389807790517807,
-0.44670283794403076,
0.09007973968982697,
0.11712174117565155,
0.169584721326828,
-0.7851228713989258,
-0.5933874249458313,
-0.17184384167194366,
0.24991881847381592,
-0.1087406799197197,
-0.5899426341056824,
-0.19629742205142975,
-0.22639016807079315,
-0.11043307930231094,
0.28020229935646057,
-0.02697933092713356,
-0.15614481270313263,
0.1927831619977951,
-0.7058344483375549,
-0.11026786267757416,
0.13617374002933502,
-0.4502565562725067,
0.2558133006095886,
-0.32385575771331787,
-0.3912713825702667,
0.46160274744033813,
-0.8228462338447571,
0.06879240274429321,
0.5191793441772461,
-1.062052607536316,
0.021060151979327202,
0.015953276306390762,
-0.019835680723190308,
0.9311813116073608,
-0.20913024246692657,
-0.0039245132356882095,
0.551777184009552,
0.4171396791934967,
-0.2506403625011444,
0.27339980006217957,
0.15619203448295593,
-0.022036369889974594,
-0.07647266238927841,
-0.5751258134841919,
-1.0020936727523804,
-0.767482578754425,
-0.2076745629310608,
-0.22143545746803284,
-0.7383694052696228,
0.28205642104148865,
0.4534061551094055,
-0.6253064870834351,
0.6882848143577576,
0.1989963948726654,
-0.6661424040794373,
0.053598035126924515,
0.23273609578609467,
-0.30675628781318665,
-0.7381366491317749,
-0.6965579390525818,
0.024709755554795265,
0.09362410753965378,
-0.23238079249858856,
0.1579693853855133,
0.6473109126091003,
0.6988293528556824,
0.1256534606218338,
0.3780517280101776,
0.34648507833480835,
0.7104800343513489,
-0.2141164392232895,
-1.0390177965164185,
0.039694152772426605,
0.2888445258140564,
0.1497683823108673,
0.44914817810058594,
-0.43499526381492615,
-0.1893526166677475,
0.17444626986980438,
-1.1080642938613892,
-0.04373949393630028,
-0.14965669810771942,
0.16613426804542542,
0.04294568672776222,
0.15000611543655396,
-0.0007758559659123421,
-0.3031909763813019,
-0.09716843068599701,
-0.43119141459465027,
0.3805890381336212,
0.3669211268424988,
0.06107644736766815,
0.34065282344818115,
-0.4602294862270355,
0.5032390356063843,
0.5965272784233093,
-0.23293687403202057,
0.2744086980819702,
-0.2872127294540405,
0.22223438322544098,
0.3978081941604614,
-0.09711753576993942,
0.12503473460674286,
-0.5648121237754822,
-0.18796947598457336,
0.23846398293972015,
-0.2431168407201767,
-0.45655056834220886,
0.25902196764945984,
-0.8260099291801453,
0.3085048794746399,
-0.1310099959373474,
-0.34250250458717346,
0.1603291928768158,
-0.15451936423778534,
0.574805736541748,
-0.10591420531272888,
-0.24849142134189606,
-0.44010865688323975,
0.00914396159350872,
-0.5078028440475464,
0.9407761096954346,
-0.30644407868385315,
-0.34031832218170166,
-0.28250038623809814,
0.35370394587516785,
0.3660367727279663,
-0.33688780665397644,
-0.10967408120632172,
-0.33541956543922424,
-0.041172824800014496,
-0.9424262642860413,
-0.17050416767597198,
0.7244784832000732,
0.24060247838497162,
0.07941675186157227,
0.4878147840499878,
0.5579149127006531,
-0.41692879796028137,
0.3909427523612976,
0.0930909588932991,
-0.15529198944568634,
-0.29035836458206177,
0.2458081990480423,
-0.766835629940033,
0.042275965213775635,
0.5098315477371216,
-0.44880223274230957,
0.46381160616874695,
0.7588428854942322,
0.3893381655216217,
0.28058701753616333,
-0.12145456671714783,
0.30910196900367737,
0.21598494052886963,
-0.6009126901626587,
0.67289137840271,
0.20225687325000763,
0.17294621467590332,
-0.7882791757583618,
0.6233752369880676,
0.25211212038993835,
0.6687659025192261,
0.06314307451248169,
-0.6463776230812073,
0.4996403753757477,
-0.19029930233955383,
-0.15835446119308472,
-0.03407857567071915,
0.23936736583709717,
0.028813917189836502,
0.9350635409355164,
-0.47416719794273376,
-0.647635281085968,
0.3073360025882721,
0.20162248611450195,
0.2504870593547821,
-0.05458488687872887,
0.9730618000030518,
0.22824543714523315,
0.6481019258499146,
-0.3110470175743103,
0.17683318257331848,
0.4069887697696686,
-0.5734418034553528,
-0.9884069561958313,
0.8601768016815186,
0.6036566495895386,
0.04797988384962082,
-0.1348986178636551,
-0.052647288888692856,
-0.9301215410232544,
0.4855077266693115,
0.18491676449775696,
0.1527993232011795,
0.6287877559661865,
-0.46582016348838806,
0.6682095527648926,
0.7357747554779053,
0.009402656927704811,
0.3971512019634247,
-0.6647834181785583,
0.021201765164732933,
0.1358518898487091,
-0.3570970892906189,
-0.3141711354255676,
-0.08319518715143204,
-0.051493868231773376,
0.12928137183189392,
-0.10522779822349548,
-0.01105381641536951,
-0.14759519696235657,
0.540864884853363,
-0.3981059193611145,
0.8925407528877258,
-0.9030071496963501,
-0.17001649737358093,
0.1256299763917923,
0.018404988572001457,
0.5490591526031494,
-0.40964803099632263,
0.6597929000854492,
0.4634934961795807,
-0.09075441211462021,
-0.05341171845793724,
1.1442968845367432,
0.37265855073928833,
-0.046914611011743546,
-0.09297825396060944,
0.1648334562778473,
0.17176270484924316,
0.14026442170143127,
-1.3391385078430176,
-0.21322056651115417,
0.13237065076828003,
0.04182930663228035,
-0.21570560336112976,
0.2862308621406555,
-0.30037859082221985,
0.28072160482406616,
0.4671615660190582,
0.4246075749397278,
-0.06631036102771759,
-0.40350067615509033,
0.06282823532819748,
0.15095087885856628,
0.11618626862764359,
-0.06278449296951294,
-0.2699698507785797,
0.27501270174980164,
-0.30016884207725525,
-0.06109559163451195,
-0.2642647624015808,
0.0631556585431099,
0.07068996131420135,
0.2606937885284424,
0.17105069756507874,
0.2250361442565918,
-0.061884619295597076,
-0.3225465714931488,
0.5008705258369446,
0.2777521014213562,
0.8130061626434326,
-0.6642248034477234,
0.5299433469772339,
0.08632002025842667,
0.05957094579935074,
0.20907975733280182,
-0.29058778285980225,
-0.3988996148109436,
0.04038458690047264,
-0.22130776941776276,
0.5366679430007935,
0.3483804762363434,
-0.2462814301252365,
-0.24139142036437988,
0.13372597098350525,
-0.6679113507270813,
-0.09466619789600372,
-0.26605460047721863,
-0.10625565052032471,
-0.23154960572719574,
0.5499714612960815,
0.10218656808137894
] |
261012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Mary%27s%20River | Saint Mary's River | The St. Marys River, St. Mary's River, or St. Mary River may refer to:
Canada
St. Mary River (British Columbia), tributary of the Kootenay River
St. Mary's River (Nova Scotia), an important Nova Scotia salmon river
United States
St. Marys River (Florida–Georgia), forming a portion of the boundary between Georgia and Florida
St. Marys River (Indiana and Ohio), tributary of the Maumee River
St. Marys River (Maryland), tributary of the Chesapeake Bay
Saint Marys River (Virginia), tributary of the South River
Multi-national
St. Mary River (Alberta–Montana), tributary of the Saskatchewan River in Montana and Alberta
St. Marys River (Michigan–Ontario), connecting Lake Superior and Lake Huron and forming a portion of the international boundary between the U.S. and Canada
See also
Mary River (disambiguation)
Marys River (disambiguation)
Saint Maries River
St. Mary's (disambiguation) | [
-0.15670205652713776,
0.31578537821769714,
0.06716658920049667,
0.06431127339601517,
0.1921110451221466,
0.7374866008758545,
1.1244006156921387,
0.8157605528831482,
-0.13693304359912872,
-0.8269625902175903,
0.026040030643343925,
0.5765080451965332,
0.06432988494634628,
0.6787797212600708,
-0.13483384251594543,
0.1751660704612732,
-0.07739290595054626,
0.35875874757766724,
0.7230693697929382,
-0.7745459675788879,
-0.3521921634674072,
-0.08386117219924927,
0.3573295474052429,
0.3898819088935852,
0.14440788328647614,
0.38833439350128174,
-0.19450631737709045,
0.11374618113040924,
0.24818463623523712,
0.07538450509309769,
0.31193435192108154,
0.5537865161895752,
0.4772876799106598,
-0.34134140610694885,
0.05951758846640587,
-0.4593660831451416,
-0.11742928624153137,
-0.0673716738820076,
-0.6676706671714783,
-0.36269742250442505,
-0.5101883411407471,
-0.12290314584970474,
-0.32299208641052246,
0.1461329162120819,
0.6216669082641602,
0.3388650417327881,
-1.3608734607696533,
-0.613014280796051,
-0.9553856253623962,
-0.05872557312250137,
0.005833378527313471,
0.24509893357753754,
0.41164037585258484,
0.13987216353416443,
-0.14149847626686096,
0.3594839870929718,
-0.5262194871902466,
0.5762985348701477,
0.20040616393089294,
0.15683433413505554,
0.42730873823165894,
0.13796652853488922,
-0.07156074792146683,
0.6608652472496033,
-0.3166638910770416,
-0.2337029129266739,
0.3388391435146332,
0.3070082664489746,
-0.6567526459693909,
-0.5060959458351135,
0.3372027277946472,
-0.3049774765968323,
-0.1477573662996292,
0.37679681181907654,
-0.4054615795612335,
-0.329761266708374,
-0.4169924855232239,
0.1999063491821289,
0.08921933174133301,
-0.4851299822330475,
0.3444460332393646,
0.6243032813072205,
0.617614209651947,
0.6693199276924133,
0.09455779194831848,
0.32265564799308777,
-0.00843764003366232,
0.07382068037986755,
-0.3279995918273926,
0.8058174848556519,
-1.1815439462661743,
0.18562588095664978,
0.1316661238670349,
-0.41629084944725037,
0.34978026151657104,
0.29453587532043457,
-0.17064476013183594,
0.19245250523090363,
0.3680989146232605,
0.27375584840774536,
-0.12864379584789276,
0.1711062639951706,
0.24369357526302338,
0.2239176481962204,
-0.6354725956916809,
0.037803031504154205,
-0.2559029459953308,
-0.17841562628746033,
0.005072528962045908,
-1.2940311431884766,
-0.1400933861732483,
0.35839778184890747,
-0.6472107768058777,
0.10098761320114136,
0.026161912828683853,
0.4551982581615448,
0.47647958993911743,
-0.5806170105934143,
-0.3988163471221924,
-0.7043154835700989,
0.6260520815849304,
-0.1350993812084198,
0.3875071704387665,
-0.44767332077026367,
0.29281553626060486,
0.5030372738838196,
0.4253052771091461,
-0.3511958122253418,
0.15959495306015015,
0.07625505328178406,
-0.21730081737041473,
0.8525893092155457,
-0.012717613019049168,
-0.5155416131019592,
-0.3504501283168793,
-0.48092755675315857,
0.09162701666355133,
0.1025438904762268,
-0.232304185628891,
0.4059697389602661,
-0.25419309735298157,
0.25142577290534973,
-1.4478751420974731,
-0.40767237544059753,
0.17204877734184265,
0.3960399329662323,
-0.4776094853878021,
-0.04901723563671112,
0.4336385726928711,
-0.03546768054366112,
0.5240278840065002,
0.1580689400434494,
-0.5941688418388367,
0.1295461803674698,
-0.021622633561491966,
0.014806028455495834,
0.7035965919494629,
-0.17939876019954681,
0.08431550860404968,
0.7999950051307678,
-0.04374406486749649,
0.689059317111969,
0.617803692817688,
-0.4007727801799774,
-0.25981810688972473,
-0.2804063856601715,
0.09005529433488846,
-0.6062948703765869,
0.24677738547325134,
-0.1531766653060913,
0.10732321441173553,
-0.04217362776398659,
0.2310774177312851,
-0.41841092705726624,
0.12428288161754608,
-0.34408342838287354,
0.6482521891593933,
0.7338918447494507,
-0.3503086268901825,
-0.4186602234840393,
-0.39767593145370483,
0.40335848927497864,
-0.23031708598136902,
-0.17534585297107697,
-0.32559823989868164,
0.21806594729423523,
0.5549306273460388,
0.3366754651069641,
-0.26608923077583313,
0.31046608090400696,
0.6532845497131348,
-0.29168882966041565,
0.12263347953557968,
-0.13871543109416962,
0.6216591000556946,
0.2639671266078949,
-0.4661722481250763,
0.13534677028656006,
0.3211101293563843,
0.004280896857380867,
-0.10020428150892258,
-0.060996439307928085,
0.0856289342045784,
-0.44827398657798767,
-1.7761908769607544,
1.2327731847763062,
-0.008586705662310123,
-0.39659005403518677,
0.6326413750648499,
0.4418005049228668,
0.007225228939205408,
-0.07128780335187912,
-0.26022690534591675,
-0.1830676943063736,
0.41593438386917114,
-0.14105795323848724,
-0.0012922247406095266,
-0.49266257882118225,
0.4768375754356384,
-0.27929744124412537,
0.30709725618362427,
-0.1811777502298355,
0.6865858435630798,
0.27133578062057495,
-0.7485674023628235,
0.2762058973312378,
-0.05228719860315323,
0.05140248313546181,
0.15202133357524872,
-0.9811055660247803,
-0.08773919194936752,
0.37972918152809143,
0.11522393673658371,
0.10627807676792145,
-0.4770202338695526,
-0.08017570525407791,
-0.21081696450710297,
-0.46308717131614685,
0.5584235787391663,
0.5350043773651123,
0.48615193367004395,
-0.07949251681566238,
-0.3863806128501892,
0.5432135462760925,
0.009260682389140129,
0.15802103281021118,
0.7151879072189331,
-0.04071923345327377,
-0.38026440143585205,
-0.3581114709377289,
0.29606208205223083,
0.11274822056293488,
0.5371538996696472,
0.35950833559036255,
0.3115759491920471,
0.011491009965538979,
-0.05041607469320297,
0.011365488171577454,
-0.09396816045045853,
0.24424849450588226,
-0.27196237444877625,
0.004612527322024107,
-0.10501376539468765,
0.4283808171749115,
-0.08230574429035187,
-0.13954682648181915,
-0.26961809396743774,
-0.6502355933189392,
0.2140030562877655,
0.1658133566379547,
0.18634331226348877,
0.17738597095012665,
0.0022083017975091934,
-1.9899548292160034,
0.5774247050285339,
0.5336849689483643,
0.13265982270240784,
0.2363600879907608,
-0.21506164968013763,
-0.34118619561195374,
0.3101641535758972,
0.8990757465362549,
0.21904624998569489,
-0.3461102247238159,
-0.18646042048931122,
0.1099797785282135,
-0.09142431616783142,
0.224554181098938,
0.07435602694749832,
0.09918523579835892,
0.1586766242980957,
-0.7844032049179077,
-0.36836695671081543,
0.02820444665849209,
-0.07822034507989883,
-0.6467715501785278,
0.6308900713920593,
0.33069419860839844,
0.1114431843161583,
-0.5309491753578186,
-0.419776052236557,
0.8402300477027893,
0.031286515295505524,
-0.20668970048427582,
0.2743433713912964,
-0.5181174278259277,
0.1205102801322937,
0.1528058499097824,
-5.375691890716553,
-0.14183396100997925,
-0.09544700384140015,
-0.1206786036491394,
0.2304336279630661,
-0.5795729160308838,
0.45372119545936584,
-0.15134835243225098,
-0.049295566976070404,
-0.03617869317531586,
0.11243908107280731,
0.37230658531188965,
-0.4039597809314728,
-0.1568654477596283,
0.5375370383262634,
-0.0829278901219368,
-0.009792978875339031,
-0.44868093729019165,
0.12188764661550522,
-0.033337514847517014,
-0.25033801794052124,
0.21847377717494965,
-0.40806299448013306,
-0.11529013514518738,
-0.1978166252374649,
0.7801222801208496,
-0.21144220232963562,
-0.4652988314628601,
-0.5189909338951111,
0.016827594488859177,
-0.23487132787704468,
-0.09198601543903351,
0.1223616674542427,
-0.4554034173488617,
-0.2757582366466522,
-0.3486888110637665,
-0.16364261507987976,
0.8482699990272522,
1.0033061504364014,
-0.6868308782577515,
-0.2791036367416382,
0.06683409214019775,
0.3143540918827057,
-0.052277229726314545,
0.05428745597600937,
-0.07264868915081024,
-0.8414701223373413,
-0.1435534656047821,
-0.1481180638074875,
0.5348724126815796,
-0.2554797828197479,
-0.21545548737049103,
0.9290344715118408,
-0.16432525217533112,
0.40511661767959595,
-0.8140051960945129,
0.43107348680496216,
-0.08961895108222961,
-0.022333286702632904,
0.061034638434648514,
0.05942649021744728,
-0.2604747712612152,
-0.0034059525933116674,
0.17347343266010284,
0.02645786479115486,
-0.4355110824108124,
-0.27850309014320374,
0.16107085347175598,
0.1285409927368164,
-0.03975233808159828,
-0.33071887493133545,
0.07669568806886673,
-0.22066844999790192,
-0.6374970078468323,
-0.4017811417579651,
-0.1770712286233902,
-1.0209604501724243,
0.38770318031311035,
0.4889422655105591,
-0.5748038291931152,
-0.12606659531593323,
-0.055790212005376816,
0.5014434456825256,
0.7183839678764343,
-0.03657851368188858,
-0.25659582018852234,
-0.09078257530927658,
-0.09316147118806839,
-0.6077191233634949,
-0.4114949703216553,
0.2277502566576004,
-0.02696722000837326,
0.2194824069738388,
0.23535344004631042,
0.43310239911079407,
0.3437996208667755,
0.32804226875305176,
-0.23486286401748657,
-0.27185600996017456,
-0.627449095249176,
0.7863603234291077,
-0.13712282478809357,
0.335541307926178,
-0.5043447613716125,
-0.17158488929271698,
-0.46215319633483887,
-0.1524413824081421,
0.16318951547145844,
0.211232528090477,
-0.3843671381473541,
-0.15933820605278015,
-0.6550676226615906,
-0.3161216378211975,
-0.6179854869842529,
0.23645222187042236,
0.2155245840549469,
-0.598953127861023,
0.3710048198699951,
0.3943824768066406,
0.28264671564102173,
0.12275293469429016,
0.3801758289337158,
-0.0013098937924951315,
0.171010360121727,
0.5003206729888916,
0.005204110872000456,
0.4732627868652344,
0.42256081104278564,
-0.5593401789665222,
0.5501507520675659,
0.20660293102264404,
-0.5515657067298889,
0.1267203986644745,
-0.5280903577804565,
-0.047671783715486526,
-0.18101830780506134,
-0.09688270837068558,
-0.6064003705978394,
0.42370325326919556,
0.015532313846051693,
0.008876043371856213,
0.2858564555644989,
-0.17469696700572968,
0.41851961612701416,
-0.0812181904911995,
0.7204053997993469,
-0.32729554176330566,
-0.30449938774108887,
-0.2545170783996582,
0.37336570024490356,
-0.46215224266052246,
-0.6704962849617004,
0.13983285427093506,
-0.18933725357055664,
0.15266795456409454,
-0.33228954672813416,
0.3526202142238617,
0.08368072658777237,
-0.04485505446791649,
0.1625499278306961,
0.2184494435787201,
-0.08168718963861465,
-1.1830610036849976,
0.08129740506410599,
-0.07812143862247467,
0.3284401297569275,
0.16557341814041138,
-0.5040540099143982,
-0.17089848220348358,
0.7269238233566284,
0.4893255829811096,
0.44857972860336304,
-0.6529672145843506,
-0.2037186622619629,
-0.023853784427046776,
-0.013043881393969059,
-0.21196545660495758,
0.5232577323913574,
0.454301655292511,
0.09050778299570084,
-0.001716865343041718,
-0.05640523508191109,
-0.12662255764007568,
0.6370786428451538,
0.20072993636131287,
-0.9244598150253296,
0.006256856955587864,
-0.13069945573806763,
-0.25037631392478943,
0.694042980670929,
-0.03576305881142616,
0.14599038660526276,
0.16831770539283752,
0.45313870906829834,
-0.32036688923835754,
0.045700084418058395,
-0.23173463344573975,
0.4949425756931305,
0.42534396052360535,
-0.04694317653775215,
0.026093903928995132,
0.3528689742088318,
-0.7325850129127502,
0.5410237312316895,
-0.012185638770461082,
-0.690666675567627,
0.2700604498386383,
0.3591597378253937,
-0.6515730619430542,
0.355744332075119,
0.5394881367683411,
-0.3184129297733307,
0.7477924227714539,
0.8080645203590393,
-0.42875027656555176,
0.019890297204256058,
0.06318733841180801,
0.010414950549602509,
-0.3950941264629364,
-0.23513974249362946,
-0.332068532705307,
-0.21759921312332153,
-0.11238659173250198,
-0.29895201325416565,
-0.006320200394839048,
0.8278177380561829,
0.3307991027832031,
-0.32181665301322937,
0.19016768038272858,
-0.42267605662345886,
-0.48371967673301697,
-0.07883326709270477,
0.3724489212036133,
-0.07943420112133026,
0.23339498043060303,
-0.3397061228752136,
0.41240689158439636,
-0.04600831866264343,
-0.001788420369848609,
0.15006043016910553,
-0.2628634572029114,
0.6645239591598511,
-0.625493049621582,
-0.8698710203170776,
0.10011567175388336,
0.24731898307800293,
-0.23429709672927856,
-0.4488617181777954,
-0.27726879715919495,
-0.08777118474245071,
0.49978283047676086,
-0.15943840146064758,
-0.28860607743263245,
-0.5880529284477234,
0.9314112067222595,
-0.42867958545684814,
0.056506723165512085,
-0.02808385156095028,
-0.10103514045476913,
-0.18791168928146362,
0.018445102497935295,
-0.225173220038414,
-0.7201458811759949,
0.6425448060035706,
0.3116995096206665,
-0.21724818646907806,
-0.13147218525409698,
-0.30038347840309143,
0.3558121621608734,
-0.3761545419692993,
0.08466144651174545,
-0.2930314242839813,
-0.05208717659115791,
0.14788830280303955,
-0.34249696135520935,
-0.1404680460691452,
-0.29179802536964417,
-0.25109609961509705,
0.550160825252533,
0.30949094891548157,
0.4421350657939911,
0.4112369418144226,
-0.25103387236595154,
-0.08472424000501633,
0.25790315866470337,
0.1576922982931137,
0.08826669305562973,
0.016856854781508446,
-0.00627041794359684,
0.5287076234817505,
0.18160372972488403,
-0.22988900542259216,
-0.009463483467698097,
-0.19669580459594727,
-0.16005489230155945,
0.13496120274066925,
0.047081708908081055,
0.06106996908783913,
-0.28789132833480835,
-0.1594817191362381,
-0.9253014922142029,
0.40297096967697144,
0.32843831181526184,
-0.06496644765138626,
0.14187701046466827,
0.06779841333627701,
-0.27166077494621277,
-0.032630372792482376,
-0.27765145897865295,
-0.17881207168102264,
0.5149005651473999,
0.4869954288005829,
0.2883756458759308,
0.2684295177459717,
-0.13355974853038788,
0.3540976345539093,
0.004777959547936916,
-0.49250131845474243,
0.16030460596084595,
-0.002411714056506753,
-0.07369733601808548,
0.04330110177397728,
0.6971230506896973,
0.5616553425788879,
0.08138882368803024,
0.7485384941101074,
-0.6256566643714905,
-0.9403910636901855,
0.3542156517505646,
0.3530803322792053,
-0.06431210786104202,
0.019671950489282608,
-0.7900336980819702,
0.5138139128684998,
-0.14235742390155792,
-0.5622432231903076,
0.1911613643169403,
-0.4649794399738312,
-0.42363327741622925,
0.297746479511261,
0.6686087846755981,
0.21013684570789337,
-0.3617593050003052,
0.31534022092819214,
0.07676418870687485,
-0.3520047962665558,
0.26230716705322266,
0.06961074471473694,
-0.5092522501945496,
-0.18307578563690186,
0.07987603545188904,
-0.2100270390510559,
0.009919850155711174,
0.13600771129131317,
0.36111217737197876,
0.13954538106918335,
0.8468737006187439,
-0.5352042317390442,
-0.3351610600948334,
-1.7584847211837769,
-0.19315655529499054,
0.21385666728019714,
-0.047243595123291016,
0.020226864144206047,
-0.11331802606582642,
-0.27579087018966675,
0.3263808488845825,
-0.3907555341720581,
-0.03344083949923515,
0.4474005401134491,
0.01183448638767004,
0.3260243833065033,
0.08060995489358902,
-0.04931444302201271,
0.35302484035491943,
0.5047369003295898,
-0.45035940408706665,
0.19571568071842194,
0.027670545503497124,
-0.19643794000148773,
-0.2374967485666275,
0.4752628207206726,
0.07018362730741501,
-0.39314383268356323,
-0.1215352714061737,
-0.17166434228420258,
0.1599152833223343,
-0.08962070196866989,
-0.5109390616416931,
-0.24007666110992432,
0.0159754641354084,
-0.004807824268937111,
0.17891035974025726,
0.035733919590711594,
-0.3914497196674347,
0.3271607756614685,
-0.2509213984012604,
0.7597930431365967,
0.18100610375404358,
0.7245230078697205,
-0.08261051774024963,
0.2321188598871231,
-0.25318142771720886,
0.44765418767929077,
-0.10053243488073349,
0.30968767404556274,
-0.44311055541038513,
-0.15883590281009674,
-0.20519907772541046,
0.5361279249191284,
0.1600344330072403,
0.31701382994651794,
-0.38098621368408203,
0.5696846842765808,
-0.2981812059879303,
0.37202513217926025,
0.4826190769672394,
-0.2388431280851364,
0.28548645973205566,
-0.06463798135519028,
-0.08420198410749435,
-0.12187270820140839,
0.37104448676109314,
0.6815040111541748,
-0.005443619564175606,
-0.4601629078388214,
-0.5413029789924622,
-0.23806048929691315,
-0.4693770408630371,
-0.627107560634613,
-0.09707969427108765,
0.22687770426273346,
-0.06952127814292908,
1.0394725799560547,
-0.11565311253070831,
-0.1042182520031929,
0.38236090540885925,
0.08488649129867554,
0.49266207218170166,
0.00036104454193264246,
-0.30820316076278687,
-0.07412559539079666,
0.7839099764823914,
0.0817888081073761,
-3.177168369293213,
-0.4520772695541382,
-0.017530351877212524,
-0.27205005288124084,
-0.15434595942497253,
0.02499736286699772,
0.07996002584695816,
-0.16226977109909058,
-0.04832965135574341,
-0.036479294300079346,
0.10359258204698563,
-0.11846096068620682,
0.34472566843032837,
-0.607840895652771,
-0.08709638565778732,
0.8988131880760193
] |
261017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selma%20Blair | Selma Blair | Selma Blair Beitner (born June 23, 1972), known by her professional name Selma Blair, is an American actress. She played a number of roles in films and on television before obtaining recognition for her leading role in the film Brown's Requiem (1998). Her breakthrough came when she starred as Zoe Bean on the WB sitcom Zoe, Duncan, Jack and Jane (1999–2000), and as Cecile Caldwell in the cult film Cruel Intentions (1999). She continued to find success with the comedies Legally Blonde (2001) and The Sweetest Thing (2002), and achieved international fame with her portrayal of Liz Sherman in the big-budget fantasy films Hellboy (2004) and Hellboy II: The Golden Army (2008).
Her other notable film credits include Storytelling (2001), A Guy Thing (2003), A Dirty Shame (2004), The Fog (2005), WΔZ (2007), Feast of Love (2007), The Poker House (2008), Dark Horse (2011), In Their Skin (2012), Ordinary World (2016), Mothers and Daughters (2016), Mom and Dad (2017), After (2019) and A Dark Foe (2020).
On television, she starred as Kim in the American remake of Kath & Kim (2008–2009); as Kate Wales on the sitcom Anger Management (2012–2014); and as Kris Jenner in the first season of the FX drama series American Crime Story (2016). In 2010, Blair narrated the audiobook The Diary of Anne Frank, earning a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children.
Early life
Blair was born on June 23, 1972, in Southfield, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. She is the youngest of four daughters of Judge Molly Ann (née Cooke) and Elliot I. Beitner. She had a Jewish upbringing; her Hebrew name is Bat-Sheva.
Her father was an attorney, active in the U.S. Democratic Party, and labor arbitrator until his death in 2012 at the age of 82. Her parents divorced when Blair was 23; she subsequently legally changed her surname. She has three older sisters, Katherine, Elizabeth, and Marie Beitner.
Blair attended Hillel Day School, a Jewish day school in Farmington Hills and Cranbrook Kingswood in Bloomfield Hills soon after. She spent her freshman year (1990–1991) at Kalamazoo College, where she studied photography and acted in the play The Little Theater of the Green Goose. At the time, she wanted to be a ballerina and a horse trainer.
At the age of 20 she moved to New York City, where she lived at The Salvation Army. She attended New York University (NYU), as well as acting classes at the Stella Adler Conservatory, the Column Theatre, and the Stonestreet Screen Acting Workshop. Later, she returned to Michigan to finish her studies.
After transferring from NYU, she graduated magna cum laude from the University of Michigan in 1994 with triple major in photography, psychology, and English.
She then returned to New York City to pursue a career in the arts.
Career
1990–1998: Career beginnings
In 1990, during her time at Cranbrook Kingswood, Blair was involved in a production of T.S. Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral. She considered it a failure, but her English teacher told her not to give up; that was the first time she thought she could be an actress.
In 1993, she began training at acting schools in New York. An agent discovered her in an acting class, and Blair subsequently signed with her. After 75 auditions, Blair got her first advertising contract for a television spot ad for a theater in Virginia,
for which she received her Screen Actor's Guild membership.
Blair began auditioning in the mid-1990s. Her first audition was for a cereal commercial. She won her first professional role in 1995 in an episode of the children's television sitcom The Adventures of Pete & Pete, where she portrayed the love interest of the main character, Big Pete.
In 1996, she landed her first feature film role in The Broccoli Theory, an "unromantic comedy" set in NYC. In 1997, she made her first appearance in a mainstream feature film, the Kevin Kline comedy In & Out. She auditioned six times for the role and remained on-set for several weeks, but most of her scenes were cut from the film's final version. She obtained her first lead role in a feature film in the teen drama Strong Island Boys, based on true events about a Long Island '80s street gang. Actor Alec Baldwin called Blair "a cross between Debra Winger and Marlene Dietrich".
Later, she was selected for the lead in the fantasy film Amazon High, co-starring with Karl Urban. She played a present-day orphaned high school student who accidentally travels back in time to the mythical days of the Amazons. The film, which also was proposed as a third show set in the Hercules and Xena mythological genre, has never been aired. Portions of the pilot were later adapted and edited into the Xena: Warrior Princess episode "Lifeblood" in 2000.
The same year, Blair was cast as Joey Potter on Dawson's Creek, but was later replaced by Katie Holmes. Soon afterward, she auditioned for the title role in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, but Sarah Michelle Gellar was chosen. Blair starred opposite Suzanne Somers in the family drama No Laughing Matter as a pregnant teenager. She subsequently appeared in several independent and short productions, including Debutante, opposite Josh Hartnett, which was shot in NYC and won multiple awards after its premiere in September 1998.
In 1998, Blair starred opposite Dominique Swain in the teen drama Girl; and in the suspense thriller Brown's Requiem, based on the crime novel of that name.
That year, she also appeared in My Friend Steve's music video for the song "Charmed" (which was also the opening theme for the first season of Zoe, Duncan, Jack and Jane in 1999); and in the music video for the single "Every You Every Me" by the British alternative rock band Placebo, which was featured on the Cruel Intentions soundtrack.
1999–2004: Breakthrough and mainstream success
Following several auditions, independent film roles, and guest roles in television series, Blair achieved her breakthrough opposite Sarah Michelle Gellar and Ryan Phillippe in the 1999 coming-of-age drama Cruel Intentions, loosely based on the 18th-century novel Les Liaisons dangereuses. It received mixed reviews, with Variety finding "newcomer" Blair " too broad" and "overdoing [her role]'s clumsiness". Nevertheless, the film made an impressive US$75.9 million internationally, and brought Blair an MTV Movie Award nomination for "Best Breakthrough Performance" and a win for "Best Kiss", shared with Gellar. Cruel Intentions has since developed a cult following.
Blair went on to star as Zoe Bean on Zoe, Duncan, Jack and Jane, alongside Azura Skye and Michael Rosenbaum. The first season follows the lives of four high school classmates from Manhattan. The second season was just renamed Zoe..., which follows the title character a few years later as a psychology student; the show was not renewed for a third season.
She was nominated for the Teen Choice Awards for "TV – Breakout Performance" category for her role in Zoe, Duncan, Jack & Jane.
In 2000, Blair won a Movieline's Young Hollywood Award in the "Exciting New Face – Female Category", and portrayed a seductive college student in the teen comedy Down to You, alongside Freddie Prinze, Jr. and Julia Stiles. A lukewarm critical and commercial response greeted the film upon its release.
Her film career continued with the independent drama Kill Me Later opposite Max Beesley. She starred as a suicidal bank teller taken hostage during a bank robbery, who tries to persuade her captors to kill her. The film received a limited release in September 2001, in New York and Los Angeles.
Blair co-starred opposite Reese Witherspoon in the comedy Legally Blonde, portraying a preppy, snobby law student and the "rival" for the affections of Witherspoon's ex-boyfriend. The Hollywood Reporter found her to be a "strong presence" in her role, "coming on as a bitch initially, then softening into feminine solidarity with [Witherspoon's] heroine". The film was released on July 13, 2001, topping the US box office in its opening weekend; it went on to gross US$96.5 million in North America and a worldwide total of US$141.7 million. She next starred as a college student having an affair with her professor in the controversial independent drama Storytelling, alongside Leo Fitzpatrick. It premiered at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival, and received a limited release in most international markets. SPLICEDwire remarked in its review for the film that both Blair and Fitzpatrick gave "painfully authentic performances as an emotionally insecure coed and her cerebral palsy-stricken dorm neighbor and lover".
She starred with Jared Leto and Jake Gyllenhaal in the crime drama Highway, which was released directly-to-DVD in March 2002. The independent film, filmed in locations of Seattle, is set in the mid-'90s grunge music scene and follows a road trip to the 1994 Kurt Cobain vigil. Blair next appeared opposite Cameron Diaz and Christina Applegate in the comedy The Sweetest Thing, as the roommate of Diaz's character. While the film received mixed reviews, it grossed US$68.6 million worldwide. For her part, she was nominated for the Teen Choice Awards, in the "Best Actress in a Comedy" category.
In 2002, Blair appeared on the cover of Rolling Stone, and in a television commercial for The Sims Online video game. She also had a guest role in the episode "The One with Christmas in Tulsa" on the hit sitcom Friends. In 2003, Blair co-starred with Jason Lee in the romantic comedy A Guy Thing, playing the fiancé of a man who wakes up after his bachelor party in bed with another woman (played by Julia Stiles). The film received negative reviews and made a lackluster US$15.5 million at the North American box office.
She filmed supporting parts for the independent road film Dallas 362 (2003) and the well-received comedy-drama In Good Company (2004), and appeared alongside former NBA star John Salley and Judy Davis in the television movie Coast to Coast. In 2004, Blair took on the role of Liz Sherman, a depressed pyrokinetic superhero, in Guillermo del Toro's blockbuster fantasy film Hellboy, co-starring Ron Perlman. Based on Mike Mignola's popular comic book series, the film was favorably received by critics; The New York Times remarked: "Blair's heavy-lidded eyes seem to be at half mast from some lovely lewd fantasy. With her sleepy carnality and dry, hesitant timing, she is a superb foil for Mr. Perlman's plain-spoken bravado." Hellboy topped the box office in the U.S. and Canada in its opening weekend, and ultimately grossed US$99.3 million around the globe.
Also in 2004, Blair played the role of an exhibitionist dancer in John Waters' satirical sex comedy A Dirty Shame, alongside Tracey Ullman. The film received a limited theatrical run in North America, garnering an overall mixed response; A.V. Club described the production as a "proud retreat back into the sandbox of sexual juvenilia" and a "potty-mouthed manifesto from an elder statesman of shock", while positively pointing out that both Blair and Ullman "throw themselves headfirst into the insanity, reveling in the forfeiture of dignity, self-respect, and self-consciousness their roles demand". Blair took part on the social project The 1 Second Film as a producer, and was included on the FHM list of "The 100 Sexiest Women of 2004".
2005–2011: Independent films and The Diary of Anne Frank
Blair starred as a young Harvard-trained economist involved in an international oil scandal in the political thriller The Deal (2005), opposite Christian Slater and Angie Harmon. It received limited release in the United States and the United Arab Emirates. She next played supporting role in the independent black comedy Pretty Persuasion (2005), starring Evan Rachel Wood. Her last film release in 2005 was the John Carpenter-produced remake The Fog, in which she did her own stunts, and spent 12 hours in a water tank over two days to shoot her underwater scenes. The film, co-starring Tom Welling and Maggie Grace, met with overwhelmingly negative reviews, and grossed a modest US$46.2 million worldwide. Blair also starred with Elias Koteas in the fantasy short film The Big Empty, based on the story The Specialist and produced by George Clooney. It revolved around a young woman suffering a psychosomatic medical condition.
Blair starred in the dysfunctional family drama The Night of the White Pants, with Nick Stahl. The film premiered through a limited theatrical run in NYC in 2006. She also appeared in a small role in the comedy-drama The Alibi (2006). In 2007, Blair took on the lead role in Edward Burns' Purple Violets, a romantic comedy co-starring Burns, Patrick Wilson and Debra Messing. In the film, Blair played a frustrated and lonely writer who falls in love with her childhood sweetheart. It premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival and was the first feature film to debut exclusively on the iTunes Store.
She co-starred in Robert Benton's romantic dramedy Feast of Love (2007), opposite Greg Kinnear and Morgan Freeman, portraying a woman who begins a lesbian relationship due to her marital frustrations. The film received mixed critical reviews upon its limited theatrical premiere in North America.
She next appeared in the British crime thriller WΔZ (2007), opposite Stellan Skarsgård, Melissa George and Tom Hardy. Blair starred as a lab assistant who is sexually assaulted by a criminal gang, and becomes a serial killer after watching her mother's death. The film had a limited theatrical run, but was favorably
by critics.
Blair was included in the list of People Magazine's "World's Most Beautiful People 2007".
In 2008, she reprised her role of Liz Sherman in Hellboy II: The Golden Army, where her character has a larger role in the storyline than its predecessor. The film garnered largely positive reviews from critics and became a worldwide commercial success, grossing US$160 million. She was nominated for the Scream Awards for Best Actress in a Fantasy Movie or TV Show.
In 2008, Blair starred as a drug-addicted and alcoholic mother in Lori Petty's independent drama The Poker House, opposite Jennifer Lawrence (in her breakthrough role) and Chloë Grace Moretz, who starred as her daughters. The film is set in 1976 and was based on Petty's real story, in which she and her two little sisters were abused by their mother and a violent pimp. The production initially had a 2008 limited release in theaters only, but was later re-released in 2015 in the UK as Behind Closed Doors; it received generally favorable reviews from critics, with The Hollywood Reporter considering her performance one of the best of her film career. Blair worked with Antonio Banderas and Meg Ryan in the comedy My Mom's New Boyfriend (2008), where she played a young FBI agent. The movie was screened only in Latin American cinemas and went straight-to-DVD in Anglo America.
Blair accepted the titular role on the NBC sitcom Kath & Kim, opposite Molly Shannon. The sitcom was based on the Australian television series of the same name about a mother and daughter who are obsessed with celebrity culture. Blair had to gain weight and use hair extensions to play her role as Kim, a self-absorbed suburban young princess who is forced to reassess her relationship with her mother. The series was canceled after one season. Blair also appeared with Rainn Wilson singing "Baby, It's Cold Outside" for the 2008 Gap winter ad campaign, and was included in Glamour's list of the 50 Most Glamorous Women of 2008.
In 2009, Blair returned to the stage, when she took on the lead role of Kayleen in Rajiv Joseph's Gruesome Playground Injuries, opposite stage actor Brad Fleischer. The drama made its world premiere at Houston's Alley Theatre on October 16, 2009, to largely positive reviews. In 2010, Blair lent her voice to narrate The Diary of a Young Girl: The Definitive Edition, originally written by Holocaust victim Anne Frank. The audiobook received generally positive reviews from critics and readers. Her performance received a 2011 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children nomination.
Blair starred in the music video for Danko Jones' "Full of Regret"; the video also featured Elijah Wood and Lemmy Kilmister. She next had a guest role in three episodes of the online series Web Therapy starring Lisa Kudrow, and appeared as a guest judge in Heidi Klum's fashion reality show Project Runway. She appeared in a supporting role as a lesbian teacher in the small-scale black comedy The Family Tree (2011), with Madeline Zima, and starred in the psychological thriller Columbus Circle, with Amy Smart and Giovanni Ribisi, playing an agoraphobic heiress who has to face her fears after she killed a man in her apartment. Filming for Columbus Circle took place in 2009, but the movie received a straight-to-DVD release in March 2012.
In 2011, Blair appeared as guest-star in the Portlandia episode "Blunderbuss", appeared in Animal Love, a short college film about life in the post global warming world premiered at the Los Angeles Film Festival, and also starred in the comedic short film The Break-In, directed by Jaime King. In the independent comedy-drama Dark Horse (2011), Blair starred with Christopher Walken, Mia Farrow and Jordan Gelber, reprising her role of Storytelling (2001), who has become an "overmedicated depressive" woman. Dark Horse received a limited theatrical release and garnered a positive response from critics. A.V. Club felt that "the scenes between Gelber and Blair are the strongest in [in the film], because they form a bond not out of shared interests or passion, but a weary kind of compromise".
2012–present: film and television
In 2012, Blair starred in the short film Slideshow of Wieners: A Love Story, a satirical love story about the Internet. Shortly after, she returned to the small screen as the female lead with the premiere of FX's Anger Management co-starring Charlie Sheen. She starred in 53 episodes as Dr. Kate Wales, Sheen's neurotic therapist and love interest.
The series premiered to mixed critical reviews, but broke ratings records with 5.74 million viewers in its debut and ranks as the most-watched sitcom premiere in cable history. Blair left the show in June 2013, during the shooting of the second season due to disagreements with Sheen.
In 2012, Blair narrated Xfinity TV commercials, including the London 2012 Olympics ads, and reprised her role as a woman who pretends she is pregnant in two episodes of the reformatted television version of Web Therapy. She starred opposite Rachel Miner and James D'Arcy in the thriller In Their Skin (2012), about a woman and her family who suffer a brutal home invasion by their psychopathic neighbors after the death of their daughter. It received a mixed critical response after its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival, and had a limited theatrical release in North America.
In 2013, Blair was the voice of Destiny in the IFC's animated series Out There. She also had a guest role on the season two of the TV series Comedy Bang! Bang!. In August 2014, she obtained her first small-screen role since she left Anger Management when she was cast as Joanna in the Amazon's comedy pilot Really alongside Sarah Chalke. The comedy, about the complicated life of a group of friends in their 30s is, as of May 2015, available only in the US and the UK.
Blair starred in the drama Sex, Death And Bowling (2015), alongside Adrian Grenier and Bailey Chase. The film is about the marriage of an American soldier who fought in the American intervention in Iraq and who suffers from terminal pancreatic cancer. The film began shooting in October 2013, and was released in selected American theaters in October 2015. Blair also starred with Green Day punk rock frontman Billie Joe Armstrong in the musical drama Ordinary World (2016), as the hard-working lawyer wife of Armstrong's aging rock star character. The production premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in April 2016.
In February 2016, Blair returned to television in the FX miniseries American Crime Story: The People vs. O. J. Simpson, where she appeared with Cuba Gooding Jr., John Travolta, and David Schwimmer, portraying Kris Jenner, the former wife of Simpson's attorney Robert Kardashian. The project recreated the 1995 publicized O. J. Simpson murder case, and aired to critical and popular acclaim. Also in 2016, Blair starred as a "single, unfulfilled rock photographer" in the independent drama Mothers and Daughters, as part of a large ensemble cast, consisting of Susan Sarandon, Sharon Stone, Mira Sorvino and Courteney Cox. The film was released on 6 May 2016 for digital markets and received largely mixed reviews. The Hollywood Reporter found the "talented actresses" involved to be "hamstrung" by the film's "unsubtle script that piles on far too many melodramatic plot contrivances for a 90-minute [production]", and remarked that while Blair's "voiceover narration promises to be a connective thread, [her] device is quickly abandoned, with the profusion of barely interconnected characters".
In June 2016, Blair was cast alongside Nicolas Cage and Anne Winters in Brian Taylor's horror comedy film, Mom and Dad, which was released in theaters on January 19, 2018. The film received positive reviews from critics.
On August 21, 2018, it was announced that Blair was cast in a recurring role on the Netflix science-fiction drama series, Another Life. It ran for two seasons from 2019 to 2021 before being canceled.
Fashion
During the early 2000s, Blair appeared twice on the cover of the Vanity Fair Hollywood Issue; as one of "Hollywood's Next Wave of Stars." In early 2002, she appeared in a Pirelli Calendar alongside Rachael Leigh Cook.
Blair is known to follow new style and fashion trends in addition to her radical hairstyle changes, lending her image to the Marc Jacobs-Brian Bowen Smith clothing line. She has worked with other fashion designers, including Karen Zambos, Martin Margiela, Isaac Mizrahi, Reinaldo Herrera, and Stella McCartney. She has been a frequent guest at New York Fashion Week, and other fashion events.
On October 30, 2005, she appeared in The New York Times Magazine award-winning photography gallery, "The Selma Blair Witch Project: Fall’s Dark Silhouettes Have a Way of Creeping Up on You" by the art photographer Roger Ballen, at the Palau Robert in Barcelona in 2012.
In 2010, Blair posed with Demi Moore and Amanda De Cadenet for a spread in Harper's Bazaar magazine. In 2012, she became the spokesperson for, and first actress to appear on, the "Get Real For Kids" campaign. In the spring of that year, she released SB, a line of handbags and wallets which she designed.
She has appeared on the covers and photo sessions of other magazines. In 1999, she appeared in Seventeen, and in subsequent years, in magazines including Vanity Fair, Marie Claire, Vogue, Glamour, Rolling Stone, The Lab Magazine, Interview, Dazed & Confused, The Hunger Magazine, and Elle. She has been the face of fashion houses Chanel, Miu Miu and GAP.
In February 2016, Blair appeared on the cover of CR Fashion Book magazine.
In February 2018, she presented parts of the collection of Christian Siriano celebrating his 10th stage anniversary in Masonic Hall during New York Fashion Week 2018.
Personal life
Relationships and family
In 1990, Blair's childhood sweetheart died in an accident at the age of 18. Recalling the event, she said, "It made me realize I have to live. Having the boy I loved not anymore on this planet, I'd better live, I'd better do something."
On January 24, 2004, after six months of dating, Blair married writer and producer Ahmet Zappa (son of musician Frank Zappa) at Carrie Fisher's mansion in Beverly Hills, California. They lived in Los Angeles in a 1920s-era home they bought for $1.35 million in 2004. She filed for divorce from Zappa on June 21, 2006, citing "irreconcilable differences." In a statement to People magazine, a spokesperson for the couple said, "Selma and Ahmet have decided to divorce, but love each other very much and will continue to be close friends." The divorce became final in December 2006.
Blair dated her Kath and Kim co-star Mikey Day from 2008 to 2010.
In 2010, Blair began dating fashion designer Jason Bleick. In January 2011, her representative announced that she was pregnant with her first child, and their son was born that July. In September 2012, they announced that they had separated after two years.
Health
In 2016, Blair suffered a medical emergency on a plane flight, due to interaction between an alcoholic beverage and medication she had taken. She no longer drinks since the incident.
In October 2018, Blair revealed that she had been diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in August. For years she had thought that she was suffering from minor illnesses, or even a pinched nerve, but the diagnosis finally explained her disabilities, including her occasional falling, dropping things, foggy memory, and her left side "acting like it was asking for directions from a broken GPS." She was inspired to reveal the news as a way to thank Allisa Swanson, her costume designer, who had become her unofficial "dresser" for her role in the Netflix series Another Life, saying that Swanson "gets my legs in my pants, pulls my tops over my head, (and) buttons my coats."
Advocacy
On May 27, 2012, Blair was a special guest at the National Memorial Day Concert at the U.S. Capitol in Washington, DC. She presented the story of Brigette Cain, a war widow who lost her husband (Pfc. Norman L. Cain III) in Afghanistan.
In October 2012, Blair starred in the political satire sketch The Woman for Romney, about the campaign proposals of Mitt Romney, former Republican Party nominee for the 2012 United States presidential election. She also supported Marianne Williamson for the 2014 congressional elections.
Blair enjoys child and animal care. She has practiced horseback riding since age 17. Wink, her dog since early in her acting career, died in February 2011. She collects black-and-white photographs and practices ice skating.
Blair's charity work and philanthropic causes include Marc Jacobs' Skin Cancer Awareness Campaign, H&M's Fashion Against AIDS 2011 Campaign, Children's Action Network, AmFAR AIDS Research 2011, Lange Foundation (dedicated to saving homeless and abandoned animals), Bulgari-Save the Children 2012 Ad Campaign, No Kid Hungry, Staying Alive Foundation and the National Multiple Sclerosis Society. On October 2, 2015, she received the Universal Smile Award during THE SMILE GALA LA 2015 to benefit children with cleft lip and palate. She was included as one of the Silence Breakers selected as the 2017 Time Person of the Year. In December 2021, Michelle Pfeiffer presented Blair with the Equity in Entertainment Award at the Power 100 Women ceremony.
Filmography
Film
Television
Theatre
Music videos
Video game
Audiobooks
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Selma Blair Producer Profile for The 1 Second Film
1972 births
Actresses from Detroit
American film actresses
American television actresses
Cranbrook Educational Community alumni
Jewish American actresses
Kalamazoo College alumni
Living people
New York University alumni
People from Southfield, Michigan
People with multiple sclerosis
University of Michigan alumni
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American Jews | [
-0.09625869244337082,
-0.458249568939209,
-0.5959343314170837,
-0.685768187046051,
0.16244420409202576,
0.7339884042739868,
0.6356697082519531,
-0.29893526434898376,
-0.20339278876781464,
-0.16287226974964142,
-0.07548384368419647,
0.17524494230747223,
0.08685676008462906,
0.41205334663391113,
-0.5484862327575684,
0.6768140196800232,
0.24702677130699158,
0.5412238240242004,
-0.6690107583999634,
-0.5588467121124268,
-0.4436425268650055,
0.19263847172260284,
0.6010558009147644,
0.12252703309059143,
-0.830194890499115,
0.5853728652000427,
0.3069283962249756,
-0.1871105134487152,
0.5341649651527405,
0.23198188841342926,
-0.11264675855636597,
-0.4387105703353882,
0.7095558643341064,
-0.015333048067986965,
-0.1780373454093933,
0.2678902745246887,
-0.8013210892677307,
0.26533275842666626,
-0.3126753270626068,
-0.012170492671430111,
-0.8965172171592712,
-0.2575345039367676,
0.1345994770526886,
0.14408238232135773,
-0.13940541446208954,
-0.41843336820602417,
-1.6851487159729004,
0.3539009690284729,
-0.2894645035266876,
-0.509274959564209,
-0.08700376749038696,
0.1839016079902649,
0.6614403128623962,
0.04983087256550789,
0.16162028908729553,
-0.40747687220573425,
-0.5236672163009644,
-0.276688814163208,
0.2476750910282135,
-0.18103806674480438,
0.06504721939563751,
-0.1529548019170761,
0.4233640432357788,
-0.8798304200172424,
0.20940420031547546,
-0.10059397667646408,
0.47735893726348877,
-0.2483428716659546,
0.17748641967773438,
-0.9624499082565308,
0.19121523201465607,
0.5026650428771973,
0.37266862392425537,
-0.48132237792015076,
0.21230092644691467,
-0.0343879871070385,
0.5902858376502991,
-0.046396758407354355,
0.20686741173267365,
0.45486822724342346,
-0.38113120198249817,
-0.17391188442707062,
0.5081254839897156,
0.9903563261032104,
-0.11187290400266647,
-0.16543371975421906,
-0.06816928833723068,
0.3239372670650482,
-0.1916840523481369,
0.40239277482032776,
-0.6456250548362732,
-0.13891460001468658,
-0.09908399730920792,
0.5416023135185242,
0.02370738796889782,
-0.12456845492124557,
0.017267225310206413,
-0.20099517703056335,
0.410102903842926,
-0.0762753039598465,
-0.3385240137577057,
-0.16426733136177063,
0.10944794863462448,
-0.7166763544082642,
-0.6640798449516296,
0.1010337844491005,
0.12732602655887604,
0.29738372564315796,
-0.4864552915096283,
-0.0017227352363988757,
0.2307741940021515,
0.39596042037010193,
-0.21348798274993896,
-0.12583120167255402,
-0.1571647971868515,
0.2071678191423416,
0.3457418978214264,
-0.12083607912063599,
-0.5608798265457153,
0.2954903542995453,
0.30574512481689453,
0.1019502803683281,
0.045290086418390274,
0.3804210424423218,
-0.21944765746593475,
0.3394426107406616,
-0.06940998136997223,
-0.02159544639289379,
-0.5441566109657288,
0.160769984126091,
0.15584903955459595,
0.46031826734542847,
-0.19195421040058136,
0.11208055913448334,
-0.3471945524215698,
-0.3830772936344147,
0.22224824130535126,
0.09375075995922089,
0.32852184772491455,
0.2011214941740036,
-0.47650739550590515,
0.058343276381492615,
-0.23247334361076355,
0.16451463103294373,
0.9913997054100037,
-0.4389816224575043,
0.5141332149505615,
0.2720700204372406,
-0.3953474760055542,
-0.0353662371635437,
-0.5399702191352844,
0.4006558954715729,
0.20476293563842773,
-0.7119739055633545,
-0.7430416941642761,
-0.10143744200468063,
0.6821395754814148,
-0.5158252716064453,
0.18627028167247772,
0.0949806496500969,
0.4129396378993988,
0.030477996915578842,
-0.03469736501574516,
-0.09433344006538391,
0.2626754641532898,
0.07775253057479858,
0.27065300941467285,
-0.15739098191261292,
-0.015161195769906044,
0.13719500601291656,
-0.06600405275821686,
0.7309314012527466,
0.21819323301315308,
0.2560296058654785,
-0.7277759313583374,
0.40462303161621094,
-0.46780136227607727,
0.3607061207294464,
-0.6309704780578613,
0.002927771070972085,
-0.41020283102989197,
-0.5394105315208435,
-0.07497028261423111,
0.11416332423686981,
0.44768956303596497,
-0.08305203169584274,
-0.05426526442170143,
-0.00376905663870275,
0.2311372607946396,
-0.04582226648926735,
-0.8370047807693481,
-0.5841197371482849,
0.40740203857421875,
0.48066744208335876,
0.1886746883392334,
-0.1848888397216797,
-0.24478136003017426,
0.34310483932495117,
0.11157787591218948,
-0.016580278053879738,
-0.22797811031341553,
-0.6091444492340088,
-0.010601937770843506,
0.07790771871805191,
-0.39305078983306885,
-0.033183757215738297,
0.7553693056106567,
0.43966996669769287,
-0.10893150418996811,
0.4060082733631134,
-0.1010475903749466,
-0.6093025803565979,
0.45875075459480286,
0.8041694760322571,
0.03711521252989769,
-0.26115682721138,
-0.6633281707763672,
-0.03063485585153103,
0.618009090423584,
0.12003971636295319,
0.41642528772354126,
0.43409264087677,
-0.1721457988023758,
-0.37244144082069397,
-0.12736770510673523,
0.2292933464050293,
-0.33026403188705444,
0.11176891624927521,
0.4469549357891083,
-0.12819550931453705,
-0.1414148211479187,
0.16355842351913452,
-0.42852139472961426,
-0.7838026285171509,
-0.021915636956691742,
-0.07895391434431076,
0.17728778719902039,
-0.2610943019390106,
-0.13029487431049347,
-0.8244397044181824,
0.4874415397644043,
0.26275938749313354,
-0.5465745329856873,
-0.18555518984794617,
-0.018913039937615395,
0.20288322865962982,
0.16250492632389069,
-0.07891439646482468,
0.23957248032093048,
-0.2388552576303482,
0.04127705842256546,
0.48286861181259155,
0.45213884115219116,
-0.05068132281303406,
-0.08866582810878754,
0.14288608729839325,
-0.1955156773328781,
0.03979850932955742,
0.8627470135688782,
0.2230955958366394,
0.49957409501075745,
0.19095377624034882,
-0.33298924565315247,
-0.2577982544898987,
-0.20739029347896576,
0.313808411359787,
-0.2343815416097641,
-0.6012497544288635,
0.38883358240127563,
0.05338797718286514,
0.6384087204933167,
-0.10418536514043808,
-0.29462310671806335,
0.253719300031662,
0.1474120318889618,
0.7440201044082642,
-0.2960285246372223,
0.053077396005392075,
-0.42035773396492004,
-1.0470187664031982,
0.271950900554657,
0.7856545448303223,
-0.1035144105553627,
-0.17232158780097961,
-0.40769559144973755,
-0.4880668520927429,
-0.10337656736373901,
-0.43836989998817444,
-0.06805738061666489,
0.04446014016866684,
0.030278967693448067,
0.8462668657302856,
0.1369999349117279,
0.10774506628513336,
-0.14594143629074097,
0.16582243144512177,
0.05854824557900429,
0.44831180572509766,
-0.16307123005390167,
0.29326480627059937,
-0.32663559913635254,
0.3576153516769409,
-0.14131829142570496,
0.23984287679195404,
0.8795086145401001,
0.4260304570198059,
0.0023741587065160275,
-0.12309841066598892,
-5.779445648193359,
0.1454097479581833,
0.2778884172439575,
0.08301585912704468,
0.5856978297233582,
-0.2847959101200104,
-0.06021524593234062,
-0.5709179639816284,
0.26305148005485535,
0.3096050024032593,
0.017377100884914398,
0.45826882123947144,
-0.6918250322341919,
0.00044161922414787114,
0.05456215515732765,
0.18912126123905182,
0.05370519310235977,
-0.7204941511154175,
0.24532461166381836,
0.7067103981971741,
0.206495463848114,
-0.21632348001003265,
-0.32471922039985657,
0.22709140181541443,
-0.06455283612012863,
-0.07807265967130661,
0.013807931914925575,
-0.2854318916797638,
-0.39306825399398804,
-0.13620494306087494,
-0.40446555614471436,
-0.16026043891906738,
-0.32727766036987305,
0.14899012446403503,
0.056010764092206955,
-0.03681132197380066,
0.5576769709587097,
-0.44213125109672546,
-0.2014526128768921,
-0.8343254923820496,
-0.04255479946732521,
0.16584070026874542,
-1.143229365348816,
-0.1294315904378891,
0.5522539615631104,
-0.3072962760925293,
-0.38799214363098145,
-0.74090576171875,
-0.06482326239347458,
0.05482504144310951,
0.4013986885547638,
0.15920798480510712,
0.4000852704048157,
-0.19516906142234802,
0.6429275870323181,
0.19289737939834595,
-0.19047124683856964,
0.24149945378303528,
-0.25458797812461853,
-0.21606716513633728,
-0.01336346659809351,
-0.1282971352338791,
0.12345261126756668,
-0.01277919765561819,
-0.2449452131986618,
-0.13262587785720825,
0.33182233572006226,
0.1561189442873001,
-0.04282354190945625,
-0.4640960395336151,
0.27842977643013,
-0.02240978740155697,
0.24946606159210205,
-1.1965038776397705,
0.17100408673286438,
-0.4256788492202759,
-0.232222780585289,
-0.1703748106956482,
-0.9501447081565857,
-0.23058682680130005,
0.012367838062345982,
-0.4983676075935364,
1.2988035678863525,
0.30645501613616943,
0.1578611135482788,
-0.261648565530777,
-0.12396760284900665,
0.531352698802948,
-0.07040372490882874,
0.23505258560180664,
-0.6133968830108643,
-0.3014359474182129,
-0.10407517850399017,
0.32202062010765076,
0.5047786235809326,
0.3072368800640106,
0.2046431303024292,
0.6722239851951599,
0.15651825070381165,
0.6776450872421265,
-0.005972382612526417,
-0.2231900542974472,
0.3814561069011688,
-0.6465131640434265,
0.2853686213493347,
0.4409325420856476,
0.152574822306633,
0.19477084279060364,
0.8341743350028992,
-0.6553580164909363,
0.06113484501838684,
0.2841416597366333,
-0.10663004219532013,
-0.2897458076477051,
0.13140325248241425,
-0.22378495335578918,
-0.008892219513654709,
0.31505969166755676,
0.16546852886676788,
0.5269399285316467,
-0.11863675713539124,
0.3244341015815735,
-0.23108407855033875,
0.254849374294281,
0.007836208678781986,
-0.7196747660636902,
0.2950376570224762,
0.28205397725105286,
-0.3246411383152008,
0.26123812794685364,
-0.297641396522522,
0.30976834893226624,
-0.055384330451488495,
-0.21305237710475922,
0.6380001306533813,
-0.09835606068372726,
-0.4050629436969757,
-0.08027491718530655,
0.09729614853858948,
0.20987588167190552,
-0.37544354796409607,
-0.34748849272727966,
-0.08679085969924927,
0.3623366951942444,
0.2644422650337219,
-0.16662484407424927,
0.2675894796848297,
0.17244547605514526,
-0.5072004199028015,
0.30271562933921814,
0.24848805367946625,
0.5623993277549744,
0.6480178236961365,
-0.6308558583259583,
0.02046387270092964,
-0.04590155929327011,
0.2398369163274765,
-0.33368974924087524,
0.1842184215784073,
-0.16551603376865387,
-0.1895798295736313,
-0.46730685234069824,
-0.8203208446502686,
0.45157161355018616,
-0.30416107177734375,
-0.05940323695540428,
-0.10391165316104889,
-0.46430906653404236,
-0.049982354044914246,
0.6201395988464355,
-0.013032299466431141,
-0.5273196697235107,
0.4133036136627197,
0.0635935515165329,
0.003160337684676051,
0.5800003409385681,
-0.29764437675476074,
-0.08678387850522995,
-0.40584421157836914,
0.26809418201446533,
-0.2928030788898468,
-0.3829805552959442,
-0.7788738012313843,
-0.15247854590415955,
-0.12342438846826553,
0.14174169301986694,
-0.8661493062973022,
0.12867560982704163,
-0.49302321672439575,
0.10575035959482193,
-0.16468800604343414,
-0.235033318400383,
-0.2556370198726654,
0.16462872922420502,
-0.6730090379714966,
0.31389299035072327,
0.42666390538215637,
-0.18440012633800507,
0.37481942772865295,
-0.4635084271430969,
-0.4441707730293274,
0.25845903158187866,
-1.0327049493789673,
-0.1479686051607132,
0.31393977999687195,
-0.588667631149292,
-0.10140582174062729,
0.13020488619804382,
-0.13869941234588623,
0.6190595626831055,
-0.45319244265556335,
0.13876967132091522,
0.03656969219446182,
0.023079918697476387,
0.03925398364663124,
0.19544267654418945,
0.5724618434906006,
0.012630253098905087,
0.2923392951488495,
-0.8109670281410217,
-0.5539628863334656,
-1.2469346523284912,
0.05182044580578804,
0.22745777666568756,
-0.6642906069755554,
0.41079872846603394,
0.12704940140247345,
-0.3340863883495331,
0.5082986950874329,
-0.03469427302479744,
-0.31900253891944885,
0.5461177825927734,
0.03903825208544731,
0.217411071062088,
-0.2311551719903946,
-0.752520740032196,
0.03547438234090805,
0.46616291999816895,
-0.27396830916404724,
0.15406346321105957,
0.5290936827659607,
0.3642944097518921,
-0.3494838774204254,
0.3687252402305603,
0.2732888460159302,
0.21229299902915955,
-0.38914579153060913,
-0.489153653383255,
-0.22241300344467163,
0.18240483105182648,
0.4024907648563385,
0.003982840105891228,
-0.15785948932170868,
-0.07207780331373215,
0.3518674671649933,
-1.1512516736984253,
0.4886186122894287,
-0.14026635885238647,
-0.2695123553276062,
-0.11738823354244232,
-0.009379589930176735,
-0.25407737493515015,
-0.4546356499195099,
-0.02378707006573677,
-0.024977046996355057,
-0.07697694003582001,
0.18860802054405212,
-0.325733482837677,
0.032433293759822845,
-0.1921757012605667,
0.03575606644153595,
0.29373031854629517,
-0.0877627357840538,
0.3434017300605774,
-0.42825061082839966,
0.40944403409957886,
0.15298128128051758,
-0.09352954477071762,
0.17381997406482697,
0.48798632621765137,
-0.29101499915122986,
0.19133393466472626,
-0.5476056337356567,
-0.8818825483322144,
0.2595662772655487,
-0.6684662103652954,
0.6054362058639526,
-0.6809501051902771,
-0.40854039788246155,
0.12157741189002991,
0.034761957824230194,
0.11231033504009247,
-0.26578354835510254,
-0.4382626712322235,
-0.30190515518188477,
-0.05886264145374298,
0.05517622083425522,
0.9098409414291382,
0.2350607067346573,
-0.08083038032054901,
-0.16583968698978424,
0.3669506013393402,
-0.18750950694084167,
-0.192403182387352,
-0.1743386685848236,
-0.5969476103782654,
-0.17548233270645142,
-0.783367395401001,
-0.10829535871744156,
0.39322781562805176,
0.05894428491592407,
0.11448077857494354,
0.9211435317993164,
0.3370651602745056,
-0.32784783840179443,
0.14324739575386047,
0.7461329698562622,
0.04146550968289375,
-0.19871877133846283,
-0.10247825086116791,
-0.6196160912513733,
0.11160065978765488,
0.08934452384710312,
-0.15272369980812073,
0.60342937707901,
0.7800317406654358,
0.6139255166053772,
0.27485403418540955,
-0.2472590208053589,
0.1834937334060669,
0.3371270000934601,
-0.36316654086112976,
0.4672674536705017,
0.5781922340393066,
0.5351529717445374,
-0.5846600532531738,
0.2607528269290924,
0.09100784361362457,
0.47824421525001526,
0.7388861179351807,
-0.48775744438171387,
0.4129478931427002,
-0.1419343203306198,
0.23650993406772614,
0.06787876039743423,
0.17841248214244843,
-0.28357353806495667,
0.42023977637290955,
-0.46362951397895813,
0.07438693195581436,
0.10099247097969055,
-0.31363022327423096,
-0.10056337714195251,
-0.43546220660209656,
0.704639732837677,
-0.12380609661340714,
0.23572365939617157,
-0.13823087513446808,
-0.5649452209472656,
0.37905752658843994,
-0.18920260667800903,
-0.5381098389625549,
0.5736000537872314,
0.5155674815177917,
-0.39228126406669617,
0.020056257024407387,
-0.5415365695953369,
-0.4484853148460388,
-0.00807497464120388,
0.04305830970406532,
0.6797711253166199,
0.445224404335022,
-0.355865478515625,
0.16446135938167572,
0.6346513032913208,
0.5294141173362732,
0.14792172610759735,
-0.5265107154846191,
-0.3250439763069153,
0.07056574523448944,
-0.41270917654037476,
0.1868790239095688,
-0.05531696975231171,
-0.34829795360565186,
-0.24839746952056885,
0.022383375093340874,
0.0009067220380529761,
0.16784615814685822,
0.3592527508735657,
-0.3417128622531891,
0.7331493496894836,
-0.5583460927009583,
-0.10806103050708771,
-0.0359407477080822,
-0.238525390625,
0.34672775864601135,
-0.08422329276800156,
0.590717613697052,
0.23799070715904236,
0.4014737904071808,
0.23925000429153442,
1.0948944091796875,
0.5312771201133728,
0.23439465463161469,
-0.36933645606040955,
0.1465180218219757,
-0.17307238280773163,
0.08067425340414047,
-0.8369068503379822,
-0.311252236366272,
0.5443039536476135,
-0.22057650983333588,
0.07049710303544998,
-0.19563765823841095,
-0.13035514950752258,
0.861378014087677,
0.799445390701294,
0.20356865227222443,
0.20005473494529724,
-0.4591316282749176,
-0.08336044102907181,
0.12080362439155579,
0.0024025780148804188,
0.14990727603435516,
-0.0017175932880491018,
0.9012996554374695,
0.07285326719284058,
-0.3513467609882355,
-0.11977642774581909,
0.09293939173221588,
-0.30310308933258057,
0.35869696736335754,
-0.1416218876838684,
0.15428566932678223,
-0.426266074180603,
-0.06449068337678909,
0.4579068720340729,
0.37264201045036316,
0.6653267741203308,
-0.776345431804657,
0.095583975315094,
-0.011355457827448845,
-0.28794392943382263,
0.002068730304017663,
-0.07470041513442993,
-0.09587203711271286,
0.039973944425582886,
-0.35920843482017517,
0.5163928270339966,
0.5638051629066467,
0.04922368377447128,
-0.5147185325622559,
0.03521684557199478,
-0.3322793245315552,
-0.19710217416286469,
-0.009411172941327095,
0.31717821955680847,
-0.6202308535575867,
0.5028301477432251,
-0.5604206919670105
] |
261019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nativity%20of%20Jesus | Nativity of Jesus | The nativity of Jesus, nativity of Christ, birth of Christ or birth of Jesus is described in the biblical gospels of Luke and Matthew. The two accounts agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judaea, his mother Mary was betrothed to a man named Joseph, who was descended from King David and was not his biological father, and that his birth was caused by divine intervention. Many modern scholars consider the birth narratives unhistorical because they are laced with theology and present two different accounts which cannot be harmonised into a single coherent narrative, but also many view the discussion of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than chronological timelines.
The nativity is the basis for the Christian holiday of Christmas and plays a major role in the Christian liturgical year. Many Christians traditionally display small manger scenes depicting the nativity in their homes, or attend nativity plays or Christmas pageants focusing on the nativity cycle in the Bible. Elaborate nativity displays called "creche scenes", featuring life-sized statues, are a tradition in many continental European countries during the Christmas season.
The artistic depiction of the nativity has been an important subject for Christian artists since the 4th century. Artistic depictions of the nativity scene since the 13th century have emphasized the humility of Jesus and promoted a more tender image of him, a major change from the early "Lord and Master" image, mirroring changes in the common approaches taken by Christian pastoral ministry during the same era.
Comparison of Gospel accounts
Only the Gospels of Matthew and Luke offer narratives regarding the birth of Jesus. Both rely heavily on the Hebrew scriptures, indicating that they both regard the story as part of Israel's salvation history, and both present the God of Israel as controlling events. Both agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in the reign of King Herod, that his mother was named Mary and that her husband Joseph was descended from King David (although they disagree on details of the line of descent), and both deny Joseph's biological parenthood while treating the birth, or rather the conception, as divinely effected.
Beyond this they agree on very little. Joseph dominates Matthew's gospel and Mary dominates Luke's, although the suggestion that one derives from Joseph and the other from Mary is no more than a pious deduction.
Matthew implies that Joseph already has his home in Bethlehem, while Luke states that he lived in Nazareth.
In Matthew the angel speaks to Joseph, while Luke has one speaking to Mary. Only Luke has the stories surrounding the birth of John the Baptist, the census of Quirinius, the adoration of the shepherds and the presentation in the Temple on the eighth day; only Matthew has the wise men, the star of Bethlehem, Herod's plot, the massacre of the innocents, and the flight into Egypt. The two itineraries are quite different, Matthew's Holy Family beginning in Bethlehem, moving to Egypt following the birth, and settling in Nazareth, while in Luke they begin in Nazareth, journey to Bethlehem for the birth, and an immediate return to Nazareth. The two accounts cannot be harmonised into a single coherent narrative or traced to the same Q source, leading scholars to classify them as "special Matthew" (or simply the M source) and "special Luke" (the L source).
Gospel of Matthew
Annunciation to Joseph
Mary the mother of Jesus the messiah was betrothed to Joseph, but was found to be pregnant through the Holy Spirit. Joseph intended to divorce her quietly, but an angel told him in a dream that he should take her as his wife and name the child Jesus, "because it is he who will save his people from their sins". This would fulfil the prophesy that a virgin would give birth to a son, who would be known as Emmanuel, meaning "God is with us". Joseph awoke, took Mary for his wife, did not have intercourse with her until she had given birth to a son, and gave him the name Jesus. ()
These verses present a problem, for in the preceding Matthean genealogy of Jesus Joseph has been shown to be the descendant of David (the angel addresses him as "son of David") and heir to the kingdom of Judah, but Matthew 1:16 has revealed that Jesus is not Joseph's son, and Matthew is careful never to refer to him in this way. The role of Joseph in naming the child indicates that he is being legally adopted, and thus becoming, like his now-legal father, "son of David."
Adoration of the magi
The birth took place in Bethlehem of Judea in the time of King Herod (Herod the Great). Wise men from the East came to Jerusalem, asking where they could find the child born king of the Jews, for they had seen his star at its rising, and wished to pay him homage. Herod and all Jerusalem were afraid when they heard this, but Herod, learning from the chief priests and scribes that the messiah would be born in Bethlehem according to prophecy, sent the Magi there with instructions to return and tell him when they had found him. The magi worshipped the child in Bethlehem and gave him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh, but an angel warned them in a dream not to return to Herod, and they returned home by another way.
Massacre of the innocents, flight into Egypt, and return to Israel
When Herod learned that the magi had tricked him he was infuriated, and killed all the children in and around Bethlehem under the age of two (the Massacre of the Innocents). This was in fulfilment of the prophet Jeremiah: "A voice was heard in Ramah, wailing and loud lamentation, Rachel weeping for her children; she refused to be consoled, because they are no more." But an angel had appeared to Joseph in a dream and warned him to take the child and his mother and flee to Egypt, and the Holy Family remained there until Herod died to fulfil the words of the prophet, "Out of Egypt I have called my son." On the death of Herod an angel appeared to Joseph in a dream and told him to return with the child and its mother to Israel, but Herod's son was now ruler of Judea, and after being warned in a dream Joseph went instead to Galilee, where he made his home in Nazareth "so that what had been spoken through the prophets might be fulfilled, “He will be called a Nazorean.”
In this chapter Matthew needs to establish that "Jesus of Nazareth" was in fact born in Bethlehem, the town where David was born, for the "son of David" born there will be "King of the Jews" (a designation that will not reappear in Matthew until the crucifixion). Herod's fear and the visit of the magi underline the royal birth, as do the various prophetic texts quoted or referenced in this chapter.
Gospel of Luke
In the days when Herod was king of Judea, God sent the angel Gabriel to Nazareth in Galilee to announce to a virgin named Mary, who was betrothed to a man named Joseph, that a child would be born to her and she was to name him Jesus, for he would be the son of God and rule over Israel forever. When the time of the birth drew near, Caesar Augustus commanded a census of Roman domains, and Joseph took Mary to Bethlehem, the ancient city of David, as he was of the House of David. It came to pass that Jesus was born in Bethlehem; since there was nowhere for them to stay in the town, the infant was laid in a manger while angels announced his birth to a group of shepherds who worshipped him as Messiah and Lord.
In accordance with the Jewish law, his parents presented the infant Jesus at the Temple in Jerusalem, where two people in the temple, Simeon and Anna the Prophetess, gave thanks to God who had sent his salvation. Joseph and Mary then returned to Nazareth.
Date and place of birth
Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great. In Luke the newborn baby is placed in a manger "because there was no place in the . "Katalyma" might mean a private home (this has little support among scholars), or a room in a private home, or an inn, but it is impossible to be certain which is meant.
In the 2nd century, Justin Martyr stated that Jesus had been born in a cave outside the town, while the Protoevangelium of James described a legendary birth in a cave nearby. The Church of the Nativity inside the town, built by St. Helena, contains the cave-manger site traditionally venerated as the birthplace of Jesus, which may have originally been a site of the cult of the god Tammuz. In Contra Celsum 1.51, Origen, who travelled throughout Palestine beginning in around 215, wrote of the "manger of Jesus".
The date of birth for Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but a majority of scholars assume a date between 6 BC and 4 BC. The historical evidence is too ambiguous to allow a definitive date to be determined, but the date has been estimated through known historical events mentioned in the Gospels of Matthew chapter 2 and Luke chapter 2 or by working backwards from the estimated start of the ministry of Jesus.
Themes and analogies
Thematic analysis
Helmut Koester writes that while Matthew's narrative was formed in a Jewish environment, Luke's was modeled to appeal to the Greco-Roman world. In particular, according to Koester, while shepherds were regarded negatively by Jews in Jesus's time, they were seen in Greco-Roman culture as "symbols of a golden age when gods and humans lived in peace and nature was at harmony". C. T. Ruddick Jr. writes that Luke's birth narratives of Jesus and John were modeled on passages from Genesis, chapters 27-43. Regardless, Luke's nativity depicts Jesus as a savior for all people, tracing a genealogy all the way back to Adam, demonstrating his common humanity, and likewise for the lowly circumstances of his birth. Luke, writing for a gentile audience, portrays the infant Jesus as a savior for gentiles as well as Jews. Matthew uses quotations from Jewish scripture, scenes reminiscent of Moses' life, and a numerical pattern in his genealogy to identify Jesus as a son of David, of Abraham, and of God. Luke's prelude is much longer, emphasizing the age of the Holy Spirit and the arrival of a savior for all people, both Jew and Gentile.
Mainstream scholars interpret Matthew's nativity as depicting Jesus as a new Moses with a genealogy going back to Abraham, while Ulrich Luz views Matthew's depiction of Jesus at once as the new Moses and the inverse of Moses, and not simply a retelling of the Moses story. Luz also points out that in the massacre narrative, once again, a fulfilment quotation is given: Rachel, the ancestral mother of Israel, weeping for her dead children (Matthew 2:18).
Scholars who interpret Matthew as casting Jesus in the role of being a second Moses argue that, like Moses, the infant Jesus is saved from a murderous tyrant; and he flees the country of his birth until his persecutor is dead and it is safe to return as the savior of his people. In this view, the account in Matthew is based on an earlier narrative patterned on traditions about the birth of Moses. Moses's birth is announced to Pharaoh by Magi; the child is threatened and rescued; the male Israelite children are similarly put to death by an evil king.
According to Ulrich Luz, the beginning of the narrative of Matthew is similar to earlier biblical stories, e.g., the Annunciation of Jesus' birth (Matthew 1:18-25) is reminiscent of the biblical accounts of the births of Ishmael (Genesis 16:11, Genesis 17), Isaac (Genesis 21:1), Samson (Judges 13:3, 13:5), and recalls the Haggadic traditions of the birth of Moses. Yet in Luz's view, the contours appear, in part, strangely overlapped and inverted: "Egypt, formerly the land of suppression becomes a place of refuge and it is the King of Israel who now takes on the role of Pharaoh. Yet Matthew is not simply retelling the Moses story. Instead, the story of Jesus really is a new story: Jesus is at once the new Moses and the inverse of Moses."
Old Testament parallels
Scholars have debated whether Matthew 1:22 and Matthew 2:23 refer to specific Old Testament passages. Fourth century documents such as the Codex Sinaiticus do not mention the prophet Isaiah in the statement in Matthew 1:22: "All this happened to fulfill what the Lord had spoken by the prophet", but some copies of Matthew from the 5th–6th centuries, such as the Codex Bezae, read "Isaiah the prophet". The statement in Matthew 1:23 "Behold the virgin shall be with child" uses the Greek term ("virgin") as in the Septuagint Isaiah, while the Book of Isaiah 7:14 uses the Hebrew , which may mean "maiden," "young woman," or "virgin." Raymond E. Brown states that the 3rd century BCE translators of the Septuagint may have understood the Hebrew word to mean virgin in this context.
The statement in Matthew 2:23 that "he will be called a Nazarene" does not mention a specific passage in the Old Testament, and there are multiple scholarly interpretations as to what it may refer to. Barbara Aland and other scholars consider the Greek () used for Nazarene of uncertain etymology and meaning, but Menken states that it is a demonym that refers to an "inhabitant of Nazareth". Menken also states that it may be referring to Judges 13:5, 7. Gary Smith states that Nazirite may mean one consecrated to God, i.e. an ascetic; or may refer to Isaiah 11:1. The Oxford Bible Commentary states that it may be word-play on the use of "nazirite," "Holy One of God," in Isaiah 4:3, meant to identify Jesus with the Nazarenes, a Jewish sect who differed from the Pharisees only in that they regarded Jesus as the Messiah. The Swiss theologian Ulrich Luz, who locates the Matthean community in Syria, has noted that Syrian Christians also called themselves Nazarenes.
Christian theology
The theological significance of the Nativity of Jesus has been a key element in Christian teachings, from the early Church Fathers to 20th century theologians. The theological issues were addressed as early as Apostle Paul, but continued to be debated and eventually lead to both Christological and Mariological differences among Christians that resulted in early schisms within the Church by the 5th century.
Birth of the new man
Paul the Apostle viewed the birth of Jesus as an event of cosmic significance which brought forth a "new man" who undid the damage caused by the fall of the first man, Adam. Just as the Johannine view of Jesus as the incarnate Logos proclaims the universal relevance of his birth, the Pauline perspective emphasizes the birth of a new man and a new world in the birth of Jesus. Paul's eschatological view of Jesus counter-positions him as a new man of morality and obedience, in contrast to Adam. Unlike Adam, the new man born in Jesus obeys God and ushers in a world of morality and salvation.
In the Pauline view, Adam is positioned as the first man and Jesus as the second: Adam, having corrupted himself by his disobedience, also infected humanity and left it with a curse as inheritance. The birth of Jesus, on the other hand, counterbalanced the fall of Adam, bringing forth redemption and repairing the damage done by Adam.
In patristic theology, Paul's contrasting of Jesus as the new man versus Adam provided a framework for discussing the uniqueness of the birth of Jesus and the ensuing events of his life. The Nativity of Jesus thus began to serve as the starting point for "cosmic Christology" in which the birth, life and Resurrection of Jesus have universal implications. The concept of Jesus as the "new man" repeats in the cycle of birth and rebirth of Jesus from his Nativity to his Resurrection: following his birth, through his morality and obedience to the Father, Jesus began a new harmony in the relationship between God the Father and man. The Nativity and Resurrection of Jesus thus created the author and exemplar of a new humanity.
In the 2nd century Church Father Irenaeus writes:
"When He became incarnate and was made man, He commenced afresh the long line of human beings, and furnished us, in a brief, comprehensive manner, with salvation; so that what we had lost in Adam – namely to be according to the image and likeness of God – that we might recover in Christ Jesus."A History of the Christian Church by Williston Walker 2010 pp. 65–66
Irenaeus was also one of the early theologians to use the analogy of "second Adam and second Eve". He suggested the Virgin Mary as the "second Eve" and wrote that the Virgin Mary had "untied the knot of sin bound up by the virgin Eve" and that just as Eve had tempted Adam to disobey God, Mary had set a path of obedience for the second Adam (i.e. Jesus) from the Annunciation to Calvary so that Jesus could bring about salvation, undoing the damage of Adam.
In the 4th century, this uniqueness of the circumstances related to the Nativity of Jesus, and their interplay with the mystery of the incarnation, became a central element in both the theology and hymnody of Saint Ephrem the Syrian. For him, the uniqueness of the Nativity of Jesus was supplemented with the sign of the Majesty of the Creator through the ability of a powerful God to enter the world as a small newborn.
In the Middle Ages the birth of Jesus as the second Adam came to be seen in the context of Saint Augustine's (i.e. happy fall) and was intertwined with the popular teachings on the fall from grace of Adam and Eve. Augustine was fond of a statement on Nativity by Saint Gregory of Nyssa and he quoted it five times: "Venerate the Nativity, through which you are freed from the bonds of an earthly nativity". And he liked to quote: "Just as in Adam all of us died, so too in Christ all of us will be brought to life".
The theology persisted into the Protestant Reformation, and second Adam was one of the six modes of atonement discussed by John Calvin. In the 20th century, leading theologian Karl Barth continued the same line of reasoning and viewed the Nativity of Jesus as the birth of a new man who succeeded Adam. In Barth's theology, in contrast to Adam, Jesus acted as an obedient Son in the fulfilment of the divine will and was therefore free from sin and could hence reveal the righteousness of God the Father and bring about salvation.
Christology
The nativity of Jesus impacted the Christological issues about the Person of Christ from the earliest days of Christianity. Luke's Christology centers on the dialectics of the dual natures of the earthly and heavenly manifestations of existence of the Christ, while Matthew's Christology focuses on the mission of Jesus and his role as the savior.
The belief in the divinity of Jesus leads to the question: "was Jesus a man to be born of a woman or was he God born of a woman?" A wide range of hypotheses and beliefs regarding the nature of the nativity of Jesus were presented in the first four centuries of Christianity. Some of the debates involved the title (God bearer) for the Virgin Mary and began to illustrate the impact of Mariology on Christology. Some of these viewpoints were eventually declared as heresies, others led to schisms and the formation of new branches of the Church.
The salvific emphasis of Matthew 1:21 later impacted the theological issues and the devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus. Matthew 1:23 provides the only key to the Emmanuel Christology in the New Testament. Beginning with 1:23, Matthew shows a clear interest in identifying Jesus as "God with us" and in later developing the Emmanuel characterization of Jesus at key points throughout the rest of his Gospel. The name Emmanuel does not appear elsewhere in the New Testament, but Matthew builds on it in Matthew 28:20 ("I am with you always, even unto the end of the world") to indicate that Jesus will be with the faithful to the end of the age. According to Ulrich Luz, the Emmanuel motif brackets the entire Gospel of Matthew between 1:23 and 28:20, appearing explicitly and implicitly in several other passages.
A number of ecumenical councils were convened in the 4th and 5th centuries to deal with these issues. The Council of Ephesus debated hypostasis (co-existing natures) versus Monophysitism (only one nature) versus Miaphysitism (two natures united as one) versus Nestorianism (disunion of two natures). The 451 Council of Chalcedon was highly influential and marked a key turning point in the Christological debates that divided the church of the Eastern Roman Empire in the 5th century. In Chalcedon the hypostatic union was decreed, namely that Jesus is both fully divine and fully human, making this part of the creed of orthodox Christianity.
In the 5th century, leading Church Father Pope Leo I used the nativity as a key element of his theology. Leo gave 10 sermons on the nativity and 7 have survived. The one on December 25, 451, demonstrates his concern to increase the importance of the feast of nativity and along with it emphasize the two natures of Christ in defense of the Christological doctrine of hypostatic union. Leo often used his nativity sermons as an occasion to attack opposing viewpoints, without naming the opposition. Thus Leo used the occasion of the Nativity feast to establish boundaries for what could be considered a heresy regarding the birth and nature of Christ.
In the 13th century Saint Thomas Aquinas addressed the Christologocal attribution of the nativity: Should it be attributed to the person (the Word) or only to the assumed human nature of that person. Aquinas treated nativity in 8 separate articles in Summa Theologica each posing a separate question. "Does Nativity regard the nature rather than the Person?" "Should a temporal Nativity be attributed to Christ?" "Should the Blessed Virgin be called Christ's Mother?" "Should the Blessed Virgin be called the Mother of God?" "Are there two filiations in Christ?", etc. To deal with this issue, Aquinas distinguishes between the person born and the nature in which the birth takes place. Aquinas thus resolved the question by arguing that in the hypostatic union Christ has two natures, one received from the Father from eternity, the other from his mother in time. This approach also resolved the Mariological problem of Mary receiving the title of Theotokos for under this scenario she is the "Mother of God".
During the Reformation, John Calvin argued that Jesus was not sanctified to be "God manifested as Incarnate" (Deus manifestatus in carne) only due to his Virgin Birth, but through the action of the Holy Spirit at the instant of his birth. Thus Calvin argued that Jesus was exempt from original sin because he was sanctified at the moment of birth so that his generation was without blemish; as generation was blemishless before the fall of Adam.
Impact on Christianity
Christmas, the Feast of the Nativity of Our Lord
Christian Churches celebrate the Nativity of Jesus on Christmas, which is marked on December 25 by the Western Christian Churches, while many Eastern Christian Churches celebrate the Feast of the Nativity of Our Lord on January 7. This is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. In the Council of Tours of 567, the Church, with its desire to be universal, "declared the twelve days between Christmas and Epiphany to be one unified festal cycle", thus giving significance to both the Western and Eastern dates of Christmas. The liturgical season of Advent precedes, and is used to prepare for the celebration of Christmas. Customs of the Christmas season include completing an Advent daily devotional and Advent wreath, carol singing, gift giving, seeing Nativity plays, attending church services, and eating special food, such as Christmas cake. In many countries, such as Sweden, people start to set up their Advent and Christmas decorations on the first day of Advent. Liturgically, this is done in some parishes through a hanging of the greens ceremony.
History of feasts and liturgical elements
In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the Lord's Day (Sunday) was the earliest Christian celebration and included a number of theological themes. In the 2nd century, the Resurrection of Jesus became a separate feast as Easter and in the same century Epiphany began to be celebrated in the Churches of the East on January 6. The celebration of the feast of the Magi on January 6 may relate to a pre-Christian celebration for the blessing of the Nile in Egypt on January 5, but this is not historically certain. The festival of the Nativity which later turned into Christmas was a 4th-century feast in the Western Church notably in Rome and North Africa, although it is uncertain exactly where and when it was first celebrated.
The earliest source stating December 25 as the date of birth of Jesus was Hippolytus of Rome (170–236), written very early in the 3rd century, based on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at the Spring equinox which he placed on March 25, and then added nine months. There is historical evidence that by the middle of the 4th century the Christian churches of the East celebrated the birth and Baptism of Jesus on the same day, on January 6, while those in the West celebrated a Nativity feast on December 25 (perhaps influenced by the Winter solstice); and that by the last quarter of the 4th century, the calendars of both churches included both feasts. The earliest suggestions of a feast of the Baptism of Jesus on January 6 during the 2nd century comes from Clement of Alexandria, but there is no further mention of such a feast until 361 when Emperor Julian attended a feast on January 6 in the year 361.
The Chronography of 354 illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome includes an early reference to the celebration of a Nativity feast. In a sermon delivered in Antioch on December 25, c. 386, Saint John Chrysostom provides specific information about the feast there, stating that the feast had existed for about 10 years. By around 385 the feast for the birth of Jesus was distinct from that of the Baptism and was held on December 25 in Constantinople, Nyssa and Amaseia. In a sermon in 386, Gregory of Nyssa specifically related the feast of Nativity with that of the martyrdom of Saint Stephen, celebrated a day later. By 390 the feast was also held in Iconium on that day.
Pope Leo I established a feast of the "Mystery of Incarnation" in the 5th century, in effect as the first formal feast for the Nativity of Jesus. Pope Sixtus III then instituted the practice of Midnight Mass just before that feast. In the 6th century, Emperor Justinian declared Christmas to be a legal holiday.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the theological importance of the Nativity of Jesus, was coupled with an emphasis on the loving nature of the child Jesus in sermons by figures such as Jean Gerson. In his sermons Gerson emphasized the loving nature of Jesus at his Nativity, as well as his cosmic plan for the salvation of mankind.
By the early part of the 20th century, Christmas had become a "cultural signature" of Christianity and indeed of the Western culture even in countries such as the United States which are officially non-religious. By the beginning of the 21st century these countries began to pay more attention to the sensitivities of non-Christians during the festivities at the end of the calendar year.
Transforming the image of Jesus
Early Christians viewed Jesus as "the Lord" and the word Kyrios appears over 700 times in the New Testament, referring to him. The use of the word Kyrios in the Septuagint Bible also assigned to Jesus the Old Testament attributes of an omnipotent God. The use of the term Kyrios, and hence the Lordship of Jesus, pre-dated the Pauline epistles, but Saint Paul expanded and elaborated on that topic.
Pauline writings established among early Christians the Kyrios image, and attributes of Jesus as not only referring to his eschatological victory, but to him as the "divine image" (Greek eikōn) in whose face the glory of God shines forth. This image persisted among Christians as the predominant perception of Jesus for a number of centuries. More than any other title, Kyrios defined the relationship between Jesus and those who believed in him as Christ: Jesus was their Lord and Master who was to be served with all their hearts and who would one day judge their actions throughout their lives.
The lordship attributes associated with the Kyrios image of Jesus also implied his power over all creation. Paul then looked back and reasoned that the final lordship of Jesus was prepared from the very beginning, starting with pre-existence and the Nativity, based on his obedience as the image of God. Over time, based on the influence of Anselm of Canterbury, Bernard of Clairvaux and others, the Kyrios image of Jesus began to be supplemented with a more "tender image of Jesus", and the Franciscan approach to popular piety was instrumental in establishing this image.
The 13th century witnessed a major turning point in the development of a new "tender image of Jesus" within Christianity, as the Franciscans began to emphasize the humility of Jesus both at his birth and his death. The construction of the Nativity scene by Saint Francis of Assisi was instrumental in portraying a softer image of Jesus that contrasted with the powerful and radiant image at the Transfiguration, and emphasized how God had taken a humble path to his own birth. As the Black Death raged in Medieval Europe, the two mendicant orders of Franciscans and Dominicans helped the faithful cope with tragedies. One element of the Franciscan approach was the emphasis on the humility of Jesus and the poverty of his birth: the image of God was the image of Jesus, not a severe and punishing God, but himself humble at birth and sacrificed at death. The concept that the omnipotent Creator would set aside all power in order to conquer the hearts of men by love and that he would have been helplessly placed in a manger was as marvelous and as touching to the believers as the sacrifice of dying on the cross in Calvary.
Thus by the 13th century the tender joys of the Nativity of Jesus were added to the agony of his Crucifixion and a whole new range of approved religious emotions was ushered in, with wide-ranging cultural impacts for centuries thereafter. The Franciscans approached both ends of this spectrum of emotions. On one hand the introduction of the Nativity scene encouraged the tender image of Jesus, while on the other hand Francis of Assisi himself had a deep attachment to the sufferings of Jesus on the Cross and was said to have received the Stigmata as an expression of that love. The dual nature of Franciscan piety based both on joy of Nativity and the sacrifice at Calvary had a deep appeal among city dwellers and as the Franciscan Friars travelled these emotions spread across the world, transforming the Kyrios image of Jesus to a more tender, loving, and compassionate image. These traditions did not remain limited to Europe and soon spread to the other parts of the world such as Latin America, the Philippines and the United States.
According to Archbishop Rowan Williams this transformation, accompanied by the proliferation of the tender image of Jesus in Madonna and Child paintings, made an important impact within the Christian Ministry by allowing Christians to feel the living presence of Jesus as a loving figure "who is always there to harbor and nurture those who turn to him for help.
Hymns, art and music
Canticles appearing in Luke
Luke's Nativity text has given rise to four well-known canticles: the Benedictus and the Magnificat in the first chapter, and the Gloria in Excelsis and the Nunc dimittis in the second chapter. These "Gospel canticles" are now an integral part of the liturgical tradition. The parallel structure in Luke regarding the births of John the Baptist and Jesus, extends to the three canticles Benedictus (Song of Zechariah), the Nunc dimittis and the Magnificat.
The Magnificat, in , is spoken by Mary and is one of the eight most ancient Christian hymns, perhaps the earliest Marian hymn. The Benedictus, in , is spoken by Zechariah, while the Nunc dimittis, in , is spoken by Simeon. The traditional Gloria in Excelsis is longer than the opening line presented in , and is often called the "Song of the Angels" given that it was uttered by the angels in the Annunciation to the Shepherds.
The three canticles Benedictus, Nunc Dimittis and the Magnificat, if not originating with Luke himself, may have their roots in the earliest Christian liturgical services in Jerusalem, but their exact origins remain unknown.
Visual arts
One of the most visible traditions during the Christmas season is the display of manger scenes depicting the nativity, usually in the form of statues or figurines, in private homes, businesses and churches, either inside or outside the building. This tradition is usually attributed to Saint Francis of Assisi who was described as creating such a display at Greccio, Italy, in 1223 as related by St. Bonaventure in his Life of Saint Francis of Assisi written around 1260.
Before the manger scene tradition developed, there were paintings depicting the subject. The earliest artistic depictions of the nativity were in the catacombs and on sarcophagi in Rome. As Gentile visitors, the Magi were popular in these scenes, representing the significance of the arrival of the Messiah to all peoples. The ox and ass were also taken to symbolize the Jews and the Gentiles, and have remained a constant since the earliest depictions. Mary was soon seated on a throne as the Magi visited.
Depictions of the Nativity soon became a normal component of cycles in art illustrating both the Life of Christ and the Life of the Virgin. Nativity images also carry the message of redemption: God's unification with matter forms the mystery of the Incarnation, a turning point in the Christian perspective on Salvation.
In the Eastern Church painted icons of the Nativity often correspond to specific hymns to Mary, e.g. to the Kontakion: "The Virgin today bringeth forth the Transubstantial, and the eart offereth a cave to the Unapproachable." In many Eastern icons of Nativity (often accompanied by matching hymnody) two basic elements are emphasized. First the event portrays the mystery of incarnation as a foundation for the Christian faith, and the combined nature of Christ as divine and human. Secondly, it relates the event to the natural life of the world, and its consequences for humanity.
Hymns, music and performances
Like 1st century Jews, early Christians rejected the use of musical instruments in religious ceremonies and instead relied on chants and plainsong leading to the use of the term a cappella (in the chapel) for these chants.
One of the earliest Nativity hymns was Veni redemptor gentium composed by Saint Ambrose in Milan in the 4th century. By the beginning of the 5th century, the Spanish poet Prudentius had written "From the Heart of the Father" where the ninth stanza focused on the Nativity and portrayed Jesus as the creator of the universe. In the 5th century the Gallic poet Sedulius composed "From the lands that see the Sun arise" in which the humility of the birth of Jesus was portrayed. The Magnificat, one of the eight most ancient Christian hymns and perhaps the earliest Marian hymn, is based on the Annunciation.
Saint Romanus the Melodist had a dream of the Virgin Mary the night before the feast of the Nativity, and when he woke up the next morning, composed his first hymn "On the Nativity" and continued composing hymns (perhaps several hundred) to the end of his life. Re-enactments of Nativity which are now called Nativity plays were part of the troparion hymns in the liturgy of Byzantine Rite Churches, from St. Sophronius in the 7th century. By the 13th century, the Franciscans had encouraged a strong tradition of popular Christmas songs in the native languages. Christmas carols in English first appear in a 1426 work of John Awdlay, a Shropshire chaplain, who lists twenty-five "caroles of Cristemas".
The largest body of musical works about Christ in which he does not speak are about the Nativity. A large body of liturgical music, as well as a great deal of para-liturgical texts, carols and folk music exist about the Nativity of Jesus. The Christmas carols have
come to be viewed as a cultural-signature of the Nativity of Jesus.
Most musical Nativity narrations are not biblical and did not come about until church music assimilated opera in the 17th century. But thereafter there was a torrent of new music, e.g., Heinrich Schütz's 1660, Marc-Antoine Charpentier (Midnight Mass, Pastorals, Oratorio, instrumental music, 11 settings), The Christmas Story and Bach's Christmas Oratorio in the 18th century. And Lisz's Christus, Berlioz’s L’Enfance du Christ (1850), Camille Saint-Saëns's Christmas Oratorio (1858), etc. John Milton's classic 1629 poem Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity was used by John McEwan in 1901.
Historical analysis
Traditional views
According to some scholars, the two accounts are historically accurate and do not contradict each other, with similarities such as the birthplace of Bethlehem and the virgin birth. George Kilpatrick and Michael Patella state that a comparison of the nativity accounts of Luke and Matthew show common elements in terms of the virgin birth, the birth at Bethlehem, and the upbringing at Nazareth, and that although there are differences in the accounts of the nativity in Luke and Matthew, a general narrative may be constructed by combining the two. A number of biblical scholars have attempted to show how the text from both narratives can be interwoven as a gospel harmony to create one account that begins with a trip from Nazareth to Bethlehem, where Jesus is born, followed by the flight to Egypt, and ending with a return to Nazareth.
Neither Luke nor Matthew claims their birth narratives are based on direct testimony. Raymond E. Brown suggested in 1973 that Joseph was the source of Matthew's account and Mary of Luke's, but modern scholars consider this "highly unlikely", given that the story emerged so late.
Roman Catholic scholars, such as John L. McKenzie, Raymond E. Brown, and Daniel J. Harrington express the view that due to the scarcity of ancient records, a number of issues regarding the historicity of some nativity episodes can never be fully determined, and that the more important task is deciding what the nativity narratives meant to the early Christian communities.
Critical analysis
Many scholars do not see the Luke and Matthew nativity stories as historically factual, regarding them as laced with theology and presenting two different accounts and genealogies. For instance, they point to Matthew's account of the appearance of an angel to Joseph in a dream; the wise men from the East; the massacre of the innocents; and the flight to Egypt, which do not appear in Luke, which instead describes the appearance of an angel to Mary; the Roman census; the birth in a manger; and the choir of angels appearing to the shepherds in the fields. Sanders considers Luke's census, for which everyone returned to their ancestral home, not historically credible, as this was contrary to Roman practice; they would not have uprooted everyone from their homes and farms in the Empire by forcing them to return to their ancestral cities. Moreover, people were not able to trace their own lineages back 42 generations. More generally, according to Karl Rahner the evangelists show little interest in synchronizing the episodes of the birth or subsequent life of Jesus with the secular history of the age. As a result, modern scholars do not use much of the birth narratives for historical information. Nevertheless, they are considered to contain some useful biographical information: Jesus being born near the end of the reign of Herod, during the reign of Emperor Augustus and his father being named Joseph are considered historically plausible.
Most modern scholars accept the Marcan priority hypothesis, that the Luke and Matthew accounts are based on the Gospel of Mark, but that the birth narratives come from the evangelists' independent sources, known as M source for Matthew and L source for Luke, which were added later.
While Géza Vermes and E. P. Sanders dismiss the accounts as pious fiction, Raymond E. Brown sees them as having been constructed from historical traditions which predate the Gospels. According to Brown, there is no uniform agreement among scholars on the historicity of the accounts, e.g., most of those scholars who reject the historicity of the birth at Bethlehem argue for a birth at Nazareth, a few suggest Capernaum, and other have hypothesized locations as far away as Chorazin. Bruce Chilton and archaeologist Aviram Oshri have proposed a birth at Bethlehem of Galilee, a site located from Nazareth at which remains dating to the time of Herod the Great have been excavated. Armand P. Tarrech states that Chilton's hypothesis has no support in either the Jewish or Christian sources, although Chilton seems to take seriously the statement in Luke 2:4 that Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judaea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem.
Many view the discussion of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than chronological timelines. For instance, Matthew pays far more attention to the name of the child and its theological implications than the actual birth event itself.
See also
Matthew 2:23
Saint Joseph's dreams
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
, in
, in
, in
, in
Berghorn, Matthias, Die Genesis Jesu Christi aber war so .... Die Herkunft Jesu Christi nah dem matthäischen Prolog (Mt 1,1-4,16), Göttingen 2019.
Brown, Raymond E. The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke. London: G. Chapman, 1977.
Calkins, Robert G. Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983.
Carter, Warren. Matthew and Empire. Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2001.
France, R.T. The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985.
Gundry, Robert H. Matthew a Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982.
Gundry, Robert H. "Salvation in Matthew." Society of Biblical Literature – 2000 Seminar Papers. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000.
Hill, David. The Gospel of Matthew. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981
Jones, Alexander. The Gospel According to St. Matthew. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1965.
Levine, Amy-Jill. "Matthew." Women's Bible Commentary. Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H. Ringe, eds. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.
Schaberg, Jane. Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives (Biblical Seminar Series, No 28) Sheffield Academic Press (March 1995)
Schweizer, Eduard. The Good News According to Matthew. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975
Vermes, Géza The Nativity: History and Legend. Penguin (2006)
External links
Icons of the Nativity (mostly Russian)
Gospel of Luke
Gospel of Matthew
Joyful Mysteries
Christmas | [
0.27357354760169983,
0.46550387144088745,
-0.7358685731887817,
-0.6264082193374634,
-0.191649928689003,
0.674126386642456,
0.8087624907493591,
0.5570014715194702,
-0.5992129445075989,
-1.0261975526809692,
-0.2344425916671753,
0.374062180519104,
-0.015531976707279682,
0.31634408235549927,
-0.7512567639350891,
0.18833942711353302,
0.5365386009216309,
0.5368661880493164,
0.17228290438652039,
-0.35931241512298584,
-0.3108604848384857,
-0.4979381561279297,
0.12838426232337952,
0.1937538981437683,
0.07951894402503967,
-0.11450283974409103,
0.026749681681394577,
-0.5702165365219116,
0.2570297122001648,
-0.20089948177337646,
-0.3289976716041565,
0.6447221636772156,
0.44600218534469604,
-0.3817165195941925,
-0.055657949298620224,
-0.4107704162597656,
-0.07925507426261902,
0.26589342951774597,
-0.12945786118507385,
-0.5411207675933838,
0.3340685963630676,
-0.42985227704048157,
0.44204023480415344,
-0.3349887430667877,
0.23757898807525635,
-0.002081658225506544,
-1.1888139247894287,
0.558662474155426,
-1.0902026891708374,
-0.19973082840442657,
0.5447633266448975,
-0.41127824783325195,
0.27571001648902893,
0.304013192653656,
-0.8106715679168701,
0.277268648147583,
-1.1236237287521362,
0.12618543207645416,
0.6027899980545044,
0.20639866590499878,
0.2845642566680908,
0.0735555961728096,
0.7872982621192932,
-0.11181218177080154,
0.0020766460802406073,
-0.27501702308654785,
0.06195583939552307,
0.7299289703369141,
0.4326694905757904,
-0.7232059240341187,
-0.3876756429672241,
-0.27136388421058655,
-0.3365969657897949,
0.1912456899881363,
-0.16286449134349823,
-0.6310082674026489,
0.30228543281555176,
-0.6247439384460449,
0.17978587746620178,
0.057121533900499344,
-0.309378445148468,
0.4049994647502899,
0.46361830830574036,
0.5086748003959656,
0.07571150362491608,
-0.2609119117259979,
-0.05186966806650162,
0.39970719814300537,
-0.31131240725517273,
0.018050389364361763,
0.17260368168354034,
0.3204934597015381,
0.3537188768386841,
-0.7013207674026489,
-0.7311056852340698,
-0.06429626792669296,
-0.6466571092605591,
-0.10749851167201996,
-0.11846783757209778,
-0.275067538022995,
-0.5745432376861572,
0.6653226017951965,
0.026755046099424362,
0.08686620742082596,
0.1659923940896988,
-0.019040675833821297,
0.09153259545564651,
-0.4393647611141205,
0.0941176638007164,
0.16020439565181732,
0.43969500064849854,
0.28220412135124207,
-0.3357907235622406,
0.35327425599098206,
-0.4589364528656006,
-0.13810865581035614,
-0.07158412784337997,
-1.3785295486450195,
-0.6857630610466003,
-0.5698046088218689,
-0.07415648549795151,
0.1706152707338333,
0.36187106370925903,
0.08345654606819153,
0.28249403834342957,
0.02114124409854412,
0.45635491609573364,
0.864970862865448,
-0.3026027977466583,
-0.22077365219593048,
0.24160853028297424,
1.093579888343811,
-0.07300014793872833,
-0.13449648022651672,
0.5748739242553711,
-0.19756664335727692,
-0.25435879826545715,
-0.5074037313461304,
0.028562016785144806,
0.35010161995887756,
-0.7248870730400085,
-0.5873741507530212,
-0.06406253576278687,
0.21711920201778412,
0.03416299819946289,
-0.43403613567352295,
-0.13053251802921295,
-0.13333873450756073,
-0.7744787335395813,
0.09526646137237549,
0.011437597684562206,
0.12739641964435577,
0.20592457056045532,
-0.41466668248176575,
-0.3037188649177551,
0.2751322090625763,
0.21739059686660767,
0.466265469789505,
-0.14899693429470062,
0.5412726998329163,
-0.03285526484251022,
0.4573802947998047,
0.003117084503173828,
-0.8111661672592163,
0.01829928159713745,
-0.28781044483184814,
0.5145717859268188,
0.2659119665622711,
-0.33353152871131897,
-0.28483617305755615,
-0.3992859125137329,
-0.006449580658227205,
-0.20924003422260284,
-0.046547334641218185,
-0.31934094429016113,
-0.5810339450836182,
0.9041630029678345,
0.49923697113990784,
0.11312338709831238,
-0.19686856865882874,
-0.6860492825508118,
0.5039229989051819,
-0.2877759635448456,
-0.39506056904792786,
0.342706561088562,
0.16662439703941345,
-0.09242809563875198,
0.6770897507667542,
-0.5131312012672424,
-0.15628989040851593,
-0.6242137551307678,
-0.15503039956092834,
-0.41824012994766235,
0.16059057414531708,
0.77312833070755,
-0.5624867677688599,
-0.44399410486221313,
0.3306998014450073,
0.6249544620513916,
0.1847824901342392,
-0.4361580014228821,
0.14406098425388336,
-0.35936132073402405,
0.08251594007015228,
-0.47299253940582275,
0.24274416267871857,
-0.12562216818332672,
-0.2004561871290207,
0.6776083111763,
0.6985278129577637,
0.30885180830955505,
0.3893646001815796,
-0.11237894743680954,
0.30520179867744446,
-0.3176300525665283,
0.5892583131790161,
0.11674968898296356,
0.45580747723579407,
0.6499210596084595,
-0.3295561969280243,
0.3000504970550537,
-0.31837841868400574,
0.17800959944725037,
-0.2473551481962204,
-0.07405251264572144,
0.516804575920105,
-0.3237582743167877,
0.3270910680294037,
-0.009053916670382023,
-0.283273845911026,
0.10701356828212738,
0.3045572340488434,
0.20598724484443665,
-0.15662695467472076,
-0.3355312645435333,
0.31070786714553833,
0.0052718971855938435,
-0.6434937119483948,
0.10989872366189957,
-0.1928696632385254,
0.57982337474823,
-0.12658149003982544,
-0.3996848464012146,
-0.2972218990325928,
0.33455416560173035,
0.04260151833295822,
-0.3102215528488159,
-0.3861246407032013,
-0.4297475516796112,
-0.06970943510532379,
-0.46041640639305115,
0.5305657386779785,
0.36365243792533875,
-0.1500197947025299,
0.020474674180150032,
-0.28030654788017273,
0.014829553663730621,
0.06107207015156746,
0.43994903564453125,
0.5601280331611633,
0.14120474457740784,
-0.1766660511493683,
0.16242548823356628,
-0.13366949558258057,
-0.216946542263031,
-0.7841406464576721,
-0.2061057686805725,
0.11137627065181732,
-0.31505241990089417,
0.37494784593582153,
0.638556718826294,
-0.04433431848883629,
-0.611699104309082,
0.08204522728919983,
0.2756706476211548,
-0.3683934509754181,
0.21281634271144867,
0.6189740300178528,
0.5396109819412231,
-0.4612122178077698,
-0.6097633838653564,
0.0893540009856224,
0.1046968474984169,
0.05938692390918732,
-0.5312583446502686,
-0.35464155673980713,
-0.13769474625587463,
-0.9958218336105347,
-0.5112139582633972,
-0.553726851940155,
-0.14217235147953033,
0.939404308795929,
0.3069303333759308,
-0.14880482852458954,
0.24549855291843414,
0.4239659607410431,
0.18628202378749847,
-0.19438159465789795,
0.18505162000656128,
-0.3530408442020416,
0.075075663626194,
0.6609507203102112,
0.560686469078064,
-0.11270371824502945,
0.4909869134426117,
0.3890262842178345,
0.16405601799488068,
-0.006599497981369495,
-5.626565933227539,
-0.4448784589767456,
-0.18828889727592468,
-0.41194191575050354,
0.16850654780864716,
-0.13900205492973328,
0.932460367679596,
-0.17553026974201202,
0.3311229348182678,
0.4071415066719055,
0.05491264536976814,
-0.20588430762290955,
0.15202325582504272,
0.23332415521144867,
0.5157679915428162,
0.2685805559158325,
0.3749268651008606,
-0.5630846619606018,
0.2976681590080261,
0.6813953518867493,
-0.2695412039756775,
-0.07196534425020218,
0.22476358711719513,
0.8850260972976685,
-0.17805153131484985,
-0.23439444601535797,
0.24299873411655426,
0.1600308120250702,
-0.3979344666004181,
0.4506169855594635,
0.1698051542043686,
-0.4385611116886139,
0.4464280307292938,
-0.11848336458206177,
-0.3094330132007599,
-0.03607369214296341,
0.2526282072067261,
-0.19589482247829437,
0.7369053363800049,
-0.7270289063453674,
-0.36801204085350037,
-0.3388203978538513,
0.325677752494812,
-0.3543121814727783,
0.20961150527000427,
0.393376886844635,
-0.10323555022478104,
0.23126403987407684,
-0.26143965125083923,
0.8380849957466125,
0.361892431974411,
0.023135898634791374,
-0.2063104808330536,
-0.297375351190567,
0.34377726912498474,
-0.10026424378156662,
0.2955727279186249,
0.30507123470306396,
-0.04835039749741554,
-0.4595057964324951,
0.6392331719398499,
-0.5232895016670227,
-0.6713796257972717,
-0.08211616426706314,
0.19231611490249634,
-0.4497121572494507,
-0.8722273707389832,
-0.1459786295890808,
0.07068567723035812,
0.7664760947227478,
-0.29871028661727905,
-0.1871570348739624,
-0.3787548542022705,
-0.9387289881706238,
-0.24043360352516174,
-0.45138785243034363,
-0.7812932133674622,
0.31829363107681274,
-0.2924026548862457,
0.3101494610309601,
-0.4763849675655365,
-1.1154454946517944,
-0.09031996876001358,
0.2996087372303009,
0.7809418439865112,
0.28919512033462524,
0.32193857431411743,
-0.38599908351898193,
-0.7064058184623718,
-0.2622319161891937,
0.8101738095283508,
-0.24799703061580658,
-0.09159079939126968,
0.42852550745010376,
-0.14133402705192566,
0.25117915868759155,
0.1527373492717743,
0.7905206680297852,
0.6014747023582458,
0.033485639840364456,
0.22319509088993073,
-0.12963688373565674,
0.6606992483139038,
0.26735612750053406,
0.16344639658927917,
-0.11183605343103409,
-0.2526945173740387,
0.22994734346866608,
0.1126314103603363,
0.0559864342212677,
0.13421125710010529,
-0.6513087153434753,
-0.24344363808631897,
-0.3463124632835388,
0.06542882323265076,
0.1281462460756302,
0.05097617581486702,
0.4549628794193268,
0.6710665822029114,
0.3549472689628601,
-0.005186425056308508,
0.5190632939338684,
-0.721838653087616,
0.6555920839309692,
0.22535713016986847,
-0.1277596354484558,
-0.09358640760183334,
0.13522128760814667,
-0.07519936561584473,
-0.00873203482478857,
0.49655768275260925,
-0.14423370361328125,
0.38524651527404785,
-0.05929532274603844,
0.26745885610580444,
0.798858106136322,
-0.05366578325629234,
-0.7737281322479248,
0.20268510282039642,
0.2889624834060669,
-0.38730302453041077,
-0.27116018533706665,
-0.6314637064933777,
0.3656749427318573,
0.20843000710010529,
0.6500144600868225,
0.17827804386615753,
-0.579045832157135,
-0.3904567062854767,
0.0424358956515789,
0.3281596302986145,
-0.027291709557175636,
0.35038143396377563,
0.5847805142402649,
0.04475406929850578,
0.15188243985176086,
0.05198771134018898,
0.11076655983924866,
-0.4771828353404999,
0.008228426799178123,
-0.42160338163375854,
-0.4908621907234192,
-0.771695613861084,
-0.365971177816391,
0.041209205985069275,
0.30530741810798645,
-0.11825120449066162,
-0.8887006640434265,
0.11661212891340256,
0.3818926513195038,
-0.10156732052564621,
-0.00708482600748539,
-0.46144306659698486,
0.4649454355239868,
0.9553385972976685,
0.13459044694900513,
0.24447649717330933,
-0.13697201013565063,
-0.41376379132270813,
-0.3418423533439636,
-0.023595107719302177,
-0.23412732779979706,
-0.24746453762054443,
-0.35309943556785583,
0.1062181293964386,
0.025334583595395088,
-0.3914584517478943,
-0.29617154598236084,
-1.0241916179656982,
0.24044865369796753,
0.3468935489654541,
0.048347264528274536,
-0.3772816061973572,
0.3312324583530426,
-0.37098708748817444,
-0.33060958981513977,
-0.26983755826950073,
-0.0270821712911129,
0.7148531079292297,
-0.12755608558654785,
-0.16945573687553406,
0.5655839443206787,
-0.5096362233161926,
0.15567822754383087,
-0.08884352445602417,
-0.41356879472732544,
0.6869030594825745,
0.544060468673706,
-0.21497099101543427,
-0.056903500109910965,
-0.15381447970867157,
-0.6188475489616394,
-0.29388055205345154,
0.6357521414756775,
-0.19609031081199646,
0.47746542096138,
0.09702568501234055,
-0.5201330780982971,
0.0007360264426097274,
-0.21054579317569733,
0.5297070741653442,
0.6342713832855225,
-0.031041156500577927,
-0.037915345281362534,
0.24606572091579437,
0.480610191822052,
0.23427245020866394,
-0.5038889050483704,
0.21672506630420685,
0.35617539286613464,
0.44089674949645996,
-0.19094689190387726,
0.01775127276778221,
-0.08967569470405579,
-0.6875161528587341,
-0.3579059839248657,
0.21409490704536438,
0.23796099424362183,
0.018033260479569435,
0.09785228222608566,
0.33130764961242676,
0.4864906370639801,
-0.3240172863006592,
-0.09489712119102478,
-0.13957479596138,
0.4715321958065033,
-0.07749340683221817,
-0.19284217059612274,
0.14584331214427948,
0.18295522034168243,
0.009387516416609287,
0.009502139873802662,
0.4009411633014679,
-0.5802960395812988,
0.7376357913017273,
-0.6541116237640381,
-0.5206531882286072,
-0.3029607832431793,
-0.3591565787792206,
-0.37242862582206726,
0.4371645152568817,
-0.8368905186653137,
-0.06142706423997879,
0.14033184945583344,
-0.3768411874771118,
0.035042211413383484,
0.13946780562400818,
0.48226624727249146,
-0.16597037017345428,
-0.2815670967102051,
-0.5515860319137573,
-0.6516692638397217,
0.13257358968257904,
0.18617500364780426,
0.317426860332489,
0.23890793323516846,
-0.4745747447013855,
-0.3386622667312622,
-0.2650044560432434,
-0.08008144795894623,
-0.23070955276489258,
-0.12207289785146713,
-0.4598625898361206,
0.31819263100624084,
-0.24932315945625305,
-0.8248366713523865,
-0.1754157841205597,
-0.18529163300991058,
0.1516750603914261,
-0.27778056263923645,
-0.4364907145500183,
-0.2354099601507187,
0.41770896315574646,
0.35551905632019043,
0.1560060679912567,
0.2327025681734085,
0.14639461040496826,
0.1136120930314064,
0.0901600793004036,
-0.4023527503013611,
-0.882426917552948,
0.2819608747959137,
0.8670679330825806,
-0.8287353515625,
-0.05300135910511017,
0.493196040391922,
0.05962671339511871,
-0.2146819680929184,
-0.39296114444732666,
0.6270596981048584,
0.35500067472457886,
0.27654191851615906,
0.24553117156028748,
-0.0654793530702591,
-0.6366043090820312,
-0.06797778606414795,
0.9534359574317932,
-0.690788745880127,
-0.027684766799211502,
0.3438233435153961,
-0.12594713270664215,
0.06867608428001404,
0.27479085326194763,
-0.11271938681602478,
-0.21428312361240387,
0.486290842294693,
-0.047473806887865067,
0.17766830325126648,
-0.13665926456451416,
0.4295010268688202,
0.730182409286499,
0.5083974599838257,
-0.6400863528251648,
0.5581268072128296,
-0.3244134187698364,
0.21514979004859924,
0.04632268100976944,
-0.4940575957298279,
-0.7509205341339111,
0.4297598600387573,
0.15820525586605072,
0.20494288206100464,
-0.19403418898582458,
0.694108784198761,
0.07049813121557236,
0.41046833992004395,
-0.024616332724690437,
-0.36753466725349426,
0.3744555413722992,
0.13019101321697235,
0.39710718393325806,
-0.1318509429693222,
0.5197464823722839,
0.15125742554664612,
0.204629585146904,
-0.16551297903060913,
0.12695342302322388,
-0.0033428946044296026,
-0.827773928642273,
-0.19632881879806519,
0.10716432332992554,
-0.1713228076696396,
1.1401474475860596,
-0.37637272477149963,
0.12240061908960342,
0.09250327199697495,
0.37176358699798584,
-0.3856605589389801,
-0.5850528478622437,
0.49458324909210205,
0.16094939410686493,
-0.054618384689092636,
-0.553789496421814,
-0.16083243489265442,
0.6535412073135376,
0.23460982739925385,
0.3794039785861969,
0.6156832575798035,
-0.103903628885746,
-0.22034752368927002,
0.07543399930000305,
0.21440456807613373,
-0.25749671459198,
-1.3064671754837036,
-0.4140448570251465,
0.6314780116081238,
0.009851394221186638,
0.08012105524539948,
-0.7659961581230164,
0.0656413808465004,
0.11667066812515259,
0.043573979288339615,
0.6725885272026062,
-0.09605253487825394,
-1.08021080493927,
0.04347868263721466,
-0.024496132507920265,
1.077406644821167,
-0.057013895362615585,
0.03108823485672474,
-0.07383786886930466,
0.15775857865810394,
-0.32972344756126404,
-0.3171344995498657,
-0.05832282081246376,
-0.05106309801340103,
-0.30653491616249084,
-0.3474528193473816,
-0.9004233479499817,
0.12553559243679047,
0.3739195764064789,
-0.2159050703048706,
0.36968958377838135,
-0.43252986669540405,
-0.6539863348007202,
-0.15234099328517914,
0.5824732184410095,
-0.6678711175918579,
0.42922693490982056,
-0.32782095670700073,
-0.05920006334781647,
-0.07178278267383575,
0.41490885615348816,
0.676730751991272,
-0.3615211844444275,
0.08646630495786667,
0.7464169859886169,
0.3422565758228302,
-0.3199422061443329,
0.22772380709648132,
0.03492790088057518,
0.2909109592437744,
0.04223299399018288,
0.010466489009559155,
-0.19362199306488037,
-0.40393513441085815,
0.5276227593421936,
0.6830601692199707,
0.3252069056034088,
-0.6548059582710266,
0.5870063304901123,
-0.3605208694934845,
-0.06529317796230316,
0.15799568593502045,
-0.05425378307700157,
-0.3548334836959839,
-0.05522387847304344,
0.1251487135887146,
-0.5564531683921814,
-0.005093851592391729,
0.4044969975948334,
0.17846797406673431,
-0.3826879858970642,
0.004681071266531944,
-0.2294701784849167,
-0.1336749643087387,
0.8019872903823853,
-0.0826142355799675,
0.6756622791290283,
0.22481690347194672
] |
261020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria%2C%20Princess%20Royal | Victoria, Princess Royal | Victoria, Princess Royal (Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa; 21 November 1840 – 5 August 1901) was German Empress and Queen of Prussia as the wife of German Emperor Frederick III. She was the eldest child of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and was created Princess Royal in 1841. She was the mother of Wilhelm II, German Emperor.
Educated by her father in a politically liberal environment, Victoria was married at age 17 to Prince Frederick of Prussia, with whom she had eight children. Victoria shared with Frederick her liberal views and hopes that Prussia and the later German Empire should become a constitutional monarchy, based on the British model. Criticised for this attitude and for her English origins, Victoria suffered ostracism by the Hohenzollerns and the Berlin court. This isolation increased after the rise to power of Otto von Bismarck, one of her most staunch political opponents, in 1862.
Victoria was empress for only a few months, during which she had opportunity to influence the policy of the German Empire. Frederick III died in 1888 – 99 days after his accession – from laryngeal cancer and was succeeded by their son William II, who had much more conservative views than his parents. After her husband's death, she became widely known as Empress Frederick (German: Kaiserin Friedrich). The empress dowager then settled in Kronberg im Taunus, where she built Friedrichshof, a castle, named in honour of her late husband. Increasingly isolated after the weddings of her younger daughters, Victoria died of breast cancer on 5 August 1901, not long after her mother's death on 22 January 1901.
The correspondence between Victoria and her parents has been preserved almost completely: 3,777 letters from Queen Victoria to her eldest daughter, and about 4,000 letters from the empress to her mother are preserved and catalogued. These give a detailed insight into life at the Prussian court between 1858 and 1900.
Early life and education
Princess Victoria was born on 21 November 1840 at Buckingham Palace, London. She was the first child of Queen Victoria and her husband, Prince Albert. When she was born, the doctor exclaimed sadly: "Oh Madame, it's a girl!" The Queen replied: "Never mind, next time it will be a prince!". As a daughter of the sovereign, Victoria was born a British princess. In addition, she was heir presumptive to the throne of the United Kingdom, from her birth until the birth of her younger brother Prince Albert Edward (later King Edward VII) on 9 November 1841. On 19 January 1841, she was made Princess Royal, a title sometimes conferred on the eldest daughter of the sovereign. To her family, she was known simply as "Vicky".
She was baptised in the Throne Room of Buckingham Palace on 10 February 1841 (on her parents' first wedding anniversary) by the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Howley. The Lily font was commissioned especially for the occasion of her christening. Her godparents were Queen Adelaide (her great-aunt), the King of the Belgians (her great-uncle), the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (paternal grandfather, for whom the Duke of Wellington stood proxy), the Duke of Sussex (her great-uncle), the Duchess of Gloucester (her great-aunt) and the Duchess of Kent (her grandmother).
The royal couple decided to give their children as complete an education as possible. In fact, Queen Victoria, who succeeded her uncle King William IV at the age of 18, believed that she herself had not been sufficiently prepared for the government affairs. For his part, Prince Albert, born in the small Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, had received a more careful education, thanks to his uncle King Leopold I of Belgium.
Shortly after the birth of Victoria, Prince Albert wrote a memoir detailing the tasks and duties of all those involved with the royal children. Another 48-page document, written a year and a half later by the Baron Stockmar, intimate of the royal couple, details the educational principles which were to be used with the little princess. The royal couple, however, had only a very vague idea of the proper educational development of a child. Queen Victoria, for example, believed that the fact that her baby sucked on bracelets was a sign of deficient education. According to Hannah Pakula, biographer of the future German empress, the first two governesses of the princess were therefore particularly well chosen. Experienced in dealing with children, Lady Lyttelton directed the nursery through which passed all royal children after Victoria's second year. The diplomatic young woman managed to soften the unrealistic demands of the royal couple. Sarah Anne Hildyard, the children's second governess, was a competent teacher who quickly developed a close relationship with her students.
Precocious and intelligent, Victoria began to learn French at the age of 18 months, and she began to study German when aged four. She also learned Greek and Latin. From the age of six, her curriculum included lessons of arithmetic, geography and history, and her father tutored her in politics and philosophy. She also studied science and literature. Her school days, interrupted by three hours of recreation, began at 8:20 and finished at 18:00. Unlike her brother, whose educational program was even more severe, Victoria was an excellent student who was always hungry for knowledge. However, she showed an obstinate character.
Queen Victoria and her husband wanted to remove their children from court life as much as possible, so they acquired Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Near the main building, Albert built for his children a Swiss-inspired cottage with a small kitchen and a carpentry workshop. In this building, the royal children learned manual work and practical life. Prince Albert was very involved in the education of their offspring. He closely followed the progress of his children and gave some of their lessons himself, as well as spending time playing with them. Victoria is described as having "idolised" her father and having inherited his liberal political views.
First meeting with Frederick
In the German Confederation, Prince William of Prussia and his wife Princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach were among the personalities with whom Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were allies. The British sovereign also had regular epistolary contact with her cousin Augusta since 1846. The revolution that broke out in Berlin in 1848 further strengthened the links between the two royal couples by requiring the heir presumptive to the Prussian throne to find shelter for three months in the British court.
In 1851, William returned to London with his wife and two children (Frederick and Louise), on the occasion of The Great Exhibition. For the first time, Victoria met her future husband, and despite the age difference (she was 11 years old and he was 19), they got along very well. To promote the contact between the two, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert asked their daughter to guide Frederick through the exhibition, and during the visit the princess was able to converse in perfect German while the prince was able to say only a few words in English. The meeting was therefore a success, and years later, Prince Frederick recalled the positive impression that Victoria made on him during this visit, with her mixture of innocence, intellectual curiosity and simplicity.
It was not only his encounter with little Victoria, however, that positively impressed Frederick during the four weeks of his English stay. The young Prussian prince shared his liberal ideas with the Prince Consort. Frederick was fascinated by the relationships among the members of the British royal family. In London, court life was not as rigid and conservative as in Berlin, and Queen Victoria and Prince Albert's relationship with their children was very different to William and Augusta's relationship with theirs.
After Frederick returned to Germany, he began a close correspondence with Victoria. Behind this nascent friendship was the desire of Queen Victoria and her husband to forge closer ties with Prussia. In a letter to her uncle, the King of the Belgians, the British sovereign conveyed the desire that the meeting between her daughter and the Prussian prince would lead to a closer relationship between the two young people.
Engagement and marriage
Engagement
Frederick had received a comprehensive education and in particular was formed by personalities like the writer Ernst Moritz Arndt and historian Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann. According to the tradition of the House of Hohenzollern, he also received rigorous military training.
In 1855, Prince Frederick made another trip to Great Britain and visited Victoria and her family in Scotland at Balmoral Castle. The purpose of his trip was to see the Princess Royal again, to ensure that she would be a suitable consort for him. In Berlin, the response to this journey to Britain was far from positive. In fact, many members of the Prussian court wanted to see the heir presumptive's son marry a Russian grand duchess. King Frederick William IV, who had allowed his nephew to marry a British princess, even had to keep his approval a secret because his own wife showed strong Anglophobia.
At the time of Frederick's second visit, Victoria was 15 years old. A little shorter than her mother, the princess was 1.50 m tall (4 feet 11 inches) and far from the ideal of beauty of the time. Queen Victoria was concerned that the Prussian prince would not find her daughter sufficiently attractive. Nevertheless, from the first dinner with the prince, it was clear to Queen Victoria and Prince Albert that the mutual sympathy of the two young people that began in 1851 was still vivid. In fact, after only three days with the royal family, Frederick asked Victoria's parents permission to marry their daughter. They were thrilled by the news, but gave their approval on condition that the marriage should not take place before Vicky's seventeenth birthday.
Once this condition was accepted, the engagement of Victoria and Frederick was publicly announced on 17 May 1856. The immediate reaction in Great Britain was disapproval. The English public complained about the Kingdom of Prussia's neutrality during the Crimean War of 1853–1856. The Times characterized the Hohenzollern as a "miserable dynasty" that pursued an inconsistent and unreliable foreign policy, with the maintenance of the throne depending solely on Russia. The newspaper also criticised the failure of King Frederick William IV to respect the political guarantees given to the population during the revolution of 1848. In the German Confederation, the reactions to the announcement of the engagement were mixed: several members of the Hohenzollern family and conservatives opposed it, and liberal circles welcomed the proposed union with the British crown.
Preparation for the role of Prussian princess
The Prince Consort, who was part of the Vormärz, had long supported the "Coburg plan", i.e., the idea that a liberal Prussia could serve as an example for other German states and would be able to achieve the Unification of Germany. During the involuntary stay of Prince William of Prussia in London in 1848, the Prince Consort tried to convince his Hohenzollern cousin of the need to transform Prussia into a constitutional monarchy following the British model. However, the future German emperor was not persuaded; he instead kept very conservative views.
Eager to make his daughter the instrument of the liberalisation of Germany, Prince Albert took advantage of the two years of Victoria and Frederick's engagement to give the Princess Royal the most comprehensive training possible. Thus, he taught himself history and modern European politics and actually wrote to the princess many essays on events that occurred in Prussia. However, the Prince Consort overestimated the ability of the liberal reform movement in Germany at a time when only a small middle class and some intellectual circles shared his views on the German Confederation. Hence, Prince Albert gave his daughter a particularly difficult role, especially facing a critical and conservative Hohenzollern court.
Domestic issues and marriage
To pay the dowry of the Princess Royal, the British Parliament allotted the sum of 40,000 pounds and also gave her an allowance of 8,000 pounds per year. Meanwhile, in Berlin, King Frederick William IV provided an annual allowance of 9,000 thalers to his nephew Frederick. The income of the second-in-line to the Prussian throne proved insufficient to cover a budget consistent with his position and that of his future wife. Throughout much of their marriage, Victoria relied on her own resources.
The Berlin court of the royal couple was chosen by Frederick's aunt, Queen Elisabeth, and his mother, Princess Augusta. They summoned people who had been in court service for a long time and were much older than Victoria and Frederick. Prince Albert therefore asked the Hohenzollerns that his daughter could keep at least two ladies-in-waiting who were her age and of British origin. His request was not completely denied but, as a compromise, Victoria received two young ladies-in-waiting of German origin: Countesses Walburga von Hohenthal and Marie zu Lynar. However, Prince Albert did succeed in imposing Ernst Alfred Christian von Stockmar, the son of his friend Baron von Stockmar, as his daughter's private secretary.
Convinced that the marriage of a British princess to the second-in-line to the Prussian throne would be regarded as an honour by the Hohenzollerns, Prince Albert insisted that his daughter retain her title of Princess Royal after the wedding. However, owing to the very anti-British and pro-Russian views of the Berlin court, the prince's decision only aggravated the situation.
The question of where to hold the marriage ceremony raised the most criticism. To the Hohenzollerns, it seemed natural that the nuptials of the future Prussian king would be held in Berlin. However, Queen Victoria insisted that her eldest daughter must marry in her own country, and in the end, she prevailed. The wedding of Victoria and Frederick took place at the Chapel Royal of St. James's Palace in London on 25 January 1858.
Princess of Prussia
Maternal criticism
Victoria's move to Berlin began a large correspondence between the princess and her parents. Each week, she sent a letter to her father that usually contained comments on German political events. The majority of these letters have been preserved and have become a valuable source for knowing the Prussian court.
But these letters also show the will of Queen Victoria to dictate her daughter's every move. She demanded that Victoria appear equally loyal to her homeland and her new country. But this quickly became impossible, and the most insignificant events confronted the princess with insoluble problems. For example, the death of the Duchess of Orléans, a distant relative of the British and Prussian royal houses, brought a month of mourning in London, while in Berlin the mourning period lasted only one week. Victoria was bound to respect the period of mourning in use among the Hohenzollerns, but this earned her the criticism of her mother, who believed that, as a Princess Royal and daughter of the queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Victoria should follow the custom in use in England.
Concerned about the effect of the continual maternal criticism on Victoria's psychological health, Baron von Stockmar asked Prince Albert to intervene and ask the queen to moderate her demands. However, the baron was unable to reduce the attacks that the princess suffered from the Russophilic and Anglophobic circles of the Berlin court. For most of the 19th century, Russia and Britain were not just geopolitical rivals in Asia, but also ideological opponents as many in both nations believed autocratic Russia and democratic Britain were destined to battle each for world domination. In Prussia, the Junkers tended to see much in common with the ordered society of Imperial Russia, and disliked British democracy. She was often hurt by unkind comments from the Hohenzollern family.
A keen amateur gardener, Victoria's attempts to import English-style gardens into Prussia prompted what became known as the "Anglo-Prussian garden war" as the court fought from 1858 onward against Victoria's attempts to change the gardens at the Sanssouci palace into something more English. The simple, unadorned English-style geometric garden designs favored by Victoria were out of favor with the Prussian court which favored the Italianate style, and which ferociously resisted Victoria's attempts to create English-style gardens.
Official duties
At 17 years old, Victoria had to perform many tedious official duties. Almost every evening, she had to appear at formal dinners, theatrical performances or public receptions. If foreign relatives of the Hohenzollerns were located in Berlin or Potsdam, her protocolary duties widened. Sometimes she was forced to greet guests of the royal family at the station at 7:00 in the morning and be present at receptions past midnight.
Upon the arrival of Victoria in Berlin, King Frederick William IV gave to Frederick and his wife an old wing of the Berlin Royal Palace. The building was in very bad condition, and it did not even contain a bathtub. The couple moved to the Kronprinzenpalais in November 1858. In summer, they resided at the Neues Palais.
First childbirth
A little over a year after her marriage, on 27 January 1859, Victoria gave birth to her first child, the future German Emperor Wilhelm II. The delivery was extremely complicated. The maid responsible for alerting doctors to the onset of contractions delayed giving notice. Moreover, the gynecologists hesitated to examine the princess, who was wearing only a flannel nightgown. The baby was in breech, and the delayed delivery could have caused the death of both the princess and her son.
Finally, doctors managed to save both mother and child. The baby, however, suffered damage at the brachial plexus, and the nerves in his arm were injured. As he grew, it failed to develop normally, and by the time Wilhelm was an adult, his left arm was fifteen cm shorter than his right. There is also speculation that the difficult labour caused fetal distress, which deprived the future emperor of oxygen for eight to ten minutes and might have brought about other neurological problems.
The doctors tried to calm both Victoria and Frederick, affirming that their baby could recover fully from his injuries. Still, the couple chose not to inform the British court of Wilhelm's condition. However, over the weeks it became clear that the child's arm would not recover, and, after four months of doubts, Victoria decided to give the sad news to her parents. Fortunately for the princess, the birth of her second child, Princess Charlotte, on 24 July 1860, took place without difficulty.
Crown Princess of Prussia
Early issues and struggles
With the death of King Frederick William IV on 2 January 1861, his brother, who had acted as regent since 1858, ascended the throne as King William I. Frederick was then the new crown prince of Prussia but his situation at court did not change much: his father refused to increase his allowance, and Crown Princess Victoria continued to contribute significantly to the family budget with her dowry and allowance. In a letter to the Baron von Stockmar, Prince Albert commented on the situation:
In addition to their financial limitations, Frederick and Victoria faced more problems. As heir apparent, he could not travel outside Prussia without the king's permission. There was a rumour that this measure was intended to limit Victoria's travels to the United Kingdom. Upon his accession to the throne, King William I received a letter from Prince Albert in which he implicitly asked that the Prussian constitution serve as an example for other German states. However, this letter increased the king's resentment of Albert and of Frederick and Victoria, who had the same liberal ideas.
Father's death and political crisis
On 14 December 1861, Prince Albert died of typhoid fever. Because of her very close relationship with her father, Victoria was devastated by the news. She went with her husband to England to attend the funeral.
Shortly after this tragedy Frederick and Victoria, still in mourning, had to face the first major crisis of William I's reign, and they were not prepared to deal with it. The Prussian Parliament denied the king the money needed for his plan of reorganisation of the army. William I considered the reform to be of paramount importance and decided to dissolve the parliament on 11 March 1862, reviving the Prussian constitutional conflict. In a fierce confrontation between the crown and the Landtag, the king considered setting a deadline for leaving the throne.
Victoria tried to convince her husband to accept his father's abdication. However, the prince did not agree with his wife and supported his father, saying that he would stand firm before the Landtag. For Frederick, the abdication of a monarch after a conflict with the Parliament would create a dangerous precedent and weaken his successors. The crown prince also judged that his support of his father's abdication in his favour would be a serious dereliction of his duties as a son.
Finally, William I chose not to abdicate and appointed Count Otto von Bismarck as Prime Minister of Prussia on 22 September. Leader of the Conservative Party, the politician was willing to rule without a parliamentary majority and even without an authorised budget. The king was pleased with the situation, but his wife, the liberal Queen Augusta, and especially his son and daughter-in-law, harshly criticised the decision. However, Bismarck remained at the head of the Prussian government and subsequently of the German government until 1890 and was instrumental in the isolation of the crown prince and his wife.
Increasing isolation
With the outbreak of the Prussian constitutional conflict, the opposition between liberals and conservatives in Berlin reached its peak. Suspected of supporting parliamentarians against William I, the crown prince and his wife were subjected to harsh criticism. The trip that the couple made to the Mediterranean in October 1862 aboard Queen Victoria's yacht served as a pretext for conservatives to accuse Frederick of abandoning his father in a time of great political tension. They also emphasised the fact that the Crown Prince traveled aboard a foreign vessel escorted by an English warship.
Following the announcement of the engagement between Victoria's brother the Prince of Wales and Princess Alexandra of Denmark, daughter of the future King Christian IX and representative of a rival Prussian state, Victoria's position in the Berlin court was further weakened. The German public was of the opinion that the crown princess was responsible for encouraging this union between Denmark and the United Kingdom.
Frederick caused an incident when he openly criticised the policy of his father and Bismarck. During the official visit to Danzig, the crown prince publicly rejected an order issued by the prime minister on 1 June 1863 that allowed the Prussian authorities to prohibit the publication of a newspaper whose content was considered inappropriate. Enraged by the speech of his son, William I accused him of disobedience and threatened to suspend him from his military duties and even to exclude him from the succession to the throne. In conservative circles, which demanded exemplary punishment, few joined the voices of Prince Charles, the king's younger brother, and General Edwin von Manteuffel, who believed that Frederick should be tried in a court martial.
Naturally, Victoria was not immune to these criticisms from conservatives. In fact, many suspected that she was behind the words of the heir's speech in Danzig.
Severely criticised in Germany, the couple saw their behaviour praised in Great Britain. The Times wrote:
The support of the British newspaper became a new source of problems for Frederick and Victoria. The article contained everyday details suggesting that Victoria revealed certain confidential information to the press. The authorities opened an investigation against her, and because of this pressure, Victoria's personal secretary, Baron Ernst von Stockmar, resigned his position.
Prussian-Danish War
In the international arena, Prime Minister Bismarck tried to build German unity around Prussia. His plans were to end the Austrian influence in the German Confederation and impose Prussian hegemony in Germany. Faithful to his objectives, Bismarck involved Prussia in the War of the Duchies against Denmark in 1864. However, the prime minister counteracted with the help of Austria in the conflict.
Despite the familial relations of the Prince of Wales with Copenhagen, the British government refused to intervene in the war between the German Confederation and Denmark. This had a certain importance in the royal family, which was deeply divided by the conflict. In addition, in Berlin many suspected that the crown princess was unhappy over the Prussian military successes against the country of her sister-in-law Alexandra.
Despite criticism and distrust, Victoria supported German troops. Following the example of Florence Nightingale, who had helped to improve the medical care of British soldiers in the Crimean War, the crown princess became involved in the aid of wounded soldiers. During the birthday celebrations of William I, Victoria, along with her husband, created a social fund for the families of soldiers killed or seriously injured.
During the war, Frederick joined the Prussian army and was part of the fighting under the command of Field Marshal Friedrich von Wrangel. He distinguished himself with his courageous valour in the Battle of Dybbøl (7–18 April 1864) that marked the defeat of Denmark by the Austro-Prussian coalition. Pleased with the German victory, Victoria expected the military success of her husband would encourage people to understand that she was the wife of the heir apparent. In a letter to Frederick, she complained of the constant criticism and being considered too British in Prussia and too Prussian in Great Britain.
With the final victory over Denmark and the Treaty of Vienna (signed on 30 October 1864), it was decided that the Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg would be administered by a joint Prussian-Austrian government. However, this new division became a source of conflict between Vienna and Berlin.
Austro-Prussian War
After the War of the Duchies, Germany experienced a short period of peace. The Gastein Convention, signed by the two winners on 14 August 1865, placed the former Danish provinces under Prussian-Austrian control and both countries occupied a part of the Duchies. However, differences of opinion concerning the administration of the provinces quickly triggered a conflict between the former allies. On 9 June 1866, Prussia occupied Holstein, which was administered by Austria. In the meanwhile, Vienna asked the Diet of Frankfurt for a general mobilisation of the German states against Prussia, which took place on 14 June.
Considering the mobilisation illegal, Prussia proclaimed the dissolution of the German Confederation and invaded Saxony, Hanover and Hesse-Kassel, effectively starting the so-called Austro-Prussian War. During the Battle of Königgrätz (3 July 1866), in which Crown Prince Frederick was instrumental, Austria suffered a heavy defeat and ended up capitulating. Finally, with the Peace of Prague (23 August 1866), Vienna withdrew from the German union. Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, the Duchy of Nassau and the city of Frankfurt were annexed by Prussia.
Shortly after the Prussian victory at Königgrätz, Bismarck asked the Parliament for more money for the army, which raised a new controversy between the liberal parliamentarians. Frederick welcomed the creation of the North German Confederation, which joined Prussia and some Germanic principalities, because he saw that it was the first step toward German unification. However, the Confederation was far from adopting the liberal ideas of the crown prince. Despite being democratically elected, the Reichstag did not have the same powers as a British Parliament. In addition, local sovereigns were more interested in maintaining their prerogatives, and the new German constitution gave many powers to the now Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Less enthusiastic than her husband, Vicky saw the North German Confederation as an extension of the Prussian political system she hated. Nevertheless, she remained hopeful that this situation was temporary and that a united and liberal Germany could be created.
Family life
During the Austro-Prussian War, Victoria and Frederick received a hard blow. Sigismund, their fourth child, died of meningitis at 21 months on 18 June 1866, just a few days before the Battle of Königgrätz. This tragedy devastated the crown princess, who received no comfort from her mother or her in-laws. Queen Victoria, still mourning the loss of Prince Albert, did not understand her daughter's feelings, believing that the loss of a child was much less severe than that of a husband. Queen Augusta demanded that her daughter-in-law quickly resume her official duties.
With peace restored in Germany, the crown prince frequently traveled abroad to represent the Berlin court. Vicky rarely accompanied her husband on these trips, mainly because they tried to keep their expenses to a minimum. In addition, the crown princess did not want to leave her children for long periods of time. After Sigismund's death, the royal family grew with the arrival of four new children between 1866 and 1872. While the elder children (Wilhelm, Charlotte and Henry) were left in the care of governesses, the younger ones (Sigismund, Victoria, Waldemar, Sophie and Margaret) were raised personally by Victoria, which was a point of conflict with both her mother and mother-in-law.
In Berlin, Vicky's situation remained difficult, and her relationship with Queen Augusta, who also had liberal ideas, continued to be tense. Any gesture of the crown princess was a pretext for the worst criticism from her mother-in-law; for example, Augusta disapproved when Vicky chose to use a landau instead of a traditional barouche with two horses. The opposition between the two women grew so much that Queen Victoria had to intercede for her daughter with William I.
Franco-Prussian War
On 19 July 1870 the Franco-Prussian War began, and it would lead to the fall of the Second French Empire. As in previous conflicts against Denmark and Austria, Frederick participated actively in the fight against the French. At the head of the 3rd German army, he had a decisive role in the battles of Wissembourg (4 August 1870) and Wörth (6 August 1870), and also had a notorious role in the Battle of Sedan (1 September 1870) during the siege of Paris. Jealous of the military success of the heir to the throne, Bismarck tried to undermine his prestige. The chancellor used the late arrival of the 3rd German army to Paris to accuse the crown prince of trying to protect France under pressure from his mother and his wife. During an official dinner, Bismarck accused the queen and the crown princess of being ardently francophile, an incident that was soon known by the newspapers.
Victoria's commitment to the wounded soldiers had no impact in the German press. In Hamburg the crown princess had built a military hospital, running it regardless of costs, in addition to visiting the war-wounded soldiers in Wiesbaden, Biberach, Bingen, Bingerbrück, Rüdesheim and Mainz. However, Victoria was accused of performing tasks normally attributed to the queen, prompting the wrath of her in-laws. Finally, William I ordered her to stop that "theater of charity" and return to Berlin to represent the royal family.
Crown Princess of Germany
Proclamation of the German Empire
On 18 January 1871 (the anniversary of the accession of the Hohenzollern dynasty to the royalty in 1701), the princes of the North German Confederation and those of South Germany (Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg and Hesse-Darmstadt) proclaimed William I as hereditary German emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. Then they symbolically united their states within a new German Empire. Frederick and Victoria became German crown prince and crown princess, and Otto von Bismarck was appointed imperial chancellor.
Subsequently, the Catholic states of South Germany that were previously bound to Prussia by a Zollverein (Customs Union), were officially incorporated into Unified Germany by the treaties of Versailles (26 February 1871) and Frankfurt (10 May 1871).
Enlightened princess
Despite being named field marshal because of his military performance in the wars of the 1860s, Frederick did not receive the command of any troops after the Franco-Prussian war. In fact, the emperor did not trust his own son and tried to keep him away from state affairs because of his "too English" ideas. The crown prince was appointed "Curator of the Royal Museums", a task that raised some enthusiasm in his wife. Following the advice of her father, Victoria had continued her intellectual formation after arriving in Germany: she read Goethe, Lessing, Heine and Stuart Mill and frequented intellectual circles with her husband. The writer Gustav Freytag was a close friend of the couple and Gustav zu Putlitz was appointed Frederick's Chamberlain for some time. Despite the indignation of her mother, Vicky was also interested in the Theory of Evolution of Darwin and the ideas of British geologist Lyell. The German astronomer Wilhelm Julius Foerster reported that she visited the Berlin Observatory frequently and took keen interest in his astronomical work, and in the growth of the German Society for Ethical Culture. Eager to understand the principles of socialism, she read the work of Karl Marx and encouraged her husband to frequent the salon of Countess Marie von Schleinitz, a place known for being a meeting point of Bismarck's opponents.
Unlike many of their contemporaries, Vicky and Frederick rejected antisemitism. In a letter to her mother, the crown princess harshly criticised the essay Das Judenthum in der Musik (Judaism in Music) by Richard Wagner, whom she considered ridiculous and unfair. As for Frederick, he did not hesitate to make public appearances in synagogues when manifestations began of hatred against the Jews in Germany, especially in the early 1880s. In 1880–1881, there was a campaign waged by the Völkisch movement to disemancipate German Jews, led by the Lutheran Pastor Adolf Stoecker and the historian Heinrich von Treitschke, leading to a quarter of a million Germans signing a petition asking the government to ban all Jewish immigration, forbid Jews from holding public office, to work as teachers, and from attending universities, which was a mere prelude to the ultimate goal of the völkisch activists: stripping Jews of their German citizenship. Both Stoecker and Treitschke were very popular and well respected men in Germany, and their anti-Semitic campaign attracted much support from the Prussian Army officer corps, university students, and the court, but the crown princess was fearless in attacking the anti-Semitic leaders, writing that "Treitschke and his supporters are lunatics of the most dangerous sort". In another letter, Victoria suggested that Stoecker and his followers belonged in a lunatic asylum, since so much of what he had to say reflected an unbalanced mind. In yet another letter, the crown princess wrote that she had become ashamed of her adopted country as Stoecker and Treitschke "behave so hatefully towards people of a different faith and another race who have become an integral part (and by no means the worst) of our nation!".
Victoria and her husband, the latter wearing the uniform of a Prussian field marshal, attended a synagogue service in Berlin in 1880 to show support for the German Jews threatened by what Victoria called Treitschke's "disgraceful" attacks. In 1881, the crown prince and crown princess attended a synagogue service in Wiesbaden "to demonstrate as clearly as we can what our convictions are" just as the Reichstag was beginning to debate the issue of Jewish disemancipation. The crown princess's mother Queen Victoria was proud of her daughter and son-in-law's efforts to stop the völkisch campaign, writing to Frederick to say she was happy that her daughter had married a man like him, who was prepared to stand up for the rights of the Jews. In both the Kronprinzenpalais and Neues Palais in Potsdam, the crown princely couple received many commoners, including some Jewish personalities, which inevitably led to the disapproval of the emperor and the court. Among their guests were the physicians Hermann von Helmholtz and Rudolf Virchow, the philosopher Eduard Zeller, and the historian Hans Delbrück. The reactionary and anti-Semitic Field Marshal Alfred von Waldersee felt so threatened by the prospect of Frederick becoming emperor and Victoria empress that he planned, were Frederick to ascend to the throne, to have the military stage a coup d'état in favor of his son Prince Wilhelm; to have Victoria expelled back to Britain and to have her executed if she ever returned to Germany; to end universal manhood suffrage for the Reichstag; and to have Germany launch a war to "take out" France, Austria, and Russia (the fact that Germany was allied to the last two did not matter to Waldersee). Only the fact that Frederick was already dying of cancer when he become emperor in 1888 kept Waldersee from going ahead with his plans for a putsch.
An art lover, Victoria appreciated and practised painting, receiving classes from Anton von Werner and Heinrich von Angeli. She also supported education and was a member of the association founded by Wilhelm Adolf Lette in 1866, whose objective was to improve women's education. Beginning in 1877, Vicky founded schools for girls (the "Victoriaschule für Mädchen") directed by British teachers, in addition to nursing schools (the "Victoriahaus zur Krankenpflege") based on the English model.
Mother of a large family
The eldest son of Victoria went through various treatments to cure his atrophied arm. Strange methods, such as the so-called "animal baths" in which the arm was immersed in the entrails of recently dead rabbits, were performed with some regularity. In addition, William also underwent electroshock sessions in an attempt to revive the nerves passing through the left arm to the neck and also to prevent his head tilting to one side. Vicky insisted that he become a good rider. The thought that he, as heir to the throne, should not be able to ride was intolerable to her. Riding lessons began when William was eight and were a matter of endurance for William. Over and over, the weeping prince was set on his horse and compelled to go through the paces. He fell off time after time but despite his tears was set on its back again. After weeks of this he finally got it right and was able to maintain his balance. William later wrote: "The torments inflicted on me, in this pony riding, must be attributed to my mother."
For Victoria, her son's disability was a disgrace. Her letters and her diary show her grief for her son's arm and her guilt for having given birth to a disabled child. During a visit to her parents in 1860 the crown princess wrote about her eldest son:
Sigmund Freud speculated that Victoria, being unable to accept the illness of her child, distanced herself from her first-born, which made a great impact on the behaviour of the future William II. However, other authors, such as the historian Wolfgang Mommsen, insist that the crown princess was very affectionate with her children. According to him, Vicky wanted her children to be like the idealised figure of her own father and tried, as best she could, to follow the educational precepts of Prince Albert. In 1863, Victoria and Frederick bought a cottage in Bornstedt so that their children could grow up in an environment similar to that of Osborne House. However, Victoria's influence on her offspring had an important limitation: Like all the Hohenzollerns, her sons received a military training from a very young age, and the crown princess feared that such education would undermine their values.
Willing to give their children the best education possible, Victoria and her husband entrusted this task to the bright, strict Calvinist philologist Georg Ernst Hinzpeter. Reputedly a liberal, Hinzpeter was in fact a staunch conservative who made William and Henry undergo a rigorous and puritanical upbringing, without praise or incentives. To complete their education, the princes were sent to a school in Kassel despite the opposition of the king and court. Finally, William was enrolled at the University of Bonn, and his younger brother, who did not show the same intellectual interests, was sent to the navy at 16 years old. The education received by the children didn't allow them to have the open and liberal personalities that their parents wanted.
While her two eldest sons were approaching adulthood, Victoria suffered another blow with the death of her 11-year-old son Waldemar on 27 March 1879 of diphtheria. Without having recovered from the death of Sigismund, the crown princess was devastated with the loss of another child, especially since he died of the same disease that had taken her sister Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine and her niece Princess Marie just a few months earlier. Victoria, however, tried to keep her suffering secret because, except for her husband, no other family member was willing to comfort her.
If her sons were sources of great concern, Vicky's daughters didn't usually cause problems. The only exception was Charlotte, the eldest of the princesses. A girl with slow growth and a difficult education, she was regularly prone to fits of rage during her childhood. Growing up, her health became delicate and, in addition to her capricious personality, she also revealed an irritable character. Today, several historians (like John C. G. Röhl, Martin Warren and David Hunt) defend the thesis that Charlotte suffered from porphyria as did her maternal ancestor King George III. This could explain the gastrointestinal problems, migraines and nervous crises that tormented the princess. The same historians believe that the headaches and skin rashes that Victoria treated with doses of morphine were also a consequence of porphyria, albeit in a weaker form than that suffered by Charlotte.
Matrimonial projects: sources of conflict
As her children became adults, Victoria began to seek suitors for them. In 1878, Charlotte married her paternal second cousin Bernhard, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Meiningen, which delighted the Berlin court. Three years later, Victoria began negotiations to marry William to Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, provoking outrage in conservative German circles. Chancellor Bismarck criticised the project because the princess belonged to the family who was dethroned by Prussia with the annexation of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein in 1864. The Hohenzollerns considered Augusta Victoria unworthy to marry the heir apparent to the German Empire because her family lacked sufficient rank. After several months of negotiations, Victoria got what she wanted, but soon became disappointed when she saw that her daughter-in-law did not have the liberal personality that she expected.
The crown princess, however, was not so lucky with the marriage plans for her daughter Viktoria. In 1881 she fell in love with Prince Alexander I of Bulgaria and her mother tried to obtain permission from the emperor for the engagement. Despite being a sovereign, the Bulgarian prince was born of a morganatic marriage, which placed him in a position of inferiority in front of the proud House of Hohenzollern. In addition, Alexander's policy in his Principality of Bulgaria was greatly disliked by Russia, a traditional ally of Prussia. Bismarck feared that marriage between a German princess and an enemy of Tsar Alexander III of Russia would represent a blow to the League of the Three Emperors, i.e. the Austro-German-Russian alliance. The chancellor, in the meanwhile, gained the disapproval of William I to the union, much to the dismay of Victoria and Frederick.
This new conflict between father and son resulted in the emperor replacing the crown prince with Prince William at official ceremonies and major events. On several occasions, it was the grandson of William I who represented the Berlin court abroad.
German Empress
Agony of William I and Frederick III's disease
In 1887, the health of the 90-year-old William I declined rapidly, indicating that the succession was close. However, the crown prince was also ill. Increasingly sickly, Frederick was told that he had laryngeal cancer. To confirm his suspicions, Frederick was examined by British physician Morell Mackenzie, who after a biopsy did not find any sign of illness.
With the agreement of his physicians, Frederick went with his wife to Great Britain for the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria in June 1887. On that trip, the couple secretly brought to Windsor Castle three boxes full of personal documents that they wanted to keep away from the eyes of Bismarck and the Hohenzollerns. Always eager to harm the crown prince, the imperial chancellor continued his intrigues against Victoria. With the help of chamberlain Hugo von Radolin and painter Götz de Seckendorff, he tried to prepare a final report against the crown princess.
Because the health of the crown prince did not improve, Mackenzie advised him to go to Italy to undergo treatment. Frederick and Victoria went to San Remo in September 1887, causing outrage in Berlin because, despite the continued deterioration in the emperor's health, the couple didn't return to the capital. In early November, Frederick completely lost the use of speech and German doctors were summoned by Victoria to San Remo for further examinations. Finally, he was diagnosed with a malignant tumour and the only possible treatment was the removal of his larynx, but the crown prince refused. Victoria supported her husband in his decision, which caused a serious argument with her son William, who shortly before had arrived in Italy and accused his mother of being happy with Frederick's disease.
In Berlin, the agony of William I lasted several months until, on 9 March 1888, the first German emperor finally died. His son succeeded him as king of Prussia and German emperor under the name of Frederick III.
Empress of 99 days
Immediately after accession, Emperor Frederick III appointed his wife Lady of the Order of the Black Eagle, the highest order of chivalry in the Kingdom of Prussia. However, after her return to Berlin, the empress realised that she and her husband in fact were really "shadows ready to be replaced by William".
Gravely ill, Frederick III limited his political actions to some symbolic measures, such as declaring an amnesty to all political prisoners and the dismissal of the reactionary Interior Minister Robert von Puttkamer. He also awarded the Order of the Black Eagle to various people who had supported and advised him when he was still crown prince, like the Justice Minister Heinrich von Friedberg, and the President of the Frankfurt Parliament Eduard von Simson.
Empress Victoria tried to use her new status to promote the marriage of her daughter Viktoria to Prince Alexander I of Bulgaria (abandoned since 1886). However, given the difficulties caused by the project, she advised her daughter to give up on the marriage.
Death of Frederick III and its consequences
Frederick III died about 11:00 on 15 June 1888. Once the emperor's death was announced, his son and successor William II ordered the occupation of the imperial residence by soldiers. The chambers of Frederick and Victoria were carefully checked for incriminating documents. However, the search was unsuccessful because all the couple's correspondence had been taken to Windsor Castle the previous year. Several years later, William II stated that the purpose of this research was to find state documents. Currently, however, many historians (as Hannah Pakula and Franz Herre) suggest that what the emperor wanted was to recover documents that could threaten his reputation.
The funeral of Frederick III came shortly after in Potsdam, without major pomp. Victoria, now empress dowager, didn't appear at the ceremony in the Friedenskirche of Sanssouci, but attended a mass in memory of her husband in the Royal Estate of Bornsted. From the death of her husband, Victoria became known as Empress Frederick.
In the following weeks, William II purged all institutions and people close to Frederick III and Victoria. The home of the lawyer Franz von Roggenbach was searched and the widow of Ernst von Stockmar, former private secretary of Victoria, was questioned by the police. Friedrich Heinrich Geffcken, Frederick III's counsellor for years, was tried for high treason for publishing excerpts from the diary of Emperor Frederick. Finally, Heinrich von Friedberg was dismissed as Justice Minister.
Empress dowager
Resettlement
Once widowed, the empress dowager had to leave the Neues Palais in Potsdam because her son wanted to settle his residence there. Unable to settle in Sanssouci, she acquired a property in Kronberg im Taunus, in the old Duchy of Nassau. There, Victoria built a castle that was named Friedrichshof in honour of her husband. Having inherited several million marks after the death of the wealthy Maria de Brignole-Sale, Duchess of Galliera, the empress dowager was able to finance the construction and expansion of her residence. With the completion of the works in 1894, she spent most of the year in the property with her younger daughters, and left only when she travelled abroad. Contrary to the desires of the emperor, who preferred that she leave Germany permanently, Victoria formed her own court and maintained close relations with liberal circles.
Solitude
In October 1889, Princess Sophia, Victoria's penultimate daughter, married the future King Constantine I of Greece, leaving the maternal residence. The following year, Princess Viktoria, after the ending of her hopes to wed the ruler of Bulgaria, in the end married Prince Adolf of Schaumburg-Lippe, the future regent of the Principality of Lippe. Finally, in 1893, Princess Margaret married Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse, who in 1918 was elected to the throne of the ephemeral Kingdom of Finland. Although satisfied with these marriages, the empress dowager felt increasingly isolated following the departure of her daughters.
In fact, Victoria was completely sequestered from public life by William II. With the death of her mother-in-law, the Empress Dowager Augusta in 1890, Victoria had hopes to succeed her as patron of the German Red Cross and the Vaterländischer Frauenverein (Association of Patriotic Women). However, it was her daughter-in-law, Empress Augusta Victoria, who assumed the presidency of these entities, which caused a deep bitterness in Victoria.
The empress dowager didn't hesitate to harshly criticise the policies and behaviour of her son. When the emperor wrote in the guestbook of the city of Munich the words "Suprema lex regis voluntas" (The will of the king is the supreme law"), she indignantly wrote to her mother:
Later years and death
Victoria devoted part of her final years to painting and to visit the artists' colony of Kronberg, where she regularly met with the painter Norbert Schrödl. In her last days, she used to walk in the morning and spent long hours writing letters or reading in the library of her castle.
In late 1898, physicians diagnosed the empress dowager with inoperable breast cancer, forcing her to stay in bed for long periods. Cancer had spread to her spine by the autumn of 1900, and as she worried about her personal letters (in which she detailed her concern over Germany's future under her son) falling into the hands of the emperor, she requested that the letters be brought back to Great Britain in a cloak-and-dagger operation by her godson Frederick Ponsonby, the private secretary of her brother King Edward VII, who was making his final visit to his terminally ill sister in Kronberg on 23 February 1901. These letters were later edited by Ponsonby and put into context by his background commentary to form the book that was published in 1928.
The empress dowager died in Friedrichshof on 5 August 1901, less than seven months after the death of her mother.
She was buried next to her husband in the royal mausoleum of the Friedenskirche at Potsdam on 13 August 1901. Her tomb has a recumbent marble effigy of herself on top. Her two sons who died in childhood, Sigismund and Waldemar, are buried in the same mausoleum.
Memorials, dedications, and in popular culture
Geography
The Mount Victoria in Jervis Inlet, British Columbia, Canada, was named in honour of the Princess Royal.
The Princess Royal Reach is a fjord of Jervis Inlet also named after Vicky in 1860.
Monument
The Kaiserin-Friedrich-Gymnasium, secondary school in Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Hesse, named after the empress.
Locomotive
The Princess Victoria is a class GWR locomotive 3031, built by the Great Western Railway.
Horticulture
The Empress Frederick is a variety of begonia double with flat petals and roses arranged around a single center.
The Kronprinzessin Viktoria is a rose of type Bourbon created in 1888 by the rose breeders Vollert.
The Kaiserin Friedrich is a variety of rose noisetee created in 1889 by Drögeüller.
Film and television
Felicity Kendal played Victoria in Edward the Seventh (1975)
Other portrayals include Gemma Jones (Fall of Eagles, 1974) and Ruth Hellberg (Bismarck, 1940), as well as Catherine Punch (Bismarck, 1990). While she is portrayed as a naive English princess in the Bismarck films, the German film Vicky – die vergessene Kaiserin (The Forgotten Empress), tries to show her in a different light.
Louisa Bay portrays an 8 to 12-year-old Princess Victoria in the third season of Victoria.
Hallie Woodhall portrays a younger Princess Victoria in the second season.
Titles, styles and honours
Titles and styles
21 November 1840 – 25 January 1858: Her Royal Highness The Princess Royal
25 January 1858 – 2 January 1861: Her Royal Highness Princess Frederick William of Prussia
2 January 1861 – 18 January 1871: Her Royal Highness The Crown Princess of Prussia
18 January 1871 – 9 March 1888: Her Imperial and Royal Highness The Crown Princess of The German Empire, Crown Princess of Prussia
9 March 1888 – 15 June 1888: Her Imperial and Royal Majesty The German Empress, Queen of Prussia
15 June 1888 – 5 August 1901: Her Imperial Majesty The Empress Frederick
Honours
Arms
With her style of Princess Royal, Victoria was granted use of the royal arms, as then used: with an escutcheon of the shield of Saxony, the whole differenced by a label argent of three points, the outer points bearing crosses gules, the central a rose gules.
Issue
Ancestry
Notes
References
Bibliography
Jean Bérenger: Histoire de l'Empire des Habsbourg 1273-1918, Fayard 1990
Catherine Clay: Le roi, l'empereur et le tsar – Les trois cousins qui ont entraîné le monde dans la guerre, Librairie Académique Perrin (French translation), 2008 .
Christopher Dobson (ed.): Chronicle of England, Chronique ed. (French translation), 1998.
.
Karin Feuerstein-Praßer: Die deutschen Kaiserinnen. 1871–1918. Piper Verlag, München 2005. .
.
.
.
.
Wolfgang Mommsen: War der Kaiser an allem schuld – Wilhelm II. und die preußisch-deutschen Machteliten, Berlin, Ullstein ed, 2005 .
Sir Frederick Ponsonby (Ed.), Briefe der Kaiserin Friedrich. Eingeleitet von Wilhelm II., Verlag für Kulturpolitik, Berlin 1929 [Letters of Empress Friedrich. Introduction by Wilhelm II]. New Edition H. Knaur Verlag, München, .
Wilfried Rogasch (Hrsg.): Victoria & Albert, Vicky & The Kaiser: ein Kapitel deutsch-englischer Familiengeschichte [Cat. of the Exhibition in the Deutsches Historisches Museum Berlin] Hatje Verlag, Ostfildern-Ruit 1997. .
John C. G. Röhl: Kaiser, Hof und Staat – Wilhelm II. und die deutsche Politik, Munich, 1988.
.
Kurt Tetzeli von Rosador and Arndt Mersmann (ed.): Queen Victoria – Ein biographisches Lesebuch aus ihren Briefen und Tagebüchern, Munich, Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, 2001.
.
Thomas Weiberg: … wie immer Deine Dona. Verlobung und Hochzeit des letzten deutschen Kaiserpaares. Isensee-Verlag, Oldenburg 2007, .
.
1840 births
1901 deaths
19th-century British people
20th-century British people
19th-century British women
20th-century British women
19th-century German people
20th-century German people
19th-century German women
20th-century German women
Companions of the Order of the Crown of India
Dames of the Order of Saint Isabel
Deaths from breast cancer
Deaths from cancer in Germany
English people of German descent
English people of Scottish descent
German empresses
Heirs to the British throne
House of Hohenzollern
House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)
Ladies of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert
Ladies of Justice of the Order of St John
Members of the Royal Red Cross
Patrons of schools
People from Westminster
Princesses Royal
Prussian princesses
Prussian royal consorts
Children of Queen Victoria | [
-0.041776012629270554,
-0.04500526562333107,
0.5425382852554321,
0.2730633020401001,
-0.47825631499290466,
0.31934288144111633,
0.9813598990440369,
-0.2714010775089264,
-0.5323013067245483,
-0.2945505678653717,
-0.012096434831619263,
-0.606631338596344,
0.12561935186386108,
0.9307610988616943,
-0.11571314185857773,
0.07831810414791107,
-0.045638132840394974,
0.5393217206001282,
-0.14567209780216217,
-0.590413510799408,
-0.29154500365257263,
0.09385008364915848,
0.42433130741119385,
0.15992341935634613,
0.40632885694503784,
-0.6084147691726685,
0.7459716796875,
0.05882485583424568,
0.6366801261901855,
0.03285229206085205,
0.6024601459503174,
-0.05643570050597191,
0.23242849111557007,
-0.07211628556251526,
-0.4563608169555664,
-0.3465834856033325,
-0.014989668503403664,
-0.08834750205278397,
-0.3302142918109894,
-0.543678343296051,
-0.44860607385635376,
-0.18174296617507935,
0.4063616693019867,
-0.27191275358200073,
-0.16287922859191895,
-1.1867841482162476,
-1.6088063716888428,
0.2442382425069809,
-0.17674224078655243,
-0.3640599846839905,
-0.017651792615652084,
0.16439981758594513,
1.0237740278244019,
0.6563927531242371,
0.43789055943489075,
-0.1895447075366974,
-1.5275601148605347,
0.08814628422260284,
-0.19946295022964478,
-0.18009914457798004,
0.42662227153778076,
0.44635945558547974,
0.43920576572418213,
0.03715372085571289,
0.6391511559486389,
-0.10453194379806519,
0.21611103415489197,
0.021136626601219177,
-0.10276692360639572,
-0.47078365087509155,
0.26532426476478577,
-0.0745028480887413,
0.513994574546814,
0.18182487785816193,
-0.02655584178864956,
-0.4857326149940491,
0.1901513636112213,
-0.017623011022806168,
1.1108967065811157,
-0.19661816954612732,
-0.18642084300518036,
-0.5647910237312317,
0.41012099385261536,
0.1702553778886795,
0.391603946685791,
0.05504772812128067,
0.047492120414972305,
0.015714678913354874,
-0.3322773873806,
-0.059494659304618835,
-0.7923783659934998,
0.8074702620506287,
0.531007707118988,
-0.11156958341598511,
-0.27234911918640137,
-0.3760787546634674,
0.3489619493484497,
0.11175702512264252,
-0.23470668494701385,
-0.10857728868722916,
-0.3593883514404297,
-0.3770272433757782,
-0.049476075917482376,
-0.3593449294567108,
-0.320720911026001,
-0.39860332012176514,
-0.41522035002708435,
0.37238866090774536,
-0.3164243698120117,
0.4793238341808319,
-0.17575779557228088,
-0.12755893170833588,
-0.09885114431381226,
-0.03197455778717995,
-0.36133715510368347,
0.030286099761724472,
0.11212814599275589,
-0.5821360349655151,
-0.11455634236335754,
-0.06265772134065628,
0.08589257299900055,
0.06821971386671066,
0.11139270663261414,
-0.1146664097905159,
0.13380062580108643,
0.05667032301425934,
-0.023246729746460915,
0.17764629423618317,
-0.3666194677352905,
0.2823414206504822,
0.5722862482070923,
0.9983111619949341,
-0.18651781976222992,
-0.2556585371494293,
-0.07463549822568893,
-0.49713513255119324,
-0.08567474782466888,
0.03430900722742081,
0.46912601590156555,
-0.0030235552694648504,
-0.5213271975517273,
-0.041293665766716,
-0.5835115909576416,
0.36132848262786865,
-0.11174983531236649,
-0.04406174644827843,
-0.10241564363241196,
0.25578364729881287,
-0.3657417595386505,
-0.001501206075772643,
-0.39331308007240295,
-0.06990566104650497,
-0.23579934239387512,
-0.40554437041282654,
-0.24605630338191986,
0.44583529233932495,
0.6695609092712402,
-0.05942069739103317,
0.4289696514606476,
0.5191346406936646,
-0.20186232030391693,
0.36319008469581604,
0.0979328528046608,
-0.3200487792491913,
0.5850152969360352,
-0.10967815667390823,
-0.46424400806427,
0.7773651480674744,
-0.09577737003564835,
-0.05849990248680115,
-0.6330438256263733,
0.31710654497146606,
-0.2816441059112549,
0.39545702934265137,
-0.4257041811943054,
0.8102902173995972,
-0.2465847283601761,
-0.09443115442991257,
0.07165829837322235,
-0.737212061882019,
-0.325865238904953,
0.6764117479324341,
-0.3207423985004425,
0.49627548456192017,
0.3541238307952881,
0.42944711446762085,
0.36988773941993713,
0.07672583311796188,
0.2822064757347107,
-0.7251202464103699,
0.15651631355285645,
-0.6445155143737793,
0.07944723218679428,
0.3747311234474182,
0.24303844571113586,
0.35051441192626953,
-0.43730098009109497,
0.15888462960720062,
0.021931542083621025,
0.371989905834198,
0.4846153259277344,
-0.31424856185913086,
-0.086762435734272,
-0.3220830261707306,
-0.13795296847820282,
0.22564814984798431,
0.1448194533586502,
-0.501509428024292,
0.27538028359413147,
0.6063621044158936,
0.11893627047538757,
-0.689419150352478,
0.35212841629981995,
0.13059784471988678,
-0.4367692172527313,
-0.25167855620384216,
-0.2825550138950348,
0.015852566808462143,
0.5216068625450134,
-0.25504744052886963,
0.26933977007865906,
0.634259045124054,
-0.4194386303424835,
0.23046809434890747,
-0.5544668436050415,
0.25424543023109436,
-0.5573781728744507,
0.7452043890953064,
-0.5057069063186646,
-0.5506422519683838,
-0.004946139641106129,
0.032630644738674164,
0.23492877185344696,
-0.2903953194618225,
0.8058322072029114,
-0.29908087849617004,
-0.06340683996677399,
0.1250738799571991,
0.12072321027517319,
-0.22977812588214874,
0.3260609805583954,
0.432630330324173,
-0.05267690494656563,
0.8122461438179016,
-0.28826412558555603,
0.8751755356788635,
-0.12905052304267883,
-0.35368970036506653,
-0.702669620513916,
-0.21663451194763184,
0.2747977375984192,
0.2729344069957733,
-0.5076467990875244,
0.30146732926368713,
-0.0786273404955864,
-0.5297746658325195,
-0.433074027299881,
0.025876104831695557,
0.08277111500501633,
1.2257905006408691,
0.28982195258140564,
0.4623172879219055,
0.08197379112243652,
-0.021572977304458618,
0.00927642546594143,
0.48647570610046387,
0.32576170563697815,
-0.38949522376060486,
0.38715511560440063,
0.2828797698020935,
0.22833077609539032,
-0.05478845164179802,
-0.7109443545341492,
-0.2505050003528595,
0.4114212095737457,
-0.481168270111084,
-0.356930136680603,
0.6994609236717224,
-0.3588317930698395,
-0.9753590822219849,
-0.30595773458480835,
0.6136916875839233,
-0.3334580957889557,
-0.3762870728969574,
-0.47397974133491516,
-0.4230906665325165,
0.4151037037372589,
-0.19078730046749115,
-0.321138858795166,
0.2832778990268707,
-0.16215559840202332,
0.3018535077571869,
-0.17367278039455414,
-0.14596478641033173,
0.010681938380002975,
0.4048728048801422,
-0.36288467049598694,
0.3546701967716217,
0.42132821679115295,
0.009526558220386505,
-1.2977663278579712,
0.054784685373306274,
-0.06465289741754532,
0.17720848321914673,
0.4772363305091858,
0.11584670096635818,
0.11018103361129761,
0.14247973263263702,
-5.556593894958496,
-0.44047465920448303,
0.2155086249113083,
-0.05390613153576851,
0.03940668702125549,
0.7411413192749023,
0.3215395510196686,
-0.04109204560518265,
0.005577966570854187,
-0.16261045634746552,
1.3546051979064941,
0.4996664524078369,
0.14107772707939148,
0.46050170063972473,
0.6076173782348633,
0.2793983221054077,
0.40376055240631104,
-0.510901153087616,
0.333842933177948,
0.24693498015403748,
-0.1414489597082138,
0.19390052556991577,
0.07493284344673157,
0.5924792885780334,
0.3141140937805176,
-0.3167778253555298,
0.35124126076698303,
-0.38752812147140503,
-0.62567538022995,
-0.8609628081321716,
0.1568547487258911,
-0.10109595954418182,
0.0875796377658844,
-0.16726276278495789,
0.32934316992759705,
-0.015976248309016228,
0.3105361759662628,
0.35235756635665894,
-0.17749841511249542,
-0.08483171463012695,
0.014804200269281864,
-0.016690650954842567,
-0.07800011336803436,
0.14721068739891052,
-0.3445354700088501,
-0.24991127848625183,
-0.48017534613609314,
0.7039878964424133,
-0.17501968145370483,
0.7713652849197388,
-0.12563830614089966,
0.23197786509990692,
0.43774670362472534,
-0.200578510761261,
-0.4753738343715668,
0.3895120620727539,
-0.6074765920639038,
0.7473356127738953,
-0.730623722076416,
-0.12993501126766205,
0.4237968921661377,
-0.3904384970664978,
0.1765497773885727,
0.3478548228740692,
-0.2442489117383957,
-0.3421991169452667,
-0.4724885821342468,
0.7770794034004211,
0.31401246786117554,
-0.07233775407075882,
0.09648185968399048,
-0.33753612637519836,
0.4322216510772705,
-0.880210816860199,
-0.02218575030565262,
-0.7745150923728943,
-0.17748184502124786,
-0.19018709659576416,
-0.1943758875131607,
-0.3434293270111084,
0.36465442180633545,
0.0001330267550656572,
0.4343228042125702,
0.8065993785858154,
0.3952304422855377,
-0.28009530901908875,
0.11673997342586517,
-0.12160993367433548,
-0.09554333239793777,
-0.13822446763515472,
-0.5996861457824707,
-0.5630802512168884,
-0.48708558082580566,
0.4581010639667511,
-0.202435702085495,
0.38599342107772827,
-0.0871395468711853,
-0.23682083189487457,
0.007521407213062048,
0.00898298341780901,
0.38914668560028076,
0.19194398820400238,
0.173234224319458,
-0.22134314477443695,
0.2759554982185364,
-0.28663575649261475,
0.027862967923283577,
-0.092249296605587,
0.29428547620773315,
-0.7944673299789429,
-0.027388224378228188,
0.10557989776134491,
0.08438188582658768,
-0.7215468287467957,
0.6129966378211975,
-0.6558417081832886,
-0.4098370671272278,
0.3394107520580292,
0.41803112626075745,
-0.09080008417367935,
-0.3558311462402344,
0.2831500172615051,
-0.11300324648618698,
0.23731400072574615,
0.11590544879436493,
0.5617625713348389,
0.7170683741569519,
-0.14526383578777313,
-1.0242834091186523,
0.3287719190120697,
-0.26020458340644836,
-0.12988005578517914,
-0.0917365774512291,
-0.04875698313117027,
0.19679796695709229,
-0.1994781494140625,
0.01966102421283722,
-0.6488315463066101,
0.10375095903873444,
-0.6207350492477417,
-0.7639181017875671,
-0.18127411603927612,
-1.005431890487671,
0.8164344429969788,
0.04601680114865303,
0.029189184308052063,
0.43195876479148865,
-0.21523435413837433,
-0.4974817633628845,
0.8301278948783875,
-0.6942973136901855,
-0.18929019570350647,
0.9207814931869507,
-0.011098917573690414,
-0.4725417196750641,
-0.04582330957055092,
0.7129491567611694,
0.04294227063655853,
0.230355367064476,
-0.23534046113491058,
-0.8971025943756104,
-0.48858287930488586,
-0.6485230326652527,
0.13497821986675262,
-0.24566255509853363,
0.1506752073764801,
-0.7645441889762878,
-0.12531647086143494,
0.0084000239148736,
0.5042021870613098,
-0.1980152279138565,
-0.367133229970932,
-0.1918623000383377,
0.08004601299762726,
-0.2696949541568756,
0.22693942487239838,
-0.43065330386161804,
0.09862109273672104,
0.22708143293857574,
0.08062645047903061,
0.013367455452680588,
-0.20913207530975342,
-0.6570267081260681,
0.15490223467350006,
0.03345430642366409,
0.9647040367126465,
-0.41132134199142456,
-0.11822293698787689,
-0.0928046926856041,
0.6710871458053589,
0.05799388512969017,
-0.10716322064399719,
-0.12837056815624237,
0.4257548749446869,
-0.8351356983184814,
-0.056548822671175,
0.09759077429771423,
0.19365891814231873,
0.04618528112769127,
-0.3150084316730499,
0.04658561944961548,
0.6053403615951538,
-0.4075756371021271,
-0.5427168607711792,
0.05476749688386917,
-0.6860199570655823,
0.1703958511352539,
0.1759071797132492,
0.11639392375946045,
0.632215142250061,
-0.18184742331504822,
-0.680840253829956,
0.26627886295318604,
1.2217037677764893,
-0.5450196862220764,
0.5457295775413513,
0.33950701355934143,
-0.35991430282592773,
0.1838865876197815,
-0.5060174465179443,
-0.5531181693077087,
-0.07679400593042374,
-0.6742041110992432,
-0.29973268508911133,
-0.47547969222068787,
0.3541998863220215,
0.5255840420722961,
-0.020753860473632812,
0.43406540155410767,
0.18243063986301422,
-0.09781865030527115,
0.18852204084396362,
-0.020508604124188423,
0.1851639449596405,
-0.27635154128074646,
-0.131840318441391,
0.6680759191513062,
-0.10142422467470169,
-0.14734740555286407,
0.10572569072246552,
0.6949568390846252,
0.7683794498443604,
-0.05756714567542076,
-0.3004985451698303,
0.1959107220172882,
-0.18146364390850067,
-0.15257632732391357,
-0.1822936236858368,
0.08807966113090515,
-0.09712769091129303,
0.0676085352897644,
-0.09441963583230972,
-0.543228268623352,
-0.9110947251319885,
0.6801016926765442,
-0.8440709710121155,
0.29701289534568787,
0.4174635410308838,
0.20857200026512146,
0.1684359461069107,
-0.1871531754732132,
0.2232830673456192,
0.19982370734214783,
-0.00800750870257616,
0.007436893414705992,
0.3395753800868988,
0.15275749564170837,
0.4166635274887085,
-0.4223216474056244,
0.10098492354154587,
0.3013542890548706,
-0.33501747250556946,
-0.18498694896697998,
-0.39047756791114807,
-0.6857126355171204,
0.4693742096424103,
0.052079662680625916,
-0.6818337440490723,
0.339717298746109,
0.23379702866077423,
-0.7461352944374084,
-0.31723538041114807,
-0.25840097665786743,
-0.6996468901634216,
-0.2480122447013855,
-0.6056766510009766,
-0.08376099169254303,
-0.1265145093202591,
-0.4287463426589966,
0.40385961532592773,
-0.6642113327980042,
-0.08104763180017471,
0.2297554463148117,
0.5143154859542847,
0.23496654629707336,
0.5375143885612488,
-0.5399523973464966,
0.38815218210220337,
0.16207477450370789,
-0.30990082025527954,
-0.29224929213523865,
0.7312730550765991,
0.3863372504711151,
0.4404512047767639,
0.3386787176132202,
0.1469281166791916,
0.352805495262146,
-0.5193949341773987,
0.39122602343559265,
0.15469300746917725,
0.536711573600769,
-0.19345512986183167,
0.5285908579826355,
0.11024680733680725,
-0.3800359070301056,
0.17994694411754608,
0.22771549224853516,
0.03439588472247124,
-0.17559492588043213,
-0.23544204235076904,
-0.21270950138568878,
0.3440904915332794,
0.20887528359889984,
0.142510324716568,
-0.14978647232055664,
0.14297153055667877,
0.1647314876317978,
0.002590073039755225,
0.10944618284702301,
0.07175026088953018,
0.18786972761154175,
0.21908877789974213,
-0.5018138289451599,
0.7399768233299255,
-0.5632596611976624,
-0.03324463218450546,
0.6183340549468994,
-0.22628572583198547,
0.00027120637241750956,
0.5244123935699463,
0.13237571716308594,
0.5410338044166565,
-0.5172306299209595,
-0.11142779141664505,
0.293329119682312,
0.37800654768943787,
-0.4046662449836731,
0.35246407985687256,
0.2528083622455597,
-0.1373848021030426,
0.5023480653762817,
0.1994389444589615,
0.08727698773145676,
-0.8843764066696167,
0.43608856201171875,
0.5207564234733582,
0.6888613700866699,
-0.7347853779792786,
-0.24690750241279602,
-0.1569194793701172,
-0.48793086409568787,
-0.6887924075126648,
0.90744948387146,
-0.09013359993696213,
-0.28725507855415344,
-0.46577468514442444,
-0.08096635341644287,
0.010099897161126137,
0.18527741730213165,
-0.5950291156768799,
0.6224172115325928,
-0.48818299174308777,
-0.12288539856672287,
-0.03271400183439255,
0.39849165081977844,
0.37292033433914185,
0.022831954061985016,
-0.1120494082570076,
0.18740211427211761,
0.26387667655944824,
-0.3380405604839325,
-0.2661820948123932,
0.509193480014801,
-0.6459817886352539,
-0.6777840852737427,
-0.10529297590255737,
0.16976910829544067,
0.01992654614150524,
0.14295989274978638,
-0.2783462703227997,
0.5546244382858276,
-0.30011749267578125,
0.2478308528661728,
-0.28481608629226685,
-0.7553038001060486,
-0.1712447702884674,
-0.2222132384777069,
0.7290977239608765,
-0.021361516788601875,
-0.5766037106513977,
-0.17056028544902802,
0.8884258270263672,
-0.25787219405174255,
-0.15410564839839935,
-0.25854960083961487,
1.0740931034088135,
0.013629087246954441,
-0.3799476623535156,
-0.5777004361152649,
-0.20137760043144226,
-0.4991939067840576,
-0.4566933512687683,
-0.2036617547273636,
0.09580180794000626,
-0.25274860858917236,
0.3081032633781433,
0.602387011051178,
-0.10643817484378815,
-0.8684391975402832,
0.2832171618938446,
0.11386681348085403,
-0.3583570718765259,
0.3646068871021271,
-0.18457214534282684,
-0.04816494509577751,
0.2845851480960846,
0.06364617496728897,
0.5814388990402222,
-0.07209882885217667,
0.4242185354232788,
-0.6952417492866516,
0.04539072513580322,
-0.49619537591934204,
0.24775627255439758,
-0.4764259457588196,
0.6921855211257935,
0.4123963713645935,
0.432129442691803,
-0.17140807211399078,
-0.35960185527801514,
-0.20534446835517883,
0.2582393288612366,
1.019783616065979,
0.2115822583436966,
0.30366894602775574,
0.19006186723709106,
-0.3213631212711334,
-0.36831948161125183,
-0.5375224947929382,
-0.09431823343038559,
-0.090751513838768,
0.5636188387870789,
0.42650213837623596,
-0.7542346119880676,
0.593358039855957,
-0.6597630977630615,
-0.29092010855674744,
-0.7491645216941833,
0.28439781069755554,
0.43392130732536316
] |
261023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sweetest%20Thing | The Sweetest Thing | The Sweetest Thing is a 2002 American comedy film directed by Roger Kumble and written by Nancy Pimental, who based the characters on herself and friend Kate Walsh. It stars Cameron Diaz, Christina Applegate, and Selma Blair.
Plot
A group of men are interviewed regarding Christina Walters; they consider her a player and a user of men in the swinging singles market. Christina is a 28-year-old successful interior designer living in San Francisco near Chinatown. She meets up with her friend Courtney Rockcliffe, a divorce lawyer. They console their friend and roommate Jane, who had recently broken up with her boyfriend, by taking her out to a dance club. Jane feels out of place, so Christina grabs a man named Peter to set Jane up with, but he berates Christina for her methods before disappearing for the night. While in the bathroom with Courtney, she calls him by name, leading her to suspect that he got under Christina's skin and she is actually in love with him, which she denies. After running into Peter again, Christina buys him a drink and they spend time together. He explains that he will be attending a wedding on Saturday, and that he is at the club with his obnoxious, womanizing brother Roger to celebrate. He invites Christina and Courtney to an after-party at their hotel, but Christina goes home and later regrets not going.
The next day, Christina cannot stop talking about Peter, while Jane pays an embarrassing visit to the dry cleaner. Courtney arranges for Christina and herself to travel to Somerset, where Peter's brother's wedding is to take place, and they meet Jane's boyfriend. After they leave in Courtney's Saab 9-5, Christina and Courtney go on a series of misadventures including an exploding toilet, a glory hole discovery, and a motorcyclist who is led to believe Courtney is receiving cunnilingus while driving. Meanwhile, Jane encounters her boyfriend at her retail job and is nearly caught having sex with him in a changing room. When Christina and Courtney finally arrive in Somerset, they visit a store to replace their wet and ruined clothes, only to come out in extremely gaudy, indiscreet outfits. Christina begins having second thoughts, but a series of coincidences causes a change of heart, and they attend Peter's brother's wedding. However, they discover that it is Peter, not Roger, who is getting married, and the pair nearly ruin the ceremony in their attempt to escape. Peter and his fiancée then decide that they do not want to marry each other and they call off the wedding. Christina and Courtney return home and help Jane get out of a sexual situation where the emergency crew was called in. Christina is back to a newly unfulfilled life of being single again. Later, Peter finds Christina's address in the log at the store they bought their clothes in and tracks her down. Christina, determined not to fear the commitment, kisses Peter and then walks away disappointed.
Sometime later, Courtney is dating a doctor and is clearly very attracted to him, and Peter is interviewed like the men at the beginning of the film, retelling his version of the events calling her a bitch and a player, but ultimately reveals that he and Christina are together, having gotten married and are living very happily with Jane and Courtney and Roger as well.
Cast
Cameron Diaz as Christina Walters
Christina Applegate as Courtney Rockcliffe
Thomas Jane as Peter Donahue
Selma Blair as Jane Burns
Jason Bateman as Roger Donahue
Parker Posey as Judy Webb
Home media
The film was released on DVD and VHS on August 20, 2002.
An unrated version was also released on DVD with some extra scenes added, including a musical performance by Diaz, Applegate and Blair, known as "The Penis Song".
Reception
On its opening weekend, it earned US$9,430,667 on 2,670 screens, ranking #3 behind Changing Lanes and Panic Room. It eventually grossed US$68,696,770 worldwide.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 26% based on 110 reviews, with an average rating of 4.30/10. The consensus calls the film "a collection of hit-or-miss gags tied together by a thin plot". On Metacritic, the film has an average score of 32 out of 100, based on 30 critics. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade C+ on scale of A to F.
It was among Ebert & Roeper's "Worst of 2002", in the category "Big Stars in Big Bombs".
Notes
References
External links
2002 films
2002 romantic comedy films
2000s buddy comedy films
2000s comedy road movies
2000s female buddy films
2000s sex comedy films
American buddy comedy films
American comedy road movies
American female buddy films
American films
American romantic comedy films
American sex comedy films
Columbia Pictures films
Films directed by Roger Kumble
Films produced by Cathy Konrad
Films scored by Edward Shearmur
Films set in San Francisco
Films shot in San Francisco | [
-0.6649436950683594,
-0.05828966200351715,
-0.15285131335258484,
0.03351075202226639,
0.5142393112182617,
0.5708634853363037,
0.3333760201931,
0.4140649139881134,
0.18415434658527374,
0.20977111160755157,
-0.05447721481323242,
0.575026273727417,
0.4034663140773773,
0.3106483817100525,
-0.5047023892402649,
0.2710692882537842,
0.4242646098136902,
0.8331766128540039,
0.4093681275844574,
-0.2305876463651657,
-0.33538195490837097,
-0.474666953086853,
0.30001506209373474,
-0.2320866882801056,
-0.03276703506708145,
0.15593716502189636,
-0.03184816241264343,
0.3514353036880493,
0.5784747004508972,
-0.006580802612006664,
0.05204299837350845,
0.2476583570241928,
0.0042021856643259525,
-0.5027283430099487,
0.2516576945781708,
-0.07150355726480484,
-0.3590206503868103,
0.12254557013511658,
-0.5285417437553406,
-0.2682059407234192,
-0.13975054025650024,
0.027187993749976158,
0.143409863114357,
-0.40994778275489807,
-0.4179134964942932,
-0.07501482218503952,
-1.7501933574676514,
-0.014394531026482582,
-0.3615044355392456,
-0.3083510994911194,
0.6297351121902466,
0.16508208215236664,
0.5870326161384583,
-0.4333147704601288,
0.16025564074516296,
0.8138524293899536,
-0.3530631959438324,
0.38928866386413574,
0.027610117569565773,
0.1704806089401245,
-0.315072625875473,
0.3641238212585449,
0.2486405074596405,
-0.17226192355155945,
0.06347112357616425,
0.6510187983512878,
-0.20528124272823334,
0.17522066831588745,
-0.07376287132501602,
-0.13486605882644653,
0.35058319568634033,
-0.8226855993270874,
0.2059183120727539,
0.2111126333475113,
-0.20679092407226562,
-0.33787259459495544,
0.3654729425907135,
0.024415988475084305,
0.38455110788345337,
0.5458031296730042,
-0.23337258398532867,
0.17468245327472687,
0.7430840730667114,
0.4149908721446991,
0.17335768043994904,
0.24819478392601013,
0.2659548819065094,
0.6122204065322876,
-0.8572431802749634,
0.551506757736206,
-0.33243706822395325,
-0.3463994860649109,
0.038293104618787766,
0.06156594306230545,
-0.10230936110019684,
-0.6192741394042969,
0.15899281203746796,
0.004708637483417988,
0.02272256836295128,
0.6580000519752502,
-0.31404954195022583,
0.33766645193099976,
-0.13625116646289825,
-0.11706139147281647,
-0.7597229480743408,
0.03059416450560093,
-0.39957767724990845,
-0.9606152772903442,
0.13506756722927094,
0.7881770730018616,
-0.2957150638103485,
0.5458319187164307,
-0.126652330160141,
0.5253748893737793,
-0.5396058559417725,
0.8051661252975464,
0.08601432293653488,
-0.3058866858482361,
-0.9813186526298523,
-0.26827672123908997,
0.3599627912044525,
-0.28955599665641785,
0.11816837638616562,
0.3287745714187622,
0.19835799932479858,
0.2185039073228836,
-0.02065107226371765,
0.33797580003738403,
0.11816620081663132,
0.1429305374622345,
0.3113260269165039,
0.05141947418451309,
-0.2164323627948761,
-0.7261337637901306,
-0.42973658442497253,
-0.26722487807273865,
0.23362703621387482,
-0.2815079689025879,
-0.05078628286719322,
0.0018277129856869578,
-0.2895256578922272,
-0.22617276012897491,
-0.9477745890617371,
-0.09032084792852402,
0.1344054937362671,
-0.49282893538475037,
-0.14513587951660156,
0.2450052946805954,
-0.09855334460735321,
-0.2818470299243927,
0.23089084029197693,
0.3236028552055359,
-0.6312476992607117,
-0.6301372051239014,
-0.16690479218959808,
0.5053651332855225,
-0.3637823164463043,
-0.00822355691343546,
0.16138556599617004,
0.19740593433380127,
-0.2108842134475708,
0.08398812264204025,
0.08704204857349396,
-0.6493769884109497,
-0.2955472767353058,
-0.5645322799682617,
0.6840820908546448,
0.0560549832880497,
-0.3191576302051544,
0.5921568274497986,
-0.40975630283355713,
0.4861471652984619,
0.04760681837797165,
0.09458258748054504,
0.15936361253261566,
-0.034774310886859894,
0.732065737247467,
0.01748833805322647,
0.08983670920133591,
0.06348572671413422,
-0.5149587988853455,
0.4235716164112091,
0.23969526588916779,
-0.3857642412185669,
-0.024993302300572395,
-0.16913466155529022,
0.11469431221485138,
0.20679181814193726,
0.10449507087469101,
-0.29283708333969116,
-1.0423349142074585,
-0.63870769739151,
0.7208173274993896,
-0.010020938701927662,
0.590863049030304,
0.6034508943557739,
0.1029171422123909,
0.04079270735383034,
-0.04478710517287254,
0.2606382966041565,
-0.1501617431640625,
-0.3913489878177643,
0.2932465672492981,
0.012256552465260029,
-0.7302823066711426,
-0.13466033339500427,
-0.13040851056575775,
-0.19845086336135864,
0.4667453467845917,
0.7754991054534912,
0.005916244350373745,
0.15143261849880219,
0.592254638671875,
-0.22407269477844238,
-0.13014847040176392,
-0.284550279378891,
-0.4252457916736603,
0.15315751731395721,
0.4920418858528137,
0.03584997355937958,
0.4136875569820404,
0.20786650478839874,
-0.035185232758522034,
-0.1719266176223755,
-0.274562269449234,
0.5092843174934387,
0.048395607620477676,
0.06885834038257599,
0.17996293306350708,
-0.16284170746803284,
-0.3581727147102356,
0.08758306503295898,
-0.07648096233606339,
-0.8021007776260376,
-0.12865234911441803,
0.31633085012435913,
0.03334078565239906,
0.07653012126684189,
0.4537099599838257,
-0.09716443717479706,
0.19682373106479645,
0.15538184344768524,
-0.49900683760643005,
0.3196868896484375,
-0.35834988951683044,
-0.07377934455871582,
-0.2779974639415741,
-0.11280366033315659,
-0.24148885905742645,
-0.027141543105244637,
-0.43514737486839294,
0.39444202184677124,
0.4622008204460144,
0.5490608811378479,
0.18191006779670715,
0.11288046836853027,
-0.41300877928733826,
0.3022117018699646,
0.7170265913009644,
0.5394023060798645,
-0.1620938926935196,
0.07008184492588043,
0.6514589190483093,
0.1326005756855011,
-0.27440279722213745,
0.28828078508377075,
-0.5462358593940735,
-0.5877150893211365,
-0.021312475204467773,
0.6196831464767456,
0.30534598231315613,
0.11601093411445618,
0.1366247683763504,
0.3469042181968689,
-0.15881219506263733,
-0.6141632199287415,
0.31028810143470764,
0.4343249797821045,
-0.5040051341056824,
-0.534020185470581,
0.5533888339996338,
0.8949128985404968,
0.26077160239219666,
-0.5970494151115417,
-0.21717630326747894,
-0.25525662302970886,
0.34890761971473694,
-0.5863153338432312,
-0.7594408392906189,
0.24121370911598206,
-0.11338691413402557,
0.007058470044285059,
-0.8666174411773682,
-0.3314111530780792,
-0.2694644033908844,
0.11772895604372025,
-0.03919217362999916,
-0.02868693694472313,
-0.09618937969207764,
0.07491525262594223,
0.3529641926288605,
0.6432459950447083,
-0.16891440749168396,
0.13070790469646454,
0.12324189394712448,
0.16464801132678986,
-0.1414777636528015,
-0.009585754945874214,
-5.8347063064575195,
-0.38706985116004944,
-0.15815292298793793,
0.48922255635261536,
0.7488651871681213,
-0.2907664179801941,
0.6026007533073425,
-0.5109823942184448,
0.23286916315555573,
0.4325379729270935,
0.05351252481341362,
0.04926348850131035,
-0.44972237944602966,
-0.0385003387928009,
0.440341591835022,
-0.3189011514186859,
-0.15179136395454407,
-0.3507000505924225,
0.12585870921611786,
0.6147976517677307,
-0.1938198357820511,
-0.13914987444877625,
-0.04054444655776024,
0.3859621584415436,
0.0926881656050682,
0.25391116738319397,
-0.3860466778278351,
0.09263459593057632,
-0.7904402017593384,
-0.07428492605686188,
-0.34864115715026855,
-0.20332498848438263,
-0.0782003104686737,
-0.34723255038261414,
0.015532895922660828,
-0.10732455551624298,
0.048587456345558167,
-0.4224388599395752,
0.5113515853881836,
-0.021136971190571785,
-0.13568291068077087,
0.09069742262363434,
-0.5374184846878052,
-0.21078181266784668,
0.7445714473724365,
-0.45004674792289734,
0.012684904038906097,
-0.8116574883460999,
-0.1924489438533783,
0.4780060052871704,
0.8297709822654724,
0.11578917503356934,
0.2667910158634186,
0.7499154806137085,
0.7614476680755615,
-0.16685040295124054,
0.012407878413796425,
0.01721276342868805,
-0.059930358082056046,
-0.23289823532104492,
0.311815083026886,
0.09138915687799454,
0.2536800503730774,
-0.04286450147628784,
0.18538017570972443,
-0.1653914749622345,
-0.18816718459129333,
-0.37351277470588684,
-0.7551455497741699,
0.39712151885032654,
0.14329737424850464,
-0.74820876121521,
0.1514706015586853,
-1.0290045738220215,
0.08084229379892349,
0.05699216574430466,
-0.37801942229270935,
0.019406519830226898,
-0.06550092250108719,
-0.1374519169330597,
0.26849669218063354,
-0.2535630762577057,
0.5288214683532715,
0.5938925743103027,
-0.09299837797880173,
-0.6983900666236877,
-0.33266177773475647,
-0.31404218077659607,
-0.42329150438308716,
-0.5102158188819885,
0.03829878568649292,
-0.09664937853813171,
-0.14160163700580597,
0.1915283203125,
0.2963065803050995,
0.25628405809402466,
0.4322125315666199,
0.6051111221313477,
-0.18826037645339966,
-0.17245055735111237,
-0.01913805678486824,
-0.19878675043582916,
0.5123834609985352,
0.09332694858312607,
0.0970214456319809,
-0.6689935326576233,
-0.07591280341148376,
0.3920414447784424,
0.9447155594825745,
-0.6744020581245422,
-0.24275127053260803,
0.06826654821634293,
-0.25329339504241943,
-0.4234890341758728,
-0.050438739359378815,
-0.19856545329093933,
-0.09806336462497711,
0.24275846779346466,
0.41434744000434875,
0.6845446228981018,
-0.1343776136636734,
0.12680113315582275,
-0.16190379858016968,
0.15580381453037262,
-0.4297627806663513,
-0.26323753595352173,
0.43838754296302795,
0.2308817207813263,
0.04606238380074501,
0.5101690888404846,
-0.23456475138664246,
-0.03885408863425255,
0.12832361459732056,
-0.35010313987731934,
0.243597611784935,
-0.21548521518707275,
-0.15045270323753357,
-0.14642539620399475,
-0.51778644323349,
-0.25926822423934937,
0.19385869801044464,
0.011071409098803997,
-0.48222416639328003,
0.004550450015813112,
0.25233709812164307,
-0.05880085006356239,
0.40042293071746826,
-0.5961847901344299,
-0.38833773136138916,
-0.06403515487909317,
-0.09024646878242493,
0.6070864796638489,
0.5191131830215454,
-0.18644750118255615,
-0.293300986289978,
0.4453887641429901,
0.275626003742218,
0.3639214038848877,
-0.6602374315261841,
-0.2657943665981293,
-0.011379127390682697,
-0.41702747344970703,
-0.9005720615386963,
0.11304114013910294,
0.13856571912765503,
0.23078982532024384,
-0.5473054051399231,
-0.5910663604736328,
0.11235947161912918,
0.425852507352829,
0.8001067042350769,
0.23926857113838196,
-0.22670957446098328,
0.3651650846004486,
-0.3172943890094757,
0.35825806856155396,
0.16159912943840027,
-0.29621878266334534,
-0.20735806226730347,
0.22799859941005707,
-0.05296152085065842,
-0.45507457852363586,
-0.18026040494441986,
-0.19475151598453522,
0.5199021697044373,
-0.08304990082979202,
-0.20636147260665894,
-0.30391401052474976,
-0.4380057752132416,
-0.030060168355703354,
-0.5189601182937622,
-0.06758327037096024,
0.44639071822166443,
0.08219259977340698,
-0.8403489589691162,
-0.5008079409599304,
0.2660089433193207,
0.11851558089256287,
-0.04805746674537659,
-0.655139148235321,
-0.29401227831840515,
0.8527793288230896,
-1.0413504838943481,
0.382796972990036,
0.5204534530639648,
-0.9454649686813354,
0.42617082595825195,
0.7684126496315002,
-0.08457714319229126,
0.7945818901062012,
-0.14621315896511078,
-0.5051180124282837,
0.21557645499706268,
0.19172850251197815,
-0.042271871119737625,
-0.24898038804531097,
0.3125383257865906,
-0.16745269298553467,
-0.2721431851387024,
-0.7039110064506531,
-0.40796416997909546,
-0.7718189358711243,
-0.538252592086792,
-0.3954678177833557,
-0.8875062465667725,
0.41373151540756226,
0.44850462675094604,
-0.6817353367805481,
0.3420775830745697,
-0.4216269850730896,
0.008536957204341888,
0.4838952422142029,
0.44253671169281006,
0.5189881324768066,
-0.49943235516548157,
-0.1663629114627838,
-0.28527453541755676,
0.5398425459861755,
-0.038769643753767014,
0.32002028822898865,
0.42361539602279663,
0.5909028053283691,
-0.1843123584985733,
0.19880728423595428,
0.25719326734542847,
0.4231710433959961,
-0.12342986464500427,
-0.36023208498954773,
-0.6380576491355896,
0.14355497062206268,
-0.45849207043647766,
-0.061081014573574066,
0.039044443517923355,
-0.3506127595901489,
0.7454792857170105,
-0.8316023349761963,
-0.06887472420930862,
-0.3758341670036316,
-0.42988672852516174,
0.12464781105518341,
-0.3480221927165985,
0.23606064915657043,
-0.23989173769950867,
0.2267536073923111,
0.2777031660079956,
0.23722073435783386,
-0.030749639496207237,
-0.677847146987915,
0.05543362721800804,
-0.29133519530296326,
0.296915203332901,
0.12271575629711151,
0.22876623272895813,
0.3881433308124542,
-0.2644226551055908,
0.10048943012952805,
-0.4387342929840088,
-0.5218186378479004,
-0.07569808512926102,
-0.17386165261268616,
-0.4250338077545166,
0.48883140087127686,
-0.5874898433685303,
-0.17545847594738007,
0.034622885286808014,
-0.5189054012298584,
-0.141639843583107,
-0.3246123194694519,
-0.34143272042274475,
0.20304059982299805,
-0.13758443295955658,
0.3228258192539215,
-0.5070429444313049,
0.09183026105165482,
0.10847108066082001,
0.24568921327590942,
0.14245136082172394,
0.27801573276519775,
-0.23676392436027527,
-0.611244261264801,
-0.3450958728790283,
0.5137964487075806,
0.2897033095359802,
-0.07320228964090347,
-0.08268404752016068,
0.595426619052887,
-0.025077734142541885,
-0.2675466537475586,
0.11203630268573761,
-0.30586281418800354,
-0.01405174471437931,
-0.1567293256521225,
-0.16827870905399323,
0.7093107104301453,
-0.31881779432296753,
0.1400144249200821,
0.6917237639427185,
-0.28953391313552856,
0.004732269328087568,
0.5543261170387268,
-0.23044432699680328,
-0.3005686402320862,
0.0934605523943901,
-0.2068457305431366,
-0.6316037178039551,
0.8160179853439331,
-0.3852699398994446,
0.526442289352417,
0.7790784239768982,
0.46905308961868286,
0.5097742080688477,
0.4380176365375519,
-0.010580194182693958,
0.33278578519821167,
0.19579505920410156,
-0.2304178774356842,
0.029352158308029175,
-0.5051164031028748,
0.020723503082990646,
0.8808557391166687,
0.3837955594062805,
-0.03437985107302666,
0.04330269992351532,
0.3908941149711609,
-0.16938996315002441,
0.36690422892570496,
0.6700783967971802,
0.1383100152015686,
-0.09991056472063065,
-0.057373058050870895,
-0.2236393690109253,
0.40378955006599426,
-0.011596210300922394,
-0.5057133436203003,
0.545752763748169,
0.31461334228515625,
0.2924003601074219,
-0.5572683215141296,
-0.19694431126117706,
0.21071824431419373,
-0.3367498219013214,
-0.430733323097229,
0.32740500569343567,
0.6828518509864807,
0.026441695168614388,
0.3195810317993164,
-0.39174237847328186,
-0.34486517310142517,
0.0051954761147499084,
0.2719326317310333,
0.2119062840938568,
0.23224607110023499,
-0.12102960050106049,
0.18037527799606323,
0.6781547665596008,
0.7579297423362732,
-0.09446250647306442,
0.023851292207837105,
-0.2552490532398224,
0.11845100671052933,
-0.2933734953403473,
0.23217995464801788,
-0.5832335352897644,
0.15746192634105682,
-0.12991075217723846,
0.6258952617645264,
-0.3812549412250519,
-0.12211893498897552,
0.29755276441574097,
-0.8215116262435913,
0.42959854006767273,
-0.7131631970405579,
-0.22172710299491882,
-0.19678175449371338,
-0.7070022225379944,
0.27670687437057495,
-0.16834384202957153,
0.8703160881996155,
-0.3183196485042572,
-0.006321619264781475,
0.07472368329763412,
0.44019895792007446,
-0.18560589849948883,
0.832567572593689,
-0.7580375671386719,
0.41814833879470825,
-0.5237049460411072,
-0.11442361027002335,
-0.8676655888557434,
0.08334477990865707,
0.2753324806690216,
-0.044540584087371826,
0.2409026026725769,
-0.5605728030204773,
-0.03759380057454109,
-0.321180522441864,
0.6057677865028381,
0.029454752802848816,
0.564825713634491,
-0.7553902268409729,
0.1492694765329361,
-0.2641655504703522,
-0.2477206438779831,
0.6036891341209412,
0.05161389335989952,
-0.31774622201919556,
0.21155494451522827,
0.3663020133972168,
-0.36984115839004517,
0.1765456199645996,
-0.23822835087776184,
0.40134572982788086,
0.03618476539850235,
0.09871221333742142,
0.16304656863212585,
0.2515176832675934,
0.28178340196609497,
0.7456591129302979,
0.2211158722639084,
0.021065786480903625,
-0.038385480642318726,
-0.17574934661388397,
-0.3541679084300995,
0.5158033967018127,
-0.20198528468608856,
-0.10481710731983185,
-0.025440150871872902,
-0.4097144305706024,
-0.2372560203075409,
0.37867942452430725,
0.21305400133132935,
-0.6817036271095276,
-0.12357363104820251,
-0.11824027448892593,
-0.3534824848175049,
0.6427120566368103,
0.1013663038611412,
-0.3796411454677582,
0.3667348027229309,
-0.10689894109964371
] |
261029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy%20Pimental | Nancy Pimental | Nancy Marie Pimental (born May 31, 1965) is an American actress and film and television writer.
Early life and education
Born in Boston, Massachusetts, and of Portuguese descent, Pimental graduated from Somerset High School in 1983 and Worcester Polytechnic Institute in 1987. At WPI, she was a member of the Phi Sigma Sigma sorority and completed a degree in chemical engineering.
Career
From 1998 to 2001, Pimental was one of the writers of South Park. In 2002, she wrote the script for the film The Sweetest Thing, which has been described as "the forerunner to films like Bridesmaids and Girls Trip."
Replacing Jimmy Kimmel, she served as co-host of the Comedy Central game show Win Ben Stein's Money from 2000 to 2002.
In 2010, Pimental joined the staff of the Showtime dramedy Shameless (U.S. version) as a writer and producer, and later as an executive producer.
Personal life
Pimental is the best friend of actress Kate Walsh of Grey's Anatomy and Private Practice.
Filmography
Actress
(818) (2008)
Prey for Rock & Roll (2003)
Dumb and Dumberer: When Harry Met Lloyd (2003)
Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star (2003)
The Sweetest Thing (Uncredited, 2002)
Writer
The Mick (2017)
Bad Girls (2012)
Shameless (2011–2021)
The Sweetest Thing (2002)
South Park (25 episodes, 1998–2001)
References
External links
1965 births
American film actresses
Screenwriters from Massachusetts
American game show hosts
Living people
Actresses from Massachusetts
Worcester Polytechnic Institute alumni
People from Somerset, Massachusetts
American women screenwriters
American women television writers
American television writers
21st-century American women | [
-0.40376341342926025,
-0.2552226781845093,
-0.5471776127815247,
-0.10309819132089615,
0.4540831446647644,
0.8988271355628967,
0.43893444538116455,
0.4319804310798645,
-0.34377560019493103,
0.18240858614444733,
-0.09455294162034988,
0.7151607871055603,
0.2867899239063263,
0.1588703840970993,
-0.29351717233657837,
0.5874801278114319,
0.3737407624721527,
0.4167918860912323,
-0.6293813586235046,
-0.6175732016563416,
-0.4437195360660553,
-0.42554721236228943,
0.1321091651916504,
0.3507230877876282,
-0.7423573732376099,
1.120199203491211,
-0.057451020926237106,
0.5269370079040527,
0.2674712836742401,
0.06540890038013458,
-0.06517179310321808,
-0.10886745899915695,
0.42803576588630676,
-0.37348049879074097,
-0.2981950640678406,
0.5920634865760803,
-0.06010950729250908,
0.26000306010246277,
-0.3180899918079376,
0.18200762569904327,
-0.023209068924188614,
0.3693883419036865,
-0.21597664058208466,
-0.16931159794330597,
-0.2312890887260437,
-0.5540279746055603,
-1.8160916566848755,
0.2853991389274597,
-0.6631173491477966,
-0.4994868040084839,
-0.19816622138023376,
0.41801512241363525,
0.946120023727417,
-0.12709975242614746,
0.3527383804321289,
-0.024308601394295692,
-0.29475560784339905,
-0.21469992399215698,
0.26691195368766785,
-0.018523160368204117,
-0.08254840970039368,
-0.3006401062011719,
0.05825796350836754,
-0.8652326464653015,
-0.14675484597682953,
0.13595923781394958,
0.6286026239395142,
0.03955906629562378,
0.13161112368106842,
-0.6716154217720032,
0.3965551257133484,
0.6043292880058289,
0.6261470317840576,
-0.2183474749326706,
-0.04634258896112442,
0.031997356563806534,
0.46466851234436035,
-0.11788614839315414,
-0.06669916212558746,
0.24717922508716583,
0.0735851377248764,
0.19585922360420227,
0.5625212788581848,
0.42430436611175537,
0.22232557833194733,
-0.22534379363059998,
-0.10613701492547989,
0.4766651391983032,
-0.19014039635658264,
0.2886560559272766,
-0.8283548951148987,
-0.3656650483608246,
0.05974994972348213,
0.35047271847724915,
0.28867214918136597,
-0.4879539906978607,
-0.08865207433700562,
0.05577556788921356,
0.4382895827293396,
0.02099522575736046,
-0.39119431376457214,
-0.05355424806475639,
0.14551076292991638,
-0.7666021585464478,
-0.5920072793960571,
-0.08934012055397034,
0.09863732755184174,
-0.21491219103336334,
-0.6660358905792236,
0.015826141461730003,
-0.46803566813468933,
-0.08857742697000504,
-0.25781431794166565,
0.10231718420982361,
-0.14817094802856445,
0.6408500075340271,
0.394727498292923,
0.10194376856088638,
-0.8290854692459106,
0.2992784380912781,
-0.03445927053689957,
0.0368901751935482,
0.19178159534931183,
0.25322574377059937,
-0.17020905017852783,
0.3897489905357361,
0.09899242967367172,
0.0835517942905426,
-0.11119387298822403,
0.27894675731658936,
0.05392058566212654,
0.84515380859375,
-0.6228833198547363,
-0.4779447615146637,
0.1673223078250885,
-0.36483168601989746,
0.08594566583633423,
0.22833020985126495,
0.1523490697145462,
-0.21556249260902405,
-0.4079781770706177,
0.05302648991346359,
-0.7896924614906311,
-0.35347694158554077,
0.6115688681602478,
-0.1240619570016861,
0.008475999347865582,
0.056929685175418854,
-0.2252623587846756,
0.04049580544233322,
-0.4296296536922455,
-0.05085449665784836,
0.3413369059562683,
-1.0015085935592651,
-0.14462591707706451,
0.019247617572546005,
0.5959654450416565,
-0.058185748755931854,
-0.2768770158290863,
-0.02212098054587841,
0.6343671083450317,
0.09120528399944305,
-0.32015055418014526,
-0.42636874318122864,
0.5383695363998413,
0.23433075845241547,
0.2559904456138611,
-0.4085249900817871,
0.39548853039741516,
0.514370858669281,
-0.21226391196250916,
0.05261822044849396,
0.19388094544410706,
-0.24809788167476654,
-0.4482092261314392,
0.3849749267101288,
0.030226275324821472,
0.5289331674575806,
-0.6637678742408752,
0.00445101922377944,
-0.3907206356525421,
-0.2089690864086151,
-0.2861163020133972,
0.183291956782341,
0.6690478324890137,
-0.14371980726718903,
0.1763218492269516,
-0.27212730050086975,
0.6126577854156494,
0.09607487171888351,
-0.7921549081802368,
-0.09249391406774521,
0.6047759056091309,
-0.08331817388534546,
0.46933871507644653,
-0.13508012890815735,
-0.330941379070282,
0.5507744550704956,
0.2777024805545807,
0.20342235267162323,
-0.4794286787509918,
-0.5383625626564026,
0.17690356075763702,
0.15447205305099487,
-0.5182147026062012,
0.5436457991600037,
0.9259865283966064,
0.3522399663925171,
0.13304109871387482,
0.4560714066028595,
-0.01991758495569229,
-0.6062554121017456,
0.44863206148147583,
0.7827052474021912,
-0.34501180052757263,
-0.4764010012149811,
-0.6856092810630798,
-0.24078887701034546,
0.4983259439468384,
-0.7551291584968567,
0.09710956364870071,
0.249664768576622,
0.25018906593322754,
0.06960317492485046,
-0.6102074980735779,
0.8145996928215027,
-0.05834709107875824,
0.03179587796330452,
0.9156497120857239,
-0.05307092145085335,
-0.0021215612068772316,
0.3839106559753418,
-0.05489577725529671,
-0.8613524436950684,
-0.35077330470085144,
0.10078474134206772,
0.5072999596595764,
-0.41074231266975403,
0.025031257420778275,
-0.7055607438087463,
0.11051321774721146,
0.5220319032669067,
-0.8395207524299622,
-0.048234935849905014,
-0.1357477307319641,
0.022931620478630066,
-0.0011375612812116742,
-0.1452500969171524,
0.0869436115026474,
0.14906927943229675,
0.030391059815883636,
0.3555433452129364,
0.3388954997062683,
0.08715737611055374,
0.10229591280221939,
-0.13131430745124817,
-0.30218932032585144,
0.266884446144104,
0.9917310476303101,
0.31400975584983826,
0.17296741902828217,
0.0847788155078888,
-0.15673702955245972,
-0.3061048686504364,
-0.5264320969581604,
0.018167054280638695,
0.05340230464935303,
-0.6194795370101929,
0.04065980017185211,
0.13945427536964417,
-0.15491127967834473,
-0.21740403771400452,
-0.2668907940387726,
-0.2532498240470886,
0.2979978621006012,
0.4539218842983246,
-0.29820191860198975,
0.19569136202335358,
-0.4920683801174164,
-0.6403061151504517,
0.36871156096458435,
0.70023512840271,
-0.05571018159389496,
-0.5189644694328308,
-0.08822878450155258,
-0.23871813714504242,
0.03501811996102333,
0.028234107419848442,
-0.8330880999565125,
-0.10050860792398453,
-0.19992609322071075,
-0.05640501528978348,
-0.41166597604751587,
0.6252210736274719,
0.02077491208910942,
0.0755801722407341,
-0.1875879317522049,
0.3894706964492798,
0.06828674674034119,
0.030618855729699135,
-0.010817078873515129,
0.6046252846717834,
-0.04090290889143944,
0.3220764994621277,
0.08614098280668259,
0.6719809174537659,
-0.3054397702217102,
-0.5769391059875488,
-5.617434978485107,
-0.1757938414812088,
0.06283174455165863,
0.08715732395648956,
0.27150386571884155,
-0.239988312125206,
0.24543793499469757,
-0.21164129674434662,
0.4792673885822296,
0.5009787678718567,
0.05475427210330963,
0.041701387614011765,
-0.3506579101085663,
0.3072489798069,
0.41163501143455505,
0.16341747343540192,
-0.13024435937404633,
-0.7581911087036133,
-0.0657450258731842,
0.9471642971038818,
0.17022547125816345,
0.034865602850914,
-0.39810022711753845,
-0.04838038980960846,
-0.1945323944091797,
0.17119315266609192,
-0.561130702495575,
0.2991531789302826,
-0.7594314813613892,
-0.13654975593090057,
0.0017759059555828571,
-0.16378219425678253,
-0.7148439884185791,
0.005651828367263079,
-0.4575174152851105,
0.12375578284263611,
0.6042127013206482,
-0.2658277451992035,
0.24500901997089386,
-0.38209959864616394,
-0.32999488711357117,
0.20373333990573883,
-0.6619790196418762,
-0.3241264224052429,
0.44576331973075867,
-0.0844113901257515,
-0.7809270620346069,
-0.9596952795982361,
0.0950104370713234,
0.565232515335083,
0.39062589406967163,
0.35327616333961487,
0.5202974677085876,
0.17837698757648468,
0.5705045461654663,
-0.247991144657135,
0.47612762451171875,
0.09218567609786987,
-1.1226725578308105,
-0.1552458256483078,
0.14315937459468842,
-0.13512253761291504,
0.09846717864274979,
-0.4320570230484009,
-0.10242266952991486,
-0.09559328854084015,
0.13169069588184357,
0.3213682770729065,
-0.11597634851932526,
-0.8023580312728882,
-0.039542507380247116,
-0.11702204495668411,
0.14953282475471497,
-1.2293827533721924,
0.33168622851371765,
-0.5393372178077698,
0.15540796518325806,
0.2415522187948227,
-1.0836938619613647,
-0.696618378162384,
0.35329586267471313,
-0.6260589361190796,
0.6049643158912659,
0.6133338809013367,
0.5624697804450989,
-0.1225755512714386,
0.062789186835289,
-0.0650964081287384,
-0.061526551842689514,
-0.04206822067499161,
-0.16479191184043884,
-0.07204575091600418,
-0.17376217246055603,
0.6719443202018738,
0.34754887223243713,
0.48663008213043213,
0.8570416569709778,
0.530482292175293,
0.10410016775131226,
-0.08876897394657135,
-0.2817733883857727,
-0.8044936060905457,
0.4321308434009552,
-0.601622998714447,
0.06806747615337372,
-0.09702835232019424,
0.43351078033447266,
-0.17602252960205078,
0.6307591199874878,
-0.8664577007293701,
-0.13282936811447144,
0.5850094556808472,
-0.42329850792884827,
0.2144409567117691,
0.1677880883216858,
0.052415911108255386,
-0.2817201316356659,
0.5010234117507935,
0.5127295851707458,
0.5284082889556885,
-0.041957736015319824,
0.3676583170890808,
-0.061772413551807404,
0.19490928947925568,
-0.2615619897842407,
-0.5476365089416504,
-0.2816053628921509,
0.027701040729880333,
0.29187026619911194,
0.4622229039669037,
-0.9953795075416565,
0.35023826360702515,
0.12115906178951263,
-0.08303806185722351,
0.28277191519737244,
-0.0201487485319376,
-0.608266294002533,
0.10737954825162888,
0.04473504424095154,
0.5737552642822266,
0.39043575525283813,
-0.4291899800300598,
-0.179071307182312,
0.32412949204444885,
0.2067604809999466,
-0.34698379039764404,
0.27409088611602783,
-0.12743321061134338,
-0.4760635495185852,
0.3450220227241516,
0.3896847367286682,
0.3447345197200775,
0.38635382056236267,
-0.4893159568309784,
-0.44052863121032715,
-0.014870640821754932,
-0.07260525226593018,
-0.029560640454292297,
0.3135312497615814,
0.11163613200187683,
0.2012200951576233,
-0.5425738096237183,
-0.816952645778656,
0.19198177754878998,
-0.17740362882614136,
-0.19919896125793457,
-0.2811533808708191,
-0.6047664880752563,
-0.8896055221557617,
0.4666019082069397,
0.19572888314723969,
-0.3905234634876251,
0.010949702002108097,
0.47486478090286255,
0.01166168786585331,
-0.19503015279769897,
0.04824238270521164,
-0.29646140336990356,
-0.2816339135169983,
0.41281214356422424,
-0.0031545732636004686,
-0.4796963334083557,
-0.4591004550457001,
-0.21054217219352722,
0.029872620478272438,
-0.2579498589038849,
-0.39192721247673035,
0.0009312526090070605,
-0.42711541056632996,
-0.009960293769836426,
-0.009928456507623196,
-0.053326986730098724,
-0.26405730843544006,
0.38652554154396057,
-0.7970008254051208,
0.13960430026054382,
0.19522885978221893,
-0.6092362999916077,
0.07753221690654755,
-0.024449262768030167,
-0.5596792697906494,
0.6995896100997925,
-0.8002592325210571,
0.18877463042736053,
0.5311540365219116,
-1.0113604068756104,
-0.569691002368927,
0.07838600128889084,
-0.307839959859848,
0.5458145141601562,
-0.31214678287506104,
0.40545275807380676,
0.33386901021003723,
-0.16760848462581635,
0.12857672572135925,
0.08716268092393875,
0.28128013014793396,
0.2587793171405792,
0.03738291561603546,
-0.5735227465629578,
-0.45121830701828003,
-0.9122732281684875,
0.07502151280641556,
-0.31637412309646606,
-0.5628965497016907,
0.2052648514509201,
0.591723620891571,
-0.39103928208351135,
0.6488548517227173,
0.16496343910694122,
-0.14076358079910278,
-0.0071078455075621605,
0.31720200181007385,
-0.22640129923820496,
-0.2946292459964752,
-0.5748946070671082,
-0.1698753982782364,
0.49447208642959595,
-0.2869569957256317,
0.2821780741214752,
0.6172187924385071,
0.5618837475776672,
-0.11269627511501312,
0.1613345444202423,
0.2931545376777649,
0.5558698177337646,
-0.034865882247686386,
-0.8156457543373108,
-0.380605012178421,
0.21340909600257874,
0.436428427696228,
-0.045730043202638626,
-0.5450329184532166,
-0.02873995155096054,
0.5725312232971191,
-0.7152791023254395,
0.2575618326663971,
-0.309079110622406,
0.2901379466056824,
-0.1525791585445404,
0.2388232797384262,
-0.6308557987213135,
-0.40462782979011536,
-0.012922906316816807,
-0.3326058089733124,
-0.12971258163452148,
0.13075828552246094,
-0.27832743525505066,
0.16777536273002625,
-0.4799835681915283,
0.0030645313672721386,
0.05049616098403931,
-0.15073393285274506,
0.7856822609901428,
-0.5017791390419006,
0.3916328251361847,
0.43596604466438293,
0.045433253049850464,
0.1840457320213318,
-0.43430349230766296,
0.24626809358596802,
0.7822876572608948,
-0.4745939075946808,
-0.3733697831630707,
0.2671545743942261,
-0.24330319464206696,
0.49042579531669617,
-0.2065451592206955,
-0.44660207629203796,
0.32917070388793945,
-0.3054351508617401,
0.5314695835113525,
-0.5003032684326172,
-0.1668654978275299,
0.056168247014284134,
-0.11664461344480515,
-0.4213921129703522,
0.8485363721847534,
0.055952288210392,
-0.19065558910369873,
-0.2589915692806244,
0.44005805253982544,
-0.0011485987342894077,
-0.3942127823829651,
-0.13742557168006897,
-0.3087913691997528,
-0.19295808672904968,
-0.6600313782691956,
-0.47893857955932617,
0.4006011486053467,
0.19092516601085663,
0.11020277440547943,
0.6029937863349915,
0.3710327744483948,
0.3005638122558594,
-0.041197068989276886,
0.6851243376731873,
-0.3590657413005829,
-0.30396440625190735,
0.1714053750038147,
-0.20561015605926514,
-0.012425103224813938,
0.5281060338020325,
-0.5910974740982056,
0.4251774847507477,
1.285700798034668,
0.35828959941864014,
0.170767679810524,
-0.23481163382530212,
0.5472875833511353,
0.2705094814300537,
-0.331783264875412,
0.45906543731689453,
0.15717947483062744,
0.21365931630134583,
-0.9326123595237732,
0.5523337721824646,
0.3196789622306824,
0.7858507037162781,
0.4435516595840454,
-0.28241705894470215,
0.5818628668785095,
-0.0045608109794557095,
0.13678067922592163,
-0.06219657510519028,
0.16453862190246582,
0.04287702962756157,
0.2925650477409363,
-0.10490316897630692,
-0.26377153396606445,
-0.04123364016413689,
0.3220546245574951,
0.03347112610936165,
-0.6918222904205322,
0.5603256225585938,
-0.31401675939559937,
0.24768184125423431,
-0.27987945079803467,
-0.25429800152778625,
-0.04597634822130203,
-0.3101778030395508,
-0.995624303817749,
0.8153603076934814,
0.6332945823669434,
-0.2459253966808319,
-0.36246147751808167,
-0.04645565524697304,
-0.5422086119651794,
-0.23684778809547424,
0.37458956241607666,
-0.0058839949779212475,
0.7677041292190552,
-0.4239565134048462,
0.7269551753997803,
0.27070239186286926,
0.15370923280715942,
0.32307329773902893,
-0.17420941591262817,
-0.14444144070148468,
-0.15184582769870758,
-0.41553354263305664,
0.14735551178455353,
-0.1374756097793579,
0.00008500349940732121,
0.49629613757133484,
0.009907091036438942,
0.28345760703086853,
0.31557318568229675,
0.36208289861679077,
-0.1218840479850769,
0.7119136452674866,
-0.885255753993988,
-0.267964243888855,
0.20977304875850677,
-0.4111925959587097,
0.3933882415294647,
-0.10037405043840408,
0.8678720593452454,
0.385189950466156,
0.3011820912361145,
0.23111602663993835,
0.5796889662742615,
0.2827853262424469,
0.530952513217926,
-0.3177371323108673,
-0.06101694703102112,
-0.05725973844528198,
0.10832995176315308,
-1.0264379978179932,
-0.511933445930481,
0.5739162564277649,
-0.03364552557468414,
-0.1033734530210495,
-0.1582709401845932,
-0.0035651640500873327,
0.5040373206138611,
0.2961197793483734,
0.6056860685348511,
0.20563216507434845,
-0.21752148866653442,
-0.21921926736831665,
0.2551861107349396,
0.3150351047515869,
0.18731997907161713,
-0.04392913728952408,
0.3080708682537079,
-0.28730177879333496,
-0.36666595935821533,
0.31871432065963745,
-0.08425258100032806,
-0.2880168855190277,
0.6181169748306274,
-0.0020039326045662165,
0.37586286664009094,
-0.3192697763442993,
-0.4322963356971741,
0.4353567659854889,
0.5884383916854858,
0.6378253698348999,
-0.419777512550354,
0.09014983475208282,
-0.08244261890649796,
-0.34641751646995544,
-0.0702824592590332,
-1.0454928874969482,
0.024208461865782738,
-0.14582405984401703,
-0.12921637296676636,
0.14936715364456177,
-0.025555407628417015,
-0.3042016923427582,
-0.38183724880218506,
-0.05590111017227173,
-0.8180531859397888,
-0.4464481770992279,
0.005143239628523588,
-0.01799590326845646,
-0.1568111777305603,
0.4649125337600708,
-0.019107701256871223
] |
261032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wise | Wise | Wise, as a word, refers to someone with wisdom.
Wise may also refer to:
People
Wise (surname)
Wise (composer), also known as Wise da' Gangsta, a reggaeton producer/songwriter
Wise (rapper) (born 1979), Japanese hip hop artist
Wise (Stetsasonic), real name Leonardo Roman, a hip hop artist known as 'Wise' from the group 'Stetsasonic'
Rhett Wiseman, nicknamed "Wise" (born 1994), American professional baseball player
Places
Wise, North Carolina
Wise, Virginia
Wana, West Virginia, also known as Wise
Wise County, Texas
Wise County, Virginia
Wise River, Montana
Wise Township, Michigan
Businesses
Wise (company), a London-based financial services company
Wise Foods, Inc., a snack food manufacturer
Wise Solutions, an American software company that made the Wise software installation package
Wise Stores, a Canadian department store, mainly in Quebec
World Institute of Scientology Enterprises, a Church of Scientology organization headquartered in Los Angeles, California
Other uses
Wise, showing wisdom: good judgement or the benefit of experience
Wise Observatory, an astronomical observatory owned and operated by Tel Aviv University
See also
List of people known as the Wise
Weis (disambiguation)
Weiss (disambiguation)
Weisz
Weiz
WISE (disambiguation)
Wiseman (disambiguation)
Wyse (disambiguation) | [
0.3433213531970978,
0.14051783084869385,
-0.44268396496772766,
0.17377817630767822,
-0.06319789588451385,
-0.03308577463030815,
0.34748488664627075,
0.2871110439300537,
-0.00044300651643425226,
-0.5142196416854858,
-0.681381106376648,
0.7794936895370483,
0.32588744163513184,
0.14240430295467377,
-0.5217869281768799,
0.0670468732714653,
0.2801702320575714,
0.6990561485290527,
-0.2455386221408844,
-0.22565707564353943,
-0.17427802085876465,
0.30693697929382324,
-0.029046237468719482,
-0.5457534790039062,
0.2944926619529724,
0.2270592451095581,
0.07864119112491608,
-0.12494539469480515,
0.012307588942348957,
-0.21684794127941132,
0.08785272389650345,
0.21371036767959595,
-0.14051832258701324,
0.23107865452766418,
-0.13161292672157288,
-0.0678929015994072,
0.21963892877101898,
-0.03857205808162689,
-0.1823451966047287,
-0.4307442307472229,
0.3044748306274414,
0.12109759449958801,
0.3877415060997009,
0.7533430457115173,
-0.634975016117096,
-0.7156246304512024,
-2.1335220336914062,
0.2441384643316269,
-0.3200473189353943,
-0.10100185871124268,
-0.2800283432006836,
-0.20954175293445587,
0.3626752495765686,
0.16025729477405548,
-0.2845035791397095,
0.7035130858421326,
-0.13527479767799377,
0.08445776253938675,
0.48698776960372925,
-0.19486099481582642,
0.15496134757995605,
-0.19819103181362152,
-0.036682840436697006,
0.017943372949957848,
0.23389370739459991,
0.12418517470359802,
-0.11264372617006302,
-0.02770177088677883,
-0.2384648472070694,
0.033578213304281235,
-0.2391863763332367,
-0.23930837213993073,
-0.10957388579845428,
0.1809988021850586,
-0.7775453329086304,
-0.06267628073692322,
0.048577528446912766,
-0.061882853507995605,
0.3542833626270294,
-0.2928292751312256,
-0.3618786931037903,
0.4264555275440216,
0.07350751012563705,
-0.17333479225635529,
-0.056725744158029556,
0.21370340883731842,
0.06604447215795517,
0.40105780959129333,
-0.5798140168190002,
0.6864911913871765,
0.33268415927886963,
-0.21562428772449493,
0.48233065009117126,
0.02572094462811947,
0.025680985301733017,
-0.10406126827001572,
0.24672774970531464,
-0.211880624294281,
0.026763537898659706,
0.17845657467842102,
0.103327676653862,
-0.06911831349134445,
0.4731076955795288,
-0.6274424195289612,
-0.1807861477136612,
-0.24441659450531006,
-0.08453796058893204,
-0.5806873440742493,
-0.12115104496479034,
-0.3198709785938263,
-0.46794697642326355,
0.7081368565559387,
-0.2903422713279724,
0.2736617922782898,
-0.3405938148498535,
0.43834930658340454,
0.18781593441963196,
0.07505524903535843,
-0.25657975673675537,
0.0978410467505455,
0.1519164741039276,
0.4340733587741852,
0.006046642083674669,
-0.2967235743999481,
0.22034431993961334,
-0.021931642666459084,
-0.1018742024898529,
0.5795901417732239,
-0.2269708812236786,
-0.3882066607475281,
0.10958297550678253,
0.15212926268577576,
-0.2375725954771042,
-0.17338232696056366,
-0.43755990266799927,
0.1398288458585739,
0.4773423969745636,
-0.06621605902910233,
0.0324343703687191,
0.21672716736793518,
-0.5869819521903992,
-0.3845003843307495,
-1.0625888109207153,
-0.12871599197387695,
0.8774425983428955,
0.004670679569244385,
0.5123568773269653,
-0.28542467951774597,
-0.06875898689031601,
0.36461225152015686,
-0.28708964586257935,
0.34643086791038513,
-0.0666528195142746,
-0.014536208473145962,
-0.06677741557359695,
0.03446435555815697,
0.13954639434814453,
-0.31558871269226074,
0.15428481996059418,
-0.05822092294692993,
-0.2974490821361542,
-0.1714291125535965,
-0.09479057043790817,
-0.3922986686229706,
-0.09908349066972733,
-0.5403807759284973,
0.31037232279777527,
0.10501234978437424,
0.17088738083839417,
0.584264874458313,
-0.19980493187904358,
0.26127007603645325,
-0.19947345554828644,
0.007355945650488138,
0.15758153796195984,
0.045665156096220016,
0.14895594120025635,
0.12275039404630661,
0.387859046459198,
-0.19110563397407532,
-0.5495132207870483,
-0.18372251093387604,
-0.10571393370628357,
-0.2752665877342224,
0.5381343364715576,
-0.27710437774658203,
-0.05884069576859474,
0.4861792325973511,
0.5952216386795044,
-0.011061062105000019,
-0.3435536026954651,
-0.313789963722229,
0.1923828125,
-0.3076682984828949,
0.9749513864517212,
-0.2828297019004822,
-0.05941932275891304,
0.8302875757217407,
0.07972826063632965,
0.39704978466033936,
0.24600493907928467,
-0.37316328287124634,
-0.35566243529319763,
-0.06703761219978333,
-0.2495599240064621,
1.2875126600265503,
0.39727503061294556,
0.14792963862419128,
0.1742846965789795,
0.2023726999759674,
0.13225382566452026,
0.1487603485584259,
0.4292713701725006,
-0.6000564098358154,
-0.055014923214912415,
0.4756397008895874,
-0.38190552592277527,
0.43417131900787354,
-0.29676955938339233,
0.017707528546452522,
0.9130534529685974,
-0.08499184250831604,
0.010593397542834282,
0.4660913348197937,
0.1075626015663147,
0.49571770429611206,
0.16558796167373657,
0.1972675770521164,
0.036399804055690765,
-0.5882118344306946,
0.06492171436548233,
-0.3127317428588867,
0.28159093856811523,
0.11307516694068909,
-0.3506707549095154,
-0.2056780755519867,
-0.0030964079778641462,
-0.2213420271873474,
0.6630342602729797,
-0.45925238728523254,
-0.20043422281742096,
-0.13263064622879028,
-0.2049890011548996,
0.4534352421760559,
0.22027483582496643,
0.35549601912498474,
-0.23410136997699738,
0.19645066559314728,
-0.20348607003688812,
-0.08726217597723007,
0.1808740198612213,
-0.14686469733715057,
0.6058618426322937,
0.20785382390022278,
0.1762445569038391,
-0.4815296530723572,
-0.5123922228813171,
0.10916291922330856,
0.37030962109565735,
0.028901461511850357,
-0.1768355518579483,
0.09925838559865952,
0.21112695336341858,
-0.2587639093399048,
0.09289096295833588,
0.21145355701446533,
-0.10110395401716232,
-0.4012736678123474,
0.35675033926963806,
0.12967298924922943,
0.1783536970615387,
0.28457048535346985,
-0.3984484374523163,
-0.8296673893928528,
-0.1718466579914093,
-0.6775272488594055,
0.596129834651947,
0.2219085991382599,
-0.06966797262430191,
-0.3152424395084381,
-0.018720412626862526,
0.40648719668388367,
0.5467461943626404,
-0.40245509147644043,
-0.18619246780872345,
-0.8203603625297546,
-0.21258264780044556,
-0.43371081352233887,
-0.08835361897945404,
-0.215939000248909,
-0.5373255610466003,
0.27345341444015503,
0.007035073824226856,
-0.11790436506271362,
0.802564263343811,
0.3352035880088806,
0.14581453800201416,
-0.03627893701195717,
0.008945373818278313,
-0.17864789068698883,
0.25900998711586,
0.21422480046749115,
-0.02289644256234169,
-0.020470548421144485,
-0.0762772411108017,
0.27904024720191956,
-0.18502052128314972,
0.1547705978155136,
-6.019988536834717,
0.13530556857585907,
-0.26052892208099365,
-0.4100324511528015,
0.1739187240600586,
-0.3139624297618866,
0.6640467643737793,
-0.044057801365852356,
-0.1284458190202713,
-0.006476838607341051,
-0.1942659318447113,
0.25900015234947205,
0.24522362649440765,
0.3961978554725647,
0.6860873699188232,
0.44516655802726746,
0.40512925386428833,
0.2696641981601715,
-0.16687828302383423,
0.4726097285747528,
0.23856835067272186,
0.2749972939491272,
-0.32695838809013367,
0.8834429383277893,
0.17535752058029175,
-0.2978639602661133,
-0.20123304426670074,
0.22510012984275818,
-0.11196651309728622,
-0.20180776715278625,
0.07346992939710617,
0.10981083661317825,
-0.20492427051067352,
-0.38958117365837097,
0.12394455820322037,
0.23894979059696198,
0.7502845525741577,
0.27448806166648865,
0.3279143273830414,
-0.007425280753523111,
-0.44727933406829834,
0.4170428216457367,
0.41378718614578247,
-0.18851667642593384,
0.10305880755186081,
-0.06674490123987198,
-0.08597692102193832,
-0.08048801124095917,
-0.11023146659135818,
0.018535461276769638,
-0.3704685866832733,
-0.13913771510124207,
0.49830079078674316,
-0.038564085960388184,
0.5857869386672974,
0.0577838197350502,
0.8410143256187439,
0.21786613762378693,
-0.293478399515152,
-0.2645069658756256,
0.5230793356895447,
-0.32866179943084717,
0.5012071132659912,
-0.7452878355979919,
0.15542267262935638,
0.01872134767472744,
-0.26137542724609375,
-0.2101706862449646,
0.27032288908958435,
-0.04961293563246727,
-0.50938880443573,
0.36508122086524963,
0.3277723789215088,
-0.8123986721038818,
0.2806011438369751,
-0.07008159905672073,
-0.40697917342185974,
0.2807685136795044,
0.07730928063392639,
-0.1325751543045044,
-0.24671271443367004,
-0.11092545837163925,
-0.4635078012943268,
0.5375275015830994,
0.2925926446914673,
-0.21913492679595947,
0.23549310863018036,
0.024973472580313683,
-0.8083949089050293,
-0.20071960985660553,
0.775541365146637,
0.014261895790696144,
0.22548261284828186,
0.39747104048728943,
0.3943929076194763,
0.2572382986545563,
0.3009353578090668,
-0.18923722207546234,
0.3873629570007324,
-0.6135628819465637,
0.4696258008480072,
-0.14607103168964386,
0.3129485845565796,
-0.18004734814167023,
-0.13960808515548706,
-0.05624380335211754,
-0.16860097646713257,
0.619824230670929,
1.14601469039917,
-0.5767245292663574,
-0.12094669044017792,
0.2901553511619568,
-0.5152057409286499,
-0.15558403730392456,
0.3107701539993286,
0.333835244178772,
-0.3394210636615753,
0.5425229668617249,
0.3007862865924835,
0.39122965931892395,
0.08259428292512894,
0.4600771963596344,
-0.21674612164497375,
-0.1812894344329834,
-0.7860729098320007,
-0.4424801766872406,
-0.31287825107574463,
-0.24006909132003784,
-0.21246182918548584,
0.11271736770868301,
0.9270922541618347,
0.39820724725723267,
0.3785650134086609,
-0.2078535109758377,
-0.10397566109895706,
-0.2249443382024765,
0.09188389033079147,
0.1400236338376999,
-0.7392071485519409,
-0.7236524820327759,
-0.06983715295791626,
-0.19451408088207245,
0.03971175104379654,
0.2471141219139099,
0.5118615031242371,
-0.05569813773036003,
-0.148225337266922,
0.19308078289031982,
-0.3298364281654358,
0.8010979294776917,
0.20199443399906158,
0.0038061519153416157,
0.22897115349769592,
-0.3377942442893982,
0.1967499852180481,
0.12000058591365814,
-0.22698745131492615,
-0.05387495085597038,
0.13601407408714294,
-0.3507082462310791,
-0.19889290630817413,
-0.4560447335243225,
-0.8033139109611511,
0.17530670762062073,
0.3709888458251953,
-0.1626748889684677,
-0.6443512439727783,
-0.19869619607925415,
-0.024531517177820206,
0.6166008710861206,
0.330825537443161,
0.42446503043174744,
-0.8629350066184998,
-0.6679623126983643,
0.1563037633895874,
0.07771115750074387,
0.21148917078971863,
0.301459938287735,
-0.312080442905426,
-0.043482497334480286,
0.5053590536117554,
-0.5024997591972351,
-0.009692810475826263,
-0.20961888134479523,
0.34715330600738525,
-0.43861034512519836,
-0.022010117769241333,
-0.13471877574920654,
-0.38041868805885315,
-0.20753981173038483,
0.10355689376592636,
-0.012515776790678501,
0.19685259461402893,
-0.12017840892076492,
0.13090024888515472,
0.008277148008346558,
0.5167019963264465,
0.002724601188674569,
-0.38161611557006836,
-0.1956430822610855,
0.11855246871709824,
0.023758145049214363,
-0.8161063194274902,
0.10418184846639633,
0.35896021127700806,
-0.6770983338356018,
0.3362870514392853,
-0.025354912504553795,
-0.2441009134054184,
0.4901605546474457,
-0.6866967678070068,
-0.29602891206741333,
-0.3760622441768646,
-0.3006838262081146,
0.09124862402677536,
-0.06961116939783096,
0.0667831152677536,
-0.17778941988945007,
-0.4255814254283905,
-0.8463448286056519,
0.38483843207359314,
-0.4966646730899811,
-0.13423772156238556,
-0.08367826044559479,
0.23504804074764252,
-0.36215415596961975,
0.30323612689971924,
-0.011369360610842705,
0.4870050847530365,
-0.14747025072574615,
-0.5117876529693604,
0.2637983560562134,
0.037116970866918564,
0.20486211776733398,
-0.5646228790283203,
0.02393927425146103,
-0.22035983204841614,
0.249291330575943,
-0.13444845378398895,
0.08655555546283722,
-0.004239390604197979,
0.8550593256950378,
-0.20320475101470947,
0.031096234917640686,
-0.5967788696289062,
0.23164135217666626,
-0.1800878942012787,
-0.11088832467794418,
-0.511214017868042,
-0.015292988158762455,
0.48646795749664307,
-0.1908068209886551,
-0.1844395101070404,
-0.3674492835998535,
0.4250337779521942,
-0.4236387610435486,
0.051013268530368805,
-0.12022721022367477,
0.18490144610404968,
0.0007336978451348841,
0.3064081370830536,
-0.4627552926540375,
-0.20319075882434845,
-0.016285540536046028,
0.09645605832338333,
-0.08869630098342896,
-0.49488365650177,
-0.17065469920635223,
0.2721950113773346,
-0.5153216123580933,
-0.03114313632249832,
-0.10853566974401474,
0.2713271975517273,
0.5566979646682739,
-0.033598825335502625,
-0.13644194602966309,
-0.480890154838562,
-0.21087169647216797,
-0.47871851921081543,
-0.20832768082618713,
0.35595884919166565,
0.288242906332016,
-0.000939792487770319,
-0.4136334955692291,
-0.09263214468955994,
-0.5629457831382751,
0.2305622398853302,
-0.13845358788967133,
-0.5568805932998657,
-0.3072134554386139,
-0.7321693301200867,
0.21261757612228394,
-0.3673805892467499,
0.4468708336353302,
-0.3246966600418091,
0.21646271646022797,
0.12945328652858734,
0.059821464121341705,
-0.1069941520690918,
-0.11471538245677948,
-0.3688111901283264,
0.1156042143702507,
0.45058685541152954,
-0.43468379974365234,
0.6916232705116272,
0.2729719877243042,
-0.16371159255504608,
-0.17825672030448914,
0.20069433748722076,
-0.2068323940038681,
-0.1253979355096817,
0.29493623971939087,
0.48572972416877747,
0.6188436150550842,
-0.20947255194187164,
-0.4409439265727997,
0.3456098437309265,
-0.3173372745513916,
-0.06680876016616821,
0.36872702836990356,
0.2910894751548767,
-0.5368241667747498,
0.28965917229652405,
-0.2145860195159912,
-0.08965475857257843,
0.5386958122253418,
-0.2370283454656601,
0.06403917074203491,
0.11311938613653183,
0.06117471307516098,
0.48653122782707214,
0.37539321184158325,
-0.055730272084474564,
-0.14891581237316132,
0.2189071774482727,
-0.42821040749549866,
0.1353803426027298,
-0.2677035331726074,
-0.4984000027179718,
0.5886617302894592,
0.48173293471336365,
0.05618782714009285,
0.173371359705925,
0.37599071860313416,
-0.502560019493103,
0.21525993943214417,
-0.04775002598762512,
0.8350341320037842,
-0.6778620481491089,
-0.12453142553567886,
0.23002885282039642,
-0.34788957238197327,
0.37881770730018616,
-0.36508989334106445,
-0.1339021623134613,
-0.21470780670642853,
0.3688869774341583,
-0.26802822947502136,
-0.40109097957611084,
-0.7748929262161255,
0.00911956187337637,
0.06007298082113266,
0.5038936138153076,
-0.342693954706192,
0.37533748149871826,
-0.10159189254045486,
-0.07710118591785431,
-0.8179501891136169,
0.24682539701461792,
0.3785005211830139,
-0.2307816594839096,
0.8034676313400269,
-0.3644801378250122,
0.3735884726047516,
0.17463648319244385,
0.14211495220661163,
0.21791405975818634,
0.09706708788871765,
0.037159111350774765,
0.07497365027666092,
0.10716196149587631,
-0.14414556324481964,
-0.23387978971004486,
-0.4089369773864746,
-0.016843117773532867,
0.23845021426677704,
0.11013947427272797,
0.6273015141487122,
-0.44305357336997986,
-0.2583235204219818,
0.19724944233894348,
-0.1746978610754013,
0.03442349657416344,
0.04844623804092407,
-0.22491241991519928,
0.37266460061073303,
-0.16098929941654205,
1.0964523553848267,
0.0065335421822965145,
-0.01189385261386633,
-0.18019826710224152,
-0.03608924522995949,
0.36867842078208923,
0.25047457218170166,
-0.36050817370414734,
-0.1233920007944107,
-0.3898819088935852,
-0.3476037383079529,
-0.5662479400634766,
0.11864040791988373,
0.7569582462310791,
-0.660453736782074,
0.12430378794670105,
0.05864081159234047,
0.259726345539093,
0.1867465227842331,
0.5913226008415222,
-0.059952512383461,
0.39874622225761414,
-0.24509206414222717,
0.03875353932380676,
0.09522362798452377,
0.10412491112947464,
0.579258918762207,
-0.20179927349090576,
0.05218390002846718,
0.03290906921029091,
0.38063177466392517,
-0.8415323495864868,
-0.11921630799770355,
-0.596158504486084,
-0.20039324462413788,
-0.44531795382499695,
0.586595356464386,
-0.01637215167284012,
-0.24150297045707703,
0.2470177412033081,
0.3957415223121643,
0.32011842727661133,
-0.12114769965410233,
-0.37444010376930237,
-0.2656627595424652,
0.12822020053863525,
0.13306114077568054,
-2.335622787475586,
0.08868071436882019,
-0.2723984122276306,
-0.37551257014274597,
0.05868794396519661,
0.44779422879219055,
0.10125862807035446,
-0.7160478830337524,
0.4116024374961853,
-0.16598762571811676,
-0.060130272060632706,
0.3461401164531708,
0.37037739157676697,
-0.30006200075149536,
0.060294054448604584,
0.3451327979564667
] |
261034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed%20%28disambiguation%29 | Bed (disambiguation) | A bed is a piece of furniture which is used as a place to sleep, rest, and relax.
Bed, beds or B.E.D. may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
Film and television
B.E.D. (film), a 2012 South Korean film
"Bed", an episode of Men Behaving Badly
The Bed (film), a 1954 French film
The Bed, a 1968 short film by James Broughton
Le Lit ('The Bed'), a 1982 drama film
Literature
Bed (short story collection), 2007, by Tao Lin
The Bed, a 1971 play by Sam Cree
Music
B.E.D. (duo), a Japanese music duo
Bed (album), 1998, by Juliana Hatfield
"Bed" (J. Holiday song), 2007
"Bed" (Nicki Minaj song), 2018
"Bed" (Joel Corry, Raye and David Guetta song), 2021
"B.E.D." (song), by Jacquees, 2016
"Beds", a 2007 song by Lil' Fizz
"The Bed", a song from the 1968 album Hair
Visual art
Bed, a 1955 painting by Robert Rauschenberg
Le Lit ('The Bed'), a c.1892 painting by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
The Bed, a 2008 installation by Will Ryman
Places
Bedfordshire, England, abbreviated Beds
Hanscom Field, an airport in Massachusetts, U.S., IATA airport code BED
Other uses
Bed (geology), a layer of sediment, sedimentary rock, or pyroclastic material
B.Ed., Bachelor of Education
Banana equivalent dose, informal unit of radiation exposure
Binge eating disorder
BED (file format), for genome information
See also
Bedding (disambiguation)
Bed, Bed, Bed, a book and EP package by They Might Be Giants | [
0.3635285496711731,
0.27140557765960693,
-0.1629132628440857,
0.1499440222978592,
0.18866084516048431,
-0.1639019399881363,
0.2635846436023712,
-0.12084691971540451,
-0.5076290965080261,
-0.49399352073669434,
-0.5523189306259155,
-0.31050431728363037,
-0.2676319181919098,
0.3937365710735321,
-0.25893449783325195,
0.5829957723617554,
0.6417055726051331,
0.23092931509017944,
0.0665038451552391,
-0.06508047133684158,
-0.10567682981491089,
0.1974203735589981,
-0.2979351282119751,
-0.2832677364349365,
0.145328089594841,
-0.04347848519682884,
0.06440375000238419,
0.2063436210155487,
0.2863098084926605,
-0.3567982017993927,
-0.11813732981681824,
0.12123685330152512,
0.2868591845035553,
-0.2096012681722641,
0.5690519213676453,
-0.01001205388456583,
0.0892941802740097,
-0.46934106945991516,
-0.3342232406139374,
-0.8670195937156677,
0.08811458200216293,
-0.23044849932193756,
0.18884629011154175,
0.23317942023277283,
-0.7231795787811279,
-0.36564144492149353,
-1.1861563920974731,
0.1721857786178589,
-0.6112825870513916,
-0.08123458921909332,
-0.1782510131597519,
0.17991043627262115,
0.4000679552555084,
0.3066815435886383,
0.11620029807090759,
0.3084028363227844,
-0.1403573453426361,
0.0944344699382782,
0.288024365901947,
-0.1950903832912445,
0.4860844314098358,
0.4283294975757599,
0.007660809438675642,
-0.20940135419368744,
0.09505146741867065,
0.0787120908498764,
0.11167343705892563,
-0.363320916891098,
-0.1111748069524765,
-0.08527059108018875,
-0.8428350687026978,
-0.2938522398471832,
-0.1554553061723709,
-0.03551855310797691,
-0.47942718863487244,
0.04553999379277229,
0.33505451679229736,
-0.7237551212310791,
0.4238620698451996,
-0.0625242292881012,
-0.7494916319847107,
0.7485808730125427,
0.13271841406822205,
-0.2077416181564331,
0.2780662178993225,
0.19709989428520203,
-0.37955161929130554,
0.517108678817749,
-0.21943049132823944,
0.4024357795715332,
0.44756126403808594,
0.08570436388254166,
0.6637933254241943,
-0.03549232333898544,
-0.1978524774312973,
-0.05614834651350975,
0.4481206238269806,
-0.06457611918449402,
0.07305778563022614,
-0.03528665378689766,
0.1164872869849205,
-0.25041961669921875,
0.6224121451377869,
-0.1592298150062561,
0.13609768450260162,
-0.6279518008232117,
-0.056171562522649765,
-0.21810367703437805,
-0.004706341307610273,
-0.25607597827911377,
-0.5042948126792908,
0.20501309633255005,
-0.052447520196437836,
0.22431758046150208,
-0.5068016052246094,
0.3387337625026703,
-0.048939261585474014,
0.45192980766296387,
-0.4024917483329773,
0.032722752541303635,
-0.242218479514122,
0.02317468822002411,
0.38836726546287537,
-0.3020193576812744,
0.2318030446767807,
-0.18709209561347961,
0.3725947141647339,
0.376027375459671,
-0.8383986353874207,
0.03816534951329231,
0.18372848629951477,
0.2018674612045288,
-0.20621389150619507,
0.3126758337020874,
-0.049759842455387115,
0.14020666480064392,
0.35464566946029663,
0.040314581245183945,
0.3471148610115051,
0.3460693061351776,
-0.6437288522720337,
-0.12364668399095535,
-0.5095258355140686,
-0.1305038034915924,
0.2006726861000061,
-0.3758373558521271,
0.21539084613323212,
-0.14373865723609924,
-0.5732012987136841,
0.13767781853675842,
-0.15723146498203278,
0.47382861375808716,
0.046528518199920654,
-0.13548672199249268,
-0.06577293574810028,
0.1723346710205078,
-0.04834570735692978,
-0.13301321864128113,
-0.14031851291656494,
-0.37704160809516907,
-0.09991641342639923,
0.19209212064743042,
-0.4169915020465851,
-0.21800146996974945,
-0.042886361479759216,
-0.4947344958782196,
0.10397561639547348,
0.483725368976593,
-0.03744164854288101,
0.7064480185508728,
-0.33068031072616577,
0.1528715044260025,
0.05368874594569206,
-0.02281668409705162,
-0.4798884093761444,
0.49643370509147644,
0.5865604877471924,
-0.15969346463680267,
0.46813637018203735,
0.30992576479911804,
-0.5898326635360718,
-0.11725632101297379,
0.3413839340209961,
-0.23494595289230347,
0.1600278913974762,
-0.2564520835876465,
0.14545589685440063,
0.033570077270269394,
0.20102335512638092,
-0.26934024691581726,
-0.46260425448417664,
-0.5506176948547363,
-0.09391055256128311,
-0.1994287073612213,
0.7449053525924683,
-0.44162821769714355,
-0.9726048707962036,
0.9154227375984192,
0.04590687155723572,
-0.3933674097061157,
0.006767449900507927,
0.4990067780017853,
-0.017735755071043968,
-0.22388459742069244,
-0.3407000005245209,
0.740548849105835,
-0.06551407277584076,
0.3868277072906494,
-0.44844427704811096,
-0.29886025190353394,
0.4352468252182007,
-0.3357386887073517,
0.7960101366043091,
-0.1764339804649353,
0.22731424868106842,
-0.05128844454884529,
-0.33773934841156006,
0.29141145944595337,
0.1966266632080078,
-0.5199292898178101,
0.5901668667793274,
-0.16870811581611633,
-0.29911327362060547,
0.3400852084159851,
-0.22723832726478577,
0.5605232119560242,
-0.11655863374471664,
0.24840211868286133,
0.5200530886650085,
-0.3713914155960083,
-0.35849809646606445,
-0.18283656239509583,
0.1589977890253067,
0.0769684910774231,
-0.506342887878418,
0.7453343868255615,
0.23219314217567444,
-0.15316444635391235,
0.34604206681251526,
0.060791898518800735,
-0.0797327533364296,
-0.20238541066646576,
0.011451968923211098,
-0.3353956937789917,
0.6355232000350952,
-0.20077699422836304,
-0.375810831785202,
0.5389638543128967,
-0.45186126232147217,
0.40803849697113037,
0.11873219907283783,
-0.0023527108132839203,
0.33332300186157227,
0.20279861986637115,
0.029324179515242577,
-0.30716371536254883,
-0.443320095539093,
0.11562894284725189,
0.13793493807315826,
0.04706628620624542,
-0.33331945538520813,
0.3489464819431305,
0.02069363184273243,
-0.2927478849887848,
-0.2311444729566574,
0.018486233428120613,
-0.060287367552518845,
-0.27497971057891846,
0.18027456104755402,
0.4695952832698822,
0.6324118971824646,
-0.08695025742053986,
-0.6825420260429382,
0.08384227007627487,
-0.37392961978912354,
-0.74172443151474,
0.8693508505821228,
0.03367307037115097,
-0.2118605524301529,
-0.5919422507286072,
0.2570987641811371,
-0.12426363676786423,
0.9317201972007751,
-0.36308959126472473,
-0.046835046261548996,
-0.5001847743988037,
0.4654402434825897,
0.11570730060338974,
-0.1211218386888504,
-0.005750979762524366,
0.0752384141087532,
0.657561182975769,
0.4501652717590332,
-0.3011031746864319,
0.5722787380218506,
0.579086422920227,
0.036879684776067734,
-0.28691738843917847,
0.16291967034339905,
-0.20035380125045776,
-0.43531596660614014,
-0.10846944898366928,
-0.2363126575946808,
-0.11470358073711395,
0.2505355477333069,
-0.28829923272132874,
0.15190033614635468,
-0.18535752594470978,
-6.103468418121338,
-0.17708639800548553,
-0.11887523531913757,
-0.35009869933128357,
0.05867069587111473,
0.24588672816753387,
0.5319984555244446,
-0.042846404016017914,
-0.5101661682128906,
0.07899583131074905,
-0.22752775251865387,
-0.15110966563224792,
0.6303853988647461,
0.007645898498594761,
0.8982388973236084,
0.20496810972690582,
0.5625837445259094,
0.13620954751968384,
-0.2320147156715393,
0.1388351172208786,
0.1415921449661255,
0.5456844568252563,
-0.03362652659416199,
0.20280300080776215,
-0.11382237821817398,
-0.017027856782078743,
-0.24884463846683502,
0.2636284828186035,
-0.47510653734207153,
-0.26972630620002747,
0.2525443732738495,
0.14063166081905365,
0.004577391315251589,
-0.3572901785373688,
0.41324687004089355,
0.567840576171875,
0.4645393490791321,
0.010123144835233688,
-0.12441801279783249,
0.16269750893115997,
0.024306664243340492,
0.5573087334632874,
0.49198615550994873,
-0.031918130815029144,
0.12425369769334793,
-0.1705348789691925,
-0.42753076553344727,
-0.28624677658081055,
-0.4551507830619812,
0.3466964066028595,
0.04444752261042595,
0.39755764603614807,
0.44865646958351135,
-0.16325315833091736,
-0.07253723591566086,
0.20732223987579346,
0.618191659450531,
0.1820702850818634,
-0.6604832410812378,
-0.26791396737098694,
0.10878653824329376,
-0.34584352374076843,
0.08210578560829163,
-0.6226083040237427,
0.1629927158355713,
-0.1435706913471222,
-0.730696976184845,
-0.19243068993091583,
0.7407286763191223,
0.6945114135742188,
-0.6468400359153748,
-0.5455906391143799,
0.9707499742507935,
-0.7851614952087402,
-0.016307920217514038,
-0.6544897556304932,
-0.033320557326078415,
-0.5990179777145386,
0.22956708073616028,
-0.009441424161195755,
0.02615504153072834,
-0.16980348527431488,
-0.22273051738739014,
-0.013967686332762241,
0.2932019829750061,
-0.4002385139465332,
-0.2795056700706482,
0.25536513328552246,
-0.39277857542037964,
0.009336947463452816,
0.4666387140750885,
0.3369521498680115,
-0.0701039507985115,
0.3755798637866974,
-0.0012178110191598535,
0.3148200809955597,
-0.16045553982257843,
-0.45118850469589233,
0.7871440649032593,
-0.4050731956958771,
0.2710610628128052,
-0.47189781069755554,
0.23485428094863892,
0.02120298705995083,
-0.07291585206985474,
-0.16892212629318237,
-0.4741864502429962,
0.3515956997871399,
1.0128204822540283,
0.05786754935979843,
0.2189534455537796,
0.7170238494873047,
-0.15311303734779358,
-0.5826345682144165,
0.38040751218795776,
0.12284620106220245,
-0.5760260224342346,
0.07695608586072922,
0.171274796128273,
-0.44021812081336975,
0.14595796167850494,
0.06977508962154388,
0.3570595979690552,
-0.7535658478736877,
-0.13866901397705078,
0.20893405377864838,
0.28646713495254517,
-0.4462023377418518,
0.17768634855747223,
-0.08721279352903366,
0.840502142906189,
0.4586332142353058,
0.26308536529541016,
0.050501685589551926,
0.11578114330768585,
-0.27435311675071716,
0.004697736352682114,
0.3108898997306824,
-0.34353217482566833,
-0.8107619881629944,
0.023566845804452896,
-0.5515390634536743,
-0.002901249099522829,
0.0019761817529797554,
0.41904568672180176,
0.19671958684921265,
-0.4997188150882721,
-0.016203947365283966,
0.09012901037931442,
0.7063986659049988,
0.14429624378681183,
-0.09892557561397552,
0.388126403093338,
-0.042900387197732925,
-0.06283999979496002,
-0.17661245167255402,
0.4344380795955658,
0.2090279757976532,
-0.08017411082983017,
-0.8599846363067627,
-0.2327190488576889,
-0.5333947539329529,
-0.7106016874313354,
-0.08449305593967438,
-0.5767560601234436,
0.36798518896102905,
-0.7251948714256287,
-0.07188446819782257,
-0.05585629120469093,
0.20090244710445404,
0.2781136929988861,
-0.20808890461921692,
-0.3830365240573883,
-0.23398327827453613,
0.2271476686000824,
0.2888956069946289,
0.367856502532959,
0.5494436025619507,
-0.156599760055542,
-0.22462098300457,
0.20347818732261658,
-0.3399657607078552,
-0.08175133168697357,
-0.07994130253791809,
0.14906376600265503,
-0.025029314681887627,
0.05482957512140274,
0.12447457760572433,
-0.4066309630870819,
-0.2538565397262573,
-0.1109481081366539,
-0.21286681294441223,
0.5211182236671448,
0.3009641468524933,
0.25057700276374817,
0.12513667345046997,
0.049728356301784515,
-0.11757666617631912,
-0.4690086543560028,
0.04695361480116844,
-0.09849376231431961,
0.015963425859808922,
-0.9601917862892151,
0.09256740659475327,
-0.006993130315095186,
-0.9382477402687073,
0.6826121211051941,
-0.37222856283187866,
0.1648690551519394,
0.536372184753418,
-0.7417640089988708,
-0.14845000207424164,
-0.040140628814697266,
0.2267577201128006,
-0.31224891543388367,
0.22206255793571472,
0.06459163874387741,
-0.495317667722702,
0.06349001079797745,
-0.7916655540466309,
0.6025710105895996,
-0.061659157276153564,
-0.0636979341506958,
0.2009158432483673,
-0.16326367855072021,
-0.10270172357559204,
0.15712088346481323,
-0.1971961110830307,
0.4682382345199585,
0.05186177045106888,
-0.09896621853113174,
-0.04123195633292198,
-0.28905826807022095,
-0.3841017782688141,
-0.25939294695854187,
-0.3263348937034607,
0.2894695997238159,
-0.39038270711898804,
0.14150874316692352,
0.14631645381450653,
0.4765840172767639,
1.2171077728271484,
0.08783026784658432,
-0.8778560161590576,
-0.16307535767555237,
0.2801465690135956,
0.1440872997045517,
-0.715533435344696,
-0.3201560378074646,
0.28201064467430115,
0.2574738562107086,
-0.5093963146209717,
-0.5465000867843628,
-0.10505244880914688,
0.34555307030677795,
-0.1201532781124115,
-0.08247740566730499,
-0.23789092898368835,
0.5273414850234985,
0.5699294209480286,
0.31739965081214905,
-0.37674233317375183,
-0.22617168724536896,
-0.18388734757900238,
0.14669249951839447,
-0.12292978167533875,
-0.06991054117679596,
0.6372424960136414,
0.028061842545866966,
-0.9468857049942017,
0.0713503509759903,
0.22066351771354675,
-0.010380673222243786,
0.1031298041343689,
0.7341434955596924,
-0.10520520061254501,
0.001955960411578417,
-0.5126829147338867,
0.23800601065158844,
0.21104957163333893,
0.0428040437400341,
-0.3501536250114441,
0.16514068841934204,
-0.24818705022335052,
0.08600252866744995,
-0.049549028277397156,
0.27726078033447266,
0.04272301495075226,
-0.6796096563339233,
-0.4196570813655853,
-0.37890151143074036,
-0.2764066755771637,
-0.028353627771139145,
0.5959094762802124,
0.03951491042971611,
0.019160866737365723,
0.12407384812831879,
0.1876559853553772,
0.47357115149497986,
0.05142006278038025,
-0.7114601135253906,
0.4611383080482483,
0.2646418511867523,
-0.4293874502182007,
0.3992128074169159,
-0.24157138168811798,
-0.13142555952072144,
-0.7314980030059814,
0.24029870331287384,
-0.23285625874996185,
0.5417550802230835,
0.1878407895565033,
0.4298960864543915,
0.34996119141578674,
0.012269777245819569,
-0.3247963488101959,
0.3979324996471405,
0.10646803677082062,
0.13944734632968903,
0.21875214576721191,
0.24888062477111816,
-0.368195116519928,
0.42947450280189514,
-0.27239805459976196,
0.1438513547182083,
0.24323132634162903,
-0.3622172474861145,
0.059404440224170685,
0.19811661541461945,
0.15749816596508026,
0.6126818060874939,
0.1935013085603714,
0.22432495653629303,
0.16264858841896057,
-0.04392830654978752,
-0.1902991086244583,
-0.10987728834152222,
-0.22710905969142914,
-0.6393551230430603,
0.4673137366771698,
0.4708413779735565,
-0.11407645046710968,
-0.17916399240493774,
0.6315868496894836,
0.016792548820376396,
0.41852855682373047,
0.24323996901512146,
0.2049645185470581,
-0.24163557589054108,
0.07383686304092407,
0.2764250934123993,
0.20093287527561188,
0.8143921494483948,
-0.3700827956199646,
-0.0014638776192441583,
-0.02314894273877144,
0.8067786693572998,
-0.15088503062725067,
-0.28713512420654297,
-0.18757815659046173,
0.09343715757131577,
0.163922518491745,
0.13171011209487915,
0.20112106204032898,
0.10921322554349899,
-0.4878414571285248,
0.13456189632415771,
-0.4389345049858093,
-0.2826721668243408,
-0.014065444469451904,
0.3642733097076416,
0.7649965286254883,
-0.4688869118690491,
0.4676642119884491,
-0.29749470949172974,
-0.15954647958278656,
0.25627830624580383,
0.48877283930778503,
0.08479078859090805,
-0.40865176916122437,
0.17747338116168976,
-0.37849393486976624,
-0.17839375138282776,
-0.5100946426391602,
-0.015478638932108879,
-0.09564366936683655,
0.36544376611709595,
0.3118835687637329,
-0.07649929821491241,
0.38021478056907654,
0.209065243601799,
-0.23450250923633575,
-0.23711435496807098,
-0.2967967987060547,
0.24218009412288666,
0.21352167427539825,
0.14193639159202576,
0.7463500499725342,
0.07976871728897095,
-0.26358193159103394,
-0.3459322154521942,
0.1286834329366684,
-0.01793605647981167,
-0.3796420693397522,
-0.3991861939430237,
-0.0041151163168251514,
-0.2366555631160736,
0.05191734433174133,
-0.5993173718452454,
0.42013195157051086,
0.5191541314125061,
-0.5071824193000793,
-0.053464844822883606,
0.3905205726623535,
0.2680110037326813,
0.16911406815052032,
0.11068900674581528,
-0.5047577619552612,
0.07095792144536972,
-0.1572629064321518,
0.025384554639458656,
0.09887593239545822,
0.315630167722702,
-0.20280347764492035,
-0.18565116822719574,
-0.19757233560085297,
0.5678056478500366,
-0.07092861086130142,
-0.6694380044937134,
0.5454745292663574,
-0.4263211190700531,
0.09572690725326538,
-0.6384674310684204,
0.5231247544288635,
-0.2340838611125946,
-0.10729470103979111,
0.2379480004310608,
0.4543325901031494,
-0.008631162345409393,
-0.34890419244766235,
-0.041432783007621765,
-0.09545370936393738,
-0.42496687173843384,
-0.011304207146167755,
-0.9319040179252625,
-0.09966478496789932,
-0.3598199188709259,
-0.16041988134384155,
-0.2638389766216278,
0.053827155381441116,
0.3351694643497467,
-0.49986523389816284,
0.2896735370159149,
-0.5362244248390198,
-0.1408059448003769,
0.5307315587997437,
0.17943955957889557,
-0.29297351837158203,
-0.21413913369178772,
0.5304219126701355
] |
261035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly%20Rowland | Kelly Rowland | Kelendria (Kelly) Trené Rowland (born February 11, 1981) is an American singer-songwriter, actress, and television personality. She rose to fame in the late 1990s as a member of Destiny's Child, one of the world's best-selling girl groups of all time. During the group's three-year hiatus, Rowland released her debut solo studio album, Simply Deep (2002), which debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart and sold over 3 million copies worldwide. It included the Billboard Hot 100 number-one single "Dilemma" (with Nelly), as well as the UK top-five hits "Stole" and "Can't Nobody". Rowland also ventured into acting with starring roles in the successful films Freddy vs. Jason (2003) and The Seat Filler (2005).
Following the disbanding of Destiny's Child in 2006, Rowland released her second studio album, Ms. Kelly (2007), which produced the international top-ten hits "Like This" (featuring Eve) and "Work". In 2009, she hosted the first season of The Fashion Show, and was featured on David Guetta's "When Love Takes Over", which topped the charts in several countries. Its success influenced Rowland to explore electronic dance music on her third studio album, Here I Am (2011), which spawned the UK top-ten singles "Commander" (featuring David Guetta), "Down for Whatever" and "What a Feeling", as a well as the hit Electro-R&B single "Motivation" (featuring Lil Wayne). Her fourth studio album, Talk a Good Game (2013), became her third top-ten album on the US Billboard 200 chart. Rowland was a television judge on the eighth season of The X Factor UK (2011), as well as the third season of The X Factor USA (2013). She has continued her television career by hosting Chasing Destiny (2016) and starred as a coach on The Voice Australia (2017–2020).
Throughout her career, Rowland has sold over 30 million records as a solo artist, and a further 60 million records with Destiny's Child. Her work has earned her several awards and nominations, including four Grammy Awards, one Billboard Music Award, and two Soul Train Music Awards. Rowland has also received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame as part of Destiny's Child, and as a solo artist, she has been honored by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers and Essence for her contributions to music. In 2014, Fuse ranked Rowland in their "100 Most Award-Winning Artists" list at number 20.
Early life
Kelendria Trené Rowland was born on February 11, 1981, in Atlanta, Georgia. She is the daughter of Doris Rowland-Garrison (December 6, 1947 – December 2, 2014) and Christopher Lovett. Kelly has an older brother named Orlando. When Rowland was six, her mother left her father, who was an abusive alcoholic and suffered PTSD from serving in the Vietnam War, and Rowland went with her. When Rowland was seven or eight, her family relocated to Houston, where at some point she moved in with fellow Destiny's Child member Beyoncé Knowles, referring to Beyoncé's mother Tina Knowles as "Mama T".
Circa the early 1990s, Rowland joined Beyoncé, Tamar Davis and LaTavia Roberson in the girl group Girl's Tyme. Girl's Tyme competed on the nationally televised talent show Star Search, but lost the competition to Skeleton Crew. Beyoncé's father Mathew Knowles reduced the sextet lineup to a quartet, adding LeToya Luckett, and began managing the group. In 1995, they signed with Elektra Records, who dropped them months later. D'wayne Wiggins then began working with the group, and they were briefly signed to his label. The group went through several name changes, including the Dolls, Something Fresh, Cliché, and Destiny before deciding upon a final moniker. Under the name Destiny's Child, the group was picked up by Columbia Records. They continued performing as an opening act for other established R&B groups of the time, such as SWV, Dru Hill, and Immature.
Career
1997–2001: Destiny's Child
Taken from a passage in the Biblical Book of Isaiah, the group changed their name to Destiny's Child, after signing to Columbia Records in 1997. That same year, Destiny's Child recorded their major label debut song "Killing Time", for the soundtrack to the 1997 film, Men in Black. Later that year, the group released their debut single, "No, No, No", and the following year, they released their self-titled debut album. The album established the group as a viable act in the music industry, amassing moderate sales and winning the group three Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards. The group rose to fame after releasing their multi-platinum second album The Writing's on the Wall in 1999. The album featured some of the group's most widely known songs such as "Bills, Bills, Bills", "Jumpin' Jumpin'" and "Say My Name", which became their most-successful song at the time, and would remain as one of their signature songs. "Say My Name" won Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and Best R&B Song at the 43rd Annual Grammy Awards. The Writing's on the Wall sold more than 15 million copies worldwide, essentially becoming their breakthrough album.
Along with their commercial successes, the group became entangled in much-publicized turmoil involving the filing of a lawsuit by Luckett and Roberson for breach of contract. The issue was heightened after Michelle Williams and Farrah Franklin appeared in the video of "Say My Name", implying that Luckett and Roberson had already been replaced. Fans soon learned Luckett and Roberson were dismissed from the group. Franklin would eventually quit the group after five months, as evidenced by her absences during promotional appearances and concerts. She attributed her departure to negative vibes in the group. After settling on their final lineup, the trio released "Independent Women Part I", which appeared on the soundtrack to the 2000 film, Charlie's Angels. It became their best-charting single, topping the Billboard Hot 100 for eleven consecutive weeks. The success cemented the new lineup and skyrocketed them to fame. That same year, Luckett and Roberson withdrew their case against their now-former bandmates, while maintaining the suit against Mathew, which ended in both sides agreeing to stop public disparaging.
Later that year, while Destiny's Child was completing their third album Survivor, Rowland appeared on the remix of Avant's single "Separated". Survivor, which channeled the turmoil the band underwent, spawned its lead single of the same name, which was a response to the experience. The song went on to win a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. The themes of "Survivor", however, caused Luckett and Roberson to refile their lawsuit; the proceedings were eventually settled in June 2002. Meanwhile, the album was released in May 2001, debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 663,000 copies sold. To date, Survivor has sold over twelve million copies worldwide, over forty percent of which were sold in the US alone. The album also spawned the number-one hit "Bootylicious" on which Rowland sang lead vocals. Before releasing their remix album This Is the Remix in 2002, the group announced their temporary break-up to pursue solo projects.
2002–2006: "Dilemma", Simply Deep and Destiny Fulfilled
In 2002, Rowland was featured on Nelly's single "Dilemma", which won the pair a Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration. The song became one of the most successful singles of the year, topping many charts worldwide, including the United States, where it became Rowland's first number-one single as a solo artist, selling worldwide over 7,6 million copies. Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian wrote that because of the song's success, "Rowland is no longer a mere backing vocalist for Beyoncé.". In 2021, The Forty-Five voted "Dilemma" the best song about cheating ever written.
Rowland's debut solo album, Simply Deep, was released on October 22, 2002, in the US. Featuring production contributions by Mark J. Feist, Big Bert, Rich Harrison, and singers Brandy and Solange Knowles providing background vocals, the album took Rowland's solo work further into an alternative music mixture, which Rowland described as a "weird fusion [of] a little bit of Sade and a little bit of rock." Simply Deep debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 and at number three on the R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, with first-week sales of 77,000 copies sold. It was eventually certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). As of 2013, Simply Deep remains as Rowland's best-selling album in the US, with 602,000 copies sold. Released to an even bigger success in international territories, Simply Deep topped the UK Albums Chart and became a gold-seller in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, resulting in worldwide sales total of 2.5 million copies. Simply Deep yielded the international top-ten single "Stole" and the UK top-five single "Can't Nobody".
Rowland transitioned into acting in 2002, playing the recurring role of Carly in the fourth season of UPN sitcom The Hughleys. She continued her acting career the following year, with guest roles in UPN sitcom Eve as Cleo, and in NBC drama series American Dreams as Martha Reeves. In August 2003, Rowland made her big-screen debut playing the supporting role of Kia Waterson alongside Robert Englund and Monica Keena in the slasher film, Freddy vs. Jason, which grossed $114.5 million at the box office worldwide.
In July 2005, Rowland starred opposite Duane Martin and Shemar Moore in the romantic comedy The Seat Filler, which grossed $17.9 million worldwide. She played Jhnelle, a pop star who falls for an awards-show seat filler whom she mistakes for a high-profile entertainment attorney. After a three-year hiatus that involved concentration on individual solo projects, Rowland rejoined Beyoncé and Michelle Williams for Destiny's Child's final studio album Destiny Fulfilled, released on November 15, 2004. The album hit number two on the Billboard 200 and spawned the top-five singles "Lose My Breath" and "Soldier", which features T.I. and Lil Wayne. The following year, Destiny's Child embarked on a worldwide concert tour, Destiny Fulfilled ... And Lovin' It. During the last stop of the European tour in Barcelona, Spain, on June 11, Rowland announced that they would disband following the North American leg of the tour. Destiny's Child released their first compilation album Number 1's on October 25 in the US, which peaked at number one on the Billboard 200. On March 28, 2006, Destiny's Child accepted a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
After Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Rowland and Beyoncé founded the Survivor Foundation, a charitable entity set up to provide transitional housing for victims and storm evacuees in the Houston, Texas area. The Survivor Foundation extended the philanthropic mission of the Knowles-Rowland Center for Youth, a multi-purpose community outreach facility in downtown Houston. Rowland and Beyoncé lent their voices to a collaboration with Kitten Sera, entitled "All That I'm Lookin for". The song appeared on The Katrina CD album, whose proceeds went to the Recording Artists for Hope organization. Rowland returned to television in 2006, playing Tammy Hamilton, in the sixth season of UPN sitcom Girlfriends. Rowland initially hoped her three-episode stint would expand to a larger recurring role, but as the show was moved to The CW Television Network the following year, plans for a return eventually went nowhere.
2007–2009: Ms. Kelly and "When Love Takes Over"
In June 2007, Kelly Rowland embarked on the Ms. Kelly Tour to promote her second solo album Ms. Kelly. The five-date tour visited Europe, North America, Africa, and Asia. Ms. Kelly was released on July 3, 2007, in the United States. Originally titled My Story, the album's first version was actually scheduled for a June 2006 release, but Rowland, her management and Columbia Records decided to shelve the album at the last minute to re-work a version with a different vibe as the singer considered the final track listing "too full of midtempos and ballads." Rowland eventually consulted additional producers to collaborate on the album, including Billy Mann, Mysto & Pizzi, Sean Garrett, Scott Storch, and Polow da Don. Upon its release, Ms. Kelly debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 and number two on the R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, with first-week sales of 86,000 copies. Outside the US, the album widely failed to reprise the success of Simply Deep, barely reaching the top-forty on the majority of all charts it appeared on, except for the UK, where it opened at number 37.
Ms. Kelly included the UK top-five hit "Like This", featuring Eve, as well as the international top-ten hit "Work". In July 2007, Rowland released her first DVD titled BET Presents Kelly Rowland, which celebrates the release Ms. Kelly and features an interview with Rowland about the album's production, footage of her time with Destiny's Child, live performances and music videos. Following the album's lukewarm sales, it was re-released as an extended play (EP) titled, Ms. Kelly: Diva Deluxe, on March 25, 2008. The previously unreleased Bobby Womack cover "Daylight", a collaboration with Travie McCoy, served as the EP's lead single and was a moderate success in the UK.
In 2007, Rowland, along with stars such as Jessica Simpson and the cast of Grey's Anatomy autographed pink Goody Ouchless brushes that were made available for auction on eBay, with all proceeds going to Breast Cancer Awareness. Also, the singer teamed up with Kanye West, Nelly Furtado, and Snoop Dogg to design a Nike sneaker for another eBay auction. All proceeds went to AIDS Awareness. In October 2007, Rowland auditioned for the role of Louise, Carrie Bradshaw's assistant, in the 2008 film adaptation of HBO's comedy series Sex and the City. The part eventually went to Jennifer Hudson. Two months later, Rowland appeared as a choirmaster in the first season of the NBC talent show Clash of the Choirs among other musicians such as Michael Bolton, Patti LaBelle, Nick Lachey, and Blake Shelton. Rowland's choir finished fifth in the competition, and Clash of the Choirs did not return for a second season.
In 2008, Rowland officially became an ambassador for MTV's Staying Alive Foundation, which aims to reduce stigma against people living with HIV and AIDS. She visited projects in Tanzania and Kenya to promote the charity and underwent an HIV test in Africa to raise awareness of the disease. In 2009, Rowland connected with Serve.MTV.com, MTV's platform to connect young people with local volunteerism opportunities, for a series of on-air PSAs. From battling homelessness to beautifying impoverished neighborhoods to saving whales, Rowland was joined by the likes of Cameron Diaz, will.i.am, and Sean Kingston as they discuss causes they volunteer to support and urge young people to join with their friends in making civic service a part of their lifestyle. That same year, she spearheaded a bone marrow drive, and joined fellow singers Alesha Dixon and Pixie Lott to create T-shirts for River Island in aid of the Prince's Trust, profits from which help change young lives.
In January 2009, Rowland ended her professional relationship with Beyoncé's father, Mathew Knowles, who had managed her career since she was a member of Destiny's Child. Knowles stressed that no animosity was involved in the decision and acknowledged that Rowland will always be a part of the Knowles family. Then two months later, Rowland announced that she left Columbia Records, adding that she "felt the need to explore new directions, new challenges, and new freedoms outside my comfort zone." In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Rowland stated that the label ended her contract because Ms. Kelly was not commercially successful. She later signed with Universal Motown Records.
In April 2009, Rowland was featured on David Guetta's single "When Love Takes Over", which topped many charts in Europe, selling over 5,5 million copies worldwide, and received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Dance Recording. Billboard crowned the song as the number one dance-pop collaboration of all time. In May 2009, Rowland was cast to host the first season of Bravo's reality competition series The Fashion Show alongside Isaac Mizrahi, but was replaced by fashion model Iman in the second season.
2010–2012: Here I Am
In 2010, Kelly Rowland launched I Heart My Girlfriends, a charity that focuses on self-esteem, date violence prevention, community service, abstinence, sports, drug/alcohol/smoking avoidance, obesity, disabilities, and education. In April 2010, Rowland toured Australia alongside Akon, Pitbull, Sean Paul, Jay Sean, and Eve for the Australian urban festival, Supafest. Later that month, her song "Everywhere You Go", featuring an all-star supergroup of international artists called Rhythm of Africa United, was released as the MTN theme song for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. In October 2010, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) honored Rowland at the second annual ASCAP Presents Women Behind the Music, an event that recognizes women in all areas of the music industry. Rowland's first compilation album, Work: The Best of Kelly Rowland, was released on October 25, 2010, but failed to impact the charts.
In January 2011, Rowland reunited with Nelly on "Gone", a sequel to their successful 2002 collaboration "Dilemma". Upon its release, the song failed to reprise the success of "Dilemma". In April 2011, Rowland appeared on Italian DJ Alex Gaudino's single "What a Feeling", which became another UK top-ten hit. During this time, Rowland's then boyfriend (and future husband), Tim Weatherspoon, became her manager.
Originally scheduled for release in 2010, Rowland's third studio album Here I Am was released on July 26, 2011, in the United States. The album sold 77,000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. Here I Am produced the successful lead single "Commander", which peaked in the top-ten of many charts in Europe, and the UK top-ten single "Down for Whatever". It also included another successful single "Motivation", with Lil Wayne, which topped the R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart for seven consecutive weeks and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). "Motivation" won Song of the Year at the 2011 Soul Train Music Awards and Top R&B Song at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards, and received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration. Rowland was the face of Diddy's women's fragrance Empress, the female counterpart to his men's fragrance I Am King. She was also the worldwide ambassador for watchmakers company TW Steel. Rowland's second compilation album, Playlist: the Very Best of Kelly Rowland, was released on October 18, 2011, but failed to impact the charts. She also released her first fitness DVD titled Sexy Abs with Kelly Rowland. Later that year, it was confirmed that Rowland would replace Dannii Minogue as a judge for the eighth series of The X Factor UK alongside Louis Walsh, Gary Barlow (who replaced Simon Cowell), and Tulisa Contostavlos (who replaced Cheryl Cole). Rowland's team of finalists in the "Girls" category, including Amelia Lily, finished in third place in one series. Due to a conflicting schedule, Rowland did not return for the ninth series in 2012 and was replaced by former judge of The X Factor USA, Nicole Scherzinger. During the Black Women in Music event held on February 8, 2012, Essence magazine honored Rowland and music executive Sylvia Rhone for their contributions to music. In April 2012, Rowland toured Australia alongside Ludacris, Chris Brown, Trey Songz, T-Pain, Ice Cube, Lupe Fiasco, and Big Sean for the urban festival, Supafest. That same month, she returned to the big screen playing the supporting role of Brenda in the romantic comedy Think Like a Man. The film, which also starred Michael Ealy, Jerry Ferrara, Meagan Good, Regina Hall, and Kevin Hart, topped the US box office and grossed $91.5 million. Rowland recorded "Need a Reason" with Future and Bei Maejor for the Think Like a Man soundtrack.
In June 2012, Rowland became the face of popular rum brand Bacardi. Rowland and German production team Project B reworked the Bacardi song, "Bacardi Feeling (Summer Dreamin')", and released an accompanying music video to help promote the brand. In August 2012, Rowland became a dance master in the first season of the Australian talent show Everybody Dance Now alongside Jason Derulo. The show was cancelled after the fourth episode due to poor ratings.
2013–2014: Talk a Good Game
In January 2013, Destiny's Child released a compilation album titled Love Songs, a collection of romance-themed songs from their previous albums, as well as the newly recorded song "Nuclear". On February 3, 2013, during Beyoncé's performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show, held at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans, Rowland and Michelle Williams joined her on stage to perform "Bootylicious", "Independent Women" and "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)". On February 24, 2013, Rowland co-hosted the Academy Awards pre-show for the 85th Academy Awards alongside Kristin Chenoweth, Lara Spencer, Robin Roberts, and Jess Cagle. In May 2013, it was announced that Rowland would replace L.A. Reid as a judge on The X Factor USA for its third and final season, joining Simon Cowell, Demi Lovato, and fellow new judge Paulina Rubio (who was replacing Britney Spears). Rowland's finalists from the "Over 25s", including Jeff Gutt, finished as the runner-up on this final season. On The X Factor USA, Rowland had more success and popularity as a judge than The X Factor UK. Later that month, Rowland performed as a supporting headlining act at the RiverFest 2013 in Little Rock, Arkansas. Rowland embarked on the Lights Out Tour, a co-headlining tour with The-Dream, to promote her fourth studio album Talk a Good Game. Formerly titled Year of the Woman, the album was released on June 18, 2013, in the US. It is Rowland's first release with Republic Records following Universal Music Group's decision to close Universal Motown and Universal Republic and reviving Motown Records and Republic Records. Talk a Good Game sold 68,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, becoming Rowland's third top-ten album in the US. The album's lead single "Kisses Down Low" was a moderate success on the US R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and was certified gold by RIAA for exceeded 500,000 copies sold. The second and final single was "Dirty Laundry". In December 2013, Rowland appeared in Beyoncé's "Grown Woman" music video and alongside Williams in Beyoncé's "Superpower" music video and provided backing vocals on the same track, taken from her self-titled fifth studio album.
In February 2014, Rowland was featured on Joe's single "Love & Sex Part 2". In March 2014, she was named a spokesperson for cosmetic company Caress. During an interview with HuffPost Live on March 26, 2014, Rowland revealed that she has begun recording her fifth studio album and said the new music, which encompasses horns, drums, and flutes, was influenced by iconic female singers including Diana Ross. Rowland also announced in the interview that she left Republic Records, adding that she "just needed a fresh, new start." In June 2014, Rowland and Beyoncé were featured on Williams' single "Say Yes". The same month, her song "The Game" and its music video appeared on Pepsi's visual album for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, titled Beats of the Beautiful Game. On July 19, 2014, Rowland was featured on Adrian Marcel's song "Honey" from his mixtape Weak After Next and on Beau Vallis's song "Love Stand Still". Rowland also contributed background vocals to the song "You're My Star", the first single released from Tank's 2014 album Stronger.
2015–2020: Chasing Destiny, The Voice Australia, and acting career
In August 2015, she was featured on Jacob Whitesides's single "I Know What You Did Last Summer". Rowland was part of the recurring cast of the second season of the American drama television series Empire. She played Leah Walker, Lucious Lyon's mother, in flashbacks and starred in five episodes. She recorded a song for the show called "Mona Lisa" which was included in the EP Empire: Music from "Be True", released on October 21, 2015. On October 26, 2015, Rowland released a new song titled "Dumb" which is rumored to appear on her upcoming fifth album. Rowland's new record does not have a release date yet.
Rowland, along with Missy Elliott, Kelly Clarkson, Zendaya, Janelle Monáe, Lea Michele, and Chloe x Halle were all featured on a charity single put together by US First Lady Michelle Obama. "This Is For My Girls" was written by Diane Warren and was released on March 15, 2016. The song was created to raise funds and awareness towards Obama's Let Girls Learn initiative – aimed at boosting education rates amongst adolescent girls around the world who are denied the right to an education. The iTunes-exclusive record was used to both coincide with Obama's Texan SXSW speech and to promote the "Let Girls Learn" initiative. The following month, Rowland hosted BET's documentary series Chasing Destiny, where she and choreographer/director Frank Gatson Jr. searched to find the next superstars for an all-female group. They eventually formed the girl group June's Diary.
On December 24, 2016, it was announced that Rowland would replace Ronan Keating as a coach on the sixth season of The Voice Australia, which aired in early 2017. Rowland played the role of Margot Scotts in the television film Love By the 10th Date, which premiered on Lifetime on January 28, 2017. On April 11, 2017, Kelly released her first book named Whoa, Baby!: A Guide for New Moms Who Feel Overwhelmed and Freaked Out (and Wonder What the #*$& Just Happened). On August 8, 2017, it was announced that Rowland was joining new judge Jennifer Hudson on the thirteenth season of The Voice US, who served as the winning coach on last season's The Voice UK. Hudson supported Rowland, a coach on the Australian version, as her advisor. In April 2018, Rowland reunited with Beyonce Knowles and Michelle Williams during Knowles' headlining set at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. In the seventh season of The Voice Australia, she became the winning coach with two of her acts Sam Perry and Bella Paige became the top 2 with Sam Perry as the winner and Bella Paige as the runner-up.
In September 2018, BET announced that Rowland would star as Gladys Knight in the series American Soul. Rowland released a new single, "Kelly" on November 22, 2018. In February 2019, American Soul premiered to positive reviews. On February 6, 2019, Rowland released a second single called "Crown" with the music video in partnership with Dove for the campaign #MyHairMyCrown. In May 2019, she featured on Ciara's song "Girl Gang" from the album Beauty Marks. On May 18, 2019, Rowland published an EP titled The Kelly Rowland Edition on streaming platforms. She also continued her work at The Voice Australia, starred in television series L.A.'s Finest, Robin Thede's HBO series A Black Lady Sketch Show, and the Christmas movie, Merry Liddle Christmas, produced by Rowland and her husband for Lifetime in December 2019. As part of the Christmas movie, Rowland released a Christmas song, "Love You More at Christmas Time" via her own record label, KTR Records. On April 17, 2020, Rowland released a single titled "Coffee" through KTR Records. On May 6, 2020, she announced her management deal with Roc Nation. This announcement meant Rowland's husband would no longer manage her. In the ninth season of The Voice Australia, she became the winning coach for the second time with her act Chris Sebastian as the winner.
2020–present: Upcoming fifth studio album and other works
Rowland made a cameo in Beyonce's Disney+ film Black Is King which was released globally on July 31, 2020. She also appeared in the movie Bad Hair, released on Hulu, in October 2020. That same month, Kelly released her second single of the year titled "Crazy" on KTR Records, along with an official lyric video. As part of the NFL's Songs of the Season campaign, Rowland released another single called "Hitman" in November 2020. An accompanying music video premiered on YouTube. Rowland continued acting, starring in Merry Liddle Christmas Wedding, Lifetime's first-ever holiday sequel to Merry Liddle Christmas, which aired at the end of the month. Rowland recorded a cover of "We Need a Little Christmas" to help promote the film, which she produced with her husband. To commemorate her fortieth birthday, Rowland released the song "Black Magic" on February 12, 2021. Her sons, Titan and Noah, make an appearance in the supporting visual. On February 19, 2021, Rowland's EP, K, premiered on streaming platforms, alongside the music video for its opening track, "Flowers". In November 2021, Rowland released a cover of "Wonderful Time" to support her third holiday movie, Merry Liddle Christmas Baby, which aired that month on Lifetime.
Personal life
On December 16, 2013, Rowland announced her engagement to her then manager, Tim Weatherspoon, during an appearance on The Queen Latifah Show. They were married in Costa Rica on May 9, 2014, with guests including Beyoncé and Solange. On June 10, 2014, Rowland announced via Instagram that she and Weatherspoon were expecting their first child. On November 4, 2014, Rowland gave birth to their son, Titan Jewell Weatherspoon. On June 20, 2020, Rowland revealed she had reconciled with her estranged father, Christopher Lovett. On October 7, 2020, Rowland announced that she and Weatherspoon were expecting their second child in the November issue of Women's Health. On January 21, 2021, Rowland gave birth to their son, Noah Jon Weatherspoon.
Artistry
Musical style
Rowland's voice is classified as a three-octave lyric mezzo-soprano, and her music includes various styles of musical genres such as contemporary R&B, pop, hip hop, soul, rock, and dance. Her debut solo album Simply Deep (2002) followed an adult-alternative rock sound, while her second album Ms. Kelly (2007) featured an urban sound. In an interview with The Independent, Rowland admitted that with her first two albums, she struggled to find her sound. "I was in a stage with the first two records where I was searching, and I was like, let me try a rock-dance approach, the label [and management] wanted me to try it, and I did it ... And then after that came a more urban approach with Ms. Kelly in 2007." Her third album Here I Am (2011) consisted of a pop and R&B sound, with subtle influences of dance. Rowland stated that meeting David Guetta had influenced her to record dance music. During production of the album, Rowland stated that part of the reason for the new sound on Here I Am was wanting to do something different, saying "I knew I couldn't be afraid of this direction, and I wasn't going to let the thoughts and opinions of others make me afraid to go in this direction".
Most of the lyrical themes in Simply Deep (2002) speak of love and life experiences, particularly in the songs "Dilemma", in which Rowland expresses her endless love to her love interest, and "Stole", in which she sings about an emotional "tale of school shootings and suicides". In Ms. Kelly (2007), Rowland covers topics such as her "deeply personal relationship issues" in her songs, "Still in Love with My Ex", "Flashback", "Love", "Better Without You" and "Gotsta Go (Part I)". Alex Macpherson of The Guardian noted that the songs could be about Rowland's former relationship with American football player Roy Williams. Here I Am (2011) included common themes of womanhood, sexual intimacy, and love. Some of Rowland's other songs such as "Work", "I'm Dat Chick" and "Work It Man" have been musically compared to the work of former Destiny's Child bandmate Beyoncé.
Influences
Rowland has cited Whitney Houston and Janet Jackson as her biggest musical influences. She stated that Houston "was the woman that inspired me to sing." Rowland is also inspired by Sade Adu and says that "she has a style that's totally her own." Other inspirations include: Martin Luther King Jr.; Mariah Carey; Mary J. Blige; Naomi Campbell; and Oprah Winfrey, whom she describes as "the female version of God." Rowland has discussed how living in Miami has influenced her style, growth, and music. From a fashion perspective, Rowland credits Halle Berry, Jennifer Lopez, Beyoncé, Oprah, and her grandmother as her style icons. Rowland cited Whitney Houston, Beyoncé, and Brandy as vocal inspirations for her second solo album Ms. Kelly, "I love how different they are. I love how they take themselves to the next level". Her third solo album Here I Am was inspired by Donna Summer and Diana Ross, as well as dance producer will.i.am. Rowland's fourth solo album Talk a Good Game was also inspired by Houston, Marvin Gaye, and Stevie Wonder.
Public image
Rowland stated that there was a time in her life when she struggled with being dark-skinned. In October 2007, Rowland underwent plastic surgery to receive breast implants. She stated, "I simply went from an A-cup to a B-cup" and that "the decision was 10 years in the making". In 2012, Rowland ranked at number 61 on Complex magazine's list of "The 100 Hottest Female Singers of All Time" and was recognized as one of the best-dressed women by Glamour UK. In April 2013, Rowland ranked seventh on Peoples Most Beautiful in the World list.
Other ventures
Film and television career
Rowland branched out into acting with a guest stint on the sitcom The Hughleys in 2002, before appearing in other UPN shows such as Eve and Girlfriends in the years of 2003 and 2006 respectively. Having played the role of Tammy Hamilton, an ambitious 21-year-old apprentice to realtor Toni (Jill Marie Jones) in the latter sitcom, Rowland initially hoped her three-episode stint would expand to a larger recurring role, but as the show was moved to The CW network the following year plans for a return eventually went nowhere. Also, in 2003, she appeared in American Dreams as Martha Reeves of Martha & The Vandellas, singing a version of the group's single "Nowhere to Run".
In 2002, Rowland was cast for her big-screen debut in the slasher film Freddy vs. Jason, a crossover film directed by Ronny Yu. Cast as one of the female leads, she portrayed Kia Waterson, the frank best friend of lead character Lori Campbell, played by Monica Keena. Released to generally mixed reviews from critics, Freddy vs. Jason topped the U.S. box office, gaining $36.4 million on its first weekend. Budgeted at $25 million, Freddy vs. Jason was released in theatres on August 15, 2003, and became a financial success, resulting in a worldwide box office total of $114.3 million.
The following year, Rowland returned to the big screen, this time for a lead role in the romantic comedy The Seat Filler, starring opposite Duane Martin and Shemar Moore. Executive produced by Will Smith and Jada Pinkett Smith, the film hit theaters in the summer of 2005 and debuted at number eighteen at the box office top twenty. It eventually earned a total domestic gross ticket sales of $10.2 million. In the film, for which she recorded two songs, Rowland played a pop star who falls for an awards-show seat filler in which she mistakes for a high-profile entertainment attorney. Released to a limited number of festivals only, The Seat Filler went straight to DVD in 2006.
In October 2007, Rowland auditioned for the role of Louise, Carrie Bradshaw's assistant, in the 2008 film adaptation of HBO's comedy series Sex and the City. The part eventually went to Jennifer Hudson. In fall 2007, Rowland appeared as a choirmaster on the NBC reality show Clash of the Choirs. Rowland was among superstars like Michael Bolton, Patti LaBelle, Nick Lachey, and Blake Shelton. Rowland's choir finished fifth in the competition. In 2009, she was cast to host Bravo's reality competition series The Fashion Show alongside Isaac Mizrahi. The series premiered on May 7, 2009.
On May 30, 2011, Rowland was confirmed as a judge for the eighth series of the British television show The X Factor to replace Dannii Minogue. In addition to her judging stint, Rowland also had a supporting role in the motion picture Think Like a Man (2012), which also starred Keri Hilson, Chris Brown and Gabrielle Union. On April 30, 2012, it was officially announced that Rowland had departed The X Factor UK, due to a conflicting schedule. She was replaced by former judge of The X Factor USA, Nicole Scherzinger. Rowland was awarded Ultimate TV Personality at the 2011 Cosmopolitan Ultimate Women of the Year Awards, and TV Personality of the Year at the 2012 Glamour Women of the Years Awards, for her role on the show. In August 2012, Rowland became a dance master alongside Jason Derülo, for the first season of the Australian dance talent show Everybody Dance Now. However, on August 21, 2012, the show was cancelled due to poor ratings.
Philanthropy
Rowland and the Knowles family founded the Survivor Foundation, a charitable entity set up to provide transitional housing for 2005 Hurricane Katrina victims and storm evacuees in the Houston, Texas area. The Survivor Foundation extended the philanthropic mission of the Knowles-Rowland Center for Youth, a multi-purpose community outreach facility in downtown Houston. Also, in 2005, Rowland and Knowles lent their voices to a collaboration with Kitten K. Sera, entitled "All That I'm Lookin for." The song appeared on The Katrina CD album, whose proceeds went to the Recording Artists for Hope organization.
In 2006, Rowland joined other artists such as Pink and Avril Lavigne in ads for so-called empowerment tags for the ALDO Fights AIDS campaign, which went on sale exclusively at ALDO stores and benefited the YouthAIDS initiative. In 2007, Rowland, along with stars such as Jessica Simpson and the cast of Grey's Anatomy autographed pink Goody Ouchless brushes that were made available for auction on eBay, with all proceeds going to Breast Cancer Awareness. Also, the singer teamed up with Kanye West, Nelly Furtado, and Snoop Dogg to design a Nike sneaker for another eBay auction. All proceeds went to AIDS Awareness.
In 2008, Rowland officially became an ambassador for MTV's Staying Alive Foundation, which aims to reduce discrimination against people with HIV and AIDS. She has since visited projects in Tanzania and Kenya to promote the charity, and underwent a HIV and AIDS test in Africa to raise awareness of the deadly diseases. In March 2009, she spearheaded a bone marrow drive. As reported, Rowland also is readying a new charity called I Heart My Girlfriends, which will serve as an interactive support system for teenage girls.
In 2009, Rowland connected with Serve.MTV.com, MTV's platform to connect young people with local volunteerism opportunities, for a series of on-air PSAs. From battling homelessness to beautifying impoverished neighborhoods to saving whales, Rowland was joined by the likes of Cameron Diaz, will.i.am, and Sean Kingston as they discuss causes they volunteer to support and urge young people to join with their friends in making civil service a part of their lifestyle. Also, in 2009, Rowland, along with fellow singers Alesha Dixon and Pixie Lott, created T-shirts for River Island in aid of the Prince's Trust, profits from which help change young lives. In March 2010, Rowland launched her brand new charity, I Heart My Girlfriends. According to Rowland's official website, the charity focuses on self-esteem, date violence prevention, community service, abstinence, sports, drug and alcohol and smoking avoidance, obesity, disabilities, education, and more. On April 26, 2010, she was at Grand Ballroom's "City of Hope – Spirit of Life Awards" for a charity event.
Awards and achievements
As a solo artist, Rowland has attained number-one singles on several charts in the United States, including one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, two on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and three on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart. Internationally, she has achieved nine top-ten singles in the United Kingdom, including two number-ones and one UK R&B number-one, and in Australia, she has released six top-twenty singles. With her works, she has earned over 47 international sales certifications to date. Rowland has won 19 awards from 54 nominations and a star on Hollywood Walk of Fame as a Destiny's Child member. She has won four Grammy Awards from 17 nominations and has been honored by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers and Essence magazine for her contributions to music.
In 2003, Rowland received eight nominations and won five for the single "Dilemma" (duet with American rapper Nelly) for international awards. With "Dilemma", Rowland became the first Destiny's Child member to achieve a Billboard Hot 100 and a worldwide number-one single, and to win a Grammy Award as a solo artist. "Dilemma" was ranked fifth on The 40 Biggest Duets Of All Time of Billboard, and has been a merengue version of the song in Spanish done by Papi Sanchez, under the title "Dilema". The song was the 22nd best-selling single of the 2000 decade in the UK
and appeared on the game Karaoke Revolution Presents: American Idol. Beyoncé, during the promotion of the second album Ms. Kelly declared to be proud of Rowland's international successes. Her second worldwide hit "When Love Takes Over" (with French DJ David Guetta) received ten international nominations and won two awards. Single's Electro Extended Mix won a Grammy Awards in "Best Non-Classical, Remixed Recording" category for its remixer. Additionally, British singer Cheryl Cole (of Girls Aloud) credited "When Love Takes Over" for inspiring her taste and preference in dance music, which in turn influenced her second solo single "3 Words" (featuring will.i.am).
Other Rowland's songs that have been nominated or awarded are "Commander" and "Motivation".Entertainment Weekly named "Commander" the number-one summer jam of 2010 and named by Fitness Magazine as one of "The Top 100 Workout Songs of 2010". About "Motivation" and the frequent comparison with Beyoncé, American rapper 50 Cent named Rowland as "The Most Underrated Female" declaring "There wasn't no dance moves Beyoncé was doin' that Kelly wasn't doin'." Destiny's Child member LeToya Luckett speaking about Kelly Rowland and her seven-week non-consecutive R&B number one "Motivation" declared "[Kelly] is still my 'motivation..You know she is one of the most talented girls on the torch of this earth."
She was awarded Ultimate TV Personality at the 2011 Cosmopolitan Ultimate Women of the Year Awards, and TV Personality of the Year at the 2012 Glamour Women of the Years Awards, as a television personality. In 2012, Rowland named one of Glamour Dressed Women in entertainment. After The X Factor, singer Misha B declared, "I had the greatest mentor, Kelly Rowland. I already know she will, there's no taking up on it. Kelly for me, she's more than a mentor. She's been a guardian angel and she's like a sister to me.". In 2020, Rowland was awarded an NAACP Image Award for her guest performance in the television series American Soul as Gladys Knight.
Discography
Studio albums
Simply Deep (2002)
Ms. Kelly (2007)
Here I Am (2011)
Talk a Good Game (2013)
Filmography
Films
Freddy vs. Jason (2003)
The Seat Filler (2005)
Think Like a Man (2012)
Love By the 10th Date (2017)
Merry Liddle Christmas (2019)
Bad Hair (2020)
Black Is King (2020)
Merry Liddle Christmas Wedding (2020)
Merry Liddle Christmas Baby (2021)
Television
List below is about Kelly Rowland's main TV role.
Clash of the Choirs (2007)
The Fashion Show (US) (2009)
The X Factor (UK) (2011)
Everybody Dance Now (2012)
The X Factor (US) (2013)
Chasing Destiny (2016)
The Voice (Australia) (2017–2020)L.A.'s Finest (2019-2020)
American Soul (2019)
A Black Lady Sketch Show (2019)
Boomerang (2020)
Model and testimonial
Testimonial for McDonald's (with Destiny's Child, 2004)
Testimonial for Walmart (with Destiny's Child, 2005)
Testimonial for Empress (2011)
Creator of a line of wristwatches with "TW Steel" (2012)
Model for Jaguar Cars (2013)
Model for Caress (2014)
Testimonial and creator of a glasses line for Smoke + Mirrors (2018)
Testimonial and designer of a gym dress line for Fabletics (2019)
Campaign #MyHairMyCrown with the music video of "Crown" for Dove (2019)
Testimonial and model for a JustFab capsule collection (2020)
Books
Whoa, Baby!: A Guide for New Moms Who Feel Overwhelmed and Freaked Out (and Wonder What the #*$& Just Happened) (2017)
Always With You, Always With Me'' (2022)
Tours
Headlining
2003: Simply Deeper Tour
2007: Ms. Kelly Tour
2013: Lights Out Tour
Supporting
2010: Supafest (Australia)
2011: F.A.M.E. Tour (North America)
2012: Supafest (Australia)
2017: RNB Fridays Live (Australia)
See also
List of best-selling singles
List of artists who reached number one in the United States
References
External links
biography of Kelly Rowland
1981 births
20th-century American actresses
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American singers
21st-century American women singers
Actresses from Atlanta
Actresses from Houston
African-American actresses
African-American female dancers
African-American women singers
African-American women singer-songwriters
African-American feminists
African-American Methodists
African-American television personalities
American child singers
American contemporary R&B singers
American dance musicians
American expatriates in Australia
American expatriates in England
American female dancers
American female hip hop singers
American women pop singers
American women singer-songwriters
American feminists
American film actresses
American house musicians
American mezzo-sopranos
American philanthropists
American women in electronic music
American women philanthropists
BBC Radio 1Xtra presenters
Columbia Records artists
Dance-pop musicians
Dancers from Georgia (U.S. state)
Destiny's Child members
Everybody Dance Now
Feminist musicians
Grammy Award winners
Lamar High School (Houston, Texas) alumni
Living people
Motown artists
Musicians from Atlanta
Musicians from Houston
Participants in American reality television series
Participants in British reality television series
Singer-songwriters from Texas
Singers with a three-octave vocal range
Universal Motown Records artists
Women radio presenters
Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state) | [
-0.042972419410943985,
-0.11747272312641144,
-0.13201826810836792,
0.16384005546569824,
0.39451149106025696,
0.7294914126396179,
0.6286842823028564,
0.11213026940822601,
-0.40647152066230774,
0.06129243224859238,
-0.25361353158950806,
1.0672158002853394,
0.38809001445770264,
-0.030636319890618324,
-0.4704355299472809,
0.1982216238975525,
0.0402873232960701,
0.4617445766925812,
0.2847752571105957,
-0.07069399952888489,
-0.7466035485267639,
0.4491940140724182,
-0.03727521002292633,
-0.527193546295166,
-0.494881272315979,
0.8472196459770203,
-0.6443927884101868,
-0.2055453658103943,
0.17156635224819183,
-0.5237557291984558,
0.4297686219215393,
0.4558540880680084,
0.5284088850021362,
0.12348667532205582,
-0.1417117714881897,
0.3234490156173706,
-0.6842806935310364,
-0.12408196926116943,
-0.4707373380661011,
-0.39558330178260803,
-0.35279580950737,
0.12440598756074905,
0.38928279280662537,
-0.4254641830921173,
-0.39576858282089233,
-0.3013361394405365,
-1.4640378952026367,
0.25243625044822693,
-0.29479721188545227,
-0.6747089624404907,
-0.358097106218338,
0.21597526967525482,
-0.1860474795103073,
0.31242772936820984,
0.11994332820177078,
-0.2092805802822113,
-0.5305982232093811,
-0.819658637046814,
0.1326453536748886,
-0.2083623707294464,
0.8042747378349304,
-0.1563645303249359,
-0.11371337622404099,
-0.595121443271637,
-0.26214170455932617,
-0.00654276367276907,
0.85176020860672,
0.5856037139892578,
-0.4253895878791809,
-0.3981628715991974,
0.29095011949539185,
0.7765007615089417,
0.2588518261909485,
-0.2929117977619171,
-0.3841705024242401,
-0.31106850504875183,
0.3876044452190399,
0.2622930109500885,
0.3470611870288849,
0.4151693284511566,
0.46069803833961487,
0.18793345987796783,
0.6684482097625732,
0.6634343862533569,
-0.2566564679145813,
-0.2115831971168518,
-0.3254662752151489,
0.31425413489341736,
-0.9669298529624939,
0.6578626036643982,
-1.0079975128173828,
0.1258469521999359,
0.37881386280059814,
0.16913530230522156,
-0.47575366497039795,
-0.5077559351921082,
0.028228387236595154,
-0.2889865040779114,
0.8659413456916809,
0.3226778209209442,
-0.5687852501869202,
-0.10249388217926025,
-0.46015578508377075,
-0.6102016568183899,
-0.44878867268562317,
0.6087125539779663,
-0.048966120928525925,
0.11605004966259003,
-0.6058518290519714,
0.45020586252212524,
-0.18676507472991943,
0.1787257343530655,
-0.3593218922615051,
0.5037386417388916,
-0.16879935562610626,
0.37711846828460693,
0.27486860752105713,
0.0821739062666893,
-0.7547109127044678,
-0.2403298169374466,
0.06894322484731674,
-0.3658115267753601,
0.5297703742980957,
0.353274405002594,
-0.08445261418819427,
0.4514402449131012,
-0.08619153499603271,
-0.1326233446598053,
0.17990568280220032,
0.23697279393672943,
0.08803146332502365,
0.05821666494011879,
-0.38921165466308594,
-0.2483387142419815,
-0.617943286895752,
-0.13829194009304047,
-0.05699010565876961,
0.015671245753765106,
0.38358116149902344,
0.29105344414711,
-0.2776755094528198,
-0.12714658677577972,
-0.7095950841903687,
0.2345060110092163,
0.5880526304244995,
-0.024742430076003075,
0.04225055128335953,
0.28138279914855957,
-0.626835823059082,
0.10124816000461578,
-0.11249291151762009,
0.20153044164180756,
0.13089418411254883,
-0.6922042965888977,
-0.8400828242301941,
-0.053732775151729584,
-0.05136550962924957,
-0.17307724058628082,
0.03526639938354492,
0.06966114044189453,
0.39733004570007324,
0.32964852452278137,
-0.013395155780017376,
0.21269239485263824,
0.17555056512355804,
-0.41322022676467896,
0.06393717229366302,
0.025495585054159164,
0.05957258492708206,
-0.2678820490837097,
-0.022244229912757874,
-0.021769428625702858,
-0.345188707113266,
0.2194063663482666,
-0.7283060550689697,
0.5982362627983093,
0.13979002833366394,
0.09463750571012497,
-0.3369291424751282,
0.3026418685913086,
-0.45743268728256226,
0.5349710583686829,
0.1092614233493805,
-0.06445711106061935,
0.032224345952272415,
0.1873505711555481,
0.16686460375785828,
-0.5516507029533386,
0.19480927288532257,
-0.03478775918483734,
-1.0210554599761963,
-0.33942726254463196,
0.32738539576530457,
0.3855096995830536,
0.40910035371780396,
0.3411751389503479,
0.05880989879369736,
0.007220291066914797,
0.06135833263397217,
0.3372231423854828,
-0.39455685019493103,
-0.49342817068099976,
0.23320992290973663,
-0.09265992045402527,
-0.8473643064498901,
0.14873076975345612,
0.6901678442955017,
0.00032138009555637836,
0.10869520157575607,
0.4383510947227478,
-0.36057400703430176,
-0.44994157552719116,
0.32571476697921753,
0.15710370242595673,
0.26163381338119507,
-0.5368759036064148,
-0.6507782340049744,
-0.11557262390851974,
0.20994453132152557,
-0.20293086767196655,
0.4748925268650055,
0.7578760981559753,
0.19656746089458466,
-0.06420214474201202,
0.23563824594020844,
0.6675308346748352,
0.07975419610738754,
-0.15296868979930878,
-0.07789570093154907,
-0.23086024820804596,
-0.07770564407110214,
0.1352878212928772,
0.12325330823659897,
-1.1101151704788208,
0.1647430658340454,
0.3251092731952667,
0.6826592087745667,
-0.01914411596953869,
-0.4414035677909851,
-1.1048365831375122,
0.051456451416015625,
0.04988368973135948,
-0.3396090567111969,
0.08305063843727112,
-0.25924742221832275,
0.25057655572891235,
-0.09003165364265442,
-0.4201553463935852,
-0.1544153094291687,
-0.14729464054107666,
-0.37219151854515076,
0.20721793174743652,
0.6282967329025269,
0.48936647176742554,
0.17753516137599945,
0.004995616618543863,
0.19802460074424744,
0.23594896495342255,
0.1720076948404312,
0.46004652976989746,
0.2538793087005615,
-0.08206953853368759,
0.419840544462204,
0.1613350361585617,
-0.01486344262957573,
0.003102653892710805,
0.09577392786741257,
-0.6025891304016113,
0.5955056548118591,
-0.1516828089952469,
0.2008797973394394,
-0.2758217453956604,
-0.17382660508155823,
0.22137713432312012,
-0.01107801217585802,
0.42445528507232666,
-0.22501637041568756,
-0.1632072627544403,
-0.05938996002078056,
-0.9059555530548096,
0.15505287051200867,
0.6052982211112976,
-0.23168794810771942,
-0.7914761304855347,
0.18301162123680115,
-0.29530200362205505,
-0.027893804013729095,
-0.5398193001747131,
-0.5056686401367188,
-0.26704517006874084,
-0.1309812068939209,
0.42755740880966187,
-0.5721002221107483,
0.26010647416114807,
0.3235751986503601,
-0.6435653567314148,
0.3388182818889618,
0.7276706099510193,
-0.3547317087650299,
-0.01677507907152176,
0.026669010519981384,
0.44927364587783813,
-0.02896214835345745,
0.49139055609703064,
0.849898099899292,
-0.37827610969543457,
0.4441186785697937,
-0.12255650013685226,
-5.531289100646973,
0.06571148335933685,
0.20577622950077057,
-0.25267985463142395,
0.7161950469017029,
-0.11467371881008148,
0.13991504907608032,
-0.3283522427082062,
0.7196798920631409,
0.02003425732254982,
-0.03575511649250984,
0.22092844545841217,
-0.6226843595504761,
0.03294662758708,
-0.020209314301609993,
0.09139130264520645,
0.27139028906822205,
-0.5350720882415771,
0.23003077507019043,
0.7399161458015442,
-0.2748481333255768,
-0.2549583613872528,
-0.266669362783432,
0.33539319038391113,
-0.2895558774471283,
-0.7378627061843872,
-0.18420274555683136,
-0.3173564076423645,
-0.494333952665329,
0.15064746141433716,
-0.42246711254119873,
0.0819384828209877,
-0.6398941278457642,
-0.04636922851204872,
0.02486087568104267,
-0.2580757439136505,
0.4246414005756378,
-0.678479790687561,
0.019477978348731995,
-0.6139055490493774,
0.049263518303632736,
0.3355077803134918,
-0.4923565983772278,
0.3770369589328766,
0.49151089787483215,
0.06728851795196533,
-0.13124817609786987,
-0.47278156876564026,
-0.1286412626504898,
0.7370188236236572,
0.33385947346687317,
-0.20249785482883453,
0.3952474892139435,
-0.5151513814926147,
0.7876119017601013,
-0.6791484951972961,
0.2695292532444,
-0.29603275656700134,
-0.7347946166992188,
0.3481157720088959,
0.38146498799324036,
-0.41452303528785706,
-0.17830120027065277,
-0.01302222441881895,
-0.05775009095668793,
-0.4802536070346832,
0.3010784089565277,
-0.300691694021225,
-0.1723395437002182,
-0.7323979139328003,
-0.42567896842956543,
0.026003872975707054,
-0.23194609582424164,
-1.2870312929153442,
0.1266922503709793,
-0.08024845272302628,
-0.019056102260947227,
0.0001901705254567787,
-0.6386204361915588,
-0.18931260704994202,
0.3772796094417572,
-0.2565198838710785,
0.5175338387489319,
0.4162529408931732,
0.036697063595056534,
-0.5469171404838562,
-0.35771453380584717,
0.006204137112945318,
0.36123523116111755,
-0.014617137610912323,
0.1251796931028366,
-0.33588939905166626,
0.3372398018836975,
0.11561482399702072,
0.24804650247097015,
0.26262521743774414,
0.7635651230812073,
0.4344184398651123,
-0.5389561653137207,
0.1448577493429184,
0.2229793667793274,
0.21716833114624023,
0.44715696573257446,
-0.13116376101970673,
0.4896962642669678,
0.000946236657910049,
0.34048035740852356,
-0.7535514235496521,
0.37363550066947937,
-0.6945439577102661,
0.3265956938266754,
0.2708251476287842,
-0.44918933510780334,
-0.41616642475128174,
0.15422752499580383,
0.15960122644901276,
-0.2876957654953003,
-0.009963292628526688,
0.5602656602859497,
0.466469407081604,
-0.06912761926651001,
0.3601255714893341,
-0.11866091191768646,
0.5812324285507202,
-0.626324474811554,
-0.31337106227874756,
-0.1233174055814743,
0.16096650063991547,
0.09156537055969238,
0.42052730917930603,
0.10499051213264465,
0.044662728905677795,
-0.07694169878959656,
-0.35601183772087097,
0.2113756388425827,
-0.08850959688425064,
0.6927367448806763,
-0.4253728687763214,
-0.20438286662101746,
-0.3491518497467041,
0.1282009333372116,
-0.370868444442749,
0.027673868462443352,
0.6267074346542358,
0.8290919661521912,
-0.4470272958278656,
-0.21856962144374847,
-0.47208142280578613,
-0.09147442132234573,
0.29185253381729126,
0.15319596230983734,
-0.1318315863609314,
0.5148786306381226,
-0.12953117489814758,
0.47633087635040283,
-0.09182077646255493,
-0.3536151349544525,
-0.1532953828573227,
-0.09308405220508575,
-0.18758103251457214,
0.477159708738327,
-0.40990179777145386,
-0.5242615342140198,
0.00023664980835746974,
0.0945533886551857,
-0.13554036617279053,
-0.5042251944541931,
-0.10837379842996597,
-0.1876707822084427,
0.2369888871908188,
-0.027981281280517578,
-0.8565279245376587,
0.02870875969529152,
-0.03457280993461609,
-0.15396898984909058,
0.16935835778713226,
0.0010240951087325811,
-0.06559427827596664,
-0.36359554529190063,
-0.09307923913002014,
-0.3411029875278473,
-0.19996775686740875,
-0.1901692897081375,
-0.3271382451057434,
0.3613816797733307,
-0.2269495129585266,
-0.4337347447872162,
-0.22799159586429596,
0.2583214044570923,
0.4425713121891022,
-0.13075529038906097,
0.08471550792455673,
-0.2826061248779297,
0.27472439408302307,
-0.22066143155097961,
-0.6390302777290344,
0.09907789528369904,
0.5263488292694092,
0.488785058259964,
0.22986537218093872,
-0.4302724003791809,
-0.04461822286248207,
-0.3011912405490875,
0.14838698506355286,
1.0452041625976562,
-0.4575972855091095,
0.382529079914093,
1.104455590248108,
-0.44880032539367676,
0.43880367279052734,
-0.3899756669998169,
-0.5914223790168762,
0.00029804566293023527,
0.04463367164134979,
0.2883133590221405,
0.0357513390481472,
-0.02822103351354599,
0.19713124632835388,
0.21483898162841797,
-0.6052589416503906,
-0.2918749749660492,
-0.6594626903533936,
-0.30074942111968994,
-0.0923948660492897,
-0.5392467975616455,
0.05518016591668129,
0.015754438936710358,
-0.026780085638165474,
0.7273682951927185,
-0.2884778678417206,
-0.6610183119773865,
0.2344377487897873,
0.9425750970840454,
0.6236118078231812,
-0.3531333804130554,
-0.102841317653656,
-0.38232025504112244,
0.7979467511177063,
0.23154133558273315,
-0.05425015091896057,
-0.05552907660603523,
0.19061359763145447,
-0.495697945356369,
0.22618037462234497,
0.39104291796684265,
0.47279876470565796,
-0.14933334290981293,
-0.0953441858291626,
-0.6627359390258789,
-0.048642657697200775,
-0.12858735024929047,
0.03879579156637192,
-0.3653382360935211,
-0.013253668323159218,
0.35257452726364136,
-0.5850433707237244,
-0.3265170753002167,
-0.24468106031417847,
-0.34551694989204407,
-0.15593406558036804,
-0.16306574642658234,
-0.890404999256134,
-0.21007323265075684,
0.001875484362244606,
-0.38926583528518677,
0.07631947100162506,
-0.11542672663927078,
-0.4167199730873108,
-0.2831684648990631,
-0.31824442744255066,
0.20007599890232086,
-0.3945734202861786,
-0.3841039836406708,
0.3944762051105499,
0.21756362915039062,
0.14814293384552002,
0.5559771656990051,
-0.08777677267789841,
-0.43551287055015564,
0.18170183897018433,
-0.026961075142025948,
0.13921751081943512,
-0.5768893957138062,
-0.25615525245666504,
0.7781376242637634,
-0.02906065434217453,
0.3343725800514221,
-0.4266727566719055,
-0.13035368919372559,
-0.019442718476057053,
0.3275919258594513,
1.152054786682129,
-0.13788574934005737,
-0.061682384461164474,
-0.06246739998459816,
0.06925161182880402,
0.3000093400478363,
1.049023985862732,
0.1396021842956543,
-0.11917316913604736,
0.3828090727329254,
0.3949838876724243,
0.5883310437202454,
-0.18607214093208313,
-0.10470553487539291,
-0.047189585864543915,
0.09085795283317566,
-0.5552148818969727,
0.2338683307170868,
0.9063877463340759,
-0.2112431526184082,
0.5361214280128479,
0.45064693689346313,
-0.08447854965925217,
-0.3573315441608429,
0.12722527980804443,
1.0031774044036865,
-0.5449049472808838,
-0.2597736716270447,
0.04135630279779434,
-0.7301715612411499,
-0.9552692174911499,
0.6536939740180969,
0.08275005966424942,
0.6057007908821106,
0.4921042025089264,
0.21889805793762207,
0.4576685428619385,
0.005355802830308676,
1.1686103343963623,
0.4982788860797882,
-0.204863503575325,
0.9508827328681946,
0.35148242115974426,
0.7478762269020081,
-1.0368622541427612,
0.07008367031812668,
0.3159279227256775,
0.4654850959777832,
0.6986168622970581,
-0.10053152590990067,
0.37389764189720154,
0.4424054026603699,
0.22518450021743774,
-0.11490363627672195,
0.3773204982280731,
0.166140615940094,
0.4123145341873169,
-1.2438286542892456,
-0.6098307967185974,
0.1784999668598175,
0.02445356361567974,
0.11026135087013245,
-0.2936834990978241,
1.0191092491149902,
-0.07873116433620453,
-0.1381884068250656,
-0.038487158715724945,
-0.5059969425201416,
0.13307788968086243,
-0.1626497358083725,
-0.5893548727035522,
0.8732526302337646,
0.13748538494110107,
-0.8401101231575012,
-0.38127005100250244,
-0.2010459005832672,
0.003161065746098757,
0.1855725646018982,
-0.09337391704320908,
0.03000285103917122,
0.3594963252544403,
-0.5387263894081116,
0.36781543493270874,
0.29999983310699463,
0.2849876880645752,
0.14770442247390747,
-0.48062387108802795,
-0.5469116568565369,
-0.3065478801727295,
-0.8497523665428162,
-0.20007602870464325,
-0.4709778428077698,
0.08490792661905289,
0.23170776665210724,
0.8179872035980225,
-0.24574096500873566,
0.5803338885307312,
-0.1107887253165245,
-0.0727696493268013,
0.6876609325408936,
-0.036556389182806015,
0.5721126198768616,
0.0863826796412468,
-0.576094388961792,
1.0427379608154297,
0.15832284092903137,
0.35769161581993103,
1.0124492645263672,
0.18503689765930176,
0.48596519231796265,
1.010910153388977,
-0.06196647882461548,
-0.24198007583618164,
-0.8709871172904968,
0.4734899401664734,
-0.24848522245883942,
0.2394883930683136,
-0.06119740381836891,
0.03828975930809975,
-0.25368452072143555,
-0.10632768273353577,
-0.13111640512943268,
-0.3870052695274353,
0.07650287449359894,
0.2827233374118805,
1.0069100856781006,
0.8795028328895569,
0.10823766142129898,
-0.4983648657798767,
-0.24327144026756287,
0.3712047338485718,
-0.051139429211616516,
-0.16912733018398285,
0.0031290496699512005,
0.7334134578704834,
-0.8010908961296082,
-0.025281839072704315,
-0.41741371154785156,
-0.009416168555617332,
0.00807011779397726,
-0.38380885124206543,
-0.5142433047294617,
0.13605616986751556,
-0.5435972213745117,
-1.2517307996749878,
0.19866769015789032,
0.32691681385040283,
0.7849154472351074,
-0.045901086181402206,
0.2545408010482788,
-0.04806223139166832,
-0.16253513097763062,
-0.033945489674806595,
-0.003966814372688532,
0.10976967215538025,
-0.3899743854999542,
0.16236869990825653,
-0.22391578555107117,
-0.11385184526443481,
0.25430676341056824,
-0.4007732570171356,
0.04419627785682678,
-0.4091954827308655,
-0.34981590509414673,
-0.7937470078468323,
0.35203710198402405,
0.019845351576805115,
0.7069130539894104,
-0.4593587815761566
] |
261037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oea | Oea | Oea () was an ancient city in present-day Tripoli, Libya. It was founded by the Phoenicians in the 7th century BC and later became a Roman–Berber colony. As part of the Roman Africa Nova province, Oea and surrounding Tripolitania were prosperous. It reached its height in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, when the city experienced a golden age under the Severan dynasty in nearby Leptis Magna. The city was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate with the spread of Islam in the 7th century and came to be known as Tripoli during the 9th century.
History
The city was founded in the 7th centuryBC by the Phoenicians, who gave it the Libyco-Berber name Oyat (, ), suggesting that the city may have been built upon an existing native Berber village. The Phoenicians were probably attracted to the site by its natural harbour, flanked on the western shore by the small, easily defensible peninsula, on which they established their colony. The city then passed into the hands of the Greek rulers of Cyrenaica as Oea (, ). Cyrene was a colony on the North African shore, a bit east of Tambroli and halfway to Egypt. The Carthaginians later wrested it again from the Greeks.
By the later half of the 2nd century BC, Oea was conquered by the Romans, who included it in their province of Africa, and gave it the name of . Around the beginning of the 3rd century AD, it became known as the , meaning "region of the three cities" (namely Oea (modern Tripoli of Libya), Sabratha and Leptis Magna). It was probably raised to the rank of a separate province by Septimius Severus, who was a native of Leptis Magna.
In spite of centuries of Roman habitation, the only visible Roman remains, apart from scattered columns and capitals (usually integrated in later buildings), is the Arch of Marcus Aurelius from the 2nd century AD. There are also remains of a little temple called , conserved in Tripoli Museum.
The fact that Tripoli has been continuously inhabited, unlike Sabratha and Leptis Magna, has meant that the inhabitants have either quarried material from older buildings (destroying them in the process), or built on top of them, burying them beneath the streets, where they remain largely unexcavated.
Most of the Oea inhabitants continued to use the Phoenician language (mixed with autochthonous Libyan-Berber words) until the end of the 3rd century, even if Latin was the official language and the one used by the elite in the city. Indeed, in the 6th century, when the city was ruled by the Byzantines, only a few were able to speak Latin and all the others spoke Berber, while Phoenician had disappeared. The Christian religion coexisted with the pagan religion of the Berber–Phoenicians until the mid-3rd century. The historian Mommsen wrote that only in the 4th century was Christianity adopted by the citizens of Oea as a whole. The city prospered mainly because Rome stopped bandits from plundering the countryside, but also because the Roman Empire – under Trajan and Septimius Severus – curbed unrest among local tribal groups by creating the Limes Tripolitanus and setting up towns such as Gaerisa, forts such as Garbia, and centenaria farms along the southern edge of the Oea territory.
The names of three bishops of Oea are recorded in extant documents. At the Council of Carthage (255), which Cyprian called to discuss baptism administered by heretics, Natalis of Oea spoke in his own name and on behalf of the bishops of Sabratha and Leptis Magna. Marinianus, a Donatist, was at the joint meeting of Catholic and Donatist bishops in Carthage in 411, a time when Oea had no Catholic bishop. Cresconius was one of the Catholic bishops whom Huneric summoned to a meeting at Carthage in 484 and then exiled. Victor Vitensis says Cresconius was already bishop of Oea under King Genseric (428–467). He is mentioned in the Roman Martyrology under 28 November along with other victims of persecution by the Vandals.
Thomas C. Oden says that a bishop of Oea, whom he does not name, was at the Council of Ephesus of 431.
The diocese was mentioned in an early 8th-century Notitia Episcopatuum of Alexandria and in that of Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise at the end of the 9th century, No longer a residential bishopric, Oea is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
There is evidence that the Tripolitania region was in relative economic decline during the 5th and 6th centuries, in part due to the political unrest spreading across the Mediterranean world in the wake of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, as well as pressure from the invading Vandals. However the Byzantines, under emperor Justinian I, gave some prosperity to the city and probably created Christian churches for the local Berber population of the city and of the surroundings. Indeed, Christianity remained in the Oea/Tripolis area until the 11th century, as can be deduced from archeological research done in the nearby oasis of Gefara (where a Christian community was ruled by a "iudex").
According to Al-Baladhuri, Tripoli was, unlike Western North Africa, taken by the Muslims just after Alexandria, in November 643. Retaken by the Byzantine army a few years later, Oea was finally conquered around 680. Even if partially destroyed, the city did not disappear under the sands in the next two centuries like Sabratha and Leptis Magna, but grew to be the capital of Tripolitania. In the 9th century the name "Oea" was replaced by the present name "Tripoli".
Immediately after the Italian conquest, the Italian administration carried out (mainly from 1919) conservation and restoration work in the city, and the Italian architect Florestano Di Fausto rearranged the area around the Arch of Marcus Aurelius in the 1930s.
See also
Arch of Marcus Aurelius
Caesarea of Mauretania
Cirta
Diocese of Oea
Florestano Di Fausto
Lambaesis
Leptis Magna
Colonia (Roman)
Sabratha
Thamugadi
Thubactis
Thysdrus
Volubilis
References
Citations
Bibliography
.
.
.
.
.
.
Roman sites in Libya
Phoenician colonies in Libya
History of Tripolitania
Archaeological sites in Libya
Catholic titular sees in Africa
Populated places of the Byzantine Empire
Ancient Berber cities
Roman towns and cities in Africa (Roman province)
Ancient Greek geography of North Africa | [
0.027232706546783447,
0.022128872573375702,
-0.66124427318573,
0.014276406727731228,
0.23496244847774506,
0.9491972923278809,
-0.17308954894542694,
0.7311481833457947,
-0.02881615236401558,
-0.15169018507003784,
0.012266446836292744,
0.19740651547908783,
-0.7404701113700867,
0.41451600193977356,
-0.2554481029510498,
0.04035725072026253,
-0.06615699082612991,
0.37463366985321045,
0.30031731724739075,
-0.28861644864082336,
0.34216371178627014,
-0.05800408497452736,
0.0018665525130927563,
-0.013625107705593109,
-0.3105367124080658,
-0.669898509979248,
-0.05031190440058708,
0.17922858893871307,
0.3654511868953705,
-0.19214963912963867,
-0.17041830718517303,
0.6925971508026123,
-0.36461982131004333,
-0.592911958694458,
-0.5744726061820984,
0.6278520226478577,
0.3622283339500427,
-0.038891375064849854,
0.07085193693637848,
0.15895621478557587,
-0.12013580650091171,
-0.18984673917293549,
0.7405372262001038,
0.4101574718952179,
-0.045710038393735886,
-0.1697901487350464,
-1.6093732118606567,
0.22946839034557343,
-0.6968296766281128,
0.6091406941413879,
-0.5444223880767822,
-0.10565171390771866,
-0.33579209446907043,
0.32519373297691345,
0.14022241532802582,
1.2227411270141602,
-0.6923556923866272,
-0.26463770866394043,
0.5606262683868408,
0.058808308094739914,
0.5634743571281433,
0.4469875991344452,
-0.028523245826363564,
-0.060986652970314026,
0.5305535793304443,
0.32284247875213623,
-0.3604890704154968,
0.7343254089355469,
0.18974436819553375,
0.009831801988184452,
-0.6226464509963989,
0.48800238966941833,
-0.6724599599838257,
0.3805682957172394,
-0.31888434290885925,
-0.4608134925365448,
-0.4078866243362427,
-0.2189759463071823,
0.18481439352035522,
0.5271910429000854,
0.5629933476448059,
-0.1998104453086853,
0.5906051397323608,
-0.07896038889884949,
0.10929255187511444,
0.1788424849510193,
-0.9133635759353638,
0.31735002994537354,
-0.5009618401527405,
-0.15196391940116882,
-0.3361252248287201,
-0.4276523292064667,
0.11761460453271866,
0.10567548125982285,
-0.4926953911781311,
0.330096036195755,
-0.724060595035553,
0.3032371699810028,
-0.13001596927642822,
0.020817657932639122,
-0.697741687297821,
-0.03183215856552124,
-0.10061810910701752,
-0.3409894108772278,
-0.688252866268158,
0.014229136519134045,
0.0910387709736824,
-0.23813840746879578,
0.06535916030406952,
-0.13834983110427856,
-0.7478665113449097,
0.6735982894897461,
0.006916516460478306,
0.12510767579078674,
-0.48719149827957153,
0.2795332670211792,
-0.21191419661045074,
0.08070522546768188,
-0.4166707396507263,
-0.48101431131362915,
0.08964192867279053,
0.8570149540901184,
-0.15482060611248016,
-0.06448061019182205,
-0.2551591694355011,
0.13704457879066467,
0.659893274307251,
0.36335289478302,
-0.4972621500492096,
0.5094835758209229,
0.19298234581947327,
0.3804618716239929,
-0.383634477853775,
0.2942507863044739,
0.4581508934497833,
0.09646166861057281,
-0.49905309081077576,
0.3027886748313904,
0.3857574164867401,
-0.05529191344976425,
-0.583918035030365,
0.16904976963996887,
-0.5135319828987122,
0.25799304246902466,
-0.028670087456703186,
-0.5363380312919617,
0.3185805678367615,
-0.4698909521102905,
-0.0333850160241127,
-0.6237321496009827,
0.37297698855400085,
-0.4006814658641815,
0.5544759631156921,
0.4954574704170227,
-0.47358039021492004,
-0.8797342777252197,
0.7067890167236328,
0.1170148104429245,
-0.19416391849517822,
0.13483622670173645,
0.1313823014497757,
-0.6360670328140259,
0.42578813433647156,
0.3614995777606964,
0.17499388754367828,
0.28937196731567383,
1.0903959274291992,
-0.1586916148662567,
0.5170310139656067,
0.5926955342292786,
-0.22163249552249908,
-0.7103801369667053,
0.215251624584198,
0.4949030578136444,
-0.5250948071479797,
-0.038858454674482346,
0.8592547178268433,
0.43933677673339844,
-0.05863698199391365,
-0.20392441749572754,
-0.8221579194068909,
-0.6847180128097534,
-0.24108469486236572,
0.19980129599571228,
0.4693606495857239,
0.02601245976984501,
0.397685170173645,
-0.2941722273826599,
-0.3181011378765106,
0.05759177356958389,
-0.17589133977890015,
-0.20056018233299255,
-0.010780268348753452,
-0.41812315583229065,
1.3486343622207642,
0.23052476346492767,
-0.8104291558265686,
0.16737166047096252,
-0.0007898429757915437,
1.0317821502685547,
-0.32125720381736755,
-0.14115333557128906,
0.6971501111984253,
-0.23657235503196716,
-0.24681127071380615,
0.486623078584671,
-0.05965838208794594,
0.4450443685054779,
0.22367604076862335,
0.6310040354728699,
-0.21237210929393768,
0.21716462075710297,
0.31891730427742004,
-0.01912675052881241,
-0.03533250093460083,
-0.5038804411888123,
-0.14254611730575562,
0.3176058232784271,
-0.26888352632522583,
-0.5573969483375549,
0.3604779541492462,
-0.5826164484024048,
-0.12390093505382538,
-0.36501413583755493,
0.33939653635025024,
0.026950882747769356,
0.7411292791366577,
-0.15171581506729126,
-0.23791518807411194,
-0.6469333171844482,
0.10452944040298462,
0.3967941999435425,
0.4481677711009979,
-0.1354581117630005,
0.1855725347995758,
-0.2774205803871155,
-0.00549751752987504,
-1.0858063697814941,
0.3306358754634857,
-0.1312304139137268,
0.02804230898618698,
0.1517268568277359,
-0.6074950695037842,
0.39333996176719666,
0.5871430039405823,
0.30670061707496643,
0.268260657787323,
0.03119504079222679,
-0.12762239575386047,
-0.12089874595403671,
-0.41519469022750854,
-0.4851777255535126,
0.42254316806793213,
-0.25274184346199036,
0.31877315044403076,
-0.602455198764801,
0.3920690715312958,
0.38693735003471375,
0.3750835061073303,
-0.7733314037322998,
-0.48353034257888794,
-0.018305962905287743,
0.48295295238494873,
0.2791016101837158,
0.7578060030937195,
-0.08548124134540558,
-0.17019471526145935,
-0.8188802003860474,
0.05145934224128723,
-0.08602742105722427,
0.807307779788971,
-0.3047407269477844,
-0.12073373794555664,
0.3305482864379883,
0.2915743589401245,
-0.025214457884430885,
-0.8583553433418274,
-0.12743069231510162,
-0.6805053353309631,
0.021210333332419395,
0.5382663011550903,
0.5038148760795593,
-0.7007333040237427,
-0.5763140916824341,
-0.028333589434623718,
0.3011099100112915,
0.2613968253135681,
-0.7434719800949097,
-0.08529279381036758,
-0.31041252613067627,
0.38326939940452576,
-0.18723592162132263,
-0.4281981289386749,
0.47865504026412964,
0.6776679158210754,
-0.1425320953130722,
-0.19216811656951904,
0.1541055291891098,
0.07986141741275787,
-0.5836886763572693,
-0.8919678926467896,
0.42349767684936523,
-0.36325129866600037,
0.14393892884254456,
0.6499263048171997,
0.1260196566581726,
0.011301013641059399,
0.41930708289146423,
-5.207500457763672,
0.46722447872161865,
-0.10006412118673325,
0.07659535855054855,
-0.14499354362487793,
-0.07559062540531158,
0.20185430347919464,
0.09858663380146027,
0.3840579688549042,
0.21024112403392792,
0.14556166529655457,
0.03675153851509094,
-0.37599027156829834,
0.8587564826011658,
0.3149152398109436,
0.8658071160316467,
0.3953511714935303,
0.05064517632126808,
-0.4568231403827667,
0.24504493176937103,
-0.3626333475112915,
0.7058694362640381,
-0.4865713119506836,
0.7330873012542725,
-0.013271170668303967,
0.6775245070457458,
-0.07764288038015366,
0.1429896205663681,
-0.9561303853988647,
-0.5219299793243408,
-0.15713785588741302,
-0.41313329339027405,
0.6033592820167542,
-0.19432315230369568,
-0.029047569260001183,
0.5985756516456604,
0.6942240595817566,
-0.11662635952234268,
-0.11413642764091492,
-0.3269706070423126,
-0.45081016421318054,
-0.3387432098388672,
-0.5380072593688965,
0.01021535787731409,
0.6568715572357178,
-0.843030571937561,
-0.359842449426651,
-0.27979668974876404,
0.1217254251241684,
0.5634399652481079,
-0.05022425949573517,
-0.07511666417121887,
0.41113752126693726,
0.13725373148918152,
-0.3163484036922455,
0.3866094946861267,
0.4730342626571655,
0.07338851690292358,
0.17123983800411224,
0.3416731059551239,
0.584763765335083,
-0.3238111734390259,
-0.590533435344696,
-0.8746619820594788,
0.056421857327222824,
-0.5919090509414673,
0.31895825266838074,
0.14477333426475525,
-0.3704248368740082,
0.5248124003410339,
-0.19633397459983826,
0.5542507171630859,
-0.4539683163166046,
-1.1060301065444946,
-0.4327486753463745,
-0.48631957173347473,
-0.1870930939912796,
-0.36031800508499146,
-0.6848537921905518,
-0.1749313324689865,
-0.32416680455207825,
-0.28136882185935974,
0.16988907754421234,
0.5249479413032532,
0.0681736022233963,
0.25370728969573975,
0.09392855316400528,
0.29906705021858215,
-0.2421800047159195,
-0.1191965863108635,
1.1621524095535278,
-0.17371293902397156,
0.19036714732646942,
1.0082271099090576,
0.0006450152141042054,
0.7835056185722351,
-0.2891686260700226,
-0.31767427921295166,
1.2175520658493042,
0.24846138060092926,
-0.2992503046989441,
-0.04556373879313469,
-0.05367482081055641,
0.6135901808738708,
-0.202192023396492,
-0.3771219849586487,
-0.7529295682907104,
-0.2509223222732544,
0.31530267000198364,
-0.5558283925056458,
0.40217676758766174,
0.1906721144914627,
0.0009438896086066961,
0.30642351508140564,
0.709364116191864,
-0.13511493802070618,
0.6868984699249268,
1.2624235153198242,
0.7764084935188293,
0.2691196799278259,
0.05940091609954834,
0.47246959805488586,
-0.17902493476867676,
-0.7801607847213745,
-0.9902441501617432,
-0.2852143347263336,
0.013695774599909782,
0.5552886724472046,
-0.6509182453155518,
0.5385897755622864,
-0.10737860202789307,
-0.4195919930934906,
0.01603967510163784,
0.35200634598731995,
0.1576647162437439,
-0.3772265315055847,
-0.4926917254924774,
-0.4831327795982361,
-0.09189923107624054,
0.41754838824272156,
-0.23419155180454254,
-0.39985769987106323,
-0.7674488425254822,
0.144021138548851,
0.20191089808940887,
0.5026257038116455,
-0.06383201479911804,
-0.14649002254009247,
-0.928716242313385,
0.23924989998340607,
-0.4215289354324341,
-0.478461354970932,
-0.17069017887115479,
-0.17542552947998047,
-0.5375742316246033,
0.06897196918725967,
0.1877700388431549,
0.28869885206222534,
-0.12696217000484467,
0.20897550880908966,
-0.029050679877400398,
-0.6459121704101562,
-0.8205401301383972,
0.052226029336452484,
-0.28432396054267883,
0.0341876782476902,
-0.17250214517116547,
-0.5464217662811279,
-0.5855401754379272,
0.23991087079048157,
0.2886093556880951,
-0.0952792763710022,
-0.3139767646789551,
-0.5570211410522461,
0.21371126174926758,
-0.5530387759208679,
-0.2178279608488083,
0.30246469378471375,
-0.33253014087677,
-0.5129743814468384,
-0.24994276463985443,
-0.42224612832069397,
-0.21924017369747162,
-0.4306226074695587,
0.11896878480911255,
-0.45254024863243103,
-0.5751469135284424,
-0.7200990319252014,
-0.23461689054965973,
-0.4391939640045166,
-0.008373789489269257,
-0.11196628957986832,
-0.8286386728286743,
0.25666099786758423,
0.195956289768219,
-0.6824662089347839,
0.4171331226825714,
-0.5104759931564331,
-0.1500498652458191,
-0.23936216533184052,
-0.68901526927948,
0.12075705081224442,
-0.8676919937133789,
0.6368870139122009,
-1.0319808721542358,
-0.7348465323448181,
0.9516130685806274,
0.35329294204711914,
-0.5176272988319397,
0.43056368827819824,
-1.1133686304092407,
-1.1405647993087769,
0.10792241245508194,
0.7625653147697449,
-0.7057105898857117,
0.5664594769477844,
-0.061694465577602386,
0.3152887523174286,
-0.10796336084604263,
-0.5200878381729126,
-0.060953736305236816,
-0.3839914798736572,
0.09701478481292725,
-0.1284000426530838,
-0.022708361968398094,
0.734258234500885,
0.5153674483299255,
-0.2950403690338135,
0.06819634884595871,
-0.44520118832588196,
0.15359361469745636,
0.5313131213188171,
0.4954640865325928,
0.047999002039432526,
0.17054440081119537,
-0.31199967861175537,
0.19851355254650116,
-0.4184633195400238,
0.028902389109134674,
0.5693246722221375,
0.5605088472366333,
0.16212943196296692,
0.027937408536672592,
0.3824770450592041,
0.20034955441951752,
0.27119356393814087,
0.2684553861618042,
-0.13101820647716522,
-0.4834912419319153,
0.15297295153141022,
0.25154149532318115,
0.08287953585386276,
-1.0888134241104126,
-0.6509144902229309,
0.21444296836853027,
-0.3882691562175751,
0.3274132311344147,
0.7862221598625183,
-0.3989119231700897,
0.1151411235332489,
0.6447027325630188,
-0.40252387523651123,
-0.049842312932014465,
0.3154926896095276,
-0.07060866057872772,
0.21264009177684784,
-0.005857708398252726,
-0.2560851275920868,
0.5054600238800049,
-0.6364924907684326,
0.015551782213151455,
-0.587643563747406,
0.8026036024093628,
0.5173922777175903,
-0.34104296565055847,
-0.23215919733047485,
0.6184611916542053,
-0.40358731150627136,
0.42912498116493225,
-0.019603434950113297,
-0.9476571679115295,
0.35252195596694946,
-0.07233348488807678,
0.09878520667552948,
0.011636988259851933,
-1.0760480165481567,
0.02641889452934265,
0.2791832983493805,
-0.027962321415543556,
0.4041319787502289,
0.1165240928530693,
-0.08350040763616562,
-0.00031935874721966684,
0.13291898369789124,
0.42529627680778503,
-0.1852138191461563,
-0.3757016658782959,
0.32027673721313477,
-0.4960097074508667,
0.0297334473580122,
-1.6558781862258911,
0.3112533390522003,
0.3104090690612793,
0.1250622719526291,
0.2108684629201889,
0.21605239808559418,
-0.012354875914752483,
-0.09508410096168518,
-0.16748970746994019,
0.5434108972549438,
-0.19438378512859344,
-0.12431704998016357,
0.049260035157203674,
0.6251009106636047,
-0.24887210130691528,
0.1745280772447586,
0.6117894053459167,
-0.33020031452178955,
-0.2575386166572571,
0.4757942855358124,
-0.16323955357074738,
-0.36588940024375916,
0.23614342510700226,
0.22482901811599731,
0.25398534536361694,
0.24544253945350647,
-0.31253373622894287,
0.40980005264282227,
-0.18144161999225616,
0.8016367554664612,
0.44255927205085754,
-0.41334497928619385,
-0.18861152231693268,
0.5491166114807129,
-0.273811012506485,
-0.40834009647369385,
-0.20995956659317017,
-0.6687147617340088,
0.015838341787457466,
0.46556323766708374,
0.44734111428260803,
0.6995404958724976,
0.31326770782470703,
-0.300960510969162,
-0.14369699358940125,
0.4543500244617462,
-0.247828409075737,
-0.14070382714271545,
0.14301948249340057,
-0.4947957396507263,
0.5656142830848694,
-0.08367907255887985,
-0.09340476244688034,
-0.4285137355327606,
-0.5369886159896851,
0.3643265664577484,
-0.0846697986125946,
0.07558975368738174,
-0.28990796208381653,
1.1554597616195679,
0.40982481837272644,
0.1649114489555359,
0.508270263671875,
-0.1313047558069229,
-0.4186837375164032,
0.3686065673828125,
0.05959977209568024,
-0.8884971737861633,
-0.19597257673740387,
0.762881875038147,
0.2082604169845581,
0.28609636425971985,
-0.03159250319004059,
-0.2259296327829361,
0.561926007270813,
0.5592517852783203,
0.09364838898181915,
0.6383975744247437,
0.07940535992383957,
-0.1495928317308426,
-0.48504701256752014,
0.08174864202737808,
-0.1935579925775528,
-0.24400635063648224,
0.17332591116428375,
-0.2517035901546478,
0.3253917396068573,
-0.04075022041797638,
-0.2709323763847351,
-0.12622974812984467,
-0.3289419114589691,
-0.6528061032295227,
-0.15645013749599457,
0.157515287399292,
-0.2276356965303421,
-0.23989325761795044,
0.15221048891544342,
0.21448995172977448,
0.11629457026720047,
0.3840928375720978,
0.6054897308349609,
-0.4746505320072174,
0.09968357533216476,
0.15127381682395935,
0.1264760047197342,
0.5710710883140564,
-0.40994083881378174,
0.47850191593170166,
-0.7793251276016235,
-0.11389368027448654,
0.09890298545360565,
0.9049041271209717,
0.4762602746486664,
0.6634618043899536,
-0.04296642914414406,
0.28354668617248535,
0.27269071340560913,
-0.27455011010169983,
-0.04809284955263138,
0.12239699065685272,
-0.21391011774539948,
-0.3337312936782837,
-0.11472138017416,
0.3877045214176178,
-0.28670406341552734,
0.10983096063137054,
-0.08826617151498795,
0.06593804061412811,
-0.3565070331096649,
0.5634894371032715,
0.1991204470396042,
0.20904313027858734,
-0.49506813287734985,
-0.5578720569610596,
-0.5412128567695618,
0.1252279281616211,
-0.04201899841427803,
0.13313208520412445,
0.348043829202652,
-0.475033700466156,
0.6781783103942871,
0.26061832904815674,
0.16233794391155243,
0.3085916042327881,
0.38431572914123535,
0.6726504564285278,
-1.0104703903198242,
-0.26120513677597046,
-0.04663445055484772,
0.5033036470413208,
0.06310396641492844,
-0.5605392456054688,
1.1365662813186646,
0.29680389165878296,
-0.386068731546402,
-0.6639569997787476,
0.16704967617988586,
-1.0465397834777832,
0.6342633962631226,
0.181747704744339
] |
261038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manger | Manger |
A manger or trough is a rack for fodder, or a structure or feeder used to hold food for animals. The word comes from the Old French mangier (meaning "to eat"), from Latin mandere (meaning "to chew").
Mangers are mostly used in livestock raising and generally found at stables and farmhouses. They are also used to feed wild animals, e.g., in nature reserves.
A similar trough providing drinking water for domestic or non-domestic animals is a watering trough and may be part of a larger watering structure called abreuvoir.
Christian symbol
A manger is also a Christian symbol, associated with nativity scenes where Mary and Joseph, forced by necessity to stay in a room for animals instead of a guest room, used a manger as a makeshift crib for the Baby Jesus. ( phatnē; Luke 2:7).
Gallery
See also
Away in a Manger, a Christmas carol
Bird feeder
The Dog in the Manger, a metaphor
References
External links
Livestock
Christian symbols | [
0.46053868532180786,
-0.1708732694387436,
-0.660241961479187,
0.061362914741039276,
0.08575981110334396,
0.6254816651344299,
-0.15600410103797913,
-0.32913580536842346,
-0.5855576992034912,
-0.48484042286872864,
-0.33459189534187317,
0.4066339433193207,
-0.1704109013080597,
0.06656908988952637,
-0.38958486914634705,
0.0433063767850399,
0.47639375925064087,
0.006978681776672602,
0.13720746338367462,
-0.155243918299675,
-0.5557414293289185,
-0.4214002192020416,
-0.10681900382041931,
-0.23743385076522827,
0.7707616686820984,
-0.04063858464360237,
0.2151332050561905,
0.3405330777168274,
0.026091458275914192,
-0.06103195622563362,
0.19050106406211853,
0.3301698863506317,
0.06928490847349167,
-0.3546390235424042,
0.018313851207494736,
-0.2860919237136841,
0.1882365494966507,
-0.19639085233211517,
-0.373716801404953,
-0.6635900735855103,
-0.03881019353866577,
0.2092328667640686,
0.13442103564739227,
0.8705450892448425,
-0.4045886695384979,
-0.012867407873272896,
-1.2098722457885742,
0.0899239256978035,
-1.003859519958496,
0.37562304735183716,
-0.658291757106781,
0.03859687224030495,
-0.015518137253820896,
0.04112750291824341,
-0.13159151375293732,
0.5952855944633484,
0.07039162516593933,
0.6013360023498535,
0.34292083978652954,
-0.5720281004905701,
-0.22068102657794952,
0.01643393561244011,
0.26321494579315186,
0.253764808177948,
0.19815942645072937,
-0.2156512290239334,
-0.263476699590683,
0.12613895535469055,
0.042177267372608185,
-0.2656506597995758,
-0.4397762417793274,
-0.43220195174217224,
-0.3000718057155609,
0.448961079120636,
0.0836750939488411,
-0.6301977634429932,
-0.2526399493217468,
-0.30079302191734314,
-0.10375913232564926,
0.38981953263282776,
-0.3006136119365692,
0.5347562432289124,
-0.09904497116804123,
-0.3575998544692993,
0.4930279552936554,
0.25728780031204224,
-0.1193218007683754,
0.33208024501800537,
-0.3143351674079895,
0.49276790022850037,
0.7918236255645752,
-0.17438127100467682,
0.31797894835472107,
0.1666918396949768,
-0.39405587315559387,
0.038739848881959915,
0.5166374444961548,
-0.029856886714696884,
0.4619904160499573,
-0.07380209118127823,
-0.22484181821346283,
-0.15723446011543274,
1.0047411918640137,
-0.1932787448167801,
0.10248738527297974,
-0.1224319264292717,
-0.004234531428664923,
-0.48368677496910095,
-0.16605570912361145,
-0.3702140748500824,
-0.013751830905675888,
0.3001526892185211,
-0.10277918726205826,
0.11231750249862671,
-0.05939518287777901,
0.39086154103279114,
0.3275963068008423,
0.23126809298992157,
-0.4751587510108948,
-0.1638890951871872,
0.5215736031532288,
0.41976580023765564,
0.24892926216125488,
0.1274661123752594,
-0.5329404473304749,
-0.6953544020652771,
0.2843936085700989,
0.7349731922149658,
-0.2880154252052307,
-0.057885512709617615,
0.3245416283607483,
0.5826976299285889,
-0.25469550490379333,
0.39771509170532227,
-0.5711062550544739,
0.07447528094053268,
0.21872685849666595,
-0.18336951732635498,
0.34991589188575745,
0.18499135971069336,
-1.106550693511963,
-0.023505186662077904,
-0.3522002398967743,
-0.5007649660110474,
-0.018623925745487213,
-0.2416372150182724,
0.14475983381271362,
-0.6671266555786133,
-0.2646150588989258,
-0.2212582230567932,
0.14161112904548645,
0.3341212272644043,
0.5055528879165649,
0.21184629201889038,
-0.3792332708835602,
-0.3034108877182007,
-0.04558074474334717,
-0.1714196652173996,
-0.18331336975097656,
-0.28320810198783875,
0.14308641850948334,
0.019771866500377655,
-0.42938515543937683,
-0.26007744669914246,
-0.010276943445205688,
-0.3414895236492157,
0.04131278395652771,
0.3791722357273102,
-0.37524867057800293,
-0.11220776289701462,
0.15658582746982574,
0.028187308460474014,
0.21032685041427612,
0.15200205147266388,
-0.4196285307407379,
0.06495315581560135,
0.12798602879047394,
0.29607704281806946,
0.7051928043365479,
0.07698383927345276,
-0.6131383776664734,
0.4237764775753021,
0.5314053893089294,
-0.3880488872528076,
0.14228518307209015,
-0.1946033090353012,
0.3995990455150604,
-0.34691861271858215,
-0.15487255156040192,
-0.2237602025270462,
-0.6915072798728943,
-0.7654737234115601,
-0.09316138178110123,
-0.10401315242052078,
0.99641352891922,
-0.42835357785224915,
-0.2136884331703186,
0.23275306820869446,
0.43031731247901917,
-0.1902342587709427,
-0.47015124559402466,
-0.21687784790992737,
0.20671817660331726,
-0.6929342150688171,
-0.9512134790420532,
0.6775373816490173,
0.31196916103363037,
0.006236268673092127,
0.5435113310813904,
-0.2348763644695282,
0.38997477293014526,
-0.2764650881290436,
0.4742199778556824,
-0.7694569230079651,
0.22090201079845428,
0.35216063261032104,
-0.14086052775382996,
0.6165401935577393,
0.1736876666545868,
-0.3339967429637909,
1.0146023035049438,
-0.14863206446170807,
-0.2579772174358368,
0.46251246333122253,
-0.12365911155939102,
0.5733749270439148,
0.183608278632164,
-0.35570502281188965,
0.4134473502635956,
-0.9163699746131897,
0.3821268379688263,
-0.2146085649728775,
0.29274260997772217,
-0.04072870314121246,
-0.8248667120933533,
0.16718697547912598,
0.5298248529434204,
0.08158856630325317,
0.24049337208271027,
-0.3147565722465515,
0.047702398151159286,
0.4032210409641266,
-0.13847972452640533,
0.06321310997009277,
0.47573456168174744,
-0.0511336587369442,
0.08064327389001846,
0.7382122874259949,
-0.2863835096359253,
-0.6063756942749023,
0.4919411540031433,
0.2975754737854004,
0.8072338700294495,
-0.06233615428209305,
-0.18676212430000305,
-0.5078935027122498,
-0.14014241099357605,
0.0718294307589531,
0.5386499166488647,
-0.01613721251487732,
-0.46735844016075134,
0.11238931119441986,
-0.14329218864440918,
0.013850840739905834,
-0.01969459094107151,
-0.09938875585794449,
-0.3024936020374298,
-0.2149074822664261,
0.38704386353492737,
0.6774676442146301,
1.059584140777588,
0.5207729935646057,
-0.64259272813797,
-0.7052622437477112,
-0.10895613580942154,
-0.8271459937095642,
1.2141131162643433,
-0.1869020164012909,
-0.057527367025613785,
-0.3953002095222473,
0.13605283200740814,
0.4704216420650482,
0.7450320720672607,
-0.518600344657898,
-0.02479182556271553,
-0.579910933971405,
0.10754542052745819,
-0.15380467474460602,
0.30656880140304565,
-0.257914274930954,
-0.06155743449926376,
0.6313574910163879,
0.08726503700017929,
0.38954517245292664,
0.20831085741519928,
0.33935320377349854,
-0.25257444381713867,
-0.05856630578637123,
0.638610303401947,
-0.7117023468017578,
-0.20165403187274933,
-0.275442510843277,
-0.20563435554504395,
0.3425636887550354,
-0.2038385421037674,
-0.12933945655822754,
-0.043915044516325,
-0.2089952677488327,
-5.860549449920654,
0.16579166054725647,
-0.15064607560634613,
-0.3870077431201935,
0.8251171112060547,
0.0672120675444603,
0.5153443217277527,
-0.1835249811410904,
-0.05958104878664017,
0.08923609554767609,
-0.29655858874320984,
0.07822371274232864,
0.707638680934906,
-0.12080097943544388,
0.7381696105003357,
0.05193634331226349,
0.17102089524269104,
0.6883436441421509,
-0.07208096235990524,
0.02208470180630684,
-0.07201141119003296,
0.0069140223786234856,
-0.1698809713125229,
0.5388017296791077,
-0.46900370717048645,
-0.1366945505142212,
-0.34877485036849976,
-0.015508648939430714,
-0.3186357915401459,
-0.3907550573348999,
0.0889337807893753,
-0.24008062481880188,
-0.10374950617551804,
-0.44093045592308044,
0.32194772362709045,
-0.21730361878871918,
0.3032301068305969,
0.2525007128715515,
0.30372145771980286,
-0.15179522335529327,
0.053718388080596924,
0.5827446579933167,
0.5517304539680481,
-0.044386979192495346,
0.32134944200515747,
-0.3252585530281067,
-0.49711865186691284,
-0.5503293871879578,
-0.24005334079265594,
0.5211835503578186,
0.3151652216911316,
0.23319773375988007,
0.25878214836120605,
-0.3644541800022125,
0.2394181489944458,
-0.2926888167858124,
0.8513805866241455,
0.3220352530479431,
-0.27264514565467834,
-0.11300105601549149,
0.2689136564731598,
-0.43941357731819153,
-0.1703122854232788,
-0.2921193838119507,
-0.26040682196617126,
0.08735062181949615,
-0.08138040453195572,
-0.23383797705173492,
0.36737942695617676,
0.0835704356431961,
-0.4009455740451813,
0.18014436960220337,
0.6609259843826294,
-0.9729136824607849,
0.5458102226257324,
-0.36978021264076233,
-0.02189916931092739,
-0.14389315247535706,
0.2623857259750366,
-0.06383809447288513,
-0.15558546781539917,
-0.6184536218643188,
0.03757774457335472,
-0.18606853485107422,
0.3058147430419922,
-0.7095810174942017,
-0.32349178194999695,
-0.668563961982727,
-0.5222763419151306,
-0.20622538030147552,
0.9683493375778198,
-0.016514277085661888,
0.19988784193992615,
0.11442866921424866,
0.5525168180465698,
0.567872166633606,
0.06177328899502754,
-0.0720784142613411,
0.38507017493247986,
0.18626853823661804,
0.8308685421943665,
0.12739278376102448,
-0.09451153874397278,
-0.3495658338069916,
0.004621869884431362,
-0.12009585648775101,
-0.15779832005500793,
0.9435333609580994,
1.2108120918273926,
0.22952881455421448,
0.44250091910362244,
0.28518301248550415,
-0.29967769980430603,
-0.6642373204231262,
-0.12937231361865997,
0.628634512424469,
-0.6771208643913269,
0.14716538786888123,
0.6167425513267517,
-0.0914459377527237,
0.5466164350509644,
-0.249471977353096,
-0.2918400764465332,
-0.5214486718177795,
0.008669734932482243,
-0.1969856321811676,
0.7541918158531189,
-0.4092830419540405,
0.311852365732193,
-0.19187091290950775,
0.8011021018028259,
0.09224055707454681,
0.09876810759305954,
-0.5177916288375854,
-0.10669904947280884,
-0.04826201871037483,
-0.2440684288740158,
-0.07192613184452057,
-0.16774946451187134,
-0.27251866459846497,
-0.5568568706512451,
-0.3131164312362671,
-0.018375130370259285,
0.03781668841838837,
0.1091841533780098,
0.6252169013023376,
-0.7408562302589417,
0.1933608055114746,
-0.1457543820142746,
0.4493045210838318,
-0.4191330373287201,
0.06646605581045151,
-0.023215550929307938,
-0.490174800157547,
0.13500052690505981,
-0.7144340872764587,
0.20530986785888672,
0.2854040861129761,
0.03605875372886658,
-0.9546269774436951,
-0.17426100373268127,
-0.26384565234184265,
-1.2148895263671875,
-0.40491291880607605,
-0.8847472071647644,
0.1405746340751648,
0.1509992927312851,
-0.23719346523284912,
-0.24995924532413483,
0.1822531521320343,
-0.2464609593153,
-0.36595678329467773,
-0.36447200179100037,
0.191832035779953,
-0.07931176573038101,
-0.060452233999967575,
0.23427774012088776,
0.46113285422325134,
-0.04008283466100693,
-0.07296827435493469,
-0.02266084775328636,
0.3379473388195038,
0.40685272216796875,
0.32516664266586304,
0.1941186934709549,
-0.5962106585502625,
-0.3893785774707794,
0.3154491186141968,
-0.619034469127655,
0.2478196918964386,
-0.08013778924942017,
0.11054898053407669,
0.4648502767086029,
0.7188919186592102,
-0.43097832798957825,
0.17895416915416718,
-0.36374151706695557,
0.22762849926948547,
-0.25100427865982056,
-0.14851461350917816,
0.14940936863422394,
0.08780774474143982,
-1.1800448894500732,
-0.09911105781793594,
0.14952650666236877,
-0.3783820867538452,
0.22317399084568024,
-0.06659076362848282,
0.2327103614807129,
0.2112615406513214,
-0.2777526080608368,
-0.07368019968271255,
-0.15981240570545197,
0.8342989087104797,
-0.4191828966140747,
-0.01911250688135624,
0.35257038474082947,
-0.04077044501900673,
0.12493307888507843,
-0.6522933840751648,
0.4252358675003052,
-0.4500882625579834,
-0.4788947105407715,
0.16650982201099396,
-0.3450520634651184,
0.5532306432723999,
0.15678714215755463,
-0.7061612010002136,
0.40418580174446106,
0.06704163551330566,
-0.05441725254058838,
-0.1887563318014145,
0.16900794208049774,
0.15735790133476257,
0.19515551626682281,
0.07694705575704575,
0.15413598716259003,
0.08565054833889008,
0.040246520191431046,
0.34193849563598633,
0.5364249348640442,
1.2030657529830933,
-0.0793386772274971,
0.2836991846561432,
-0.3894606828689575,
0.35785871744155884,
0.03353806585073471,
-0.7150713801383972,
-0.24676944315433502,
0.07993908226490021,
0.4509495198726654,
0.09648488461971283,
-0.39520037174224854,
0.08993245661258698,
0.2841840386390686,
-0.09083641320466995,
0.016167134046554565,
0.3004787862300873,
0.22031128406524658,
0.5843418836593628,
0.2880869507789612,
0.4208047091960907,
-0.3248675465583801,
0.3000355660915375,
0.19591908156871796,
-0.4516773521900177,
-0.8285145163536072,
0.01055916491895914,
0.1656752973794937,
-0.37739333510398865,
-0.29452645778656006,
0.4092892110347748,
0.3055400252342224,
0.5424871444702148,
0.941901683807373,
0.05386923998594284,
0.2203138768672943,
-0.6378809213638306,
0.2512427866458893,
-0.06869268417358398,
-0.17725564539432526,
-0.2034122794866562,
0.29625973105430603,
-0.18792320787906647,
-0.13921937346458435,
-0.17485401034355164,
0.29640352725982666,
-0.2511904537677765,
-0.41988348960876465,
-0.24564127624034882,
0.017177516594529152,
-0.37975695729255676,
0.023188680410385132,
0.5353121161460876,
-0.27468645572662354,
0.3029607832431793,
0.10671914368867874,
-0.025662414729595184,
-0.021758845075964928,
0.21297234296798706,
-0.8239055871963501,
-0.028239011764526367,
0.23826637864112854,
-0.5632121562957764,
0.43672966957092285,
-0.019875245168805122,
-0.11707142740488052,
-0.4614560604095459,
-0.4109957218170166,
-0.4365963637828827,
0.1085202693939209,
-0.18114222586154938,
0.001625838689506054,
0.24916450679302216,
-0.1764315962791443,
-0.5253222584724426,
0.22389718890190125,
-0.3799925446510315,
0.2737518548965454,
0.5697262287139893,
0.4380251467227936,
-0.5036150217056274,
-0.2771171033382416,
0.17629213631153107,
-0.1223992183804512,
0.25752994418144226,
-0.2496478408575058,
-0.2725363075733185,
0.18451082706451416,
0.1686641126871109,
0.3254677951335907,
0.2455240786075592,
-0.04550103843212128,
0.5123684406280518,
-0.21668848395347595,
-0.16615448892116547,
-0.0031972695142030716,
-0.26934510469436646,
-0.10797669738531113,
0.6966696977615356,
0.07606766372919083,
0.0596555657684803,
0.13271701335906982,
0.2533375918865204,
-0.35012438893318176,
0.41670286655426025,
0.10101905465126038,
-0.0873030424118042,
-0.246128648519516,
0.18940570950508118,
-0.09715498983860016,
-0.22443312406539917,
0.5029914975166321,
-0.04401617497205734,
-0.3114776909351349,
-0.34430885314941406,
0.48218461871147156,
-0.2169397473335266,
-0.34285685420036316,
-0.29897594451904297,
0.1215086504817009,
0.5251404047012329,
-0.22086668014526367,
-0.2910894751548767,
0.5137910842895508,
-0.03299050033092499,
-0.40725213289260864,
-1.110123634338379,
-0.08512123674154282,
0.09868361055850983,
0.41014790534973145,
0.3167460560798645,
-0.4130229949951172,
-0.007255622185766697,
0.14741753041744232,
0.7780861258506775,
0.43641728162765503,
0.2323603481054306,
0.017948061227798462,
0.05335631221532822,
-0.016348741948604584,
0.05595715716481209,
-0.1809622198343277,
-0.3802453875541687,
-0.20906469225883484,
-0.36100077629089355,
0.003191342344507575,
0.19412048161029816,
-0.21011997759342194,
0.05444925278425217,
-0.10089824348688126,
-0.28361251950263977,
0.17263281345367432,
-0.30196836590766907,
-0.18846915662288666,
0.009354821406304836,
0.3073316812515259,
0.7387281060218811,
0.38982105255126953,
-0.0063142250292003155,
-0.4061502516269684,
0.5769859552383423,
-0.2917397916316986,
0.21383151412010193,
-0.19549812376499176,
-0.08667179197072983,
0.05481421574950218,
0.20634642243385315,
-0.12010791897773743,
0.7083373069763184,
1.1758265495300293,
-0.44150567054748535,
0.32820749282836914,
0.24312737584114075,
0.10444199293851852,
0.01926778070628643,
0.23733742535114288,
-0.6260533928871155,
0.1837199628353119,
-0.13871189951896667,
0.2591577470302582,
-0.19801877439022064,
-0.12000083178281784,
0.14988286793231964,
-0.13444523513317108,
-0.2729867100715637,
0.14907215535640717,
-0.26002588868141174,
-0.8602281212806702,
0.6681668162345886,
-0.3136965334415436,
0.6730794310569763,
-0.9642791152000427,
-0.11372330039739609,
0.09661956876516342,
-0.16709548234939575,
0.28526073694229126,
-0.08125078678131104,
0.3579176962375641,
-0.46491217613220215,
0.4000992178916931,
-0.19819039106369019,
-0.1529088020324707,
-0.07292179018259048,
-0.9596394896507263,
0.1959039270877838,
0.1653645783662796,
-0.19032922387123108,
-0.7762984037399292,
0.5040102005004883,
0.09341750293970108,
-0.47214043140411377,
0.417108952999115,
-0.019113972783088684,
-0.4548022747039795,
0.4559422433376312,
-0.04502391070127487,
-0.10187509655952454,
-0.3058716654777527,
0.28462138772010803
] |
261039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sickness | Sickness | Sickness may refer to:
Disease
Nausea
Sickness behavior
Other uses
The Sickness, 2000 album by Disturbed
The Sickness (novel), 1999 book in the Animorphs series
Corey Taylor, nicknamed "The Sickness", American heavy metal musician
(sic)nesses, 2010 video album by Slipknot
See also
Sick (disambiguation)
Sicko (disambiguation) | [
0.3563425540924072,
0.49158135056495667,
-0.4156096279621124,
0.03587337210774422,
-0.15066654980182648,
0.1869167685508728,
0.5304804444313049,
0.1418115347623825,
-0.4984307289123535,
-0.25926265120506287,
0.28372469544410706,
0.5506746768951416,
-0.4246889352798462,
0.5106280446052551,
-0.08164947479963303,
0.5754567384719849,
-0.21915608644485474,
0.3324265480041504,
-0.5912221074104309,
0.10708459466695786,
-0.29470428824424744,
-0.17037919163703918,
0.4527580738067627,
-0.2686866521835327,
-0.4010249376296997,
0.12377093732357025,
-0.14541125297546387,
0.22089338302612305,
-0.1842905431985855,
0.0872562825679779,
-0.16556286811828613,
0.3990820646286011,
0.4625060558319092,
0.053886234760284424,
-0.19081217050552368,
0.07542964816093445,
-0.5740048289299011,
-0.12810392677783966,
-0.36415934562683105,
-0.6146633625030518,
0.030721481889486313,
-0.47252365946769714,
0.0050587523728609085,
0.2748524844646454,
-0.18851427733898163,
0.08240091800689697,
-1.257828950881958,
0.18981824815273285,
-0.5310378074645996,
0.3876456618309021,
0.24159935116767883,
0.5250420570373535,
0.21167892217636108,
0.2238582819700241,
0.19015370309352875,
0.10753386467695236,
-0.5280884504318237,
0.09457290172576904,
0.20872658491134644,
-0.7639920115470886,
0.39211800694465637,
-0.3296475410461426,
0.21659725904464722,
0.1014796644449234,
-0.3388284742832184,
0.41702884435653687,
-0.2312111109495163,
0.7385271191596985,
-0.08421827107667923,
-0.6618422865867615,
-0.0911259725689888,
-0.5574467182159424,
0.029007336124777794,
0.28475502133369446,
-0.026968734338879585,
-0.21255211532115936,
0.08821222186088562,
-0.5025699734687805,
0.266246497631073,
0.31977948546409607,
-0.17771880328655243,
0.32574400305747986,
0.9673105478286743,
-0.09844325482845306,
-0.16853384673595428,
-0.4249427616596222,
0.07418379187583923,
0.9820605516433716,
-0.1452232152223587,
0.05223389342427254,
0.265781432390213,
0.007928655482828617,
0.9081824421882629,
0.06649783253669739,
-0.13776880502700806,
0.19979774951934814,
0.3575451672077179,
-0.045259810984134674,
0.03404736518859863,
-0.04122664034366608,
-0.09439535439014435,
-0.21515527367591858,
0.018026188015937805,
-0.15946900844573975,
-0.005640512797981501,
-0.18626020848751068,
0.00189021450933069,
-0.021152852103114128,
0.242259219288826,
0.00966115016490221,
-0.37324807047843933,
0.47737917304039,
-0.1736747771501541,
-0.14681246876716614,
-0.3137103319168091,
-0.001969066448509693,
0.02973824553191662,
-0.6112873554229736,
0.02014606073498726,
-0.3553713262081146,
0.3329341411590576,
0.13038155436515808,
0.5359175801277161,
0.08378726243972778,
0.1111932098865509,
0.3515251576900482,
0.38944849371910095,
-0.31124478578567505,
-0.32885071635246277,
0.24316103756427765,
0.027765048667788506,
0.4874933660030365,
-0.2115418165922165,
0.031207233667373657,
0.1309943050146103,
0.07550374418497086,
0.006310222204774618,
0.17302283644676208,
-0.344404935836792,
0.13928967714309692,
-0.6872184872627258,
-0.6460710167884827,
-0.7668607831001282,
-0.026508882641792297,
0.3590468168258667,
-0.46594780683517456,
-0.38825827836990356,
0.1697959303855896,
-0.04386705905199051,
-0.0017600493738427758,
-0.1030435711145401,
0.02599996142089367,
-0.28570932149887085,
-0.0982971042394638,
0.3156808316707611,
-0.07939537614583969,
0.15025611221790314,
-0.28520897030830383,
0.7105355262756348,
-0.08594922721385956,
0.22030670940876007,
0.7757286429405212,
-0.5706753134727478,
-0.45518094301223755,
0.21020065248012543,
-0.44686076045036316,
-0.4221833646297455,
0.2625258266925812,
-0.2762162387371063,
-0.2110569179058075,
-0.5712509155273438,
0.08924280852079391,
-0.19699792563915253,
0.1707959771156311,
0.16891270875930786,
0.10648979246616364,
0.5773405432701111,
0.45160970091819763,
0.36319252848625183,
0.1919008195400238,
-0.45504680275917053,
-0.419786274433136,
0.07123155146837234,
-0.6888265609741211,
-0.37760862708091736,
-0.2842588424682617,
0.11100899428129196,
0.19220146536827087,
0.817000150680542,
0.0793258398771286,
-1.1089822053909302,
-0.19931486248970032,
0.5314940214157104,
-0.24740758538246155,
1.2528878450393677,
0.08090145885944366,
-0.5959268808364868,
0.41161075234413147,
0.33828893303871155,
-0.2298283576965332,
0.34330806136131287,
-0.0893508791923523,
0.27994391322135925,
0.17152966558933258,
-0.6451027393341064,
-0.07277189195156097,
-0.2483961284160614,
-0.1698070913553238,
-0.3307693302631378,
0.23956166207790375,
0.4075635075569153,
-0.24185337126255035,
-0.029047437012195587,
-0.4831278920173645,
0.12778455018997192,
-0.10351788997650146,
-0.44822388887405396,
0.23855064809322357,
0.044833410531282425,
-0.4939429461956024,
0.42141151428222656,
-0.4764930009841919,
-0.08827295154333115,
0.2760189473628998,
0.04084256663918495,
0.6885049343109131,
0.057514481246471405,
0.11740973591804504,
0.9360781908035278,
-0.6857395768165588,
0.23757822811603546,
0.4922710955142975,
-0.04125590994954109,
0.015760481357574463,
-0.1487811952829361,
0.6958882808685303,
0.2714221477508545,
-0.29854124784469604,
-0.07369224727153778,
-0.5545727610588074,
0.4569355547428131,
0.13858070969581604,
-0.5723236203193665,
0.38476723432540894,
0.3659939169883728,
-0.3235735297203064,
-0.6251332759857178,
-0.261316180229187,
-0.6597191095352173,
0.5021253228187561,
0.2553231716156006,
1.0923621654510498,
0.38016998767852783,
-0.03292793408036232,
0.16881754994392395,
0.3586859405040741,
-0.09342634677886963,
0.07736552506685257,
0.12173119932413101,
-0.04978270083665848,
-0.5700744390487671,
0.14869411289691925,
0.10048907995223999,
0.1594887524843216,
-0.0359266959130764,
-0.39550551772117615,
-0.1743943989276886,
-0.4127296209335327,
-0.23391388356685638,
0.46389421820640564,
0.17490239441394806,
0.25852128863334656,
-0.7273263931274414,
0.33353114128112793,
-0.12732115387916565,
-0.6083045601844788,
0.2867599427700043,
0.03269476443529129,
-0.12906211614608765,
-0.5036084651947021,
-0.5141498446464539,
0.9097636342048645,
0.8391185998916626,
-0.42611560225486755,
0.1519908905029297,
-0.6682345867156982,
-0.04029237851500511,
0.3528265655040741,
-0.13513152301311493,
-0.21216334402561188,
-0.8430036902427673,
0.33334773778915405,
0.24550610780715942,
-0.0010081815999001265,
0.16880200803279877,
-0.3974238932132721,
0.4905356168746948,
0.05494685098528862,
0.2391543686389923,
-0.019360758364200592,
-0.31994351744651794,
-0.17372220754623413,
0.22352300584316254,
-0.2670297920703888,
0.36283203959465027,
-0.16701583564281464,
-0.2169569730758667,
0.23058459162712097,
-5.9944868087768555,
-0.08498358726501465,
-0.24967561662197113,
-0.2807267904281616,
0.20306187868118286,
0.44856348633766174,
0.5088416934013367,
-0.426673948764801,
-0.2605096101760864,
0.03240319341421127,
0.20036695897579193,
0.8064990639686584,
0.24721933901309967,
-0.08285436034202576,
-0.3573931157588959,
0.3225410282611847,
-0.2387174516916275,
-0.047242533415555954,
-0.34918636083602905,
0.07152087241411209,
0.3449561297893524,
0.5790627002716064,
-0.338565468788147,
0.7952952980995178,
-0.2440129667520523,
0.9514902830123901,
-0.23595573008060455,
0.5951583981513977,
0.10680335015058517,
0.19896608591079712,
0.32467174530029297,
0.08223863691091537,
-0.060187291353940964,
-0.3874599039554596,
-0.29320985078811646,
0.029717588797211647,
-0.014626446180045605,
0.0751289576292038,
0.22229930758476257,
-0.2505621910095215,
-0.40922513604164124,
0.02861105650663376,
-0.09643185138702393,
-0.43574258685112,
0.5969712734222412,
0.11655881255865097,
-0.28251129388809204,
0.3654020130634308,
-0.2912737727165222,
0.6198217868804932,
0.10961640626192093,
-0.746050238609314,
0.2557371258735657,
0.7564144134521484,
0.19106529653072357,
-0.01888204738497734,
0.28493815660476685,
0.5275635123252869,
-0.021849259734153748,
-0.19126200675964355,
0.2517849802970886,
-0.11542225629091263,
-0.1970369964838028,
-0.46692967414855957,
-0.1595929116010666,
0.13387267291545868,
-0.31049618124961853,
-0.15896563231945038,
0.7720579504966736,
0.04151950776576996,
-0.21365095674991608,
-0.21175667643547058,
0.4585653841495514,
-0.9482572078704834,
-0.1589440256357193,
-0.04491273686289787,
-0.41634970903396606,
0.15895050764083862,
0.02106311544775963,
0.27943137288093567,
-0.5286170840263367,
-0.16069108247756958,
0.028651587665081024,
-0.3128131031990051,
-0.025385908782482147,
-0.5551721453666687,
-0.10922200977802277,
-0.07790286093950272,
0.0024939244613051414,
0.30911898612976074,
0.4826280176639557,
-0.12879924476146698,
0.15762193500995636,
0.15416166186332703,
0.4753044843673706,
0.6947687268257141,
0.45584678649902344,
0.3992990255355835,
0.41533464193344116,
-0.15601544082164764,
0.5260301828384399,
-0.6060804128646851,
0.307308167219162,
-0.7078495621681213,
-0.10503032058477402,
-0.2286883145570755,
-0.38521724939346313,
0.00003210854629287496,
1.0719763040542603,
-0.4839591979980469,
0.3059515655040741,
-0.3854718804359436,
0.11614614725112915,
-0.49097371101379395,
0.45263898372650146,
-0.1780010312795639,
-0.18397127091884613,
0.8722789883613586,
0.7382056713104248,
-0.15303653478622437,
0.3200192451477051,
0.0737188458442688,
-0.454359769821167,
-0.11979341506958008,
0.5324034094810486,
0.054703570902347565,
0.5607641339302063,
-0.15269318222999573,
0.22786690294742584,
0.4815974533557892,
-0.26674148440361023,
0.18665510416030884,
0.41944432258605957,
0.23542408645153046,
0.3758259415626526,
-0.10088084638118744,
-0.3862896263599396,
0.0434475801885128,
-0.08994084596633911,
-0.6491028070449829,
0.07195340842008591,
-0.626792848110199,
-0.29366013407707214,
0.5455901622772217,
0.095122791826725,
0.16212190687656403,
0.3753691017627716,
0.20983147621154785,
0.06392401456832886,
0.4743271470069885,
0.06622302532196045,
0.4858052432537079,
0.5372225046157837,
-0.058324456214904785,
-0.49423548579216003,
0.38447996973991394,
0.17299236357212067,
0.11815030127763748,
-0.2860635817050934,
-0.21692626178264618,
0.20447002351284027,
-0.6384290456771851,
-1.2120652198791504,
-0.37456995248794556,
-0.4873608648777008,
-0.02253623679280281,
-0.3206236660480499,
-0.7506017684936523,
0.37742340564727783,
0.32700106501579285,
-0.38863182067871094,
-0.01658114790916443,
-0.6487359404563904,
0.1144510880112648,
0.3099680244922638,
0.07655958086252213,
-0.022333642467856407,
-0.2241024523973465,
0.3754710853099823,
0.39826735854148865,
-0.13491973280906677,
-0.1124035194516182,
-0.3508763909339905,
0.05163518711924553,
0.30551373958587646,
-0.056018929928541183,
0.01064508967101574,
-0.09246447682380676,
-0.33767494559288025,
0.13080210983753204,
-0.308022677898407,
0.23381318151950836,
0.35343268513679504,
0.17549006640911102,
0.11918366700410843,
0.01589081808924675,
-0.3281213343143463,
-0.09362979978322983,
0.07400541752576828,
-0.16014935076236725,
0.2934175431728363,
0.0542282797396183,
-0.42812225222587585,
-0.15052397549152374,
0.3553730249404907,
-0.571011483669281,
0.3059743642807007,
-0.5844786167144775,
-0.5197185277938843,
-0.20086544752120972,
-0.35554665327072144,
0.1508258581161499,
0.01734137535095215,
0.6033992767333984,
-0.08271776139736176,
-0.07452298700809479,
0.021918129175901413,
-0.6548706889152527,
-0.6310011148452759,
-0.29689958691596985,
-0.019740350544452667,
0.2063133865594864,
-0.4879118800163269,
0.2078513503074646,
-0.5600653290748596,
0.0016582560492679477,
0.6435725092887878,
-0.6583178639411926,
0.4467170834541321,
0.28812745213508606,
-0.09380901604890823,
0.41506725549697876,
-0.23686061799526215,
-0.17916512489318848,
-0.610478937625885,
-0.33938077092170715,
0.3620302677154541,
-0.2254100739955902,
0.38321995735168457,
0.13839127123355865,
0.30609387159347534,
0.664367139339447,
-0.13097573816776276,
-0.5649998784065247,
0.2662048637866974,
0.14314882457256317,
0.5070536136627197,
-0.7745662927627563,
-0.10307902842760086,
0.4047660529613495,
0.3701559007167816,
-0.3635994791984558,
-0.3558880388736725,
-0.7160457968711853,
0.7992580533027649,
-0.7547405362129211,
-0.06141889840364456,
-0.5240472555160522,
0.13034182786941528,
-0.062494512647390366,
0.30365580320358276,
0.7402007579803467,
-0.43951624631881714,
-0.20711158215999603,
-0.11408951878547668,
0.18266043066978455,
0.003701662179082632,
0.14952313899993896,
0.1361948549747467,
-0.5345743894577026,
0.11430712789297104,
0.16374044120311737,
0.292746365070343,
0.8132409453392029,
0.03287141025066376,
-0.13335920870304108,
-0.712417483329773,
-0.740814745426178,
-0.04777511954307556,
0.18772387504577637,
-0.2884516417980194,
-0.15382292866706848,
-0.3598579466342926,
-0.44427216053009033,
0.4376300573348999,
-0.43127942085266113,
0.13953423500061035,
-1.1026079654693604,
-0.027338847517967224,
-0.15026669204235077,
-0.17810246348381042,
0.0009116486762650311,
0.3096013069152832,
0.2608334720134735,
-0.323030024766922,
0.1965518444776535,
-0.19799382984638214,
-0.013842596672475338,
-0.02321881242096424,
-0.3667683005332947,
-0.6919843554496765,
0.6617499589920044,
0.3054591119289398,
-0.35086652636528015,
-0.010234346613287926,
-0.2186233103275299,
0.07800322026014328,
-0.4078867435455322,
-0.2904226779937744,
-0.1544727236032486,
0.4726466238498688,
-0.18585632741451263,
-0.20133081078529358,
0.6533783078193665,
-0.01672084629535675,
-0.10534518957138062,
0.08242982625961304,
-0.3463939130306244,
0.06317629665136337,
0.11293528974056244,
0.5063822865486145,
0.602573037147522,
0.8635891675949097,
-0.1745496690273285,
0.15046660602092743,
-0.09163500368595123,
-0.43919333815574646,
0.04346061497926712,
0.416420042514801,
0.176030695438385,
1.007960319519043,
0.09776654094457626,
-0.09837765246629715,
0.47786247730255127,
-0.2694367468357086,
0.3162044286727905,
0.2552590072154999,
-0.36960121989250183,
-0.6391680240631104,
0.39870408177375793,
-0.09386391937732697,
-0.14243392646312714,
0.05103425681591034,
0.22033652663230896,
-0.04346870258450508,
0.5377828478813171,
-0.1993686854839325,
-0.12387482821941376,
0.2883339524269104,
-0.4330187439918518,
-0.1921188235282898,
-0.03808585926890373,
-0.15245957672595978,
-0.4352022111415863,
-0.040196869522333145,
-0.015353604219853878,
0.20239675045013428,
-0.5310819149017334,
-0.3237122595310211,
0.062039341777563095,
-0.12531925737857819,
-0.09971573203802109,
0.2655763030052185,
0.28665444254875183,
0.3494883179664612,
0.21266013383865356,
-0.2603292465209961,
-0.564306378364563,
-0.3348495662212372,
-0.21078990399837494,
0.1263761818408966,
-0.011139962822198868,
-0.08197972923517227,
0.3923364579677582,
0.18866057693958282,
-0.2620721757411957,
0.38792163133621216,
0.7000121474266052,
0.11106133460998535,
0.14830943942070007,
-0.33002975583076477,
-0.315021812915802,
-0.10617386549711227,
-0.33524274826049805,
0.597287118434906,
-0.1894325464963913,
0.27647891640663147,
0.2596343159675598,
0.12136036157608032,
-0.2508118450641632,
0.3142393231391907,
-0.33698076009750366,
0.11551551520824432,
-0.10448283702135086,
-0.030330639332532883,
-0.13780339062213898,
-0.1875503957271576,
0.6272297501564026,
-0.1629284918308258,
0.026257507503032684,
0.07435064017772675,
-0.3618384897708893,
0.008433653973042965,
0.24035994708538055,
-1.0133668184280396,
0.21042850613594055,
-0.6886887550354004,
0.03459712490439415,
-1.145671010017395,
0.8472772240638733,
0.03820952773094177,
0.3625865876674652,
0.05783601477742195,
0.2556687295436859,
-0.1927214115858078,
-0.0950913205742836,
0.6487348079681396,
-0.5533555746078491,
0.07712098956108093,
-0.4212815761566162,
-0.0636039599776268,
0.0006584041984751821,
0.5020550489425659,
0.5256590843200684,
-0.1033896654844284,
-0.3880205750465393,
0.2698008418083191,
0.02605791948735714,
-0.08208872377872467,
0.15535703301429749,
-0.3378555178642273,
0.27476727962493896,
-0.2623749077320099,
0.3224426507949829,
-0.13371559977531433,
-0.24859727919101715,
0.4413638710975647,
0.5491278767585754,
-0.12636618316173553,
-0.22508665919303894,
0.16656142473220825,
-0.1819237470626831,
-0.014356805011630058,
0.11621062457561493,
-0.23079198598861694,
0.12880656123161316,
0.03836600109934807,
-0.5061348676681519,
-0.40176907181739807,
0.2642824649810791,
0.4878186583518982,
-0.5043515563011169,
-0.040133584290742874,
-0.3311653733253479,
0.48137062788009644,
0.29856401681900024,
-0.017031041905283928,
-0.07326731830835342,
-0.11519677191972733,
-0.1626788079738617
] |
261041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specially%20designed%20academic%20instruction%20in%20English | Specially designed academic instruction in English | Specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE) is a teaching approach intended for teaching various academic content (such as social studies, science or literature) using the English language to students who are still learning English. SDAIE requires the student possess intermediate fluency in English as well as mastery of their native language. The instruction is carefully prepared so the student can access the English language content supported by material in their primary language and carefully planned instruction that strives for comprehensible input. SDAIE is a method of teaching students in English in such a manner that they gain skills in both the subject material and in using English.
SDAIE is not an English-only submersion program where the student is dependent solely on English, nor is it a watered down curriculum. SDAIE is an approach that seeks to teach both content and language in a cognitively demanding environment. As such, it is an important aspect of some structured English immersion programs. Lessons thus include both content goals and language goals for the students.
Preparing good lessons in SDAIE require awareness that the student is not a native English speaker and avoidance of those aspects of English that might make it difficult for a person learning English as a second language. This includes avoiding idiomatic English, which may seem natural to a native speaker but would confuse non-native speakers.
Features of SDAIE
Low affective filter
Error correction done in context through teacher modeling
New teaching material introduced and presented by the teacher in a way that engages the student.
Modified speech
slower speech rate
clear enunciation
controlled vocabulary
use of cognates
limited use of idiomatic speech
words with double meaning defined
Contextual clues
gestures and facial expressions
meaning acted out
color-coded materials/ graphic organizers
Multisensory experiences
realia, props and manipulatives
audio-visual materials
hands on activities and demonstrations
overhead transparencies and similar projection technologies
Comprehensible input
graphic organizers (maps, charts, graphs)
word banks with picture clue
bulletin boards
explanation of word origins (etymology)
use of examples and analogies
Frequent Comprehension checks
questions asked about details
eliciting responses through various modalities (write on white boards, thumbs up/down, etc.)
Formative assessment
confirmation checks
clarification requests
repetitions
expansions
variety of question types
interaction: teacher: student student:teacher student: student group
Summative assessment
mastery assessed using a variety of modalities
review of main topics and key vocabulary
resulting product shows mastery of key concepts and synthesis of information
written assessment appropriate for intermediate/ early advanced English language learners
Appropriate lesson design
student fluency level is reflected
evidence of scaffolding
listening and speaking activities precede reading and writing activities
reading assignments include prereading, during reading, postreading activities
writing activities preceded by pre-writing
vocabulary emphasis
use of cooperative learning groups
tapping prior knowledge/ personal application
appropriate pacing
modeling of activities
specific learning strategies or study skills are taught and modeled
evidence of text adaptation
emphasis on higher order critical thinking skills
provision of native language support
extension/ debriefing activity included
Content-driven
rigorous core curriculum (not 'watered down')
key topics organized around main themes
topics appropriate to grade level
Relevant articles
Genzuk, M. (2011). Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE) for Language Minority Students
Education
Teaching English as a Foreign Language
External links
Teacher's resources
English language | [
0.5745436549186707,
0.1332174837589264,
-0.6739617586135864,
0.05390521511435509,
0.05762531980872154,
0.01614243909716606,
0.6595280170440674,
0.41774049401283264,
0.13703668117523193,
-0.15746337175369263,
-0.8075679540634155,
0.29511529207229614,
0.15490569174289703,
-0.46503281593322754,
-0.32419314980506897,
0.44829609990119934,
0.7131149768829346,
0.09856609255075455,
0.15893474221229553,
-0.2477038949728012,
-0.22932524979114532,
-0.45694243907928467,
0.12439519166946411,
-0.19413183629512787,
0.2180248498916626,
0.24647679924964905,
0.8374812006950378,
0.17413721978664398,
-0.21207858622074127,
-0.42890819907188416,
0.274469792842865,
0.3025093376636505,
0.2561143636703491,
-0.4562385678291321,
-0.3465648293495178,
0.34710708260536194,
0.07848040014505386,
-0.35225969552993774,
-0.14753836393356323,
-0.4238196909427643,
0.0466032437980175,
-0.21687734127044678,
0.10555365681648254,
-0.2079421579837799,
-0.4606824815273285,
-0.8506143689155579,
-1.476861596107483,
0.06664898991584778,
-0.782997190952301,
0.055046189576387405,
-0.539642870426178,
0.5146872997283936,
0.7320643067359924,
-0.0857599750161171,
0.26382389664649963,
0.8996466398239136,
-0.2057560831308365,
-0.20125645399093628,
0.3286755383014679,
-0.05297771096229553,
0.011713376268744469,
0.36482441425323486,
-0.19043083488941193,
0.27558526396751404,
0.14161451160907745,
0.3053392171859741,
-0.7047309279441833,
-0.11906111240386963,
-0.6353438496589661,
-1.0048635005950928,
-0.2963480055332184,
-0.3761129677295685,
-0.2162638008594513,
0.3358699083328247,
-0.2502351403236389,
-0.0857011079788208,
0.2595641314983368,
-0.2562869191169739,
0.025802521035075188,
-0.24426059424877167,
-0.19669948518276215,
0.32843753695487976,
0.453715980052948,
-0.3885793387889862,
0.34075120091438293,
0.39792826771736145,
-0.27280136942863464,
0.5874427556991577,
0.08934419602155685,
0.1585603803396225,
0.26724809408187866,
-0.03683527931571007,
0.3560671806335449,
-0.015795614570379257,
0.30731338262557983,
0.3073303699493408,
0.0645972266793251,
-0.031693827360868454,
0.26612791419029236,
0.30098381638526917,
-0.04270273447036743,
0.3141748011112213,
0.545011579990387,
0.01658615469932556,
-0.7400655746459961,
0.2681773006916046,
-0.31362447142601013,
-0.5584393739700317,
0.1787760853767395,
0.13910934329032898,
-0.6129187941551208,
0.39509040117263794,
0.03379528224468231,
-0.01657957024872303,
-0.5102861523628235,
0.287256121635437,
0.301088809967041,
0.6998295187950134,
-0.7843635082244873,
0.5881706476211548,
-0.38645079731941223,
0.8696058988571167,
0.3053956627845764,
-0.06818754971027374,
-0.06563834846019745,
0.2208118587732315,
0.31507572531700134,
0.3956373929977417,
-0.3586061894893646,
-0.15103361010551453,
0.3578674793243408,
0.3141745328903198,
0.3739175796508789,
-0.0587611049413681,
-0.6015307307243347,
-0.1784364879131317,
0.47615721821784973,
-0.38828855752944946,
0.0644993707537651,
0.45404523611068726,
-0.6433755159378052,
-0.2115967869758606,
-0.32302287220954895,
-0.4091814458370209,
0.27392667531967163,
-0.40440794825553894,
-0.24131537973880768,
0.00010306297190254554,
-0.3231634497642517,
0.2625373601913452,
0.2546582520008087,
-0.1927160918712616,
-0.5247167348861694,
-0.14265687763690948,
0.2621646225452423,
0.7248532772064209,
0.0521886870265007,
0.24686668813228607,
0.04375877231359482,
0.02364315465092659,
-0.1706506609916687,
0.3019857108592987,
-0.3558107614517212,
-0.05501639097929001,
0.13240306079387665,
-0.1573682576417923,
-0.18592646718025208,
0.4131527543067932,
0.22725510597229004,
0.16905497014522552,
-0.04472852125763893,
0.2042849063873291,
0.15700504183769226,
-0.4995603561401367,
-0.07081881165504456,
0.009555947035551071,
-0.32699012756347656,
0.19219791889190674,
0.5891973376274109,
-0.5129362940788269,
-0.6379237174987793,
0.15518000721931458,
0.5029045939445496,
-0.24593840539455414,
0.025464283302426338,
-0.13525697588920593,
0.5287100672721863,
-0.32870596647262573,
-0.43994972109794617,
0.22954311966896057,
-0.9055415987968445,
-0.5931717753410339,
0.10206364095211029,
-0.8358531594276428,
1.0897313356399536,
0.07133352756500244,
-0.2980690598487854,
1.676566243171692,
-0.08581800013780594,
0.5374948382377625,
0.2049388736486435,
0.1100257933139801,
-0.14051620662212372,
0.17639967799186707,
-0.17820724844932556,
-0.03339016065001488,
0.1548381894826889,
0.0014032701728865504,
0.11921130865812302,
-0.1907380074262619,
0.3180391192436218,
-0.561832845211029,
0.39023876190185547,
0.2327689528465271,
-0.39863020181655884,
0.04051019996404648,
-0.26227447390556335,
0.22835813462734222,
-0.019858375191688538,
-0.3790303170681,
1.0326229333877563,
-0.044972509145736694,
-0.12296557426452637,
0.19857528805732727,
-0.2614334523677826,
0.09094958752393723,
0.004399526864290237,
0.1972091645002365,
0.30488643050193787,
-0.4695534408092499,
-0.06970840692520142,
-0.11577044427394867,
0.2586860954761505,
-0.7207199335098267,
0.10594207048416138,
-0.11538733541965485,
-0.5955491662025452,
-0.26426881551742554,
0.5428510308265686,
-0.13875150680541992,
0.04990003630518913,
0.009829191491007805,
-0.582293689250946,
-0.05247014760971069,
0.32331570982933044,
0.16577696800231934,
-0.3836175501346588,
0.5126913189888,
0.2778359651565552,
-0.10634319484233856,
0.34560078382492065,
0.15701836347579956,
0.15055805444717407,
-0.016597328707575798,
-0.2524525821208954,
0.15532776713371277,
-0.7547755837440491,
-0.35027775168418884,
0.30752304196357727,
0.15429502725601196,
-0.5203332304954529,
0.4897676408290863,
0.533336341381073,
0.19890233874320984,
0.24853800237178802,
-0.8002736568450928,
0.23579289019107819,
-0.4741390347480774,
-0.009451919235289097,
0.5171634554862976,
0.04457557946443558,
-0.04882734641432762,
-0.4962276816368103,
-0.21394291520118713,
-0.24072395265102386,
-0.45324307680130005,
0.2995188534259796,
0.0908319354057312,
-0.5521543025970459,
-0.2607134282588959,
0.25889894366264343,
0.46793901920318604,
0.19439516961574554,
-0.532853901386261,
-0.31368041038513184,
-0.24297049641609192,
0.04258190467953682,
-0.38804197311401367,
-0.31311070919036865,
-0.11997677385807037,
0.06951349228620529,
0.24654769897460938,
-0.30743473768234253,
-0.2747194468975067,
0.40126946568489075,
0.09486490488052368,
-0.1525416523218155,
-0.0704994797706604,
0.3472013473510742,
0.1564842164516449,
-0.04785218834877014,
0.46067190170288086,
-0.08407913148403168,
0.28545117378234863,
0.05998360365629196,
0.14107999205589294,
-0.2637726068496704,
-0.1433502733707428,
-5.971052646636963,
-0.06235950440168381,
-0.5312814116477966,
0.004502102732658386,
0.13151323795318604,
0.037448592483997345,
0.6112020015716553,
-0.4253591001033783,
-0.29333963990211487,
0.008845504373311996,
-0.23776467144489288,
0.14323513209819794,
-0.04620225355029106,
0.430519700050354,
0.47522443532943726,
0.24694567918777466,
0.08219612389802933,
-0.3715501129627228,
0.29557687044143677,
0.47656068205833435,
0.4459027349948883,
0.2963115870952606,
0.2181633710861206,
0.6117122173309326,
0.3138042986392975,
0.17267541587352753,
-0.45890796184539795,
0.3489159345626831,
-0.40396761894226074,
-0.11064103990793228,
0.640887439250946,
-0.44106441736221313,
-0.015732647851109505,
-0.16430890560150146,
-0.22348451614379883,
0.44123557209968567,
0.9680142402648926,
0.4151359796524048,
0.15827110409736633,
-0.5101491212844849,
-0.2735278010368347,
0.10110161453485489,
-0.02231779508292675,
-0.32176586985588074,
0.06580709666013718,
-0.05952104181051254,
-0.3723149597644806,
-0.3368473947048187,
-0.18231728672981262,
0.6833359003067017,
-0.23616932332515717,
0.29505112767219543,
0.26605942845344543,
0.29010677337646484,
-0.6253467798233032,
0.007884387858211994,
0.5801401734352112,
0.47487372159957886,
-0.15764424204826355,
-0.30331531167030334,
0.616886556148529,
-0.3700590431690216,
-0.7148562669754028,
-0.7139860391616821,
0.00007596371870022267,
-0.10350971668958664,
-0.6011283993721008,
-0.39996886253356934,
0.017835037782788277,
0.7050170302391052,
-0.03924833610653877,
-0.13052992522716522,
0.19016510248184204,
-0.6118796467781067,
0.20684397220611572,
-0.4694126546382904,
-0.11675205081701279,
-0.15570633113384247,
0.2323477864265442,
0.34146925806999207,
-0.1989961415529251,
-0.0675320252776146,
0.038335688412189484,
0.5859224796295166,
0.42597663402557373,
-0.5825694799423218,
-0.18286582827568054,
0.214909628033638,
0.21768051385879517,
-0.2526281177997589,
0.991000771522522,
-0.207834854722023,
-0.3300175666809082,
0.27000439167022705,
0.8781011700630188,
-0.120705246925354,
0.5088352560997009,
0.2729639708995819,
0.7162428498268127,
-0.6709882616996765,
-0.08489560335874557,
-0.4916289448738098,
0.004004210699349642,
-0.44055303931236267,
0.28535526990890503,
-0.13173231482505798,
-0.8167096972465515,
0.3761090934276581,
1.0272483825683594,
-0.5652918815612793,
0.10565225780010223,
-0.1466963291168213,
-0.7552129626274109,
0.25406134128570557,
-0.10388090461492538,
-0.1041894480586052,
0.45464473962783813,
0.44313982129096985,
0.276792049407959,
0.009417991153895855,
-0.5172971487045288,
0.03772836551070213,
0.2789396047592163,
0.05711045861244202,
-0.584661602973938,
-0.3129103183746338,
0.07256203144788742,
0.4333592355251312,
-0.5872381329536438,
-0.11940212547779083,
0.24334962666034698,
-0.08962525427341461,
-0.13128314912319183,
0.023168640211224556,
0.11815086752176285,
-0.20692609250545502,
-0.13427741825580597,
0.43819454312324524,
-0.3493309020996094,
-0.19956791400909424,
0.06018403172492981,
-0.5555165410041809,
0.4574519693851471,
0.021153250709176064,
1.141140341758728,
0.17376558482646942,
0.0636972114443779,
-0.029421722516417503,
-0.5939100980758667,
0.21999777853488922,
0.42022061347961426,
0.13000252842903137,
0.12229074537754059,
-0.011012841947376728,
-0.13340267539024353,
0.5889220833778381,
-0.18565742671489716,
0.1748451292514801,
-0.0634179562330246,
-0.37216565012931824,
0.5711169242858887,
-0.33018553256988525,
-0.7347235679626465,
-0.253617525100708,
0.4196615219116211,
0.014351450838148594,
-0.6454490423202515,
-0.10408201068639755,
-0.22428275644779205,
0.1402762085199356,
0.4190709590911865,
-0.32548239827156067,
-0.6297084093093872,
-0.12473886460065842,
0.23095537722110748,
0.019848018884658813,
-0.0205109640955925,
-0.07158873975276947,
-0.16524513065814972,
-0.4123357832431793,
0.4824162721633911,
-1.3388738632202148,
0.036795780062675476,
0.08703099936246872,
0.10001885890960693,
-0.21935489773750305,
-0.19534917175769806,
0.11936591565608978,
-0.273527055978775,
-0.6284674406051636,
-0.033297184854745865,
0.01465502381324768,
0.8385961651802063,
0.10224973410367966,
-0.3342359960079193,
-0.6836943030357361,
0.39557579159736633,
0.4139944911003113,
0.03667319193482399,
-0.261165976524353,
0.36492323875427246,
0.14612315595149994,
-0.6769286394119263,
0.44929227232933044,
-0.3493787348270416,
-0.7168442010879517,
0.03798053041100502,
-0.4796578288078308,
-0.629719078540802,
0.16693055629730225,
-0.4608306586742401,
-0.6175320744514465,
0.10273560881614685,
0.12919576466083527,
-0.33453452587127686,
-0.12280230224132538,
-0.3147376775741577,
-0.316015362739563,
-0.01991976611316204,
0.02630075253546238,
0.052719030529260635,
-0.3726344406604767,
-0.28115254640579224,
-0.08370911329984665,
-0.24391256272792816,
-0.08215267956256866,
0.5061522722244263,
-0.9491645097732544,
0.3522410988807678,
-0.2893592417240143,
0.4480956792831421,
0.10884891450405121,
0.2880360186100006,
0.4892335534095764,
-0.6313630938529968,
-0.05461082607507706,
-0.4826219975948334,
0.16713479161262512,
0.3812631666660309,
0.19094888865947723,
0.5595470070838928,
0.49460136890411377,
-0.12903551757335663,
-0.23682352900505066,
-0.38177305459976196,
0.41457897424697876,
0.16283857822418213,
-0.40278422832489014,
-0.7912805676460266,
-0.10551794618368149,
0.31619903445243835,
-0.3829231858253479,
0.0974479541182518,
-0.5531744360923767,
0.5083262324333191,
-0.20666754245758057,
-0.2605319321155548,
-0.24234209954738617,
0.1453935205936432,
0.3513336479663849,
0.1258927285671234,
-0.2780747413635254,
-0.35540446639060974,
0.491682231426239,
-0.09402535110712051,
-0.1701265573501587,
0.0873129665851593,
-0.07118271291255951,
0.43449515104293823,
-0.3389628231525421,
-0.3168853521347046,
-0.3900309205055237,
0.26278913021087646,
0.6508023142814636,
0.4148935377597809,
-0.6087443232536316,
0.1367769092321396,
-0.6893372535705566,
0.30609992146492004,
-0.00044548549340106547,
-0.222117617726326,
0.19009284675121307,
0.10022932291030884,
-0.4192394018173218,
-0.14170204102993011,
-0.14789144694805145,
0.12128037959337234,
-0.07896018773317337,
-0.5247432589530945,
-0.061969093978405,
-0.24883289635181427,
0.0654306635260582,
-0.4515312612056732,
0.2751156687736511,
-0.7011420726776123,
0.2244269698858261,
-0.11170270293951035,
-0.32539188861846924,
0.28848299384117126,
-0.5076630115509033,
0.17619578540325165,
0.7176122665405273,
0.3871701657772064,
-0.4035457372665405,
0.17104016244411469,
0.3645983934402466,
0.1333867758512497,
-0.16842612624168396,
0.29087796807289124,
-0.44440576434135437,
-0.08450064808130264,
0.06761641055345535,
0.346884548664093,
0.9300382137298584,
0.14654192328453064,
-0.0857924297451973,
0.03405844047665596,
-0.542853832244873,
0.23331253230571747,
0.327142596244812,
-0.04684237018227577,
-0.1820298582315445,
0.9105453491210938,
-0.07688543200492859,
-0.5439847707748413,
0.28451913595199585,
0.22353118658065796,
-0.5539507269859314,
0.24000680446624756,
0.2534536123275757,
0.14174824953079224,
0.5845926403999329,
-0.29451239109039307,
0.1813710331916809,
-0.09234867990016937,
-0.2883527874946594,
-0.17999014258384705,
-0.12098328769207001,
0.1532948762178421,
0.38984763622283936,
0.34683218598365784,
0.22940851747989655,
0.4682275950908661,
0.11519622802734375,
0.21598856151103973,
0.1556806117296219,
0.2266937643289566,
0.6162281632423401,
-0.08151935786008835,
-0.0687219426035881,
-0.04170695319771767,
0.3363950550556183,
0.3377854526042938,
-0.17608031630516052,
-0.08175674080848694,
-0.2954179644584656,
0.1448526829481125,
-0.38486894965171814,
0.09018665552139282,
-0.2654039263725281,
-0.2586633861064911,
0.05927130952477455,
0.38783371448516846,
-0.3307395279407501,
0.2225486934185028,
0.18673428893089294,
0.7185177206993103,
-0.34215155243873596,
0.18126428127288818,
0.24278251826763153,
0.14649903774261475,
-0.05110118165612221,
-0.29841962456703186,
0.10306649655103683,
0.15750864148139954,
-0.10179926455020905,
0.44550615549087524,
-0.06068604066967964,
0.4461483359336853,
0.02911219745874405,
0.162290558218956,
-0.36776432394981384,
-0.1317710131406784,
-0.4564933180809021,
0.6422053575515747,
-0.08990813791751862,
0.10976871848106384,
0.3853547275066376,
-0.5511670112609863,
0.45175766944885254,
-0.42503783106803894,
-0.7915790677070618,
0.12094683200120926,
-0.20202617347240448,
-0.497597873210907,
0.2457190304994583,
-0.290107786655426,
0.9571462273597717,
0.16301432251930237,
-0.32908010482788086,
-0.12281879782676697,
-0.07171367853879929,
0.3187561631202698,
-0.09365157783031464,
-0.39393824338912964,
0.3409050405025482,
-0.37791964411735535,
0.09927617013454437,
-0.9669380784034729,
0.1942959874868393,
0.7009567022323608,
0.51627516746521,
0.3128269612789154,
-0.28974467515945435,
0.32535797357559204,
0.8107442259788513,
-0.07319638878107071,
-0.3472687304019928,
0.11667487025260925,
-0.08715130388736725,
0.12854069471359253,
0.38222062587738037,
0.3579278886318207,
0.4851779043674469,
-0.4352211654186249,
0.32606106996536255,
0.3126976788043976,
0.3503774106502533,
-0.39587029814720154,
-0.11234572529792786,
-0.21366576850414276,
-0.15261994302272797,
0.12802110612392426,
0.6732255816459656,
-0.6095853447914124,
0.35561466217041016,
-0.006690449081361294,
0.7614632248878479,
0.2083463966846466,
-0.46634742617607117,
0.027287792414426804,
-0.26731714606285095,
0.2982770502567291,
0.33956196904182434,
-0.39455556869506836,
0.20485852658748627,
-0.09982419013977051,
-0.2747284770011902,
-0.45397937297821045,
0.3628096580505371,
-0.02731933817267418,
-0.7989307045936584,
0.0488315112888813,
-0.09368357807397842,
-0.2308359295129776,
-0.2777048945426941,
0.4166207015514374,
-0.33755987882614136,
-0.14551767706871033,
0.4756263792514801
] |
261042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalle%20P%C3%A4%C3%A4talo | Kalle Päätalo | Kaarlo (Kalle) Alvar Päätalo (11 November 1919 – 20 November 2000) was a Finnish novelist, the most popular Finnish writer in the 20th century. His Iijoki series, comprising 26 novels, is one of the longest autobiographical works ever written.
Biography
Päätalo was born and spent his childhood in the village of Jokijärvi in Taivalkoski. Kalle was the second oldest of eight children. Before Him, Toivo was born, but he died as a baby. After Kalle, another son and five girls were born into the family. The oldest sister was Martta Aili (later Siljola, Keskisimonen and Lohilahti, 1922–1974). The next sibling was Brother Manne (born January 1, 1925), he died as a victim of a stabbing on September 2, 1947. After Manne, the family welcomed four girls: Kaarina, Edith, Terttu and Aune.
Päätalo was born in Taivalkoski, Province of Oulu, into poor circumstances. His father, a lumberjack, suffered from periodical mental disorders, and Kalle had to maintain his family from the age of 14 in his father's profession. At the same time, he dreamed about becoming a writer and read avidly, being much influenced by Jack London's Martin Eden and Mika Waltari's guidebook for aspiring writers. His war service in Winter War and Continuation War was cut short by being wounded. After the wars, he moved to Tampere where he studied at technical school, becoming a building contractor, and wrote short stories that were published in various magazines. He was married twice and had two daughters by the second marriage.
Päätalo debuted as a novelist in 1958 with a novel set at a building site in Tampere. In his second novel Our Daily Bread, the first book in the five-volume Koillismaa series, he turned to his native region. By this time, Päätalo was able to turn a freelance writer, and from 1962 until his death, he published one book each year. In 1971 he published what was to be the first volume in the 26-volume series Juuret Iijoen törmässä ('Roots in the Bank of River Ii'), probably the longest autobiographical narrative in the world (some 17 000 pages in total). The series charts Päätalo's life from his early childhood to the publication of his first novel, at the same time offering an interesting view of Finnish history over some four decades as seen from an individual's viewpoint.
Though Päätalo's first books got favourable reviews, the prevailing critical attitude to his writing soon turned negative while his popularity remained steady. Some found the slowness of his narration and its seeming sticking to trifles tedious, while his innumerable fans, mostly among his own generation, were fascinated by the very abundance of detail, a meticulous reconstruction of the past. Other strengths of Päätalo's style are his absolute sincerity to the reader - he seemed to leave nothing of his life untold, yet his writing is never merely sensational - and his skillful way with spoken Finnish, especially his native dialect. Recently, many critics have begun to see his works in a new light and they have also attracted the attention of younger readers. As a recognition for his career, Päätalo received the Pro Finlandia medal and Professor's title in 1978 and an honorary doctorate at the University of Oulu in 1994.
Known as "the king of reprints" because of the phenomenal success of his books, Päätalo published 39 novels, two collections of short stories and one play in his lifetime, with more short stories having been published posthumously. Four of his books have been filmed, and all five volumes of the Koillismaa series have been translated into English by Richard Impola.
Works translated into English
Our Daily Bread (Koillismaa, 1960)
Before the Storm (Selkosen kansaa, 1962)
Storm over the Land (Myrsky Koillismaassa, 1963)
After the Storm (Myrskyn jälkeen, 1965)
The Winter of the Black Snow (Mustan lumen talvi, 1969)
References
1919 births
2000 deaths
People from Taivalkoski
Finnish-language writers
Writers from Northern Ostrobothnia
Finnish military personnel of World War II
20th-century Finnish novelists | [
-0.19229741394519806,
0.4251044988632202,
-0.6159522533416748,
-0.0559847317636013,
-0.23725689947605133,
1.1219244003295898,
0.8413334488868713,
0.06969548016786575,
-0.19269636273384094,
0.08498945087194443,
-0.16356061398983002,
0.44515368342399597,
-0.4047936797142029,
0.012148765847086906,
-0.14728935062885284,
-0.039458367973566055,
-0.2853955924510956,
0.1352892816066742,
-0.681023120880127,
0.19729888439178467,
-0.3687446713447571,
0.03470347821712494,
0.4340217709541321,
0.15790213644504547,
-0.0015091818058863282,
-0.3895702362060547,
0.0685633048415184,
0.3370693624019623,
0.5972175598144531,
0.01586691290140152,
0.21913208067417145,
0.7451974153518677,
0.4079643487930298,
-0.1657438427209854,
-0.7009379863739014,
0.30693697929382324,
-0.4692613482475281,
-0.4077843129634857,
0.05169360339641571,
0.3019075095653534,
-0.5930696725845337,
0.4118201434612274,
-0.25288423895835876,
0.01428957935422659,
-0.025761689990758896,
-0.3178524971008301,
-1.5288643836975098,
0.367393434047699,
-0.7321584224700928,
-0.030148984864354134,
-0.07678084075450897,
0.0808030441403389,
0.8501582741737366,
0.44021475315093994,
-0.021465647965669632,
0.534735381603241,
-0.5601860284805298,
-0.09144048392772675,
-0.38574573397636414,
-0.015152805484831333,
0.4377763271331787,
-0.21121810376644135,
0.8185673952102661,
0.0033991197124123573,
0.8379999399185181,
-0.0004065520188305527,
-0.15659381449222565,
-0.6000967025756836,
0.24675345420837402,
-0.4985792636871338,
-0.21047481894493103,
0.8216113448143005,
-0.2586221396923065,
-0.20521631836891174,
0.1788567453622818,
-0.40108463168144226,
0.028237054124474525,
-0.3174085021018982,
0.13352398574352264,
-0.3045077323913574,
-0.4524820148944855,
-0.030678538605570793,
1.0553028583526611,
0.4858831465244293,
0.32210269570350647,
-0.20676809549331665,
-0.001759567647241056,
0.10626556724309921,
-0.3174877464771271,
0.01646469347178936,
-0.33393311500549316,
-0.5846161842346191,
0.024255847558379173,
0.11079657077789307,
0.09207090735435486,
0.6212706565856934,
-0.3876977562904358,
1.1296508312225342,
-0.6513829231262207,
-0.017144156619906425,
0.42600616812705994,
0.3673749566078186,
0.33600175380706787,
0.0018280640942975879,
-0.5928636193275452,
-0.18874143064022064,
0.1864323616027832,
-0.23747482895851135,
0.5246896147727966,
-0.4715602397918701,
-0.7134522199630737,
0.15166746079921722,
-0.35055550932884216,
0.31482240557670593,
0.004489047918468714,
0.45209863781929016,
-0.25774312019348145,
-0.48248571157455444,
-0.5979084968566895,
0.24373625218868256,
-0.9065678715705872,
-0.17992441356182098,
0.12556611001491547,
0.21293380856513977,
-0.6602733731269836,
-0.0728248730301857,
-0.5307405591011047,
0.4013667106628418,
-0.590415358543396,
0.4309898018836975,
0.8035722970962524,
0.5664981603622437,
-0.741362452507019,
-0.0889212042093277,
-0.0920623317360878,
-0.014281836338341236,
0.21459071338176727,
0.07606714963912964,
0.18757735192775726,
0.2546454966068268,
-0.3622027635574341,
-0.1037210151553154,
-0.5477380752563477,
-0.2592575252056122,
-0.04768037050962448,
-0.371830552816391,
-0.05722127482295036,
-0.25440075993537903,
-0.1064610555768013,
-0.7057501673698425,
-0.042700350284576416,
0.10087987035512924,
0.569886326789856,
-0.3199966847896576,
-0.0634102150797844,
0.305941641330719,
0.010336273349821568,
0.37588033080101013,
0.34432506561279297,
0.1663190722465515,
0.6491810083389282,
0.6104920506477356,
-0.35667455196380615,
0.22012436389923096,
-0.03603459894657135,
-0.33722200989723206,
0.40543457865715027,
0.2678075432777405,
0.2665233910083771,
0.09368119388818741,
0.19790983200073242,
0.13305756449699402,
0.2933717668056488,
0.27307698130607605,
-0.3455185890197754,
0.37401333451271057,
0.30216971039772034,
0.1416725367307663,
0.052388209849596024,
-0.3360024392604828,
-0.6740903258323669,
0.06955108046531677,
-0.08358544856309891,
-0.13391636312007904,
-0.1304716020822525,
0.3422190546989441,
-0.2221512794494629,
0.034512270241975784,
0.8103721737861633,
-0.18365983664989471,
-0.5455948710441589,
-0.706114649772644,
0.39713090658187866,
0.1629839986562729,
1.1391792297363281,
0.11745655536651611,
-0.4727444648742676,
0.956449031829834,
0.10366629809141159,
0.3617905080318451,
-0.34058189392089844,
-0.6660692095756531,
0.021432092413306236,
-0.5395302772521973,
0.10969473421573639,
0.34107327461242676,
-0.07789960503578186,
0.37271973490715027,
-0.11104942858219147,
0.3808116316795349,
0.3505975902080536,
-0.8796989321708679,
0.06950109452009201,
0.2723878026008606,
-0.5521316528320312,
-0.16004155576229095,
-0.4119396507740021,
0.19884082674980164,
0.5739237666130066,
0.0621645487844944,
0.5069293975830078,
-0.2442353069782257,
-0.0279234629124403,
0.41251376271247864,
0.41492852568626404,
0.7515580058097839,
0.5567588210105896,
0.014900275506079197,
0.5111051201820374,
-0.5163049101829529,
-0.36112305521965027,
0.16890232264995575,
0.34015995264053345,
-0.4389195740222931,
0.3372941315174103,
0.11923577636480331,
0.2958715856075287,
0.5537088513374329,
0.37418776750564575,
-0.3339431583881378,
0.6449410915374756,
0.16271862387657166,
-0.1627632975578308,
0.05175413563847542,
1.0256435871124268,
0.38756752014160156,
-0.7288012504577637,
-0.1773531585931778,
-0.3000507652759552,
-0.03192891925573349,
-0.3932068943977356,
0.3778616487979889,
-0.17612534761428833,
0.16280905902385712,
-0.660301148891449,
-0.10860371589660645,
0.5157002806663513,
-0.07843144983053207,
0.4506073594093323,
0.12831391394138336,
0.06433649361133575,
-0.11081840842962265,
0.4715176820755005,
-0.0014592751394957304,
0.3446233570575714,
-0.07197719067335129,
0.6936023831367493,
-1.0993512868881226,
-0.05980603024363518,
-0.17292030155658722,
-0.2250363677740097,
-0.26855218410491943,
-0.18122552335262299,
0.02797129936516285,
0.3139666020870209,
-0.4625696539878845,
-0.11909222602844238,
-0.10414231568574905,
-0.48139262199401855,
-0.1771603524684906,
-0.06662514805793762,
0.6625611186027527,
0.22569124400615692,
-0.37831810116767883,
-0.34151095151901245,
-0.38757553696632385,
-0.05544368922710419,
0.15397760272026062,
0.28353944420814514,
-0.05722342059016228,
-0.07341594994068146,
0.6214489936828613,
-0.46692171692848206,
-0.6129146218299866,
-0.14394259452819824,
0.11723235249519348,
-0.44770583510398865,
-0.3504418134689331,
0.15063048899173737,
0.15987421572208405,
-0.41216233372688293,
0.4002841114997864,
-0.1830689013004303,
0.2479555606842041,
0.5097550749778748,
0.3950226604938507,
-0.19329595565795898,
0.0495443195104599,
-5.567734718322754,
0.27973586320877075,
0.07527459412813187,
-0.6864571571350098,
0.0899532362818718,
0.4871271848678589,
0.5122280120849609,
-0.1058250367641449,
0.37053897976875305,
-0.7793214321136475,
0.12089688330888748,
-0.042876388877630234,
0.09411890059709549,
0.9572347402572632,
0.36803361773490906,
0.7244015336036682,
0.056029077619314194,
0.12891919910907745,
0.16209161281585693,
0.4155622720718384,
-0.24693019688129425,
0.1666383594274521,
-0.5117799639701843,
0.6002508401870728,
0.14832612872123718,
0.4992729425430298,
-0.15026207268238068,
0.14095613360404968,
-0.570939838886261,
-0.17043954133987427,
-0.0018780280370265245,
-0.007141743320971727,
0.1449899822473526,
-0.246860072016716,
0.24430465698242188,
-0.24761894345283508,
-0.2529888153076172,
0.8998708128929138,
0.05485585331916809,
0.4776109755039215,
-0.06841936707496643,
0.4042106568813324,
-0.510073721408844,
-0.5065600872039795,
-0.04154374077916145,
-0.0053395158611238,
-0.7426156997680664,
0.13370375335216522,
-0.888221800327301,
0.5931696891784668,
0.31649261713027954,
-0.21838867664337158,
0.04002641141414642,
0.31770995259284973,
0.36198607087135315,
0.2737637162208557,
0.2237664759159088,
-0.4140740931034088,
-0.5597484111785889,
-0.02512860856950283,
-0.24918587505817413,
0.0980086401104927,
0.03866537660360336,
-1.1685832738876343,
-0.5404188632965088,
-0.050909724086523056,
0.0969744399189949,
0.023241207003593445,
-0.03338034451007843,
-0.2502651512622833,
-0.5261978507041931,
0.6289049983024597,
0.003330827224999666,
-1.6638318300247192,
-0.7048917412757874,
-0.5911550521850586,
-0.5643230676651001,
-0.21504564583301544,
-0.8710024356842041,
0.0025310951750725508,
0.19397619366645813,
-0.5795507431030273,
-0.7342190146446228,
0.35265424847602844,
0.8918266892433167,
-0.16571253538131714,
-0.27610838413238525,
0.055065762251615524,
-0.4177694022655487,
-0.1791147142648697,
0.05979042127728462,
-0.1311851292848587,
0.02549641579389572,
0.24208901822566986,
0.1242096945643425,
0.08572276681661606,
-0.39790186285972595,
0.004585109651088715,
0.5048388838768005,
-0.3339182734489441,
-0.03397466614842415,
0.09593919664621353,
0.37052100896835327,
-0.15581302344799042,
0.08065709471702576,
0.23950237035751343,
-0.1094789132475853,
0.009378924034535885,
0.8296962976455688,
-0.0667944923043251,
0.09589925408363342,
0.19437861442565918,
-0.33251288533210754,
-0.5156769752502441,
0.6938452124595642,
-0.11306107044219971,
0.39206603169441223,
0.8509904146194458,
0.2640729546546936,
0.09968280047178268,
-0.494523286819458,
0.14316426217556,
0.4817133843898773,
-0.6796154379844666,
0.6574808955192566,
-0.27424246072769165,
-0.22101590037345886,
-0.36365559697151184,
0.11452989280223846,
0.5420972108840942,
-0.1556205451488495,
0.46653610467910767,
0.21032194793224335,
-0.3504292368888855,
-0.1810159683227539,
-0.345646470785141,
-0.5082710385322571,
-0.42597994208335876,
0.07085735350847244,
-0.11391322314739227,
0.01972358115017414,
-0.4449899196624756,
0.10476848483085632,
0.6061835885047913,
0.12938009202480316,
0.008852413855493069,
-0.17660744488239288,
0.08066381514072418,
-0.314687579870224,
-0.27576011419296265,
-0.592494547367096,
0.10873769968748093,
0.33026355504989624,
-0.258956640958786,
-0.19472354650497437,
0.4847050607204437,
-0.5252600312232971,
0.5302541255950928,
-0.8978772163391113,
-0.3111147880554199,
0.386922687292099,
-1.0988099575042725,
-1.1192435026168823,
-0.2668660581111908,
-0.13653787970542908,
-0.055085789412260056,
-0.9445501565933228,
-0.21908032894134521,
-0.7536336183547974,
0.6716868877410889,
-0.1552036851644516,
-0.8792397975921631,
-0.4932612478733063,
0.2852614223957062,
-0.13463425636291504,
-0.19414463639259338,
-0.024877196177840233,
0.23963721096515656,
-0.3898579180240631,
0.1128285601735115,
-0.1561918407678604,
0.4361124336719513,
-0.6123578548431396,
0.5096355676651001,
0.697474479675293,
-0.26533588767051697,
0.27095475792884827,
-0.16031032800674438,
-0.604826033115387,
0.3909013569355011,
0.128790020942688,
0.01220998726785183,
0.47403913736343384,
0.4337054491043091,
0.05001085624098778,
-0.31292468309402466,
-0.2982378304004669,
-0.3255836069583893,
0.01771744154393673,
0.08829980343580246,
0.2717277407646179,
0.14749301970005035,
-0.3446110486984253,
-0.24727441370487213,
0.19118303060531616,
-0.9026458859443665,
0.3100522756576538,
-0.03469185531139374,
-0.025054948404431343,
0.9187530875205994,
-0.6708110570907593,
-0.19253131747245789,
-0.30783572793006897,
0.9018133878707886,
-0.3993307948112488,
0.7502852082252502,
0.5706079602241516,
0.03241366520524025,
-0.6536715030670166,
-0.675299346446991,
-0.48422712087631226,
-0.6320486068725586,
-0.3233892619609833,
-0.3626110255718231,
-0.2666201889514923,
-0.1895957738161087,
0.25805240869522095,
-0.10139525681734085,
0.6756659746170044,
0.09266775846481323,
0.5264173150062561,
-0.5420761108398438,
0.14006376266479492,
-0.08421734720468521,
-0.3272576630115509,
-0.1252448707818985,
0.37560734152793884,
-0.2065744549036026,
0.5611367225646973,
0.3715576231479645,
0.5449526309967041,
0.7351739406585693,
0.18238970637321472,
0.13519085943698883,
0.1074107363820076,
0.19968098402023315,
0.33734333515167236,
-0.2932046055793762,
-0.5481126308441162,
0.05693173035979271,
0.26790255308151245,
-0.385739803314209,
-0.33331096172332764,
-0.4337247610092163,
1.1433398723602295,
-0.33873844146728516,
-0.007659255526959896,
0.5610196590423584,
0.2960260808467865,
0.22127622365951538,
0.1109790951013565,
0.07595914602279663,
0.13222667574882507,
0.09515389055013657,
0.2594180405139923,
0.6577184796333313,
-0.07310176640748978,
0.01659517176449299,
0.04778040945529938,
-0.18036001920700073,
-0.5073340535163879,
-0.4662538170814514,
0.09773782640695572,
-0.0023110685870051384,
-0.21832408010959625,
0.052566178143024445,
0.02047114074230194,
-0.14423762261867523,
-0.03073263168334961,
-0.31208792328834534,
-0.3928821086883545,
-0.04717819020152092,
0.06536567211151123,
0.07040111720561981,
-0.7227948904037476,
-0.4083561599254608,
-0.3374039828777313,
-0.24346701800823212,
-0.09956952929496765,
0.26917630434036255,
-0.7659463882446289,
-0.04050520062446594,
0.18951158225536346,
0.3542969226837158,
0.34078270196914673,
0.37219107151031494,
-0.2233436107635498,
0.790423572063446,
-0.2998000979423523,
-0.050466276705265045,
-0.05803646519780159,
-0.08444496989250183,
0.3116178512573242,
-0.16186317801475525,
0.37200215458869934,
-0.2085833102464676,
-0.2278262823820114,
0.14068840444087982,
-0.4947158694267273,
0.6561364531517029,
0.1783023178577423,
0.011505897156894207,
0.009565797634422779,
0.9537376761436462,
-0.22023507952690125,
-0.5181218385696411,
0.20521457493305206,
-0.47362637519836426,
-0.38324856758117676,
-0.36455658078193665,
0.574955403804779,
0.2656792402267456,
0.4615477919578552,
-0.17740607261657715,
0.07111462205648422,
0.5223817825317383,
0.26678070425987244,
0.19019529223442078,
-0.31973713636398315,
0.2761949598789215,
-0.011927089653909206,
-0.712185800075531,
0.10417887568473816,
0.3279697000980377,
0.06025191396474838,
-0.152887761592865,
-0.16721457242965698,
-0.26660051941871643,
-0.10412593930959702,
0.04417916759848595,
0.42868438363075256,
0.7716069221496582,
-0.25081419944763184,
0.3649600148200989,
0.5536465644836426,
-0.5617939829826355,
0.022211618721485138,
0.7356780171394348,
-0.025222623720765114,
-0.07703763246536255,
0.46301183104515076,
0.19823144376277924,
0.2120257467031479,
-1.2260169982910156,
0.1611327826976776,
0.3113745152950287,
0.18652911484241486,
-0.6780068874359131,
-0.22001580893993378,
0.06352619081735611,
-0.5751625299453735,
-0.42877233028411865,
0.5906910300254822,
0.08442217856645584,
0.2720295488834381,
-0.5346993803977966,
0.223533496260643,
-0.29967427253723145,
0.2582113742828369,
0.20077863335609436,
0.04211786016821861,
-0.4990405738353729,
-0.2063218504190445,
0.293357789516449,
0.038293737918138504,
0.5407387614250183,
0.8142107725143433,
0.09540223330259323,
-0.03687276691198349,
0.09796853363513947,
-0.5726606249809265,
0.328407347202301,
0.2718372344970703,
0.06327573210000992,
0.2530497908592224,
-0.13423171639442444,
0.1501263827085495,
-0.1726170927286148,
0.1761532425880432,
-0.2245480716228485,
0.5863359570503235,
-0.3174503445625305,
0.005272585432976484,
0.6070003509521484,
-0.7681965231895447,
0.45567023754119873,
-0.7451419234275818,
0.6849467158317566,
0.33362966775894165,
-0.16267050802707672,
-0.7549497485160828,
-0.3450705111026764,
0.08628717809915543,
0.5165663361549377,
-0.19048021733760834,
0.4541572630405426,
-0.345441997051239,
0.4825102984905243,
-0.6039173603057861,
0.22446079552173615,
0.15121421217918396,
0.6471672654151917,
-0.0738300010561943,
0.45420190691947937,
0.011998545378446579,
-0.27917274832725525,
0.5663646459579468,
0.003606960643082857,
-0.05603247135877609,
-0.11203158646821976,
0.05165726691484451,
-0.142240509390831,
0.3519517481327057,
-0.30953654646873474,
-0.15013962984085083,
0.21877527236938477,
-0.49730387330055237,
0.5272956490516663,
0.07417047768831253,
-0.125798299908638,
-0.2278507649898529,
0.07826875895261765,
0.052759379148483276,
-0.3618400990962982,
-0.01690135896205902,
-0.30522236227989197,
0.6060272455215454,
0.2899341881275177,
0.3485689163208008,
-0.9435220956802368,
0.4994550943374634,
-0.04026273638010025,
-0.24703583121299744,
-0.24015873670578003,
0.25386300683021545,
0.4101587235927582,
-0.2341691106557846,
-0.07660063356161118,
-0.11506406217813492,
-0.3654864430427551,
-0.29365938901901245,
-0.8129052519798279,
0.4593227207660675,
-0.5194722414016724,
0.14822128415107727,
0.42597025632858276,
-0.09482316672801971,
-0.27221405506134033,
0.5504717230796814,
-0.44494473934173584
] |
261047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enda%20Kenny | Enda Kenny | Enda Kenny (born 24 April 1951) is an Irish former Fine Gael politician who served as Taoiseach from 2011 to 2017, Leader of Fine Gael from 2002 to 2017, Minister for Defence from May to July 2014 and 2016 to 2017, Leader of the Opposition from 2002 to 2011, Minister for Tourism and Trade from 1994 to 1997 and Minister of State at the Department of Labour and Department of Education with responsibility for Youth Affairs from 1986 to 1987. He served as Teachta Dála (TD) for Mayo West from 1975 to 1997 and for Mayo from 1997 to 2020.
Kenny led Fine Gael to a historic victory at the 2011 general election, his party becoming the largest in the state for the first time, forming a coalition government with the Labour Party on 9 March 2011. He subsequently became the first Fine Gael member to be elected Taoiseach for a second consecutive term on 6 May 2016, after two months of negotiations, following the 2016 election, forming a Fine Gael-led minority government. He was the first Taoiseach from Fine Gael since John Bruton (1994–1997), and the first Leader of Fine Gael to win a general election since Garret FitzGerald in 1982. He became the longest-serving Fine Gael Taoiseach in April 2017.
Kenny stepped down as Leader of Fine Gael on 2 June 2017, and announced he would resign as Taoiseach once a new leader was chosen in early June. In the following leadership election, the then Minister for Social Protection, Leo Varadkar, was elected to succeed him as Leader of Fine Gael. Kenny tendered his resignation as Taoiseach on 13 June 2017, and was succeeded by Varadkar the following day. On 5 November 2017, Kenny announced that he would not contest the following general election.
Early life
Kenny was born in 1951 in Derrycoosh, Islandeady, near Castlebar, County Mayo, the third child of five of Mary Eithne (McGinley) and Henry Kenny. He was educated locally at St Patrick's National School, Cornanool N.S, Leitir N.S and at St. Gerald's College, Castlebar. He attended St Patrick's College, Dublin, qualifying as a national teacher and was an undergraduate student at University College Galway. He worked as a primary school teacher for four years. He also played football for his local club Islandeady GAA.
Career
Early years in Dáil Éireann (1975–1994)
Kenny was exposed to politics from an early age, following his father Henry Kenny, becoming a Fine Gael TD in 1954. In the early 1970s, he became directly involved in politics when he started helping his father with constituency clinics. In 1975, Henry Kenny (who was at this stage a Parliamentary Secretary in the government) died after a short battle with cancer. Fine Gael wanted one of his sons to stand as their candidate at the subsequent by-election, and so Enda Kenny was chosen. He was elected on the first count with 52% of the vote, and thus became the youngest member of the 20th Dáil, aged 24.
Kenny remained on the backbenches for almost a decade. He was appointed party spokesperson firstly on Youth Affairs and Sport, then Western Development; however, he failed to build a national profile as he concentrated more on constituency matters. Kenny was left out in the cold when Garret FitzGerald became Taoiseach for the first time in 1981, and again in 1982. He was, however, appointed as a member of the Fine Gael delegation at the New Ireland Forum in 1983. He later served on the British-Irish Parliamentary Association. In 1986, he became a Minister of State at the Department of Labour and Department of Education with responsibility for Youth Affairs. Fine Gael lost the 1987 general election, resulting in Kenny and Fine Gael being on the opposition benches for the next seven years. In spite of this, his national profile was raised as he served in a number of positions on the party's front bench, including Education, Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht, and the Islands. He was also the Fine Gael Chief Whip for a short period.
Minister for Tourism (1994–1997)
In late 1994, the Fianna Fáil–Labour Party government collapsed; however, no general election was called. Instead, a Fine Gael–Labour Party–Democratic Left "Rainbow Coalition" came to power. Kenny, as Fine Gael chief whip, was a key member of the team, which negotiated the programme for government with the other parties prior to the formation of the new government. Under Taoiseach John Bruton, Kenny joined the cabinet and was appointed Minister for Tourism and Trade. During his tenure as Minister, Ireland saw a significant growth in the tourism sector and in its international trade position. As Minister, he chaired the European Union Council of Trade Ministers, during Ireland's six-month Presidency of the European Council, as well as co-chairing a round of the World Trade Organization talks in 1996. Among Kenny's other achievements were the rejuvenation of the Saint Patrick's Day parade in Dublin, and the successful negotiations to bring a stage of the 1998 Tour de France to Ireland. In 1997, the government was defeated at the general election and Kenny returned to the opposition benches.
Opposition (1997–2002)
Fine Gael leadership elections
2001
John Bruton resigned as leader of Fine Gael in 2001, following a vote of no confidence in his ability. Kenny stood in the subsequent leadership election, promising to "electrify the party". In the final ballot it was Michael Noonan who emerged victorious (it is Fine Gael's custom not to publish ballot results for leadership elections). Noonan did not give a spokesperson's assignment to Kenny; this led him to accuse Noonan of sending a "dangerous message".
2002
At the 2002 general election, Fine Gael suffered its worst electoral performance ever, losing 23 seats, a figure larger than expected, with its share of the vote down 5%. Kenny himself came close to losing his seat, and even went so far as to prepare a concession speech. In the end he won the third seat in the five-seat constituency. Noonan resigned as Fine Gael leader on the night of the result, an action which triggered another leadership election. Protest meetings were held by members of the party against the speed with which the leadership election had been called and the failure to broaden the franchise to the membership. It was suggested that it was foolish to choose a leader before conducting an electoral post-mortem.
Kenny once again contested the leadership and emerged successful on that occasion.
Racist remarks (2002)
In September 2002, Kenny was accused of making racist remarks after he used the word "nigger" in a joke relating to Patrice Lumumba, the assassinated first Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Kenny wanted the incident to be suppressed, and specifically asked journalists not to cite it, though the Sunday Independent newspaper reported his "chortling repetition of the inflammatory word". He was subsequently condemned by race campaigners at home and abroad. Matters were made worse when it emerged that several of Lumumba's relatives, including a son and several grandchildren, lived in Tallaght.
Kenny apologized unreservedly but insisted that there was no racist intent, and that he was merely quoting what a Moroccan barman had once said, while reminiscing about an incident he had witnessed in the company of his friend David Molony, whose sudden death had recently occurred. However, what he said was widely seen as politically indefensible, as a story that should not have been told in the company of reporters by someone hoping to become the next Taoiseach.
Leader of the Opposition (2002–2011)
Fine Gael out-performed expectations at the 2004 Local and European elections, which saw Fine Gael increase its representation from 4 MEPs of 15 from Ireland, to 5 from 13. This was the first time Fine Gael had ever defeated Fianna Fáil in a national election, as well as the first time Fianna Fáil had failed to finish first in a national election since its second place in the 1927 general election behind Cumann na nGaedheal, Fine Gael's immediate predecessor.
In July 2005, five men from the north of Kenny's Mayo constituency were jailed over their opposition to the Fianna Fáil-led government's plans for the Corrib gas project. One of the men, Philip McGrath, worked for Kenny as an election agent for Rossport during general elections. Unlike his fellow Mayo Fine Gael TD, Michael Ring, Kenny was cautious about backing the men's stance (Ring would later be forced to adopt the same policy). The Shell to Sea campaign that was founded to help release the men and get the government to change its mind shut down work on the project for fifteen months. When Gardaí were brought in to remove protesters with tactics that saw many hospitalised, Kenny said: "The law must be obeyed."
In November 2005, Kenny called for the abolition of compulsory Irish for the Leaving Certificate examinations. This was opposed by all the major Irish language organisations. In March 2006, he was elected vice-president of the European People's Party (EPP), the largest European political group to which Fine Gael is affiliated. In his speech to the EPP, he stated that Fine Gael would be in government in Ireland within two years.
During the first half of 2006, Kenny went aggressively after a more populist line on the cost of immigration, street crime, paedophilia and homeowners' rights. A graphic description of a mugging he had experienced was given to the Dáil, in the context of a crime discussion, only for it to be revealed a day later that the incident had occurred in Kenya, not in Ireland.
Under Kenny, Fine Gael agreed to enter a pre-election pact with the Labour Party, to offer the electorate an alternative coalition government at the 2007 general election held on 24 May 2007. The so-called Mullingar Accord was agreed in September 2004, following the European and local elections that year. The Green Party also signalled via the media to be in favour of membership of such a coalition government after the election. However, it would not commit to an agreement before polling day.
Kenny's leadership attempted to define Fine Gael as a party of the progressive centre. Its policy initiatives concentrated on value for money, consumer rights, civil partnerships, reform of public spending, reward and enterprise and preventative health care policy. The party sought to retake its former mantle as the law-and-order and a party committed to defending the institutions of the state. At the Fine Gael Ardfheis in March 2007, Kenny outlined his platform for the forthcoming general election entitled the "Contract for a Better Ireland". The main aspects of this "contract" included: 2,300 more hospital beds, 2,000 more Gardaí, tougher jail sentences and tougher bail for criminals, free health insurance for all children under 16 and lower income tax. Bertie Ahern was perceived by many to have comfortably beaten Kenny in the pre-election Leaders' debate. When the votes were counted it emerged that Fine Gael had made large gains, increasing its number of seats by twenty, to give a total of 51 seats in the new Dáil. However, Labour and the Greens failed to make gains, leaving Kenny's "Alliance for Change" short of a majority. Despite predictions to the contrary, the Fianna Fáil vote recovered sufficiently to bring it to 78 seats, and a third term in government for Ahern.
Responding to the banking crisis in County Cork, on 15 February 2009, Kenny asked the entire board of the Central Bank of Ireland's Financial Regulation section to resign.
2010 challenge to leadership
An opinion poll published in The Irish Times on 10 June 2010 triggered a challenge to Kenny's leadership of the party. The Ipsos MRBI poll indicated that the Labour Party had become the most popular political party in the country for the first time, and also showed a drop in backing for Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, and for their leaders. It showed a five-point drop in Fianna Fáil support since January 2010, leaving that party on 17%, Fine Gael down four points to 28%, and Labour up eight points to 32%. Satisfaction with Kenny's leadership dropped 7% to 24%.
Following the failure of the party's deputy leader Richard Bruton to support him, he was dismissed by Kenny on 14 June 2010. He also tabled a motion of confidence in his leadership, to be held on 17 June 2010. On the following day it was revealed that nine members of the Fine Gael frontbench did not have confidence in Kenny to lead their party – composed of Simon Coveney, Denis Naughten, Olwyn Enright, Olivia Mitchell, Fergus O'Dowd, Michael Creed, Billy Timmins, Leo Varadkar and Brian Hayes. Denis Naughten said frontbench members did not have Kenny's support and would like him to withdraw his motion of confidence and stand down in the interest of the party.
In December 2008, Vincent Browne criticised Kenny in The Irish Times for not having a grasp of the issues, notably of economic issues.
The motion of confidence in Kenny was passed. He announced a major reshuffle of his party's front bench on 1 July 2010, re-appointing Bruton, Coveney, O'Dowd, and Varadkar.
2011 general election
At the start of the 2011 general election campaign, Kenny said Fine Gael recognised the importance of "the giving of hope and confidence to people through the taxation system", when speaking to reporters outside party election headquarters in Dublin. "The Fine Gael party in this election is the only party that is categorically saying that there will not be any increase in income tax over our period in government", he said. He said the country needed strong government and not an administration that depended on the support of Independents. "I think that this is a time for courageous and strong government. It is not a time for government that might self-combust or that would be dependent on the whim of any mercenary Independents. This is a judgment call for the people."
There was several leaders debates on television during the campaign. There were, uniquely, three debates on stations TV3, RTÉ and TG4, between Enda Kenny, Michaél Martin and Eamon Gilmore, and a five-way leaders' debate on RTÉ which also included Gerry Adams and John Gormley, along with the other participants from the three-way debates.
Kenny, however, refused to participate in the three-way leaders' debate proposed by TV3, stating his unhappiness that Vincent Browne was to chair the debate. Browne is a well-known critic of Fine Gael and Kenny. In 1982, Browne appeared on The Late Late Show where he poured scorn on Kenny, claiming he was "purporting" to be a TD. In October 2010, Browne was forced to make a public apology to Kenny after jokingly asking whether Fine Gael was requesting that he go into a darkroom with a gun and a bottle of whisky. This was in reference to Fine Gael's position in the polls, where they were in second place to Labour, and a previous leadership challenge to Kenny by Richard Bruton. Kenny refused to appear on the leaders debate despite an offer by Browne to be replaced by a different moderator for the debate if Kenny would appear.
Kenny participated in a three-party leader debate on RTÉ moderated by Miriam O'Callaghan, and also in a five-way debate on RTÉ; this was a new format, involving all party leaders of the outgoing Dáil, including Kenny, moderated by Pat Kenny.
He participated in a three-way debate in the Irish language with Micheál Martin and Eamon Gilmore on TG4.
On 14 February 2011, Kenny met German Chancellor Angela Merkel to discuss the Irish economy. Kenny and Merkel have close political ties because Merkel's CDU party and Fine Gael are both members of the centre-right European People's Party (EPP), and seating at EPP meetings is arranged by alphabetical order of surname. The close relationship between these two leaders is illustrated further by the fact that Angela Merkel also backed Enda Kenny and Fine Gael during the 2007 election.
Opinion polls of 23 February 2011, sponsored by Paddy Power, the Irish Independent, and The Irish Times suggested that Kenny would lead Fine Gael to its largest total of seats to date in the 31st Dáil, and that he would be elected Taoiseach.
In the election, Kenny led Fine Gael to a decisive victory. The party won 76 seats, the most in its 78-year history, becoming the largest party in the Dáil for the first time. Meanwhile, Fianna Fáil suffered the worst defeat of a sitting government in the history of the Irish state, its representation being reduced by 75%. Kenny himself topped the poll in his Mayo constituency and uniquely three others from Fine Gael were elected alongside Kenny. At a victory party in Dublin, Kenny declared Fine Gael had "a massive endorsement" to govern, and the election marked "a transformative moment in Ireland's history". Later, he told RTÉ that he fully expected to become Taoiseach after what he called "a democratic revolution at the ballot box". While there was some talk that Fine Gael would govern alone as a minority government, senior Fine Gael leaders indicated as soon as the election result was beyond doubt that they would likely enter a coalition government with the Labour Party. Late on the night of 5 March 2011, at Dublin Castle, Fine Gael and Labour formally agreed to form a coalition government with Kenny as Taoiseach and Labour leader Eamon Gilmore as Tánaiste, with Labour being given four other seats in cabinet.
Kenny said that his first priority upon taking office would be to renegotiate the terms of the bailout for Ireland, calling the original deal "a bad deal for Ireland and a bad deal for Europe".
13th Taoiseach (2011–2017)
2011
The members of the 31st Dáil convened for the first time on 9 March 2011, the Dáil elected Kenny as Taoiseach by a vote of 117–27. Kenny received his seal of office from President Mary McAleese. He also announced ministerial appointees to his Government on 9 March 2011. At just under 59 years and 11 months on accession, Kenny is the second-oldest person to have assumed the office for the first time, the oldest being Seán Lemass.
On 9 March 2011, Kenny appointed 15 junior Ministers. He also appointed a Minister for political reform, and sent a request to the Office of Public Works as to how he could address ministerial transport. On 15 March 2011, it was announced that only the current President, the Taoiseach, the Tánaiste and the Minister for Justice and Equality were to have Garda drivers. All other Ministers would have to make use of their own transport with a mileage allowance and a commercial chauffeur as an expense. There was no announcement as to the continuing engagement of three government jets. The media reported that this would reduce the ministerial motor vehicle transport bill to €7,000,000 annually, which is more than the combined annual tax contributions of 16,000 people on minimum wage.
Ministerial pay cuts
In one of his first acts as Taoiseach, Kenny slashed his own pay by €14,000 (a reduction of 7%). The new government also decided to cut the pay of senior Ministers. The Taoiseach's pay was cut from €214,187 to €200,000. Tánaiste Eamon Gilmore's pay was cut from €197,486 to €184,405. Ministers' pay was reduced to €169,275 (from €181,283), while pay for Ministers of State was cut from €139,266 to €130,042. In another cost-cutting measure, Kenny asked the Gardai, the Departments of Justice and Transport, as well as the Office of Public Works, to come up with a plan to reduce the amount spent on transporting Ministers and their teams.
Financial and banking policy
On 11 March 2011, his third day in office, Kenny attended his first European Council as Taoiseach, in Brussels. During that summit he engaged in a heated confrontation with President of France Nicolas Sarkozy (which Kenny termed "a Gallic spat") over Ireland's comparatively low 12.5% corporate tax rate, which EU leaders have frequently posited as a condition of more favourable terms for the Irish bailout. Kenny held firm on his refusal to alter the corporate tax, which he reiterated in his first Leaders' Questions the following week—also declaring his government's intention to withhold further state funds from Dublin banks until the EU agreed to new terms that forced banks' senior bondholders to share in the losses.
However, less than three weeks later on 31 March 2011, the Central Bank of Ireland published the results of its "stress tests" on Ireland's four surviving banks (Allied Irish Banks, Bank of Ireland, EBS, and Irish Life & Permanent) — indicating that the banks needed to raise an additional €24,000,000,000 to remain solvent. Despite his earlier promise, the government announced the same day that the state would supply the necessary funds to keep the banks afloat, with Kenny stating that seeking the money from bondholders would be neither "reasonable or logical".
Kenny was heavily criticised for his government's action, with the Irish Independent noting that "this is the fifth time Irish people have been told over the past couple of years it would be the last payout they would have to endure".
Nevertheless, the first national opinion poll since Kenny took office, published on 10 April 2011, showed that public support for Kenny's Fine Gael party had increased since the election from 36% to 39%, although a plurality also indicated deep dissatisfaction with his rescue of the banks.
On 21 July 2011, Kenny announced that an agreement had been reached by Eurozone leaders to reduce Ireland's interest rate by 2% and extend the repayment period.
Pension levy controversy
On 9 May 2011, Kenny's government announced a new job creation program, along with plan to finance it via a 0.6% tax levy on private pension savings. Public pension funds, however, would remain untouched. The pension levy caused an immediate and intense outcry, leaving Kenny to defend the initiative as "a modest proposal" and refuting charges that the government would next tax personal savings. However, the controversy surrounding the levy intensified on 12 May 2011, when Kenny admitted that the holders of Approved Retirement Funds—most of whom were among the highest income earners in Ireland—would not be included in the levy.
Political reforms
On 3 May 2011, Kenny's government approved a set of political reforms that adhered to promises he had made in the general election. Among the approved reforms were a binding Constituency Commission scheduled for June 2011, with the specific purpose of reducing the number of TDs by up to 20; an act to establish a six-month time limit for holding by-elections to the Dáil; a €750,000 spending limit in the 2011 presidential election; legislation to ban corporate donations, to be enacted by summer 2011; establishment of a Constitutional Convention in 2011, which was to include discussion of the Seanad; and a referendum on the abolition of the Seanad, to be held in the second half of 2012. The promise to cut up to 20 TDs caused some controversy and scepticism, due to the Constitutional requirement that there be no less than one TD for every 30,000 people, which would necessitate a minimum of 150 TDs—meaning that the current number of 166 TDs could be reduced by 16 at most.
Vatican reprimand and response
On 13 July 2011, the Cloyne Report was published, detailing the investigation into allegations of child sexual abuse by 19 priests in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cloyne. Among the report's findings were the revelation that the vast majority of allegations made in the diocese were not reported to the Garda, as required by the Church's 1996 guidelines; that the Bishop of the Diocese, John Magee, and others had withheld full co-operation with the Government's investigation and had deliberately misrepresented his own response to the allegations; and that the Vatican itself had both refused to co-operate in the investigation and counselled the Diocese that the 1996 guidelines were not binding.
On 20 July 2011, Kenny condemned the Vatican for its role in the scandal, stating that the Church's role in obstructing the investigation was a serious infringement upon the sovereignty of Ireland and that the scandal revealed "the dysfunction, disconnection and elitism that dominates the culture of the Vatican to this day". He added that "the historic relationship between church and state in Ireland could not be the same again".
Kenny's attack on the Vatican was unprecedented by a high-level official in Ireland. The speech was widely regarded as extraordinary, with the Daily Mail commenting that the attack was "the first time that Ireland's Parliament has publicly castigated the Vatican instead of local church leaders during the country's 17 years of paedophile-priest scandals". The Guardian remarked that " the political classes have...lost their fear, namely of the once almighty Roman Catholic church."
On 3 September, the Holy See issued its response to Kenny's speech noting that "the accusation that the Holy See attempted "to frustrate an Inquiry in a sovereign, democratic republic as little as three years ago, not three decades ago", which Mr Kenny made no attempt to substantiate, is unfounded. Indeed, when asked, a Government spokesperson clarified that Mr. Kenny was not referring to any specific incident". The response added that "Those Reports [...] contain no evidence to suggest that the Holy See meddled in the internal affairs of the Irish State or, for that matter, was involved in the day-to-day management of Irish dioceses or religious congregations with respect to sexual abuse issues".
On the quoting of then Cardinal Ratzinger, the response notes that the quotation was taken from the Instruction on the Ecclesial Vocation of the Theologian, otherwise known as Donum Veritatis (The Gift of the Truth), published by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on 24 May 1990, and signed by the then Prefect and Secretary of the Congregation. Therefore, it is not a private text of the then Cardinal Ratzinger but an official document of the Congregation.
First national address
Kenny gave a televised address to the nation on 4 December 2011, ahead of the delivery of the 2012 Irish budget. He warned that Budget 2012 "will be tough", and that "it has to be". He also said that it would move Ireland towards a manageable deficit of 3% of GDP by 2015. This was only the sixth time that a Taoiseach had addressed the nation, reflecting the gravity of the Irish economic condition, in what Kenny stressed were "exceptional" circumstances. The broadcast was the second-most watched television programme of 2011 in Ireland, attracting an audience of 1.2 million viewers.
2013
Promissory notes
In February 2013, a deal was reached with the European Central Bank, in relation to the promissory note used to bail out the former Anglo Irish Bank. Kenny described it as "a good day for the country and its people". He told the Dáil that, as a result of the changes, there would be a €20 billion reduction in the borrowing requirement of the National Treasury Management Agency in the years ahead, but also cautioned that the agreement was not a "silver bullet".
Magdalene Laundry apology
On 19 February 2013, Kenny apologised in Dáil Éireann, on behalf of the State to the survivors of the Magdalene Laundries. The government also told the estimated 800 to 1,000 surviving Magdalene women that a compensation scheme would be set up for them. However, by February 2014, none of the 684 applicants had received their statutory old-age pensions or health care benefits promised.
Second national address
To mark the end of the Troika bailout in December 2013, Kenny gave a second address to the nation, saying that the country was moving in the right direction, and that the economy was starting to recover.
2014
Resignations of Martin Callinan and Alan Shatter
In March 2014, in response to reports that Garda stations were bugged, Kenny informed the Dáil that he had sent Brian Purcell, the Secretary General of the Department of Justice, to Garda Commissioner Martin Callinan, the day before Callinan's sudden departure from his role. Leader of the Opposition Micheál Martin said this meant Kenny had effectively "sacked" Callinan. Kenny also said that he had been personally briefed on Garda surveillance by his Attorney General Máire Whelan, as Whelan did not wish to speak of the matter over the telephone.
In May 2014, following the resignation of Minister for Justice and Equality Alan Shatter, support for Kenny and his party slumped at the local and European elections. Kenny was later to be seen doing some "happy dancing" at the annual Bloom Festival.
2015
In March 2015, Kenny was criticised for his lack of understanding towards Wexford TD Mick Wallace's inability to speak Irish, during leader's questions in the Dáil.
In April 2015, Kenny told the Dáil a tale about a man with two pints in one hand. Leader of Sinn Féin Gerry Adams immediately quizzed him on this, saying: "Two pints in one hand?".
On 22 September 2015, Kenny controversially delayed leaders' questions in the Dáil so that he could open the Denis O'Brien-controlled Independent News & Media's new digital hub. Kenny had previously launched a book for James Morrissey, the long-term paid spokesperson for O'Brien.
A "punching gesture" made by Kenny as Mary Lou McDonald was speaking during a Dáil debate on the Budget on 13 October 2015, attracted public notice. McDonald later responded by saying, "a punching gesture is unusual behaviour to say the least and I would suggest not to be repeated".
Later that month, Kenny told a gathering of the European People's Party (EPP) in Madrid, that he had been instructed to have the army guarded ATMs, during the economic downturn. Opposition TDs wondered why he did not tell this to the banking inquiry and Kenny was accused of "telling a tall tale". Kenny himself later contradicted his own account by saying he had not received a specific briefing on the matter. A spokesman for Kenny later claimed it had been "informally discussed" in Government Buildings in early 2012, but that minutes had not been kept due to the sensitivity of the details therein.
2016
On 3 February 2016, Kenny announced his intention to request that President Higgins dissolve the 31st Dáil. He told the Dáil before its dissolution that the 2016 general election would occur on Friday, 26 February.
At a Fine Gael rally in his home town of Castlebar, County Mayo, on 20 February 2016, Kenny informed an audience that his local constituents were All-Ireland champion "whingers". He later told media in Galway, that he was referring to local Fianna Fáil members.
Following the election, Fine Gael received 50 seats, 29 short of an overall majority. Preliminary discussions took place with Leader of the Opposition Mícheál Martin, in order to agree on an arrangement to support either Kenny, Fine Gael or under a new leader to remain in government. On 10 March 2016, Kenny resigned as Taoiseach, after failing to win enough votes to be elected for a second term. He and the cabinet continued in a caretaker capacity until a new government was formed.
As caretaker Kenny went to Washington, D.C., as usual for Saint Patrick's Day. There he was reported as having told the Irish Embassy: "Bejaysus, I wish I didn't have to go back and face what I have to face". He also met President Barack Obama, as part of the annual visit of the Taoiseach to the White House, for the handing over of the bowl of shamrock.
On 29 April 2016, an agreement was reached with Fianna Fáil to allow a Fine Gael-led minority government, and on 6 May 2016, Kenny was elected Taoiseach again, by a margin of 59 to 49 votes (with 51 abstentions), and formed a government. He became the first member of Fine Gael to win re-election as Taoiseach in Ireland's history. Kenny also took over as Minister for Defence, from Simon Coveney, who was appointed Minister for Housing, Planning, Community and Local Government.
Regarding the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, Kenny went on record as saying the possibility of a "Brexit" would cause a "serious difficulty" with maintaining peace in Northern Ireland. He was described as favouring Britain remaining in the European Union, for were Britain to leave the EU, the peace settlement in Northern Ireland might collapse. This statement was denounced by Theresa Villiers, the British Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, as "scaremongering of the worst possible kind"; she stated that the Common Travel Area, the "open border" encompassing the United Kingdom and Ireland, would not be affected by Britain's departure from the EU.
2017
On 30 January 2017, a joint press meeting was held between Enda Kenny and British Prime Minister Theresa May, in Merrion Street, Dublin, to discuss the implications of Brexit on Northern Ireland and Ireland.
Subsequent to the 2016 general election, there were calls for him to step down as Leader of Fine Gael, and thus as Taoiseach. After the uncovering of the Garda smear campaign of sergeant Maurice McCabe, some backbench TDs lost confidence in Kenny. Kenny had stated he would indicate his plans for a leadership change following his return from the US for the traditional St. Patrick's Day celebrations; however, at the St. Patrick's Day parade in New York City, Kenny stated that he would not stand down from leadership until the issues of Brexit and the aftermath of the snap election in Northern Ireland had been resolved, saying that "you can't have a situation where you have no leadership in Northern Ireland and where we have to define from a European Union point of view where Ireland would be, what the agreed terms of reference for the [Brexit] negotiations are". He also remarked that he and Prime Minister May were in agreement that there would not be a return to direct rule from Westminster in Northern Ireland. On 20 March, Finance Minister Michael Noonan stated that Kenny should remain in office at least until June, when the next phase of EU Brexit negotiations was set to begin. The following day, Kenny announced that he would not consider standing down until May at the earliest, and that he planned to attend the European Council on 29 April 2017, to discuss strategy surrounding Brexit.
Retirement
On 17 May 2017, Kenny announced his intention to step down as party leader, effective at midnight. He requested that the party conclude the election of his successor by 2 June 2017, and said that he would step down as Taoiseach shortly thereafter. In the ensuing election, Minister for Social Protection Leo Varadkar was elected Leader of Fine Gael. In a statement, Kenny offered his "heartiest congratulations" to Varadkar, saying "this is a tremendous honour for him and I know he will devote his life to improving the lives of people across our country".
In early June 2017, Kenny made his final trip to the U.S. as Taoiseach. While in Chicago on 4 June 2017, he was in attendance at Soldier Field for Irish rock band U2's performance as part of their Joshua Tree Tour. U2 lead singer Bono dedicated their performance of the song "Trip Through Your Wires" to Kenny, saying "The man we call Taoiseach, which I think might mean head of the house or something like that... The chieftain of our country is here tonight! ...We’d like to honour our graceful leader."
On 13 June 2017, Kenny tendered his resignation as Taoiseach. The following day, 14 June 2017, he nominated Varadkar to formally succeed him as Taoiseach in the Dáil; the Dáil approved the nomination. Kenny then made his farewell address to the Dáil, quoting U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt: "Far and away, the best prize that life has to offer is a chance to work hard at work worth doing." After receiving a standing ovation from the Dáil, Kenny departed for Áras an Uachtaráin and submitted his resignation to President Michael D. Higgins. In his last duty as Taoiseach he advised the President that the Dáil had nominated Varadkar as Taoiseach, and that the President should thus invite him to form a new government and appoint him as Taoiseach in accordance with the constitution.
Return to the backbenches (2017–2020)
On 29 December 2017, Kenny was a wedding guest of Fine Gael Senator Jerry Buttimer in Cork. When a reporter took the opportunity to remind him of a nearby event centre of which Kenny had "turned the sod" nearly two years previously, but of which the construction was now halted, Kenny made it known he was there to attend a marriage.
In June 2018, Kenny was named 'Irish European of the Year' for "his outstanding contribution to promoting and developing Ireland's place in Europe through some of the most challenging circumstances in our history around the time of the Brexit referendum to also chairing the European Council and developing and promoting our relationship with the European Union".
In October 2019, RTÉ Investigates reported that Kenny had voted in the Dáil on just three occasions in 2019 (two of those votes taking place on the same day), and had missed 96% of votes that took place between June 2017 and July 2019. In total, he had voted just 15 times in that period out of a possible 400 votes. The report stated that Kenny's attendance in the Dáil had been registered on 263 days during that period, and that he had claimed the full travel and accommodation allowance of €47,000 to which he was entitled, in addition to his salary.
Post-political activity
Iarnród Enda (2021)
He presented a six part Irish language television series about old Irish railway routes on RTÉ One in 2021, called Iarnród Enda. It commenced broadcasting on Monday 5 April 2021.
Other activity
In 2019, Kenny was appointed chair of the global advisory board of Dublin private equity firm Venturewave Capital. In August 2021, Kenny joined the board of Heneghan Strategic Communications, the lobbying and public relations agency run by Nigel Heneghan. In September 2021, he joined the board of Dublin-headquartered ‘mechanical tree’ firm Carbon Collect as a non-executive director.
Legacy
Kenny's tenure as Taoiseach was dominated by the introduction of austerity policies in the aftermath of the economic recession. These policies began under the previous Fianna Fáil government in 2008, and continued for much of his first term. Overall, the impact of these budgets has been described as not conforming to "either a progressive pattern (losses increasing with income) or regressive pattern (losses declining with income)" by the Economic and Social Research Institute.
Political journalist John Downing wrote a biography of Kenny titled Enda Kenny: The Unlikely Taoiseach.
Personal life
Kenny has been married to Fionnuala O'Kelly since 1992. She has been described by the media as his "secret weapon". O'Kelly is a first cousin to sitting Fine Gael MEP Seán Kelly, who also served as a President of the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). The O'Kelly family originally come from the parish of Kilcummin near Killarney, County Kerry. The couple have three children: one daughter, Aoibhinn, and two sons, Ferdia and Naoise. The couple met in Leinster House, where O'Kelly worked as a press officer for Fianna Fáil. She later worked with Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ).
Kenny has climbed Mount Kilimanjaro and completed the Ring of Kerry Charity Cycle. He is a keen supporter of his native Mayo GAA football team, and played football for his local club, Islandeady GAA, of which he is the current club president. His father Henry, won an All-Ireland medal with the county team in 1936. His grandfather was a lighthouse keeper.
See also
Families in the Oireachtas
References
External links
Enda Kenny's page on the Fine Gael website
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
1951 births
Living people
Alumni of St Patrick's College, Dublin
Alumni of NUI Galway
Fine Gael TDs
Irish schoolteachers
Leaders of Fine Gael
Local councillors in County Mayo
Members of the 20th Dáil
Members of the 21st Dáil
Members of the 22nd Dáil
Members of the 23rd Dáil
Members of the 24th Dáil
Members of the 25th Dáil
Members of the 26th Dáil
Members of the 27th Dáil
Members of the 28th Dáil
Members of the 29th Dáil
Members of the 30th Dáil
Members of the 31st Dáil
Members of the 32nd Dáil
Ministers of State of the 24th Dáil
People from Castlebar
Politicians from County Mayo
Taoisigh
People educated at St Gerald's College, Castlebar | [
-0.4955039322376251,
0.05209825560450554,
0.08128102123737335,
-0.8304305672645569,
-0.28202706575393677,
0.15261289477348328,
0.2320869266986847,
-0.05216561630368233,
-0.6456031799316406,
-0.03610370680689812,
-0.5257195830345154,
0.5917510390281677,
0.10198430716991425,
0.03157525882124901,
0.4636562466621399,
-0.5193504095077515,
0.3120865821838379,
0.1999499797821045,
-0.14781956374645233,
-0.3751937747001648,
0.6310839653015137,
0.04919315502047539,
0.1752798855304718,
0.21320120990276337,
-0.06719769537448883,
-0.04679245129227638,
0.04556843638420105,
-0.2425312101840973,
-0.4915529191493988,
-0.6227647662162781,
0.07282892614603043,
-0.07428844273090363,
0.27024024724960327,
-0.06109638884663582,
0.29868173599243164,
-0.1907312422990799,
0.4233672022819519,
-0.15924155712127686,
-0.17597061395645142,
0.4892498254776001,
-0.6656538844108582,
-0.03147730976343155,
0.03125724568963051,
0.14693985879421234,
-0.18700163066387177,
-0.315971314907074,
-1.102142095565796,
0.6938480734825134,
-0.15527963638305664,
0.2995721399784088,
-0.44633808732032776,
0.09121047705411911,
1.3303673267364502,
-0.35787931084632874,
0.34599408507347107,
-0.2513173520565033,
-0.7713044285774231,
-0.5957415103912354,
0.18412791192531586,
-1.0728769302368164,
-0.07623255252838135,
0.4514743387699127,
0.10848250240087509,
-0.1548873484134674,
0.21356727182865143,
-0.27669471502304077,
0.8142650723457336,
0.04942935332655907,
-0.6286289095878601,
0.0625348910689354,
0.8314623236656189,
0.2536720931529999,
0.2988855540752411,
0.17123375833034515,
0.09110943973064423,
-0.6742991209030151,
0.22675830125808716,
0.3502458333969116,
0.21566995978355408,
0.26653817296028137,
0.2515074908733368,
-0.1697540581226349,
0.42345133423805237,
1.1553786993026733,
0.11054675281047821,
-0.05984756350517273,
0.10492826253175735,
0.8010066747665405,
-0.5825651288032532,
0.23808608949184418,
-0.7252920269966125,
-0.4394887089729309,
0.0965583324432373,
0.13914811611175537,
-0.26442950963974,
-0.044524312019348145,
0.5978320837020874,
-0.07803492248058319,
-0.049163322895765305,
-0.37257352471351624,
0.3204834759235382,
0.18264919519424438,
0.14059387147426605,
-0.8099350929260254,
-0.38772937655448914,
0.15534202754497528,
-0.24646040797233582,
-0.6777823567390442,
-0.3121682405471802,
-0.2521430552005768,
-0.7707206606864929,
-0.4150506258010864,
-0.1258690059185028,
0.4132521450519562,
0.6014026403427124,
0.1479078233242035,
0.09877081960439682,
-0.20196184515953064,
-0.6321489214897156,
0.26196497678756714,
-0.10538405179977417,
0.3887527287006378,
-0.15364542603492737,
0.38125139474868774,
-0.7240700721740723,
-0.11921808868646622,
0.20215365290641785,
-0.07655759155750275,
0.218605175614357,
0.46982342004776,
0.31729426980018616,
0.8630985021591187,
-1.4058595895767212,
-0.13958437740802765,
-0.19695058465003967,
-0.09482023864984512,
0.9107463955879211,
-0.25861257314682007,
0.7490858435630798,
0.44856545329093933,
-0.06663807481527328,
-0.2772289514541626,
0.04093315824866295,
-0.314627081155777,
0.27223196625709534,
-0.05136733502149582,
-0.7087870836257935,
0.06348084658384323,
0.09854916483163834,
-0.08843470364809036,
-0.21490947902202606,
-0.018117861822247505,
0.10943897068500519,
-0.1260608434677124,
-0.3439732491970062,
0.859920084476471,
0.3809210956096649,
0.20987403392791748,
-0.240012988448143,
0.4727722108364105,
0.580879271030426,
-0.05798640847206116,
0.04183303937315941,
0.21005317568778992,
0.2957804203033447,
0.7854442000389099,
0.25664645433425903,
-0.3483828902244568,
-0.13854016363620758,
-0.1894950121641159,
-0.41166895627975464,
0.18672409653663635,
0.6949736475944519,
-0.4198281764984131,
-0.36596912145614624,
0.7168517112731934,
0.4037361741065979,
-0.18892423808574677,
0.17618611454963684,
-0.055084411054849625,
-0.7016851902008057,
-0.3469807505607605,
0.3128886818885803,
0.4849703013896942,
0.5534710884094238,
-0.33276957273483276,
0.06526844948530197,
-0.8271698355674744,
0.5646160840988159,
0.010232542641460896,
-0.4752426743507385,
-0.3948136270046234,
0.212615966796875,
-1.191595435142517,
0.8631491661071777,
0.06189156323671341,
0.26455339789390564,
0.5290947556495667,
0.007741806097328663,
1.1536489725112915,
0.44472867250442505,
0.16648903489112854,
0.5329498648643494,
-0.5701043605804443,
-0.06223733723163605,
0.616592526435852,
0.6112181544303894,
0.43120062351226807,
0.07085632532835007,
0.7040159106254578,
0.16304200887680054,
-0.17448993027210236,
-0.16078293323516846,
0.25542306900024414,
-0.33601999282836914,
-0.4047278165817261,
0.22234950959682465,
-0.7839375734329224,
-0.2281874716281891,
-0.06994125247001648,
0.38338562846183777,
0.5326275825500488,
0.07890167832374573,
0.6814846992492676,
0.01372264139354229,
1.0173505544662476,
0.2654734253883362,
-0.009408418089151382,
-0.18052391707897186,
-0.6311176419258118,
0.2793577015399933,
0.1596246361732483,
-0.27801933884620667,
-0.4189158082008362,
0.6746867895126343,
0.11984387785196304,
0.48050323128700256,
0.17122122645378113,
-0.23502421379089355,
-0.8516396880149841,
0.5343412160873413,
0.19971439242362976,
0.04257228970527649,
0.6330256462097168,
-0.43573305010795593,
0.6731951236724854,
0.0390973836183548,
0.28061580657958984,
-0.03374786674976349,
0.5504449009895325,
0.8310990929603577,
0.3020086884498596,
0.7491074800491333,
0.036084797233343124,
0.08057427406311035,
-0.13046512007713318,
0.16684779524803162,
0.26884016394615173,
0.006490690167993307,
0.8182826638221741,
0.17865866422653198,
-0.32200321555137634,
0.2560759484767914,
0.4361506998538971,
0.0718986988067627,
-0.19477365911006927,
0.11720485240221024,
-0.7793862819671631,
0.28672629594802856,
-0.41555941104888916,
-0.24008801579475403,
-0.4957529604434967,
0.07915469259023666,
0.12890516221523285,
-0.22107094526290894,
0.4668058454990387,
-0.3452370762825012,
0.12026547640562057,
-0.8273270130157471,
-0.7809253334999084,
0.2867588698863983,
0.8355505466461182,
-0.5835345983505249,
0.1301197111606598,
-0.2533344030380249,
0.46490415930747986,
-0.40035900473594666,
-0.5298956036567688,
-0.5282778143882751,
0.4048016369342804,
-0.1413862556219101,
-0.2145349532365799,
-0.05410037934780121,
-0.21875272691249847,
-0.19440102577209473,
0.07763884961605072,
0.25966039299964905,
0.0013846956426277757,
0.05449105054140091,
-0.05816340073943138,
0.1708153784275055,
0.593670666217804,
-0.38066744804382324,
0.11871719360351562,
0.5237153768539429,
-0.16717064380645752,
-0.25447940826416016,
-0.5591171979904175,
-5.598189353942871,
0.24757754802703857,
-0.2695878744125366,
-0.4940580129623413,
0.20999562740325928,
-0.5382102131843567,
0.09154259413480759,
-0.6746524572372437,
-0.0884888619184494,
-0.7441157102584839,
0.31651923060417175,
0.13051065802574158,
0.28774866461753845,
0.6998016834259033,
0.5518906712532043,
0.11073771864175797,
0.5485045313835144,
-0.8568973541259766,
0.43792349100112915,
-0.08773250877857208,
-0.036462798714637756,
0.2972879707813263,
-0.6742677092552185,
0.4545506238937378,
0.2425002157688141,
-0.06909239292144775,
-0.17729827761650085,
-0.13348965346813202,
-0.7506473660469055,
-0.4278654456138611,
0.11484421789646149,
0.29646843671798706,
0.13708578050136566,
0.30174848437309265,
-0.45599138736724854,
-0.36997532844543457,
0.6593971848487854,
-0.026310261338949203,
-0.05146953463554382,
-0.5942294001579285,
0.48402008414268494,
-0.12789782881736755,
-0.2784014046192169,
-0.5182463526725769,
0.6502646207809448,
-0.3821382224559784,
-0.5787191390991211,
0.1083662211894989,
-0.6367478966712952,
0.6522225141525269,
-0.04179921746253967,
0.1748131513595581,
0.10496024042367935,
-0.10727152973413467,
0.3580039143562317,
0.20401719212532043,
-0.12055014818906784,
-0.5198695659637451,
-0.8242992162704468,
0.5927607417106628,
0.1799996942281723,
-0.8549339175224304,
-0.12002979218959808,
0.0455804206430912,
-0.6583254933357239,
0.12254045903682709,
-0.22696788609027863,
0.08027338236570358,
0.30417683720588684,
-0.5503741502761841,
-0.5052710771560669,
-0.3608914017677307,
0.2680091857910156,
-0.962409257888794,
-0.15203975141048431,
-0.3185877203941345,
0.6133381724357605,
0.8596466779708862,
-0.3932989537715912,
-0.06405512243509293,
-0.0541498176753521,
-0.25814977288246155,
-0.11588240414857864,
0.022047432139515877,
0.07103075087070465,
-0.04908334091305733,
0.1254928857088089,
0.349881649017334,
0.06989234685897827,
0.15267883241176605,
0.28798893094062805,
-0.6592878103256226,
-0.19866998493671417,
0.012047937139868736,
0.3192856013774872,
-0.1349354386329651,
0.06607270240783691,
0.05662626773118973,
0.2071661800146103,
-0.03529645502567291,
-0.48252639174461365,
-0.17648914456367493,
0.3650165796279907,
-0.1583222895860672,
0.14012527465820312,
0.14835986495018005,
0.23716311156749725,
0.11195050925016403,
0.004087045323103666,
-0.2884759306907654,
-0.30967170000076294,
-0.2980591058731079,
-0.7305206656455994,
0.09910067915916443,
-0.3598160743713379,
-0.5602209568023682,
-0.4793374240398407,
-0.056106261909008026,
0.5312875509262085,
0.822964608669281,
-0.12305717915296555,
0.040018800646066666,
-0.2643894553184509,
0.26998695731163025,
-0.6590795516967773,
-0.47857874631881714,
0.32284924387931824,
-0.5860498547554016,
0.2696596682071686,
-0.31117793917655945,
0.08219165354967117,
0.31353968381881714,
0.2035841941833496,
-0.009428179822862148,
0.4315349757671356,
-0.1669008731842041,
-0.359699547290802,
-0.22145108878612518,
-0.0305712278932333,
-0.0672953650355339,
0.43269577622413635,
-0.673562228679657,
-0.3570834994316101,
-0.18691673874855042,
0.15577131509780884,
0.5491754412651062,
-0.41058215498924255,
0.4452359080314636,
-0.27085423469543457,
0.6914665102958679,
-0.03457203507423401,
-0.2589620351791382,
0.773743212223053,
-0.6729740500450134,
-0.1440192312002182,
0.21360185742378235,
-0.37877506017684937,
-0.20296354591846466,
-0.5318931937217712,
-0.11144019663333893,
0.10798178613185883,
0.0813731998205185,
-0.4764595627784729,
-0.43601012229919434,
0.506600558757782,
0.3855254352092743,
-0.5147311091423035,
-0.17377081513404846,
-0.4629845917224884,
0.43450355529785156,
-0.14590159058570862,
-0.35546424984931946,
-0.12340288609266281,
-0.5402823686599731,
0.4081743657588959,
-0.36019325256347656,
0.14712676405906677,
0.23703420162200928,
-0.09928171336650848,
0.7409533858299255,
-0.16280622780323029,
0.22621355950832367,
-0.019623050466179848,
0.12302464991807938,
0.4005851149559021,
-0.44810643792152405,
-0.30593377351760864,
-0.33708709478378296,
-0.0887993648648262,
0.35488811135292053,
0.5886648893356323,
0.5287433862686157,
-0.2340105026960373,
0.2907941937446594,
-0.6228957176208496,
-1.0607147216796875,
0.06026885285973549,
0.01372971199452877,
-0.13821065425872803,
-0.5823111534118652,
0.5402318239212036,
-0.25910231471061707,
-0.18521086871623993,
-0.3343673050403595,
0.4159719944000244,
-0.36387506127357483,
-0.32834967970848083,
-0.29107752442359924,
0.7043200731277466,
0.12995392084121704,
0.1262267827987671,
-0.7871339917182922,
0.31148532032966614,
0.6283462047576904,
0.29157280921936035,
0.21972161531448364,
-0.19310958683490753,
-0.11705605685710907,
-0.5415771007537842,
-0.39233827590942383,
-0.16897113621234894,
-0.5617923140525818,
-0.07899277657270432,
0.4895101487636566,
-0.2235264778137207,
0.08287135511636734,
0.045900192111730576,
-0.45271891355514526,
0.3470807373523712,
-0.07913577556610107,
-0.6664779186248779,
0.15048736333847046,
0.5524897575378418,
0.7667596936225891,
-0.0966360867023468,
0.11100085824728012,
-0.06534305214881897,
0.9827772378921509,
-0.37422096729278564,
0.20932507514953613,
0.3795384466648102,
1.2331892251968384,
0.3684549927711487,
-0.40063121914863586,
-0.29551905393600464,
0.02216424234211445,
-0.057510316371917725,
-0.6054674386978149,
-0.18690520524978638,
0.003565865568816662,
0.3001212179660797,
0.15514008700847626,
-0.4757132828235626,
-0.11914326995611191,
0.3358601927757263,
-0.7722744941711426,
0.010986309498548508,
-0.19182229042053223,
0.36398613452911377,
0.12924030423164368,
0.12777860462665558,
-0.3872308135032654,
0.1563892364501953,
0.039681706577539444,
0.6522061824798584,
0.10156423598527908,
-0.3315736651420593,
-0.6925166845321655,
-0.17844590544700623,
-0.6012940406799316,
-0.6310580372810364,
-0.435685932636261,
0.06585381925106049,
0.16329067945480347,
-0.4798872768878937,
0.21613258123397827,
-0.09407703578472137,
-0.22942262887954712,
-0.31555983424186707,
-0.431433767080307,
-0.26181545853614807,
0.3484025001525879,
-0.472761332988739,
-0.2616519629955292,
-0.21876683831214905,
-0.6928886771202087,
0.530720591545105,
-0.5699087977409363,
-0.28469040989875793,
-0.005400249268859625,
0.03794439882040024,
-0.10933805257081985,
-0.2500354051589966,
0.24195338785648346,
-0.163680762052536,
0.21658654510974884,
-0.306436687707901,
0.5071948170661926,
-0.2280643880367279,
0.10902351886034012,
-0.028999188914895058,
0.11428949981927872,
0.2912558317184448,
-0.3683234453201294,
-0.81061190366745,
-0.45718806982040405,
-0.2445119321346283,
-0.7815566658973694,
0.33538225293159485,
-0.1604425311088562,
0.3340546786785126,
0.21627525985240936,
0.4661792814731598,
0.016921091824769974,
-0.21678413450717926,
0.0030114443507045507,
0.22495131194591522,
-0.9895954132080078,
0.01862366870045662,
-0.19520054757595062,
0.2621629536151886,
0.4262886643409729,
-0.053699739277362823,
-0.055134546011686325,
0.983084499835968,
0.6038520336151123,
-0.01746109314262867,
0.7512481808662415,
0.2059462070465088,
0.2857385277748108,
0.09339639544487,
-0.008308935910463333,
-0.3140293061733246,
0.41300761699676514,
-0.18526963889598846,
-0.7828165292739868,
0.2695939242839813,
-0.4515339434146881,
0.768309473991394,
0.3051685094833374,
0.8048930764198303,
0.7471100091934204,
-0.5721708536148071,
0.325456827878952,
0.13546621799468994,
-0.2572548985481262,
0.05603725090622902,
0.12791220843791962,
-0.23849307000637054,
-0.005880086217075586,
0.4707508683204651,
-0.12772813439369202,
0.3348301351070404,
-0.7365267872810364,
0.4548127055168152,
0.1683228760957718,
-0.5059190392494202,
0.033536944538354874,
-0.060279738157987595,
0.11506550014019012,
0.10375209152698517,
0.10190189629793167,
0.5087820291519165,
0.12144746631383896,
0.3885500431060791,
-0.12909255921840668,
0.01060181949287653,
0.10030664503574371,
-0.031984053552150726,
0.39579132199287415,
0.22643470764160156,
-0.2958456575870514,
-0.6437735557556152,
-0.2819633483886719,
-0.16038380563259125,
-0.008392482064664364,
0.24354864656925201,
-0.27554070949554443,
0.19412516057491302,
0.07894770056009293,
-0.5109140872955322,
0.3288561999797821,
-0.2173011600971222,
0.19901390373706818,
0.07613041996955872,
0.6151795983314514,
0.29885128140449524,
0.7847405672073364,
-0.5199037194252014,
0.18767766654491425,
0.4560539424419403,
-0.18396827578544617,
-0.17450419068336487,
0.2899060845375061,
-0.08509953320026398,
-0.19772101938724518,
-0.009980793111026287,
0.4483087956905365,
1.0743210315704346,
0.5319430828094482,
-0.25555458664894104,
0.5398836731910706,
-0.5675569772720337,
0.4661698341369629,
0.034849829971790314,
0.36030182242393494,
-0.04640953615307808,
-0.49818629026412964,
-0.24364550411701202,
-0.2051399052143097,
0.11261036992073059,
0.16414307057857513,
-0.5005755424499512,
0.24917277693748474,
-0.35121187567710876,
0.3122422993183136,
0.7221750617027283,
-0.19077694416046143,
0.2821689248085022,
-0.5023631453514099,
-0.17467409372329712,
-0.2628433108329773,
0.629705011844635,
0.16842353343963623,
-0.08699218928813934,
0.21424579620361328,
0.3844603896141052,
-0.019504768773913383,
0.1853572130203247,
0.5101903080940247,
-0.2514999508857727,
0.31868451833724976,
0.31525224447250366,
0.27460306882858276,
0.07421848177909851,
-0.012476672418415546,
-0.3184700906276703,
0.5485033988952637,
-0.25901904702186584,
-0.13851408660411835,
-0.2883879840373993,
0.11589369177818298,
0.2312115728855133,
-0.3153202533721924,
0.11054670065641403,
0.12384302914142609,
0.23144768178462982,
-0.8211929202079773,
-0.4031071066856384,
-0.656528115272522,
0.3056877553462982,
-0.5349135994911194,
0.08385356515645981,
-0.766761064529419,
0.30195152759552,
-0.8214805126190186,
-0.1352004110813141,
-0.42916613817214966,
-0.001021287520416081,
-0.12022361904382706
] |
261048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACS | ACS | ACS or Acs may refer to:
Organizations and societies
American Cancer Society, an American voluntary health and medical organization dedicated to eliminating cancer
American Ceramic Society, an American professional organization
American Cheese Society, a professional organization of the American cheese industry
American Chemical Society, an American professional association
American College of Surgeons, a fellowship of American surgeons
American Colonization Society, an organization that helped in founding Liberia as a colony for freed slaves
American Constitution Society for Law and Policy, an organization of lawyers and law students in the US
American Cryonics Society, non-profit corporation that supports and promotes research and education into cryonics
American CueSports Alliance, a US-based pool league
Association of Caribbean States
Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians, an association founded England in 1973 to collect cricket data
Audience Council Scotland
Australian Cinematographers Society
Australian Computer Society, an association for information and communications technology professionals
Australian Cricket Society
Sports
AC Sparta Prague, a Czech football club
AC Sporting, a Lebanese football club
Companies and commerce
ACS:Law, a British law firm specializing in intellectual property cases
Advanced Card Systems, a Hong Kong-based developer of smart cards and smart card readers
Advanced Composites Solutions, a Brazilian engineering company specialized in composite materials technology
Advanced Contact Solutions, a Philippine business process outsourcing company
Affiliated Computer Services, an America business and technology outsourcing company
Air Cess, a cargo airline based in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
Alaska Communications System, former name of AT&T Alascom, an American communications services company
Alaska Communications Systems, an American communications services company, distinct from AT&T Alascom
Alternative compensation system, a way to allow reproduction of digital copyrighted works while still paying the authors and copyright owners
Applied Communication Sciences, a telecommunications research, engineering and consulting company based in the US
Grupo ACS (Actividades de Construcción y Servicios), a civil engineering firm based in Madrid, Spain
Computing and technology
ACS-1 and ACS-360, supercomputers designed but never completed in the 1960s by the IBM Advanced Computing Systems
Access Control Service, a cloud-based service for authentication and authorization
Access Control Server, a component of Cisco's Network Admission Control technology
Access Control Server, the server authenticating a card in the 3-D Secure framework
Action Code Script, a scripting language used in video games such as HeXen and Doom ports
Adobe Creative Suite, a software package by Adobe Inc.
Advanced Camera for Surveys, an instrument aboard the Hubble Space Telescope
Air cavity system, a modern marine craft design concept based upon capturing air beneath a vessel's hull to reduce drag and increase speed and fuel efficiency
Atacama Large Millimeter Array ("ALMA") Common Software, a control framework used in ground-based astronomy projects
Attitude control system, a spacecraft system
Audit Collection Services, a component of Microsoft System Center Operations Manager
Education
ACS International Schools, a group of international schools in the UK
Advanced Communicator, Silver ("ACS"), Toastmasters International Recognition for advanced Communication training
Alabaster City Schools, a school district headquartered in Alabaster, Alabama
Alperton Community School, a secondary school in London, UK
American College of Sofia, a secondary school in Sofia, Bulgaria
American Community School at Beirut, an international private school located in Beirut, Lebanon
American Community School in Amman, an international school in Amman, Jordan
American Community School of Abu Dhabi, an international school of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
American Community Schools, an English-speaking private school system in Athens, Greece
American Cooperative School of La Paz
American Cooperative School of Tunis
Anglo-Chinese School, Singapore, a group of Methodist schools in Singapore
Anglo-Chinese Schools, Malaysia, a group of Methodist schools in Malaysia
Arkansas Correctional School, a school system in prisons, in Arkansas
Associated Colleges of the South, a group of liberal arts colleges in the US
Assumption College School, a catholic high school in Ontario, Canada
Aurora Christian Schools, a private PreK-12 school in Aurora, Illinois, US
Avery Coonley School, a private elementary school in Downers Grove, Illinois, US
Lehman Alternative Community School, a combined middle and high school Ithaca, New York
Government
American Community Survey, a project of the US Census Bureau
Administration for Children's Services, governmental agency of New York City
Australian Customs Service, the Australian government agency responsible for Australian border protection between 1985 and 2009
Medicine and science
2-Amino-3-carboxymuconic semialdehyde, a chemical in tryptophan metabolism
Acetyl-CoA Synthetase, an enzyme
Acute Compartment syndrome
Acute coronary syndrome, a form of chest pain due to reduced oxygen supply to the heart muscle
Advanced Cataract Surgery, the modern method of cataract removal using phacoemulsification
Anticenter shell, a supershell located outside of the galaxy
Atriocaval shunt, a surgical procedure
Military
Attack Characterization System
Aerial Common Sensor, a Lockheed Martin reconnaissance aircraft airframe for the US Army and Navy
Army Combat Shirt, flame-resistant shirt developed for the US Army
Auxiliary crane ship, a vessel of the US Navy
Cavalry Corps (Ireland) (1st Armoured Cavalry Squadron), an armoured reconnaissance unit of the Irish Army
Places
Ács, a Hungarian town
Achinsk Airport, an airport in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia (IATA: ACS)
Other uses
Acs (surname), a surname
An abbreviation for Acroá language, an extinct Ge language of Brazil
Applied Computer Science, scientific journal | [
0.30519095063209534,
0.4515608847141266,
-0.434221088886261,
0.13557012379169464,
0.1791815608739853,
0.16337159276008606,
0.05872325971722603,
0.49594882130622864,
-0.45471206307411194,
-0.11399117857217789,
-0.2503449022769928,
0.03071105293929577,
0.011633231304585934,
0.2542489171028137,
-0.02490970864892006,
0.34848761558532715,
0.5597957372665405,
0.6062080264091492,
-0.4871698319911957,
0.2032938301563263,
-0.7344136238098145,
0.1730796992778778,
0.6858768463134766,
-0.41168901324272156,
0.38263410329818726,
-0.122408427298069,
-0.049869388341903687,
-0.07236924767494202,
-0.07646948844194412,
0.17004024982452393,
0.5795540809631348,
0.4010825455188751,
0.221222385764122,
-0.25801801681518555,
-0.24105879664421082,
0.12261668592691422,
-0.3129824697971344,
0.15234874188899994,
0.20819354057312012,
-0.3026595115661621,
-0.1329762190580368,
-0.4974527359008789,
0.5611996054649353,
0.2132851481437683,
-0.24577918648719788,
-0.2648366093635559,
-1.692346215248108,
0.7301916480064392,
-0.7307876944541931,
0.6895684599876404,
0.38350990414619446,
0.05143512412905693,
-0.4160771369934082,
0.18261384963989258,
0.03558164834976196,
0.5661017894744873,
-0.30087849497795105,
-0.32204490900039673,
-0.05971214175224304,
-0.87090665102005,
0.43614232540130615,
0.4352271258831024,
0.07938379049301147,
-0.10247170180082321,
0.3362640142440796,
0.1765373945236206,
-0.01554203126579523,
-0.22249659895896912,
-0.5631504058837891,
-0.018535124137997627,
0.1082451194524765,
-0.4885369837284088,
-0.48967474699020386,
0.026755493134260178,
0.09236510097980499,
-0.6404699087142944,
-0.10400129854679108,
-0.21815454959869385,
0.13798795640468597,
-0.30839523673057556,
0.2323785275220871,
0.23021142184734344,
0.3800369203090668,
0.18307700753211975,
0.31054872274398804,
0.12306346744298935,
-0.6521199345588684,
-0.010490795597434044,
-0.5569151639938354,
-0.09499998390674591,
0.2523052990436554,
0.00038867228431627154,
0.7903878688812256,
0.1350919008255005,
0.08642517775297165,
0.03813629969954491,
0.6314902901649475,
-0.2585448920726776,
-0.08804553747177124,
-0.10379071533679962,
-0.6472238898277283,
-0.11701493710279465,
0.07089372724294662,
0.23807717859745026,
-0.3198665678501129,
0.5386344790458679,
0.22318808734416962,
-0.3457415699958801,
0.0006276644417084754,
-0.1207566037774086,
-0.22691728174686432,
0.05252966657280922,
-0.11203784495592117,
-0.0712703987956047,
-0.6827675104141235,
-0.17095667123794556,
0.3231191635131836,
-0.28726452589035034,
-0.1622805893421173,
-0.17256881296634674,
-0.09458315372467041,
0.9372726082801819,
-0.332338809967041,
0.08621296286582947,
0.061340317130088806,
0.336839497089386,
0.567933976650238,
0.4220570921897888,
-0.4601454734802246,
0.27364054322242737,
0.07419616729021072,
-0.005652761086821556,
-0.0709790587425232,
0.11271628737449646,
0.035110343247652054,
0.135188490152359,
-0.1482786387205124,
-0.363878458738327,
0.4871222972869873,
0.46221065521240234,
-0.6412623524665833,
-0.7395738363265991,
-0.40864643454551697,
-0.49196889996528625,
0.3212830424308777,
-0.5771691799163818,
-0.1438235640525818,
0.22061435878276825,
-0.3580757677555084,
-0.1463952213525772,
0.5106614232063293,
-0.7190518975257874,
-0.41488000750541687,
0.09057684987783432,
0.3148425221443176,
0.28596073389053345,
0.5481847524642944,
-0.4003410339355469,
0.11923159658908844,
0.322694331407547,
-0.03971939533948898,
-0.17484284937381744,
-0.21675147116184235,
-0.11711712926626205,
0.2122335135936737,
0.11689774692058563,
-0.09165617823600769,
0.14553512632846832,
-0.4961979389190674,
0.5420179963111877,
-0.3000263571739197,
-0.07961530238389969,
0.20536144077777863,
-0.12634806334972382,
-0.1584942638874054,
0.19964392483234406,
0.5420119166374207,
0.11372914910316467,
0.48326489329338074,
0.1434338390827179,
-0.6277002692222595,
0.3102644681930542,
-0.3739289939403534,
-0.2793160080909729,
-0.06353688985109329,
-0.3123329281806946,
0.09480275213718414,
-0.21932445466518402,
0.0029548804741352797,
-0.055838361382484436,
-0.27358129620552063,
-0.42720526456832886,
0.07144281268119812,
-0.07349096238613129,
1.1642295122146606,
-0.21730969846248627,
-0.713222324848175,
1.0544246435165405,
-0.41980063915252686,
0.16573207080364227,
-0.15414337813854218,
0.31345197558403015,
0.28302183747291565,
-0.5969253182411194,
-0.9579523801803589,
0.4699980318546295,
0.47583529353141785,
-0.082423634827137,
0.04790596663951874,
-0.16426652669906616,
0.26096034049987793,
-0.3781128525733948,
-0.0416916124522686,
-0.4396202564239502,
0.44885674118995667,
-0.1860368847846985,
-0.5703492164611816,
0.45229488611221313,
-0.12003300338983536,
-0.34219762682914734,
0.7721843123435974,
-0.5126062035560608,
0.37510353326797485,
0.28165552020072937,
0.046299926936626434,
0.3996259272098541,
0.029477372765541077,
0.08792166411876678,
0.524513304233551,
-0.15025068819522858,
1.051215410232544,
-0.20579251646995544,
0.40659329295158386,
-1.0939610004425049,
-0.12820009887218475,
-0.015200192108750343,
-0.21016477048397064,
-0.2703529894351959,
0.47932276129722595,
0.3237834870815277,
-0.4581758975982666,
0.3831908106803894,
-0.4527326822280884,
0.19955620169639587,
-0.04980330914258957,
-0.5348129272460938,
-0.1400126963853836,
-0.14572758972644806,
0.019563423469662666,
0.44714879989624023,
-0.3103363513946533,
0.35444796085357666,
-0.007386472076177597,
-0.13626033067703247,
0.056300800293684006,
0.38370922207832336,
0.0791412889957428,
0.23156076669692993,
-0.2614726722240448,
-0.4987362027168274,
-0.8155528903007507,
-0.079677052795887,
0.06692013889551163,
0.07652541995048523,
0.12969501316547394,
-0.8170177936553955,
-0.08280998468399048,
-0.5034306049346924,
0.4136929512023926,
0.18035514652729034,
0.9354872703552246,
0.44304564595222473,
0.08372846990823746,
-0.006766952574253082,
-0.5187678933143616,
-0.4383190870285034,
0.20751120150089264,
0.1821400672197342,
-0.33406227827072144,
-0.44957008957862854,
-0.13346058130264282,
0.1928582638502121,
0.43230539560317993,
-0.13833405077457428,
-0.11866962164640427,
0.23289409279823303,
0.023766908794641495,
-0.1698700487613678,
-0.23008400201797485,
0.20099040865898132,
0.05623578652739525,
-0.050974518060684204,
0.05377093330025673,
0.09506536275148392,
0.8966864347457886,
0.1190379410982132,
0.012493588030338287,
0.33840182423591614,
-0.20686593651771545,
-0.4452764093875885,
-0.6194767355918884,
0.022823795676231384,
-0.3638327121734619,
0.08574743568897247,
0.5290500521659851,
0.04910788685083389,
-0.05528917908668518,
-0.15666694939136505,
-6.063743591308594,
-0.21142950654029846,
-0.6758795380592346,
0.3482494354248047,
0.2527120113372803,
0.0992325097322464,
0.9039271473884583,
-0.2690497636795044,
-0.3549486994743347,
-0.18005414307117462,
0.16167189180850983,
0.6382458209991455,
0.42194581031799316,
0.5815097689628601,
0.057563673704862595,
0.6066409945487976,
-0.24779574573040009,
-0.047596193850040436,
-0.04762592911720276,
0.3134949207305908,
0.5535812377929688,
-0.168569877743721,
0.08127804845571518,
0.8943842649459839,
0.44957420229911804,
0.345973938703537,
-0.703943133354187,
0.5835911631584167,
0.4254789650440216,
-0.389670193195343,
0.2945016026496887,
0.24555909633636475,
-0.01541813649237156,
-0.14907121658325195,
0.0336218997836113,
0.2600155174732208,
0.3082934617996216,
-0.10220732539892197,
0.03629058972001076,
0.052997514605522156,
-0.02380511909723282,
0.06059937924146652,
-0.07982971519231796,
-0.32666707038879395,
-0.14837807416915894,
0.12597835063934326,
0.04893042519688606,
0.15764346718788147,
0.07346301525831223,
0.5514662861824036,
-0.17844752967357635,
0.1780312955379486,
0.14429660141468048,
0.3814617991447449,
0.07683287560939789,
-0.09945172071456909,
0.4894028902053833,
0.31453782320022583,
0.32842394709587097,
0.008570218458771706,
0.07625678926706314,
-0.08290678262710571,
0.2783381938934326,
-0.7196468710899353,
-0.4718620181083679,
-0.054435424506664276,
-0.3130614161491394,
-0.10136532783508301,
0.5160303711891174,
0.029761100187897682,
0.06369669735431671,
0.2945733964443207,
-0.41649845242500305,
-0.8221803903579712,
-0.023572834208607674,
-0.588455080986023,
0.29886594414711,
-0.1655605286359787,
-0.10673608630895615,
0.41216418147087097,
-0.08760225027799606,
0.18577581644058228,
-0.11166054010391235,
0.018403060734272003,
-0.282150000333786,
-0.2524302899837494,
0.3373603820800781,
0.4642915725708008,
-0.7843515872955322,
-0.2101527452468872,
0.19274647533893585,
0.2284819781780243,
0.2884249687194824,
0.43974053859710693,
0.2190687656402588,
0.7168101072311401,
-0.14623644948005676,
0.18586869537830353,
0.1937893182039261,
-0.3621439039707184,
0.10968835651874542,
0.05154978483915329,
-0.041363347321748734,
-0.7104227542877197,
-0.3879163861274719,
-0.3214917778968811,
-0.36598634719848633,
-0.18920907378196716,
0.5973787903785706,
-0.19626349210739136,
-0.17631156742572784,
0.014235061593353748,
0.0056204781867563725,
-0.30717116594314575,
0.214825838804245,
0.1889549046754837,
-0.230963334441185,
0.28070610761642456,
0.2778143882751465,
-0.13269177079200745,
-0.04670822620391846,
0.42407363653182983,
-0.19832533597946167,
0.2712413966655731,
-0.1198783591389656,
-0.434325248003006,
0.20810948312282562,
0.646808385848999,
0.15038110315799713,
0.15256524085998535,
0.34818896651268005,
0.5626720786094666,
-0.2675337791442871,
0.49741220474243164,
0.3156883120536804,
0.3082391917705536,
-0.04782545194029808,
0.1808234304189682,
-0.1185743659734726,
-0.08393432199954987,
0.35364052653312683,
-0.48965877294540405,
-0.12101925909519196,
0.22813639044761658,
0.5260673761367798,
0.41199785470962524,
-0.16246263682842255,
0.17673832178115845,
0.18782316148281097,
0.5181497931480408,
0.030981330201029778,
0.17772066593170166,
-0.17276877164840698,
-0.33964207768440247,
-0.15679234266281128,
-0.37213701009750366,
0.2429378181695938,
0.13766364753246307,
-0.27258431911468506,
-0.5663685202598572,
-0.07925311475992203,
0.06928222626447678,
-1.2600456476211548,
-0.5518407821655273,
0.04399915412068367,
-0.5583326816558838,
-0.5805390477180481,
-0.37284815311431885,
-0.4670020043849945,
0.06835988909006119,
-0.18161171674728394,
-0.10425298660993576,
-0.1796564757823944,
-0.5080296993255615,
0.2657459080219269,
0.04508540406823158,
0.42077645659446716,
-0.09481040388345718,
-0.5163432359695435,
-0.2594108283519745,
0.4934258759021759,
-0.4320182204246521,
-0.21879541873931885,
-0.004559576511383057,
0.24084626138210297,
-0.3792208731174469,
-0.05101241171360016,
0.300927996635437,
-0.20865130424499512,
-0.02124360390007496,
-0.0001089022116502747,
-0.4535191059112549,
0.4937557578086853,
0.3298147916793823,
0.012642694637179375,
0.11258098483085632,
-0.2424146831035614,
0.2618519365787506,
-0.12997934222221375,
-0.5142324566841125,
0.5477752685546875,
0.0919371247291565,
-0.24685035645961761,
0.25025084614753723,
-0.31850993633270264,
-0.3642527461051941,
0.29047444462776184,
-0.1868143230676651,
-0.17156380414962769,
0.2687700092792511,
0.03767913579940796,
-0.07624506205320358,
0.6443288922309875,
0.648454487323761,
-0.46287328004837036,
0.2536429762840271,
0.25022000074386597,
0.21478058397769928,
-0.39858534932136536,
-0.347991406917572,
0.3044761121273041,
-0.20728212594985962,
-0.09974226355552673,
0.030317381024360657,
-0.48877981305122375,
0.22204171121120453,
0.3065936267375946,
-0.46226340532302856,
0.49692773818969727,
0.128473699092865,
-0.1786392629146576,
-0.22375701367855072,
-0.47617194056510925,
-0.11710192263126373,
-0.08112668246030807,
-0.18570633232593536,
-0.17329846322536469,
-0.16672319173812866,
-0.2573342025279999,
-0.3262506127357483,
-0.3136412501335144,
0.2900160849094391,
-0.10245756804943085,
-0.6829397082328796,
-0.18490007519721985,
0.4382331073284149,
0.5958106517791748,
-0.21680599451065063,
-0.31660759449005127,
0.3940730690956116,
0.7078099846839905,
-0.3037225604057312,
-0.23870781064033508,
0.2771439850330353,
0.12514136731624603,
0.28987058997154236,
-0.6248112916946411,
0.077240489423275,
-0.5238015055656433,
0.1278083175420761,
-0.12166725844144821,
-0.4340578019618988,
-1.026275634765625,
0.2287355214357376,
-0.4797164499759674,
-0.18109840154647827,
-0.1446118801832199,
-0.43310052156448364,
0.15266667306423187,
-0.5056946277618408,
0.2335171401500702,
0.3059402108192444,
0.9627205729484558,
0.7458255290985107,
0.07335612177848816,
-0.18329231441020966,
0.07348676025867462,
-0.5838340520858765,
-0.03160075470805168,
0.3504869341850281,
-0.3490663468837738,
0.08427499234676361,
-0.23695950210094452,
-0.2638569474220276,
0.4039224088191986,
-1.0658818483352661,
0.3010260760784149,
0.38005712628364563,
-0.7044836282730103,
-0.23501549661159515,
-0.09846848249435425,
-0.20877498388290405,
-0.13430461287498474,
-0.0945812463760376,
-0.5873190760612488,
-0.5525118708610535,
0.291069358587265,
-0.14456728100776672,
0.18788836896419525,
-0.14239813387393951,
-1.0752192735671997,
0.39748308062553406,
0.3672950863838196,
-0.17673476040363312,
0.21231871843338013,
0.467334121465683,
-0.2621341049671173,
-0.0020512205082923174,
-0.31120601296424866,
-0.07462106645107269,
0.09849444776773453,
-1.0252940654754639,
0.2746695280075073,
0.8675828576087952,
-0.1206742599606514,
-0.09784150868654251,
-0.1876966804265976,
-0.6177152395248413,
0.5434643626213074,
0.3461427390575409,
-0.17981301248073578,
0.3579747676849365,
0.4825162887573242,
-0.0769563615322113,
0.4409099817276001,
0.12651686370372772,
0.19463075697422028,
-0.028247004374861717,
-0.0872609093785286,
0.5926519632339478,
0.5678691267967224,
0.3190906047821045,
0.01621084474027157,
0.2973770797252655,
-0.14490893483161926,
-0.3234393298625946,
-0.377058744430542,
-0.6077191829681396,
-0.5048162341117859,
0.67388916015625,
0.5693117380142212,
0.1641221046447754,
0.20965802669525146,
0.02738446183502674,
-0.09384337812662125,
0.40048453211784363,
0.25511109828948975,
0.02898551896214485,
0.3815767168998718,
-0.014812864363193512,
0.08604040741920471,
-0.3439173996448517,
0.2034687101840973,
-0.2713533937931061,
0.3883630931377411,
0.04767618328332901,
0.08462752401828766,
-0.1052686795592308,
-0.0342521034181118,
0.23531436920166016,
-0.29865583777427673,
0.28020888566970825,
0.5671682953834534,
-0.06745819002389908,
-0.5312371253967285,
-0.2746659219264984,
0.3302266001701355,
-0.2757929563522339,
-0.032194286584854126,
0.18619854748249054,
0.15996681153774261,
0.03577779233455658,
-0.403874933719635,
0.5258916020393372,
0.2616148889064789,
-0.32314103841781616,
0.5674238801002502,
0.2813055217266083,
0.33747243881225586,
0.27061182260513306,
0.0204108078032732,
-0.24867919087409973,
-0.20365223288536072,
-0.9420046806335449,
0.3373924791812897,
0.17551641166210175,
-0.24437272548675537,
0.13844874501228333,
-0.38917866349220276,
0.18427516520023346,
-0.09846916794776917,
-0.6984334588050842,
0.21845875680446625,
0.04883766919374466,
0.20983578264713287,
0.011630847118794918,
-0.0553535632789135,
0.4241945147514343,
0.02962334267795086,
-0.39642107486724854,
-0.5031850934028625,
0.018313368782401085,
0.22110116481781006,
-0.19622370600700378,
-0.6294786930084229,
-0.11706017702817917,
-0.2458728700876236,
0.12368142604827881,
-0.03820504620671272,
0.45876941084861755,
0.36512094736099243,
0.0533270463347435,
-0.14958955347537994,
0.6870041489601135,
0.31063249707221985,
0.20956864953041077,
0.4138404130935669,
0.15520207583904266,
-0.2288113534450531,
-0.18260401487350464,
0.19673468172550201,
-0.17304424941539764,
0.22977253794670105,
0.03140877187252045,
-0.13563895225524902,
-0.30714187026023865,
0.44499850273132324,
0.2852371037006378,
-0.25603052973747253,
0.39656808972358704,
-0.27037328481674194,
-0.17616885900497437,
-0.5014995336532593,
0.5581888556480408,
-0.3297808766365051,
-0.31667613983154297,
-0.1850142478942871,
0.599510908126831,
0.41623765230178833,
-0.14598272740840912,
0.08929410576820374,
-0.24377693235874176,
0.029971754178404808,
-0.6154465675354004,
0.3636676073074341,
0.429046094417572,
-0.2636558413505554,
-0.563408613204956,
-0.39832237362861633,
0.2275201976299286,
-0.0522090420126915,
-0.734537661075592,
0.12920594215393066,
0.08511489629745483,
0.16928084194660187,
-0.29392871260643005,
-0.16795614361763,
-0.003099125809967518,
0.16029861569404602,
0.027211803942918777
] |
261050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three%206%20Mafia | Three 6 Mafia | Three 6 Mafia is an American hip hop group from Memphis, Tennessee, formed in 1991. Emerging as a horror-themed underground hip hop group, they would eventually go on to enjoy mainstream success. The group's 1995 debut album Mystic Stylez would go on to become an influential cult classic. They have released music on independent labels such as Prophet Entertainment and their own Hypnotize Minds label, as well as Relativity, Loud, and Columbia Records.
Two of their albums are RIAA-certified platinum: When the Smoke Clears: Sixty 6, Sixty 1 (2000) and Most Known Unknown (2005), the latter featured their hit single "Stay Fly". In 2006 the group won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 78th Academy Awards for their song "It's Hard out Here for a Pimp" from the film Hustle & Flow. The group's latest studio album, Last 2 Walk, was released in 2008. Three 6 Mafia's worldwide album sales stand at 5.5 million as of 2016.
History
Origins (1988–1990)
Three 6 Mafia's founding members became musicians at young ages. In 1988, DJ Paul, at age 11, was taking piano lessons, and his older nephew, Lord Infamous, age 15, was a singer practicing bass and electric guitar. Paul could play piano and drums, Infamous sang and played bass and guitar. With that, the two would compose songs together.
At the same time, in North Memphis, Tennessee, Juicy J, at age 13, was learning how to DJ as well as rap. He had initially wanted to be a singer, but in the late 1980s and early 1990s he fell in love with the gangsta rap style, and he, like his future founding group members across town, wanted to make music like popular artists at the time such as N.W.A and Geto Boys.
In 1989, DJ Paul and Lord Infamous formed the duo "Da Serial Killaz". It was at this time they distributed their own mixtapes of popular songs at the time at school, and Lord Infamous had started rapping with his signature triple time flow. Juicy J was also creating his own mixes by this time, but was not putting his raps on tapes just yet.
The beginning (1991–1992)
By 1991, DJ Paul, had already begun to make a name for himself in the local hip hop scene through DJing at local clubs, such as Club 380 Beale, where he got his first opportunity to perform. His mixtapes, which were gradually evolving to include more and more original content of "Da Serial Killaz", also helped spread word of his talents. At the time, the hip hop scene in Memphis had not taken a fully fledged form yet, but early works by artists such as DJ Spanish Fly and DJ Squeeky were hinting at what was to come. Meanwhile, Lord Infamous was still rapping and evolving his lyrical style. Up in North Memphis, Juicy J was slowly building a name for himself as well, now that he was making his own songs and distributing them with his mixtapes, as well as DJing at local clubs with his mentor.
That same year, DJ Paul and Juicy J first crossed paths after Juicy sought out Paul in 1991 for help making beats. The two quickly grew fond of each-other's musical styles and the two subsequently teamed up with Lord Infamous to form the group "The Backyard Posse". DJ Paul and Lord Infamous still continued work as "Da Serial Killaz" by themselves, and in 1992 released the first legitimate original recording to come out of the eventual Three 6 Mafia camp, "Portrait of a Serial Killa". Featuring dark beats by Paul and horrorcore-styled lyrics from Lord Infamous and DJ Paul, this tape is recognized in its raw form as a pioneering work of horrorcore hip hop. Juicy J in the meantime released his debut hard copy mixtape, Volume 5, that same year, as well as his seminal track in its original form, "Slob on My Knob".
Debut, Mystic Stylez and Chapter 1: The End (1993–1996)
The first notable release from members of the group that dropped in 1993 was DJ Paul and Lord Infamous's Come With Me to Hell, which featured original forms of future Three 6 Mafia hits such as "Tear da Club Up" and "Porno Movie". Paul's "DJ Paul Volume 12" mixtape was also released at this time. That same year, while recording music for "The Backyard Posse", Lord Infamous rapped a line referring to his crew as the "Triple Six Mafia". The group later adopted the name, seeing that the name more closely matched the bleak and dark imagery of their music.
Juicy J had yet to release a notable work of his own at this point, but in 1994 that would change with Vol. 9: It's On and Vol. 10: Chronicles of the Juice Manne. Similar to Paul and Infamous's works the previous year, these tapes featured what would turn out to be some of the framework of future hit songs.
Also in 1994, the group added its fourth official member, rapper Koopsta Knicca (Robert Cooper Phillips). Following the addition, the group released their first unified release with the mixtape Smoked Out, Loced Out, which featured fellow budding local rappers Gangsta Blac, Kingpin Skinny Pimp, Lil Fly, 211, K-9, Lil Glock and S.O.G. That same year, Koopsta Knicca recorded the original version of what would become his first solo album, Da Devil's Playground.
1994 also marked a significant milestone for the group, when Paul and Juicy, alongside local entrepreneur Nick Scarfo, formed Prophet, their first imprint. Through the label, the "Prophet Posse" was created, which was a looser collective that consisted of several local Memphis rappers who associated closely with Paul and Juicy J and ultimately signed onto the label, but were not members of Triple 6 Mafia. It was at this time when Juicy J's older brother, Project Pat, emerged with his debut, Solo Tape.
In 1995 the group filled out when it officially added rappers Crunchy Black and Gangsta Boo. It was later this year when the group shifted its name to Three 6 Mafia and released their debut album Mystic Stylez through Prophet. The LP earned them widespread recognition and attention locally and in the southern underground hip hop scene, and as a result, Prophet landed a distribution deal with Select-O-Hits. The group's first song on the radio was "Da Summa".
In 1996, the group released Chapter 1: The End, their first non-lo-fi music record. At the helm of Prophet, DJ Paul and Juicy J would produce and release a handful of albums of some of the label's other acts, including Gangsta Blac's Can It Be? and Kingpin Skinny Pimp's King of Da Playaz Ball in 1996. At the end of 1996 however, DJ Paul and Juicy J had a fallout with Nick Scarfo and a lengthy legal lawsuit ensued between the two sides over Prophet. It was at this time when Paul and Juicy laid the framework for Hypnotize Minds, their own independent label which would become the powerhouse for Three 6 Mafia music. In 1997, Three 6 Mafia and Hypnotize Minds inked a record label deal with Relativity for distribution.
Chapter 2: World Domination and When the Smoke Clears: Sixty 6 Sixty 1 (1997–2000)
In 1997, after forming Hypnotize Minds, the group signed a deal with Sony and began working on what would become their first RIAA certified album, Chapter 2: World Domination. Polishing up their darker sound for a more palatable aesthetic while still retaining their authenticity, Chapter 2: World Domination went on to reach RIAA Gold status, selling over 800,000 copies in America. The LP peaked at no. 40 on The Billboard Top 200. The LP included the club anthem "Tear Da Club Up". At this point in the group's evolution, DJ Paul and Juicy J began expanding their brand and focused on developing Hypnotize Minds. Along with Three 6 Mafia, they brought along several artists from Prophet in their transition to Hypnotize Minds, creating the "Hypnotize Camp Posse", the successor of the "Prophet Posse". Over the next few years, the new label would put out and the Prophet Posse's Body Parts, The Kaze (trio of Project Pat, M.C. Mack and Scan Man)'s Kamakazie: Timez Up, Indo G's, Angel Dust, Gangsta Boo's Enquiring Minds, Project Pat's Ghetty Green, and Hypnotize Camp Posse's self titled album (Three 6 Mafia Presents: Hypnotize Camp Posse).
In 1999, Tear Da Club Up Thugz, a subgroup of Three 6 Mafia members in the founding trio of DJ Paul, Juicy J, and Lord Infamous, released CrazyNDaLazDayz, which is recognized as one of if not the first album made entirely in the "crunk" production style. The album included Juicy J's solo, "Slob On My Knob", and went on to be certified Gold by the RIAA. CrazyNDaLazDayz peaked at no. 18 on the Billboard Top 200 music chart. Later that year group member Koopsta Knicca's debut album, Da Devil's Playground: Underground Solo, was released independently, though like all the Hypnotize Minds albums, was still produced by DJ Paul and Juicy J.
In 2000, the group soared to new heights in the crunk music genre, carried by their most 2nd successful LP, When the Smoke Clears: Sixty 6, Sixty 1. The album went on to achieve RIAA Platinum status, a 1st for the group, and spawned the single "Sippin' on Some Syrup", which featured UGK
2000 represented a troubling year for the group. The Prophet Posse, which to this point had still been working closely with Hypnotize Minds in an auxiliary-type relationship, disbanded, and its members who had not made the transition to Hypnotize Minds ceased making music with Three 6 Mafia and the rest of Hypnotize Minds. Moreover, group member Koopsta Knicca was forced out of Three 6 Mafia due to ongoing legal issues which culminated with his 2000 robbery incarceration, which voided his contract with Sony and forbade him from recording with the group. Koopsta Knicca was notably absent from the album cover of When the Smoke Clears: Sixty 6 Sixty 1 and music videos that accompanied tracks on the album due to his incarceration, despite still being a member of the group at the time of the album's release.
Choices and Da Unbreakables (2001–2004)
Despite losing Koopsta Knicca from its ranks and cutting ties officially with Prophet, Three 6 Mafia and Hypnotize Minds were still successful. In 2001, the group released the soundtrack to the DJ Paul, Juicy J and Hypnotize Minds-produced film, Choices. The soundtrack was released as a studio album and (Choices: The Album), kept the Three 6 name and Hypnotize Minds brand growing. Moreover, Juicy and Paul successfully positioned Project Pat to become the new star of Hypnotize Minds, with his 2001 LP Mista Don't Play: Everythangs Workin hitting #4 on the Billboard 200 and being certified Gold by the RIAA, being thus far the only Three 6 Mafia affiliate or member to release a RIAA-certified solo album.
2001 also saw Gangsta Boo leave Three 6 Mafia following the release of Choices: The Album, citing a variety of reasons including group dynamics, religion, alleged financial mismanagement and her desire to pursue a solo career.
In 2002, Juicy J and DJ Paul re-released their remastered and dramatically updated "Vol. 10" and "Vol. 16" albums respectively as Chronicles of the Juice Man, and Underground Volume 16: For da Summa. These LPs represented their solo studio LP debuts and the last piece of some of their older sound, effectively giving way to full on Crunk.
In 2003, the latest incarnation of Three 6 Mafia, in DJ Paul, Juicy J, Lord Infamous, and Crunchy Black, released their album Da Unbreakables. Spawning hit singles such as "Ridin' Spinners" and "Testin' My Gangsta", the album was a success, with the RIAA certifying it Gold by the RIAA. In 2004, Three 6 Mafia began to mobilize for what would become their domination over hip-hop. They were working on a sequel to their 2001 movie, with it another studio LP, and DJ Paul, Juicy J, and Hypnotize Minds's Frayser Boy, were about to ink a deal with the directors of Hustle & Flow to write an original track for the film that would ultimately result in the group winning an Oscar.
Academy Award, Choices II: The Setup and Most Known Unknown (2005–2006)
During 2005, many members had left, and with that even more affiliates, but into the fold other acts such as Project Pat, Frayser Boy, and Lil Wyte cropped up as successes to keep the camp moving forward. This moving forward reached its zenith in 2005-06 for Three 6 Mafia, wherein they became superstars of hip-hop. Firstly, they dropped the sequel to their Choices movie, Choices II: The Setup, and a studio album to go along with it that sold 400,000 copies. Secondly, they released their most commercially successful LP, Most Known Unknown, which charted at #3 on the Top 200 and went on to sell 1,600,000 copies in the United States, becoming their second album to go Platinum in America and their best selling overall. The LP featured 3 successful singles: "Side 2 Side", "Poppin' My Collar", and "Stay Fly". "Stay Fly" is Three 6 Mafia's most commercially successful song, being certified Double Platinum in America. The song featured 8Ball & MJG and Young Buck. The song also peaked at no. 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 music charts. "Poppin' My Collar", the remix which featured Project Pat, was certified Platinum by the RIAA and peaked at no. 21 on the Billboard Top 100. Also in 2005, they released an additional film, the comedy, Clean Up Men.
Three 6 Mafia's rise came to a head in 2006 when they became the first hip hop group to win the Academy Award for Best Original Song with "It's Hard out Here for a Pimp" (which they co-wrote with Frayser Boy) as one of the theme songs for Hustle & Flow. They were also the first hip hop group to perform at the ceremony, which they did with Hustle & Flow actress Taraji P. Henson reprising her chorus. It was the second hip hop song to win an Oscar, after Eminem's "Lose Yourself" in 2002 from his film 8 Mile. Right before presenter Queen Latifah announced that they had won, she chuckled and sang the refrain from the song. The energy from DJ Paul, Juicy J, Crunchy Black, and Frayser Boy's on-stage presence and acceptance speech was infectious, causing that year's Oscar host Jon Stewart to quip "How come they're the most excited people here tonight? Why is that? They're thrilled! They're thrilled!.... That's how you accept an Oscar!"
Last 2 Walk (2007–2011)
On June 7, 2007, Sony announced the departure of Crunchy Black. He stated his primary reason for departing was to make a solo LP that DJ Paul and Juicy J had allegedly put off for years, as much of the material that he'd wanted on his solo LP was used for Most Known Unknown. Crunchy also later cited frustration over alleged financial mismanagement. Thereafter Three 6 Mafia consisted officially of DJ Paul and Juicy J.
The pair was featured along with Timbaland on fellow Memphis artist, Justin Timberlake's single, "Chop Me Up" from his 2007 album FutureSex/LoveSounds.
In 2007, DJ Paul and Juicy J landed their own reality television show, Adventures in Hollyhood, on MTV. The show focused on the pair balancing fun and studio work after their Oscar win. Project Pat and Lil Wyte along with friends Big Triece & Computer co-starred. The show premiered on April 5, 2007 on MTV & aired for 1 season.
Three 6 Mafia released their 9th studio album Last 2 Walk on June 24, 2008, after multiple delays. The album featured collaborations with Akon, Good Charlotte, Lyfe Jennings, UGK, and 8Ball & MJG among others.
After leaving Three 6 Mafia in 2005, Lord Infamous was featured on DJ Paul's second solo album Scale-A-Ton, which was released on May 5, 2009. Lord Infamous was featured on eight tracks. Juicy J's second solo album Hustle Till I Die was released on June 16, 2009. The LP featured Project Pat and other rappers such as V-Slash, Gucci Mane, Webbie and Gorilla Zoe.
In 2011, DJ Paul and Juicy J starred in VH1's cooking show Famous Food together with 7 other celebrities and eventually won 1st place. In an interview, published in July 2011 DJ Paul cleared up some controversy from the show, involving Ashley Alexandra Dupré, best known from the Eliot Spitzer prostitution scandal.
In December 2011, Juicy J confirmed that he was the newest member of Wiz Khalifa's Taylor Gang – as an A&R and co-owner.
Hiatus, Da Mafia 6ix and independent endeavors (2012–2018)
By the end of 2012, Juicy J had moved completely away from Three 6 Mafia work to focus on his solo career. During this time he released a number of solo mixtapes such as Rubba Band Business and Blue Dream & Lean. He also had begun frequently collaborated with Wiz Khalifa, appearing on a number of his mixtapes.
After a number of mixtapes, DJ Paul released his third solo studio album A Person of Interest on October 22, 2012. He announced that the album was a mix of gangsta rap and crunk music, with it also incorporating influences from dubstep and electronic dance music. The album featured past collaborators Lil Wyte and Gucci Mane, and also came with a bonus DVD including a self-titled short movie, music videos and behind the scenes footage.
On November 26, 2013, DJ Paul released Volume 16: The Original Masters, a remaster of his 1994 mixtape 4 Da Summer of '94, on iTunes. After releasing a series of singles, including the chart topping "Bandz a Make Her Dance" which featured 2 Chainz and Lil Wayne, Juicy J released his third solo studio album Stay Trippy under Taylor Gang Records, Kemosabe Records and Columbia Records on August 27, 2013. Juicy J has since stated that he would still "love to" participate in a Three 6 Mafia album in the future.
In 2013, it was announced that five of the six original members of Three 6 Mafia – DJ Paul, Crunchy Black, Koopsta Knicca, Lord Infamous and Gangsta Boo – were reuniting to form a new group, to be known as Da Mafia 6ix, with plans to release an album which was scheduled for a March 2014 release. At the time of the formation of Da Mafia 6ix, DJ Paul clarified that the collective was "not a Three 6 Mafia reunion" and described it as "a totally new group". The new group opted for a style reflecting their roots, focusing largely on the horrorcore foundations of their early works. Recording began in Las Vegas in late 2013. On November 12, 2013, Da Mafia 6ix released their first mixtape 6iX Commandments. The tape was almost entirely produced by DJ Paul and featured Yelawolf, 8Ball & MJG, Krayzie Bone, Bizzy Bone, SpaceGhostPurrp and old HCP affiliates Lil Wyte, Kingpin Skinny Pimp and La Chat, among others. Juicy J and Project Pat also appeared as surprise guests on the posse song "Body Parts", being credited just as "& more" in the track listing. The mixtape was supported by the lead single "Go Hard" featuring Yelawolf. The mixtape also received a retail release and debuted at number 34 on the US Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. The group is managed by DJ Paul's management team, TBA Worldwide.
On December 20, 2013, Lord Infamous died of a heart attack at home in Memphis.
Gangsta Boo would leave Da Mafia 6ix in May 2014. DJ Paul explained it saying, "It was what we thought was going to be best for everybody. It just happened. Nobody forced nobody. It was a gut feeling." The reunited group's debut album, Watch What U Wish..., featured the three remaining members of the group as well as Lord Infamous, who appeared on a handful of tracks through several verses he had recorded prior to his death. The album was released on March 17, 2015. A month later, Crunchy Black was arrested for drug possession in Las Vegas. He had an outstanding arrest warrant stemming from a domestic violence charge and was sentenced to a total of 7 months in prison.
On October 9, 2015, Koopsta Knicca died after several days in urgent care following a stroke and intracranial aneurysm.
Reunion performances and tour (2019–present)
In August 2019, group leaders DJ Paul and Juicy J announced they would soon be reviving Three 6 Mafia and reuniting for performances together for the first time in several years. The slate of performances kicked off with a show on October 12, 2019 at the Landers Center in the Memphis metropolitan area, where the group hails from. The performance featured many of the group's biggest hits and included the other two living members of the original group, Crunchy Black and Gangsta Boo, as well as three fellow Hypnotize Camp Posse members who were so synonymous with the group that they were often incorrectly or unofficially labeled as members, Project Pat, La Chat and Lil Wyte. The series of performances, mostly taking place in the Southeastern United States, continued into 2020, and were successful to the point where DJ Paul and Juicy announced on February 12 an organized official reunion tour at locations across the United States would begin the following month. In April, the COVID-19 pandemic forced the postponement of the remainder of the tour.
The reunion performances and subsequent tour have further fueled speculation that Three 6 Mafia may come out with new music or ultimately a tenth studio album, but no timetable has been revealed.
Members
Members
DJ Paul (1991–2012, 2019–present)
Juicy J (1991–2012, 2019–present)
Past members
Koopsta Knicca (1994–2000) (deceased)
Lord Infamous (1991–2005) (deceased)
Gangsta Boo (1995–2001)
Crunchy Black (1995–2006)
Timeline
The Posse
Three 6 Mafia never officially expanded beyond the six original members of the group, but it had an expanded version, known initially as Prophet Posse and later as Hypnotize Camp Posse (in reference to the Three 6 Mafia-created and sponsored labels, Prophet and Hypnotize Minds). Artists from the posse were featured heavily on Three 6 Mafia works, contributing significantly to the group's ascension.
Project Pat (1994–2012)
Lil Wyte (2003–2012)
Frayser Boy (2001–2008)
Chrome (2005–2008)
Yung D (2008–2009)
Grandaddy Souf (2005)
La Chat (1994–1995, 1998–2003)
T-Rock (1997–2001)
Mr. Del (1999–2000)
Nigga Creep (1997–2000)
Droopy Drew Dog (1997–1998)
M-Child (1996–1999)
M.C. Mack (1994–2000)
Scan Man (1994–2000)
K-Rock (1994–1998)
Indo G (1996–1998)
Kingpin Skinny Pimp (1994–1996)
Gangsta Blac (1994–1996)
Lil Fly (1994–1995)
Discography
Studio albums
Mystic Stylez (1995)
Chapter 1: The End (1996)
Chapter 2: World Domination (1997)
When the Smoke Clears: Sixty 6, Sixty 1 (2000)
Choices (2001)
Da Unbreakables (2003)
Choices II: The Setup (2005)
Most Known Unknown (2005)
Last 2 Walk (2008)
Subgroup albums
CrazyNDaLazDayz as Tear Da Club Up Thugs (1999)
Watch What U Wish... as Da Mafia 6ix (2015)
Collaboration albums
Body Parts with Prophet Posse (1998)
Hypnotize Camp Posse with Hypnotize Camp Posse (2000)
Dat's How It Happen to'M with Fiend (2002)
Filmography
Feature films
Choices: The Movie (2001)
Choices II: The Setup (2005)
Clean Up Men (2005)
Film appearances
Hustle & Flow (2005) – "It's Hard out Here for a Pimp" is the official song of the movie
Jackass 2 (2006) – they made an appearance in the movie, where they pay Dave England $200 to eat horse dung
Rocky Balboa (2006) – "It's a Fight" is on the official soundtrack to the movie.
Jackass 2.5 (2007)
The Campaign (2012) – "Azz and Tittiez" is on the official soundtrack to the movie
Television series
Adventures in Hollyhood (2007)
Famous Food (2011)
Television appearances
Jackass (2002)
Rap City (2003)
Wildboyz Deep South (2005) – episode 307
Flavor of Love (2006)
MTV's Jamie Kennedy's Blowin' Up (2006) – episode was banned due to controversy after the first time it aired
The Simple Life (2006)
Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip (2006) – episode: "Pilot" – musical guest on the fictional sketch comedy show within Studio 60
WWE Friday Night SmackDown (2006) – performed "Some Bodies Gonna Get It" (a song they made for WWE Wrestler Mark Henry from the album WWE Wreckless Intent) live when Mark Henry wrestled Chris Benoit in May 2006. Henry continues to use the song as his entrance music.
Entourage (2006) – in the episode "What about Bob?"
My Super Sweet 16 (2006) Three 6 Mafia was the musical performance at the party
MTV Cribs (2006) – season 12, episode 7
1 vs. 100 (2006)
Criss Angel Mindfreak (2006) – episode: "Celebrity Séance"
Rob & Big (2006) – Three 6 Mafia rapped at a party on episode 1 of season 1
Punk'd (2006) – Juicy J sets up DJ Paul
MTV Spring Break (2007)
Wrestling Society X (2007) – episode 2
Wild 'n Out (2007) – Spring Break edition
The Andy Milonakis Show (2007)
Mind of Mencia (2007) – season 3, episode 2
Beauty and the Geek (2007) – episode 2 DJ Paul and Juicy J are judges in a rapping contest between the geeks
Numb3rs (2008) – Juicy J and DJ Paul perform "Lolli Lolli (Pop That Body)" on the CBS drama
The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson (2008) – Juicy J and DJ Paul perform "Lolli Lolli (Pop That Body)"
Paris Hilton's My New BFF (2009) – season 2, episode: "Learn From Your Mistakes" Three 6 Mafia interviewed Paris Hilton's Potential BFF's
The Mo'Nique Show (2010) – Three 6 Mafia performs "It's Hard out Here for a Pimp"
Los Twiins (2010) – episode 4
DVDs
Choices: The Movie (2001)
Choices II: The Setup (2005)
Clean Up Men (2005)
Ultimate Video Collection (2006)
Musical inclusions in video games
Saint's Row – "Who I Iz"
NFL Street – "Who Gives a Fuck Where You From (Radio Edit)"
Fight Night Round 4 – "Shove It (Three 6 Mafia Remix)" (Santigold featuring Project Pat)
''WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011, WWE '12, WWE '13, WWE 2K14, WWE 2K15, WWE 2K16, WWE 2K17 and WWE 2K18 for Mark Henry's theme music – "Some Bodies Gonna Get It"
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Official website
Hip hop groups from Memphis, Tennessee
American crunk groups
African-American musical groups
American musical duos
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters
Columbia Records artists
Gangsta rap groups
Horrorcore groups
Musical groups established in 1991
1991 establishments in Tennessee
Southern hip hop musicians | [
0.547620952129364,
0.01796659082174301,
-0.15497690439224243,
-0.3768579363822937,
-0.24327464401721954,
0.10393683612346649,
0.985397219657898,
0.012833096086978912,
-0.5241196155548096,
0.2076226770877838,
0.44294166564941406,
0.45017772912979126,
-1.0480247735977173,
0.49021369218826294,
-0.6455004811286926,
0.044685374945402145,
0.29161226749420166,
-0.03376678749918938,
0.07806508243083954,
-0.26314836740493774,
-0.3648355007171631,
0.37460148334503174,
0.6378307342529297,
-0.2778683304786682,
-0.2821879982948303,
0.6938942074775696,
-0.21587274968624115,
0.15253114700317383,
0.2205573469400406,
-0.12227075546979904,
0.7222408056259155,
0.5241655111312866,
0.3612932860851288,
-0.46013543009757996,
0.40734991431236267,
0.15017138421535492,
-0.3341437578201294,
-0.05944390594959259,
-0.18470193445682526,
-0.4749176502227783,
0.11704477667808533,
-0.4119560718536377,
0.010856038890779018,
0.37260574102401733,
0.17223772406578064,
-0.27048459649086,
-1.2143268585205078,
0.7597780823707581,
-1.3251324892044067,
-0.14374367892742157,
-0.13988785445690155,
0.3551238775253296,
-0.37712156772613525,
0.6144601702690125,
0.014328286051750183,
0.1564970314502716,
-0.9837242364883423,
-0.6413238644599915,
0.1555849015712738,
-0.07938788086175919,
0.11713199317455292,
0.12518800795078278,
0.6535355448722839,
-0.24979344010353088,
-0.029429862275719643,
-0.13516969978809357,
-0.024308204650878906,
1.309678077697754,
-0.3393919765949249,
0.35435864329338074,
0.09832964837551117,
0.16280096769332886,
-0.17212794721126556,
-0.11063416302204132,
-0.2522819936275482,
-0.007869094610214233,
0.586357057094574,
-0.22104613482952118,
0.3005754053592682,
0.6882768869400024,
0.29259082674980164,
0.4561194181442261,
0.8367931842803955,
0.5936385989189148,
0.3381419777870178,
0.21378383040428162,
-0.2863600254058838,
-0.1473066359758377,
-0.32962873578071594,
0.48500776290893555,
-0.3915719985961914,
0.28514236211776733,
0.44665470719337463,
0.4176936149597168,
-0.4526626765727997,
-0.28175193071365356,
0.3088514506816864,
0.3343425989151001,
0.5728979706764221,
0.24552950263023376,
-0.12982454895973206,
0.35577526688575745,
-0.06488639116287231,
0.25591808557510376,
-0.6725572347640991,
-0.018608948215842247,
0.039185840636491776,
-0.6959457993507385,
-0.46914833784103394,
-0.021383214741945267,
0.07940546423196793,
0.31330859661102295,
0.10175284743309021,
-0.16171523928642273,
-0.18397563695907593,
0.49929165840148926,
0.291999876499176,
-0.32498297095298767,
-0.3058339059352875,
-0.05363248288631439,
-0.1747247576713562,
0.2619779706001282,
-0.3774419128894806,
1.0053704977035522,
-0.13542498648166656,
0.39611876010894775,
0.11262021213769913,
0.30923834443092346,
-0.16888199746608734,
0.030642086640000343,
-0.024202488362789154,
0.49648767709732056,
0.10343696177005768,
-0.10602780431509018,
-0.42111021280288696,
-0.5355173349380493,
0.4535820782184601,
0.5723990201950073,
0.33146369457244873,
-0.4527167081832886,
-0.8055148124694824,
-0.1097426787018776,
-0.5184102654457092,
-0.5422102808952332,
0.20570655167102814,
-0.11122573167085648,
-0.19057413935661316,
0.15538908541202545,
-0.022554177790880203,
0.05024926736950874,
0.021948670968413353,
-0.22708909213542938,
-0.09621390700340271,
-0.586959719657898,
-0.16011476516723633,
0.10299162566661835,
0.08684152364730835,
-0.3369033634662628,
0.209281787276268,
-0.06406620889902115,
-0.24216294288635254,
0.23594363033771515,
0.20804499089717865,
0.36908021569252014,
0.14637130498886108,
-0.5145105123519897,
-0.05764974281191826,
-0.5896381139755249,
0.044393569231033325,
0.27412641048431396,
-0.5327858924865723,
0.2943026125431061,
0.022772634401917458,
-0.1819698065519333,
0.0698939859867096,
-0.43006446957588196,
1.1318092346191406,
0.057719845324754715,
0.24406874179840088,
-0.2114258110523224,
-0.5715052485466003,
0.14317455887794495,
0.6539124846458435,
-0.3897906541824341,
0.4564574956893921,
-0.01657564379274845,
0.5329100489616394,
-0.31862887740135193,
-0.3607423007488251,
-0.49633410573005676,
-0.2780565023422241,
-0.12747140228748322,
0.48819461464881897,
-0.3134353756904602,
1.1747316122055054,
0.15602467954158783,
-0.612165093421936,
0.6208226084709167,
0.11827243864536285,
0.6687259674072266,
-0.11842858791351318,
-0.09044066816568375,
0.31864646077156067,
-0.3425796329975128,
-0.4957621395587921,
0.18045417964458466,
0.4133956730365753,
-0.2475661337375641,
0.38205984234809875,
0.4689975678920746,
-0.02391592040657997,
-0.49541038274765015,
-0.35518109798431396,
-0.5367903113365173,
0.15207992494106293,
-0.10680725425481796,
-0.3184516727924347,
0.6200592517852783,
0.057820722460746765,
-0.07959993183612823,
1.169304370880127,
-0.29961109161376953,
-0.5698975920677185,
0.25561434030532837,
-0.19042061269283295,
0.9112710356712341,
-0.29927724599838257,
-0.18993759155273438,
-0.046082381159067154,
-0.3246583044528961,
0.4006061553955078,
0.7564245462417603,
-0.28596311807632446,
-0.6385418176651001,
-0.2630581557750702,
0.15222619473934174,
0.3428881764411926,
-0.570829451084137,
-0.01810770481824875,
-0.5652778148651123,
0.4289278984069824,
0.023113947361707687,
-0.8191356062889099,
-0.5610197186470032,
0.2133801281452179,
-0.15626636147499084,
-0.04280542582273483,
-0.17022065818309784,
-0.18557071685791016,
0.19756917655467987,
0.03638426214456558,
0.39954113960266113,
0.8446531295776367,
-0.2518361508846283,
0.8638187050819397,
0.26915284991264343,
-0.13458622992038727,
-0.3718535602092743,
0.06755553185939789,
-0.7274122834205627,
0.020030785351991653,
0.5865623950958252,
0.013632708229124546,
0.041983772069215775,
0.32184898853302,
-0.4439622461795807,
-0.28645947575569153,
0.3243391811847687,
0.5120391249656677,
-0.3392919898033142,
1.3788933753967285,
-0.2544439136981964,
0.07361287623643875,
0.24692067503929138,
-0.21001169085502625,
-0.6200708150863647,
-0.1305396556854248,
-0.42062175273895264,
-0.660650908946991,
-1.3714796304702759,
-0.0780174732208252,
0.32711321115493774,
0.06926508992910385,
-0.4454875588417053,
-0.11814633756875992,
0.4817465543746948,
0.1235240176320076,
-0.3600764572620392,
0.3653574287891388,
-0.2712468206882477,
-0.5450265407562256,
-0.38314494490623474,
-0.9628034234046936,
-0.01264424342662096,
-0.010687189176678658,
-0.17225001752376556,
-0.23342037200927734,
0.5705018639564514,
-0.053143441677093506,
0.12619905173778534,
-0.28442588448524475,
0.6648542284965515,
-0.9174730777740479,
-0.05299440026283264,
0.4642930030822754,
-0.42306050658226013,
-0.05032947286963463,
0.2953319847583771,
-5.370237350463867,
0.2507496476173401,
-0.7539138793945312,
-0.026316002011299133,
0.7264314889907837,
0.014694523066282272,
0.44536298513412476,
-0.40510886907577515,
-0.008309214375913143,
-0.23291338980197906,
-0.4173576831817627,
-0.21530260145664215,
0.11328289657831192,
0.005224654916673899,
-0.21480831503868103,
-0.30471566319465637,
-0.03152322396636009,
-0.16350243985652924,
0.4128985106945038,
0.667643666267395,
-0.047021202743053436,
0.05879945307970047,
-0.460105299949646,
0.12234373390674591,
-0.15041950345039368,
0.695877194404602,
-0.24248534440994263,
0.12868431210517883,
-0.44389867782592773,
-0.12839540839195251,
-0.3123185336589813,
0.12168464809656143,
-0.3419603109359741,
-1.0949746370315552,
-0.4579959809780121,
-0.41248437762260437,
0.7131181359291077,
-0.21419519186019897,
0.13134323060512543,
-0.21211692690849304,
-0.13035276532173157,
0.16199368238449097,
0.12736079096794128,
-0.04327254742383957,
1.09722101688385,
0.03733815997838974,
-0.6986749768257141,
-0.6328954100608826,
-0.5041818618774414,
0.9233412742614746,
0.1238148957490921,
-0.2679871618747711,
-0.15726709365844727,
0.30235087871551514,
0.4356844425201416,
-0.6639325618743896,
-0.09783946722745895,
-0.04963476583361626,
-0.15014995634555817,
1.098534345626831,
1.0626254081726074,
-0.7621801495552063,
0.3670147955417633,
-0.5642043948173523,
-0.4033259451389313,
-0.3030138611793518,
0.2612842321395874,
-0.111030213534832,
0.11272665113210678,
0.4403957426548004,
0.21210432052612305,
0.8021978735923767,
-1.069226622581482,
-1.0142234563827515,
0.30250415205955505,
0.05303841829299927,
-0.11026210337877274,
-0.2817104756832123,
-0.011255881749093533,
0.5201274156570435,
0.46642401814460754,
-0.09128404408693314,
-0.03136264905333519,
-0.0364021435379982,
-0.688069224357605,
-0.3139985501766205,
0.28404366970062256,
0.5958788990974426,
-1.2260445356369019,
-0.14672809839248657,
0.018092205747961998,
-0.5183230638504028,
0.18652285635471344,
0.3671746253967285,
-0.03537101671099663,
-0.040483370423316956,
0.0416613332927227,
0.3767860233783722,
0.31719347834587097,
0.05611152946949005,
0.39288315176963806,
-0.28299567103385925,
0.2522194981575012,
-0.4340479075908661,
0.24266678094863892,
-1.0396218299865723,
0.37191152572631836,
0.34854814410209656,
0.3702426254749298,
0.009123538620769978,
0.1465102881193161,
0.06639036536216736,
-0.4880578815937042,
0.05456220358610153,
0.5639870762825012,
-0.14636830985546112,
-0.3316328823566437,
0.04110516980290413,
0.1781356781721115,
0.4965449869632721,
0.05558145046234131,
0.5670101642608643,
0.23990844190120697,
0.11795713007450104,
-0.30669930577278137,
-0.5134679079055786,
-0.005439597647637129,
0.3537473976612091,
-0.2781682312488556,
0.2196788638830185,
0.29565322399139404,
0.0021283121313899755,
0.035482753068208694,
0.1982720047235489,
-0.0364706888794899,
-0.36768877506256104,
-0.6203383803367615,
-0.5150072574615479,
0.10198535025119781,
-0.4680703580379486,
0.051548682153224945,
-0.06267546862363815,
-0.08734597265720367,
0.5103569030761719,
0.08189394325017929,
0.22510947287082672,
-0.5825721025466919,
0.05698290839791298,
-0.3863941729068756,
0.43157264590263367,
-0.2770862877368927,
-0.5754976272583008,
0.9493658542633057,
-0.5276331901550293,
0.20502611994743347,
-0.05334163457155228,
0.5160371661186218,
0.5298649072647095,
0.27192047238349915,
-0.8078229427337646,
0.3851545751094818,
-0.09261203557252884,
-0.885089635848999,
0.07207629829645157,
0.15176527202129364,
-0.18847616016864777,
-0.29464229941368103,
-0.6762847900390625,
-0.13540257513523102,
0.605523943901062,
-0.16335681080818176,
-0.28579506278038025,
-0.011631738394498825,
-0.6805948615074158,
0.075215183198452,
0.6682662963867188,
0.1752811074256897,
0.0023457284551113844,
-0.3450416922569275,
-0.05486290529370308,
-0.053218383342027664,
0.4565589427947998,
-0.5290663242340088,
0.05851949006319046,
0.252550333738327,
0.03229672461748123,
-0.3746080994606018,
-0.2212769240140915,
-0.17797131836414337,
0.1685408651828766,
0.1301584243774414,
0.13644474744796753,
0.11611934006214142,
0.040524087846279144,
-0.5105533003807068,
-0.7587518095970154,
0.22994977235794067,
1.090660572052002,
-0.32772356271743774,
-0.20432674884796143,
0.5150780081748962,
0.35089245438575745,
0.5957191586494446,
-0.18308420479297638,
0.9246835708618164,
-0.4601747393608093,
0.6154139041900635,
0.3110744059085846,
-0.40248844027519226,
0.6897739768028259,
0.31381410360336304,
-0.3381510376930237,
-0.5744539499282837,
-0.12711083889007568,
-0.16824795305728912,
-0.34703728556632996,
0.19924427568912506,
-0.12797683477401733,
-0.36175209283828735,
-0.6753256916999817,
-0.11687010526657104,
-0.04217097908258438,
-0.7100788354873657,
0.2137008160352707,
-0.4866686761379242,
0.3859144449234009,
0.08381897211074829,
0.2537570893764496,
0.23447145521640778,
-0.01164353359490633,
-0.21568427979946136,
0.3836287260055542,
0.00891820527613163,
0.5224504470825195,
-0.5080510377883911,
0.317611962556839,
0.2720206677913666,
0.6595821380615234,
0.46507930755615234,
0.18036432564258575,
0.19792380928993225,
0.9203387498855591,
0.6410573720932007,
-0.554399311542511,
0.7194596529006958,
-0.9176481366157532,
0.3749801814556122,
0.4507344663143158,
-0.4132120609283447,
-0.1577744036912918,
0.19163614511489868,
-0.2510131597518921,
-0.664281964302063,
-0.578779935836792,
0.5690026879310608,
-0.31172874569892883,
0.05504681542515755,
-0.47725895047187805,
-0.07902994751930237,
-0.034035224467515945,
0.0012260525254532695,
0.1420026421546936,
-0.8503414392471313,
-0.11575109511613846,
0.12495914101600647,
-0.37263843417167664,
-0.022480610758066177,
-0.27254441380500793,
0.25980186462402344,
-0.757957935333252,
-0.41951191425323486,
-0.3161766231060028,
0.15566004812717438,
0.6007281541824341,
-0.3240569829940796,
0.1850779801607132,
0.3843383193016052,
-0.9238941669464111,
0.23666974902153015,
0.3690418004989624,
-0.5144201517105103,
0.36693790555000305,
-0.6207391023635864,
-0.08654584735631943,
0.6113207340240479,
-0.49435436725616455,
-0.18470382690429688,
0.03510228171944618,
-0.5028987526893616,
-0.04030482470989227,
-0.1889275163412094,
0.28682538866996765,
0.2730085551738739,
-0.018626468256115913,
-0.513921856880188,
-0.10487411916255951,
0.14568859338760376,
0.2826816141605377,
0.3514465391635895,
0.34761184453964233,
-0.2360576093196869,
0.6718851923942566,
-0.34426650404930115,
-0.38144534826278687,
-0.2166810929775238,
-0.42726245522499084,
-0.0937076285481453,
0.07310356199741364,
0.47822660207748413,
0.9626339077949524,
-0.3981243371963501,
-0.2901430130004883,
0.19495326280593872,
0.4214244782924652,
-1.335897445678711,
0.5703825354576111,
1.2044677734375,
-0.6076725721359253,
0.6374545097351074,
-0.1890651285648346,
0.2460666447877884,
0.40580520033836365,
0.36186403036117554,
0.5304427742958069,
0.6476339101791382,
0.5825076699256897,
-0.7815132141113281,
0.221429243683815,
0.6901983022689819,
-0.22603870928287506,
0.2665325701236725,
-0.2775692641735077,
-0.42050477862358093,
-0.4018031060695648,
0.044580936431884766,
-0.4929177165031433,
-0.23569431900978088,
0.26989203691482544,
-0.12744930386543274,
1.0963575839996338,
0.17962875962257385,
0.16550302505493164,
0.24395161867141724,
0.058087196201086044,
0.12254231423139572,
0.23821835219860077,
-0.002591177122667432,
-0.2167946696281433,
0.6509494185447693,
0.5951625108718872,
0.3906485140323639,
0.027589641511440277,
0.04528174549341202,
-0.0340925008058548,
0.7543042898178101,
0.21242466568946838,
0.023936007171869278,
-0.048219840973615646,
-0.5853505730628967,
-0.09119387716054916,
0.42744675278663635,
0.5303823351860046,
0.5327720642089844,
0.10502404719591141,
-0.2684682607650757,
-0.02146514505147934,
0.1576128453016281,
-0.2247782051563263,
-0.2180890291929245,
0.08725354075431824,
-0.16786199808120728,
0.426872581243515,
-0.7129383087158203,
0.6840079426765442,
-0.026123659685254097,
0.21388094127178192,
0.13570228219032288,
0.36270514130592346,
-0.9701876640319824,
0.11249920725822449,
-0.10564370453357697,
-0.009555531665682793,
-0.8033400774002075,
-0.10335433483123779,
-0.050944194197654724,
0.3666517734527588,
-0.31029418110847473,
0.11391263455152512,
-0.21389272809028625,
-0.2314292937517166,
-0.2409680336713791,
-0.6601765751838684,
-0.514761209487915,
-0.22299577295780182,
-0.08036556839942932,
0.0030972480308264494,
0.284738153219223,
0.7621946930885315,
0.17180182039737701,
0.5250481367111206,
0.1451805979013443,
0.585326611995697,
0.04337812587618828,
0.0065823025070130825,
-0.5088152885437012,
0.18209485709667206,
-0.8927874565124512,
-0.43772491812705994,
-0.5184771418571472,
0.7272058129310608,
0.06497053802013397,
-0.5638636350631714,
0.019776763394474983,
0.5643390417098999,
0.3737623691558838,
-0.013508336618542671,
0.9986122250556946,
-0.3135189712047577,
-0.6843831539154053,
-0.2336874008178711,
-0.09685511887073517,
0.1937098503112793,
-0.17950241267681122,
0.5378955006599426,
-0.7937540411949158,
-0.37345874309539795,
0.7145581841468811,
-0.30806246399879456,
-0.8536566495895386,
0.7569291591644287,
-0.16561949253082275,
-0.4468437731266022,
-0.6025656461715698,
-0.3657592236995697,
-0.14333313703536987,
-0.7634851932525635,
0.41920071840286255,
0.67970210313797,
0.9736490249633789,
0.04589414969086647,
0.6648033857345581,
-0.3572142422199249,
-0.18780523538589478,
-0.5526320934295654,
0.05257255956530571,
0.0071827927604317665,
-0.2400120198726654,
-0.4150792360305786,
-0.4068698585033417,
0.26093989610671997,
-0.5139260292053223,
0.1129310205578804,
-0.3446843922138214,
-0.19003640115261078,
0.16731713712215424,
-0.046516936272382736,
0.17686592042446136,
-0.6820027828216553,
0.037295643240213394,
-0.3254810869693756
] |
261053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Landau | Martin Landau | Martin James Landau (; June 20, 1928 – July 15, 2017) was an American actor, acting coach, producer, and editorial cartoonist. His career began in the 1950s, with early film appearances including a supporting role in Alfred Hitchcock's North by Northwest (1959) opposite Cary Grant. He played regular roles in the television series Mission: Impossible (1966–1969) and Space: 1999 (1975–1977).
Landau received the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture, as well as his first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, for his role in Tucker: The Man and His Dream (1988); he received his second Oscar nomination for his performance in Woody Allen's Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989). His performance in the supporting role of Bela Lugosi in Ed Wood (1994) earned him an Academy Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Golden Globe Award. He continued to perform in film and television, and headed the Hollywood branch of the Actors Studio until his death in July 2017.
Early life
Landau was born on June 20, 1928, in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Selma (née Buchman) and Morris Landau. His family is Jewish. His father was an Austrian-born machinist who tried to rescue relatives from the Nazis.
After attending both James Madison High School and Pratt Institute, he found work at the New York Daily News. There he spent the next five years as an editorial cartoonist and worked alongside Gus Edson to produce the comic strip The Gumps. He quit the Daily News when he was 22 to concentrate on theater acting. "I told the picture editor I was going into the theater," he recalled. "I think he thought I was going to be an usher."
After auditioning for the Actors Studio in 1955, Landau and Steve McQueen were the only applicants accepted out of 500 who applied. While there, he trained under Lee Strasberg, Elia Kazan, and Harold Clurman, and eventually became an executive director with the Studio alongside Mark Rydell and Sydney Pollack.
Career
1950s: Early roles, North by Northwest
Influenced by Charlie Chaplin and the escapism of the cinema, Landau pursued an acting career. He attended the Actors Studio, becoming good friends with James Dean. He recalled, "James Dean was my best friend. We were two young would-be and still-yet-to-work unemployed actors, dreaming out loud and enjoying every moment ... We'd spend lots of time talking about the future, our craft and our chances of success in this newly different, ever-changing modern world we were living in."
In 1957, he made his Broadway debut in Middle of the Night. Landau made his first major film appearance in Alfred Hitchcock's North by Northwest (1959) as Leonard, the right-hand man of a criminal portrayed by James Mason. He had featured roles in two 1960s epics, Cleopatra (1963) and The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965), and played a ruthless killer in the Western action adventure prequel Nevada Smith (1965) starring Steve McQueen.
1960s: Career breakthrough, Mission: Impossible
Landau played the supporting role of master of disguise Rollin Hand in the first three seasons of the US television series Mission: Impossible, from 1966 to 1969. Landau at first declined to be contracted by the show because he did not want it to interfere with his film career; instead, he was credited for "special guest appearances" during the first season. He became a full-time cast member in the second season, although the studio agreed to Landau's request, to contract him only on a year-by-year basis rather than the then-standard five years. The role of Hand required Landau to perform a wide range of accents and characters, from dictators to thugs, and several episodes had him playing dual roles—not only Hand's impersonation, but also the person whom Hand is impersonating. In the series Landau acted alongside his then-wife Barbara Bain. He was replaced by Leonard Nimoy, playing a very similar role but not exactly the same character, for the next two seasons of the series after he and Bain left the show.
1970s: Television appearances
In 1973, Landau guest starred in the Columbo episode: Double Shock alongside Peter Falk. Landau plays twin brothers involved in the murder of their rich uncle. The episode also costarred Dabney Coleman, Julie Newmar, and Jeanette Nolan.
In the mid-1970s, Landau and Bain returned to TV in the British science-fiction series Space: 1999 produced by Gerry Anderson in partnership with Sylvia Anderson, and later with Fred Freiberger. Critical response to Space: 1999 was unenthusiastic during its original run, and it was cancelled after two seasons. Landau was critical of the scripts and storylines, especially during the series' second season, but praised the cast and crew. He later wrote forewords to Space: 1999 co-star Barry Morse's theatrical memoir Remember with Advantages (2006) and Jim Smith's critical biography of Tim Burton. Following Space: 1999, Landau appeared in supporting roles in a number of films and TV series. He was seen in low-budget genre pictures, such as the science fiction films Without Warning (1981) and The Being (1983) or the horror film Alone in the Dark (1982). His roles included the TV film The Harlem Globetrotters on Gilligan's Island (1981), which again co-starred Bain (and marked the final time they appeared together on screen).
1980s: Career resurgence, Crimes and Misdemeanors
In the late 1980s, Landau made a career comeback, earning an Academy Award nomination for his role in Tucker: The Man and His Dream (1988). He said he was grateful to its director, Francis Ford Coppola, for the opportunity to play a role he enjoyed: "I've spent a lot of time playing roles that didn't really challenge me," he said, "You want roles that have dimension. The role of Abe Karatz gave me that." He won the Golden Globe Award for his part in the film.
In 1989, Landau appeared in Woody Allen's Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989) The film is split into two stories, one humorous, one dark in nature. Landau starred in the storyline as Judah Rosenthal, a successful ophthalmologist who tries to prevent his mistress, played by Anjelica Huston from revealing their affair to his wife (Claire Bloom). In the film Landau confides his worries with patient and rabbi Sam Waterston as well as his mobster brother Jerry Orbach. Allen remembered of the cast that:
The film received critical acclaim with Roger Ebert giving the film four stars, writing, "The movie generates the best kind of suspense, because it's not about what will happen to people - it's about what decisions they will reach. We have the same information they have. What would we do? How far would we go to protect our happiness and reputation? How selfish would we be? Is our comfort worth more than another person's life? Allen does not evade this question, and his answer seems to be, yes, for some people, it would be."
For Landau's performance he received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor losing to Denzel Washington in Glory.
1990s: Oscar win, Ed Wood
He won an Oscar for Ed Wood (1994), a biopic in which he plays actor Bela Lugosi. Landau researched the role of Lugosi by watching about 25 old Lugosi movies and studying the Hungarian accent, which contributed to Lugosi's decline in acting. "I began to respect this guy and pity him," said Landau. "I saw the humor in him. This, for me, became a love letter to him, because he never got a chance to get out of that. I got a chance to make a comeback in my career. And I'm giving him one. I'm giving him the last role he never got."
Landau also received a Screen Actors Guild Award, a Golden Globe Award and a Saturn Award for the role, as well as accolades from a number of critics groups. Gregory Walcott, who was in the film, watched the screening of it at the Motion Picture Academy and said that the Academy members "gave Landau a hearty, spontaneous applause over the end credits."
Landau's film roles in the 1990s included a down-on-his-luck Hollywood producer in the comedy Mistress (1992) with Robert De Niro and as a judge in the dramas City Hall (1995) with Al Pacino and Rounders (1998) with Matt Damon, and Ready to Rumble in (1999). He was also a warm and memorable Geppetto in The Adventures of Pinocchio (1996).
Landau provided the voice of Scorpion for the first two seasons of the 1990s Spider-Man television series. Landau left the series after two seasons when he won the Academy Award and lacked time for the series. This caused the role of Scorpion to be recast to Richard Moll.
He played the part of Jacob, son of Isaac in the TV miniseries Joseph. The story of Joseph and his life was shown in this 1995 film. He co starred with Ben Kingsley (Potiphar) and Paul Mercurio as Joseph.
2000–2017: Continued roles
He played a supporting role in The Majestic (2001), starring Jim Carrey. The film received mostly negative reviews, although one reviewer wrote that "the lone outpost of authenticity is manned by Martin Landau, who gives a heartfelt performance," as an aging father who believes that his missing son has returned from World War II.
In the early seasons of Without a Trace (2002–2009), Landau was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for his portrayal of the Alzheimer's-afflicted father of FBI Special Agent in Charge Jack Malone, the series' lead character. In 2006, he made a guest appearance in the series Entourage as Bob Ryan, a washed-up but determined and sympathetic Hollywood producer attempting to relive his glory days, a portrayal that earned him a second Emmy nomination.
Landau appeared in the television film Have a Little Faith (2011) based on Mitch Albom's book of the same name, in which he played Rabbi Albert Lewis. In 2012, Landau lent his voice as Mr. Rzykruski for the Tim Burton animated Disney film Frankenweenie. In 2015, Landau starred alongside Christopher Plummer in the film Remember. The film received critical praise with reviewers lauding the stellar performances from Landau and Plummer.
In recognition of his services to the motion picture industry, Martin Landau has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6841 Hollywood Boulevard.
Acting coach
Encouraged by his own mentor, Lee Strasberg, Landau also taught acting. Actors coached by him include Jack Nicholson and Anjelica Huston.
In 2009, Landau and his Actors Studio colleagues, director Mark Rydell and writer Lyle Kessler, collaborated to produce the educational Total Picture Seminar, a two-day event covering the disciplines of acting, directing and writing for film.
Personal life
Landau married actress and former co-star Barbara Bain on January 31, 1957, and they divorced in 1993. They had two daughters, Susan and Juliet.
Death
On July 15, 2017, Landau died at the age of 89 at the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center in Westwood, Los Angeles, California; he had been briefly hospitalized. The cause of death was hypovolemic shock brought on by internal bleeding and heart disease. Landau is buried at the Beth David Cemetery in Elmont, New York.
Filmography
Awards and nominations
References
Bibliography
External links
Martin Landau at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio audio collection
Martin Landau at The Total Picture Seminar
1928 births
2017 deaths
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male stage actors
American male voice actors
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
Best Supporting Actor Academy Award winners
Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe (film) winners
Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Jewish American male actors
Male actors from New York City
Male actors from Los Angeles
American acting coaches
American Ashkenazi Jews
Method actors
American comic strip cartoonists
Pratt Institute alumni
People from Brooklyn
People from West Hollywood, California
American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
Burials at Beth David Cemetery
James Madison High School (Brooklyn) alumni
21st-century American Jews | [
-0.25338640809059143,
0.15562862157821655,
-0.5201368927955627,
-0.11179310828447342,
0.22153960168361664,
0.8593515753746033,
0.43282994627952576,
0.23016278445720673,
0.0712435394525528,
-0.2471703737974167,
-0.47658225893974304,
0.4485589861869812,
0.12123260647058487,
0.55790776014328,
0.2166876345872879,
0.3859751224517822,
-0.25539353489875793,
-0.07091902941465378,
-0.43480974435806274,
-0.7400195002555847,
-0.3755074441432953,
0.004269266035407782,
0.49903053045272827,
0.20056317746639252,
-0.5855216979980469,
0.6308478713035583,
-0.2634120583534241,
-0.0486382320523262,
-0.009515155106782913,
0.5076340436935425,
-0.42817822098731995,
-0.06464841216802597,
0.7144024968147278,
-0.30426937341690063,
-0.43450140953063965,
0.383279025554657,
-0.3742959499359131,
-0.10413914173841476,
-0.06858604401350021,
0.260373592376709,
-0.16231529414653778,
-0.0896739661693573,
0.30168551206588745,
-0.43073248863220215,
-0.33249688148498535,
-0.3697126507759094,
-1.5705000162124634,
0.25741055607795715,
-0.5022292733192444,
-0.7706121206283569,
-0.18539652228355408,
0.5544570088386536,
0.4777427613735199,
-0.08432047814130783,
0.2372528463602066,
-0.1266510784626007,
-0.09884278476238251,
-0.1322837471961975,
0.406507670879364,
-0.08506826311349869,
0.09754762798547745,
-0.165953129529953,
0.31552398204803467,
-0.5628641247749329,
0.07599810510873795,
0.03995699808001518,
0.2097645252943039,
0.0401572547852993,
-0.28604304790496826,
-0.3958985209465027,
0.18593086302280426,
0.8260369896888733,
0.31564727425575256,
-0.44247329235076904,
0.9227543473243713,
-0.19927573204040527,
0.5543180108070374,
0.1277686357498169,
-0.5672026872634888,
-0.19543999433517456,
-0.08841253072023392,
-0.6718482971191406,
0.045136142522096634,
0.7550064921379089,
-0.08261480182409286,
-0.19728727638721466,
-0.15384860336780548,
0.5279713273048401,
-0.2798251807689667,
-0.05973906069993973,
-0.6123119592666626,
-0.3202967047691345,
0.05014548823237419,
0.4691665768623352,
-0.036227211356163025,
-0.2673056125640869,
0.013391694985330105,
-0.04081567004323006,
0.46581417322158813,
-0.3460976183414459,
0.10141734778881073,
-0.27247387170791626,
0.390377938747406,
-0.614933967590332,
-0.6364879012107849,
0.24819505214691162,
0.6225159764289856,
-0.39427271485328674,
-0.35934147238731384,
0.042329419404268265,
-0.5924074649810791,
0.4042992889881134,
0.12471094727516174,
-0.1480371057987213,
-0.27940633893013,
0.44704681634902954,
-0.03896864503622055,
-0.6617858409881592,
-0.889958381652832,
0.7061448693275452,
0.31431907415390015,
0.31151828169822693,
-0.07704471051692963,
-0.03548019751906395,
-0.6811791062355042,
-0.506154477596283,
-0.07583511620759964,
-0.025083089247345924,
-0.36144188046455383,
-0.18089307844638824,
0.49018827080726624,
0.392748087644577,
-0.27431848645210266,
0.007799419108778238,
-0.6310250759124756,
-0.17023102939128876,
0.37025830149650574,
-0.2655084729194641,
-0.41312822699546814,
-0.14319247007369995,
-0.35637903213500977,
0.000059256868553347886,
-0.29202067852020264,
-0.2453092783689499,
1.0755378007888794,
-0.057308122515678406,
0.5983931422233582,
0.11445621401071548,
-0.12455235421657562,
-0.36481374502182007,
-0.47489985823631287,
0.10017909854650497,
0.4477725923061371,
-0.9162014126777649,
-0.31910502910614014,
0.21351584792137146,
0.5480961799621582,
0.016504351049661636,
0.027387123554944992,
-0.22569410502910614,
0.5141331553459167,
-0.04687559977173805,
-0.3045276403427124,
0.3347717523574829,
0.6682360768318176,
0.19355608522891998,
0.02280309796333313,
-1.0814008712768555,
-0.4312618672847748,
0.2858661115169525,
0.11893973499536514,
0.6858997941017151,
0.9419257044792175,
-0.4132733941078186,
-0.9102120399475098,
0.4488917887210846,
0.2857198417186737,
0.23156332969665527,
0.14119315147399902,
-0.15913420915603638,
-0.36197957396507263,
-0.5789753198623657,
0.3769420385360718,
0.3856579065322876,
0.42791128158569336,
0.2422761619091034,
0.21262529492378235,
-0.4693838357925415,
0.7001669406890869,
0.06072530895471573,
-0.8679524064064026,
-0.27159175276756287,
-0.18593235313892365,
-0.1857764720916748,
0.4301157593727112,
-0.3236321210861206,
-0.6670989990234375,
0.3153872489929199,
0.17040200531482697,
0.4357464611530304,
-0.7274681925773621,
-0.6792575716972351,
0.2691853642463684,
0.5136910676956177,
0.33924612402915955,
0.2499140053987503,
0.07691740244626999,
0.2556911110877991,
0.3288668990135193,
0.7208307981491089,
0.1724298596382141,
-0.6696588397026062,
0.4402737617492676,
0.8670358061790466,
-0.41375234723091125,
-0.8641785383224487,
-1.0018340349197388,
-0.61969393491745,
-0.18969419598579407,
-0.18562108278274536,
0.1442795693874359,
0.5920148491859436,
-0.16277040541172028,
0.15430420637130737,
-0.30399760603904724,
0.6101727485656738,
-0.17118312418460846,
0.08027728646993637,
0.2156965583562851,
-0.04373415932059288,
-0.12270967662334442,
0.033757008612155914,
0.03551515191793442,
-0.6865098476409912,
0.04265706241130829,
0.1922033727169037,
0.6059126257896423,
-0.6895643472671509,
-0.0007592398324050009,
-0.5289921164512634,
0.39932289719581604,
-0.00012536515714600682,
-0.18053023517131805,
0.19213853776454926,
-0.20233848690986633,
0.16531974077224731,
0.49792662262916565,
0.4410623610019684,
-0.3400857448577881,
-0.1664886623620987,
0.07314885407686234,
0.10675685107707977,
0.3335894048213959,
0.17935286462306976,
-0.17931635677814484,
0.2703370451927185,
0.23794116079807281,
0.011303367093205452,
0.7715333700180054,
0.43921416997909546,
0.4586547911167145,
0.17860223352909088,
-0.15940777957439423,
-0.08951320499181747,
-0.5886240005493164,
-0.08262277394533157,
0.012379099614918232,
-0.6162489652633667,
-0.004315285012125969,
0.09586714208126068,
0.3194091022014618,
-0.6268583536148071,
-0.24417206645011902,
0.4302230775356293,
0.2813394367694855,
0.4155569076538086,
-0.07227160781621933,
-0.07728810608386993,
-0.5143851041793823,
-0.2923986315727234,
0.546749472618103,
0.7500974535942078,
-0.275593638420105,
0.14263199269771576,
0.051282431930303574,
-0.11386161297559738,
-0.3154616951942444,
-0.08363591134548187,
0.1404818892478943,
-0.061880577355623245,
-0.2587282955646515,
0.9045451283454895,
0.0665578618645668,
0.602540910243988,
-0.3476867377758026,
0.2579977214336395,
0.14385490119457245,
-0.5439530611038208,
-0.24187742173671722,
0.2669299244880676,
-0.34826478362083435,
0.3443044126033783,
-0.08254614472389221,
0.27846479415893555,
0.6481456756591797,
0.573361873626709,
-0.3071436285972595,
-0.5229445099830627,
-5.434853553771973,
0.05243166163563728,
-0.0952153131365776,
-0.008953258395195007,
0.6634237170219421,
-0.23929907381534576,
-0.006951222661882639,
-0.4039921462535858,
-0.06903437525033951,
-0.1675119549036026,
-0.14321976900100708,
-0.2900107502937317,
-0.3473024070262909,
0.8682131767272949,
0.28930285573005676,
-0.3751928210258484,
0.47688350081443787,
-0.6701391339302063,
0.13589242100715637,
0.8165515065193176,
-0.22165200114250183,
-0.4978856146335602,
-0.3339112401008606,
0.05216656252741814,
0.009793290868401527,
0.2859785556793213,
-0.6450753808021545,
0.29668498039245605,
-0.7599004507064819,
-0.658338725566864,
-0.30547034740448,
-0.24667422473430634,
-0.5587149858474731,
0.12497654557228088,
-0.3250561058521271,
0.18476921319961548,
0.5804834961891174,
-0.4355751574039459,
0.47390463948249817,
-0.07273214310407639,
0.21865975856781006,
-0.06154757738113403,
-1.10805344581604,
-0.09995690733194351,
0.2557520270347595,
-0.024353893473744392,
-0.6636835932731628,
-0.20091767609119415,
0.3928177058696747,
-0.20458577573299408,
0.8382954597473145,
0.4632658064365387,
0.23477797210216522,
-0.11624587327241898,
0.41725996136665344,
-0.32837915420532227,
0.11110752075910568,
0.23454025387763977,
-0.8715114593505859,
0.206011101603508,
0.26087772846221924,
-0.11039689183235168,
-0.2082570195198059,
-0.020111478865146637,
-0.12321405857801437,
-0.3382101058959961,
0.5844243764877319,
0.25017011165618896,
0.37951526045799255,
-0.3243507146835327,
0.06431572884321213,
0.6593268513679504,
0.46792489290237427,
-1.1944659948349,
0.028643468394875526,
-0.45013341307640076,
0.32721126079559326,
-0.39964759349823,
-1.1033533811569214,
-0.219681054353714,
-0.10623619705438614,
-0.3932224214076996,
0.271253764629364,
0.4439466595649719,
0.4766615331172943,
-0.08618852496147156,
-0.23649297654628754,
0.9661087393760681,
-0.24718326330184937,
-0.28214287757873535,
0.11636673659086227,
-0.20796087384223938,
-0.12934847176074982,
-0.09634160250425339,
-0.13537321984767914,
0.11831443756818771,
-0.023164860904216766,
0.756330132484436,
0.19226321578025818,
0.503890335559845,
-0.6520884037017822,
-0.3277243375778198,
0.5907167196273804,
-0.9391782879829407,
-0.09789258241653442,
0.22862306237220764,
0.3044372498989105,
0.37799936532974243,
0.6304854154586792,
0.012356067076325417,
-0.024577798321843147,
0.7653583884239197,
-0.1965656578540802,
-0.40584516525268555,
0.42414286732673645,
-0.038860030472278595,
0.07901699095964432,
0.06145352125167847,
-0.016274617984890938,
0.6431405544281006,
-0.08967219293117523,
0.08064709603786469,
-0.020901750773191452,
-0.21175743639469147,
-0.24246925115585327,
-0.1503569334745407,
-0.05207213759422302,
-0.48405274748802185,
-0.07026735693216324,
-0.04259581118822098,
-0.5162538290023804,
0.6588979363441467,
-0.13359341025352478,
0.3290720283985138,
0.7806037664413452,
-0.2152317613363266,
-0.521290123462677,
-0.15112529695034027,
0.050756797194480896,
0.17456814646720886,
-0.06386695057153702,
-0.18523992598056793,
0.5386685729026794,
0.2518797516822815,
0.014817875809967518,
-0.49577704071998596,
0.16267816722393036,
0.3249272108078003,
-0.001704089343547821,
0.3813018202781677,
0.4217863082885742,
0.5268848538398743,
0.24365395307540894,
-0.23602266609668732,
-0.3865814208984375,
-0.05132425203919411,
-0.5572724938392639,
-0.5964762568473816,
0.21145032346248627,
0.19204701483249664,
0.1916007399559021,
-0.40799200534820557,
-0.9028975367546082,
0.2646040916442871,
-0.1968304067850113,
0.2592979967594147,
-0.22897730767726898,
-0.3620152175426483,
-0.4312887489795685,
0.5547741055488586,
-0.16389131546020508,
-0.5405850410461426,
0.02016463875770569,
0.1258443146944046,
0.19051386415958405,
0.6526336669921875,
-0.19932834804058075,
-0.6975579261779785,
0.36332836747169495,
0.07498528808355331,
0.024908535182476044,
-0.07925102859735489,
-0.7825148701667786,
-0.0330975279211998,
0.14017663896083832,
-0.7218965888023376,
-0.810829222202301,
0.014362381771206856,
-0.3636944890022278,
-0.12322991341352463,
0.028868645429611206,
-0.702507495880127,
0.07072329521179199,
0.36500808596611023,
-0.5628260970115662,
-0.04918255656957626,
0.4022569954395294,
-0.19369733333587646,
-0.1806102991104126,
0.17971332371234894,
-0.3909428119659424,
0.3104305565357208,
-0.8749353885650635,
-0.30654415488243103,
0.39084720611572266,
-1.0412349700927734,
-0.5884544849395752,
0.29752400517463684,
0.03326772153377533,
0.9918779134750366,
-0.6409474015235901,
-0.6686816215515137,
-0.10767165571451187,
-0.3348918557167053,
0.14166951179504395,
0.5409215092658997,
0.5731745362281799,
0.3105054795742035,
-0.09472225606441498,
-0.3427482545375824,
-0.27291786670684814,
-0.7598432302474976,
-0.11027637124061584,
0.2549714148044586,
-0.9041239023208618,
-0.14005398750305176,
-0.005492860917001963,
-0.3056972324848175,
0.20891407132148743,
-0.39569246768951416,
0.26848307251930237,
0.15157248079776764,
0.21974486112594604,
0.5121613144874573,
-0.13543350994586945,
-0.45047667622566223,
0.18972143530845642,
0.4834950566291809,
-0.4782584309577942,
0.02496437542140484,
0.8851776719093323,
0.761729896068573,
0.3437407314777374,
0.42957058548927307,
0.3809289336204529,
0.25390639901161194,
0.32086265087127686,
-0.5957529544830322,
0.06265927106142044,
0.03182787820696831,
0.5902490019798279,
-0.06816498935222626,
-0.4281350374221802,
0.29229485988616943,
0.22957256436347961,
-0.49661311507225037,
0.0006962560582906008,
-0.005721233319491148,
-0.2797750234603882,
-0.0893840417265892,
-0.0047592055052518845,
0.4236660301685333,
-0.04862859100103378,
0.17460215091705322,
-0.43195271492004395,
-0.2930663526058197,
0.24385592341423035,
0.1948131024837494,
0.3268202543258667,
-0.21899394690990448,
-0.06930069625377655,
0.28198787569999695,
-0.023933643475174904,
0.8625614047050476,
-0.36463430523872375,
0.5625327825546265,
0.3667048513889313,
-0.20260943472385406,
-0.24269238114356995,
-0.4061363637447357,
-0.9165400266647339,
0.47558921575546265,
-0.02321934513747692,
-1.0008808374404907,
-0.3528604209423065,
-0.9088789224624634,
0.18260112404823303,
-0.10133623331785202,
-0.13005699217319489,
0.10103032737970352,
-0.16123922169208527,
0.6703811883926392,
-0.40562567114830017,
-0.1505231112241745,
-0.686410665512085,
-0.5383180975914001,
-0.21196597814559937,
1.2700201272964478,
-0.26911890506744385,
-0.16595686972141266,
-0.19582301378250122,
0.21945512294769287,
0.5939810872077942,
0.14512163400650024,
-0.1572980284690857,
-0.28634217381477356,
-0.19951069355010986,
-0.6541350483894348,
-0.24340739846229553,
0.5735146403312683,
0.41121432185173035,
0.022454751655459404,
0.4938200116157532,
0.534857988357544,
0.16668961942195892,
0.08187184482812881,
0.6737108826637268,
0.20224124193191528,
-0.6682533025741577,
-0.11120320111513138,
-0.3820459246635437,
0.04154101014137268,
0.2995692193508148,
-1.2078157663345337,
0.2943229079246521,
0.7265635132789612,
0.8359402418136597,
-0.21786589920520782,
-0.3714556396007538,
0.4992905259132385,
0.040605008602142334,
-0.3910354971885681,
0.34515658020973206,
0.40460851788520813,
0.11209119856357574,
-0.7234399318695068,
0.1964133083820343,
-0.011833027936518192,
0.5856292247772217,
-0.018583325669169426,
-0.7280111312866211,
0.5799883604049683,
-0.019989537075161934,
0.2638941705226898,
0.19792719185352325,
-0.21509073674678802,
-0.040593959391117096,
0.7596386075019836,
-0.2972668409347534,
-0.3440268039703369,
0.39207887649536133,
0.08655393123626709,
0.18810081481933594,
-0.264061838388443,
0.8442991375923157,
-0.15857334434986115,
0.12556791305541992,
-0.23843878507614136,
-0.3738577365875244,
0.3127407431602478,
-0.08470353484153748,
-0.6360727548599243,
1.0451899766921997,
0.1559775173664093,
0.042024970054626465,
0.07612448185682297,
0.08455633372068405,
-0.9408490657806396,
0.2241465151309967,
0.31874939799308777,
0.03412291780114174,
0.5101828575134277,
-0.1576227992773056,
0.5085009336471558,
0.4703601002693176,
0.30028653144836426,
0.6068590879440308,
-0.4315478503704071,
0.17417208850383759,
0.5413720011711121,
-0.5069534182548523,
-0.09910323470830917,
-0.431612491607666,
0.007994411513209343,
-0.2367609590291977,
-0.26564645767211914,
0.006890859454870224,
-0.12566016614437103,
0.21236363053321838,
-0.570587694644928,
0.48885539174079895,
-0.9965330958366394,
-0.11950232088565826,
0.6411973237991333,
-0.4768490791320801,
0.1042487695813179,
-0.6718419790267944,
0.5446374416351318,
0.50953608751297,
0.2873764634132385,
0.5294939875602722,
0.5189416408538818,
0.6719021797180176,
0.1959814876317978,
-0.47102782130241394,
-0.2866040766239166,
0.015922481194138527,
-0.36030498147010803,
-1.142457127571106,
0.12861229479312897,
0.272654265165329,
0.058044690638780594,
-0.2883327603340149,
0.2859281301498413,
-0.2157777100801468,
0.003633642802014947,
0.548528254032135,
0.30222275853157043,
-0.25030210614204407,
-0.09703808277845383,
0.449484646320343,
0.33095595240592957,
0.07019108533859253,
-0.07021403312683105,
-0.03178189694881439,
0.6923086643218994,
-0.022898996248841286,
-0.43950504064559937,
-0.08871029317378998,
0.25129234790802,
-0.22540302574634552,
0.09010717272758484,
-0.1761450171470642,
0.2335844784975052,
-0.28591856360435486,
-0.6156629920005798,
0.9547749161720276,
0.6974208354949951,
0.9195273518562317,
-1.1540534496307373,
0.16134484112262726,
0.24226069450378418,
0.13769429922103882,
-0.08490975946187973,
-0.1027938649058342,
0.17162753641605377,
0.10305728018283844,
-0.31474968791007996,
0.4341643154621124,
0.6746436357498169,
-0.40580806136131287,
-0.17272433638572693,
0.4366309940814972,
-0.3134564161300659,
-0.02518164925277233,
-0.02497394010424614,
-0.07714319974184036,
0.16666384041309357,
0.6933208703994751,
-0.4836125373840332
] |
261055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charm | Charm | Charm may refer to:
Social science
Charisma, a person or thing's pronounced ability to attract others
Superficial charm, flattery, telling people what they want to hear
Science and technology
Charm quark, a type of elementary particle
Charm (quantum number), the difference between the number of charm quarks and charm antiquarks in a particle
Neoregelia 'Charm', a hybrid cultivar flowering plant
Computing
Charm (programming language), devised in the 1990s, similar to RTL/2, Pascal and C
Charm++, a parallel programming language based on C++
Charms, part of the Windows shell user interface in Microsoft Windows 8 and 8.1
Magic and superstition
Magic charm or incantation
Charm, an object believed to have been magically charmed, such as an amulet
Trinket, on a charm bracelet
Business
BlackBerry Charm, a mobile phone
Motorola Charm, a smartphone
Charm (finance), in quantitative finance, a second order derivative of an option pricing function versus the underlying spot price and time
The Charm Company, manufacturer of Charms Blow Pops candy; acquired by Tootsie Roll Industries
Charms, a brand of cigarette manufactured by VST Industries
Arts and entertainment
Literature
The Charm, play by Walter Besant 1896
The Charm, poetry collection by Robert Creeley 1969
The Charm, poetry collection by Kathy Fagan
The Charm (play), a play by Christopher R. Shimmin
Music
Bands
The Charms, an American garage rock band
Otis Williams and the Charms, an American doo-wop group
Albums
The Charm, by American rapper Bubba Sparxxx
The Charm (T. S. Monk album), 1995
Charm (album), by American producer and rapper Danny!
Songs
"Charm", a song by Wild Colonials from the album This Can't Be Life
"Charm", a song by Tony Banks from the album The Fugitive 1983
"Charm", a song by Positive Noise 1981
"Charm", a song by Virginia Astley 1987
"Charms" (song), a 1963 song by Bobby Vee
"Charms" (The Philosopher Kings song), a song by Canadian band The Philosopher Kings from the 1996 album The Philosopher Kings
People
Daniel Charms, a pseudonym of Russian poet, writer and dramatist Daniil Kharms (1905–1942)
Charm Tong (born 1981), teacher and human rights activist from Shan State, Burma
Other uses
Charm, Ohio, an unincorporated community in the US
Baltimore Charm, a franchise in the Legends Football League (formerly the Lingerie Football League)
L30, Challenger armament (CHARM) project to provide a new main armament for the British Challenger 2 tank
See also
Charl (name)
Charmstone, a stone or mineral artifact of various types associated with various traditional cultures
CHARMM (Chemistry at Harvard Macromolecular Mechanics), a widely used set of force fields for molecular dynamics
Charmed (disambiguation)
Charmer (disambiguation)
Charming (disambiguation)
Lucky charm (disambiguation) | [
-0.02451580949127674,
0.0005518277757801116,
-0.08784317970275879,
0.2097490280866623,
-0.26825541257858276,
0.1327686905860901,
0.5241413712501526,
0.07758723199367523,
0.08964937925338745,
-0.10743999481201172,
-0.5387318730354309,
0.473573237657547,
0.15719804167747498,
0.1901921182870865,
-0.39994412660598755,
0.17522723972797394,
0.6058726906776428,
0.5955666303634644,
-0.34574493765830994,
0.11422721296548843,
-0.43192875385284424,
0.3523868918418884,
-0.03502430021762848,
-0.9263167381286621,
0.3462375998497009,
0.22156742215156555,
-0.05290535092353821,
-0.22728295624256134,
0.16972701251506805,
0.27258098125457764,
-0.010451499372720718,
0.5219256281852722,
-0.22017347812652588,
-0.016386467963457108,
-0.3935551941394806,
-0.2430678904056549,
-0.13183580338954926,
-0.17366507649421692,
-0.036139070987701416,
-0.605483889579773,
0.19186027348041534,
-0.14067624509334564,
0.7753524780273438,
-0.04763481765985489,
-0.866873562335968,
-0.23913894593715668,
-2.4186840057373047,
0.35530930757522583,
-0.4942231774330139,
0.14649470150470734,
0.03676215559244156,
0.06120573356747627,
0.12491477280855179,
0.14626969397068024,
0.14013665914535522,
0.3077809810638428,
-0.4237986207008362,
-0.09842707961797714,
0.3666951358318329,
-0.4529459774494171,
0.13496936857700348,
0.22005720436573029,
-0.22864165902137756,
0.06573515385389328,
0.08744700998067856,
0.6283087134361267,
-0.19488227367401123,
0.3222516179084778,
-0.5480436086654663,
-0.613041877746582,
0.35921597480773926,
-0.2795312702655792,
0.07674121111631393,
0.24536952376365662,
-0.29517677426338196,
-0.16545729339122772,
-0.047903381288051605,
-0.32357057929039,
0.1386856734752655,
0.04146008566021919,
-0.6361681818962097,
0.4100915789604187,
0.9751092791557312,
-0.12888295948505402,
0.179661825299263,
-0.13815967738628387,
0.025964364409446716,
1.1347326040267944,
-0.531024158000946,
0.20699869096279144,
0.37032413482666016,
-0.6834518909454346,
0.6158433556556702,
0.3673779368400574,
0.01963989995419979,
-0.17979204654693604,
0.6680704951286316,
-0.18968485295772552,
0.19076776504516602,
-0.16142208874225616,
-0.26567795872688293,
-0.12672562897205353,
-0.16017770767211914,
-0.4132629632949829,
-0.4253562390804291,
0.41679295897483826,
-0.16399182379245758,
-0.9644900560379028,
-0.10751412808895111,
0.5952308177947998,
-0.4145497977733612,
0.16390104591846466,
0.14334389567375183,
0.9715444445610046,
-0.44998568296432495,
-0.06178739666938782,
0.39313438534736633,
0.21124719083309174,
-0.14713652431964874,
0.1901220977306366,
0.6733550429344177,
0.4691234230995178,
0.46596166491508484,
-0.27310091257095337,
0.34090209007263184,
0.25659623742103577,
0.3137650489807129,
0.7154586315155029,
-0.18601655960083008,
-0.054843589663505554,
0.41753920912742615,
0.554356038570404,
-0.2999314069747925,
-0.3558722138404846,
-0.2288666069507599,
-0.3292420208454132,
0.5129902362823486,
-0.35708823800086975,
0.09092490375041962,
0.8199056386947632,
-0.36890333890914917,
-0.001388837699778378,
-0.5904825925827026,
-0.07029908150434494,
0.2707350254058838,
-0.3065798878669739,
0.2774316668510437,
0.06975875794887543,
-0.31291377544403076,
0.015025608241558075,
-0.010697517544031143,
0.12544460594654083,
-0.10831265151500702,
0.10923812538385391,
-0.08330965787172318,
-0.03713103383779526,
-0.18124057352542877,
-0.0012954510748386383,
0.15202084183692932,
0.11204087734222412,
-0.4940471947193146,
0.26022347807884216,
-0.7609659433364868,
-0.02641437016427517,
0.2648457884788513,
-0.1690327525138855,
0.16464853286743164,
0.6328697800636292,
-0.050596628338098526,
0.7565920948982239,
-0.3259527087211609,
0.27104073762893677,
0.2235351949930191,
0.456519216299057,
-0.2619258761405945,
0.18176165223121643,
0.20565088093280792,
-0.2771161198616028,
0.3764321804046631,
0.3979083299636841,
-0.6058645844459534,
-0.0835738554596901,
0.052593376487493515,
-0.2769961953163147,
0.4613301455974579,
-0.052595142275094986,
-0.2366316020488739,
0.2750971019268036,
0.10155964642763138,
-0.6483066082000732,
-0.7703030109405518,
-0.19300775229930878,
0.053816843777894974,
-0.16977661848068237,
1.0878853797912598,
-0.026391664519906044,
-0.30355989933013916,
1.1189700365066528,
-0.06430529057979584,
0.12304916232824326,
-0.04970351606607437,
-0.05298839509487152,
0.42535537481307983,
0.09422162175178528,
-0.02072105184197426,
-0.08718855679035187,
0.21675945818424225,
-0.08930118381977081,
-0.023235559463500977,
0.009345491416752338,
0.25521397590637207,
-0.18988099694252014,
0.3462024927139282,
-0.6451400518417358,
-0.43320849537849426,
0.28538650274276733,
-0.6026787757873535,
0.2674834430217743,
-0.1256328672170639,
-0.07614941895008087,
0.5255119204521179,
-0.28270289301872253,
-0.16712887585163116,
0.2479633390903473,
0.1851946860551834,
0.5761316418647766,
0.5466379523277283,
-0.0357007160782814,
0.2710075378417969,
0.11708839982748032,
-0.055052053183317184,
-0.2695797383785248,
0.2783316969871521,
-0.7970188856124878,
-0.23828347027301788,
0.45418787002563477,
0.491208553314209,
-0.19205813109874725,
0.2708727717399597,
-0.6465011239051819,
-0.15687936544418335,
0.03664274513721466,
-0.5043114423751831,
0.7835459113121033,
0.12278763949871063,
0.21351739764213562,
-0.32306474447250366,
-0.24163632094860077,
-0.2047274112701416,
0.001207843073643744,
-0.33807259798049927,
0.4330744445323944,
-0.04615278169512749,
0.03718123212456703,
0.5261911749839783,
0.16878536343574524,
-0.003213054733350873,
0.24119403958320618,
0.3312617540359497,
0.7443928718566895,
-0.43459558486938477,
0.14657290279865265,
0.22214742004871368,
-0.06688286364078522,
-0.2534889280796051,
-0.42332297563552856,
0.03311337158083916,
-0.5216996669769287,
0.6116992831230164,
0.6281682252883911,
-0.0763690248131752,
0.34735721349716187,
-0.6060801148414612,
0.25491711497306824,
-0.7192267775535583,
-0.6656497716903687,
0.03197031468153,
-0.09537716209888458,
-0.49905332922935486,
-0.652515172958374,
-0.6293544173240662,
0.7350705862045288,
0.46328607201576233,
-0.5491387844085693,
0.11006693542003632,
-0.08923963457345963,
0.35996395349502563,
-0.25365588068962097,
-0.4013199806213379,
0.04354339838027954,
-0.5149998664855957,
0.15446968376636505,
-0.16860657930374146,
-0.07418317347764969,
-0.000158233757247217,
0.18494217097759247,
0.20027998089790344,
0.21694910526275635,
0.26460522413253784,
-0.13195598125457764,
-0.09676947444677353,
0.4955648183822632,
-0.30876192450523376,
-0.09302540123462677,
0.5483502149581909,
-0.4133089482784271,
-0.1305096596479416,
-0.09004832059144974,
-5.861194133758545,
-0.009343787096440792,
-0.027483439072966576,
-0.1862497180700302,
-0.13435806334018707,
0.5396162271499634,
0.5581554770469666,
-0.0005244865897111595,
-0.3217584788799286,
0.18722490966320038,
-0.11549287289381027,
0.12538637220859528,
-0.2684468924999237,
0.5869139432907104,
0.6308327913284302,
-0.06708492338657379,
-0.20723392069339752,
-0.19635406136512756,
-0.3880769610404968,
0.020738961175084114,
0.1978061944246292,
0.4227743148803711,
0.12640002369880676,
1.1634784936904907,
-0.18127597868442535,
-0.29664847254753113,
-0.21065622568130493,
-0.12279757112264633,
-0.05728771537542343,
-0.1987820863723755,
0.5728597044944763,
0.44246092438697815,
-0.1210516169667244,
0.07779252529144287,
-0.0971483662724495,
0.2687438130378723,
0.5353437662124634,
-0.6584557890892029,
0.49340981245040894,
-0.1623603254556656,
0.13231422007083893,
0.83888179063797,
0.07875517010688782,
-0.3532845377922058,
0.10888144373893738,
-0.4979677200317383,
-0.01789061538875103,
0.02789413556456566,
-0.6998011469841003,
0.15640728175640106,
-0.4047680199146271,
-0.2863638699054718,
-0.02709331177175045,
-0.10495126992464066,
0.10808311402797699,
-0.22268018126487732,
0.06511790305376053,
0.2402181625366211,
-0.6487864851951599,
0.14741724729537964,
0.2000909149646759,
0.30863261222839355,
0.11803947389125824,
-0.44211751222610474,
-0.44259029626846313,
-0.14291997253894806,
-1.1036369800567627,
-0.23668254911899567,
0.6165722012519836,
-0.01241818256676197,
-0.48293745517730713,
-0.05675964429974556,
0.031432222574949265,
-1.0051392316818237,
0.4033379554748535,
-0.021024486050009727,
-0.2504863739013672,
-0.07467102259397507,
0.13701623678207397,
0.9149590730667114,
-0.15520299971103668,
-0.4184296429157257,
-0.6026144027709961,
0.31180915236473083,
-0.32488781213760376,
-1.0213483572006226,
-0.3007466495037079,
-0.24491775035858154,
-0.43461596965789795,
-0.034665949642658234,
1.2415522336959839,
0.010129294358193874,
0.29599660634994507,
-0.09089305996894836,
0.4067598283290863,
0.9298341870307922,
-0.11784102022647858,
0.16641120612621307,
-0.1346573680639267,
-0.08077656477689743,
0.28942060470581055,
0.10446587949991226,
0.5381009578704834,
0.1115187257528305,
0.3720642328262329,
-0.2663287818431854,
-0.6204503178596497,
-0.07648710906505585,
1.1586055755615234,
-0.35911184549331665,
-0.11198299378156662,
0.2065240740776062,
-0.38428592681884766,
0.25177517533302307,
0.2925364673137665,
0.11898628622293472,
0.007182991597801447,
0.2658451795578003,
0.3157237470149994,
0.08598467707633972,
0.05584228038787842,
0.14328771829605103,
-0.19909724593162537,
-0.4500521123409271,
-0.46481069922447205,
-0.24980483949184418,
-0.07769439369440079,
0.04289406165480614,
0.08920146524906158,
0.19722358882427216,
0.6513991951942444,
0.3440859317779541,
-0.20951521396636963,
-0.36602479219436646,
0.09979401528835297,
0.21170423924922943,
-0.22546568512916565,
-0.2985129952430725,
-0.6435515880584717,
-0.6770283579826355,
0.4686645269393921,
-0.6420183181762695,
-0.1908615678548813,
0.2589922249317169,
0.5905712246894836,
-0.22945138812065125,
0.11428681015968323,
-0.3764914274215698,
0.15972121059894562,
0.534658670425415,
0.13493075966835022,
0.34461501240730286,
0.4009770452976227,
-0.547264039516449,
-0.380074679851532,
0.18330730497837067,
0.25100475549697876,
0.20319707691669464,
-0.1449422985315323,
-0.35844388604164124,
-0.2540231943130493,
-0.10283096134662628,
-0.8967103362083435,
-0.029056666418910027,
0.050182390958070755,
-0.24818705022335052,
-1.0069122314453125,
-0.2298523336648941,
0.22168268263339996,
0.20638370513916016,
0.11078496277332306,
-0.036511026322841644,
-0.4158744513988495,
-0.22804047167301178,
0.013058977201581001,
0.322270005941391,
-0.07794664800167084,
0.02425442449748516,
-0.7117072343826294,
-0.5597864389419556,
0.049091633409261703,
-0.6035414934158325,
0.006527346093207598,
0.08856450766324997,
0.8301226496696472,
-0.4627493619918823,
0.029015934094786644,
0.15550024807453156,
0.0931379422545433,
-0.15019811689853668,
-0.5231590867042542,
0.09927410632371902,
0.5764501094818115,
0.13712026178836823,
-0.35524797439575195,
-0.23068372905254364,
0.07123135775327682,
0.7596786618232727,
-0.08191453665494919,
-0.6199742555618286,
-0.01720387302339077,
-0.24976091086864471,
-0.6976144313812256,
-0.12799181044101715,
0.5863989591598511,
-1.0002342462539673,
0.5403205156326294,
-0.47225266695022583,
-0.07028192281723022,
0.22229565680027008,
-0.1726192831993103,
-0.28217843174934387,
0.34612295031547546,
-0.24987126886844635,
-0.0018103530164808035,
0.02435723878443241,
-0.2948017418384552,
-0.4243679642677307,
-0.6817284822463989,
-0.4451872706413269,
-0.27060097455978394,
-0.2696468234062195,
-0.3622416853904724,
-0.12331987917423248,
-0.3392263948917389,
-0.8950667381286621,
0.21973030269145966,
-0.43089237809181213,
0.5148490071296692,
-0.03988037258386612,
0.34745708107948303,
0.3949699103832245,
0.13900792598724365,
0.1275903880596161,
-0.2478604018688202,
-0.3180748224258423,
-0.19297152757644653,
-0.049208950251340866,
0.14939101040363312,
-0.01373691949993372,
0.1858614683151245,
0.17624631524085999,
-0.17616461217403412,
-0.3333357572555542,
-0.4015365242958069,
0.3978765308856964,
0.36292564868927,
-0.4316820204257965,
-0.921163022518158,
0.08581561595201492,
0.4657773971557617,
-0.18893221020698547,
0.20104072988033295,
-0.4587385952472687,
-0.0814165323972702,
0.056947559118270874,
-0.07256180793046951,
-0.24379481375217438,
0.1186811700463295,
0.28081250190734863,
-0.10869559645652771,
0.030363885685801506,
-0.3678528070449829,
0.035390377044677734,
-0.26649582386016846,
0.0019262084970250726,
-0.1978030651807785,
-0.8241969347000122,
0.3159378468990326,
-0.5274242162704468,
0.8106394410133362,
0.27758121490478516,
0.4423621594905853,
0.3423556387424469,
-0.17488840222358704,
0.16374684870243073,
-0.37624403834342957,
-0.41547858715057373,
-0.29572784900665283,
-0.12734012305736542,
-0.17715735733509064,
-0.13471956551074982,
0.19838391244411469,
-0.0471690408885479,
0.30372732877731323,
-0.388802707195282,
0.16969187557697296,
-0.5579208135604858,
-0.1814662516117096,
-0.09144129604101181,
0.13152554631233215,
0.6202242970466614,
-0.1048271656036377,
0.239675834774971,
-0.19187088310718536,
0.2836010158061981,
-0.09711351990699768,
0.032106030732393265,
-0.18633954226970673,
-0.25813382863998413,
-0.5330820083618164,
0.18969665467739105,
0.46443572640419006,
-0.777700662612915,
0.29439160227775574,
0.5992192625999451,
0.3415505290031433,
-0.05841967836022377,
-0.019840899854898453,
-0.471269428730011,
-0.1021772101521492,
0.3521871268749237,
0.05965627357363701,
0.5757192969322205,
-0.23442892730236053,
0.4253756105899811,
0.1954607516527176,
-0.24444399774074554,
0.6900304555892944,
0.6565525531768799,
0.46236899495124817,
-0.12507310509681702,
0.42303600907325745,
-0.4430319368839264,
-0.5199330449104309,
0.4422927796840668,
-0.5460214614868164,
0.29459497332572937,
0.42612114548683167,
0.32374706864356995,
0.8383395671844482,
0.32278531789779663,
0.1257023811340332,
-0.00583428330719471,
0.24677038192749023,
-0.7044268846511841,
0.1608140617609024,
0.11417680978775024,
-0.4689865708351135,
0.6810659766197205,
0.0994241014122963,
0.31814590096473694,
0.23149211704730988,
-0.261796772480011,
-0.1562906950712204,
0.6265709400177002,
0.1986805945634842,
0.9237656593322754,
-0.5991963744163513,
0.308967649936676,
0.10023454576730728,
0.0799991637468338,
-0.05129106715321541,
-0.09410042315721512,
0.23982977867126465,
-0.6321876049041748,
-0.03397475555539131,
-0.25256696343421936,
-0.22449856996536255,
0.1723426729440689,
-0.004537785425782204,
0.2700961232185364,
0.5254866480827332,
0.14352628588676453,
-0.3806907832622528,
0.5300975441932678,
0.17651750147342682,
-0.21739767491817474,
0.2905396819114685,
-0.2810177803039551,
0.05322009697556496,
0.1246480941772461,
-0.29011914134025574,
0.7784428596496582,
-0.24099458754062653,
-0.18226806819438934,
0.7321203351020813,
0.5013613700866699,
-0.2329501509666443,
-0.14349320530891418,
-0.39573946595191956,
-0.026312125846743584,
-0.23669423162937164,
-0.310770183801651,
0.19325239956378937,
0.19203808903694153,
-0.06673935055732727,
0.2360355705022812,
-0.44253864884376526,
0.0918109118938446,
0.45205074548721313,
-0.13650546967983246,
0.11423865705728531,
-0.013617782853543758,
-0.12864020466804504,
0.2702556550502777,
0.030545253306627274,
0.704298734664917,
0.07741659134626389,
-0.4626487195491791,
0.09601250290870667,
0.5461448431015015,
0.6419908404350281,
0.5074443817138672,
-1.2035385370254517,
0.28873440623283386,
-0.2456020563840866,
-0.34470874071121216,
-0.5546200275421143,
0.12035690248012543,
0.3142333924770355,
0.06975556164979935,
-0.0438719317317009,
-0.13401325047016144,
0.26299309730529785,
0.03151195868849754,
0.578446090221405,
0.4233235716819763,
-0.04546615853905678,
-0.5155425071716309,
0.12010788172483444,
0.08967196941375732,
0.5347234010696411,
0.1487138569355011,
0.028547167778015137,
-0.23067855834960938,
0.32390066981315613,
0.029818780720233917,
-0.4186531901359558,
0.10408634692430496,
-0.5869725346565247,
-0.12966088950634003,
-0.30748695135116577,
0.8374184370040894,
-0.39181703329086304,
-0.5684764981269836,
0.0020916638895869255,
0.3164798319339752,
-0.14262594282627106,
0.07914461940526962,
-0.4050697982311249,
-0.2720504403114319,
-0.1581135243177414,
0.16512157022953033,
-0.24904923141002655,
0.9580183625221252,
0.32278895378112793,
-0.5312575101852417,
-0.46209099888801575,
-0.3398004472255707,
0.11652731895446777,
-0.6554309725761414,
-0.1082882434129715,
0.07053232192993164,
0.2748413383960724,
-0.2625904381275177,
0.1375628411769867,
-0.3350409269332886,
-0.1335773915052414,
0.41664597392082214
] |
261058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misamis%20Oriental | Misamis Oriental | Misamis Oriental (; ) is a province located in the region of Northern Mindanao in the Philippines. Its capital, largest city and provincial center is the city of Cagayan de Oro, which is governed independently from the province.
History
In the 16th century, the people of the territory were obliged to pay tribute to Muslim rulers as the regional powerhouses converted to the Muslim faith. Lumads on the coast started converting into Islam or were displaced by other ethnic groups that converted earlier. Those in the interior retained their native faiths.
Province of Cebu
Misamis Oriental shared a history with Misamis Occidental of being part of the Province of Cebu during the Spanish colonial era. In 1818, Misamis was carved out from Cebu to become a separate province with Cagayan de Misamis (Cagayan de Oro) as its capital, and was further subdivided into partidos or divisions: Partido de Cagayan (Division of Cagayan), Partido de Catarman (Division of Catarman), Partido de Dapitan (Division of Dapitan), and Partido de Misamis (Division of Misamis). The new Misamis province was part of the districts of Mindanao during the later part of the 19th Century, with its territory spanning from Dapitan to the west, Gingoog to the East, and as far as Lanao and Cotabato to the south.
Misamis is one of the Spanish-controlled territories vulnerable to Moro raids. The Fuerza de la Concepcion y del Triunfo in Ozamiz was built as a Spanish military installation and one of the staging points in their expeditions against Moros. A fort in Balo-i in present-day Lanao del Norte was also constructed in 1891 on the orders of General Valeriano Weyler in its renewed campaign against the Maranaos. The Fuerza de San Miguel in Iligan was also built, serving as a muster point for Spanish forces in their campaigns in Lanao.
Misamis province
With the organization of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu in 1917, Misamis lost a territory covering Iligan and coastal towns along Iligan and Panguil bays to become part of the Lanao province, making the remaining western and eastern territories of Misamis isolated from each other. Highland areas south of Cagayan de Misamis down to Malaybalay area were carved out to become a sub-province of Bukidnon in 1914, then eventually a full province in 1917.
Legislative Act. No. 3537 approved on 2 November 1929, divided the province of Misamis into two due to the lack of geographic contiguity. It was not until a decade later, on 28 November 1939, that the division between Misamis Oriental and Misamis Occidental was implemented by Act. No. 3777. When Misamis Oriental separated, Don Gregorio Pelaez became its first governor.
World War II
In 1942, at the onset of World War II in the Philippines, Japanese soldiers landed in Misamis Oriental to occupy the region. Filipino and American resistance guerrillas operated in the hills and forests of Misamis Oriental and Bukidnon, and both provinces fell under the jurisdiction of the 10th Military District commanded by Col. Wendell Fertig.
The American liberation forces landed in Cagayan in May 1945, with the support of the Filipino and American guerrillas based in Opol, Gingoog, and Tagoloan clearing the beachhead of Japanese defenders for the liberation forces to land.
Modern history
Subsequent creations of new local government units in the province occurred after the war. Opol and El Salvador were barangays of Cagayan, but due to their relative isolation from the Cagayan town proper, the residents petitioned for their separation to become municipalities in 1948. El Salvador became a municipality within the said year, while Opol was carved out from Cagayan in 1950, the same year the latter was chartered to become a city. Lagonglong was organized as a separate municipality out of the 11 sitios of Balingasag which were then grouped into 5 barangays. Villanueva was created out of the 5 barrios of Tagoloan in 1962, and the municipality of Libertad out of the 6 barrios of Initao in 1963.
The island of Camiguin was part of the province, and in 1958 it was made into a sub-province. The island eventually separated from Misamis Oriental and achieved regular province status in 1966, with Mambajao as its new provincial capital.
In May 2014 it was reported that an area in Barangay Lapad in Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental, in northern Mindanao, was declared a heritage site. Oyster fossils older than 200,000 years were discovered, according to Balita Pilipinas. Property owner, Raul Ilogon, told Balita Pilipinas that they had been seeing the fossils for 20 years thinking that they were ordinary rocks.
Geography
Located in Northern Mindanao, the province borders Bukidnon to the south, Agusan del Norte to the east and Lanao del Norte to the west. On the north is the Bohol Sea with the island-province of Camiguin just off its northern coast.
Misamis Oriental occupies a total land area of . When the independent city of Cagayan de Oro is included for geographical purposes, the province's land area is .
Misamis Oriental, as a coastal province, is dominated by two bays to the north; the Macajalar and the Gingoog Bay. The central portion of the province features several rivers originating from the highlands of Bukidnon, such as the Cagayan.
Administrative divisions
Misamis Oriental comprises 23 municipalities and 2 component cities, which are organized into two legislative districts and further subdivided into 424 barangays. The provincial capital, Cagayan de Oro, is a highly urbanized city that is administered independently from the province.
Demographics
The population of Misamis Oriental in the was people, with a density of . When Cagayan de Oro City is included for geographical purposes, the province's population is 1,564,459 people, with a density of .
Language
Cebuano is the primary spoken language of the province, with the vast majority claiming it to be their mother tongue. Many are fluent in Tagalog and English, which are mainly used for business, education, and administration. Maranao is also spoken among the Maranao communities within the province. Other languages that may be heard in the province include Higaonon and Subanon.
Religion
Roman Catholicism predominates in the province with roughly 68% of the population. Other Christian denominations compose most of the minority religions that forms 9% of the Population with 28% belongs Iglesia Filipina Independiente while Islam has a small but steadily increasing number.
Economy
The province is host to industries such as agricultural, forest, steel, metal, chemical, mineral, rubber and food processing. It is home to the 30 square kilometre PHIVIDEC Industrial Estate and the Mindanao International Container Port, all in Tagoloan. Del Monte Philippines, which exports pineapples all over the Asia-Pacific region, has a processing plant in Cagayan de Oro.
On January 10, 2008, Hanjin Heavy Industries and Construction Company of South Korea inked a contract to build a $2 billion shipyard building complex at Villanueva, Misamis Oriental with the PHIVIDEC Industrial Authority. It is bigger than Hanjin's $1 billion shipyard complex in Subic and Olongapo which will hire 20,000 Filipinos to manufacture ship parts. The government declared the 441.8-hectare project site an economic zone (part of 3,000-hectare industrial estate managed by PHIVIDEC).
Government
Executive officials
Congressmen:
1st District of Misamis Oriental with Gingoog City: Christian Unabia (Lakas–CMD)
2nd District of Misamis Oriental with El Salvador City: Juliette T. Uy (NUP)
Governor: Yevgeny Vicente B. Emano (Nacionalista Party)
Vice Governor: Jigjag G. Pelaez (UNA)
Members of the Sangguniang Panlalawigan
1st District:
Benedict P. Lagbas (Liberal Party)
Vincent K. Pelaez (Liberal Party)
Virgelia F. Dumadag (Independent)
Jabi Abing I. Bernaldez (Liberal Party)
Roldan A. Lagbas (Nacionalista Party)
2nd District:
Hernando Enan "Manok" V. Emano (United Nationalist Alliance)
Mercy Grace "Gagay" J. Acain (Nacionalista Party)
Nancy S. Madjos (Nacionalista Party)
Emmanuel S. Mugot (Liberal Party)
Boris Olivier H. Actub (Liberal Party)
See also
Misamis Occidental
Misamis
References
External links
Official website of the Province of Misamis Oriental
Philippine Standard Geographic Code
Local Governance Performance Management System
Provinces of the Philippines
Northern Mindanao
States and territories established in 1939
1939 establishments in the Philippines | [
-0.5717254281044006,
0.16031697392463684,
-0.05771375074982643,
0.09056425839662552,
-0.19960202276706696,
-0.0759282186627388,
0.14140230417251587,
1.0743392705917358,
-0.37238427996635437,
-0.44867461919784546,
-0.6288983225822449,
0.41366609930992126,
-0.05984675511717796,
-0.04759261757135391,
-0.02335919812321663,
0.7755522131919861,
0.45432230830192566,
0.3008023500442505,
-0.34584179520606995,
-0.5271656513214111,
-0.33177343010902405,
-0.691947340965271,
0.42566120624542236,
-0.10382767766714096,
0.9415451288223267,
-0.06251531839370728,
0.18237490952014923,
0.9001744389533997,
0.5615888833999634,
-0.12043741345405579,
-0.14069129526615143,
0.05825161188840866,
-0.425223708152771,
0.02944462187588215,
-0.07637833058834076,
0.422122985124588,
-0.19360801577568054,
-0.3495306074619293,
-0.26873579621315,
-0.018147097900509834,
0.2863057553768158,
0.02481219358742237,
0.14576244354248047,
0.2899427115917206,
0.5866194367408752,
-0.7500788569450378,
-1.3946328163146973,
0.9539599418640137,
-0.7864465117454529,
0.23535332083702087,
-1.0071218013763428,
0.9682343006134033,
-0.17361411452293396,
-0.12921401858329773,
-0.2716671824455261,
0.6783903241157532,
-0.8258159160614014,
0.3946026861667633,
-0.3100230395793915,
0.020045170560479164,
0.12464901059865952,
0.5755079984664917,
-0.29165858030319214,
0.0242654737085104,
-0.5144391059875488,
0.10043329745531082,
0.24178819358348846,
0.22845299541950226,
-0.3314621150493622,
-0.5410304665565491,
0.1655053198337555,
0.8145065307617188,
0.01849505864083767,
0.3660757541656494,
-0.4015989303588867,
-0.7841799259185791,
-0.4056723415851593,
0.13917124271392822,
-0.5119367837905884,
0.13964024186134338,
0.0500570684671402,
0.18925465643405914,
0.367106556892395,
-0.3503907024860382,
0.4235170781612396,
0.0687827467918396,
-0.30779150128364563,
-0.3571508526802063,
-0.37388309836387634,
0.3916770815849304,
-0.057272154837846756,
-0.10401096194982529,
0.056633710861206055,
0.056416384875774384,
0.16016967594623566,
-1.0382949113845825,
-0.4326822757720947,
0.20876461267471313,
-0.3267154097557068,
0.3704764246940613,
-0.5668709874153137,
0.3382488191127777,
0.4561810791492462,
0.4049339294433594,
-0.31389179825782776,
-0.3986561596393585,
-0.09198431670665741,
-0.0688546895980835,
-0.7354854941368103,
-0.0039843181148171425,
-0.7813025116920471,
0.09877180308103561,
0.45644813776016235,
0.2007223218679428,
-0.2384229600429535,
-0.22453491389751434,
0.29771706461906433,
-0.12510846555233002,
0.18644972145557404,
-0.5558324456214905,
0.5025377869606018,
0.3520837128162384,
-0.45117655396461487,
0.2708645462989807,
0.48213157057762146,
-0.4021894633769989,
0.18863482773303986,
-0.3634190261363983,
-0.7214164733886719,
0.46647384762763977,
0.07262951135635376,
0.5549780130386353,
-0.4121148884296417,
0.49795952439308167,
0.1281493604183197,
-0.7721240520477295,
-0.4367797374725342,
0.8073378801345825,
0.1334172785282135,
-0.4655510187149048,
-1.3362312316894531,
-0.008421576581895351,
-0.8014408946037292,
-0.35302361845970154,
0.2793079614639282,
-0.6180931329727173,
-0.17278650403022766,
-0.9662997722625732,
-0.8973175883293152,
-0.7725030779838562,
0.48914167284965515,
0.21779093146324158,
-0.5466768741607666,
0.21404209733009338,
-0.3948912024497986,
0.17356209456920624,
0.9968518614768982,
-0.20956824719905853,
0.3702765703201294,
0.2771663963794708,
-0.35968726873397827,
-0.5080420970916748,
0.047058068215847015,
-0.4511920213699341,
-0.15816321969032288,
-0.1893254965543747,
0.48717787861824036,
1.423478603363037,
0.4450679421424866,
0.1744968742132187,
-0.37248295545578003,
-0.13493779301643372,
0.2531459927558899,
-0.6529504656791687,
0.13502593338489532,
-0.5853381752967834,
-0.18634118139743805,
0.2405170351266861,
-0.039518091827631,
-0.38012465834617615,
-0.7258064150810242,
0.7984876036643982,
-0.10190161317586899,
0.03617293760180473,
-0.0006888136849738657,
0.4223519265651703,
0.5583757162094116,
0.16492517292499542,
0.1642410159111023,
0.7619061470031738,
-0.16215777397155762,
-0.4520086944103241,
-0.005819397978484631,
-0.1925620287656784,
0.4296301603317261,
0.5893080234527588,
-0.15580162405967712,
0.40520989894866943,
-0.049446191638708115,
0.7641999125480652,
-0.24801351130008698,
-0.38170158863067627,
0.44011518359184265,
0.07741521298885345,
-0.039068158715963364,
0.4905596673488617,
0.3041155934333801,
0.5327076315879822,
0.5318692922592163,
1.3849364519119263,
0.03633091226220131,
-0.5272009372711182,
0.0963592380285263,
0.45266416668891907,
0.3311610221862793,
-0.6403766870498657,
0.007730133831501007,
-0.4439692795276642,
0.30287960171699524,
-0.33402907848358154,
0.33766165375709534,
0.47042813897132874,
-0.5017326474189758,
0.6570516228675842,
-0.12404413521289825,
0.7766624093055725,
0.3248121440410614,
0.4070456326007843,
0.7300274968147278,
-0.4657554626464844,
0.7927022576332092,
-0.25085142254829407,
0.6348404288291931,
-0.2528395354747772,
-0.4042610228061676,
0.03010355308651924,
-0.11602457612752914,
-0.5901647806167603,
0.38069677352905273,
-0.7005051374435425,
-0.10205473750829697,
0.20299199223518372,
-0.2727653384208679,
0.07824916392564774,
0.5496114492416382,
0.03475321829319,
-0.6267674565315247,
0.13302730023860931,
0.31621605157852173,
0.3173580765724182,
0.12399556487798691,
0.4339396357536316,
0.10241232067346573,
-0.20129652321338654,
-0.1808639019727707,
-0.05008730664849281,
-0.16580703854560852,
-0.15369044244289398,
0.4042724072933197,
-0.4518679082393646,
-0.4431460499763489,
0.2110229879617691,
0.23732207715511322,
0.37324753403663635,
-0.37458470463752747,
-0.143216073513031,
0.41560667753219604,
-0.36012548208236694,
0.04354749619960785,
-0.11023338884115219,
0.1274488866329193,
-0.20380599796772003,
-0.4409761428833008,
0.10128235071897507,
-0.20267410576343536,
-0.4981083571910858,
0.1200239509344101,
0.11921859532594681,
-0.9342174530029297,
-0.5908886790275574,
0.20351542532444,
0.870580792427063,
0.31541895866394043,
-0.40354976058006287,
-0.9837839007377625,
-0.037805620580911636,
0.22763369977474213,
-0.7826895117759705,
-0.34890779852867126,
0.40558922290802,
-0.03434230014681816,
-0.13664323091506958,
-0.3172836899757385,
0.5092235803604126,
-0.2067621350288391,
-0.4037882089614868,
-0.06535530835390091,
0.13378240168094635,
0.8184743523597717,
-1.2398791313171387,
-0.3119680881500244,
-0.00586686609312892,
-0.39597776532173157,
-0.14413383603096008,
0.05330495536327362,
0.14364643394947052,
-0.601471483707428,
0.49351322650909424,
-5.42858362197876,
-0.2867780029773712,
-0.2325608730316162,
-0.33052772283554077,
0.25549978017807007,
-0.6745034456253052,
-0.04814670979976654,
-0.5203062891960144,
0.12156026810407639,
0.02901541069149971,
0.24105216562747955,
-0.023598359897732735,
0.2752702832221985,
0.11081067472696304,
-0.08743610978126526,
0.32796213030815125,
-0.13000813126564026,
-0.018494335934519768,
-0.07059848308563232,
0.09922970086336136,
-0.10766918957233429,
-0.41603219509124756,
-0.07949443906545639,
0.8040962219238281,
0.5572484731674194,
0.6114563345909119,
-0.021593591198325157,
-0.6213296055793762,
-0.5305099487304688,
-0.15564393997192383,
0.08208910375833511,
-0.27538594603538513,
0.30973559617996216,
0.5608829259872437,
-0.2707699239253998,
-0.41197559237480164,
0.9937428832054138,
0.04875757917761803,
0.4641667604446411,
-0.11434242129325867,
0.045593541115522385,
-0.34558969736099243,
0.0761406272649765,
0.25260794162750244,
0.4121333956718445,
-0.3126125931739807,
-0.46288391947746277,
-0.4793599843978882,
0.3533647954463959,
0.7511746287345886,
0.6809316277503967,
0.08039461821317673,
-0.27242639660835266,
-0.06756079196929932,
0.32589903473854065,
0.07415305078029633,
0.4892459213733673,
-0.7675589919090271,
-0.7858436107635498,
0.3000416159629822,
0.8892642259597778,
0.14675293862819672,
-0.4683227837085724,
-0.2676805853843689,
0.03739684447646141,
0.1631694883108139,
0.1011577919125557,
-0.23673604428768158,
0.6795096397399902,
-0.03422217443585396,
-0.810016930103302,
0.09856230765581131,
-0.2529691755771637,
-0.5405138731002808,
-0.170742467045784,
0.1402154266834259,
-1.1121265888214111,
-0.06454154849052429,
-0.00973043218255043,
-0.09570444375276566,
-0.5312853455543518,
-0.12189902365207672,
0.11067233234643936,
0.5123374462127686,
-0.10596548020839691,
-0.7731221914291382,
0.15323005616664886,
0.14208030700683594,
-0.07376270741224289,
0.3635872006416321,
0.23704007267951965,
-0.40215834975242615,
0.8116486072540283,
0.21942278742790222,
-0.005020686890929937,
0.42370179295539856,
0.23752528429031372,
0.3435975909233093,
0.3843875527381897,
-0.640544593334198,
0.6121956706047058,
-0.37585318088531494,
0.027286633849143982,
0.5840939283370972,
-0.22504082322120667,
-0.491027295589447,
0.2193625420331955,
0.4014882743358612,
0.25441789627075195,
-0.2759774327278137,
-0.10123363137245178,
0.04236443713307381,
-0.5470218062400818,
0.12269279360771179,
0.41194412112236023,
-0.10824325680732727,
-0.31678879261016846,
-0.040068745613098145,
0.06861141324043274,
0.31595849990844727,
0.02544037438929081,
-0.018007203936576843,
-0.3658503592014313,
0.800203263759613,
-0.4135296940803528,
-0.41044679284095764,
-0.14684247970581055,
0.6439543962478638,
0.31346359848976135,
0.04317760840058327,
0.5839188694953918,
-0.5829254388809204,
0.5269619226455688,
-0.377450168132782,
0.170009046792984,
-0.2809505760669708,
0.1963772028684616,
-0.3258383274078369,
0.0932702049612999,
-0.3470099866390228,
0.31728363037109375,
-0.18012847006320953,
-0.24138395488262177,
0.3042781949043274,
0.021633198484778404,
-0.20146402716636658,
-0.10808807611465454,
-0.639763593673706,
-0.6129910945892334,
0.232915997505188,
-0.3569870591163635,
-0.8541622161865234,
-0.10419032722711563,
-0.10776021331548691,
-0.4992116093635559,
-0.10287472605705261,
0.22829638421535492,
0.08958856016397476,
0.0785338506102562,
-0.3029623329639435,
0.35778334736824036,
-0.652825117111206,
-0.45009660720825195,
0.06188669800758362,
-0.23906007409095764,
-0.2956535816192627,
0.19813677668571472,
-0.18380007147789001,
-0.45615947246551514,
0.9453338384628296,
0.3320537507534027,
-0.3728261888027191,
-0.39279669523239136,
-0.3019871115684509,
0.4111049771308899,
-0.4991212785243988,
0.282365620136261,
0.4622246026992798,
0.04917171224951744,
0.24115078151226044,
-0.25689929723739624,
-0.2872657775878906,
-0.27056753635406494,
0.7072010636329651,
0.5336092114448547,
-0.40015897154808044,
-0.6768824458122253,
-0.38440293073654175,
-0.6108531951904297,
-0.4926137924194336,
0.6550798416137695,
0.16310182213783264,
-0.29085299372673035,
0.3579559326171875,
-0.30803239345550537,
0.16894479095935822,
-0.22210709750652313,
0.30129826068878174,
0.16052928566932678,
0.20732493698596954,
-0.22601041197776794,
0.43383848667144775,
-0.23523209989070892,
0.3485121726989746,
-0.24849463999271393,
-0.3950358033180237,
0.509390115737915,
0.24153484404087067,
-0.5840526819229126,
-0.22132541239261627,
-0.6497727632522583,
-0.4104391932487488,
-0.11852268129587173,
0.18226464092731476,
-0.30852261185646057,
0.011192486621439457,
0.3158520758152008,
-0.3184683620929718,
-0.23535948991775513,
-0.3473879098892212,
-0.6182531118392944,
0.16414251923561096,
0.38537684082984924,
0.017907466739416122,
-0.005682990420609713,
1.0118571519851685,
0.31339460611343384,
-0.7522186040878296,
0.49702179431915283,
-0.12053648382425308,
0.4449518620967865,
-0.041358623653650284,
0.7333320379257202,
0.21026615798473358,
-0.1646713763475418,
0.29282262921333313,
0.22065433859825134,
0.2554073631763458,
0.18264123797416687,
0.6976367831230164,
0.43661701679229736,
0.41826462745666504,
-0.22482647001743317,
-0.4045533835887909,
-0.0836087018251419,
0.3425992429256439,
0.1240159124135971,
-0.4398253262042999,
-0.28375500440597534,
0.27529048919677734,
0.33751168847084045,
-0.3271839916706085,
0.09507133811712265,
0.17764568328857422,
0.7953572869300842,
-0.41634896397590637,
-0.1200014054775238,
0.41772863268852234,
0.20516738295555115,
0.12940488755702972,
0.23573686182498932,
0.06820598244667053,
0.1466432511806488,
0.09810838103294373,
0.15615959465503693,
-0.22303828597068787,
-0.6037800312042236,
-0.33599531650543213,
0.5496573448181152,
0.5886397957801819,
-0.3980403244495392,
-0.06677119433879852,
0.3954734802246094,
0.1087496429681778,
0.27915629744529724,
-0.1311521679162979,
0.002982084872201085,
-0.45885854959487915,
-0.11388751119375229,
-0.40839648246765137,
-1.0613816976547241,
-0.47976088523864746,
-0.482676237821579,
-0.6935226917266846,
-0.02971627004444599,
-0.6255013346672058,
0.15221592783927917,
0.21231873333454132,
-0.46198558807373047,
0.4419758915901184,
-0.02568109706044197,
-0.25701022148132324,
0.2417651116847992,
-0.40093928575515747,
-0.3719191253185272,
-0.13328053057193756,
-0.3109796345233917,
0.590531051158905,
-0.03964042663574219,
0.21845975518226624,
-0.7922601699829102,
0.06483139842748642,
0.33586159348487854,
0.2273942232131958,
-0.07859788089990616,
-0.35209423303604126,
0.40345799922943115,
-0.3831782639026642,
-0.07542721927165985,
-0.15075458586215973,
0.26945191621780396,
0.207830548286438,
0.15083974599838257,
0.5410994291305542,
-0.25249889492988586,
0.8708860874176025,
0.8416303992271423,
-0.5118557810783386,
-0.2565561830997467,
0.9437981247901917,
0.3041122555732727,
-0.17801028490066528,
0.21016710996627808,
0.40878456830978394,
0.18643276393413544,
1.0880539417266846,
-0.13944344222545624,
-0.644597053527832,
0.33824706077575684,
0.16840797662734985,
0.19983601570129395,
0.10424964874982834,
-0.5316004157066345,
0.45773929357528687,
-0.21680524945259094,
-0.7385446429252625,
-0.04848514869809151,
-0.6081634759902954,
0.19626957178115845,
0.36203134059906006,
0.769188404083252,
0.7766265869140625,
-0.45111796259880066,
-0.040464285761117935,
0.13282562792301178,
0.21108785271644592,
0.5475655794143677,
-0.06490939855575562,
0.2023075968027115,
-0.3967714011669159,
0.40156763792037964,
0.38605058193206787,
0.49637383222579956,
0.0779254287481308,
0.27500787377357483,
0.6014708876609802,
0.020386740565299988,
-0.2981351912021637,
-0.45823368430137634,
-0.19575996696949005,
0.3229859173297882,
-0.024684704840183258,
-0.21759332716464996,
-0.13556627929210663,
-0.10642131417989731,
-0.4870212972164154,
0.09442504495382309,
0.31595557928085327,
-0.8161598443984985,
0.10738038271665573,
-0.13366101682186127,
0.3669513463973999,
-0.1290053278207779,
-0.3631094694137573,
0.1185782179236412,
0.8544850945472717,
-0.056771475821733475,
0.6232849955558777,
-0.443363755941391,
0.18736499547958374,
0.11747211962938309,
0.16174031794071198,
0.21301308274269104,
-0.845198929309845,
0.48103708028793335,
0.16451898217201233,
0.5751122832298279,
-0.08030552417039871,
-0.11515365540981293,
0.5506674647331238,
0.23383180797100067,
-0.37080463767051697,
-0.5036938786506653,
0.14244326949119568,
0.22822299599647522,
-0.45414578914642334,
-0.45909950137138367,
1.0871649980545044,
0.4927375614643097,
-0.33629027009010315,
0.4846397042274475,
-0.1805935502052307,
0.38350582122802734,
0.0164166409522295,
-0.5720118880271912,
-0.23284494876861572,
0.2060135304927826,
0.3482170104980469,
-0.8130372762680054,
-0.2044159471988678,
0.33126166462898254,
0.34264424443244934,
0.2652507722377777,
0.09292008727788925,
-0.5167965888977051,
0.031897593289613724,
0.08136330544948578,
-0.4152483642101288,
0.4121007025241852,
0.039266519248485565,
0.530753493309021,
-0.43079325556755066,
-0.7148323655128479,
0.7555738091468811,
-0.2811424732208252,
-0.11085165292024612,
-0.1368280053138733,
0.8718387484550476,
-0.6965945363044739,
0.6503291130065918,
0.41064777970314026,
-0.2597842514514923,
-0.6663916110992432,
0.48680052161216736,
0.10972144454717636,
0.12079396098852158,
0.3480842113494873,
0.18737249076366425,
0.16303806006908417,
-0.11997358500957489,
-0.23071761429309845,
-0.4671804904937744,
0.19039484858512878,
-0.3922334611415863,
0.17636147141456604,
-0.5761368870735168,
-0.32979053258895874,
-0.06202663481235504,
-0.8046149015426636,
0.7311316132545471,
0.06446243077516556,
-0.020139586180448532,
0.38689059019088745,
-0.1912122219800949,
-0.22466468811035156,
0.08903530240058899,
0.19336286187171936,
-0.30845457315444946,
0.4332999587059021,
-0.02913992665708065
] |
261059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone%20Thugs-n-Harmony | Bone Thugs-n-Harmony | Bone Thugs-N-Harmony is an American hip hop group consisting of rappers Bizzy Bone, Wish Bone, Layzie Bone, Krayzie Bone, and Flesh-n-Bone. The group was signed to Ruthless Records in late 1993, when they debuted with their EP Creepin on ah Come Up. The EP included their breakout hit single "Thuggish Ruggish Bone". In 1995, the group released its second album E. 1999 Eternal, which included hits "1st of tha Month" and "East 1999". Their hit song "Tha Crossroads", a tribute to then-recently deceased Eazy-E, won a Grammy Award in 1997.
The Art of War, the group's third album, was released in 1997. In 2000, BTNHResurrection reached platinum in one month, while 2002's Thug World Order received more moderate sales and promotion, going gold and peaking at 3 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. After that album, the group went on hiatus from their label and released their sixth studio album, Thug Stories, independently in 2006. In 2007 they had another major-label release, Strength & Loyalty, on Swizz Beatz's label Full Surface Records. Bone Thugs-N-Harmony "officially" returned with their 2010 album Uni5: The World's Enemy, released by their own record label, BTNH Worldwide, with distribution by Warner Bros.
The group is regarded as one of the greatest hip hop acts of all time. Bone Thugs-n-Harmony is the only group that has worked with 2Pac, the Notorious B.I.G., Eazy-E, and Big Pun while they were all still alive. About.com ranked them 12 on its list of the 25 Best Rap Groups of All Time, and MTV called them "the most melodic hip-hop group of all time."
Due to conflicts within the group, longtime members Krayzie Bone and Wish Bone officially left the group in April 2011 to work with their independent label The Life Entertainment. They later returned, officially re-unifying the group. In August 2013, however, Layzie Bone announced that he was stepping aside to work more on his solo career. In the same month, BTNH signed with eOne Entertainment (formerly known as Koch Records), with whom they had previously partnered to release 2006's Thug Stories. Layzie Bone has since re-united with the group, and they toured in 2018.
History
1993: B.O.N.E. Enterprise early years
Formed in Cleveland, Ohio in 1991, the group was originally called "Band Aid Boys". They then formed B.O.N.E. Enterpri$e, which consisted of four members—Krayzie Bone, Layzie Bone, Bizzy Bone, and Wish Bone (all except for Flesh-n-Bone)—and recorded an album titled Faces of Death in the studio of their then-mentor, Kermit Henderson on his indie label Stoney Burke in 1993. Like so many aspiring rappers around the country, they put in calls to executives at record companies, hoping to find someone who would listen. In hopes of securing a record deal, the group was given an audition over the phone, receiving an unfulfilled promise from rapper Eazy-E to call them back. Determined to reach him, they scrounged together the money for one-way bus tickets to Los Angeles. They left for a three-day Greyhound trek and spent four months on the city streets, putting in frequent calls to find him. Nothing came of their search except the news that Eazy-E was, in fact, on his way to Cleveland for a show.
The quartet returned to Ohio, where Diego Blak (born Diego Hodge), a marketer and promoter who had been co-executive producer of Faces Of Death, introduced them to Eazy-E at a concert he promoted in Compton. There, on November 2, 1993, they auditioned for Eazy in his dressing room; Krayzie performed his verse of "Flow Motion" from the Faces of Death album, and Eazy was impressed. B.O.N.E Enterpri$e then traveled back to Los Angeles after the Cleveland show to seal the deal. At this point, Eazy renamed them Thugs-N-Harmony, but as they wanted to keep the Bone name, they made their name Bone Thugs-N-Harmony. Eazy signed the group (minus Flesh-n-Bone) to his label Ruthless Records.
1994: Creepin on ah Come Up
Released in June 1994, Creepin on ah Come Up was Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's debut with Ruthless. The album's subject matter was focused almost entirely on violent criminal activity. Peaking at 12 on the Billboard Top 200 Albums chart and 2 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, it included the hit singles "Thuggish Ruggish Bone" and "Foe tha Love of $", the second of which featured a verse by Eazy-E. "Thuggish Ruggish Bone" peaked at 20 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and 2 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart, and "Foe tha Love of $" peaked at 39 on the Hot 100 and 4 on Rap Tracks. After a slow start that saw the album's success limited to gangsta rap audiences, it broke through to the mainstream. The EP marked a major change in style for the group, as they now fully embraced the G-funk common in West Coast hip hop of the time. Beats were supplied by DJ Yella, Rhythum D, and Kenny McCloud, and it was the group's first collaboration with newcomer producer DJ U-Neek, who would craft the group's signature sound by producing the majority of their next two albums. For over a year, Eazy-E nurtured their career, continuing to serve as their executive producer and teaching them the business skills he had taught himself over the years. The growing relationship was cut short, however, when Eazy-E died on March 26, 1995, from complications from AIDS-related pneumonia. Briefly, the young rappers thought they had lost everything with the loss of their friend and mentor. However, the group's potential was apparent, and Ruthless Records continued to support them.
1995–96: E. 1999 Eternal
In 1995, the group's second album, E. 1999 Eternal, was released. It included the singles "1st of tha Month", which peaked at 12 on the Hot 100 and 4 on Hot Rap Tracks, and "Tha Crossroads", which reached 1 on both the Hot 100 and Hot Rap Tracks charts. The album generally saw positive reviews from critics as Bone had diversified its content and musical style. Critics were particularly intrigued by the album due to Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's ability to reduce the banality associated with gangsta rap in their music at a time when the subgenre had become exceedingly cliché. A considerable portion of the album's concept was built upon violent subject matter, yet they also incorporated deeper themes, as its songs dealt with more spirituality and occult mysticism. The album was produced by DJ U-Neek (with co-production from Tony C. and Kenny McCloud). E. 1999 Eternal also introduced Bone's trademark tracks devoted entirely to the use of marijuana. The album name originated from one of the street names of a corner (E. 99th street and St. Clair) that was a familiar hangout to Bone members, as well as Eazy-E's album Eternal E. Naming it after Eazy-E's album was just another way of showing respect and tribute to the rapper who had helped them reach success. Also in 1995, Flesh-n-Bone would become the first member of the group to release a debut album, titled T.H.U.G.S, which was certified gold by the RIAA. In 1996, due to their success, the Cleveland clan established their own label, Mo Thugs Records, and released the Family Scriptures compilation album to introduce many of the Cleveland-based and other artists whom they were developing. E. 1999 Eternal is the group's most commercially successful album; it has been certified 4x platinum by the RIAA.
There were plans for Bone Thugs-N-Harmony to collaborate with West Coast rapper 2Pac on a studio album titled One Nation. The project brought hip hop artists from all areas of the American map such as Boot Camp Clik, OutKast, Scarface, E-40, and more. However, 2Pac was shot and killed in September 1996 so the album never came into fruition. Bootlegs of songs produced while 2Pac was still alive have been distributed.
1997–2001: The Art of War and BTNHResurrection
In 1997, the group released the double-disc set The Art of War. Bone explored a variety of subjects and styles, with focus on God and family and an overall ambient, mellow sound. The group incorporated violent lyrics, however, with a large portion of the album dedicated to what they labeled "clones" who claimed Bone had stolen their quick-tongued rapping style and vice versa. The album had been rumored to be titled "DNA Level C" which is Cleveland backwards. The single "Look into My Eyes" appeared on the soundtrack of the film Batman & Robin. It peaked at 4 on the Hot 100 and 2 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart. "If I Could Teach the World", the other single from The Art of War, peaked at 20 on the Hot 100 and 3 on the Hot Rap Tracks, and won an American Music Award. The album also included "Thug Luv" with Tupac Shakur. The group's promotional efforts were dampened by the absence of Bizzy Bone from the album's videos and from large portions of the ensuing tour and other public appearances. This absence eventually fueled rumors of a break-up.
In 2000, Bone Thugs-N-Harmony released BTNHResurrection, featuring the single "Resurrection (Paper, Paper)", which peaked on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart at 52. The album's first half featured a slew of hardcore and dark tracks, with the second half being considerably more introspective and soft. Other singles from the album, including "Can't Give it Up", failed to crack the Billboard Hot 100, and the big-budget video for "Change the World" failed to receive any rotation. This was their first group album to prominently feature Flesh-n-Bone, whose presence had been limited on previous releases because he had never signed with the group's label, Ruthless Records. Flesh was convicted for assault with a firearm and criminal possession of a weapon in June 2000. Pleading guilty, Flesh was sentenced to 11 years in prison.
The group again began having public disputes with Bizzy Bone. Bizzy Bone abstained from promoting BTNHResurrection because he felt that Ruthless Records owed him money. He dropped a million-dollar lawsuit he had filed against Sony Music and Loud Records in exchange for a termination of his Sony contract. Three members of Bone Thugs-N-Harmony released solo albums in 2001: Bizzy Bone with The Gift, Layzie Bone (under the name L-Burna) with Thug by Nature, and Krayzie Bone with Thug on da Line.
2002–2006: Thug World Order and Thug Stories
In 2002, the group released Thug World Order. This album, comprising what were described “politically slanted” songs, saw a drastic change in subject matter and tone for the group. The lyrics were almost completely void of any violence, while a larger number of tracks focused on the group itself. In contrast, several songs originally intended to be included on the album that were leaked after its release portrayed a much different album. The album debuted at 12 on the Billboard 200. The first single released from the album was "Money, Money" and the second was "Get Up & Get It", featuring 3LW. The third single, "Home", which featured Phil Collins performing part of his song "Take Me Home", peaked at 33 on the Rhythmic Top 40, impacting the charts in a number of countries, most notably the United Kingdom. Bizzy Bone was expelled from the group in January 2003, leaving only 3 active members: Krayzie Bone, Layzie Bone, and Wish Bone. Thug World Order was also Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's final album with Ruthless Records.
Thug Stories, Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's seventh album, was recorded on Koch Records and released on September 19, 2006. It marked the first time Bone Thugs-n-Harmony had recorded as a trio since they released an internet-only EP album called Bone 4 Life in September 2005. Thug Stories featured a slightly more mature style, and the group leaned more heavily towards its harmonic roots than its "thug" origins. The album sold 38,000 in its first week and peaked at 25 on the Billboard 200 and 1 on the Independent Albums chart.
2007: Strength & Loyalty and T.H.U.G.S.
Originally to be titled The Bone Thugs Story, Strength & Loyalty was released on May 8, 2007 on Interscope Records imprint Full Surface Records. Being their first major album after an absence of nearly five years, the album debuted at 2 on the Billboard 200, and 1 on iTunes and the Billboard urban music charts. The album contains guest appearances by Mariah Carey, the Game, will.i.am, Akon, Twista, Bow Wow, Yolanda Adams, and Felecia. Producers on the album included Swizz Beatz, Akon, Pretty Boy, Bradd Young, DJ Toomp, Jermaine Dupri, will.i.am, and others. The executive producer of the album was Swizz Beatz. The first single was "I Tried", which was their first top-10 hit in 10 years, peaking at number 6 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. The second single was "Lil Love", which failed to reach the success of its predecessor. The album has been certified gold by the RIAA.
2007 also saw the release of the semi-autobiographical film I Tried, directed by Rich Newey, which explored what might have happened to Bone Thugs-N-Harmony had they not gotten their break with Eazy-E. Layzie, Krayzie, and Wish Bone starred in the film, playing themselves. Also in 2007, Bone Thugs-N-Harmony won the American Music Award for Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Band, Duo or Group.
T.H.U.G.S., an album featuring previously unreleased, largely remixed Bone Thugs-N-Harmony songs that hadn't made the final cut of BTNHResurrection and Thug World Order, was released on November 13, 2007 by their former record label Ruthless Records. Although the album embodies old tracks, there are some notable changes: new beats, distorted production, voice manipulation, and new song titles. The sole single off the album was "Young Thugs", which was accompanied by a newly filmed music video featuring Krayzie, Layzie, Bizzy, and Wish.
In November 2007, Layzie Bone confirmed that he had completed Bone Brothers III with Bizzy Bone, spurring speculation about a full Bone reunion. In a video interview, Krayzie Bone stated that they all wanted to reunite, but that record label issues might prevent an official reunion.
After nearly a decade of incarceration, Flesh-n-Bone was released from prison on July 13, 2008. In an interview, Bizzy confirmed his return, the group having reunited in time for Flesh's release.
2010–2013: Uni5: The World's Enemy and The Art of War: World War III
Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's five members officially returned with their new album Uni5: The World's Enemy, released on May 4, 2010 by their own record label BTNH Worldwide, with distribution by Warner Bros. Uni5 also marks the return of long-time Bone collaborator DJ U-Neek, who was absent from 2007's Strength & Loyalty but had produced for the group throughout their career, including hits "Thuggish Ruggish Bone" and "Tha Crossroads". They released the singles "See Me Shine", featuring Jay Rush and Lyfe Jennings, and "Rebirth", featuring Thin-C, a member of the Mo Thugs. A third single, "Meet Me in the Sky", was released on March 22.
Throughout 2011, Krayzie Bone, Bizzy Bone, and Layzie Bone spoke about many projects coming in 2012. Those projects were to include an anniversary album featuring all five members; a Bizzy/Krayzie duet album; and compilation albums of unreleased Bone Thugs-N-Harmony material from the mid to late 1990s and 2000s, prospectively titled Lost Archives Vol. 1. The group put their differences aside to reunite and belatedly mark their 20th anniversary at the Rock the Bells festival series of summer 2012.
During Summer 2012, West Coast rapper Game sampled Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's "1st Of Tha Month" on his posse cut "Celebration", with the group's blessing. Game also posted a picture on Twitter showing the word "bone" constructed out of cannabis. He later confirmed that he was working in the studio with Bone Thugs-N-Harmony on a remix of "Celebration" for his album Jesus Piece.
In early November 2013, Krayzie Bone told HipHopDX that the Art of War III album would feature only Layzie, Bizzy, and Flesh-N-Bone and that neither he nor Wish Bone had recorded any material for that album. However, Krayzie and Wish both appeared on the album in the form of previously unreleased tracks that had been cut from Uni5: The World's Enemy. The Art of War: World War III was released on December 10, 2013.
2014–present: New album, New Waves
On July 15, 2014, it was announced that Bone Thugs-N-Harmony would release their final album in 2015. There would be only a single copy released, to be auctioned off, with bidding starting at $1 million. The group also announced they would be conducting a 20-country world tour beginning in December 2014. The following day, Krazyie Bone revealed that the album would be titled E. 1999 Legends. He then told XXL that he had approached the group about a reunion album in the middle of the previous year, and they had begun recording it at the end of 2013. Krayzie estimated that Bone Thugs-N-Harmony probably recorded 75 to 100 songs since they began work on the album, which was planned as a double-disc project. The first disc was to contain Bone Thugs-N-Harmony content exclusively, with no features, and would have 18–20 songs. The second disc was planned to feature a large number of big-name guest appearances such as Mariah Carey, Kendrick Lamar, Phil Collins, Wiz Khalifa, Drake, A$AP Mob, and Linkin Park, along with beats from Dr. Dre and DJ U-Neek, who had each been tapped for the album. Damizza would be producing/overseeing the entire E. 1999 Legends album, which was projected to be distributed through Damizza's Baby Ree Records label.
On February 14, 2015, producer and long-time Bone collaborator Damizza officially presented the single "More Than Thugs". In August 2015, Krayzie announced that the first bid of at least $1 million had been received for E. 1999 Legends.
In 2017, Krayzie Bone and Bizzy Bone announced that they would release their long-awaited duet album together titled New Waves under the name Bone Thugs. The album's lead single "Coming Home" featuring Stephen Marley was released on March 24. Krayzie confirmed that the full Bone Thugs-n-Harmony group was working on a new album, but said that they would no longer be auctioning off the album's rights. All five members of the group would appear on rapper Wiz Khalifa's 2018 album Rolling Papers 2, each providing a verse for the song "Reach for the Stars." In early 2020, the group announced that they were changing their name to Boneless Thugs-N-Harmony in order to hype up a commercial for Buffalo Wild Wings. Said commercial saw "Krayzie Boneless," "Flesh Boneless," and "Wish Boneless" all facilitate the change after eating Buffalo's boneless chicken, with Layzie Bone holding out. Bizzy Bone later dismissed that the change was anything serious.
On December 2, 2021, Bone competed in a Verzuz battle with longtime rival group Three 6 Mafia, where all five Bone Thugs and all four still-living Mafia members took part, accompanied by many guests the two groups worked with over their careers. Bizzy was escorted off stage at one point for throwing a bottle at Juicy J, but soon returned and apologized as the show resumed without incident. The event was highly acclaimed as one of the series' best events to date, seen as more of a celebration of old-school hip hop than a fight for supremacy.
Discography
Studio albums
Faces of Death (1993)
E. 1999 Eternal (1995)
The Art of War (1997)
BTNHResurrection (2000)
Thug World Order (2002)
Thug Stories (2006)
Strength & Loyalty (2007)
Uni5: The World's Enemy (2010)
The Art of War: World War III (2013)
New Waves (2017)
Extended plays
Creepin on ah Come Up (1994)
Bone 4 Life (2005)
Awards and nominations
American Music Award
|-
| align="center" | 1996 || Bone Thugs-n-Harmony || rowspan="3" | Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Artist ||
|-
| align="center" | 1997 || Bone Thugs-n-Harmony ||
|-
| align="center" | 1998 || Bone Thugs-n-Harmony ||
|-
| align="center" rowspan="2"| 2007 || Bone Thugs-n-Harmony || Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Band, Duo or Group ||
|-
| Strength & Loyalty || Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Album ||
|}
Grammy Award
|-
| align="center" rowspan="2" | 1996 || E. 1999 Eternal || Best Rap Album ||
|-
| align="center" | "1st of tha Month" || rowspan="2" | Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group ||
|-
| align="center" | 1997 || "Tha Crossroads" ||
|}
MTV Video Music Award
|-
| align="center" rowspan="5" | 1996 || rowspan="5" | "Tha Crossroads" || Best Visual Effects ||
|-
| Video of the Year ||
|-
| Viewer's Choice ||
|-
| Best Group Video ||
|-
| Best Rap Video ||
|}
Soul Train Music Awards
|-
| align="center" | 1995 || Creepin on ah Come Up || rowspan="2" | Best Rap Album ||
|-
| align="center" | 1996 || E. 1999 Eternal ||
|-
| align="center" | 1997 || "Tha Crossroads" || Best Video of the Year ||
|}
References
External links
Official Facebook page
Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's ArtistDirect page
I Tried movie
1991 establishments in Ohio
MNRK Music Group artists
G-funk groups
Gangsta rap groups
Grammy Award winners for rap music
Interscope Records artists
Midwest hip hop groups
Musical groups established in 1991
Musical groups from Cleveland
Ruthless Records artists
Sibling musical groups | [
-0.10987449437379837,
0.11555886268615723,
-0.35382217168807983,
0.11591529846191406,
0.12649956345558167,
0.5562099814414978,
0.17702768743038177,
-0.1984746903181076,
-0.39309290051460266,
-0.08420779556035995,
-0.12186560034751892,
0.1926077902317047,
-0.7378010749816895,
-0.14043410122394562,
-0.43420520424842834,
0.08483622968196869,
0.4113047420978546,
0.08589673787355423,
-0.040745027363300323,
0.04637220501899719,
0.28309768438339233,
0.40020498633384705,
0.4876372814178467,
-0.10221248865127563,
-0.070652537047863,
0.28283047676086426,
-0.11066903918981552,
0.4259242117404938,
0.3739981949329376,
-0.5174139738082886,
0.647354245185852,
0.588483989238739,
0.13006362318992615,
-0.460191011428833,
0.17482420802116394,
-0.259552925825119,
-0.6995169520378113,
0.03448401764035225,
0.31309160590171814,
-0.5949267745018005,
0.19522373378276825,
-0.11792793869972229,
0.15895061194896698,
0.25559353828430176,
0.16295945644378662,
-0.47285953164100647,
-1.5629721879959106,
1.3279203176498413,
-0.9031640291213989,
-0.5321466326713562,
0.013464763760566711,
0.6627061367034912,
-0.07999879866838455,
0.30908966064453125,
0.19048340618610382,
0.05122566968202591,
-0.6464663743972778,
-0.49212807416915894,
0.37668973207473755,
0.13425159454345703,
0.8149998188018799,
0.09257960319519043,
0.0894981101155281,
-1.1256399154663086,
-0.27550363540649414,
0.1933978945016861,
0.07957076281309128,
0.602081835269928,
-0.43698781728744507,
0.3005995452404022,
0.0751771330833435,
-0.01326234545558691,
-0.30579912662506104,
0.4738684296607971,
0.04055163636803627,
-0.054856766015291214,
0.7851300835609436,
0.044547438621520996,
0.2634130120277405,
0.5356191396713257,
0.022198423743247986,
-0.13496702909469604,
0.5348718166351318,
0.708185076713562,
-0.3922555148601532,
-0.1001049280166626,
0.013028525747358799,
-0.15581639111042023,
-0.8884534239768982,
1.0511705875396729,
-0.5830868482589722,
0.178140327334404,
0.47026950120925903,
0.1826101541519165,
-0.30793648958206177,
-0.0660969465970993,
-0.004477795213460922,
0.3498035669326782,
0.50175541639328,
0.49394479393959045,
-0.15195341408252716,
0.19552858173847198,
-0.32412779331207275,
0.03143768385052681,
-0.6994724273681641,
0.16532623767852783,
0.3653353750705719,
-0.6618058085441589,
-0.6549805402755737,
-0.10802842676639557,
-0.3334134519100189,
-0.4549534320831299,
-0.05702139809727669,
0.18818774819374084,
-0.0057817199267446995,
0.12371780723333359,
0.10168518871068954,
-0.9147947430610657,
-0.9823901653289795,
-0.513211727142334,
-0.5880438685417175,
0.37293365597724915,
0.11630751937627792,
0.4826805591583252,
0.3348289132118225,
0.49866876006126404,
0.1161513552069664,
0.2186373472213745,
-0.06438878923654556,
0.36756932735443115,
-0.1002514660358429,
0.44992080330848694,
-0.2751588821411133,
-0.38073503971099854,
-0.168399840593338,
-0.6496866941452026,
0.5007034540176392,
0.0677563026547432,
0.36070114374160767,
-0.006519966758787632,
-0.500239372253418,
-0.3733065724372864,
-0.606391191482544,
0.09484768658876419,
0.12671242654323578,
-0.16211919486522675,
-0.3598616123199463,
-0.03194214403629303,
0.012637454085052013,
-0.4254972040653229,
-0.15512537956237793,
-0.3529406487941742,
-0.8062475919723511,
-0.40498507022857666,
0.19672325253486633,
0.051869459450244904,
0.3568580150604248,
-0.3309935927391052,
-0.004541311878710985,
-0.16983835399150848,
-0.23721010982990265,
-0.31333550810813904,
-0.2558248043060303,
-0.029417119920253754,
0.41602200269699097,
-0.9443473815917969,
0.2312619835138321,
-0.10534963011741638,
-0.39623647928237915,
0.19157519936561584,
-0.45330244302749634,
-0.589945912361145,
0.06943170726299286,
-0.6800750494003296,
0.19339318573474884,
0.22006958723068237,
1.123105764389038,
-0.20952065289020538,
0.24016480147838593,
-0.14521683752536774,
-0.6810730695724487,
0.3119606077671051,
0.8088142275810242,
-0.2644285559654236,
0.3088350296020508,
-0.0569353885948658,
-0.0942491665482521,
-0.264695405960083,
0.07104092836380005,
-0.2839714288711548,
-0.5767772793769836,
-0.04762156680226326,
1.5067572593688965,
0.1935850977897644,
0.31260761618614197,
0.3471022844314575,
-0.3203418552875519,
0.4322231113910675,
0.10931921005249023,
-0.3221161961555481,
-0.12545092403888702,
-0.2538575232028961,
0.04581228271126747,
-0.3746984601020813,
-0.7263679504394531,
0.45005255937576294,
0.3599034547805786,
-0.39470237493515015,
-0.49927395582199097,
0.19289566576480865,
-0.0566246435046196,
-0.7470109462738037,
0.33349233865737915,
-0.552703320980072,
0.08887383341789246,
-0.41033557057380676,
-0.5761850476264954,
0.3046828508377075,
-0.3253759443759918,
-0.23404976725578308,
0.5771172642707825,
0.24591124057769775,
-0.01760512962937355,
0.06579205393791199,
0.1780659407377243,
1.0351805686950684,
-0.2949911952018738,
0.1914161741733551,
0.014055386185646057,
0.7029405236244202,
0.317414253950119,
-0.011453678831458092,
0.11380226165056229,
-0.7438327074050903,
0.0029677723068743944,
0.3854202926158905,
0.4652993381023407,
-0.4464890658855438,
0.3389863073825836,
-0.5096036195755005,
0.017167797312140465,
0.33663445711135864,
-1.208624005317688,
-0.8296896815299988,
-0.015282579697668552,
-0.09544139355421066,
-0.4459720253944397,
-0.4680696725845337,
-0.6002370119094849,
-0.009470345452427864,
-0.1182764396071434,
0.5563638210296631,
0.43124404549598694,
-0.12026111781597137,
0.7750965356826782,
-0.1331593096256256,
0.39901238679885864,
-0.002256294945254922,
0.0215146541595459,
-0.8202499151229858,
-0.2566927671432495,
-0.39921000599861145,
0.3636731207370758,
-0.19416634738445282,
0.17021387815475464,
-0.49141189455986023,
-0.025252943858504295,
-0.3425954580307007,
0.6557487845420837,
-0.33244362473487854,
0.761944055557251,
0.1333213448524475,
-0.06829540431499481,
0.6105784773826599,
-0.0803743302822113,
-0.5478508472442627,
-0.10655855387449265,
-0.33745431900024414,
-0.5198888778686523,
-1.3169580698013306,
0.6061971783638,
0.6695561408996582,
0.2032829225063324,
-0.7179803848266602,
-0.3043968081474304,
-0.012766417115926743,
0.8039696216583252,
-0.38598841428756714,
0.03459926322102547,
0.17110200226306915,
-0.2302914410829544,
0.31565672159194946,
-0.7178395390510559,
-0.06364034116268158,
0.819115161895752,
0.20454871654510498,
0.02877706289291382,
0.4849329888820648,
-0.7466540932655334,
-0.008669533766806126,
0.3247789442539215,
0.6885496377944946,
-0.3610073924064636,
-0.1381450593471527,
0.23485155403614044,
-0.23621714115142822,
-0.18864619731903076,
0.1700049638748169,
-5.556890487670898,
0.7970737218856812,
-0.2782543897628784,
0.30775707960128784,
-0.22349096834659576,
0.10294914245605469,
0.5916652679443359,
-0.46858149766921997,
0.2383221536874771,
-0.5756061673164368,
-0.21706685423851013,
-0.7345730066299438,
0.4572792649269104,
-0.35827669501304626,
-0.45585331320762634,
-0.16938699781894684,
0.24485589563846588,
-0.7114905714988708,
0.48706889152526855,
0.7755478620529175,
0.6276534199714661,
-0.34785234928131104,
-0.5240092277526855,
0.22218142449855804,
-0.2379734069108963,
0.3658650815486908,
-0.0044656782411038876,
0.2378476858139038,
-0.37445226311683655,
0.0999077782034874,
-0.08690140396356583,
0.2540034353733063,
0.05901741608977318,
-0.12277723848819733,
0.009858294390141964,
-0.05866223946213722,
0.46573880314826965,
0.17257912456989288,
0.4842974543571472,
-0.022250814363360405,
0.022091003134846687,
0.8646674752235413,
-0.023181097581982613,
-0.2684057354927063,
0.6997876763343811,
0.2870704233646393,
-0.1225067600607872,
-0.34727030992507935,
-0.7566648125648499,
1.0005059242248535,
0.4063636064529419,
-0.5528333783149719,
-0.16499465703964233,
-0.09402422606945038,
0.5026470422744751,
-0.3929171562194824,
-0.02009635977447033,
-0.22849713265895844,
-0.005468695890158415,
0.45140933990478516,
0.5262057185173035,
-0.5105652809143066,
0.36726948618888855,
-0.35202455520629883,
0.08148574084043503,
0.12826257944107056,
0.0559520348906517,
-0.5236223340034485,
-0.27630022168159485,
0.43319690227508545,
0.2004004269838333,
0.29641059041023254,
-0.3607787787914276,
-1.067969560623169,
-0.2640298306941986,
-0.28515928983688354,
-0.20814302563667297,
-0.042752526700496674,
0.16824650764465332,
0.042400263249874115,
0.2718777060508728,
0.05713796615600586,
-0.121852807700634,
0.5014228820800781,
-0.4690263569355011,
-0.5072572231292725,
-0.16965408623218536,
0.27835237979888916,
-0.814566433429718,
0.13518905639648438,
-0.18504208326339722,
-0.8665468096733093,
0.31630682945251465,
0.6396094560623169,
0.18772003054618835,
-0.16324450075626373,
0.07172996550798416,
0.5396958589553833,
0.04244711622595787,
0.1817220002412796,
1.024477243423462,
-0.2519286572933197,
0.3208942115306854,
-0.35176366567611694,
0.38042810559272766,
-0.8180467486381531,
-0.07250628620386124,
0.25187966227531433,
0.34208300709724426,
-0.46622705459594727,
-0.2068912833929062,
-0.4370644986629486,
-0.4480544626712799,
-0.40362173318862915,
1.0861767530441284,
-0.39737772941589355,
-0.3661767542362213,
0.1153745949268341,
0.23942457139492035,
0.579587996006012,
0.21391597390174866,
0.6088144779205322,
-0.09295781701803207,
0.03058605082333088,
-0.5722651481628418,
-0.07536476850509644,
-0.2927272319793701,
0.2617420256137848,
0.13899610936641693,
0.4053974449634552,
0.12607206404209137,
0.3643404543399811,
-0.05613335222005844,
0.27147895097732544,
0.39816564321517944,
-0.004263779614120722,
-0.43446290493011475,
-0.40465107560157776,
-0.4541856050491333,
-0.7454017996788025,
0.5475254654884338,
-0.10897054523229599,
0.17953312397003174,
0.055446963757276535,
0.5611152648925781,
0.04102637991309166,
-0.17479926347732544,
-0.7163007855415344,
0.10108164697885513,
0.7922234535217285,
-0.26260432600975037,
-0.2750093936920166,
0.42375120520591736,
-0.17796817421913147,
-0.5434956550598145,
-0.025128396227955818,
0.3286631107330322,
0.24405503273010254,
0.26491668820381165,
-0.3119811415672302,
0.8694981336593628,
-0.15473315119743347,
-0.7243531942367554,
-0.2360469102859497,
-0.057152412831783295,
-0.48208314180374146,
-0.3087696433067322,
-0.8607223629951477,
-1.080499529838562,
-0.39708781242370605,
-0.2916887104511261,
-0.40281108021736145,
0.034747328609228134,
-0.5600417256355286,
-0.09078437834978104,
0.01237225066870451,
0.16546063125133514,
0.16743730008602142,
-0.1924169957637787,
0.07514085620641708,
-0.5691408514976501,
-0.2748536765575409,
-0.19949162006378174,
0.22912023961544037,
0.19502197206020355,
0.07751286029815674,
0.08614440262317657,
0.14826805889606476,
-0.3140345811843872,
-0.08928312361240387,
0.04319903999567032,
-0.07704535126686096,
0.3502030372619629,
0.31870296597480774,
0.017193185165524483,
-0.5376101136207581,
0.5026448965072632,
0.6895313858985901,
-0.09078104048967361,
-0.3465053141117096,
0.262320339679718,
0.35830116271972656,
-0.199350044131279,
0.7620874047279358,
1.1368085145950317,
0.07856898754835129,
0.330858051776886,
-0.20049399137496948,
-0.12204033136367798,
0.4808351695537567,
0.04692098870873451,
-0.5054598450660706,
0.21497713029384613,
-0.307858407497406,
-0.04758351668715477,
-0.2350635677576065,
0.6573178172111511,
0.16263315081596375,
0.0011864585103467107,
-0.4129718244075775,
-0.012937681749463081,
-0.36707940697669983,
-0.20361818373203278,
0.08114313334226608,
-0.541295051574707,
0.423908531665802,
0.07937204837799072,
0.3161594867706299,
0.1921905279159546,
0.4936826825141907,
-0.33656105399131775,
0.17993879318237305,
0.5023122429847717,
0.28039512038230896,
-0.7083736062049866,
-0.05390031263232231,
-0.048885710537433624,
0.5127550959587097,
0.4618188738822937,
0.0022891690023243427,
0.6225369572639465,
0.6039596796035767,
-0.2569010853767395,
-0.10699769109487534,
0.24298474192619324,
-0.15120583772659302,
0.9267405271530151,
0.18518127501010895,
-0.4912415146827698,
0.019007442519068718,
0.17709533870220184,
0.14363984763622284,
-0.4349009394645691,
-0.5756178498268127,
0.17388120293617249,
-0.4038953185081482,
-0.10776418447494507,
-0.439877450466156,
-0.37673595547676086,
-0.04840092733502388,
0.2688995599746704,
0.3629358112812042,
-0.3088991343975067,
0.02724776603281498,
-0.12108519673347473,
-0.04788694530725479,
-0.03595494478940964,
0.11687859147787094,
0.3153954744338989,
-0.2505521774291992,
-0.03442126512527466,
-0.29976996779441833,
0.3493160307407379,
0.21010568737983704,
-0.6802743673324585,
0.45326319336891174,
0.14499951899051666,
-0.08965194225311279,
-0.38972145318984985,
0.27985116839408875,
-0.10571537166833878,
0.15923042595386505,
-0.32666465640068054,
-0.3087628483772278,
0.4679937958717346,
-0.4082597494125366,
0.12553507089614868,
0.20863842964172363,
-0.1332867294549942,
-0.2641652524471283,
-0.12557145953178406,
0.4720204174518585,
0.10926024615764618,
0.289130836725235,
-0.011726504191756248,
0.13877840340137482,
0.12984652817249298,
0.020474571734666824,
0.5626519918441772,
0.0649421215057373,
-0.32608333230018616,
0.2529959976673126,
-0.16803346574306488,
-0.044221438467502594,
-0.07917200028896332,
-0.4990890622138977,
0.41669896245002747,
-0.08809545636177063,
0.5469350814819336,
0.4131556749343872,
-0.2731872498989105,
-0.5840984582901001,
0.23565346002578735,
0.5135083198547363,
-1.247963786125183,
0.6994664072990417,
0.7149796485900879,
-0.011641477234661579,
0.4510391652584076,
0.1416960209608078,
-0.2607414424419403,
-0.3377124071121216,
0.6132487654685974,
0.5000863671302795,
0.4709530472755432,
0.340444952249527,
-0.004826921969652176,
0.11630678176879883,
0.8831811547279358,
0.5394944548606873,
0.33190250396728516,
-0.3919697403907776,
-0.1244189515709877,
-0.1609116643667221,
0.39929530024528503,
-0.051552869379520416,
-0.36574846506118774,
0.23347404599189758,
-0.2655276358127594,
1.0736685991287231,
0.24020950496196747,
-0.4443718492984772,
-0.5300180912017822,
0.06451095640659332,
-0.07548388093709946,
-0.012704671360552311,
-0.12641362845897675,
0.0347287617623806,
0.8223612308502197,
0.03016575239598751,
0.40067076683044434,
0.10891147702932358,
-0.11438547819852829,
0.07537269592285156,
0.8952453136444092,
-0.041925229132175446,
0.160337433218956,
0.08458387106657028,
-0.34783607721328735,
-0.16213467717170715,
0.29629185795783997,
0.421345591545105,
0.8573566675186157,
-0.09729603677988052,
-0.6154833436012268,
0.19418872892856598,
-0.12745045125484467,
0.18485811352729797,
-0.11214371770620346,
0.18090040981769562,
-0.6834632158279419,
0.2896442413330078,
-0.021206414327025414,
0.4618595838546753,
-0.37800857424736023,
-0.16052083671092987,
0.09161123633384705,
0.618459939956665,
-0.3773340582847595,
0.17906612157821655,
0.06407328695058823,
-0.2826722264289856,
-0.7008609771728516,
-0.17250825464725494,
0.5525099039077759,
0.6747729182243347,
-0.3224846124649048,
0.10844416916370392,
-0.216556578874588,
-0.06420980393886566,
0.23561200499534607,
-1.0326522588729858,
-0.39933961629867554,
-0.10267629474401474,
-0.15783420205116272,
0.18943475186824799,
-0.08988739550113678,
0.9322143793106079,
0.2906036078929901,
0.13651911914348602,
0.6399313807487488,
0.3211912214756012,
0.15357133746147156,
0.1557023674249649,
-0.4667626619338989,
0.14937488734722137,
-0.7937516570091248,
-0.6984126567840576,
-1.1413391828536987,
0.6940873861312866,
0.1879347264766693,
-0.1151096373796463,
-0.02864280715584755,
0.6090813875198364,
0.2070074826478958,
0.45057013630867004,
0.2607552707195282,
-0.13404445350170135,
-0.545173704624176,
-0.7210009694099426,
0.4979691207408905,
-0.025614576414227486,
-0.15500371158123016,
-0.0235526692122221,
-0.22114962339401245,
0.07349374145269394,
0.04184370115399361,
-0.2591950595378876,
-0.2965041995048523,
0.7866065502166748,
-0.015784800052642822,
-0.2769853472709656,
-0.3746604323387146,
-0.16792462766170502,
-0.25442373752593994,
-0.28651005029678345,
0.6192688941955566,
-0.011614714749157429,
-0.10211887955665588,
-0.19964033365249634,
0.5855197310447693,
-0.18841849267482758,
-0.4361938238143921,
-0.16085831820964813,
-0.003909106366336346,
-0.18322420120239258,
-0.2634389102458954,
0.05622050166130066,
-0.6621588468551636,
0.3977374732494354,
-0.19670076668262482,
0.2816547751426697,
0.3640064597129822,
-0.24849872291088104,
-0.02628990449011326,
-0.13708043098449707,
0.24147650599479675,
-0.19305419921875,
0.05008585378527641,
-0.520675003528595
] |
261061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipatory%20democracy | Anticipatory democracy | Anticipatory democracy is a theory of civics relying on democratic decision making that takes into account predictions of future events that have some credibility with the electorate. The phrase was coined by Alvin Toffler in his book Future Shock and was expanded on in the 1978 book Anticipatory Democracy, edited by Clement Bezold.
Other well-known advocates of the anticipatory approach include Newt Gingrich, Heidi Toffler, K. Eric Drexler, and Robin Hanson. They all advocate approaches where the public, not just experts, participate in this "anticipation".
The FutureMAP program of the Information Awareness Office program of the United States government proposed a prediction market prior to its cancellation on July 29, 2003.
Variants
Bioregional democracy can appear as a variant of anticipatory democracy in that it anticipates (using a similar scientific process) the ecological health outcomes of any given action. However it usually relies more on far less fragile means, and less on compared measures and quantities.
An alternative, deliberative democracy, may combine with either the anticipatory or the bioregional model. It relies less on formal models and a market system for betting on future events, and more on discussion.
Deliberative, anticipatory and bioregional approaches can all be considered variants of participatory democracy with different thresholds of ease of participation, burden of proof, concern for non-human life or future generations, and reflection of participants' tolerances versus preferences or ideals of truth. Sometimes a deliberative model is described as more "left" and an anticipatory model as more "right". Those who wish to avoid this debate and see merits to both approaches, e.g. Greens, usually prefer the generic term "participatory democracy". This term has become fundamental to green politics itself.
Other terms which likewise have more specific associations with advocates or methods include: grassroots democracy, semi-direct democracy, consensus democracy.
See also
Democracy (varieties)
List of politics-related topics
References
Bibliography
Future Shock - Alvin Toffler
Anticipatory Democracy: People in the Politics of the Future, Clement Bezold, Random House, 1978. .
Active citizenship
Participatory democracy
Types of democracy | [
0.0641840323805809,
0.18350301682949066,
-0.5260410308837891,
0.4465341567993164,
-0.236908957362175,
0.1551123559474945,
0.46435150504112244,
0.36360839009284973,
0.18677711486816406,
-0.43816861510276794,
-0.28625741600990295,
0.7176148295402527,
-0.6111182570457458,
0.08392158895730972,
-0.06787670403718948,
0.18234306573867798,
0.010181988589465618,
0.32983770966529846,
0.2110958695411682,
0.025167031213641167,
-0.12537457048892975,
0.11634909361600876,
-0.45173925161361694,
-0.008267461322247982,
0.11061248928308487,
-0.01620243303477764,
0.7620918154716492,
-0.27498963475227356,
-0.25123652815818787,
-0.10058929026126862,
0.13722699880599976,
0.6203620433807373,
-0.3957597017288208,
-0.37534838914871216,
0.012619196437299252,
0.0005561814759857953,
0.021672816947102547,
0.03317539766430855,
-0.30717772245407104,
-0.1669289618730545,
0.25884392857551575,
0.0579787939786911,
0.37615031003952026,
0.11431360244750977,
-0.32610970735549927,
-0.6173052787780762,
-1.4437545537948608,
0.48817482590675354,
-0.8047110438346863,
-0.7014952898025513,
-0.5003138184547424,
-0.041014280170202255,
0.04342429339885712,
0.9398385286331177,
-0.3240084946155548,
0.2945877015590668,
-0.26292964816093445,
-0.44857728481292725,
0.19056445360183716,
-0.3961222469806671,
0.18831102550029755,
0.2837364375591278,
-0.09439162909984589,
-0.03330165520310402,
0.5383833646774292,
-0.11020544916391373,
-0.2996366322040558,
0.3443678021430969,
-0.5647302865982056,
-0.7857478260993958,
-0.7223232388496399,
-0.3855266571044922,
0.03567470610141754,
0.2521666884422302,
-0.6854280829429626,
-0.24584053456783295,
0.27096062898635864,
0.3116038739681244,
-0.036169957369565964,
-0.501054584980011,
-0.049761272966861725,
0.37859195470809937,
0.23501375317573547,
-0.1087053194642067,
0.42434072494506836,
-0.4149143397808075,
0.1408720761537552,
0.4085649847984314,
-0.18665902316570282,
0.4081171452999115,
0.04046293720602989,
-0.08814284950494766,
0.6833648681640625,
0.11724294722080231,
0.014478071592748165,
0.26938846707344055,
0.580482542514801,
0.03335173800587654,
0.15751877427101135,
0.275892436504364,
0.17710751295089722,
0.06301067769527435,
0.5282820463180542,
-0.16757091879844666,
-0.03116809017956257,
-0.3425486385822296,
-0.06712538748979568,
-0.7139721512794495,
-0.11369156092405319,
0.012210395187139511,
-0.386159211397171,
0.5959284901618958,
-0.14045925438404083,
0.22700706124305725,
-0.6776420474052429,
0.1260654628276825,
-0.03613319993019104,
0.3147182762622833,
-0.12112734466791153,
0.034041982144117355,
0.31536874175071716,
0.9356475472450256,
-0.28490325808525085,
-0.14139464497566223,
-0.11343425512313843,
0.21849104762077332,
0.36430731415748596,
0.6669014096260071,
-0.3792431354522705,
0.18250206112861633,
0.3719021677970886,
0.6161161661148071,
-0.3835143744945526,
0.05417070910334587,
-0.432356059551239,
-0.3881315290927887,
0.4967784285545349,
0.12217395007610321,
0.6634020209312439,
0.3349038362503052,
-0.3354036509990692,
-0.7807502746582031,
-0.19434981048107147,
0.008042196743190289,
0.47064080834388733,
-0.0677778571844101,
0.4396045207977295,
-0.2344636470079422,
0.13969646394252777,
-0.1338934749364853,
-0.35381877422332764,
0.1527923047542572,
0.07826963067054749,
0.18221524357795715,
0.2509765625,
0.2483448088169098,
0.542352557182312,
-0.40164807438850403,
0.38739973306655884,
0.6136035323143005,
0.07949500530958176,
-0.31494593620300293,
-0.15936294198036194,
-0.05995801463723183,
0.413519948720932,
-0.7339580655097961,
0.13418036699295044,
0.3776431679725647,
0.47119590640068054,
0.31799715757369995,
-0.712026059627533,
0.23101170361042023,
0.1651872843503952,
-0.5072750449180603,
0.8713080286979675,
0.07112336903810501,
0.09621534496545792,
0.10408658534288406,
0.3253805637359619,
-0.02333686873316765,
-0.868170976638794,
0.30915528535842896,
-0.017025042325258255,
-0.33987459540367126,
0.2535713016986847,
-0.20359273254871368,
0.35875388979911804,
-0.29192304611206055,
0.2162233293056488,
-0.06078224629163742,
-0.6342525482177734,
-0.007293473929166794,
0.28606921434402466,
-0.8422976732254028,
1.074351191520691,
-0.006179045885801315,
-0.3224284052848816,
1.2128913402557373,
0.10439827293157578,
0.07377428561449051,
-0.11613779515028,
-0.7737331986427307,
-0.09152888506650925,
0.2500252425670624,
-0.3828882873058319,
0.9133472442626953,
0.5210632085800171,
0.038290977478027344,
-0.03274790570139885,
0.2340347319841385,
0.35804322361946106,
-0.09413085877895355,
-0.15229690074920654,
-0.23069174587726593,
-0.15244010090827942,
-0.0404946506023407,
-0.26188522577285767,
0.5963143110275269,
-0.18902768194675446,
0.15085062384605408,
0.845369279384613,
-0.27026572823524475,
0.15631923079490662,
0.8982957601547241,
0.11377820372581482,
0.4646894931793213,
0.5655892491340637,
0.4538809657096863,
0.6216837167739868,
-0.653417706489563,
0.282089501619339,
0.6519155502319336,
0.4235351085662842,
-0.5224084854125977,
-0.07392338663339615,
-0.19371247291564941,
0.015328312292695045,
-0.6247594356536865,
0.21049270033836365,
-0.22972925007343292,
0.09287618100643158,
-0.06566064804792404,
-0.20898951590061188,
0.4586533308029175,
-0.1778789907693863,
0.10043197125196457,
-0.523727536201477,
0.7422912120819092,
-0.5463358759880066,
0.35828566551208496,
0.11035975068807602,
0.5256451368331909,
0.4813956320285797,
-0.5482276082038879,
0.20658700168132782,
0.3762127161026001,
-0.4536307156085968,
0.14539968967437744,
0.30296948552131653,
-0.13956965506076813,
-0.4296397566795349,
0.12325982004404068,
-0.08781880885362625,
-0.04025634378194809,
0.15208281576633453,
-0.4672432243824005,
-0.16554491221904755,
0.18837764859199524,
-0.21644321084022522,
0.18982501327991486,
0.7704195380210876,
-0.08265966922044754,
-0.7802597880363464,
-0.26079222559928894,
-0.3947998285293579,
-0.5951203107833862,
-0.22069478034973145,
0.6609206199645996,
-0.6938004493713379,
-0.43525609374046326,
-0.4017980098724365,
0.4436158239841461,
-0.035562701523303986,
-0.6833015084266663,
-0.552485466003418,
-0.022849105298519135,
0.5659651756286621,
-0.614966869354248,
-0.1875065565109253,
0.39731302857398987,
-0.25640255212783813,
0.15726743638515472,
-0.08144485205411911,
-0.2447277456521988,
0.39963528513908386,
0.49755555391311646,
-0.16257992386817932,
-0.140806645154953,
0.06042307987809181,
-0.13481439650058746,
0.04882408678531647,
0.05120808258652687,
0.0836273729801178,
0.3053043782711029,
0.33267495036125183,
-0.19089171290397644,
-0.158674955368042,
0.14403510093688965,
-5.805774688720703,
0.1130572110414505,
0.07129234075546265,
0.019596600905060768,
0.11069004982709885,
0.41184186935424805,
0.6979327201843262,
-0.33724871277809143,
-0.7697452902793884,
0.18030740320682526,
-0.2845480442047119,
-0.032497506588697433,
0.038006771355867386,
0.8793343901634216,
0.8174736499786377,
-0.09080689400434494,
0.36216026544570923,
-0.46593156456947327,
0.3653203547000885,
0.38585537672042847,
0.08508086949586868,
0.4531303346157074,
0.07903283834457397,
0.686993420124054,
0.0708596482872963,
-0.06764423102140427,
-0.09399862587451935,
0.477700799703598,
-0.03696403279900551,
-0.14206139743328094,
0.27405521273612976,
-0.2021842747926712,
-0.3984047770500183,
-0.1510222852230072,
0.038931433111429214,
0.591376006603241,
0.4840877950191498,
0.4382210671901703,
-0.2953384816646576,
-0.04740578308701515,
-0.29646971821784973,
0.47682270407676697,
0.08369489759206772,
0.43464234471321106,
0.16826990246772766,
0.3494270443916321,
0.10416504740715027,
0.1251196712255478,
-0.8555117845535278,
0.3852018713951111,
-0.283738374710083,
0.3113124668598175,
0.6489527821540833,
0.5522859692573547,
-0.01564737595617771,
0.10183895379304886,
0.9191903471946716,
-0.25716063380241394,
-0.6301253437995911,
0.12984377145767212,
0.3463805615901947,
-0.31169387698173523,
-0.16014009714126587,
-0.23735474050045013,
0.17435699701309204,
-0.35468077659606934,
-0.506978452205658,
-0.8225009441375732,
0.5305004119873047,
0.08271032571792603,
-0.6575421094894409,
0.1651972532272339,
0.4183855652809143,
-0.9215361475944519,
0.5641764998435974,
-0.5508481860160828,
-0.0660594180226326,
-0.12091150134801865,
0.49904680252075195,
0.2701796591281891,
-0.04509204998612404,
-0.26396411657333374,
-0.31454336643218994,
0.10077088326215744,
0.1749560832977295,
0.20945248007774353,
0.2983132600784302,
0.7009430527687073,
-0.7173422574996948,
-0.11593001335859299,
0.25358662009239197,
0.11430193483829498,
0.07325373589992523,
0.061278216540813446,
0.4066781997680664,
1.1163601875305176,
-0.028003284707665443,
-0.44425708055496216,
0.4540668725967407,
-0.0326571986079216,
0.023915404453873634,
-0.22991856932640076,
-0.40835779905319214,
-0.680574893951416,
0.10032838582992554,
-0.08443525433540344,
-0.27962031960487366,
0.6288671493530273,
0.1967664659023285,
-0.4538017809391022,
0.11032580584287643,
0.6486822962760925,
-0.09700381010770798,
-0.175592303276062,
0.0053395177237689495,
0.45657819509506226,
-0.3987944424152374,
0.34998878836631775,
0.16768266260623932,
0.20352457463741302,
0.18740379810333252,
0.21628478169441223,
-0.41155311465263367,
-0.2657381594181061,
-0.695427656173706,
-0.5341587662696838,
-0.23937591910362244,
0.11138839274644852,
-0.3948957026004791,
0.018003996461629868,
0.47508835792541504,
-0.10372895747423172,
-0.23100417852401733,
-0.17314913868904114,
0.3137369751930237,
-0.3056708574295044,
0.11208190023899078,
0.3582223653793335,
-0.3289029002189636,
-0.24046649038791656,
0.3360963761806488,
-0.2357252538204193,
0.13731002807617188,
0.11623402684926987,
0.24839305877685547,
-0.24457772076129913,
-0.08243055641651154,
-0.23778396844863892,
-0.35527458786964417,
0.38858339190483093,
-0.07853744924068451,
-0.14579647779464722,
0.30637088418006897,
-0.5156272649765015,
0.37794050574302673,
0.2629906237125397,
0.3203718960285187,
0.04400098696351051,
0.25986984372138977,
-0.3540653884410858,
-0.008007359690964222,
-0.29240882396698,
-1.0937330722808838,
-0.26195695996284485,
0.43570253252983093,
-0.2400243580341339,
-0.774165689945221,
-0.537139892578125,
-0.18122662603855133,
0.19615434110164642,
-0.05797789618372917,
-0.10123597830533981,
-0.5802890658378601,
-0.20471958816051483,
0.46894049644470215,
-0.5494080781936646,
0.07248318940401077,
0.3223520517349243,
-0.3162537217140198,
-0.8718093037605286,
-0.250473290681839,
-0.1920766979455948,
-0.4206898808479309,
-0.28710633516311646,
0.48011380434036255,
-0.5892144441604614,
0.08705809712409973,
0.3671140670776367,
-0.5351058840751648,
-0.38854771852493286,
0.08669933676719666,
0.43513551354408264,
0.8319321870803833,
-0.06342081725597382,
0.10381103307008743,
-0.25478261709213257,
-0.09870505332946777,
-0.0031829446088522673,
-0.20044516026973724,
-0.7343727946281433,
0.2850862145423889,
0.15752550959587097,
-0.7731562256813049,
0.08529212325811386,
-0.11503643542528152,
-0.3320558965206146,
0.26446208357810974,
-0.29432663321495056,
-0.36390167474746704,
0.5887225270271301,
-0.6276201009750366,
-0.4909469187259674,
-0.4156629741191864,
-0.07431666553020477,
-0.5806567072868347,
0.14998069405555725,
-0.09522319585084915,
-0.5585255026817322,
-0.9173943996429443,
0.2343103140592575,
0.27747416496276855,
-0.5883479118347168,
-0.4455968141555786,
-0.17446169257164001,
-0.1273670643568039,
-0.07900181412696838,
0.0913013368844986,
-0.7731965184211731,
0.5275509357452393,
-0.08768176287412643,
-0.6284281015396118,
-0.15264539420604706,
0.13748688995838165,
0.0767102837562561,
-0.6625104546546936,
0.021699264645576477,
-0.4940881133079529,
0.6837499141693115,
-0.9132570624351501,
-0.0847988873720169,
0.1064019426703453,
0.4420928657054901,
0.380100816488266,
-0.5318604707717896,
-0.1898554414510727,
0.5359928011894226,
0.27213358879089355,
-0.02908044122159481,
-0.6921126842498779,
-0.13347791135311127,
0.2862064838409424,
0.11284254491329193,
-0.6612463593482971,
-0.00810378696769476,
0.5820654630661011,
-0.6058902740478516,
-0.12314735352993011,
-0.1690828651189804,
0.45338255167007446,
0.13603223860263824,
0.1360687017440796,
-0.9144076704978943,
-0.10890334099531174,
-0.28371208906173706,
0.09996164590120316,
-0.26612886786460876,
0.4148547351360321,
-0.431772381067276,
0.06141811981797218,
-0.5941769480705261,
0.12347791343927383,
-0.29027727246284485,
0.6062697172164917,
0.36600083112716675,
0.3690614700317383,
-0.13313700258731842,
-0.013182065449655056,
0.03280168026685715,
-0.32013997435569763,
0.005098139401525259,
0.2940969169139862,
-0.007497828453779221,
-0.4020410478115082,
-0.8433313369750977,
-0.058778196573257446,
-0.7023100852966309,
0.39531388878822327,
-0.1173245757818222,
-0.3981642425060272,
-0.46980252861976624,
-0.7269930243492126,
-0.1747661679983139,
-0.030640119686722755,
0.2260812520980835,
-0.34973832964897156,
0.16658949851989746,
-0.2261083871126175,
0.030433116480708122,
-0.24445608258247375,
-0.40118294954299927,
-0.41454213857650757,
0.41123253107070923,
0.05783682316541672,
-0.30771544575691223,
0.3651167154312134,
0.08718359470367432,
-0.14658202230930328,
-0.5977897644042969,
0.16763801872730255,
-0.1399625688791275,
0.08219950646162033,
0.14025667309761047,
0.5706567764282227,
0.580349862575531,
-0.11975249648094177,
0.28175440430641174,
0.1348487138748169,
-0.35430118441581726,
0.62664794921875,
0.5496795773506165,
0.07955621927976608,
-0.44569748640060425,
0.4337694048881531,
-0.29921746253967285,
0.24766550958156586,
0.10453870892524719,
-0.08531619608402252,
0.1843041330575943,
0.26366764307022095,
0.2330276519060135,
0.5983318090438843,
0.7372215390205383,
-0.3266424536705017,
0.3225904405117035,
-0.382732093334198,
-0.18669451773166656,
0.39168021082878113,
-0.8440029621124268,
-0.43675950169563293,
0.12719318270683289,
0.5874649882316589,
-0.1056843101978302,
-0.08596371114253998,
0.5140465497970581,
-0.40817323327064514,
-0.05602381005883217,
0.15405666828155518,
0.6126012802124023,
-0.8227759003639221,
0.3165886700153351,
0.5455252528190613,
-0.08088403195142746,
0.05041518062353134,
-0.4344034194946289,
0.28152376413345337,
-0.7164202928543091,
0.26866546273231506,
0.0846949964761734,
-0.1864389181137085,
-0.5393194556236267,
0.1828450858592987,
0.10346859693527222,
-0.12136774510145187,
-0.43622705340385437,
0.31099939346313477,
0.35766270756721497,
0.5106707811355591,
0.046131473034620285,
0.059726446866989136,
0.5223305225372314,
0.18489207327365875,
-0.12994249165058136,
0.1129186823964119,
0.668624758720398,
0.1643505096435547,
-0.514819860458374,
0.36429888010025024,
0.11456743627786636,
-0.010877523571252823,
0.015502126887440681,
-0.1386961191892624,
0.03936855122447014,
-0.04429015517234802,
-0.09630034118890762,
0.13303092122077942,
-0.04568851739168167,
-0.4157600998878479,
0.21130983531475067,
-0.4748256206512451,
0.25508663058280945,
-0.24915310740470886,
-0.18591588735580444,
0.046165481209754944,
0.3436410427093506,
-0.47956570982933044,
0.05058801919221878,
0.14323772490024567,
0.6921316981315613,
0.2709076404571533,
-0.12387515604496002,
-0.03787956386804581,
0.4646807610988617,
-0.2360292673110962,
0.09436126798391342,
-0.2940990924835205,
-0.020724112167954445,
-0.557756781578064,
0.2777341306209564,
-0.8265813589096069,
0.19742071628570557,
0.5065689086914062,
-0.20167957246303558,
0.0016680634580552578,
0.538689136505127,
0.09007581323385239,
0.5911272764205933,
0.679716944694519,
-0.14010238647460938,
0.20301125943660736,
0.047676876187324524,
0.19621716439723969,
-0.1390441209077835,
0.21635372936725616,
0.11801497638225555,
-0.45898932218551636,
-0.0432363860309124,
0.49975499510765076,
0.02707255445420742,
-0.1676514446735382,
0.3566763997077942,
-0.4834645688533783,
-0.3573923408985138,
-0.4756101071834564,
0.6259922981262207,
-0.6301817893981934,
0.3153699040412903,
0.4410540759563446,
0.4550243318080902,
0.1081155389547348,
-0.23075902462005615,
-0.03941098228096962,
-0.08003184199333191,
0.4958818554878235,
0.20417305827140808,
-1.527167797088623,
0.38100677728652954,
-0.15196065604686737,
0.0020446598064154387,
0.13213159143924713,
0.4012529253959656,
0.2950965166091919,
0.04116448387503624,
-0.22884011268615723,
-0.1566859632730484,
-0.23986293375492096,
0.14858867228031158,
-0.10765711218118668,
-0.7798100113868713,
-0.16652892529964447,
0.6973811388015747
] |
261062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory%20democracy | Participatory democracy | Participatory democracy or participative democracy is a model of democracy in which citizens are provided power to make political decisions. Etymological roots of democracy (Greek demos and kratos) imply that the people are in power, making all democracies participatory to some degree. However, participatory democracy tends to advocate greater citizen participation and more direct representation than traditional representative democracy. For example, the creation of governing bodies through a system of sortition, rather than election of representatives, is thought to produce a more participatory body by allowing citizens to hold positions of power themselves.
Some scholars argue for refocusing the term on community-based activity within the domain of civil society, based on the belief that a strong non-governmental public sphere is a precondition for the emergence of a strong liberal democracy. These scholars tend to stress the value of separation between the realm of civil society and the formal political realm.
Overview
Participation is commonly defined as the act of taking part in some action. 'Political participation', hence, is largely assumed as an act of taking part in 'political' action. However, such definition often varies in political science due to the ambiguities surrounding what can be conceived as 'political' actions. Within this general definition, the perception of political participation varies by differing modes, intensities, and qualities of participation. From voting to directly influencing the implementation of public policies, the extent to which a political participation should be considered appropriate in political theory is, to this day, under debate. Participatory democracy is primarily concerned with ensuring that citizens are afforded an opportunity to participate or otherwise be involved in decision making on matters that affect their lives.
Participatory democracy is not a novel concept and has existed under various political designs since the Athenian democracy. The theory of participatory democracy was developed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and later promoted by J.S. Mill and G. D. H. Cole, who argued that political participation is indispensable for the realization of a just society. Nevertheless, the sudden invigoration and popularity on this topic in the academic literature only began in mid-19th century. One conjecture is that the revival of political participation's significance was a natural progression from the growing assessment that representative models of democracy were in decline; increasingly inorganic relations between the elected elites and the public, diminishing electoral turnouts, and ceaseless political corruptions are often considered as the rationales behind its alleged crisis. Another, as argued by David Plotke, is that the proponents of participatory democracy were originally the critics of 'minimal democracy', a theory popularly established by Joseph Schumpeter. Plotke claims, "In the Cold War, nonCommunist left critics of minimal democracy tended to define their positions by reversing the [proponents of minimal democracy's] claims. [...] Given [an] unappetizing menu, critics of minimal democracy advocated a sharp and sustained increase in political participation." Regardless of its origin, the recent resurgence of participatory democracy has led to various institutional reforms such as participatory budgeting, steadily challenging the traditionally predominant form of liberal democracy.
The proponents of participatory democracy criticize liberal democracy and argue that representation is inherently deficient for truly democratic societies, leading to the fundamental debate on democratic ideology. Benjamin Barber, an advocate for 'individual democracy', has denounced liberal democracy because "it alienates human beings from each other and, more important, because the epistemological basis on which liberalism stands is itself fundamentally flawed." Barber's notable significance is the return to the epistemological basis of politics and democracy, and in that vein, Joel Wolfe reinforces his hypothesis: "[...] strong democracy should be a form of government in which all people participate in decision-making and implementation. While recognizing that the complexity of modern society imposes limits on direct democracy, participation by all is imperative because it creates shared interests, a common will, and community action, all of which inevitably give legitimacy to politics."
All modern constitutions and fundamental laws contain and declare the concept and principle of popular sovereignty, which essentially means that the people are the ultimate source of public power or government authority. The concept of popular sovereignty holds simply that in a society organized for political action, the will of the people as a whole is the only right standard of political action. It can be regarded as an important element in the system of the checks and balances, and representative democracy. Therefore, the people are implicitly entitled even to directly participate in the process of law making. This role of linking citizens and their government and legislators is closely related to the concept of legitimacy. The exercise of democratic control over the legislative system and the policy-making process can occur even when the public has only an elementary understanding of the national legislative institution and its membership. Civic education is a vital strategy for strengthening public participation and confidence in the legislative process.
History
Origins
In 7th and 8th century BCE Ancient Greece, the informal distributed power structure of the villages and minor towns began to be displaced with collectives of Oligarchs seizing power as the villages and towns coalesced into city states. This caused much hardship and discontent among the common people, with many having to sell their land due to debts, and even suffer from debt slavery. Around 600 BCE the Athenian leader Solon initiated some reforms to limit the power of Oligarchs and re-establish a partial form of participatory democracy with some decisions taken by a popular assembly composed of all free male citizens. About a century later, Solon's reforms were further enhanced for even more direct involvement of regular citizens by Cleisthenes. During its tenure, Athenian democracy used its system of popular assembly in tandem with the selection of magisterial positions by lot and the election of a small number of high level government officials. Athenian democrats supported the use of sortition on account of the Aristotelian belief in the importance of ruling and being ruled in a democratic system. By using sortition to assign citizens to one year magisterial offices, and not permitting them to hold a particular office more than once, the Athenian system distributed power amongst a greater number of citizens who intermittently led and followed throughout their lives. Athenian democracy came to an end in 322 BC. When democracy was revived as a political system about 2000 years later, decisions were made by representatives rather than by the people themselves. A minor exception to this was the limited form of direct democracy which flourished in the Swiss Cantons from the later Middle Ages.
19th and 20th centuries
An ephemerous but notorious instance, taking place in the Modern Age, was the Paris Commune of 1871, which married the universal political engagement of participatory democracy with a correspondent collective ownership and management of the means of production, which, like participatory democracy itself, was a demand of the nascent organized left-wing. In the late 19th century, a small number of thinkers, including Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Mikhail Bakunin—all highly influenced, along with their International Working Men's Association, by the Commune–and Oscar Wilde began advocating increased participatory democracy. It was in the 20th century that practical implementations of participatory democracy once again began to take place, albeit mostly on a small scale, attracting considerable academic attention in the 1980s.
During the Spanish civil war, from 1936–1938, the parts of Spain controlled by anarchist members of the Spanish Republican faction was governed almost totally by participatory democracy. In 1938 the anarchists were displaced after betrayal by their former Republican allies in the Communist party and attacks from the Nationalist forces of General Franco. The writer George Orwell, who experienced participatory democracy in Spain with the anarchists before their defeat, discusses it in his book Homage to Catalonia, and says participatory democracy was a "strange and valuable" experience where one could breathe "the air of equality" and where normal human motives like snobbishness, greed, and fear of authority had ceased to exist.
The mystic and philosopher Simone Weil, who had helped the Spanish anarchists as a combat soldier, would later promote participatory democracy in her political manifesto The Need for Roots.
Students for a Democratic Society organized around the principles of participatory democracy in the 1960s.
In the 1980s, the profile of participatory democracy within academia was raised by James S. Fishkin, the professor who introduced the deliberative opinion poll. In 1996, in response to the emergence of renewable energy technologies, the Texas government commissioned an informed public opinion poll, also known as a deliberative poll, to gage citizens' willingness to pursue alternative energies. Prior to deliberation, a raw opinion poll was taken in which Texans were asked whether they were willing to pay more on monthly utility bills to support renewable energy. After the initial poll, a representative sample of citizens was provided non-partisan briefing books and invited to deliberate in the presence of moderators. Following a weekend of deliberation, the participants developed informed opinions that significantly diverged from their raw opinions. Before deliberation, fifty-two percent of participants supported a two to five dollar increase on monthly utility bills to support renewable energy. By the end of the experiment, participant support increased to eighty-four percent. The results of the informed public opinion poll deeply influenced the actions of the Texas government and electric power industry; though Texas was the forty-ninth largest producer of renewable energy in the United States in 1996, it now leads the nation in the production of the wind power.
Experiments in forms of participatory democracy that took place within a wider framework of representative democracy began in cities around the world, with an early adopter being Brazil's Porto Alegre. A World Bank study found that participatory democracy in these cities seemed to result in considerable improvement in the quality of life for residents.
21st century
Social Movements
In the early-21st century, low-profile experiments in participatory democracy began to spread throughout South and North America, to China and across the European Union. A partial example in the USA occurred with drawing up the plans to rebuild New Orleans after 2005's Hurricane Katrina, with thousands of ordinary citizens involved in drafting and approving the plan.
In recent years, social media have led to changes in the conduct of participatory democracy. In the 2016 United States elections social media spread news and many politicians used social-media outlets like Twitter to attract voters. Social media has helped to organize movements to demand change. Mainly through hashtags, citizens join political conversations with differing view-points. To promote public interest and involvement, local governments have started using social media to make decisions based on public feedback. Though it requires much commitment, citizens have organized committees to highlight local needs and appoint budget delegates who work with the citizens and city agencies.
In 2011 participatory democracy became a notable feature of the Occupy movement, a movement largely started by a Tumblr post (titled "We Are the 99 Percent") protesting and claiming that a few individuals held all the power. Occupy camps around the world made decisions based on the outcome of working groups where every protester had their say, and by general assemblies where the decisions taken by working groups were effectively aggregated together. Their decision process combined equality, mass participation, and deliberation.
Citizens' Assemblies
Participatory democracy has been practiced more frequently as of late on account of a rise of government commissioned citizens' conventions that seek to address specific policy or constitutional issues. Participants in citizens' assemblies are typically chosen through sortition with stratified sampling to increase the representative nature of the body. Assemblies are then divided into groups to explore specific topics in greater depth, guided by the testimony of experts. Deliberation is led by professional facilitators and legal experts aid in the formulation of policy proposals or constitutional amendments in legal language. The reports of the assemblies are often put to referenda or used to advise government bodies.
In 2011, in response to growing distrust between citizens and the government following a 2008 economic crisis, Ireland authorized the use of a citizens' assembly titled "We the Citizens" to pilot the use of a participatory democratic body to increase political legitimacy. Having found an increase in efficacy and interest in governmental functions, as well as significant shifts in opinion on contested issues like taxation, Ireland sanctioned a citizens' assembly with legal remit. In 2012, Ireland held a Constitutional Convention to discuss proposed amendments to the Constitution. Ten issues were discussed in total with proposals ranging from reducing the voting age to 17 to including a provision for same-sex marriage. The citizens' convention embraced a hybrid model: participants included sixty-six individuals from the greater population, thirty-three legislators from the Irish Parliament, and chairman Tom Arnold. At the end of the fourteenth month of the Constitutional Convention, several of the citizens' recommendations were put to referenda. The Thirty-fourth Amendment to the Irish Constitution, the Marriage Equality Act, was signed into law following a successful referendum with success attributed in part to the deliberation of the 2012 Constitutional Convention. In the next iteration of citizens' assemblies in Ireland in 2016-2018, the Assembly, now composed of ninety-nine ordinary citizens and one chairperson appointed by the government, was tasked with considering whether the Eighth Amendment should be removed from the Constitution, along with other issues of referendums, population aging, and climate change. The Eighth Amendment banned abortion in nearly all instances by recognizing a constitutional right to life. Debate occurred over a five month period and a secret-ballot vote was held at the end of the convention with members voting to replace the Eighth Amendment with a new provision authorizing the Irish Parliament to legislate abortion. The proposals of the assembly were put up to a countrywide referendum and sixty-six percent voted to repeal the Eighth Amendment. The two-thirds vote in favor of repealing the Eighth Amendment closely aligned with the vote taken internally in the citizens' assembly, suggesting the representative nature of the randomly chosen participants.
In response to the Yellow vests movement, the French government organized the “Grand National Debate” in early 2019 to allow one hundred randomly selected citizens in each of eighteen regional conventions to deliberate on issues that the citizens valued the most to inform government action. At the end of the Grand National Debate, President Macron committed to the creation of a dedicated citizens' assembly to discuss climate change: the Citizens' Climate Convention (CCC). The CCC was designed to serve as a legislative body, guided by the question of how France may reduce its greenhouse gas emissions with social justice in mind. One hundred and fifty citizens, selected by sortition and stratified sampling, were sorted into five sub-groups to discuss individual climate themes such as housing and consuming. The citizens were guided by the experts on several steering committees that worked to inform the participants on the specifics of climate issues, help citizens formulate their ideas in legal language, and facilitate discussion. At the end of the nine month long process, the deliberation of the CCC culminated in 149 measures outlined in a 460-page report, ranging from the decarbonization of the car fleet to reforming environmental labeling on food packaging. The proceedings and results of the CCC have garnered national and international attention. President Macron has committed to supporting 146 of the 149 measures proposed by the CCC, and a bill containing the 146 suggestions was submitted to Parliament in late 2020.
The UK, like France, also held a citizens' assembly in 2020 to discuss paths to address climate change following the Extinction Rebellion. The framing question of the UK Climate Assembly (CAUK) asked how the UK should approach reaching net zero greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2050. Rather than functioning as a political chamber as in the CCC, the CAUK was used more as a supplemental, advisory body with stricter rules of engagement. The UK brought 108 citizens together to deliberate over four months, resulting in more than fifty recommendations outlined in a 556-page report. The findings of the citizens' assembly helped advise the government's next steps in combating climate change.
Evaluation
Strengths
Main advocates of participatory democracy view it as an appropriate political development considering the inherent democratic deficiency in representative models. Generally argued as an intermediary between direct and representative democracy, participatory democracy's alleged strengths lie in greater citizen involvement, popular control, and egalitarian and non-exploitative social relations.
The most prominent argument for participatory democracy is its function of greater democratization. Although the extent of how 'democratized' societies should be may rely on sociocultural and economic contexts, Pateman claims, "[...] the argument is about changes that will make our own social and political life more democratic, that will provide opportunities for individuals to participate in decision-making in their everyday lives as well as in the wider political system. It is about democratizing democracy." In such a democratized society, individuals or groups can not only pursue, but also realistically achieve their interests, ultimately "[providing] the means to a more just and rewarding society, not a strategy for preserving the status quo."
Another proposed advantage participatory democracy over other democratic models is its educative effect. Initially promoted by Rousseau, Mill, and Cole, greater political participation can in turn lead the public to seek or accomplish higher qualities of participation in terms of efficacy and depth: "the more individuals participate the better able they become to do so" Pateman emphasizes this potential because it precisely counteracts the widely spread lack of faith in citizen capacity, especially in advanced societies with complex organizations. In this vein, J. Wolfe asserts his confidence in the feasibility of participatory models even in large-member organizations, which would progressively diminish state intervention as the most crucial mode of political change.
Weaknesses
The negative criticisms of participatory democracy generally align with exclusive advocacy for 'minimal democracy'. While some critics, such as David Plotke, call for a conciliatory medium between participatory and representative models, others are skeptical of the overly leftist democratic ideology. Two general oppositions can be found within the literature, the prior is the disbelief in citizen capabilities, considering how greater responsibilities come as participation grows. Michels rejects the feasibility of participatory models and goes so far as to refute the educative benefits of participatory democracy by delineating the lack of motivations for extensive participation to begin development: "First, the self-interested, rational member has little incentive to participate because he lacks the skills and knowledge to be effective, making it cost effective to rely on officials' expertise." In other words, the motivation, or even desire, for participation is a misconceived understanding of the general will in politics. By analyzing that the aggregate citizenry is rather disinterested and leader-dependent, the mechanism for participatory democracy is argued to be inherently incompatible with advanced societies.
Other concerns largely rest on the feasibility of effectively managing massive political input into an equally meaningful, responsive output. Plotke condemns the ideological element of universal participation since any institutional adjustment to employ greater political participation can never exclude a representative element. Consequently, neither direct nor participatory democracy can be truly themselves without having some type of representation to sustain realistically a stable political system. Such examination derives from the supposed impossibility of achieving equitably direct participation in large and populated regions. Plotke ultimately argues in favor of representation over participation and criticizes the misconception by participatory democrats of "representation [as] an unfortunate compromise between an ideal of direct democracy and messy realities."
Mechanisms for participatory democracy
Scholars, including Graham Smith in Democratic Innovations, have recently considered several mechanisms to create more participatory democratic systems, ranging from the use of referendums to the creation of deliberative citizens' assemblies. As contrasted with the mechanism of elections, these proposals intend to increase the agenda-setting and decision-making powers of the people through giving citizens' more direct ways to contribute to politics, as opposed to indirectly choosing representatives through voting.
Mini-Publics
Also called citizens' assemblies, mini-publics are representative samples of the population at large that meet to advise other legislative bodies or to write laws themselves. Because citizens are chosen to participate by stratified sampling, the assemblies are more representative of the population as a whole as compared to elected legislatures whose representatives are often disproportionally wealthy, male, and white. Mini-publics chosen by sortition thus provide average citizens the opportunity to exercise substantive agenda-setting and/or decision-making power. Over the course of the assembly, citizens are guided by experts and discussion facilitators to ensure meaningful deliberation. The results of mini-publics typically culminate in reports to be sent to the government or proposals that are directly sent to the people via referendums. Critics of mini-publics have raised concerns about their perceived legitimacy. For instance, political scientist Daan Jacobs finds that the perceived legitimacy of mini-publics is higher than a system in which no participation is permitted but not higher than any system involving self-selection, like elections. Regardless, the use of mini-publics has grown in recent years and they have often been used to pursue constitutional reforms, such as in British Columbia's Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform in 2004 and the Irish Constitutional Convention in 2012.
Referendums
In binding referendums, citizens vote on laws and/or constitutional amendments proposed by a legislative body. Referendums afford citizens greater decision-making power by giving them the ultimate choice in the passage of legislation. Citizens may also use referendums to engage in agenda-setting power if they are allowed to draft proposals to be put to referenda in efforts called initiatives. Referendums may be made increasingly participatory by using a mandatory vote system that requires participation amongst all citizens. However, despite providing the people with additional political power, political theorist Hélène Landemore raises the concern that referendums may fail to be sufficiently deliberative, meaning that the people are unable to engage in discussions and debate that may enhance their decision-making abilities and wielding of political power. Switzerland currently uses a rigorous system of referendums, under which all laws the legislature proposes go to referendums. Swiss citizens may also enact popular initiatives—a process whereby citizens put forward a constitutional amendment or propose the removal of an existing provision. The proposal must receive the signatures of one hundred thousand citizens to go to a ballot.
E-Democracy
E-democracy is an umbrella term that describes a variety of proposals to increase participation through technology. Open discussion forums, for example, provide citizens the opportunity to debate policy online while facilitators guide discussion. These forums normally serve agenda-setting purposes or may be used to provide legislators with additional testimony when considering the passage of legislation. Closed forums may be used to discuss more sensitive information. In the UK, a closed discussion forum was used to enable domestic violence survivors to provide testimony to the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Domestic Violence and Abuse while preserving the anonymity of survivors. Another e-democratic mechanism is online deliberative polling, a system under which citizens deliberate with peers virtually before they answer a poll question. The results of deliberative polls are more likely to reflect the considered judgments of the people, and are thought to be a better way to assess public opinion while encouraging increased citizen awareness of civic issues.
Town Meetings
In a form of more local participatory democracy, town meetings provide all residents with legislative power. Practiced in the United States, particularly in New England, since the 17th century, town meetings assure that local policy decisions are made directly by members of the public without any intermediaries. Local democracy is often seen as the first step in producing a more participatory system; as said by democratic scholar Frank M. Bryan, "For real democracy small not only is beautiful, it is essential." Theorist Graham Smith, however, notes the inherently limited impact of town meetings that focus on local issues and cannot bring about action on larger, national issues. He also suggests that town meetings are not representative of the town as a whole as they disproportionately represent individuals with free time, including the elderly and the affluent. Nevertheless, New Hampshire continues to use a streamlined version of town meetings in which every voter is a legislator, and all issues may be put to a legally binding vote as long as its subject matter was placed on the warrant, a type of agenda.
Participatory Budgeting
The system of participatory budgeting allows citizens to make decisions on the allocation of a public budget. With origins in Porto Alegre, Brazil, the general procedure of the participatory budgeting involves the creation of a concrete financial plan that serves as a recommendation to elected representatives. Importantly, under the Brazilian system, neighborhoods are given the authority to design budgets for the greater region, with local proposals being brought to elected regional budget forums. The incorporation of deliberative processes in participatory budgeting has allowed for a decrease in clientelism and corruption as well as increased levels of participation, particularly amongst marginalized or poorer residents. Theorist Graham Smith observes that participatory budgeting still has some barriers to entry for the poorest members of the population.
Liquid Democracy
In a hybrid between direct and representative democracy, liquid democracy permits individuals to vote on issues themselves or to select issue-competent delegates to vote on their behalf. Political scientists Christian Blum and Christina Isabel Zuber suggest that liquid democracy has the potential to improve a legislature's performance through bringing together delegates with a greater issue awareness, thus taking advantage of epistemic knowledge within the populace. To make liquid democracy more deliberative, a trustee model of delegation may be implemented in which the delegates are free to vote as they see fit following deliberation with other representatives. Some concerns have been raised about the implementation of liquid democracy; Blum and Zuber, for example, find that liquid democracy produces two distinct participative classes of voters: individuals with one vote and delegates with two or more votes. Blum and Zuber also worry that the policy produced in issue-specific legislatures will lack cohesiveness if each group has separate and independent delegates. Today, liquid democracy is utilized by Pirate Parties, groups known for their support for more democratic reforms and greater internet transparency, for intra-party decision-making.
Deliberative Polling
Trademarked by Stanford professor James Fishkin, deliberative opinion polls permit citizens to develop informed opinions following a period of deliberation. Deliberative polling begins with surveying a random representative sample of citizens to gage their raw opinion. These same individuals are then invited to deliberate for a weekend in the presence of political leaders, competing experts, and trained moderators. At the end of the deliberation, the group is surveyed again, and the final opinions of the group are taken to be representative of the conclusion that the public would reach provided they had opportunities to engage with the issues more deeply. There are many examples of deliberative polling being used around the world: in 2008, Fishkin and team conducted a deliberative poll in Poznan, Poland to decide the fate of a Euro Cup stadium after 2012, and, in South Korea in 2011, a deliberative poll was used to discuss the issue of Korean Unification. Cristina Lafont, a critic of deliberative polling, argues that the "filtered" (informed) opinion reached at the end of a deliberative poll is too far removed from the opinion of the citizenry as a whole, thus delegitimizing the actions taken in the name of the poll. Conversely, Fishkin and other proponents find deliberative polling to be a "poll with a human face" that can be used in tandem with other participatory mechanisms to reflect the normatively desirable informed will of the people.
Mechanisms against participatory democracy
Jason Brennan, in Against Democracy, advocates for a less participatory system on the basis of the irrationality of voters in a representative democracy. He proposes several mechanisms to reduce participation, presented with the assumption that a vote-based system of electoral representation is maintained.
Restricted Suffrage and Plural Voting
In an analogy comparing the perils of an unlicensed driver to an untested voter, Brennan argues that exams should be administered to all citizens to determine if they are competent to participate. Under this system, citizens either have one or zero votes, depending on their test performance. Brennan also proposes a plural voting regime in which each citizen has by default one vote (or zero votes) but can earn additional votes through passing voter entrance exams or possessing academic degrees. Critics of Brennan, including Vox reporter Sean Illing, find parallels between his proposed system and the literacy tests of the Jim Crow South that prevented black people from voting in the United States.
Universal Suffrage with Epistocratic Veto
Brennan proposes a second system under which all citizens have equal rights to vote or otherwise participate in government, but the decisions made by elected representatives are scrutinized by an epistocratic council. Brennan notes that this council cannot make law, only "unmake" law, and would likely be composed of individuals who passed rigorous competency exams. He admits that an epistocratic veto could lead to significant gridlock but suggests that the gridlock may be a necessary evil in the process of reducing democratic incompetence. The epistocratic veto would thus serve as a back-end check, as opposed to a front-end check in restricted suffrage, that still allows all citizens to participate in electing representatives.
See also
Civic intelligence
Collaborative governance
E-participation
E-democracy
Deliberative democracy
Collaborative e-democracy
Demarchy
Direct democracy
Green politics
Inclusive Democracy
Open source governance
Participatory budgeting
Participatory democracy in the European Union
Participatory economics
Participatory justice
Participism
Public incubator
Public sphere
Public participation
Radical transparency
Rationality and power
Sociocracy
Socialism of the 21st century
Tax choice
The 23 objectives of the Australian Democrats
The participatory approach
Third International Theory
Workers' council
Notes
References
Further reading
Articles containing video clips
Types of democracy | [
0.06347595155239105,
-0.14196385443210602,
-0.38678866624832153,
0.6530221700668335,
-0.42255932092666626,
0.3271695077419281,
-0.0461556613445282,
0.14508266746997833,
-0.36250364780426025,
-0.6996447443962097,
-0.4241676926612854,
0.8026567101478577,
-0.5435771942138672,
-0.1592416912317276,
0.05480308085680008,
0.17361581325531006,
0.25211209058761597,
0.404529869556427,
0.40567970275878906,
0.059915971010923386,
-0.21091563999652863,
0.4878360629081726,
-0.3545439839363098,
0.15727439522743225,
0.03843291848897934,
-0.05183638259768486,
0.6999661922454834,
-0.09011001884937286,
-0.10223379731178284,
-0.32498160004615784,
0.04997790977358818,
0.19920514523983002,
-0.049646250903606415,
0.043988171964883804,
0.25661754608154297,
-0.3027367889881134,
-0.07423340529203415,
-0.2425241321325302,
-0.6754851937294006,
-0.5393077731132507,
-0.1407873034477234,
-0.20750775933265686,
0.32783037424087524,
0.014758072793483734,
-0.12299095094203949,
-0.6404236555099487,
-0.7809798121452332,
0.5470765233039856,
-0.7922928333282471,
-0.2445763647556305,
-0.8041719198226929,
0.04081146791577339,
0.31068599224090576,
0.8446564078330994,
0.04120315983891487,
0.6579998731613159,
-0.21354864537715912,
-0.17960835993289948,
-0.03458971902728081,
-0.6011715531349182,
-0.2353336662054062,
-0.0007108284626156092,
0.40738990902900696,
0.03703663870692253,
0.49527543783187866,
-0.2257433384656906,
-0.12385579198598862,
0.07580539584159851,
-0.4087241590023041,
-0.8281992673873901,
-0.7635045051574707,
-0.729614794254303,
0.13169945776462555,
0.6651922464370728,
-0.9170987010002136,
-0.6544939279556274,
0.3913961350917816,
0.13315390050411224,
-0.4278092682361603,
-0.2056611329317093,
-0.6007037162780762,
0.7497772574424744,
-0.050161875784397125,
-0.06233123317360878,
0.4652125835418701,
-0.06493128836154938,
0.04128159582614899,
0.21924160420894623,
-0.29935380816459656,
0.46159878373146057,
-0.11852442473173141,
-0.260515958070755,
0.4506307542324066,
-0.33829909563064575,
0.10073525458574295,
0.13002453744411469,
0.4310203492641449,
0.07236514240503311,
0.1741897016763687,
0.460187166929245,
0.07511038333177567,
-0.04895941540598869,
0.4918297827243805,
-0.07779216021299362,
-0.2962868809700012,
-0.4334193170070648,
-0.20477251708507538,
-0.8877299427986145,
-0.13028812408447266,
0.3124582767486572,
0.10213049501180649,
0.07982227206230164,
-0.4540267586708069,
0.2667016088962555,
-0.5733374953269958,
0.568533182144165,
-0.27517959475517273,
0.1326676309108734,
-0.3407357335090637,
-0.021017728373408318,
0.12306185066699982,
0.7069117426872253,
-0.00962009746581316,
-0.18251106142997742,
-0.13254393637180328,
0.031077120453119278,
0.5796661972999573,
0.7609934210777283,
-0.5204028487205505,
0.18271072208881378,
0.6055548787117004,
0.7247912287712097,
-0.29902222752571106,
0.20745709538459778,
-0.46604350209236145,
-0.2967345118522644,
0.5326021909713745,
0.07766041904687881,
0.4789904057979584,
-0.0741768330335617,
-0.5831645131111145,
-0.5761537551879883,
-0.07518528401851654,
-0.03668854758143425,
0.47987744212150574,
-0.05918658524751663,
0.4376284182071686,
-0.41698428988456726,
-0.2889178395271301,
-0.5294791460037231,
-0.3638301491737366,
0.3930276334285736,
0.4162733256816864,
0.018438156694173813,
0.19932204484939575,
0.8523203134536743,
0.5000391602516174,
-0.14574673771858215,
0.16869542002677917,
0.43589940667152405,
0.06705139577388763,
-0.05370887741446495,
-0.01595192216336727,
-0.4525851607322693,
0.012158910743892193,
-0.8564935922622681,
0.07148927450180054,
0.8444439768791199,
0.737236499786377,
0.08173699676990509,
-0.5352078080177307,
0.132063627243042,
0.03315209969878197,
-0.6725297570228577,
0.7825859189033508,
-0.3425946533679962,
0.06669740378856659,
0.08149003982543945,
0.5217272043228149,
-0.2461833357810974,
-0.6984825134277344,
0.18415163457393646,
0.04305963218212128,
-0.6106789112091064,
0.07104822248220444,
-0.4467819929122925,
0.5517418384552002,
-0.0647931694984436,
0.02400672808289528,
0.030463896691799164,
-0.7473971843719482,
0.015193667262792587,
0.08738982677459717,
-0.9916340708732605,
0.9235299825668335,
0.16767153143882751,
-0.5524917244911194,
0.8916564583778381,
0.0972883328795433,
-0.16944219172000885,
-0.27342942357063293,
-0.7590765357017517,
-0.08031296730041504,
-0.13538150489330292,
-0.448956161737442,
0.4354657828807831,
0.5128502249717712,
0.1521073430776596,
-0.07235725969076157,
0.2260095179080963,
-0.004065819550305605,
-0.22043998539447784,
0.3039744198322296,
-0.25313666462898254,
-0.24530011415481567,
-0.2403918206691742,
-0.686553955078125,
0.8011916875839233,
-0.11252748221158981,
0.2282721996307373,
1.0939970016479492,
-0.35739418864250183,
0.11160087585449219,
1.4507791996002197,
-0.1538415551185608,
0.47769415378570557,
0.6822704672813416,
0.6059839129447937,
0.7342606782913208,
-0.13565075397491455,
-0.051932092756032944,
0.31095078587532043,
0.32913094758987427,
-0.8212168216705322,
-0.2669209837913513,
0.3394869267940521,
-0.12007242441177368,
-0.516441822052002,
0.029927708208560944,
-0.041070643812417984,
0.17557759582996368,
-0.23527704179286957,
-0.17985951900482178,
0.0019337768899276853,
0.28843656182289124,
0.1079074963927269,
-0.9759929776191711,
0.5981607437133789,
-0.21421754360198975,
0.28037580847740173,
-0.0263548344373703,
0.5167465209960938,
0.3335697054862976,
-0.9529922604560852,
0.1143212616443634,
0.14722274243831635,
-0.49405184388160706,
0.07244130223989487,
0.2763126492500305,
-0.13159991800785065,
-0.3753223419189453,
-0.14263653755187988,
-0.2537912130355835,
-0.09707533568143845,
0.26708000898361206,
-0.6516916155815125,
-0.5110589861869812,
0.21760018169879913,
-0.4539969861507416,
0.8285650014877319,
0.7314735054969788,
-0.5855386853218079,
-0.7057945132255554,
-0.08330710977315903,
0.10802348703145981,
-0.34870293736457825,
0.058912236243486404,
0.42371881008148193,
-0.5934259295463562,
-0.8412078022956848,
0.012290086597204208,
-0.037140775471925735,
0.07147037237882614,
-0.9061979055404663,
-0.52009516954422,
0.017045196145772934,
0.20755867660045624,
-0.5501902103424072,
-0.21743763983249664,
0.15183226764202118,
-0.2041117250919342,
0.09699782729148865,
-0.18909743428230286,
-0.04098423570394516,
0.8608335852622986,
0.5348904728889465,
-0.43002283573150635,
-0.08092746883630753,
-0.004223755095154047,
-0.2716670036315918,
-0.10816508531570435,
-0.15752804279327393,
-0.044269341975450516,
0.01588752120733261,
0.4161399006843567,
-0.34863153100013733,
0.13211165368556976,
0.019872840493917465,
-5.4946370124816895,
-0.42706799507141113,
-0.07530634850263596,
-0.19454464316368103,
0.2017565816640854,
0.18612170219421387,
0.7165367603302002,
-0.2537092864513397,
-0.350072979927063,
0.42829424142837524,
-0.29110586643218994,
0.1883017122745514,
0.004157910589128733,
0.9933304190635681,
0.8686506748199463,
0.5162488222122192,
0.6811140179634094,
-0.1716451197862625,
0.3465414345264435,
0.2478644996881485,
-0.24807778000831604,
-0.15299491584300995,
0.2866336703300476,
0.5698471069335938,
-0.05292145162820816,
-0.5578768253326416,
-0.2432398796081543,
0.3470947742462158,
-0.1415713131427765,
-0.08323411643505096,
0.011146270669996738,
-0.3614843189716339,
-0.302871972322464,
-0.4816119968891144,
0.36327943205833435,
0.47426337003707886,
0.6003912687301636,
0.5327816605567932,
-0.2261536568403244,
-0.3935505449771881,
-0.03344704955816269,
0.3672430217266083,
0.37468400597572327,
0.028284553438425064,
-0.033056482672691345,
0.20915286242961884,
-0.19339583814144135,
0.032472509890794754,
-1.1204442977905273,
0.7554513216018677,
-0.15267643332481384,
0.31526774168014526,
0.8259731531143188,
0.26136425137519836,
0.027323845773935318,
0.04443163797259331,
1.0131727457046509,
-0.3382459282875061,
-0.5319820642471313,
0.03406268358230591,
0.3808042109012604,
-0.5968544483184814,
-0.10372547805309296,
-0.25407686829566956,
0.12344679236412048,
0.15419115126132965,
-0.7754327058792114,
-0.8214192986488342,
0.5779209136962891,
0.35324493050575256,
-0.5583068132400513,
0.28576725721359253,
0.4452017843723297,
-0.7306827902793884,
0.2938208281993866,
-1.1237311363220215,
0.26254168152809143,
-0.11800934374332428,
0.49605002999305725,
0.3263731598854065,
-0.1499096304178238,
-0.0329589769244194,
-0.0005616192938759923,
0.13036595284938812,
0.3467875123023987,
0.25858256220817566,
0.3181334137916565,
0.48846039175987244,
-0.5138585567474365,
-0.07824071496725082,
0.3993503749370575,
0.04242885112762451,
0.22805792093276978,
0.33113542199134827,
0.5638387799263,
0.6830836534500122,
0.02435283176600933,
-0.25387510657310486,
0.10051389038562775,
-0.7127900123596191,
0.1187182143330574,
-0.28944021463394165,
-0.6027188897132874,
-0.2099614441394806,
0.1834234893321991,
0.19547541439533234,
-0.9462294578552246,
0.38689225912094116,
0.1494310200214386,
-0.2162558138370514,
0.013967161066830158,
0.48432162404060364,
-0.14527994394302368,
-0.4480753242969513,
0.23896706104278564,
0.7700213193893433,
-0.9147966504096985,
0.25209295749664307,
0.07860176265239716,
-0.15155285596847534,
0.5453722476959229,
0.4962098300457001,
-0.0263350997120142,
0.22960883378982544,
-0.753110945224762,
-0.4563008248806,
0.08007673174142838,
0.13640554249286652,
-0.313411682844162,
0.05768594145774841,
0.731037974357605,
-0.0797828957438469,
-0.2396215796470642,
-0.25273677706718445,
0.3334904611110687,
-0.35024118423461914,
0.32172268629074097,
0.3179806172847748,
-0.25987881422042847,
-0.1862669587135315,
0.28127700090408325,
0.06200303137302399,
0.15008121728897095,
-0.15762880444526672,
0.5062808990478516,
-0.45149993896484375,
-0.23540839552879333,
-0.052519168704748154,
-0.5355546474456787,
0.29296502470970154,
-0.02567388489842415,
-0.219696044921875,
0.3524967133998871,
-0.23434045910835266,
0.40865933895111084,
-0.4689233899116516,
0.4132764935493469,
0.03747444227337837,
0.6392247080802917,
-0.4854097068309784,
0.04770351201295853,
-0.42695727944374084,
-1.0596238374710083,
0.25205138325691223,
0.07147181034088135,
0.025606822222471237,
-0.8346434831619263,
-0.18552051484584808,
-0.1277729719877243,
0.3125729560852051,
0.1884424090385437,
-0.3208181858062744,
-0.11916403472423553,
-0.43904659152030945,
0.39035239815711975,
-0.483714759349823,
0.5115476846694946,
0.4671706557273865,
-0.24947750568389893,
-0.365314781665802,
-0.3765898048877716,
-0.34633728861808777,
-0.39437735080718994,
-0.2876286506652832,
0.19717131555080414,
-0.08265897631645203,
0.2856166660785675,
0.2925218939781189,
-0.32010218501091003,
-0.4203324317932129,
0.3895081877708435,
0.46421152353286743,
0.9943957924842834,
-0.13222667574882507,
0.18076911568641663,
-0.4839324355125427,
-0.008664014749228954,
-0.22661873698234558,
-0.14174365997314453,
-0.7180253267288208,
0.20128273963928223,
0.3490302860736847,
-1.0203564167022705,
0.2881324589252472,
-0.09508942812681198,
-0.23910987377166748,
0.2333276867866516,
-0.286935418844223,
-0.508381187915802,
0.3035314679145813,
-0.8530007004737854,
-0.45617905259132385,
-0.1002577543258667,
0.2046390324831009,
-0.8641138076782227,
0.1423056572675705,
0.3181728422641754,
-0.6512407660484314,
-0.6313044428825378,
0.14044776558876038,
0.5568171739578247,
-0.48625102639198303,
-0.5716520547866821,
-0.14241817593574524,
-0.3693433403968811,
0.4161607623100281,
0.26021960377693176,
-0.5875557065010071,
0.1157820001244545,
-0.08576446771621704,
-0.7994557619094849,
-0.39551541209220886,
-0.10667597502470016,
-0.2886643707752228,
-0.5744518041610718,
-0.3400138020515442,
-0.5696184039115906,
0.5968765616416931,
-0.5188265442848206,
-0.2388300746679306,
0.27117133140563965,
1.0573885440826416,
0.4612571895122528,
-0.6749753355979919,
-0.11641981452703476,
0.4812655746936798,
0.3362724781036377,
-0.0787181630730629,
-0.5195875763893127,
-0.0859861746430397,
0.3374235928058624,
0.13186071813106537,
-0.5798467397689819,
-0.21419747173786163,
0.8703200817108154,
-0.05739462375640869,
-0.2387978583574295,
-0.09459447860717773,
0.4645949602127075,
0.49069803953170776,
-0.13604731857776642,
-0.9617907404899597,
0.026638580486178398,
-0.5026665329933167,
0.6474401950836182,
-0.21108032763004303,
0.3081868290901184,
-0.10703020542860031,
0.11355065554380417,
-0.6589071750640869,
0.18372377753257751,
-0.24650952219963074,
0.28575026988983154,
0.0605008564889431,
0.6491435170173645,
-0.17060817778110504,
0.37403860688209534,
0.2841741740703583,
0.33201077580451965,
0.05708691477775574,
-0.03506261855363846,
-0.022275414317846298,
-0.31750568747520447,
-0.6371167898178101,
0.4206158518791199,
-0.5290623903274536,
0.05984855070710182,
-0.20793606340885162,
-0.6103672385215759,
-0.4054693579673767,
-0.7942657470703125,
-0.17185969650745392,
0.03202585503458977,
0.7205324769020081,
-0.2967614531517029,
0.15904799103736877,
0.031103555113077164,
0.09387030452489853,
-0.2793220281600952,
0.22167177498340607,
-0.1495051383972168,
0.28240305185317993,
-0.040085989981889725,
-0.4942246675491333,
0.42828133702278137,
0.0043219043873250484,
0.049613106995821,
-0.6893304586410522,
0.1199917420744896,
-0.2944929003715515,
0.4463420808315277,
-0.023267153650522232,
0.7941724061965942,
0.15046341717243195,
-0.38735857605934143,
0.24485239386558533,
0.3239023685455322,
-0.4109366238117218,
0.5140789151191711,
0.506177544593811,
0.031957246363162994,
-0.18787036836147308,
0.10724430531263351,
-0.21595458686351776,
0.7868509292602539,
0.22757159173488617,
-0.11454273760318756,
-0.10030712932348251,
0.29685530066490173,
0.08715301752090454,
1.2065529823303223,
0.5265806317329407,
-0.3691102862358093,
-0.03147655352950096,
-0.2714347541332245,
0.2730266749858856,
0.15855813026428223,
-0.32727354764938354,
-0.5741624236106873,
0.25734689831733704,
0.2698822319507599,
-0.11709356307983398,
-0.16735821962356567,
0.3759849965572357,
-0.26763877272605896,
0.150763139128685,
0.03689346835017204,
0.37030112743377686,
-0.7456848621368408,
0.6255166530609131,
0.7857562303543091,
-0.13951821625232697,
0.3635655641555786,
0.16190296411514282,
-0.12054677307605743,
-0.8288254737854004,
0.37159112095832825,
-0.037578389048576355,
0.05976672098040581,
-0.42477890849113464,
0.1811116337776184,
0.6123172044754028,
-0.007082338444888592,
-0.05502239614725113,
0.2723177671432495,
0.3583029508590698,
0.5631954669952393,
-0.0562523789703846,
0.5777580738067627,
0.5470913648605347,
0.23196078836917877,
0.5977600812911987,
0.025361398234963417,
0.6293936967849731,
0.2645898759365082,
-0.7964671850204468,
0.12492433935403824,
0.15474863350391388,
0.028402920812368393,
-0.21924465894699097,
0.025540677830576897,
-0.28372976183891296,
0.10911203920841217,
-0.49855178594589233,
-0.43344077467918396,
0.362418532371521,
-0.6633764505386353,
-0.08241385966539383,
-0.1579558551311493,
0.1614316999912262,
-0.43599072098731995,
-0.29941338300704956,
0.19104474782943726,
0.23408927023410797,
-0.6505864262580872,
0.350842148065567,
-0.1945662498474121,
0.7330984473228455,
0.49399086833000183,
-0.4718966484069824,
0.047412578016519547,
0.6348087191581726,
-0.19844171404838562,
-0.15113994479179382,
0.24249856173992157,
0.14963479340076447,
-0.9664246439933777,
0.06126531958580017,
-0.7474814653396606,
0.00034626704291440547,
0.567389190196991,
-0.33796226978302,
-0.044787611812353134,
0.3927139639854431,
0.23299862444400787,
1.2759506702423096,
0.6075317859649658,
-0.15422526001930237,
0.7288066744804382,
-0.18611650168895721,
0.3186819851398468,
-0.17540393769741058,
0.37838563323020935,
0.12625817954540253,
0.14239062368869781,
-0.09105090796947479,
0.2616191506385803,
0.19596663117408752,
-0.6478416919708252,
0.4919377565383911,
-0.26218539476394653,
-0.030268676578998566,
-0.4760759472846985,
0.48114556074142456,
-0.31858116388320923,
0.6200584173202515,
-0.33451300859451294,
0.6257075071334839,
0.2317710965871811,
-0.4456373453140259,
0.007865812629461288,
-0.01691848784685135,
0.4318496286869049,
0.2522585988044739,
-1.1756051778793335,
-0.02184007130563259,
0.06394430249929428,
0.021358557045459747,
-0.4780206084251404,
0.3435823917388916,
0.5506609082221985,
-0.22016283869743347,
-0.2438097596168518,
-0.19394288957118988,
-0.4991087317466736,
0.27061161398887634,
0.10706007480621338,
-0.6802348494529724,
-0.3207153081893921,
0.6843233108520508
] |
261063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Girardon | François Girardon | François Girardon (10 March 1628 – 1 September 1715) was a French sculptor of the Louis XIV style or French Baroque, best known for his statues and busts of Louis XIV and for his statuary in the gardens of the Palace of Versailles.
Biography
He was born at Troyes. His father was a foundry worker. He was first trained as a joiner and woodcarver. His talent attracted the attention of the Chancellor of Louis XIV, Pierre Séguier, a serious patron of the arts, who arranged for him to work in the studio of François Anguier, and later, from 1648 to 1650 to live and apprentice in Rome. There he saw Baroque sculpture and met Bernini, but he came to reject that style and moved instead toward classicism and the models of ancient Roman sculpture.
In 1650 he returned to France, and became a member of the group of artists, led by Charles Le Brun, the official painter of the King, and including the garden designer André Le Nôtre, who were commissioned to decorate the new royal park of the Chateau of Versailles. His principal contribution was the group of statuary representing Apollo served by the Nymphs, (1666-1675), symbolizing the Sun King himself, placed in a grotto close to the Palace. The figure of Apollo was inspired in form by the Apollo Belvedere of the Vatican, and featured two groups of figures; Apollo surrounded by nymphs, and a second group, next to the grotto, showing The Horses of the Sun being conducted to their royal stable.
He created another fountain for Versailles, the Basin of Saturn or Winter (1672-1677), made of gilded lead, composed in a more baroque style, crowded with figures. His third major work at Versailles was the Kidnapping of Proserpine. This group of statues was located away from the center of the garden, and was designed to seen from a single point of view. The sense of movement and twisted figures give it a Baroque appearance, but this is balanced by the classical clarity and symmetry of the composition.
Girardon rose steadily in the official artistic hierarchy. He became a member of the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture in 1657, was raised to professor, in 1674 assistant to the Rector. In 1690, on the death of Le Brun, he became inspector general of works of sculpture, governing all royal sculptural commissions. In 1695, he became Chancellor of the Royal Academy.
In 1675 he received another important commission, for the tomb of Cardinal Richelieu, located in the Chapel of the Sorbonne. It was completed in 1694. The figure of the Cardinal is shown seated on the tomb but alive, sitting up and looking toward the altar. (The tomb was originally placed in the choir of the church, but has since been moved to a separate chapel). He is accompanied by figures of two grieving women representing Religion and science. The tomb was completed in 1694, and had considerable influence on the design of later funeral sculpture. It was nearly destroyed by a mob during the French Revolution, but was protected by the archeologist Alexandre Lenoir, who received a bayonet wound in its defense. He had it moved to safety in the first museum of French monuments.
In 1699, Girardon completed another major work, a bronze equestrian statue of Louis XIV, which was placed in the center in the center of Place Louis le Grand (now Place Vendôme). This statue was melted down during the French Revolution and is now known only by a small bronze model made by Girardon himself, in the Louvre, He died in Paris in 1715.
Other notable work of Girandon that can still be seen include Tomb of Louvois in the Church of (St-Eustache) in Paris; the tomb of Bignon, the King's librarian, made in 1656, in (St-Nicolas du Chardonnet); and decorative sculptures in the Gallery of Apollo and the King's Bedroom in the Louvre.
The municipal museum of his birthplace of Troyes has several of his works, marble busts of Louis XIV and Maria Theresa. The Town Hall displays a medallion of Louis XIV, and the Church of Saint Remy displays a bronze crucifix he made.
Sculpture
Notes and citations
Bibliography
Geese, Uwe, Section on Baroque sculpture in L'Art Baroque - Architecture - Sculpture - Peinture (French translation from German), H.F. Ulmann, Cologne, 2015. ()
External links
1628 births
1715 deaths
People from Troyes
17th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
18th-century French sculptors | [
0.0083472253754735,
0.37581732869148254,
-0.4444626569747925,
0.2388746738433838,
0.13397161662578583,
1.2310930490493774,
0.5052950382232666,
-0.03281034529209137,
-0.9034217596054077,
-0.8585331439971924,
-0.2306075394153595,
0.17865100502967834,
-0.17497442662715912,
0.1217847615480423,
-0.04231639578938484,
-0.26166266202926636,
0.10189872235059738,
-0.23520132899284363,
-0.1947503238916397,
-0.12173128873109818,
-0.09630424529314041,
-0.3319318890571594,
0.6283125877380371,
-0.5408657193183899,
-0.28342491388320923,
0.141214057803154,
0.16700319945812225,
-0.04639042168855667,
0.614464521408081,
0.3009549677371979,
0.06944141536951065,
0.17940831184387207,
-0.03995737060904503,
-0.6052027344703674,
-0.8777042031288147,
-0.3281775116920471,
-0.19407768547534943,
0.17481258511543274,
0.1831844300031662,
0.0055983359925448895,
0.45308932662010193,
-0.03390360623598099,
0.12968415021896362,
-0.41665706038475037,
-0.29372599720954895,
-0.5096170902252197,
-1.1887702941894531,
0.30292803049087524,
-0.30885985493659973,
-0.03387705236673355,
-0.12243501842021942,
0.14986705780029297,
-0.17251911759376526,
0.8594762086868286,
0.36734285950660706,
0.7938894033432007,
-1.0156567096710205,
-0.05981865152716637,
0.31957316398620605,
-0.8690223097801208,
0.4859790802001953,
0.4348122775554657,
0.44166645407676697,
-0.13286533951759338,
-0.031238839030265808,
0.2763364017009735,
0.1024056151509285,
-0.12726619839668274,
0.28437283635139465,
0.11058374494314194,
0.1560410112142563,
0.22170032560825348,
0.4557003378868103,
0.23687303066253662,
0.20331305265426636,
-0.1239669919013977,
-0.018033858388662338,
-0.02358957938849926,
0.4945162534713745,
0.013075984083116055,
0.2978990077972412,
-0.5605573058128357,
0.9069638848304749,
0.7941749691963196,
0.016338177025318146,
0.7317152619361877,
-0.06504982709884644,
0.10933676362037659,
-0.7799432873725891,
0.07893206179141998,
-0.8008862137794495,
-0.2029893398284912,
0.43601781129837036,
-0.24162352085113525,
-0.08865450322628021,
0.4849449694156647,
0.11330608278512955,
0.1676325649023056,
0.1624145656824112,
0.28268077969551086,
-0.04937805235385895,
0.09842629730701447,
-0.33233097195625305,
-0.13451366126537323,
-0.3157554268836975,
-0.6539270877838135,
-0.434270441532135,
-0.03610219433903694,
-0.1496247947216034,
0.22180956602096558,
-0.1963408887386322,
-0.11708636581897736,
-0.1324436217546463,
0.26954710483551025,
0.21799559891223907,
0.2585560083389282,
0.6515371799468994,
-0.8512900471687317,
-0.8078675866127014,
0.3145909607410431,
0.06903165578842163,
-0.09429562091827393,
0.07059884071350098,
-0.13887256383895874,
-0.3020946979522705,
-0.2935202419757843,
0.32445862889289856,
0.34173712134361267,
-0.24819324910640717,
-0.25641798973083496,
0.3789815306663513,
0.996652364730835,
-0.31382593512535095,
-0.5719391703605652,
0.28580302000045776,
-0.7883772253990173,
-0.19552884995937347,
-0.22566762566566467,
-0.36016368865966797,
0.5224031805992126,
-0.1956779807806015,
-0.39439988136291504,
0.14563171565532684,
-0.34451138973236084,
-0.15038786828517914,
-0.37734565138816833,
0.5125229358673096,
-0.1452561765909195,
0.24205420911312103,
0.15152384340763092,
-0.7263814210891724,
-0.008486049249768257,
0.10004989802837372,
-0.7315443754196167,
0.3033953309059143,
0.6457408666610718,
0.6741421222686768,
0.3041078448295593,
0.08622118830680847,
-0.07169757783412933,
0.24887874722480774,
0.1513218879699707,
-0.535624623298645,
-0.13359111547470093,
0.50984787940979,
-0.14445166289806366,
0.3554867208003998,
0.016584722325205803,
-0.38027653098106384,
-0.06075787544250488,
-0.618557870388031,
-0.31781676411628723,
0.3570134937763214,
-0.29807040095329285,
-0.2641865611076355,
0.1525108963251114,
0.47838422656059265,
0.028045659884810448,
0.7405557632446289,
-0.2746025025844574,
-0.4870055019855499,
0.02282574027776718,
-0.18849393725395203,
0.2607622444629669,
1.0370525121688843,
0.18283939361572266,
0.6644737124443054,
-0.017731579020619392,
-0.057503510266542435,
-0.21994486451148987,
-0.8214486241340637,
-0.22902747988700867,
-0.1185569018125534,
-0.6259404420852661,
0.6006951332092285,
0.33751043677330017,
-0.7769275307655334,
0.8150254487991333,
-0.05140673741698265,
0.7007312178611755,
-0.3432471752166748,
-0.019474830478429794,
0.08008317649364471,
-0.12126699090003967,
0.021774545311927795,
0.0976920798420906,
0.11407003551721573,
-0.2615811824798584,
0.5673007965087891,
0.7486675381660461,
0.9528478980064392,
-0.6809442639350891,
0.24107767641544342,
0.7247686386108398,
-0.80892014503479,
-0.19498218595981598,
-0.8928406238555908,
-0.10355137288570404,
-0.543597936630249,
-0.019100692123174667,
0.3255072236061096,
0.2044319212436676,
-0.25421959161758423,
1.1756844520568848,
-0.4835675358772278,
0.6044474840164185,
-0.14274711906909943,
-0.2409657984972,
0.16592106223106384,
-0.5513570308685303,
-0.5628707408905029,
-0.08533526211977005,
0.4073481559753418,
0.021297743543982506,
-0.05006195604801178,
0.34123358130455017,
0.2904985547065735,
-0.5681229829788208,
0.3816404938697815,
-0.27936503291130066,
0.03518601506948471,
0.6552121043205261,
0.21329112350940704,
-0.13195468485355377,
0.2171245515346527,
0.6261833906173706,
-0.13683539628982544,
0.1677761971950531,
-0.20931625366210938,
-0.12306448817253113,
-0.45741960406303406,
0.9389267563819885,
-0.45843401551246643,
0.29771360754966736,
-0.04453109949827194,
-0.3364919126033783,
0.9333666563034058,
0.06077638640999794,
-0.604619562625885,
0.33477288484573364,
-0.41127294301986694,
-0.6150022745132446,
0.20803377032279968,
0.5688980221748352,
0.16815294325351715,
-0.26739975810050964,
0.2768385112285614,
-0.20532207190990448,
0.3437175750732422,
0.3539511263370514,
0.011031352914869785,
-0.35055574774742126,
-0.366955429315567,
0.5364711880683899,
0.5770926475524902,
-0.10928351432085037,
-0.6463715434074402,
0.4231591522693634,
-0.018114186823368073,
-0.536339521408081,
-0.23481258749961853,
1.231076955795288,
-0.5256502628326416,
0.37618425488471985,
-0.0482216402888298,
0.07012562453746796,
0.06626401841640472,
-0.5204553604125977,
0.1608077436685562,
-0.16829027235507965,
0.04045312479138374,
0.49595847725868225,
-0.3538114130496979,
-0.4236498773097992,
-0.06925029307603836,
0.0035569514147937298,
-0.7971304655075073,
-0.7125266194343567,
0.02759593166410923,
-0.12250366061925888,
-0.5669331550598145,
0.31104931235313416,
0.52884441614151,
0.25163549184799194,
0.3494943380355835,
0.2490873634815216,
0.41422948241233826,
0.4576413035392761,
-5.49755859375,
0.016802623867988586,
0.5171048641204834,
0.06644307076931,
-0.10160404443740845,
0.3017818331718445,
0.8206446170806885,
-0.02093997411429882,
0.12433281540870667,
-0.653783917427063,
0.971188485622406,
-0.28470128774642944,
0.05857835337519646,
0.9785796403884888,
-0.17892062664031982,
0.6286885738372803,
0.4034122824668884,
-0.3392341732978821,
0.1250673085451126,
0.13305196166038513,
0.30437272787094116,
-0.5673256516456604,
-0.18054774403572083,
0.3870518207550049,
0.3332034945487976,
-0.21757136285305023,
-0.23446574807167053,
0.06813071668148041,
-0.9157580733299255,
-0.22695961594581604,
-0.3855651915073395,
0.30488958954811096,
0.33386385440826416,
-0.14230789244174957,
0.02905566245317459,
0.007785274181514978,
0.07803263515233994,
0.6183034777641296,
-0.28017157316207886,
0.06941012293100357,
0.43729907274246216,
-0.04131674766540527,
-0.5635267496109009,
0.4116553068161011,
-0.2633923292160034,
-0.7172544002532959,
-0.9241836667060852,
0.21799352765083313,
-0.3404240310192108,
-0.07648716121912003,
0.5881962776184082,
0.0376870334148407,
0.17384497821331024,
0.11668923497200012,
0.10481030493974686,
-0.10803641378879547,
-0.18993473052978516,
0.4517935514450073,
-0.917220950126648,
0.289233535528183,
0.20803837478160858,
-0.22852550446987152,
-0.0012666733236983418,
-0.13273075222969055,
0.21722963452339172,
-0.40237849950790405,
-0.20163637399673462,
0.29871004819869995,
-0.08288438618183136,
-0.053341515362262726,
0.13172051310539246,
0.9969993829727173,
-0.6888306140899658,
-1.215754508972168,
-0.14135634899139404,
-0.13470318913459778,
-0.05918438360095024,
-0.3275375962257385,
-0.5320798754692078,
-0.23867866396903992,
-0.0745643824338913,
-0.3641955852508545,
0.43593063950538635,
0.8869998455047607,
0.74700927734375,
0.8048198819160461,
-0.30210772156715393,
0.2102629393339157,
-0.6411039233207703,
-0.13126125931739807,
0.3730173408985138,
-0.23371632397174835,
0.03225718438625336,
-0.27527856826782227,
-0.18092606961727142,
0.048228971660137177,
0.373174250125885,
0.06360569596290588,
0.38184380531311035,
0.32718905806541443,
0.06734892725944519,
0.40569159388542175,
-0.10764002799987793,
-0.46140336990356445,
-0.06960538774728775,
-0.3664335310459137,
0.35256558656692505,
0.4153819978237152,
0.007711177691817284,
0.749958336353302,
-0.34548643231391907,
0.05723697319626808,
-0.17542655766010284,
0.008699359372258186,
-0.0416608564555645,
-0.9077180624008179,
0.015987107530236244,
0.1408482789993286,
0.32107871770858765,
-0.21359890699386597,
-0.10405195504426956,
0.6962392330169678,
-0.23307844996452332,
-0.2503662407398224,
0.3574921488761902,
-0.0028582073282450438,
-0.4425477981567383,
0.05020995810627937,
-0.16214682161808014,
-0.5117387175559998,
0.051861248910427094,
0.7926725745201111,
-0.390766978263855,
0.5216882824897766,
0.363145112991333,
-0.35731542110443115,
-0.09653949737548828,
-0.5084673762321472,
-0.13912223279476166,
-0.14958477020263672,
0.7591303586959839,
0.011686245910823345,
-0.0048551964573562145,
0.5106263756752014,
0.2728959023952484,
0.31340354681015015,
0.20146657526493073,
0.04619686305522919,
-0.16611675918102264,
0.5907493233680725,
-0.5989388823509216,
0.20412124693393707,
0.2818247675895691,
0.05567595362663269,
-0.027466285973787308,
0.12604358792304993,
-0.4853815734386444,
0.1914220005273819,
0.2093198597431183,
0.05070862919092178,
0.028372326865792274,
0.17658072710037231,
-0.7935941219329834,
-0.38396888971328735,
-0.4445853531360626,
0.46502628922462463,
-0.30222994089126587,
-0.7028851509094238,
-0.5469790101051331,
0.6970176696777344,
0.4945218861103058,
-0.5024882555007935,
-0.18389859795570374,
-0.3340061604976654,
-0.06255747377872467,
-0.23491744697093964,
-0.20525479316711426,
-0.2482200413942337,
-0.12854525446891785,
-0.3034154176712036,
0.09217306226491928,
-0.08102217316627502,
0.18706141412258148,
-0.39933234453201294,
0.6937174201011658,
0.4990379214286804,
-0.4253946840763092,
0.0986684039235115,
-0.09869172424077988,
-0.18241791427135468,
-0.11421490460634232,
-0.4591621458530426,
-0.3477064073085785,
0.46867483854293823,
-0.13693350553512573,
-0.32491999864578247,
-0.038013242185115814,
0.38499245047569275,
-0.219112828373909,
-0.5805925130844116,
-0.3318736255168915,
0.15052498877048492,
-0.5489866137504578,
0.20911568403244019,
0.26263314485549927,
-0.8460618853569031,
0.2542217969894409,
0.08711075037717819,
0.3362821936607361,
0.2635263204574585,
-0.6159759759902954,
-0.35689276456832886,
0.42471861839294434,
0.37960025668144226,
0.03305188938975334,
0.18651114404201508,
-0.21704941987991333,
-0.08243681490421295,
-0.28927913308143616,
-0.5777415037155151,
-0.571839451789856,
-0.08174745738506317,
-0.7158345580101013,
0.2618829905986786,
-0.754753828048706,
0.15409071743488312,
0.36439332365989685,
-0.11008160561323166,
0.43639999628067017,
-0.19679419696331024,
0.1282818615436554,
0.08965666592121124,
0.09372200071811676,
-0.2765316963195801,
-0.2626948654651642,
-0.47557467222213745,
0.8384695053100586,
-0.06838332861661911,
-0.2532723546028137,
-0.06981039047241211,
0.09658433496952057,
1.0405956506729126,
0.01176982931792736,
0.4092986583709717,
-0.15040485560894012,
0.31908726692199707,
0.011115760542452335,
-0.2834022343158722,
0.07724928855895996,
0.3389873504638672,
-0.451688289642334,
-0.2617780864238739,
-0.06409453600645065,
-0.39600110054016113,
0.6494632363319397,
-0.4496116042137146,
0.16055266559123993,
0.42105191946029663,
0.2368551343679428,
-0.0013077853946015239,
0.035764820873737335,
0.17821566760540009,
0.21223628520965576,
-0.8552719354629517,
0.3471992015838623,
0.022489821538329124,
0.20446212589740753,
0.027411220595240593,
0.5408052206039429,
-0.19304975867271423,
0.18642567098140717,
-0.041429221630096436,
-0.5368193984031677,
0.6093459725379944,
-0.42579132318496704,
-0.05619979277253151,
-0.46867796778678894,
-0.2930282950401306,
1.0730997323989868,
-0.6836203336715698,
-1.191551685333252,
0.39845871925354004,
-0.07438603788614273,
-0.05719514936208725,
0.22572986781597137,
-0.7400413751602173,
-0.1661546230316162,
0.168519988656044,
-0.21741117537021637,
0.30063900351524353,
-0.8081074357032776,
0.2751598656177521,
-0.03512101247906685,
0.29058387875556946,
-0.019190436229109764,
0.7085902690887451,
-0.38724541664123535,
0.5994178056716919,
-0.33677491545677185,
-0.11481668800115585,
-0.356516033411026,
0.12504255771636963,
0.3245295286178589,
-0.41896963119506836,
0.004831261467188597,
0.2643304169178009,
0.018165193498134613,
-0.26490265130996704,
-0.593624472618103,
0.4716566801071167,
0.44380635023117065,
-0.28213703632354736,
-0.08887501806020737,
-0.5587778687477112,
-0.34024226665496826,
-0.24595974385738373,
0.26549965143203735,
-0.40026214718818665,
-0.9235805869102478,
0.3535090386867523,
-0.1506536453962326,
0.24509765207767487,
0.24523407220840454,
-0.708989679813385,
0.16745007038116455,
0.7768219709396362,
0.21083159744739532,
-0.12912645936012268,
0.021833734586834908,
0.5373983383178711,
-0.1208828017115593,
-0.2877148687839508,
-0.8833642601966858,
0.6682382822036743,
0.461783766746521,
-0.4282926917076111,
-0.4400905668735504,
-0.45166245102882385,
0.5475874543190002,
-0.10764665901660919,
0.43074116110801697,
0.5222517251968384,
-0.8939185738563538,
-0.0019802628085017204,
-0.2842858135700226,
0.22592860460281372,
-0.07856226712465286,
-0.08201535046100616,
0.12229567766189575,
-0.01631060056388378,
0.4612917900085449,
-0.07353061437606812,
0.13526909053325653,
-0.06696294993162155,
0.33480000495910645,
0.23534591495990753,
0.01590164564549923,
-0.0005965519230812788,
0.0537429079413414,
0.3560726046562195,
-0.3247082531452179,
-0.4664230942726135,
0.7237995862960815,
-0.41093331575393677,
-0.8991332054138184,
0.4540696144104004,
-0.21774883568286896,
0.3386080861091614,
-0.08347989618778229,
-0.0672558844089508,
-0.22494551539421082,
-0.2002030909061432,
0.054285045713186264,
0.40895718336105347,
0.2731955051422119,
-0.23533053696155548,
0.3864139914512634,
0.3915812373161316,
-0.2856856882572174,
-0.4195684790611267,
0.041692402213811874,
-0.25824445486068726,
-0.06245555356144905,
-0.20252111554145813,
-0.18333876132965088,
0.021556034684181213,
0.31451642513275146,
-0.07810734957456589,
0.2766135632991791,
-0.6093207001686096,
-0.20349358022212982,
-0.10239535570144653,
0.16241268813610077,
-0.07699849456548691,
-0.43110719323158264,
-0.2888818085193634,
-0.08943866193294525,
0.7381411194801331,
-0.41650527715682983,
-0.3011113405227661,
0.7899416089057922,
-0.011910486035048962,
0.07567017525434494,
-0.22745995223522186,
0.11019580811262131,
-0.01803567446768284,
0.16801930963993073,
-0.0705035850405693,
-0.6043277382850647,
0.2437291145324707,
0.009198406711220741,
-0.28035613894462585,
-0.4417703449726105,
-0.19967730343341827,
-0.4418393075466156,
-0.43734514713287354,
0.37508833408355713,
-0.00793848093599081,
-0.16892960667610168,
-0.3498119115829468,
0.6278640627861023,
-0.3124206066131592,
0.8974415063858032,
0.21555668115615845,
-0.28318920731544495,
-0.19836877286434174,
0.43238747119903564,
-0.8808333873748779,
0.8875388503074646,
0.5264108777046204,
-0.07976828515529633,
0.6802178025245667,
-0.753108561038971,
0.16364412009716034,
-0.7513706088066101,
-0.4459768831729889,
1.1416994333267212,
0.38587889075279236,
0.1309175044298172,
-0.7901983857154846,
0.7055985927581787,
0.6279876828193665,
0.09947042167186737,
-0.21202196180820465,
0.2279476523399353,
-0.16260822117328644,
-0.19275730848312378,
-0.5551577210426331,
0.13598735630512238,
0.21960607171058655,
0.3444046378135681,
0.4891246259212494,
0.46035802364349365,
-0.944507896900177,
0.3960350453853607,
-0.12040045112371445,
0.2808876633644104,
-0.4728564918041229,
0.29435473680496216,
0.0903734639286995
] |
261067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20Bigod%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Norfolk | Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk | Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk (1095–1177) was the second son of Roger Bigod (also known as Roger Bigot) (died 1107), sheriff of Norfolk and royal advisor, and Adeliza, daughter of Robert de Todeni.
Early years
After the death of his elder brother William, who perished without issue in the sinking of the White Ship on 25 November 1120, Hugh was allowed to inherit his brother's office of royal steward and many estates in East Anglia. He also succeeded his aunt Albreda, heiress of her brother Berengar de Tosny, with lands in Yorkshire and in Normandy. Hugh became Constable of Norwich Castle in 1122.
During King Stephen's reign
Hugh initially supported Stephen of Blois as king of England. On the death of Henry I in 1135, his nephew Stephen usurped the throne, despite the oath Stephen and the barons had sworn to accept Henry's daughter Empress Matilda as his successor. It was Bigod who asserted that, in his last days, Henry I had named Stephen to become king at the expense of his daughter Matilda. Civil war resulted when, in 1139, Matilda commanded the military strength necessary to challenge Stephen within his own realm.
King Stephen initially had the support of the English barons, but in 1136 he was stricken with sickness and a report of his death was quickly spread abroad. Hugh Bigod seized and held Norwich castle. Stephen, quickly recovering, laid siege to the city and Hugh was compelled to surrender. In February 1141 Bigod fought on Stephen's side in the First Battle of Lincoln, after which the Earl deserted the captured king. In July of that year he was granted the earldom of Norfolk by the Empress Matilda but he appears to have assumed a position of armed neutrality during the civil war, rather than actively siding with the supporters of the empress.
He supported his first wife's brother-in-law, Geoffrey de Mandeville, 1st Earl of Essex, during his rebellion against King Stephen in 1143–44. During the disagreement between King Stephen and Archbishop Theobald in 1148, Hugh Bigod sided with the archbishop and received him in his stronghold, his Castle of Framlingham, but joined with others in negotiating a reconciliation between the king and the archbishop.
Rise of King Henry II
Five years later, in 1153, when Henry, Duke of Normandy, soon to become King Henry II (r. 1154–89), landed in England to assert his claim to the throne, Bigod held out in Ipswich against Stephen's forces, while Henry II, on the other side, laid siege to Stamford. Both places fell to Stephen. In the critical state of his fortunes, however, Stephen was in no position to punish the rebel earl. Negotiations between the two parties resulted in Henry's recognition as Stephen's heir and Hugh eluded retaliation.
On Henry II's accession in December 1154, Bigod received confirmation of the possession of his earldom and office of royal steward by a charter issued apparently in January of the next year. The first years of the new reign were spent in restoring order to the shattered kingdom and in breaking the power of the independent barons, which had grown out of control during King Stephen's reign.
It was not long before Bigod became agitated under the rule of law initiated by Henry. He grew restless with measures such as the scutage, a fee paid by vassals in lieu of military service, which became the central feature of Henry II's military system of operation by 1159. The Earl showed signs of resistance, but was at once put down. In 1157 Henry II marched into the eastern counties and received the earl's submission.
After this incident Hugh Bigod makes no significant appearances in the chronicles for some time; he is named among those who had been excommunicated by Becket, in consequence of his retention of lands belonging to the monastery of Pentney in Norfolk.
The revolt of 1173
In 1173 the young Crown Prince Henry (also known as Henry the Young King) raised a revolt against his father Henry II. This gave Hugh Bigod a fresh occasion for rebellion, with the English barons and the kings of France and Scotland leagued in his favour. He at once became a leader in the cause, being eager to revive his feudal power which Henry II had curtailed, and because the conflict which inevitably resulted was, at least in England, centred upon his own territorial possessions. The custody of Norwich Castle was promised by the young prince as his reward.
The king's energy and good fortune were equal to the occasion. While he held in check his rebel vassals in France, the loyal barons in England defeated his enemies there. Robert de Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Leicester (died 1190) landed at Walton, in Suffolk, on 29 September 1173 and marched to Framlingham, joining forces with Hugh. Together they besieged and took the castle of Hagenet in Suffolk on 13 October, held by Randal de Broc for the crown. But the Earl of Leicester was defeated and taken prisoner setting out from Framlingham at the Battle of Fornham, near Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, by the justiciar Richard de Luci and other barons. These then turned their arms against Earl Hugh, who, not being strong enough to fight, opened negotiations with his assailants. It is said he bought them off, and at the same time secured a safe passage home for the Flemings in his service.
Final days
Though defeated and compelled to surrender his castles, Bigod kept his lands and his earldom, and lived at peace with Henry II until his death reportedly in 1177 in Palestine.
On 1 March 1177, his son Roger Bigod appealed to the king on a dispute with his stepmother. Hugh was dead at the time of Roger's appeal, the date of his father's death is fixed 'ante caput jejunii', (i.e. before 9 March). If, then, he died in Palestine, his death must have taken place in the preceding year, 1176, to allow time for the arrival of the news in England. Henry II took advantage of Roger's appeal to seize upon the late Earl's treasure. Earl Hugh had possessed vast estates, which he inherited, and was also the recipient of the third penny of judicial fines levied in the county of Norfolk by right of his earldom.
Marriage and family
Bigod married firstly to Juliane de Vere (died c. 1199). She was the daughter of Aubrey de Vere II and Adeliza de Clare, the daughter of Gilbert Fitz Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Clare. The marriage was dissolved before 1156. They had one son:
Roger Bigod, 2nd Earl of Norfolk (born c. 1144–5). He married Ida de Tosny, had issue.
Bigod married secondly Gundreda (c. 1135–1200), daughter of Roger de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Warwick. They had two children:
Hugh Bigod (born c. 1156)
William Hugh Bigod (born 1168)
References
Attribution:
External links
Medieval Lands Project on Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk
1095 births
1177 deaths
1st Earl of Norfolk
Anglo-Normans
Norman warriors
Hugh
People of The Anarchy
Peers created by King Stephen | [
-1.0064622163772583,
-0.04301970452070236,
0.055139344185590744,
-0.09642808884382248,
-0.7725769877433777,
0.8562714457511902,
0.48067042231559753,
-0.0005944914883002639,
-0.8676912188529968,
-0.22767393290996552,
-0.11015743017196655,
0.21269644796848297,
-0.3516738712787628,
-0.24573475122451782,
-0.3114892542362213,
0.20938576757907867,
0.4047791063785553,
-0.4635787606239319,
-0.05333564803004265,
-0.9159007668495178,
0.5387628078460693,
-0.5709730386734009,
-0.20544074475765228,
0.0489734522998333,
0.5569105744361877,
0.37607085704803467,
0.6004239320755005,
0.030116254463791847,
-0.5322352051734924,
-0.2722843885421753,
-0.10132244229316711,
0.45451831817626953,
0.4834035336971283,
0.1033441498875618,
-0.31233781576156616,
0.04585160315036774,
-0.2945055663585663,
-0.44498270750045776,
-0.09785587340593338,
0.3464001715183258,
-0.11947977542877197,
0.22838406264781952,
-0.4492761194705963,
0.4528930187225342,
-0.37168648838996887,
-0.6210489273071289,
-1.0198259353637695,
-0.4844393730163574,
-0.08879201114177704,
0.12040248513221741,
0.11856678873300552,
0.5620955228805542,
-0.2187419980764389,
0.08034307509660721,
0.201872780919075,
0.1667204201221466,
-0.7709795236587524,
-0.19180035591125488,
0.5293383598327637,
0.34757480025291443,
0.5450624823570251,
0.08705828338861465,
0.23216363787651062,
0.3511313199996948,
0.21597155928611755,
0.13987602293491364,
0.14446768164634705,
0.6367650628089905,
-0.873145580291748,
-0.5250828266143799,
-0.3769333064556122,
-0.10002424567937851,
0.21143287420272827,
0.683842122554779,
-0.3168933391571045,
-0.08117770403623581,
0.24426503479480743,
-0.36211034655570984,
0.42766186594963074,
-0.23847506940364838,
0.5127103924751282,
-0.6026554703712463,
0.42160764336586,
0.25297319889068604,
0.3840334117412567,
0.43363457918167114,
-0.6391488909721375,
0.4705948233604431,
-0.6979461312294006,
0.020957615226507187,
0.3270581364631653,
-0.09586018323898315,
-0.39519092440605164,
0.12070859968662262,
-0.46997156739234924,
0.42214274406433105,
-0.2792297899723053,
-0.42146211862564087,
-0.16018527746200562,
-0.530188262462616,
0.17718927562236786,
0.754873514175415,
0.5387584567070007,
0.09379281848669052,
-0.8482982516288757,
-0.09026961028575897,
-0.31092381477355957,
-0.027235550805926323,
-0.32083725929260254,
0.16513855755329132,
-0.5017315149307251,
0.16837933659553528,
-0.6381462216377258,
-0.31304672360420227,
0.2738341689109802,
1.027788758277893,
0.25579455494880676,
-0.8763014674186707,
-0.6400456428527832,
-0.2513292133808136,
0.15956518054008484,
1.032180905342102,
-0.5147174596786499,
0.6970314383506775,
-0.240849107503891,
-0.4879293739795685,
0.38435161113739014,
0.29217252135276794,
0.033393703401088715,
0.6042934656143188,
0.027863025665283203,
0.9816194176673889,
-0.28721633553504944,
-0.5506666898727417,
0.16424448788166046,
0.22184617817401886,
0.1173110380768776,
0.6405708193778992,
-0.11533661931753159,
0.07417883723974228,
-0.7444375157356262,
-0.30028262734413147,
-0.17040389776229858,
0.24989138543605804,
0.3577173948287964,
0.045383524149656296,
0.06961201131343842,
0.033356115221977234,
-0.5538907051086426,
0.3961465060710907,
-0.10735024511814117,
0.17629475891590118,
0.1836942434310913,
-0.3471183478832245,
-0.17598845064640045,
0.8777187466621399,
0.7095635533332825,
0.12927447259426117,
0.3617208003997803,
0.5910394191741943,
-0.17321112751960754,
-0.014131056144833565,
-0.2080780416727066,
-0.5139978528022766,
0.0962822437286377,
0.009116512723267078,
0.9376566410064697,
-0.5507676005363464,
-0.8351894617080688,
-0.38526293635368347,
-1.1129270792007446,
0.11093255877494812,
0.34586381912231445,
-0.3660651743412018,
-0.4080123007297516,
0.32750457525253296,
1.2907962799072266,
-0.28195855021476746,
0.4108251929283142,
-0.5415701866149902,
-0.7246538400650024,
0.018197977915406227,
0.5671651363372803,
-0.5646792650222778,
1.0674768686294556,
0.5652084946632385,
0.07462165504693985,
-0.26220643520355225,
-0.08338475227355957,
-0.40172961354255676,
0.27409544587135315,
-0.3989028334617615,
0.2683837115764618,
-0.3580511808395386,
0.748461902141571,
0.12126832455396652,
0.021847398951649666,
0.313577800989151,
0.40277573466300964,
1.2378655672073364,
-0.2932523488998413,
0.23254725337028503,
0.4205041229724884,
0.16499873995780945,
0.5152830481529236,
-0.22510910034179688,
-0.19060638546943665,
0.29576554894447327,
0.8658601641654968,
0.9528688192367554,
0.6130568981170654,
-0.24087496101856232,
-0.08151983469724655,
0.11932574212551117,
-0.06988748908042908,
-0.11380230635404587,
0.517627477645874,
-0.10218793153762817,
0.04637829586863518,
-0.8191096782684326,
0.422355979681015,
-0.13523553311824799,
-0.02410823106765747,
0.34156298637390137,
0.1789490133523941,
0.8985664248466492,
-0.08992034941911697,
0.01026435662060976,
-0.4419577419757843,
-1.1240049600601196,
-0.4920893609523773,
0.17708463966846466,
0.2805350422859192,
-0.5868462324142456,
0.10346856713294983,
0.3227176070213318,
-0.39945167303085327,
-0.2676840126514435,
0.2693101763725281,
-0.06567786633968353,
-0.2385713905096054,
0.26926448941230774,
-0.42834529280662537,
0.296936571598053,
-0.07239516079425812,
0.24909427762031555,
0.18046586215496063,
0.01757633127272129,
-0.17168788611888885,
-0.5607525110244751,
0.3155617415904999,
0.44182541966438293,
-0.03214528411626816,
-0.20207126438617706,
0.4860982894897461,
-0.5141139030456543,
0.207049161195755,
0.11129995435476303,
-0.01794966496527195,
0.34307003021240234,
-0.23929814994335175,
0.7542024254798889,
0.10284292697906494,
0.19586680829524994,
0.1729523092508316,
-0.7393825650215149,
-0.21581828594207764,
-0.08595438301563263,
0.09602103382349014,
-0.052533943206071854,
0.13496576249599457,
-0.1534503847360611,
-0.4604189991950989,
-0.15813979506492615,
0.5440820455551147,
-0.3435618579387665,
-0.22351333498954773,
0.7608715891838074,
-0.39084306359291077,
-0.8271573185920715,
0.43489280343055725,
0.7137539386749268,
-0.1645796000957489,
0.04561329632997513,
0.24550770223140717,
-0.02050127275288105,
-0.15452143549919128,
-0.3075205385684967,
0.23754926025867462,
-0.18678177893161774,
0.13980434834957123,
0.11835134774446487,
-0.2552359104156494,
-0.00872132834047079,
-0.07032034546136856,
1.0339758396148682,
-0.5519185066223145,
-0.3948728144168854,
-0.2755005657672882,
-0.08775006234645844,
-0.5334753394126892,
0.5457411408424377,
-0.2804371416568756,
0.1742749810218811,
0.2628416419029236,
0.00479454779997468,
-0.11121848970651627,
-0.1589740663766861,
-5.260960102081299,
0.22394885122776031,
-0.21274790167808533,
0.07401936501264572,
0.08732222765684128,
-0.13502651453018188,
0.1648380607366562,
-0.15713030099868774,
-0.008119993843138218,
-0.017714383080601692,
0.42007529735565186,
-0.36760297417640686,
-0.0778544545173645,
0.42980650067329407,
1.3453422784805298,
0.34770870208740234,
1.1902003288269043,
0.32775041460990906,
0.11848337203264236,
0.17149308323860168,
-0.3991352319717407,
-0.17617613077163696,
-0.3071018159389496,
0.07582945376634598,
0.5309304594993591,
0.2660992443561554,
0.015409791842103004,
-0.20192547142505646,
-1.0608094930648804,
-0.5281134843826294,
0.19245374202728271,
0.43514183163642883,
0.4105795621871948,
0.08102583140134811,
-0.49683520197868347,
0.058533281087875366,
0.36917465925216675,
0.7614263892173767,
0.1964758038520813,
-0.399574875831604,
0.007860749028623104,
-0.18503423035144806,
-0.6111741662025452,
0.37654542922973633,
0.22465434670448303,
-0.33739086985588074,
-0.7301009893417358,
0.29967978596687317,
0.09517203271389008,
0.4566594958305359,
0.2026166319847107,
0.037263400852680206,
-0.15280412137508392,
-0.12504607439041138,
-0.01645791344344616,
0.07783139497041702,
0.1354244500398636,
-0.055781882256269455,
-0.31787732243537903,
0.33221539855003357,
0.6801717877388,
-0.5282740592956543,
0.05193856358528137,
0.07111407071352005,
0.26389190554618835,
-0.18905945122241974,
0.16050931811332703,
-0.03345609828829765,
0.2526821196079254,
0.3421924114227295,
-0.11873257160186768,
0.7512798309326172,
0.4833332300186157,
-0.680497944355011,
-0.011443647556006908,
-0.2604667842388153,
-0.1560932695865631,
0.6241800785064697,
0.06216472387313843,
-0.4406951069831848,
-0.041968394070863724,
-0.4471319615840912,
-0.2625846564769745,
0.774807870388031,
0.19850853085517883,
-0.6259239912033081,
-0.44516152143478394,
-0.15482200682163239,
-0.30348101258277893,
-0.2619307041168213,
0.26343750953674316,
-0.5629835724830627,
-0.19425718486309052,
1.1486737728118896,
-0.05844481289386749,
-0.41824859380722046,
-0.16861316561698914,
-0.06989210098981857,
0.21627463400363922,
-0.11421606689691544,
-0.6950327754020691,
0.010015763342380524,
-0.2168571949005127,
-0.7285173535346985,
-0.5010238289833069,
0.01948612928390503,
-0.5450836420059204,
0.4190951883792877,
0.014371976256370544,
-0.2603795826435089,
0.6719270944595337,
0.1260000467300415,
-0.32963448762893677,
-0.6866723895072937,
-0.09215570986270905,
-0.2387145310640335,
0.2774558961391449,
0.10330644249916077,
0.6304026246070862,
-0.16349419951438904,
-0.0547206811606884,
0.4779626727104187,
-0.5518144369125366,
-0.10797584056854248,
-0.7501745223999023,
0.47242826223373413,
0.6484578251838684,
0.029244335368275642,
-0.6758172512054443,
-0.05453972890973091,
0.2922138273715973,
0.37750452756881714,
-0.08601704239845276,
0.4248335659503937,
-0.003952378407120705,
-1.0577884912490845,
-0.649387538433075,
-0.14862525463104248,
0.435156911611557,
0.1831127107143402,
0.38926756381988525,
-0.051703501492738724,
0.4136144816875458,
0.031245052814483643,
-0.2642902731895447,
0.35211682319641113,
0.5118083953857422,
0.6058242321014404,
-0.46355748176574707,
0.23600970208644867,
0.2874021828174591,
-0.3462171256542206,
0.8396914005279541,
-0.37263017892837524,
-0.34553444385528564,
0.07287236303091049,
-0.13398119807243347,
0.1475970596075058,
0.12901504337787628,
-0.366742342710495,
-0.74327552318573,
0.5013739466667175,
-0.12857173383235931,
-0.12021678686141968,
0.4589349031448364,
-0.016272377222776413,
-0.47902345657348633,
-0.2144646793603897,
-0.5193623304367065,
0.8698383569717407,
0.2840438783168793,
-0.6641536951065063,
-0.595159113407135,
-0.27606871724128723,
0.5056196451187134,
-0.4017043113708496,
0.07047156989574432,
0.2975226044654846,
-0.16259603202342987,
0.530900776386261,
0.07736904919147491,
0.11440882831811905,
-0.0063230362720787525,
-0.03661525622010231,
1.3581112623214722,
-0.382763534784317,
-0.76698899269104,
-0.35227763652801514,
-0.34268906712532043,
-0.4768945276737213,
-0.595312774181366,
0.0059143295511603355,
0.6854909062385559,
0.6230663061141968,
-0.05042293667793274,
-0.4065200984477997,
0.7400131225585938,
0.286801278591156,
-0.31849539279937744,
-0.3249207139015198,
-0.2335226684808731,
0.754900336265564,
-0.3188140392303467,
0.09137123078107834,
0.40352481603622437,
-1.0165175199508667,
0.07813085615634918,
-0.20254942774772644,
-0.17328575253486633,
0.9999324083328247,
-0.26205405592918396,
-1.1684726476669312,
0.09222300350666046,
0.4389907717704773,
-0.3619295358657837,
0.20301535725593567,
0.12041378766298294,
-0.34331169724464417,
0.08696448057889938,
-0.9147229194641113,
-0.32994672656059265,
-0.6816869974136353,
-0.3109755516052246,
-0.19069214165210724,
-0.6822934746742249,
0.15384773910045624,
0.7519211769104004,
-0.0040953317657113075,
0.6383610963821411,
-0.5371016263961792,
0.02259610779583454,
-0.08864495158195496,
-0.24773582816123962,
0.42549481987953186,
-0.4019140303134918,
-0.2457813322544098,
0.7242373824119568,
0.1346820592880249,
0.23078151047229767,
0.15931613743305206,
0.8226047158241272,
1.8249939680099487,
0.5987787246704102,
-0.07457032799720764,
0.25590330362319946,
-0.09282296895980835,
-0.3247424364089966,
-0.5393306016921997,
0.12351137399673462,
0.2998235523700714,
-0.057269662618637085,
-0.3407934010028839,
-0.6912204623222351,
-0.15810877084732056,
1.0349258184432983,
-0.21238651871681213,
-0.44815555214881897,
-0.06828584522008896,
-0.04078191891312599,
0.4873979091644287,
0.22365789115428925,
0.46268123388290405,
-0.230429545044899,
0.14573675394058228,
0.08685728907585144,
0.0018295850604772568,
-0.26347532868385315,
0.04100683704018593,
0.28557783365249634,
-0.6448407769203186,
-0.7434041500091553,
-0.519750714302063,
-0.3780936300754547,
0.053201109170913696,
-0.1532547026872635,
-0.053475841879844666,
0.4315880835056305,
-0.8243345618247986,
0.9603868126869202,
-0.13865487277507782,
-0.7494569420814514,
-0.12641595304012299,
0.8829283118247986,
-0.8364751935005188,
-0.09287306666374207,
-0.07619250565767288,
-0.3205021917819977,
-0.1445864588022232,
0.5497458577156067,
0.07772079855203629,
-0.2728777527809143,
-0.22567492723464966,
-0.521877646446228,
-0.30615001916885376,
-0.20079582929611206,
0.1399683952331543,
-0.16524748504161835,
0.03714463487267494,
0.10122460871934891,
-0.4697074890136719,
-0.5883121490478516,
0.9324245452880859,
-0.17276693880558014,
-0.3579739034175873,
0.24253596365451813,
0.42007705569267273,
-0.5667794346809387,
-0.6777269244194031,
-0.23464085161685944,
0.37274205684661865,
-0.12287342548370361,
-0.3310089409351349,
0.02526615373790264,
0.5832589864730835,
-0.43187251687049866,
-0.7710328698158264,
0.5095746517181396,
-0.4933561086654663,
0.036399830132722855,
-0.4975590705871582,
-0.10450226813554764,
-0.13039609789848328,
0.025783348828554153,
0.08828406035900116,
0.0662478432059288,
0.73114413022995,
-0.55829918384552,
-0.12543712556362152,
-0.13264015316963196,
0.4203348755836487,
0.2279767543077469,
0.03540186956524849,
-1.0018306970596313,
0.8264203667640686,
0.001708977040834725,
0.1518019437789917,
0.2478252351284027,
-0.4953194856643677,
0.24314452707767487,
0.16578198969364166,
0.40462347865104675,
0.506775438785553,
-0.663671612739563,
-0.34735432267189026,
-0.7555500268936157,
0.46711134910583496,
-0.19183166325092316,
0.04012271761894226,
0.1731588989496231,
0.24120712280273438,
0.34891000390052795,
0.10404466092586517,
0.260040283203125,
-0.8236160278320312,
0.12706045806407928,
0.548922598361969,
0.6518659591674805,
-0.29841840267181396,
-0.615397572517395,
-0.3422108590602875,
0.07684104889631271,
-0.4682452976703644,
0.4334617257118225,
0.4150463342666626,
-0.1859176605939865,
-0.33224189281463623,
0.7120442390441895,
-0.044908370822668076,
0.5098876953125,
0.4755702316761017,
0.5130314826965332,
-0.07618366181850433,
0.2183830440044403,
-0.020678669214248657,
0.02099687233567238,
0.383649617433548,
0.2062539905309677,
-0.2905528247356415,
0.0403309166431427,
-1.0903631448745728,
-0.5053567886352539,
-0.2591233253479004,
-0.06377387046813965,
-0.6642441749572754,
-0.2250276505947113,
-0.018166540190577507,
0.053651899099349976,
0.31373506784439087,
-0.38654860854148865,
-0.5342198014259338,
0.032167885452508926,
-0.8570273518562317,
-0.37286922335624695,
0.47105562686920166,
-1.2423491477966309,
-0.4193226397037506,
-0.1796206682920456,
0.7543221116065979,
0.5423299074172974,
0.45175856351852417,
-0.4014061689376831,
0.15945641696453094,
-0.33899638056755066,
0.41335058212280273,
0.09645604342222214,
0.5182393193244934,
-0.4512265920639038,
-0.42176082730293274,
-1.1611028909683228,
0.4321122467517853,
0.1312565952539444,
0.17342117428779602,
-0.34070584177970886,
0.7992401123046875,
0.3193594217300415,
-0.21545881032943726,
0.31691527366638184,
-0.7547266483306885,
-0.15139473974704742,
0.10200481861829758,
-0.1537763476371765,
0.2503017485141754,
-0.03391214460134506,
0.0523974634706974,
0.07864370942115784,
-0.3573068678379059,
0.43807253241539,
-0.4295399487018585,
-0.9905862808227539,
0.5219513177871704,
-0.0407404899597168,
0.2911013662815094,
-0.3914426565170288,
-0.7000066041946411,
-0.13193415105342865,
0.3723032474517822,
0.5065857172012329,
0.9773313403129578,
-0.09789226949214935,
-0.12268191576004028,
0.29450395703315735,
-0.631395161151886,
0.6518473625183105,
0.38914188742637634,
0.38693082332611084,
-0.822382390499115,
0.1459173560142517,
-0.2908228933811188,
0.04726788029074669,
0.8514688611030579,
0.6616696119308472,
0.3447638750076294,
0.17802849411964417,
-0.3057689070701599,
-0.1007567048072815,
-0.03829169273376465,
-0.10969898849725723,
-0.0968010351061821,
0.09663952142000198,
0.055043067783117294
] |
261068 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver%20Creek%2C%20Yukon | Beaver Creek, Yukon | Beaver Creek is a community in Yukon, Canada. Located at kilometre 1870.6 (historical mile 1202) of the Alaska Highway, southeast of Beaver Creek Airport and close to the Alcan - Beaver Creek Border Crossing, it is Canada's westernmost community. The community's main employers are a Canada Border Services Agency port, the White River First Nation and a number of tourist lodges.
It is the home of the White River First Nation. The First Nation is made up of Upper Tanana speaking people whose traditional territory extends from the Donjek River into neighbouring Alaska, and Athapaskan Northern Tutchone speaking people whose traditional territories included the lower Stewart River and the area south of the Yukon River on the White and Donjek River drainages.
In addition to the Alaska Highway, the community is served by the Beaver Creek Airport.
The CBSA station is the furthest from the border crossing of any Canadian customs station at a distance of , and at least up to the 1990s, some individuals lived in the "no man's land" in between the border and customs. Prior to 1983, the customs station was located in the middle of the community, with the resulting confusion: individuals driving past without stopping, and locals with a new vehicle not being recognized as they drove by.
Climate
Like most of Yukon, Beaver Creek has a subarctic climate (Dfc), and NRC Plant Hardiness Zone of 0a. It is situated at an elevation of approximately . Beaver Creek experiences annual temperature average daily highs of in July and average daily lows of in January. Record high temperature was on June 15, 1969 and the lowest was on January 17, 1971. Beaver Creek has an average annual snowfall of and of rainfall.
The airstrip at Snag, east of Beaver Creek, experienced the lowest ever temperature measured in North America (excluding Greenland), on February 3, 1947.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Beaver Creek recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
References
External links
Community Profile
White River First Nation
Settlements in Yukon | [
0.39294278621673584,
1.1337785720825195,
-0.5483585000038147,
-0.12529374659061432,
0.17014183104038239,
0.45459118485450745,
0.6350653767585754,
0.5650633573532104,
0.3040805459022522,
-0.6744047403335571,
-0.04133269190788269,
-0.3610388934612274,
-0.19462978839874268,
0.2893032729625702,
-0.5936363339424133,
0.3737419545650482,
-0.13465052843093872,
0.8412080407142639,
0.337298721075058,
-0.6020326614379883,
0.2282826155424118,
-0.3856005370616913,
-0.289224237203598,
0.8487843871116638,
-0.3276579976081848,
0.9137125611305237,
0.6945317387580872,
0.5244142413139343,
-0.028345903381705284,
0.23988477885723114,
-0.18010272085666656,
0.46688103675842285,
0.07750408351421356,
0.07309138029813766,
0.32552585005760193,
0.16619667410850525,
-0.2002520114183426,
-0.3712415397167206,
-0.37962502241134644,
-0.6642835736274719,
-0.30253228545188904,
-0.03549424558877945,
-0.11723434925079346,
0.27818453311920166,
0.5005342960357666,
0.12600155174732208,
-1.193565011024475,
-0.08673755079507828,
-0.9592350125312805,
-0.27274301648139954,
-0.4677106440067291,
0.014671580865979195,
0.602135181427002,
-0.4994235634803772,
0.4294896125793457,
0.32740962505340576,
-0.6805605292320251,
0.3968369960784912,
0.5837497711181641,
0.21330198645591736,
0.2848377227783203,
0.26118725538253784,
0.09484454244375229,
0.16466228663921356,
0.13687029480934143,
0.05105714872479439,
0.2994811236858368,
0.847663938999176,
0.15972165763378143,
-0.494020015001297,
0.12238963693380356,
-0.14927895367145538,
-0.19730480015277863,
0.6354038119316101,
-0.3226313889026642,
0.3892953395843506,
0.18060065805912018,
0.3740573525428772,
-0.00047695485409349203,
0.6467698812484741,
0.16191843152046204,
0.08129031956195831,
0.9466270208358765,
0.740723729133606,
0.2710316479206085,
0.31259483098983765,
-1.099574327468872,
-0.00951344519853592,
-0.3464217185974121,
0.5040299296379089,
-1.1232409477233887,
-0.1742250919342041,
0.10966295003890991,
0.008682060986757278,
-0.6528019309043884,
-0.0934099406003952,
-0.3110876679420471,
0.5956088900566101,
0.32521823048591614,
0.15410767495632172,
-0.5707550644874573,
-0.4866577982902527,
0.9437064528465271,
0.3751820921897888,
-0.7818763256072998,
-0.5321512818336487,
-0.69266277551651,
-0.23847134411334991,
0.09266208112239838,
-1.1275311708450317,
0.31831225752830505,
0.1675245463848114,
-0.11631094664335251,
0.2542188763618469,
-0.024105841293931007,
0.5001469254493713,
0.17944398522377014,
-0.3751792311668396,
-0.17137008905410767,
-0.3545380234718323,
0.43940144777297974,
0.49210911989212036,
-0.4680742919445038,
-0.2570001780986786,
-0.11085405945777893,
0.08863046020269394,
0.09860911220312119,
0.05211622267961502,
0.23454634845256805,
0.47509196400642395,
-0.2884071469306946,
1.3416709899902344,
-0.3931595981121063,
-0.5990679264068604,
-0.2739114761352539,
-0.21585702896118164,
-0.7196212410926819,
-0.004309389274567366,
-0.22167666256427765,
-0.3952477276325226,
-0.5843223929405212,
0.033518631011247635,
-0.9657217264175415,
-0.24187417328357697,
0.338501900434494,
0.5852562785148621,
-0.051091913133859634,
-0.6280277967453003,
0.01887594722211361,
0.027045974507927895,
-0.185179203748703,
-0.045061759650707245,
0.4452456533908844,
0.9415158033370972,
-0.02257642336189747,
0.18042321503162384,
0.5059348940849304,
0.29628679156303406,
0.5119602680206299,
0.7158901691436768,
0.4518281817436218,
0.1826324462890625,
0.9727540612220764,
0.011893932707607746,
0.6353924870491028,
-0.1467152237892151,
0.23121710121631622,
-0.18175676465034485,
0.41463401913642883,
0.8184437155723572,
0.47023430466651917,
0.2750137448310852,
0.4374644160270691,
-0.5736211538314819,
0.3195047378540039,
-0.7057295441627502,
0.33378729224205017,
0.45058369636535645,
-0.04444757103919983,
-0.41857457160949707,
-1.0914106369018555,
0.3387940526008606,
0.04329364374279976,
0.3378918170928955,
-0.651403546333313,
0.10256532579660416,
0.20767875015735626,
-0.12880276143550873,
-0.44969701766967773,
-0.10095392912626266,
-0.14709684252738953,
-0.6355680227279663,
0.5540566444396973,
-0.5767791867256165,
0.32299208641052246,
0.1506444811820984,
0.014759304001927376,
0.4701143801212311,
0.07364603877067566,
0.25790685415267944,
-0.6471050977706909,
-0.06326189637184143,
0.5212321877479553,
-0.8091614842414856,
-0.7499823570251465,
0.8835569620132446,
0.4567548632621765,
0.45583900809288025,
0.031644340604543686,
0.5362942218780518,
0.2516331076622009,
-0.5696343779563904,
0.14736871421337128,
0.7967236638069153,
-0.412954717874527,
-0.16717487573623657,
-0.21204611659049988,
-0.43261730670928955,
0.40476760268211365,
-0.4528484642505646,
0.4541162848472595,
0.17796927690505981,
0.1255771517753601,
-0.34836792945861816,
-0.24506275355815887,
0.4718940854072571,
0.5112879276275635,
0.12073531746864319,
0.10810266435146332,
-0.6483432650566101,
0.3953395485877991,
0.24289673566818237,
0.7227314114570618,
-0.6578895449638367,
-0.17345842719078064,
-0.5064026117324829,
-0.11857075244188309,
-0.7439224720001221,
0.8917672634124756,
0.0066875871270895,
-0.1197836846113205,
-0.08092071115970612,
-0.5793936252593994,
-0.1350291520357132,
0.4415828287601471,
0.2511489689350128,
0.5650996565818787,
0.30565905570983887,
0.21948447823524475,
-0.7930243611335754,
0.8887860178947449,
0.6489818692207336,
0.0750381126999855,
-0.8254069089889526,
0.2587764859199524,
-0.14934289455413818,
-0.6805499792098999,
-0.4180968105792999,
0.4550688862800598,
-0.19342352449893951,
0.12013853341341019,
0.7564601302146912,
-0.5125671625137329,
0.769396185874939,
0.3612656593322754,
-0.6567181348800659,
-1.0336418151855469,
-0.3178454339504242,
-0.254101425409317,
0.11125904321670532,
1.1694451570510864,
0.2459670454263687,
-0.1870907098054886,
-0.7934441566467285,
0.7631266713142395,
0.32787540555000305,
-0.29945454001426697,
0.019649144262075424,
-0.7813522815704346,
-0.8618252277374268,
0.6050973534584045,
1.190674066543579,
-0.21254029870033264,
-0.18239012360572815,
-0.44687455892562866,
-0.3561858534812927,
0.159429669380188,
0.2445714920759201,
-0.04055361822247505,
-0.45197001099586487,
0.12597119808197021,
-0.02953742817044258,
-0.050447557121515274,
0.9003671407699585,
-0.3640108108520508,
0.04146623611450195,
0.011234705336391926,
0.03487350046634674,
1.0432666540145874,
-0.6680533289909363,
-0.18588514626026154,
0.3761141002178192,
-0.764857292175293,
-0.0869467705488205,
-0.15533822774887085,
-0.29002317786216736,
0.10232140868902206,
-0.7697647213935852,
-4.548857688903809,
0.6290845274925232,
-0.2763572931289673,
0.14901913702487946,
0.4992806613445282,
-0.4545593857765198,
0.4432109594345093,
-0.3191044330596924,
0.3848397135734558,
0.4380941390991211,
-0.39588701725006104,
-0.23406179249286652,
0.2861619293689728,
0.3817625045776367,
0.9951371550559998,
0.1850239336490631,
0.5588095188140869,
-0.22774957120418549,
0.20078662037849426,
0.004874314647167921,
0.04701217636466026,
0.37903913855552673,
-0.5014289021492004,
-0.17440809309482574,
0.34548065066337585,
0.32506945729255676,
-0.19966596364974976,
0.04450453072786331,
-0.9486832618713379,
-0.17640292644500732,
-0.04616997018456459,
-0.09849083423614502,
-0.11443375796079636,
-0.4671710431575775,
-0.5842210650444031,
-0.14549002051353455,
0.501941442489624,
-0.059048209339380264,
0.38295406103134155,
-0.7102616429328918,
0.26468321681022644,
0.13134971261024475,
-0.05744780972599983,
-0.2773378789424896,
0.8488679528236389,
-0.21653735637664795,
-0.8186421394348145,
-1.0424937009811401,
0.18257112801074982,
0.7425527572631836,
-0.14307346940040588,
0.25345730781555176,
0.8649114966392517,
0.08003761619329453,
0.36546188592910767,
-0.3406044840812683,
-0.0641494169831276,
-0.2779899835586548,
-0.21703390777111053,
1.0130283832550049,
0.18644247949123383,
-0.7124888896942139,
0.6046861410140991,
-0.27886122465133667,
-0.14709141850471497,
-0.2856694161891937,
0.09666749835014343,
0.05400758236646652,
0.33362212777137756,
-0.252311110496521,
0.18243207037448883,
0.5905634164810181,
-0.5685326457023621,
-0.7887895703315735,
0.10422006994485855,
-0.9662530422210693,
-0.5032101273536682,
0.875922679901123,
-0.5306349992752075,
-0.26585909724235535,
0.8224123120307922,
-0.10084399580955505,
0.12654870748519897,
0.7457475662231445,
0.14424853026866913,
-0.46962982416152954,
0.25033462047576904,
0.11065687984228134,
-0.49123233556747437,
-0.6872550249099731,
0.7867391705513,
0.5767225027084351,
0.4223649501800537,
0.3249412178993225,
-0.24605776369571686,
-0.1489173024892807,
0.4587598145008087,
-0.15163516998291016,
-0.7774790525436401,
-0.597480058670044,
0.9519423246383667,
-0.03607659786939621,
-0.4072503447532654,
-1.0323456525802612,
-0.43904829025268555,
-0.41326695680618286,
-0.2417900413274765,
0.15545420348644257,
0.5341275930404663,
-0.5241843461990356,
-0.20843341946601868,
0.24662581086158752,
-0.4567279815673828,
-0.09348314255475998,
0.6787371039390564,
0.09456650912761688,
-0.5238146781921387,
0.12514862418174744,
0.3985721468925476,
0.5983207821846008,
0.018582841381430626,
0.004234440624713898,
-0.35636550188064575,
0.4769136905670166,
0.40299031138420105,
-0.4103727638721466,
0.9143935441970825,
-0.04584796726703644,
-0.5246680378913879,
-0.10881725698709488,
-0.03081909567117691,
0.17519672214984894,
-0.45950281620025635,
-0.5878743529319763,
-0.4608912169933319,
-0.5010585784912109,
-1.1724512577056885,
-0.8709703087806702,
1.0739549398422241,
0.24750377237796783,
-0.009492214769124985,
0.05802929773926735,
-0.4754103124141693,
0.6761221885681152,
-0.48573705554008484,
0.778093159198761,
0.3003929555416107,
0.06557157635688782,
-0.9253726005554199,
1.0259668827056885,
-0.7155250906944275,
-0.5189995169639587,
0.17461176216602325,
-0.3914380669593811,
0.6425186395645142,
-0.22133418917655945,
0.4128943681716919,
0.15101361274719238,
0.6708837151527405,
-0.027847763150930405,
0.6876059174537659,
-0.09299621731042862,
-0.35904866456985474,
0.9470115900039673,
-0.414131760597229,
-0.5560213327407837,
-0.7151274681091309,
-0.23564280569553375,
-0.5394049882888794,
0.3757365643978119,
0.7110078930854797,
-0.22795161604881287,
-0.37931835651397705,
0.4215930104255676,
0.5695356130599976,
-0.12715443968772888,
-0.47593194246292114,
0.5297696590423584,
0.10696950554847717,
-0.21801985800266266,
-0.06993760168552399,
-0.07465242594480515,
-0.4968172013759613,
0.10741378366947174,
0.3680383265018463,
-0.822312593460083,
-0.28349897265434265,
0.164716899394989,
-0.11073514074087143,
0.49726375937461853,
-0.03180335834622383,
0.2529744803905487,
0.512338399887085,
0.6196014285087585,
-0.14170238375663757,
-0.762869656085968,
0.46483123302459717,
0.1896408200263977,
-0.6519420146942139,
-1.1343263387680054,
0.45177361369132996,
0.7103263735771179,
-0.24164706468582153,
0.43569087982177734,
-0.18484964966773987,
-0.5473508834838867,
0.28517329692840576,
0.08089818805456161,
-1.330919623374939,
0.47340813279151917,
0.016709204763174057,
-1.0334298610687256,
0.19863402843475342,
0.5790906548500061,
-0.288453608751297,
0.12944471836090088,
0.4531750977039337,
0.7350494265556335,
-0.6155805587768555,
0.16290247440338135,
-0.49624526500701904,
-0.1628977656364441,
0.3474966883659363,
-0.43577080965042114,
-0.9242547154426575,
0.37111976742744446,
0.1827486902475357,
0.05851057544350624,
0.26288458704948425,
-0.7191129326820374,
-0.17679738998413086,
-0.4239599406719208,
0.5957686305046082,
0.01923922263085842,
0.3991783857345581,
0.7137702703475952,
-0.3255130648612976,
-0.2274923473596573,
0.4404807388782501,
-0.16975757479667664,
0.22018685936927795,
1.4711616039276123,
0.43353164196014404,
-0.6378946304321289,
-0.07009483873844147,
-0.18769234418869019,
0.4724734127521515,
-0.016116425395011902,
-1.2079920768737793,
0.5208375453948975,
0.804114580154419,
-0.36965617537498474,
-0.1778876632452011,
-0.07611528784036636,
1.3387256860733032,
-0.7190912365913391,
-0.21004076302051544,
0.5827246308326721,
-0.20880983769893646,
0.7130736112594604,
0.525932788848877,
-0.034181565046310425,
-0.2850395441055298,
0.6334558129310608,
0.20434418320655823,
-0.19890210032463074,
-0.5520134568214417,
-0.5100300908088684,
0.29998937249183655,
-0.7073497772216797,
0.025523677468299866,
-0.5891411304473877,
0.20695513486862183,
0.30268344283103943,
-0.685535728931427,
-0.2783932387828827,
0.2804657220840454,
-0.5243575572967529,
-0.12314887344837189,
-0.23228034377098083,
-0.07304608076810837,
-0.11811602115631104,
0.7819467782974243,
-0.41369253396987915,
-0.09747108072042465,
-0.8417079448699951,
-0.21578539907932281,
0.022294476628303528,
-0.3346068859100342,
0.618224024772644,
-0.38835200667381287,
-0.04219096526503563,
-0.07386332005262375,
-0.2879234254360199,
0.36014023423194885,
-0.2087770402431488,
0.5022478699684143,
0.36993709206581116,
-0.46992239356040955,
0.36222290992736816,
-0.4758225083351135,
0.45339199900627136,
-0.584029495716095,
-0.433451771736145,
0.4002499580383301,
-0.23551726341247559,
-0.7474306225776672,
-0.2968316376209259,
-0.06423013657331467,
0.05150645598769188,
0.4806385934352875,
-0.33287590742111206,
0.1030811071395874,
0.45974889397621155,
-0.3411950469017029,
0.10173319280147552,
0.4971373379230499,
-0.5188049674034119,
-0.4948561191558838,
0.38891133666038513,
-0.32816874980926514,
-0.022263703867793083,
0.6150133013725281,
0.7462973594665527,
-0.07285017520189285,
1.1337641477584839,
-0.6974812746047974,
0.35615020990371704,
0.3493969142436981,
0.4342746138572693,
-0.3248979449272156,
-0.35641002655029297,
-0.3030324876308441,
0.4382999837398529,
-0.7773051261901855,
-0.14813479781150818,
-0.24423988163471222,
-0.361797571182251,
-0.6036924719810486,
0.3939114511013031,
0.161945641040802,
0.16449791193008423,
-0.42586007714271545,
-0.47782638669013977,
0.39693933725357056,
0.4061160683631897,
-0.24036644399166107,
-0.06772606074810028,
0.15762683749198914,
-0.19008789956569672,
-0.2585750222206116,
-0.7102908492088318,
-0.5161285400390625,
-0.401231050491333,
-0.4674296975135803,
-0.1676604002714157,
0.15631623566150665,
-0.6695351004600525,
-0.026404451578855515,
-0.24615395069122314,
0.07478107511997223,
-0.8217296004295349,
0.5486881732940674,
0.3230610489845276,
-0.34570541977882385,
-0.5793138146400452,
0.2445491999387741,
-0.9742733240127563,
-0.02551509067416191,
0.4974573850631714,
0.3987456262111664,
-0.15561076998710632,
0.14293748140335083,
0.049862995743751526,
0.6561665534973145,
0.5938116908073425,
0.07106144726276398,
0.5851590037345886,
-0.3566333055496216,
-0.27993157505989075,
0.16729915142059326,
1.2536529302597046,
-0.4889717102050781,
-0.6855764985084534,
0.4172099530696869,
-0.6998374462127686,
-0.6050096750259399,
0.5691068172454834,
-0.41507911682128906,
-0.08029256761074066,
-0.19072149693965912,
-0.778679609298706,
-0.3128461241722107,
-0.09375778585672379,
-0.44978591799736023,
-0.5582768321037292,
-0.3957582116127014,
0.16773660480976105,
0.5400668978691101,
0.4373023211956024,
0.2121661901473999,
0.13590475916862488,
0.5682529211044312,
0.26325005292892456,
0.6291379332542419,
0.5551771521568298,
-0.6326510906219482,
0.6344878077507019,
-0.2781052887439728,
0.776358425617218,
0.06019708514213562,
0.7620939612388611,
-0.5340604782104492,
0.7675800323486328,
-0.07119753956794739,
-0.08845395594835281,
0.6253350973129272,
-0.822222113609314,
-0.7026105523109436,
-0.26681727170944214,
-0.12649819254875183,
-1.1382319927215576,
0.6358533501625061,
0.05789068341255188,
-0.33116957545280457,
0.06775810569524765,
-0.6339325904846191,
-0.11969424784183502,
-0.34927186369895935,
0.3682839274406433,
0.1001967117190361,
-0.47821706533432007,
-0.3398298919200897,
0.5813949704170227,
0.14420443773269653,
-0.9641924500465393,
-0.25891754031181335,
1.2328346967697144,
0.7011910676956177,
-0.5567691922187805,
0.6849613189697266,
-0.7054465413093567,
0.0638657733798027,
0.11726555973291397,
-1.314715027809143,
0.39152005314826965,
-0.14877019822597504,
-0.8851390480995178,
-0.949044406414032,
-0.00777842290699482,
0.12291597574949265,
-0.3590691089630127,
0.11579816043376923,
-0.33791661262512207,
-0.3309893310070038,
-0.15151897072792053,
0.47716328501701355,
-0.8811212778091431,
0.2714500427246094,
0.2323615550994873
] |
261070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total%20physical%20response | Total physical response | Total physical response (TPR) is a language teaching method developed by James Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at San José State University. It is based on the coordination of language and physical movement. In TPR, instructors give commands to students in the target language with body movements, and students respond with whole-body actions.
The method is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching. The listening and responding (with actions) serves two purposes: It is a means of quickly recognizing meaning in the language being learned, and a means of passively learning the structure of the language itself. Grammar is not taught explicitly but can be learned from the language input. TPR is a valuable way to learn vocabulary, especially idiomatic terms, e.g., phrasal verbs.
Asher developed TPR as a result of his experiences observing young children learning their first language. He noticed that interactions between parents and children often took the form of speech from the parent followed by a physical response from the child. Asher made three hypotheses based on his observations: first, that language is learned primarily by listening; second, that language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain; and third, that learning language should not involve any stress.
Total physical response is often used alongside other methods and techniques. It is popular with beginners and with young learners, although it can be used with students of all levels and all age groups.
Background
James Asher developed the total physical response (TPR) method as a result of his observation of the language development of young children. Asher saw that most of the interactions that young children experience with parents or other adults combine both verbal and physical aspects. The child responds physically to the speech of the parent, and the parent reinforces the child's responses through further speech. This creates a positive feedback loop between the parent's speech and the child's actions. Asher also observed that young children typically spend a long time listening to language before ever attempting to speak, and that they can understand and react to utterances that are much more complex than those they can produce themselves.
From his experiences, Asher outlined three main hypotheses about learning second languages that are embodied in the total physical response method. The first is that the brain is naturally predisposed to learn language through listening. Specifically, Asher says that learners best internalize language when they respond with physical movement to language input. Asher hypothesizes that speech develops naturally and spontaneously after learners internalize the target language through input, and that it should not be forced. In Asher's own words:
A reasonable hypothesis is that the brain and the nervous system are biologically programmed to acquire language, either the first or the second in a particular sequence and in a particular mode. The sequence is listening before speaking and the mode is to synchronise language with the individual's body.
The second of Asher's hypotheses is that effective language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain. Physical movement is controlled primarily by the right hemisphere, and Asher sees the coupling of movement with language comprehension as the key to language acquisition. He says that left-hemisphere learning should be avoided, and that the left hemisphere needs a great deal of experience of right-hemisphere-based input before natural speech can occur.
Asher's third hypothesis is that language learning should not involve any stress, as stress and negative emotions inhibit the natural language-learning process. He regards the stressful nature of most language-teaching methods as one of their major weaknesses. Asher recommends that teachers focus on meaning and physical movement to avoid stress.
The main text on total physical response is James Asher's Learning Another Language through Actions, first published in 1977.
Principles
Total physical response is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Methods in the comprehension approach emphasize the importance of listening to language development, and do not require spoken output in the early stages of learning. In total physical response, students are not forced to speak. Instead, teachers wait until students acquire enough language through listening that they start to speak spontaneously. At the beginning stages of instruction students can respond to the instructor in their native language.
While the majority of class time in total physical response is spent on listening comprehension, the ultimate goal of the method is to develop oral fluency. Asher sees developing listening comprehension skills as the most efficient way of developing spoken language skills.
Lessons in TPR are organized around grammar, and in particular around the verb. Instructors issue commands based on the verbs and vocabulary to be learned in that lesson. However, the primary focus in lessons is on meaning, which distinguishes TPR from other grammar-based methods such as grammar-translation.
Grammar is not explicitly taught, but is learned by induction. Students are expected to subconsciously acquire the grammatical structure of the language through exposure to spoken language input, in addition to decoding the messages in the input to find their meaning. This approach to listening is called codebreaking.
Total physical response is both a teaching technique and a philosophy of language teaching. Teachers do not have to limit themselves to TPR techniques to teach according to the principles of the total physical response method.
Because the students are only expected to listen and not to speak, the teacher has the sole responsibility for deciding what input students hear.
Procedure
The majority of class time in TPR lessons is spent doing drills in which the instructor gives commands using the imperative mood. Students respond to these commands with physical actions. Initially, students learn the meaning of the commands they hear by direct observation. After they learn the meaning of the words in these commands, the teacher issues commands that use novel combinations of the words the students have learned.
Instructors limit the number of new vocabulary items given to students at any one time. This is to help students differentiate the new words from those previously learned, and to facilitate integration with their existing language knowledge. Asher suggests that students can learn between 12 and 36 words for every hour of instruction, depending on their language level and class size.
While drills using the imperative are the mainstay of total physical response classes, teachers can use other activities as well. Some typical other activities are role plays and slide presentations. However, beginners are not made to learn conversational dialogs until 120 hours into their course.
There is little error correction in TPR. Asher advises teachers to treat learners' mistakes the same way a parent would treat their children's. Errors made by beginning-level students are usually overlooked, but as students become more advanced teachers may correct more of their errors. This is similar to parents raising their children; as children get older parents tend to correct their grammatical mistakes more often.
According to Asher, TPR lesson plans should contain the detailed commands that the teacher intends to use. He says, “It is wise to write out the exact utterances you will be using and especially the novel commands because the action is so fast-moving there is usually not time for you to create spontaneously.”
Teaching materials
Total physical response lessons typically use a wide variety of realia, posters, and props. Teaching materials are not compulsory, and for the very first lessons they may not be used. As students progress in ability the teacher may begin to use objects found in the classroom such as furniture or books, and later may use word charts, pictures, and realia.
There are a number of specialized TPR teaching products available, including student kits developed by Asher and an interactive CD-ROM for students to practice with privately.
Research
Asher conducted a large number of scientific studies to test and refine his hypotheses and the teaching practices in total physical response. When testing children and adults learning Russian, Asher and Price found that the adults outperformed the children.
Research performed in Turkey in 2018 on TPR by Adnan Oflaz showed that using the method can significantly reduce anxiety in students. Over the course of Oflaz's research of using the TPR method for two hours a week over a six-week period, "those [students] whose anxiety levels were high and those who experienced anxiety very close to high level ... went down to medium level." Oflaz also observed that the students were more willing to speak in German (which was the target language), that they didn't purposefully avoid situations in which they needed to speak in the target language, and that some students were even "eager to take turns to speak."
Reception
According to the Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning, TPR is often criticized as being only suitable for beginning students. However, the encyclopedia goes on to note that there are several publications available about how to use TPR with intermediate and advanced students.
According to its proponents, total physical response has a number of advantages: Students enjoy getting out of their chairs and moving around. Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher. TPR is aptitude-free, working well with a mixed ability class, and with students having various disabilities. It is good for kinesthetic learners who need to be active in the class. Class size need not be a problem, and it works effectively for children and adults.
However, it is recognized that TPR is most useful for beginners, though it can be used at higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher. It does not give students the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way. Further, it is easy to overuse TPR-- "Any novelty, if carried on too long, will trigger adaptation." It can be a challenge for shy students. Additionally, the nature of TPR places an unnaturally heavy emphasis on the use of the imperative mood, that is to say commands such as sit down and stand up. These features are of limited utility to the learner, and can lead to a learner appearing rude when attempting to use their new language. As a TPR class progresses, group activities and descriptions can extend basic TPR concepts into full communication situations.
Because of its participatory approach, TPR may also be a useful alternative teaching strategy for students with dyslexia or related learning disabilities, who typically experience difficulty learning foreign languages with traditional classroom instruction.
Influence
Teachers who use TPR typically use it together with a variety of other activities and techniques. In line with Asher's recommendations for using the method, it is most often used for introducing new vocabulary. This is the case in The Polis Institute, a school for ancient languages and the humanities in Jerusalem (Israel), which employs TPR within the Polis Method of teaching ancient and modern languages.
Blaine Ray, a Spanish language teacher, added stories to TPR to help students acquire non-physical language, creating the foundation of the method known as Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling (TPRS) built on Stephen Krashen's theories of language acquisition.
See also
"Where are your keys?"
Notes
References
Asher, James J., "What is TPR ?" in TPR-World. Retrieved on 2012-05-29.
"The Total Physical Response Approach to Second Language Learning" by James J. Asher. The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 53, No. 1 (Jan., 1969), pp. 3–17 JSTOR
"The Learning Strategy of the Total Physical Response: A Review" by James J. Asher The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 50, No. 2 (Feb., 1966), pp. 79–84 JSTOR
"The strategy of the total physical response: an application to learning Russian" ERIC ED011378 by JJ Asher, 1965
"Total Physical Response: Commands, not Control" William J. Celestino Hispania, Vol. 76, No. 4 (Dec., 1993), pp. 902–903 JSTOR
"Total Physical Response: An Instructional Strategy for Second-Language Learners Who Are Visually Impaired." by P. Conroy Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, v93 n5 p315-18 May 1999 ERIC
"Total Physical Response Storytelling: A Communicative Approach to Language Learning" V Marsh - TPRS Publications Inc - ERIC EJ586008
"Integrating Total Physical Response Strategy in a Level I Spanish Class" DE Wolfe, G Jones - Foreign Language Annals, 1982 ERIC
External links
Study of Total Physical Response
Language-teaching methodology | [
0.03211142122745514,
-0.08210668712854385,
-0.16565360128879547,
-0.018949473276734352,
-0.556458055973053,
0.6976844668388367,
0.6249375343322754,
-0.27616605162620544,
-0.09502391517162323,
-0.17188045382499695,
-0.430424302816391,
0.8346854448318481,
-0.14068646728992462,
-0.4708176553249359,
0.05674676224589348,
0.21809357404708862,
0.22024723887443542,
0.10287180542945862,
-0.06373447924852371,
0.22795529663562775,
-0.3613211214542389,
0.05421964451670647,
0.39421018958091736,
-0.2103813886642456,
0.23001304268836975,
0.27858492732048035,
0.23941008746623993,
0.11637511849403381,
-0.03699547424912453,
0.025135064497590065,
-0.10025537759065628,
0.3118704557418823,
-0.4597131609916687,
-0.32098183035850525,
-0.08597128093242645,
0.24271662533283234,
-0.5589281916618347,
0.04833875969052315,
-0.1947317272424698,
-0.2936820685863495,
0.11094491928815842,
0.05816497653722763,
-0.2764873504638672,
-0.4870423674583435,
-0.23440301418304443,
-0.4190900921821594,
-1.3966246843338013,
-0.3626739978790283,
-0.5447096824645996,
-0.13683268427848816,
-0.6942152380943298,
0.82025146484375,
0.09310191869735718,
0.13539834320545197,
-0.5415644645690918,
0.39652368426322937,
-0.5914323329925537,
-0.22295954823493958,
-0.1506597399711609,
-0.613387405872345,
-0.04867396503686905,
0.25586533546447754,
-0.01755782961845398,
-0.01430234219878912,
-0.19779646396636963,
0.27949830889701843,
-0.09777232259511948,
0.34036895632743835,
0.062318578362464905,
-0.46592435240745544,
-0.3413291573524475,
-0.14355289936065674,
0.01786433719098568,
0.45734846591949463,
-0.5094799399375916,
-0.21053452789783478,
0.32567983865737915,
-0.10730643570423126,
-0.2110404670238495,
0.13823087513446808,
-0.17126381397247314,
0.41397038102149963,
0.7399580478668213,
-0.46810030937194824,
0.5169870257377625,
0.34787091612815857,
0.2875450551509857,
0.29516419768333435,
-0.05206409841775894,
0.36837148666381836,
-0.02498561516404152,
0.0001230667985510081,
0.5808752179145813,
-0.46255794167518616,
0.08329717069864273,
0.09276507794857025,
0.23727811872959137,
-0.1998610496520996,
-0.3351109027862549,
-0.0438726544380188,
0.12864769995212555,
-0.059384170919656754,
0.27232468128204346,
0.17668841779232025,
0.029233044013381004,
-0.13246746361255646,
0.30074822902679443,
-0.4178447425365448,
-0.2821263074874878,
-0.1888953596353531,
-0.5533683896064758,
-0.27204445004463196,
-0.06851277500391006,
-0.23427683115005493,
-0.2883837819099426,
0.43815115094184875,
0.5082696676254272,
0.6069081425666809,
-0.4739001989364624,
0.07727921009063721,
-0.15960834920406342,
0.441393107175827,
0.4279792010784149,
-0.03645223379135132,
-0.23637688159942627,
0.37143003940582275,
0.7910593152046204,
0.46115514636039734,
-0.2566918730735779,
0.1533159464597702,
-0.013531794771552086,
0.309429794549942,
0.6541666984558105,
0.0740712583065033,
-0.37191441655158997,
0.02287939377129078,
0.7574595808982849,
-0.3504546284675598,
-0.44409969449043274,
0.2045552283525467,
-0.17040400207042694,
-0.14082293212413788,
-0.034258030354976654,
-0.30880483984947205,
0.22773973643779755,
-0.5738850235939026,
-0.13724462687969208,
0.03153092414140701,
0.2171969711780548,
-0.10722806304693222,
0.08657898008823395,
0.36166146397590637,
-0.01780470833182335,
0.019778454676270485,
0.08684965968132019,
0.6346146464347839,
-0.15645134449005127,
0.04378306120634079,
-0.012014982290565968,
-0.003794044954702258,
-0.07148198038339615,
0.6116963624954224,
-0.45178931951522827,
-0.2641679048538208,
-0.20179907977581024,
-0.4733967185020447,
0.1459251195192337,
-0.07095883786678314,
0.14443941414356232,
-0.1510273963212967,
0.10283512622117996,
-0.1395697444677353,
0.12125082314014435,
-0.013303346000611782,
-0.3814629316329956,
-0.019322095438838005,
0.5822486281394958,
0.465166836977005,
0.3296256959438324,
-0.5599638819694519,
-0.21813178062438965,
0.2995510995388031,
0.5464066863059998,
-0.4310278296470642,
0.9212253093719482,
-0.7481251955032349,
1.0291147232055664,
-0.5353021025657654,
-0.3246499300003052,
0.12548920512199402,
-0.6619783043861389,
-0.12594904005527496,
0.6649069786071777,
-0.2809973657131195,
1.4724270105361938,
0.0014764373190701008,
-0.2828172743320465,
0.782018780708313,
0.22296348214149475,
0.6207674741744995,
-0.01615964062511921,
-0.3385470509529114,
0.05093346908688545,
-0.015627097338438034,
-0.034303463995456696,
0.0013939890777692199,
-0.19743011891841888,
-0.02213583141565323,
-0.22173863649368286,
0.011535726487636566,
0.2696935534477234,
-0.4824981093406677,
-0.1147189810872078,
-0.4823698103427887,
-0.33805087208747864,
-0.2348649650812149,
-0.1828075647354126,
0.4031970798969269,
0.17603053152561188,
-0.4216408133506775,
0.9214192032814026,
-0.22891905903816223,
-0.15666042268276215,
0.42410027980804443,
-0.09077800810337067,
0.6078082323074341,
0.25491026043891907,
0.3045418858528137,
0.5546213388442993,
-0.2883895933628082,
-0.47901204228401184,
-0.027560468763113022,
-0.048812709748744965,
-0.2023746520280838,
0.2669205665588379,
0.032341647893190384,
0.026744740083813667,
-0.37253814935684204,
-0.1279975026845932,
-0.6060242056846619,
-0.20818154513835907,
0.6857621073722839,
-0.01602485030889511,
0.2948024272918701,
-0.12065763026475906,
0.15039043128490448,
-0.06804849952459335,
0.5101916790008545,
-0.08394788950681686,
0.14401909708976746,
-0.5849767327308655,
0.8792163133621216,
0.02259121648967266,
0.1561543196439743,
-0.2953953146934509,
0.05413547158241272,
0.1609591841697693,
-0.16114814579486847,
-0.13723528385162354,
0.21162602305412292,
0.24818572402000427,
0.09732523560523987,
0.038915038108825684,
0.07423408329486847,
-0.009086845442652702,
-1.1407777070999146,
-0.4548919200897217,
-0.35844287276268005,
0.23660404980182648,
0.2924502491950989,
0.10203365236520767,
-0.42728927731513977,
-0.4903479218482971,
0.279995858669281,
-0.4300090968608856,
-0.7969993352890015,
0.5189138054847717,
0.04415098950266838,
-0.733997106552124,
-0.4328283667564392,
0.20739147067070007,
0.43658116459846497,
0.41740283370018005,
-0.3078615963459015,
0.14952461421489716,
-0.4769904315471649,
-0.05088845267891884,
0.08387081325054169,
0.04078017920255661,
-0.0445098802447319,
-0.14549198746681213,
0.17438597977161407,
0.3824883997440338,
-0.35034647583961487,
0.11303307116031647,
0.4706794321537018,
0.4248710572719574,
0.08480088412761688,
0.37523090839385986,
0.2832110822200775,
-0.4083017110824585,
-0.05661995708942413,
-0.32020103931427,
0.3312453329563141,
-0.19126616418361664,
-0.7742721438407898,
-0.35217541456222534,
0.06930417567491531,
-5.968245506286621,
-0.7029856443405151,
0.07622842490673065,
-0.4730294644832611,
0.03584184870123863,
0.5196971297264099,
0.8857181072235107,
-0.09076351672410965,
-0.3137485682964325,
0.2842055857181549,
-0.2846831679344177,
0.48498013615608215,
-0.11005181074142456,
0.3476697504520416,
0.7009838819503784,
-0.1054508313536644,
0.4550022780895233,
-0.0896354466676712,
0.45711037516593933,
0.5299478769302368,
0.27646782994270325,
-0.45240601897239685,
-0.08887198567390442,
0.5826717019081116,
-0.1596842259168625,
0.8560460805892944,
-0.40059736371040344,
0.42367443442344666,
-0.40355387330055237,
0.17187592387199402,
0.5679399967193604,
-0.37035349011421204,
-0.2200487107038498,
-0.14525331556797028,
0.052267640829086304,
-0.04319852218031883,
0.730479896068573,
0.11332593113183975,
0.3831197917461395,
-0.19237814843654633,
-0.17511750757694244,
0.36926040053367615,
-0.0855863094329834,
-0.4381633400917053,
0.15747609734535217,
0.2819562554359436,
-0.3893127143383026,
-0.14019295573234558,
-0.5679013133049011,
0.534054696559906,
-0.1309489756822586,
-0.4581563174724579,
-0.15665984153747559,
-0.025973819196224213,
0.24580591917037964,
-0.34036850929260254,
0.584467887878418,
0.06569603830575943,
0.05211538448929787,
0.3769015967845917,
0.5243886113166809,
-0.2591957449913025,
-0.5567216873168945,
-0.7499868273735046,
-0.4115591049194336,
-0.007551409304141998,
-0.3819839656352997,
-0.6256375908851624,
-0.06469643115997314,
0.5915087461471558,
-0.1298273205757141,
0.13792471587657928,
0.018225358799099922,
-0.5292342305183411,
-0.3828636705875397,
-0.4829257130622864,
-0.10090379416942596,
-0.07576844841241837,
0.18053941428661346,
0.32299020886421204,
-0.6459370255470276,
-0.6908737421035767,
-0.37894511222839355,
0.13383162021636963,
0.32831814885139465,
0.22795183956623077,
-0.31834638118743896,
0.15679581463336945,
0.2491268515586853,
-0.2619735598564148,
0.5116820931434631,
-0.4091282784938812,
0.05444977059960365,
0.33088210225105286,
0.17397752404212952,
0.23851162195205688,
0.2720946967601776,
0.4544878602027893,
0.05137515440583229,
-0.6551089286804199,
-0.08188221603631973,
-0.07359255850315094,
0.012882566079497337,
-0.526211142539978,
-0.007825315929949284,
0.4076002240180969,
-0.7575803399085999,
0.031753744930028915,
0.6780152320861816,
-0.34888407588005066,
0.08014024794101715,
0.17871452867984772,
-0.5737714767456055,
0.22158761322498322,
0.02819003164768219,
0.668630063533783,
-0.6587000489234924,
-0.23551997542381287,
0.4523356258869171,
0.3176412284374237,
-0.02522479183971882,
-0.3240167796611786,
-0.11528384685516357,
0.025756146758794785,
0.23367564380168915,
-0.16809749603271484,
-0.13536827266216278,
0.17294922471046448,
-0.22890104353427887,
-0.06402149051427841,
0.2883685827255249,
0.11292605102062225,
0.44170546531677246,
0.8793445229530334,
0.1937987059354782,
-0.6773059964179993,
0.1701056957244873,
0.29104214906692505,
-0.04976550117135048,
-0.09277349710464478,
0.03259747102856636,
0.06620968133211136,
-0.20105496048927307,
0.07935822755098343,
0.8309802412986755,
-0.15454129874706268,
-0.4353446960449219,
-0.24324679374694824,
-0.6046683192253113,
0.24601709842681885,
0.8737691640853882,
-0.6017071604728699,
0.4243806302547455,
-0.09601247310638428,
0.1585599184036255,
0.10362909734249115,
-0.09880772233009338,
0.1280994862318039,
0.17747876048088074,
0.021756628528237343,
0.26324546337127686,
-0.079917773604393,
-1.1279523372650146,
-0.5105400085449219,
0.22245091199874878,
-0.712492823600769,
-0.7225935459136963,
-0.7119439840316772,
0.11308460682630539,
0.03445017337799072,
0.06018831208348274,
-1.0088549852371216,
0.07025574147701263,
-0.6088123917579651,
-0.14438416063785553,
-0.14601397514343262,
-0.04800109192728996,
-0.13388262689113617,
-0.2742016613483429,
0.15113943815231323,
0.11048714816570282,
-0.27685368061065674,
0.027297450229525566,
0.25338396430015564,
0.5270003080368042,
0.1107393279671669,
0.08020293712615967,
0.30932143330574036,
-0.07943281531333923,
0.0272127166390419,
0.025946158915758133,
0.10848046839237213,
0.3894544839859009,
-0.12479479610919952,
-0.3056453466415405,
-0.21579471230506897,
0.4822346568107605,
0.6626192331314087,
-0.23651160299777985,
0.00673674326390028,
0.05332285910844803,
0.26512739062309265,
-0.29538992047309875,
0.05948841944336891,
0.8098779916763306,
-0.4111841022968292,
-0.21618515253067017,
0.3260493278503418,
-0.7896872162818909,
-0.2674857974052429,
-0.34341853857040405,
-0.4476456642150879,
-0.18852876126766205,
-0.39206522703170776,
-0.5078355669975281,
0.065144844353199,
-0.09818115085363388,
-0.7332426309585571,
0.16318292915821075,
-0.05343101918697357,
-0.3914037346839905,
0.0258592888712883,
-0.7383021116256714,
-0.00755730178207159,
-0.1225379928946495,
-0.5851411819458008,
0.7094936966896057,
-0.7498686909675598,
0.28627511858940125,
-0.4705638587474823,
-0.3595965802669525,
-0.2064075618982315,
0.5167938470840454,
0.1824720948934555,
0.05106562003493309,
-0.22846901416778564,
-0.4682583510875702,
0.3275245130062103,
0.14225979149341583,
-0.3101719617843628,
-0.3361261188983917,
0.8310815095901489,
0.17775371670722961,
0.2932034730911255,
0.15260261297225952,
0.553765058517456,
0.7837193608283997,
-0.5669910311698914,
-0.18217404186725616,
0.1322362720966339,
0.3821771442890167,
-0.15824134647846222,
-0.9530037045478821,
0.24893410503864288,
0.4407557249069214,
0.024270057678222656,
-0.1399771124124527,
-0.381149560213089,
0.08572708815336227,
0.08037027716636658,
0.16641765832901,
-0.20904326438903809,
-0.2163238227367401,
0.19988197088241577,
-0.5736470222473145,
0.40086445212364197,
0.04904278740286827,
-0.40765735507011414,
0.29341816902160645,
-0.3643460273742676,
-0.07513590902090073,
-0.5745818018913269,
-0.37437665462493896,
0.43267372250556946,
0.3978463113307953,
-0.021869555115699768,
0.021559525281190872,
0.1590563803911209,
0.34701254963874817,
0.4488771855831146,
0.17274457216262817,
0.24373717606067657,
0.33055490255355835,
-0.41939058899879456,
0.38197100162506104,
-0.24380111694335938,
0.22063708305358887,
-0.5082436800003052,
-0.19236458837985992,
0.14728735387325287,
-0.49699193239212036,
0.2820318937301636,
-0.44555583596229553,
-0.4054279327392578,
-0.5370503067970276,
-0.08938051015138626,
0.06660088151693344,
0.17794489860534668,
-0.5078745484352112,
-0.3391421437263489,
0.11978534609079361,
0.8463118672370911,
-0.036214545369148254,
-0.4646613597869873,
-0.19528540968894958,
0.0847972184419632,
0.19480881094932556,
-0.2766590714454651,
0.2424716353416443,
-0.5464835166931152,
-0.15044303238391876,
-0.11580220609903336,
0.34424734115600586,
0.6793519258499146,
-0.22429102659225464,
0.08691267669200897,
0.8628952503204346,
-0.15390224754810333,
0.24700675904750824,
0.8419516682624817,
-0.06361334770917892,
-0.3131115436553955,
0.9361572861671448,
-0.5085509419441223,
-0.23909609019756317,
0.6716030836105347,
-0.3140726089477539,
-0.11895323544740677,
0.08193104714155197,
0.4210861623287201,
0.7419514656066895,
0.006303607951849699,
-0.11603673547506332,
0.32946842908859253,
0.36288982629776,
-0.22419607639312744,
0.8942577838897705,
0.07128343731164932,
-0.4490507245063782,
-0.175389364361763,
0.38901087641716003,
0.4041409492492676,
-0.010353966616094112,
0.45587846636772156,
-0.1862238645553589,
-0.18963392078876495,
0.45997223258018494,
0.8897781372070312,
-0.3849676251411438,
0.17120495438575745,
0.16422078013420105,
-0.06024866923689842,
0.12419575452804565,
-0.06200941652059555,
0.46325230598449707,
-0.5107842683792114,
0.2347853034734726,
-0.1592174917459488,
-0.09961649030447006,
0.16690964996814728,
-0.015764746814966202,
0.29928967356681824,
0.9453571438789368,
0.015514116734266281,
-0.15190479159355164,
0.16513103246688843,
0.7067273259162903,
-0.19702106714248657,
0.20432765781879425,
0.5366783738136292,
-0.25684866309165955,
0.3836295008659363,
-0.14985686540603638,
0.5277143120765686,
-0.03549621254205704,
-0.4907416105270386,
0.10591502487659454,
0.26994913816452026,
-0.2100462168455124,
-0.11416086554527283,
0.17513692378997803,
-0.10002538561820984,
-0.17637568712234497,
-0.3284890651702881,
0.7103404402732849,
0.7258424758911133,
-0.050556592643260956,
0.13474522531032562,
-0.6323024034500122,
0.06626934558153152,
0.27440136671066284,
-0.184733584523201,
0.03162222355604172,
0.18366101384162903,
-0.17804592847824097,
0.11276060342788696,
-0.1340261697769165,
0.29144543409347534,
0.38758349418640137,
-0.009599479846656322,
0.26043701171875,
0.19501157104969025,
0.10788199305534363,
0.08934199064970016,
-0.26710936427116394,
0.35462602972984314,
-0.2473742514848709,
0.2655080258846283,
-0.9587165713310242,
-0.2792600691318512,
0.3098732829093933,
0.5306875109672546,
-0.14548812806606293,
-0.20758922398090363,
-0.35419440269470215,
0.41007229685783386,
0.41134580969810486,
-0.5451734662055969,
0.26647019386291504,
-0.5988762974739075,
-0.16741517186164856,
0.06449102610349655,
0.2792457044124603,
0.4390715956687927,
-0.13021621108055115,
-0.09679675102233887,
0.46136248111724854,
-0.2733585238456726,
-0.7974125146865845,
-0.05651089549064636,
-0.1388278603553772,
0.04102499410510063,
-0.10531419515609741,
0.30762338638305664,
-0.23993343114852905,
-0.7945933938026428,
-0.08641674369573593,
0.3773709237575531,
0.10117994993925095,
-0.44351762533187866,
0.47666242718696594,
-0.09680525213479996,
-0.2548716962337494,
0.6613537073135376,
-0.3189505636692047,
0.24802850186824799,
-0.4754323363304138,
-0.5820289850234985,
-0.44011205434799194,
-0.17374642193317413,
0.29326432943344116,
-0.7360626459121704,
-0.05389953404664993,
-0.435529500246048,
-0.13912102580070496,
0.10719534754753113,
0.13064812123775482,
-0.38828176259994507,
-0.21962566673755646,
0.5041860938072205
] |
261071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camiguin | Camiguin | Camiguin (; ; Kamigin: Probinsya ta Kamigin) is an island province in the Philippines located in the Bohol Sea, about off the northern coast of Mindanao. It is geographically part of Region X, the Northern Mindanao Region of the country and formerly a part of Misamis Oriental province.
Camiguin is the second-smallest province in the country in both population and land area after Batanes. The provincial capital is Mambajao, which is also the province's largest municipality in both area and population.
The province is famous for its sweet lanzones, to which its annual Lanzones Festival is dedicated and celebrated every third weekend of October. It is home to lush interior forest reserves, collectively known as the Mount Hibok-Hibok Protected Landscape, which has been declared by all Southeast Asian nations as an ASEAN Heritage Park. The province also boasts three National Cultural Treasures, namely, the Old Bonbon Church ruins in Catarman, the Sunken Cemetery of Catarman, and the Spanish-era watchtower in Guinsiliban. The three sites were declared for “possessing outstanding historical, cultural, artistic and/or scientific value which is highly significant and important to the country and nation.”
Additionally, the island province has numerous Important Cultural Treasures, such as the Old Mambajao Fountain - situated in the town's rotonda, the Old Mambajao Municipal Building, the façade of the Santo Rosario Church in Sagay, and 14 heritage and ancestral houses. The sites were declared for “having exceptional cultural, artistic and historical significance to the Philippines.” All cultural treasures were declared by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts. There have been moves to establish a dossier nomination for the province to be included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
History
Etymology
The name Camiguin is derived from the native word Kamagong, a species of ebony tree that thrives near Lake Mainit in the province of Surigao del Norte, the region from which the earlier inhabitants of the islands, the Manobos, originated. Kamigin, the local dialect of Camiguin, is the northernmost variant of the Manobo languages.
An earlier Spanish geography book spells the island as Camiguing. There is reason to suppose the Spaniards dropped the final g, given how the phoneme does not exist in Spanish. Today it is rendered as Camiguín.
Classical era
The island of Camiguin is believed to have been first inhabited by the Manobo people of Surigao del Norte, as evidenced by the distinctly connected language between the two groups. The island was used as a trading stop point by various merchants and traders from the Rajahnate of Butuan, the Kedatuan of Dapitan, the ancient people of the Anda peninsula, and possibly the Rajahnate of Cebu and the animist Maranao of Lanao before the Islamization of the Lanao provinces.
Spanish colonial era
Old Spanish documents indicate that the renowned explorers Ferdinand Magellan and Miguel Lopez de Legaspi landed in Camiguin in 1521 and 1565, respectively. The first Spanish settlement was established in 1598 in what is now Guinsiliban. Guinsiliban, which comes from the old Kinamiguin word Ginsil-ipan (which means “to look out for pirates from a watchtower”) has an old Spanish watchtower where the Camiguinons kept watch for Moro pirates.
The first major Spanish settlement, established in 1679, was called Katagman or Katadman (known as Catarman). The settlement grew and prospered but was destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vulcan in 1871. The former location is what is now Barangay Bonbon of Catarman.
Sagay, located south of Catarman, was formally established as a town in 1848. The word Sagay is derived from the name of poisonous fruit trees that grow in the area. Mambajao became a town in 1855. The name was coined from the Visayan terms mamahaw, meaning to usher breakfast, and bajao, which is leftover boiled rice. In the early 1900s, Mambajao prospered and became the busiest port in Northern Mindanao. Mahinog was established as a municipality in 1860. The name Mahinog comes from a Visayan word meaning "to ripen" or "to become ripe". Although Guinsiliban was the oldest settlement in the island, it was only in 1950 that it became a municipality. Mahinog was formerly governed by Mambajao while Guinsiliban was formally governed from Sagay.
American colonial era
In 1901, in the middle of the Philippine–American War, American soldiers landed in Camiguin to assume political control over the island. A group of Camiguinons, armed with bolos and spears, led by Valero Camaro, fought them in a short battle in Catarman. Valero Camaro was killed by a bullet in the forehead. Further study is needed before he and his band can be recognized as patriots in the same way we recognize the Katipuneros. There is no study that identifies an independence movement in Camiguin during the American occupation. However, a small detail with regards to the colonial resistance in Cagayan, Misamis indicates that Camiguinons support in a clandestine way the revolutionary activities of the Cagayanons against the new colonizers. They offered their arms and ammunitions and a typewriter to the revolucionarios in Cagayan.
In 1903, the first public school in Camiguin was built in Mambajao but what is known today as the Mambajao Central School was completed in 1912. On September 9, 1904, the first public water system, known as Las Aguas Potables de Mambajao, spearheaded by an admired civic leader by the name of Placido Reyes and cooperated by town mates, was inaugurated.<ref name="bar"
World War II
On June 18, 1942, the Japanese Imperial Army landed in Camiguin and set up a government in Mambajao. They gutted central Mambajao in reprisal to guerrilla activities in the area. The remains of some of these buildings still exist today.
Independence
On July 4, 1946, the Philippines gained independence from the US. Camiguin was then part of Misamis Oriental. In 1958, it became a sub-province. It was made into a separate province on June 18, 1966, and formally inaugurated in 1968.
Geography
The province consists primarily of Camiguin Island, as well as a few other surrounding minor islets including:
White Island, about west of the town of Mambajao
Mantigue Island, about south of Mambajao.
Physical
Camiguin Island is a pearl-shaped island with an area of approximately . The island measures about at its longest and at its widest breadth. The island is mountainous with the highest elevation reaching over . It is encircled by a national road with a length of about . As of the August 1, 2007 census, the province has a fifth-class income classification with a population of 81,293.
Administrative divisions
Camiguin comprises five municipalities, which are further subdivided into a total of 58 barangays.
Demographics
The population of Camiguin in the was people, with a density of .
The people of Camiguin are called Camiguingnon or Camiguinon (). Cebuano is the most spoken language in the province, although Kinamigin is considered to be the indigenous language. Today, Kinamigin is still spoken by few in the municipalities of Sagay and Guinsiliban. Tagalog and English are also widely spoken and understood by the local population.
Religion
Camiguin is a predominantly Roman Catholic province with 95% adherence. The remaining religions are represented by various Protestant and few Islamic groups.
Economy
The economy is based upon fishing and farming, with copra providing the greatest income contribution. Lanzones has since then became the main agricultural product of the island province. Other agricultural products are abaca, rice, mangoes and other fruit trees. The growing tourism industry has improved the economy of the province. Small cottage industries have increased in number to accommodate the influx of visitors.
Education
Camiguin has three colleges, all located in Mambajao: Fatima College of Camiguin (FCC), Camiguin Polytechnic State College (CPSC), with a satellite campus in Catarman, and Camiguin School of Arts and Trades (CSAT. A complete secondary and elementary education is provided as well, both in private and public schools. There are also day care centers offering nursery and pre-school education.
The province has a total number of 68 day care centers managed by the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) and 56 public and private elementary schools. There are 13 secondary schools, 3 private institutions, and the rest government-owned. There is one special school, which accommodates underprivileged or special children, the Family-to-Family School and Farm. It is managed by a Non-Government Organization (NGO).
The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) also offers vocational courses, as well as the Alternative Learning System Education Sector which helps individuals through its literacy cum livelihood program.
Man-made attractions
Lanzones Festival
Each year in the third week of October, a festival is held to celebrate the Lanzones (locally called bwahan/buahan), a small grape-sized tropical fruit grown all over the island. Lanzones grown in Camiguin is considered to be the sweetest. The unique flavor is due to the richness of the volcanic soil. The week-long Lanzones Festival is one of numerous colorful events in the Philippines.
Churches
Several centuries-old Spanish Colonial and 20th century churches are found in various parts of the island.
Santo Rosario Church: The Santo Rosario Church in the municipality of Sagay was built in 1882. The facade of the church is a declared Important Cultural Property of the Philippines.
Old Bonbon Church Ruins of Catarman: The church of the Old Bonbon was destroyed and partly submerged by volcanic debris during the eruption and formation of Mount Vulcan from 1871 to 1875. Also known as Gui-ob Church, only the ruins of the church and bell tower remains of the old town. A modern white lighthouse was recently erected close to the bell tower. The archaeological site has been declared as a National Cultural Treasure of the Philippines.
Baylao Church: The Church located in Barangay Baylao in Mambajao is claimed to be miraculous attributed to saving many lives during the last volcanic eruption of Hibok-hibok.
Old ancestral homes
Beautiful and ornate ancestral homes dating back to the Spanish Colonial Period and American Colonial Period are still abundant and can be found along the streets of Camiguin. Fourteen of these heritage houses has been declared as Important Cultural Properties of the Philippines. These include the Borromeo ancestral house, Bacut ancestral house, Luspo ancestral house, Neri ancestral house, Nery ancestral house, Nerio-Chan ancestral house, Corrales ancestral house, Corrales y Gamali ancestral house, Francisco ancestral house, Juni ancestral house and Lim ancestral house, and Catalino Chan and Eleuterio Chan ancestral houses.
Other structures
The province is dotted with numerous heritage structures and zones from the classical, Spanish, and American eras, but most of its heritage sites are from the 300-year Spanish colonial era.
Sunken Cemetery of Catarman - an ancient cemetery which sank beneath the sea due to a volcanic eruption. The archaeological site has been declared as a National Cultural Treasure of the Philippines.
Spanish-era watchtower in Guinsiliban - the watchtower of Guinsiliban was one of the most important in the area during the Spanish colonial era. The watchtower has been declared as a National Cultural Treasure of the Philippines.
Old Mambajao Fountain - a unique-style fountain from the Spanish era. It has been declared an Important Cultural Property of the Philippines.
Old Mambajao Municipal building - a well-preserved Spanish-era government building which has been declared an Important Cultural Property of the Philippines.
Natural attractions
Volcanoes
The island of Camiguin, of volcanic origin, is composed of four stratovolcanoes. Each volcano (except Mount Guinsiliban) is made up of several flank domes. The only volcano in the island with historical eruptions is Hibok-Hibok, which last erupted in 1953.
Below are the list of volcanoes, arranged with respect to its location from north to south:
Mount Hibok-Hibokand Mount Vulcanare the northernmost and the only active volcanic vents in Camiguin. Mount Vulcan, ironically known as the Old Volcano [], is actually the youngest volcano in the island, born in 1871 starting as a fissure vent on the northwestern flank of Mount Hibok-Hibok [] (see Volcanic eruption below). As a parasitic cone of Hibok-Hibok, it is still considered part of volcano. Some of the other flank domes of the volcano are Carling Hill, Tres Marias Hills and Piyakong Hill. Ilihan Crater is the site of the 1950 eruption.
Mount Timpoong is the largest mountain in Camiguin. It is composed of several domes, the tallest of which is Timpoong Peak, also the highest in Camiguin at . The peak of Mambajao is the second tallest at . A lower central peak of is located between the two peaks. Some of the flank vents on Mount Timpoong are Campana Hill and Minokol Hill.
Mount Butay, also known as Mount Uhay, is located between the towns of Mahinog and Guinsiliban.
Mount Guinsiliban is located in the town of Guinsiliban. The mountain is the southernmost volcano and the first seen coming from the port of Balingoan in mainland Mindanao.
Islands
Located just a few kilometers off the coast are the two islands of Camiguin.
White Island can be accessed from Agoho which is about west of the town of Mambajao.
Mantigue Island can be reached from Mahinog about south of Mambajao.
Springs
Ardent Hibok-Hibok Hot Spring — At the foot of Hibok-Hibok Volcano flow the mineral pools of Ardent Hot Springs. Wisps of steam can be seen rising from the running waters heat by the cauldron of the mountain, the most recently active of the seven volcanoes on the island.
Santo Niño Cold Springs and Bura Natural Soda Water Swimming Pool in Catarman are other popular places to get a relaxing dip on the island.
Tangub Hot Spring is an interesting hot spring located on the shore close to the Sunken Cemetery. Most of the spring is submerged and can be partly seen during low tide. The spring can also be examined by scuba diving or snorkeling, as visibility is excellent and it is also a recommended spot for observing underwater life.
Sunken cemetery
During the volcanic birth of Mt. Vulcan lasting from 1871 to about 1875, some areas in the town of Bonbon subsided, sinking the cemetery of the town to below sea level. The place is commemorated by a huge cross erected in 1982.
Since then the municipality of Bonbon has been transferred to the town of Catarman.
Waterfalls
Katibawasan Falls — Located southeast of Mambajao, the Katibawasan Falls cascades down to a pool surrounded by orchids and ferns. An invigorating dip on the pool is popular especially on warmer days, and several hiking trails are within the park. This is also the favorite jump-off point for trekkers and mountaineers in search of adventure on the slopes of Mt. Timpoong.
Tuasan Falls is located northeast of Catarman. Unfortunately, accessing the falls no longer entails a scenic hike passing through the Barrio of Mainit, Catarman and along the rocky river bed. The local government, to accommodate local tourism, decided in 2012 to improve access to the falls with a road built all the way up to the falls, finished in late 2014. You can park your car near the waterfalls, and from there it's just a few minutes to reach the falls and the pool. The pool at the base of the waterfall is deep and clear. At the time of this writing (March 2015), the local government is finalizing construction of the "Trans Island Highway", a road crossing Camiguin from Catarman to Mambajao which runs directly to the left of Tuasan Falls.
Protected areas
Timpoong and Hibok-Hibok Natural Monument — Located in the central and western portions of Camiguin, the natural monument preserves an important watershed and center of biodiversity in the Mount Hibok-Hibok and Timpoong ranges. As the island's only remaining forest, it supports the vast majority of the island's endemic and endangered flora and fauna such as the Camiguin hanging parrot, Camiguin hawk-owl and Camiguin forest mouse.
Giant Clam Sanctuary — Established by a non-government organization called Kabila Giant Clam Conservation and Ocean Nursery, this area is home to various species of corals and giant clams. Currently, 7 out of 9 species of giant clams can be found in the sanctuary.
Biodiversity
At least five vertebrate species are believed to be endemic to Camiguin:
Bullimus gamay, or the Camiguin forest rat
Apomys camiguinensis, the Camiguin forest mouse
Loriculus camiguinensis, the Camiguin hanging parrot
Oreophryne nana, or the Camiguin narrow-mouthed frog
Ninox leventisi, or the Camiguin hawk-owl
Transportation
Both Cebu Pacific and Philippine Airlines serve daily flights from Mactan Cebu International Airport to Camiguin Airport and vice versa.
Visitors may fly to Laguindingan Airport in Cagayan de Oro City in Misamis Oriental province, the gateway to Northern Mindanao. From the airport, a shuttle ride ferries visitors to the Agora Bus Terminal in Cagayan de Oro. Eastbound buses take visitors to the port of Balingoan, Misamis Oriental in about two hours. The ferries to Benoni port take just over an hour (depending on weather conditions) and have more scheduled trips as it takes passengers closer to Mambajao. The time between trips varies during the day and runs from 4:00 am to 5:00 pm.
A Super Shuttle Roro transports passengers daily from Camiguin's Port of Balbagon to Bohol's Port of Jagna and vice versa.
Natural calamities
Volcanic activity from 1871 to 1875
On February 16, 1871, earthquakes began to be felt on the island, which increase in severity until April 30, when a volcanic fissure opened up 400 yards southwest of the village of Catarman, northwest of Hibok-Hibok Volcano. Mt. Vulcan was born and continued erupting pouring lava into the sea at the same time gaining in height and width. In 1875, the Challenger expedition visited the area and described the mountain as a dome, in height, without any crater, but still smoking and incandescent at the top.
The town of Catarman was destroyed and portion of the town sank beneath the sea. The settlement moved to where the town center is presently located. All that remains today of old Catarman are the ruins of the ancient Spanish church, a convent, and a bell tower.
Eruptions from 1948 to 1951
From 1948 to 1951, Mt. Hibok-Hibok was constantly rumbling and smoking. The first minor eruption in 1948 caused little damage and loss of life, but in 1949, the larger eruption caused 79 deaths due to pyroclastic flows. The largest eruption occurred the morning of December 4, 1951. The volcano unleashed lava flows, poisonous gases, and pyroclastic flows destroying nearly 19 squares kilometers of land, particularly in Mambajao. All in all, over 3,000 people were killed. Before the eruption of Mt. Hibok-Hibok in 1951, the population of Camiguin had reach 69,000. After the eruption, the population was reduced to about 34,000 due to massive out-migration.
Typhoon of 2001
A disastrous typhoon hit the province in the dawn of November 7, 2001. The tropical storm named Lingling (local name Nanang) brought buhawi (torrential downpours) on the mountains causing multiple massive mudslides killing about 200 inhabitants, most were missing.
See also
List of volcanoes in the Philippines
List of islands in the Philippines
References
External links
Province of Camiguin official website
Map of Camiguin from Visayan Silent Gardens
Lanzones Festival Camiguin Island
Provinces of the Philippines
Island provinces of the Philippines
Northern Mindanao
States and territories established in 1966
1966 establishments in the Philippines
Bohol Sea
Former sub-provinces of the Philippines | [
-0.4046536982059479,
0.13165581226348877,
0.18638621270656586,
0.04348144307732582,
-0.005454191006720066,
0.31241026520729065,
-0.17281363904476166,
1.0530040264129639,
-0.5107594728469849,
-0.07791941612958908,
-0.035494279116392136,
0.7268718481063843,
0.168760284781456,
0.08731411397457123,
0.006533564534038305,
0.5360861420631409,
0.7402016520500183,
0.5750570297241211,
-0.1848858743906021,
-0.5892033576965332,
-0.4033535122871399,
-0.6422168612480164,
0.23544861376285553,
-0.0017101179109886289,
0.6747254133224487,
0.4817028343677521,
0.43863555788993835,
0.9017652869224548,
0.584527313709259,
0.19176501035690308,
0.12420552968978882,
0.36876359581947327,
-0.16665568947792053,
0.23735924065113068,
0.07532067596912384,
0.1548805981874466,
-0.18335874378681183,
-0.6010892391204834,
-0.22796331346035004,
-0.3453603684902191,
0.37657657265663147,
0.26122644543647766,
0.13711805641651154,
0.6770386695861816,
0.4871167838573456,
-0.4223310649394989,
-0.9606888890266418,
0.613396406173706,
-0.6403931379318237,
0.171909362077713,
-1.3691147565841675,
0.5829744935035706,
-0.3004721701145172,
-0.5795876979827881,
-0.0820646733045578,
0.26293081045150757,
-0.5323448181152344,
-0.11046800017356873,
-0.28909051418304443,
-0.18967239558696747,
0.006733397487550974,
0.5149058103561401,
0.14016330242156982,
0.4296583831310272,
-0.6699826717376709,
0.16102184355258942,
0.36732009053230286,
0.33602795004844666,
0.0444653294980526,
-0.39847782254219055,
0.12457294762134552,
0.9945116639137268,
-0.1517961174249649,
-0.2928718328475952,
-0.025637131184339523,
-0.2813689112663269,
-0.8804424405097961,
-0.024917462840676308,
0.12374149262905121,
0.139069065451622,
-0.1323368400335312,
0.009145304560661316,
0.2749835252761841,
-0.233400359749794,
0.1669159233570099,
0.29655420780181885,
-0.13872656226158142,
0.4184856414794922,
-0.21532487869262695,
0.499767541885376,
-0.34788259863853455,
-0.20133274793624878,
-0.20921306312084198,
0.00462846364825964,
-0.22047939896583557,
-1.050973892211914,
-0.27679234743118286,
-0.06993233412504196,
-0.4052616059780121,
0.6230211853981018,
-0.092438705265522,
0.11825531721115112,
0.22109025716781616,
0.4156099557876587,
-0.8387993574142456,
0.08188851177692413,
-0.2701761722564697,
-0.003413930768147111,
-0.7742162346839905,
-0.265349805355072,
-0.2898235619068146,
-0.2196812778711319,
0.10615213960409164,
0.4137701094150543,
0.2559887766838074,
0.03241836652159691,
0.5049747228622437,
-0.3363022208213806,
-0.021717339754104614,
-0.37797045707702637,
0.3423713147640228,
0.5268220901489258,
-0.45394572615623474,
-0.19317546486854553,
1.0878604650497437,
-0.658715009689331,
0.354398638010025,
-0.4277293086051941,
-0.6730535626411438,
0.4399920403957367,
0.21287140250205994,
0.39468324184417725,
-0.36471712589263916,
0.3379327356815338,
0.23034484684467316,
-0.5897454619407654,
-0.48361310362815857,
0.04467861354351044,
0.21925877034664154,
-0.002546060597524047,
-0.9300196170806885,
0.2998288869857788,
-0.4698250889778137,
-0.34438398480415344,
0.7851389050483704,
-0.06101046875119209,
0.05593644082546234,
-0.9639580249786377,
-0.7318630814552307,
-0.5173358917236328,
0.20446644723415375,
0.07236607372760773,
-0.4723643958568573,
0.43419113755226135,
-0.6158062219619751,
-0.22344665229320526,
0.3824184536933899,
0.19335782527923584,
0.24425090849399567,
0.010740839876234531,
-0.18556563556194305,
-0.00015428911137860268,
-0.059466402977705,
-0.5806621313095093,
-0.11345206201076508,
-0.13502761721611023,
0.36175858974456787,
0.7114823460578918,
0.23014935851097107,
0.1758427917957306,
-0.5132588744163513,
0.17710542678833008,
-0.02887706831097603,
-0.762582540512085,
0.06539175659418106,
-0.23818597197532654,
0.07756895571947098,
-0.008902124129235744,
-0.5008920431137085,
-0.2673150599002838,
-0.6768308877944946,
0.7010489702224731,
-0.09833741188049316,
0.08685984462499619,
-0.42834827303886414,
-0.09835238009691238,
0.3737771511077881,
-0.07457777857780457,
0.12250707298517227,
0.7220357656478882,
-0.2157728672027588,
-0.15453213453292847,
0.09099569171667099,
0.20934037864208221,
0.5460059642791748,
0.27969247102737427,
-0.0832737386226654,
0.545325517654419,
-0.24711371958255768,
0.2047998011112213,
-0.9357962012290955,
-0.09500424563884735,
0.778439462184906,
-0.12558366358280182,
-0.8079904317855835,
0.19300635159015656,
0.21012358367443085,
0.4353773891925812,
0.30415576696395874,
1.13527512550354,
0.06468068063259125,
-0.23573553562164307,
-0.2069779932498932,
0.20440077781677246,
-0.12269731611013412,
-0.7609660625457764,
-0.1768161654472351,
-0.27082911133766174,
0.16126692295074463,
-0.08840247988700867,
0.09798754006624222,
0.1360192447900772,
-0.5211805701255798,
0.549178421497345,
0.1566513329744339,
0.9799571633338928,
0.5717801451683044,
-0.007208567578345537,
0.5539640784263611,
-0.170181006193161,
0.5072465538978577,
-0.021279267966747284,
0.3612569570541382,
-0.5133599638938904,
-0.20133017003536224,
0.2600054442882538,
-0.3594288229942322,
-0.4698573350906372,
0.0036098803393542767,
-0.7770577669143677,
-0.20831838250160217,
-0.4092061221599579,
-0.6751352548599243,
0.2245849221944809,
0.7228374481201172,
0.31080880761146545,
-0.5071836709976196,
0.2487400323152542,
0.049945272505283356,
0.29879894852638245,
-0.03552664816379547,
0.5885313153266907,
0.4515165388584137,
-0.15183907747268677,
-0.041838664561510086,
-0.35622966289520264,
-0.17508937418460846,
-0.07685945928096771,
0.49900174140930176,
-0.08281223475933075,
-0.6019015908241272,
0.2848914563655853,
-0.11192001402378082,
0.7140942811965942,
-0.48718908429145813,
-0.2911565601825714,
0.6306259632110596,
-0.3028586804866791,
-0.07895370572805405,
0.0231741014868021,
-0.28841477632522583,
-0.6117625832557678,
-0.5059787034988403,
-0.28873446583747864,
0.05138060450553894,
-0.4900772273540497,
0.35947364568710327,
0.24323877692222595,
-0.7937572598457336,
-0.5121455192565918,
-0.26743006706237793,
0.7736055254936218,
0.2516339123249054,
-0.45302796363830566,
-0.5002442002296448,
0.2409912794828415,
-0.041701335459947586,
-0.4043237864971161,
-0.5360133051872253,
0.11164910346269608,
-0.13623930513858795,
-0.4153316617012024,
-0.04342858865857124,
0.5832807421684265,
-0.9111916422843933,
-0.4790154695510864,
0.10733397305011749,
-0.18064050376415253,
0.8510679602622986,
-1.0433624982833862,
-0.37073835730552673,
0.1822195202112198,
-0.14528082311153412,
-0.097434863448143,
0.2818526327610016,
0.04225260391831398,
-0.037359606474637985,
0.6903713941574097,
-5.534520626068115,
0.07954318821430206,
0.001383841736242175,
-0.7972425818443298,
0.236348956823349,
-0.43798139691352844,
-0.1748785525560379,
-0.7351118922233582,
0.5762045979499817,
-0.0035492684692144394,
-0.08508559316396713,
0.28918763995170593,
0.27256596088409424,
0.26257187128067017,
0.4811473786830902,
0.4758969843387604,
0.002789827296510339,
0.09060465544462204,
0.027933567762374878,
0.15431331098079681,
-0.3443421423435211,
-0.15120942890644073,
-0.12073715776205063,
0.6206819415092468,
0.14086143672466278,
0.3135867118835449,
0.09986335039138794,
-1.0258384943008423,
-0.3966434597969055,
-0.17517663538455963,
-0.41141772270202637,
0.4249270260334015,
0.42651090025901794,
0.7075693607330322,
-0.3152041733264923,
-0.15849919617176056,
1.0266011953353882,
0.32734552025794983,
0.37205269932746887,
-0.06974657624959946,
-0.08874969184398651,
0.0873340368270874,
0.22502213716506958,
0.14635485410690308,
0.2841283082962036,
0.0313880480825901,
-0.40963244438171387,
-0.3588816821575165,
-0.48394325375556946,
0.39479950070381165,
0.48993104696273804,
-0.3917361795902252,
-0.11799533665180206,
-0.22536276280879974,
0.43561965227127075,
-0.1330200582742691,
0.35709425806999207,
-0.5334172248840332,
-1.086509108543396,
0.9521843194961548,
0.6583333611488342,
0.15168137848377228,
-0.6229478716850281,
-0.19948753714561462,
0.1454162448644638,
0.10343517363071442,
0.29737839102745056,
-0.16523945331573486,
0.5031143426895142,
-0.17370037734508514,
-0.8962444067001343,
0.08815881609916687,
-0.5590349435806274,
-0.6622827053070068,
-0.003864801023155451,
-0.23624175786972046,
-0.8830406665802002,
0.34123241901397705,
-0.05206118896603584,
0.28522536158561707,
-0.2437175065279007,
-0.13116325438022614,
0.31056690216064453,
0.37156105041503906,
-0.02504895068705082,
-0.7407576441764832,
0.09027080237865448,
0.18072368204593658,
0.02627933956682682,
0.22070446610450745,
0.27262455224990845,
-0.2948427200317383,
1.1681501865386963,
-0.1864822655916214,
-0.39726021885871887,
0.3695492446422577,
0.13267405331134796,
0.21994918584823608,
0.07484689354896545,
-0.29786917567253113,
0.7273801565170288,
-0.03935296833515167,
0.2428799271583557,
0.2631300687789917,
0.08598462492227554,
-0.3992985785007477,
0.46070972084999084,
0.2215815782546997,
0.15623976290225983,
-0.052040815353393555,
-0.0909898579120636,
0.0863979384303093,
-0.13583600521087646,
-0.2582208812236786,
0.39434313774108887,
-0.08123867958784103,
-0.40823304653167725,
-0.1547572761774063,
0.25279465317726135,
0.11622065305709839,
0.1749356985092163,
0.11984298378229141,
-0.2957970201969147,
0.4087808430194855,
-0.44048556685447693,
-0.8659143447875977,
-0.05510273575782776,
0.4725404679775238,
0.407366007566452,
0.4191460907459259,
0.5382557511329651,
-0.5616036057472229,
0.9044370651245117,
-0.7847265005111694,
0.03584936633706093,
-0.16753320395946503,
-0.019851921126246452,
-0.813149631023407,
0.2818177342414856,
-0.22917208075523376,
0.1290358304977417,
-0.2859906554222107,
-0.4948023557662964,
0.3232405483722687,
0.12542636692523956,
-0.0616852268576622,
-0.35002145171165466,
-0.08583501726388931,
-0.7290728092193604,
0.3600609302520752,
-0.259589284658432,
-0.3915780484676361,
-0.14502796530723572,
-0.19608502089977264,
-0.355338990688324,
-0.11245527118444443,
0.10863825678825378,
0.010021338239312172,
0.558295726776123,
0.26756569743156433,
0.1320497691631317,
-0.43413519859313965,
-0.7836892604827881,
-0.10407521575689316,
-0.048425398766994476,
0.32211658358573914,
-0.13199637830257416,
-0.5234806537628174,
0.14513354003429413,
0.9821553230285645,
-0.012596286833286285,
-0.4030768871307373,
-0.9378464818000793,
0.020882166922092438,
0.5487425923347473,
-0.5357758402824402,
0.37486815452575684,
0.1459936946630478,
-0.14195650815963745,
0.3110189139842987,
0.12502644956111908,
-0.27711743116378784,
0.2647886574268341,
0.38138777017593384,
0.7914393544197083,
-0.5660406351089478,
-1.0734829902648926,
-0.2928495407104492,
-0.5317515730857849,
0.28257110714912415,
0.5802936553955078,
-0.10652898997068405,
-0.020303091034293175,
0.13560479879379272,
-0.082770437002182,
0.21595655381679535,
-0.47242552042007446,
0.18888618052005768,
0.6568772792816162,
0.3060300648212433,
-0.4584749937057495,
0.466575026512146,
-0.4692038595676422,
0.6797555685043335,
-0.16119283437728882,
-0.3539750874042511,
0.4513046443462372,
-0.0514427050948143,
-0.787903368473053,
-0.15451321005821228,
-0.39732906222343445,
-0.3265283703804016,
-0.11299972981214523,
0.32877466082572937,
-0.1773090362548828,
-0.0017877742648124695,
-0.1515878587961197,
-0.3236481249332428,
-0.38406428694725037,
-0.5114873647689819,
-0.6181313991546631,
-0.07920224964618683,
0.4298669099807739,
-0.0890306904911995,
0.12825995683670044,
0.7948914170265198,
0.29831546545028687,
-0.669884443283081,
0.4691949486732483,
0.30966752767562866,
0.09679535776376724,
-0.42226579785346985,
0.6639702916145325,
0.03734441101551056,
-0.05444283038377762,
-0.011639653705060482,
0.02224848046898842,
0.4512149691581726,
0.518007218837738,
0.22296248376369476,
0.19343675673007965,
0.8677873611450195,
-0.01961170881986618,
-0.2085803747177124,
-0.17992393672466278,
0.15226654708385468,
0.0013277498073875904,
-0.2938797175884247,
-0.16171331703662872,
0.3553435504436493,
0.029077056795358658,
-0.6196480989456177,
0.11240658909082413,
-0.06565021723508835,
0.6596680879592896,
-0.03556963428854942,
-0.4444228708744049,
0.6214566826820374,
0.5193604826927185,
0.3703109920024872,
0.03192738816142082,
-0.07342381775379181,
-0.08818036317825317,
0.22518852353096008,
-0.15764890611171722,
-0.10893453657627106,
-0.29537326097488403,
-0.4467162787914276,
0.6328148245811462,
0.28629419207572937,
0.12664517760276794,
-0.10650359094142914,
0.25729143619537354,
-0.03479665890336037,
0.07236114144325256,
-0.07033106684684753,
-0.2382471114397049,
-0.28212684392929077,
0.061513353139162064,
-0.24439798295497894,
-0.9113050699234009,
0.057270921766757965,
-0.5314978361129761,
-0.10357913374900818,
-0.01614244282245636,
-0.3365389406681061,
0.06251732259988785,
0.059771910309791565,
-0.3690737187862396,
0.3925873339176178,
-0.09409049898386002,
0.19464264810085297,
0.1735079437494278,
-0.2836606502532959,
0.09132694453001022,
-0.19594301283359528,
0.13790449500083923,
0.6544474363327026,
-0.47139787673950195,
0.6097386479377747,
-0.5499095916748047,
-0.19063887000083923,
0.5689826011657715,
-0.40647339820861816,
-0.12435803562402725,
-0.2752051055431366,
0.014276164583861828,
-0.25587061047554016,
-0.6695242524147034,
0.4628337323665619,
0.10873214155435562,
0.6492364406585693,
0.2534901201725006,
0.25231102108955383,
-0.49854040145874023,
0.43682625889778137,
0.9753521680831909,
-0.3843921422958374,
0.21536819636821747,
0.7233946919441223,
0.39848604798316956,
0.002346823224797845,
-0.05603005364537239,
0.48370710015296936,
0.2321953922510147,
0.8533276915550232,
-0.32422295212745667,
-0.4505457878112793,
0.19587042927742004,
0.3529505431652069,
-0.23000389337539673,
-0.14381401240825653,
-0.4739059805870056,
0.28984570503234863,
-0.7451058030128479,
-0.4843260943889618,
0.3494078814983368,
-0.23005376756191254,
-0.3222864270210266,
0.42809444665908813,
0.6149756908416748,
0.8005646467208862,
-0.1881493777036667,
-0.031154097989201546,
-0.04005656763911247,
-0.1841631978750229,
0.7898329496383667,
0.3211330473423004,
-0.003230123780667782,
-0.1787928342819214,
0.5616292357444763,
-0.12633469700813293,
0.3419329524040222,
-0.11713557690382004,
0.27268919348716736,
0.6698152422904968,
-0.2342797815799713,
-0.08928105235099792,
-0.5998638868331909,
-0.23862478137016296,
-0.14681443572044373,
0.07455889135599136,
0.05861525237560272,
-0.10549008101224899,
-0.02890823408961296,
-0.5555583834648132,
0.270938515663147,
0.008807571604847908,
-0.6636801958084106,
0.5002712607383728,
-0.3853949010372162,
0.4368179738521576,
-0.037193454802036285,
-0.139509379863739,
-0.26868918538093567,
0.21794652938842773,
-0.3190832734107971,
1.1085565090179443,
-0.46013695001602173,
0.3486260175704956,
-0.17661935091018677,
0.3625316917896271,
0.11902258545160294,
-0.31351980566978455,
0.1579141616821289,
0.2617061138153076,
0.44256719946861267,
0.0985509529709816,
-0.26621484756469727,
0.5367059111595154,
-0.002223328687250614,
-0.021665403619408607,
-0.1303989291191101,
0.6681980490684509,
0.09139100462198257,
-0.2530861496925354,
-0.327944278717041,
0.7565813064575195,
0.564504861831665,
-0.15397889912128448,
-0.13631649315357208,
-0.006031981203705072,
0.14985032379627228,
0.20683574676513672,
-0.20762014389038086,
-0.5338711738586426,
0.25303080677986145,
0.7180185914039612,
-0.830138623714447,
-0.024071259424090385,
0.15364933013916016,
0.10693024843931198,
-0.18188145756721497,
0.39032456278800964,
-0.39080408215522766,
0.36119183897972107,
0.5788729190826416,
-0.18975120782852173,
0.2768319249153137,
-1.0258415937423706,
0.2309434711933136,
-0.5584835410118103,
-0.43781062960624695,
0.7885428071022034,
0.2717728018760681,
0.15594036877155304,
-0.43486636877059937,
0.4936124086380005,
-1.3063111305236816,
0.30217984318733215,
0.3360944092273712,
-0.5080302357673645,
-0.6509151458740234,
0.5506107211112976,
0.01142224483191967,
-0.3491034209728241,
0.2987169921398163,
0.3817235827445984,
0.6522443890571594,
-0.039266813546419144,
-0.20922116935253143,
-0.4358005225658417,
0.5047873258590698,
-0.7113370895385742,
-0.0028143133968114853,
-0.46780166029930115,
0.16194017231464386,
-0.03119511529803276,
-0.8068932890892029,
0.6051483154296875,
0.10662136226892471,
-0.27747642993927,
0.2853316068649292,
-0.32506006956100464,
-0.09466993808746338,
-0.055718570947647095,
0.08216284960508347,
-0.18382123112678528,
0.10598162561655045,
-0.21955199539661407
] |
261073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor%20Ferguson | Trevor Ferguson | Trevor Ferguson, a.k.a. John Farrow, (born 11 November 1947; https://www.johnfarrowmysteries.com) is a Canadian novelist who lived for many years in Hudson, Quebec, and he and his wife Lynne Hill Ferguson now live in Victoria, BC. He is the author of fourteen novels and four plays. He has been called Canada's best novelist both in Books in Canada and the Toronto Star.
Born in Seaforth, Huron County, Ontario in 1947, he was raised in Montreal from the age of three. In his mid-teens, he gravitated towards Canada's northwest where he worked on railway gangs, and also began to write, working at night in the bunkhouses.
In his early twenties, he travelled and worked throughout Europe and the United States before returning to Montreal to write. He settled into driving a taxi by night and writing by day until the publication of his first novel, High Water Chants, in 1977, which Dennis Lee called one of the best in the language. His second novel, Onyx John, in 1985, received (arguably) the highest critical acclaim in the history of Canadian literature. Leon Rooke called it one of the five best novels of the twentieth century. Sixteen years later, the novel would become a bestseller in France. Indeed, his work is highly regarded in France, where he's often cited as being one of the world's pre-eminent writers.
Extraordinary praise also awaited the publication of his third novel, The Kinkajou. The Timekeeper won the Hugh MacLennan Prize for fiction and was developed into the 2009 film The Timekeeper by Louis Bélanger. A ninth novel, River City, was published in 2011 and the paperback, at 1,000 pages, in 2012. The option for it to be a mini-series has been agreed upon, as of November, 2013. Trevor Ferguson's most recent literally novel was The River Burns, published by Simon and Schuster in 2014, the paperback in 2015. In November 2019, Ball Park under his nom de plume John Farrow was released, with a young Detective Emile Cinq-Mars set in Montreal 1975.
City of Ice, written under the penname John Farrow, has been published in 17 countries. The Vancouver Sun called the book the best ever produced in Canada in genre fiction. The second in the series, Ice Lake, caused the New York library journal Booklist to claim that the series is among the very best in crime fiction today. Die Zeit, a major cultural newspaper in Germany, declared the series the best of all time. River City was the third of the three and was equally well received. A new trilogy of John Farrow crime novels, The Storm Murders, has been sold to Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press in New York and will appear under the Minotaur imprint. The first comes out in May, 2015, under the same name, "The Storm Murders." The second. "Seven Days Dead" followed in 2016, to high praise in "The New York Times," "The Toronto Star", the "Globe and Mail", and earned a starred review in "Booklist." The third, "Perish the Day," will come out in 2017. More crime novels are to follow the trilogy.
In 2002, Trevor Ferguson's first play, Long, Long, Short, Long was produced by infinitheatre (dir. Guy Sprung) in Montreal and has become the first English play in history to be nominated by l'académie québécoise du theatre for a Masque award for best text. It returned to the stage in French in the fall of 2005, at Place des Arts in Montreal, and was seen by more than 20,000 people. His second play, Beach House, Burnt Sienna, was chosen to commemorate the tenth anniversary of Village Theatre West in Hudson in 2002. Co-produced with infinitheatre (dir. Guy Sprung), it enjoyed a highly successful run. A third play, Barnacle Wood, was produced in Montreal, also by infinitheatre, in March 2004. His fourth play, Zarathustra Said Some Things, No? opens with the Bridge Theatre Company at Studio 54 in New York City, in April, 2006.
Ferguson is a past chair of the Writers' Union of Canada. He has been a writer-in-residence at the University of Alberta, an invité d'honneur at the Salon des Livres in Montreal, and he was among the Quebec authors invited as special guests of the Paris Book Fair in 1999, and to the Guadalajara Book Fair in 2003. In 2002, he was one of the few Canadian writers invited to the Festival of the Americas in Paris. Also in 2002, he served on the faculty of the May Writers' Studio at the Banff Centre for the Arts. He has frequently taught creative writing at Concordia University. In June 2019, Trevor Ferguson received an Honorary Doctorate, of Divinity, courtesy of the Vancouver School of Theology, for his work as a novelist.
Bibliography
Novels
High Water Chants - 1977
Onyx John - 1985
The Kinkajou - 1989
The True Life Adventures of Sparrow Drinkwater - 1993
The Timekeeper - 1995
The Fire Line - 1995
City of Ice (as John Farrow) - 1999
Ice Lake (as John Farrow) - 2001
River City (as John Farrow) - 2011
The River Burns, 2014; paperback, April 2015
The Storm Murders, (May 26, 2015, as John Farrow), 2015
Seven Days Dead, (as John Farrow) 2016
Perish the Day, (as John Farrow), 2017
Ball Park, (as John Farrow), 2019
Roar Back, (as John Farrow), 2020
Lady Jail, (as John Farrow), 2021
Plays
Long Long Short Long (2002)
Beach House, Burnt Sienna (2002)
Barnacle Wood (2004)
''Zarathustra Said Some Things, No? (2006, New York; 2009, Montreal)
References
External links
Trevor Ferguson fonds (R11731) at Library and Archives Canada
1947 births
Living people
Canadian male novelists
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights
Anglophone Quebec people
Canadian mystery writers
Writers from Montreal
People from Westmount, Quebec
Canadian male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian male writers | [
0.1112344041466713,
0.6161578893661499,
-0.602026641368866,
-0.43387699127197266,
-0.8527776598930359,
0.34375259280204773,
0.9033750891685486,
0.7330455780029297,
-0.79853755235672,
-0.2896327078342438,
0.3111650049686432,
0.019490482285618782,
-0.5391815900802612,
0.5734179615974426,
0.27501341700553894,
0.9453885555267334,
-0.15051226317882538,
0.9357520937919617,
0.5546146631240845,
-0.254101425409317,
0.17676584422588348,
-0.3239072561264038,
-0.06034991517663002,
-0.5672597289085388,
0.11738767474889755,
-0.1131046861410141,
0.24259234964847565,
0.5326293706893921,
-0.5668783187866211,
-0.03865232691168785,
-0.033164266496896744,
0.3977549076080322,
0.4613564610481262,
-0.034387197345495224,
0.17210252583026886,
-0.25201472640037537,
0.5168203115463257,
-0.018473902717232704,
0.02754787728190422,
-0.7199909090995789,
-0.6200689077377319,
-0.2031906098127365,
0.25221017003059387,
-0.23575855791568756,
0.3349786698818207,
-0.11401911079883575,
-1.1259409189224243,
-0.09812778234481812,
-0.286601185798645,
-0.007080522831529379,
-0.2126365602016449,
-0.04312897101044655,
0.6565752625465393,
-0.12248159199953079,
0.02450486831367016,
0.4427935481071472,
-0.44254252314567566,
-0.2256118208169937,
0.42207905650138855,
0.06278101354837418,
0.39193180203437805,
0.29982033371925354,
0.2800329625606537,
0.200588196516037,
0.23220312595367432,
0.9447141885757446,
-0.47064170241355896,
0.8552016615867615,
-0.0389518141746521,
-0.4354962408542633,
-0.2453766167163849,
-0.2105003446340561,
0.21857614815235138,
0.2269212305545807,
-0.1275203824043274,
-0.2641078233718872,
0.013896705582737923,
-0.15406708419322968,
-0.022465048357844353,
-0.3821844756603241,
0.5064378976821899,
-0.49611830711364746,
0.4081307053565979,
0.4371839761734009,
0.42461198568344116,
0.628171980381012,
-0.6111306548118591,
-0.43129849433898926,
0.264165461063385,
1.0900946855545044,
-0.7247260212898254,
0.4086397588253021,
0.0013677258975803852,
0.11611752957105637,
-0.6529937386512756,
-0.09025835990905762,
-0.4150800406932831,
0.26582688093185425,
0.5984842777252197,
-0.0532635897397995,
-0.20507746934890747,
0.2423279583454132,
0.6029148697853088,
0.004028322175145149,
-0.6740152835845947,
0.11741840839385986,
-0.16191473603248596,
-0.3623120188713074,
0.026438897475600243,
-1.0758609771728516,
-0.2378959059715271,
0.07303596287965775,
-0.2821905314922333,
-0.37249699234962463,
0.2889156937599182,
0.6152466535568237,
1.0372004508972168,
-0.3201855719089508,
-0.2741009593009949,
0.6848477125167847,
0.1503569781780243,
0.7538442015647888,
-0.9565418362617493,
0.3170911371707916,
-0.7083908319473267,
0.23916110396385193,
0.3153107762336731,
-0.46112632751464844,
0.6201462745666504,
0.49328967928886414,
-0.19653530418872833,
1.1720362901687622,
-0.6451533436775208,
0.11013683676719666,
-0.2712874412536621,
-0.539714515209198,
0.7626413106918335,
0.29253238439559937,
-0.3691699802875519,
0.07739721238613129,
-0.4527379274368286,
-0.3919379711151123,
-1.5264110565185547,
-0.6309084296226501,
0.7126110196113586,
0.3614029586315155,
-0.394905686378479,
0.29855695366859436,
0.8218331933021545,
0.31498438119888306,
0.22985970973968506,
-0.8047360777854919,
0.34252288937568665,
0.6099017262458801,
-0.46809571981430054,
0.2288661152124405,
0.4660148322582245,
-0.25266826152801514,
-0.029845310375094414,
0.3991735279560089,
0.22064320743083954,
-0.022689469158649445,
0.18813788890838623,
0.21135151386260986,
-0.07743173092603683,
0.09666457027196884,
0.22380512952804565,
-0.4235360622406006,
-0.5263003706932068,
-0.5414229035377502,
-0.4912424087524414,
-0.1789017915725708,
0.12871809303760529,
-0.483106404542923,
0.08307075500488281,
0.05216266214847565,
0.2752009630203247,
0.44466471672058105,
-0.05027336627244949,
-0.4505872130393982,
-0.4843403697013855,
-0.5199114680290222,
0.6571767330169678,
-0.11615058779716492,
0.47071850299835205,
0.1890975683927536,
0.4346403479576111,
-0.39493677020072937,
0.08603633940219879,
0.467838317155838,
0.029494529590010643,
-0.10683957487344742,
0.4718989133834839,
-0.1615021824836731,
0.5787829756736755,
0.0174375232309103,
-0.2958717942237854,
-0.32954326272010803,
0.45004990696907043,
1.0466398000717163,
-0.0973418653011322,
-0.01987050101161003,
0.20330201089382172,
0.050734806805849075,
-0.2488187998533249,
1.3543217182159424,
0.542688250541687,
0.09811943769454956,
0.46112149953842163,
1.1559001207351685,
0.41390275955200195,
-0.07503194361925125,
-0.8298742771148682,
0.2181791216135025,
-0.3198602497577667,
0.06901729106903076,
0.17641383409500122,
-0.418023020029068,
0.016864357516169548,
-0.8368858695030212,
-0.3260060250759125,
-0.09848333150148392,
-0.12004707753658295,
0.3415873944759369,
0.014973830431699753,
1.0637940168380737,
0.4087836742401123,
0.6332166790962219,
-0.6795945763587952,
-1.099697232246399,
0.5717752575874329,
0.48292016983032227,
-0.3406549394130707,
-0.5851395726203918,
-0.18918859958648682,
0.09503239393234253,
-0.30046573281288147,
-0.4393995702266693,
0.02138817310333252,
-0.12345502525568008,
0.6455590128898621,
0.011698870919644833,
-0.10610466450452805,
0.031806617975234985,
-0.31819596886634827,
0.4417980909347534,
-0.14371377229690552,
0.6706836819648743,
-0.10248000174760818,
-0.7023733854293823,
0.575802206993103,
-0.30210626125335693,
0.9457574486732483,
-0.46485549211502075,
0.1013212576508522,
0.060635585337877274,
0.10452773422002792,
-0.7139003872871399,
-0.5549652576446533,
0.13773047924041748,
-0.11363966017961502,
0.3125819265842438,
0.9444575905799866,
-0.1331886649131775,
-0.5145472884178162,
-0.46888142824172974,
-0.19202710688114166,
-0.3951861262321472,
-0.524776041507721,
-0.2720153331756592,
0.08716140687465668,
-0.22470007836818695,
0.01508646085858345,
-2.0527942180633545,
0.022408708930015564,
0.42611029744148254,
0.19551146030426025,
-0.03293340653181076,
-0.6400281190872192,
-0.13042235374450684,
0.5435377955436707,
0.5025530457496643,
0.012367481365799904,
-0.24346497654914856,
-0.4295729100704193,
0.18036453425884247,
-0.047603096812963486,
0.34833648800849915,
0.074001245200634,
-0.14846333861351013,
0.043126896023750305,
0.10958990454673767,
-1.0892857313156128,
0.7021600008010864,
-0.4664945900440216,
-0.3434552550315857,
0.03572988137602806,
-0.3342384397983551,
0.5400063991546631,
-0.19019581377506256,
-0.24210628867149353,
0.4801501929759979,
-0.49647706747055054,
0.16967594623565674,
-0.07952084392309189,
-0.34175097942352295,
-0.42482852935791016,
-0.2883511483669281,
-4.3919148445129395,
0.22805257141590118,
-0.1525087058544159,
-0.1744881421327591,
0.262812077999115,
-0.6252779960632324,
0.6012545824050903,
-0.6576031446456909,
-0.667685329914093,
-0.037971001118421555,
-0.12366687506437302,
-0.026429317891597748,
-0.2461443990468979,
0.3734237551689148,
1.0422019958496094,
0.5979610085487366,
1.229195237159729,
-0.3680991232395172,
0.6501449942588806,
-0.010287017561495304,
-0.22662551701068878,
0.19273687899112701,
-0.7245715856552124,
-0.3339599370956421,
0.3949166238307953,
0.6109806895256042,
-0.21917086839675903,
-0.2930893898010254,
-0.8966820240020752,
-0.034451719373464584,
-0.14067958295345306,
0.34749090671539307,
-0.14377403259277344,
-0.5667251944541931,
-0.8738794326782227,
0.02243066020309925,
0.031025009229779243,
0.15376277267932892,
0.21676020324230194,
-0.6995253562927246,
-0.03167789429426193,
0.39031273126602173,
-0.45104721188545227,
0.6979984641075134,
0.4190099239349365,
0.12619516253471375,
-0.6609601378440857,
-0.22623984515666962,
-0.8357493877410889,
0.29476699233055115,
-0.11504512280225754,
-0.05298321321606636,
1.3544548749923706,
0.1343185305595398,
-0.20400048792362213,
-0.23957163095474243,
0.8954578638076782,
-0.7548654079437256,
-0.49552246928215027,
0.15655849874019623,
0.863675057888031,
-0.83897465467453,
0.37316298484802246,
0.03877075016498566,
-0.40318962931632996,
-0.37877586483955383,
0.8322814702987671,
-0.263966828584671,
0.0015600245678797364,
-0.019877666607499123,
-0.2842051088809967,
0.4944503903388977,
-0.06642245501279831,
-0.6680145263671875,
0.21795129776000977,
0.10331302881240845,
-0.5163652300834656,
0.889123260974884,
0.6714513301849365,
-0.30607566237449646,
-0.08112996816635132,
-0.521420955657959,
-0.21121907234191895,
1.3215974569320679,
0.24753983318805695,
0.11763454973697662,
-0.3699118196964264,
0.43224748969078064,
-0.3415730595588684,
-0.5092742443084717,
0.5033508539199829,
-0.0717359110713005,
0.1742391288280487,
0.6762980222702026,
-0.16963613033294678,
-0.010981480590999126,
0.7963331341743469,
-0.6847110986709595,
0.043566036969423294,
-0.9283492565155029,
-0.2300732433795929,
-0.5051506757736206,
-0.09284577518701553,
-0.578688383102417,
-0.653738796710968,
-0.07228929549455643,
-0.5826554894447327,
0.3436048924922943,
-0.01979386806488037,
0.0852099135518074,
0.778336763381958,
-0.49719953536987305,
-0.09352581948041916,
0.044306300580501556,
0.981848955154419,
-0.44733792543411255,
-0.38671037554740906,
1.0366085767745972,
0.4382982552051544,
0.13524742424488068,
-0.21046876907348633,
0.10045544058084488,
-0.3164825141429901,
0.014168724417686462,
-0.1340297907590866,
-0.021257972344756126,
0.7255105376243591,
-0.21819837391376495,
-0.49933427572250366,
-0.04039456322789192,
0.08618087321519852,
0.5195338129997253,
-0.4440003037452698,
-0.1283697932958603,
-0.34803885221481323,
0.15459328889846802,
-1.0858851671218872,
-0.4179604649543762,
0.7235147356987,
0.10794128477573395,
0.14508751034736633,
0.20037296414375305,
0.1859581172466278,
0.12047874182462692,
-0.09984187036752701,
0.5191302299499512,
0.5859315395355225,
-0.19585734605789185,
-0.3549516797065735,
0.20827800035476685,
-0.29514482617378235,
-0.9526886940002441,
0.38801702857017517,
-1.131606936454773,
-0.20871977508068085,
-0.13509196043014526,
-0.2556553781032562,
0.291888952255249,
-0.41714799404144287,
-0.37057381868362427,
0.45799440145492554,
0.7624417543411255,
-0.9954754710197449,
0.24488626420497894,
0.7400878667831421,
-0.3173008859157562,
0.3849060833454132,
-0.339560866355896,
-0.6186883449554443,
0.8423686623573303,
-0.32481124997138977,
-0.7499602437019348,
-0.6517281532287598,
-0.15935787558555603,
0.17556844651699066,
0.029108883813023567,
-0.1212814599275589,
0.13600750267505646,
-0.010607542470097542,
0.04467032849788666,
-0.07841278612613678,
0.29674312472343445,
-0.18132726848125458,
0.9342877864837646,
0.419521301984787,
-0.7408551573753357,
-0.4699290692806244,
-0.4757395088672638,
-0.29427003860473633,
0.30167096853256226,
-0.09278975427150726,
0.2862081527709961,
0.6268017888069153,
0.39234498143196106,
-1.0629146099090576,
-0.6856217980384827,
-0.21279771625995636,
0.13247449696063995,
0.5291426777839661,
-0.494870662689209,
0.4725309908390045,
0.8946857452392578,
0.0059598227962851524,
0.0042585572227835655,
0.701815664768219,
-0.5508980751037598,
-0.3365233838558197,
0.25071313977241516,
-0.2918463945388794,
0.4535024166107178,
0.1696343719959259,
-1.0039188861846924,
-0.07471920549869537,
0.4159359037876129,
-0.246552973985672,
-0.226026251912117,
0.4075372815132141,
0.30143892765045166,
-0.3057457506656647,
-0.4791157841682434,
-0.16465821862220764,
-0.4495968520641327,
-0.7969277501106262,
-0.11342743039131165,
-0.39053940773010254,
0.1298956274986267,
0.42055073380470276,
-0.7910299897193909,
0.8525485992431641,
-0.4637049734592438,
-0.5178648233413696,
0.5043887495994568,
0.7776347398757935,
0.5251651406288147,
0.2653750479221344,
-0.015409547835588455,
-0.23601260781288147,
0.7201528549194336,
0.4846210777759552,
-0.1587914079427719,
0.703625500202179,
0.9470389485359192,
0.5560073852539062,
-0.5405007600784302,
-0.37824082374572754,
-0.4605419635772705,
0.2065964937210083,
0.009694685228168964,
-0.22600841522216797,
0.15832047164440155,
-0.19821083545684814,
-0.23579849302768707,
-1.1086000204086304,
-0.43165329098701477,
0.7901990413665771,
-0.3210233151912689,
0.27570828795433044,
0.6213246583938599,
0.3757486939430237,
-0.2791212797164917,
-0.03456198051571846,
0.6731921434402466,
-0.10789694637060165,
0.6203296780586243,
-0.19244635105133057,
0.4124297499656677,
-0.1398908942937851,
-0.0521266870200634,
0.5683736801147461,
0.1136220321059227,
-0.9099500775337219,
-0.816483199596405,
0.1719946414232254,
1.2588188648223877,
-0.0004152920446358621,
-0.8734577298164368,
0.31795796751976013,
-0.6238319277763367,
-0.3530842959880829,
-0.25625401735305786,
0.5197635293006897,
0.3220497965812683,
0.6693511605262756,
-0.7115490436553955,
0.31614845991134644,
-0.670050323009491,
-0.5705933570861816,
0.20270293951034546,
-0.2557603418827057,
-0.09014324843883514,
-0.053579725325107574,
-0.48893457651138306,
-0.07210924476385117,
0.1347792148590088,
0.15595068037509918,
-0.011319600977003574,
-0.547248125076294,
-0.7792260050773621,
-0.4398725628852844,
0.016944561153650284,
-1.030537724494934,
0.6797583699226379,
0.26347973942756653,
-0.06804308295249939,
0.693114697933197,
0.17633982002735138,
-0.047905679792165756,
-1.124128818511963,
-0.4413112998008728,
0.12592816352844238,
-0.19661620259284973,
0.33304333686828613,
0.7173281311988831,
0.13694870471954346,
-0.3647061884403229,
-0.19275908172130585,
0.49435174465179443,
-0.710655927658081,
-0.02980084903538227,
0.4895819127559662,
-0.5149561762809753,
-0.6005191802978516,
0.5160823464393616,
0.5332993865013123,
-0.1909458190202713,
0.1524064540863037,
-0.20310333371162415,
-0.34421882033348083,
0.8086882829666138,
-0.30853739380836487,
-0.405704528093338,
-0.23785915970802307,
-0.7818219065666199,
0.33125418424606323,
-0.465729296207428,
0.07759962230920792,
0.8157567977905273,
-0.28737759590148926,
-0.1721472591161728,
0.5737314224243164,
0.3230072557926178,
0.29570409655570984,
0.16701923310756683,
-0.28676384687423706,
0.22703677415847778,
-0.17569442093372345,
-0.12638171017169952,
0.31043827533721924,
0.6947574019432068,
0.024271760135889053,
0.20192396640777588,
0.4660140573978424,
0.7414295673370361,
-0.07547775655984879,
-0.18316768109798431,
0.22117550671100616,
-0.04881961643695831,
-0.6606530547142029,
-0.3892105221748352,
-1.2658557891845703,
0.007962197065353394,
-0.33889126777648926,
0.5538163185119629,
-0.0011365670943632722,
0.19281409680843353,
-0.05777127668261528,
0.23401623964309692,
-0.3815605342388153,
-0.2655698359012604,
1.0355310440063477,
0.3757081925868988,
-0.31524625420570374,
0.1482805609703064,
0.0014299757312983274,
0.6848814487457275,
-0.22072084248065948,
0.6718111634254456,
-0.0769607201218605,
-0.027863439172506332,
-0.21994157135486603,
-0.22466544806957245,
0.674923300743103,
-0.46420803666114807,
-0.7008599042892456,
0.012262481264770031,
-0.33617791533470154,
-0.5341088771820068,
0.17299030721187592,
-0.13890407979488373,
-0.02738863043487072,
0.4742099940776825,
0.4532877802848816,
0.2671497166156769,
0.4119223654270172,
-0.7295438647270203,
0.3646898567676544,
-0.8653838634490967,
0.8161513805389404,
0.7480207085609436,
0.025136061012744904,
0.23133139312267303,
0.3126699924468994,
-0.2728913426399231,
0.0991758182644844,
0.03988061472773552,
0.011365481652319431,
-0.7935981154441833,
0.741086483001709,
-0.6129707098007202,
0.8254180550575256,
-0.07557997107505798,
-0.23811864852905273,
-0.14467880129814148,
0.864033043384552,
-0.04470471665263176,
0.07515453547239304,
0.08304131776094437,
-1.2055068016052246,
-0.41276130080223083,
-0.3765065670013428,
0.5942985415458679,
0.25516852736473083,
0.46281418204307556,
0.3576657772064209,
-0.5955378413200378,
-0.24438266456127167,
-0.3121173679828644,
0.003798384452238679,
-0.02561928518116474,
-0.2932162582874298,
-0.2040308266878128,
0.2766954302787781,
0.26510319113731384,
-0.7314257025718689,
-0.31840309500694275,
-0.6719357371330261,
0.7660764455795288,
0.7930920124053955,
0.36197033524513245,
0.2884748876094818,
0.2489030957221985,
-0.16907857358455658,
0.8240573406219482,
0.4326067864894867,
-3.180431365966797,
-0.0008293462451547384,
0.15455244481563568,
-0.20665107667446136,
0.635418176651001,
-0.1765807867050171,
0.695486307144165,
0.035255078226327896,
-0.23941971361637115,
0.0010968338465318084,
0.40463680028915405,
-0.3952820897102356,
-0.19917425513267517,
-0.7495597004890442,
0.32087790966033936,
-0.0977211594581604
] |
261074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizzy%20Bone | Bizzy Bone | Bryon Anthony McCane II (born September 12, 1976), better known by his stage name Bizzy Bone, A.K.A. Lil' Ripsta, is an American rapper, singer and the youngest member of the Cleveland rap group Bone Thugs-n-Harmony.
Early life
Bryon Anthony McCane II was born in Columbus, Ohio to an interracial couple. In 1980, 4-year-old Bryon and his two sisters were abducted by their mother’s boyfriend while their mother was at work and held captive for over 2 years. Bryon recalls that at first, he did not know he had been kidnapped and was made to believe that his mother and grandmother were dead.
During the time he was abducted, he lived in many homes, apartments, cars, and motels, all in northern Oklahoma. He was often beaten, tortured, and sexually assaulted. In 1983, the "family" had been living on the Kaw Indian Reservation in Kaw, Oklahoma for about a year and a half. A babysitter saw his photo at the end of the made-for-TV film Adam about the producer and creator of America's Most Wanted, John Walsh's son's abduction, and called the police, resulting in his return to his family.
When he was 13, Bryon began living with his oldest sister at her home near Cleveland, Ohio. During this period, he met Layzie Bone, Krayzie Bone, Wish Bone and Flesh-n-Bone. Bizzy Bone started in hip-hop as a founding member of the group Bone Enterpri$e, which was formed in 1992. The group was noticed by one of the founders of the rap group N.W.A, Eazy-E, who modified the group's name to Bone-Thugs-n-Harmony.
In 2002, McCane appeared on the FOX series America's Most Wanted (hosted by John Walsh, Adam's father) and he revealed his abusive childhood and molestation. Bryon also wrote and performed a song, "A.M.W.", on the show in which he thanks Walsh and encourages abused children to come forward.
Career
Bizzy Bone began his solo career in 1998. He is best known for his style of combining rapid-fire raps, double harmony choruses, with a soft-spoken and high-pitched delivery. His solo debut, Heaven'z Movie, was critically acclaimed and certified Gold by the RIAA.
The Gift, released on April 7, 2001, peaked at #2 on the US Billboard Independent Albums chart. Many of the songs on the album dealt with his personal life and childhood.
In 2004, Bizzy released Alpha and Omega which showed a change in his musical and lyrical content. Fans and critics responded positively to the album. Bizzy followed up with the limited-edition leaked album The Beginning and the End. Next, he released Speaking In Tongues on September 27, 2005. The title references an incident in which Bizzy Bone went on a spiritual rant during an interview on Houston radio station KPFT-FM (Party 93.3), speaking in tongues. It was met with positive reviews from critics, praising its gritty, lo-fi recording quality and Bizzy's spiritually unhinged lyricism. He released four studio albums in 2006. Two of them, The Story and Midwest Cowboy, performed well on the charts, garnering further positive reviews from music critics.
In 2008, Bizzy Bone reunited with Layzie Bone to re-form Bone Brothers and release two new studio albums, Bone Brothers III and Still Creepin' On Ah Come Up (released and credited solely as "Bone Thugs"). That year, Bizzy also released two new solo albums. The first, an independent release Ruthless, features guest appearances from Rick Ross and Pitbull. The other album was his major label release for After Platinum Records distributed through Virgin Records, A Song For You, which featured appearances from DMX, Joel Madden of Good Charlotte, Jim Jones, and Twista. A Song For You was heralded by music critics as Bizzy's best album in years, if not the best of his entire solo career.
In 2010, Bizzy Bone was one of the ensemble of featured artists for the new re-recording of We Are The World 25 for Haiti after the country was devastated, left in ruins by a massive earthquake. The song was critically panned by music critics. The year 2010 would soon see the release of Bizzy Bone's first rap rock album titled Crossroads 2010 on Sumerian Records. The album received positive feedback from fans and critics alike.
On September 12, 2019, Bizzy released his first album in five years, Carbon Monoxide. Its title track is a direct response to the Migos for their disrespect towards Bone Thugs-N-Harmony and other artists from their era, claiming they (Migos), were the "Greatest Group of All-Time." Bizzy's fellow group member Layzie Bone publicly challenged these claims and also released a diss track towards Migos and 21 Savage after the latter came to the defense of Migos, while in the process dissing Layzie Bone calling him "old, broke" and that he could have sex with Layzie's wife. Bizzy reacted apparently intoxicated live on Instagram, threatening to kill Migos and 21 Savage for their disrespect with a double barrel shotgun, which ended abruptly with the police coming to his home in response. The video soon went viral, in the event of the gun resembling Elmer Fudd, the Looney Tunes cartoon character. This resulted in several memes, parody videos and commentary from other artists. Carbon Monoxide debuted at #3 on the iTunes album chart. He released his follow-up album "The Mantra", exactly a year later on his 44th birthday in 2020, debuting at #4 on the iTunes chart. Bizzy released his album "War of Roses" on September 12, 2021, which was on his 45th birthday, making it the third year in a row an album has been released on his birthday.
Personal life
On February 1, 2020, Bryon married Jessica Nancy Cassidy also known as JCass. JCass is a singer, songwriter and model in Houston, Texas. They began dating in late 2016 and announced their engagement on November 26, 2017. Together they have one child, a son, by the name of Jesse Anthony McCane also known as JAM. He was born March 7, 2018 in Houston, Texas. The three share a YouTube channel called JAM tv, which showcases their family life and careers. Bizzy also has nine other children from previous relationships.
See also
List of kidnappings
List of solved missing person cases
Discography
Solo albums
Heaven'z Movie (1998)
The Gift (2001)
Alpha and Omega (2004)
The Beginning and the End (2004)
Speaking in Tongues (2005)
The Story (2006)
Thugs Revenge (2006)
The Midwest Cowboy (2006)
Trials and Tribulations (2007)
Ruthless (2008)
A Song for You (2008)
Crossroads: 2010 (2010)
The Wonder Years (2014)
Carbon Monoxide (2019)
The Mantra (2020)
War of Roses (2021)
Filmography
Cutthroat Alley (2003) .... Ghetty
Jacked Up (2001) .... Zach
Beef III DVD (2006) .... himself
What Now (2015) .... B Murda
References
External links
1976 births
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians
African-American Christians
African-American male rappers
American hip hop singers
American male rappers
Bone Thugs-n-Harmony members
Formerly missing people
Gangsta rappers
Horrorcore artists
Kidnapped American children
Living people
Missing person cases in Ohio
Rappers from Cleveland
Rappers from Columbus, Ohio
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people | [
0.2363845556974411,
0.1371244192123413,
-0.3444892466068268,
-0.21491003036499023,
-0.06426503509283066,
0.3993844985961914,
0.8238226771354675,
0.2353992611169815,
-0.4888626039028168,
0.20352134108543396,
0.09259888529777527,
0.027357976883649826,
-0.6691485643386841,
0.27608078718185425,
-0.1685178130865097,
0.16230164468288422,
0.23243868350982666,
-0.3118652403354645,
-0.04630786180496216,
0.06550811231136322,
-0.005223347805440426,
0.5987223386764526,
0.5719262361526489,
-0.24774879217147827,
-0.06637780368328094,
0.9489196538925171,
-0.2789975106716156,
0.15886995196342468,
-0.12867020070552826,
-0.6745118498802185,
0.12928920984268188,
0.22466155886650085,
0.5591484904289246,
-0.6281071305274963,
0.17918506264686584,
0.502498209476471,
-0.210940882563591,
-0.25040146708488464,
-0.31280744075775146,
-0.4041016697883606,
-0.20700927078723907,
0.19429264962673187,
0.05505944415926933,
0.2742875814437866,
-0.4474623203277588,
-0.37494900822639465,
-1.8203309774398804,
1.1255686283111572,
-0.38146305084228516,
-1.0445760488510132,
0.0191233791410923,
0.8319469094276428,
-0.32854822278022766,
-0.09623612463474274,
0.3775184452533722,
0.09077130258083344,
-0.5389442443847656,
-0.4231734275817871,
0.31945493817329407,
0.0024245402310043573,
0.9948030114173889,
0.06775543838739395,
0.06848355382680893,
-1.0808440446853638,
-0.37287119030952454,
0.09429607540369034,
0.07180825620889664,
0.9409411549568176,
-0.3693707287311554,
0.4757956862449646,
-0.05441046878695488,
0.47985613346099854,
0.03590502217411995,
-0.12171725928783417,
0.050049684941768646,
0.026143260300159454,
0.6102878451347351,
-0.004401905462145805,
0.39115312695503235,
0.8394796848297119,
0.21426133811473846,
-0.12926936149597168,
0.7742776274681091,
0.7253230214118958,
-0.156727135181427,
-0.31892886757850647,
-0.7664486765861511,
0.5511795282363892,
-0.9331604242324829,
0.43580693006515503,
-0.8466427326202393,
-0.1274634301662445,
0.43423646688461304,
0.571554958820343,
0.07357990741729736,
-0.6237529516220093,
-0.5821121335029602,
0.26249179244041443,
0.3197147250175476,
0.14899227023124695,
-0.22243857383728027,
-0.11976068466901779,
-0.07653042674064636,
0.3090049922466278,
-0.7247684597969055,
0.13423261046409607,
-0.04209835082292557,
0.293739914894104,
-0.6772931218147278,
-0.30639374256134033,
0.00495971878990531,
0.1336226910352707,
-0.15859603881835938,
-0.13367143273353577,
0.2799440920352936,
0.49217116832733154,
0.2830915153026581,
-0.3702126741409302,
-1.003497838973999,
-0.35844501852989197,
-0.628539502620697,
-0.18911439180374146,
0.12342347949743271,
-0.1637868583202362,
-0.3582216203212738,
0.3312082886695862,
0.08346205949783325,
0.4244789779186249,
-0.3396540880203247,
0.16321268677711487,
0.11370211839675903,
0.49183326959609985,
-0.08766096830368042,
-0.6257660984992981,
-0.3641242980957031,
-0.710791826248169,
0.26350945234298706,
0.10359480232000351,
0.2760103642940521,
-0.3283853530883789,
-0.39504900574684143,
-0.33389610052108765,
-1.0660432577133179,
0.476828008890152,
0.4360786974430084,
-0.08079259097576141,
-0.7286235094070435,
0.4784957468509674,
0.07770977169275284,
0.18317073583602905,
0.29622694849967957,
0.07124064117670059,
-0.27941370010375977,
-0.4065961241722107,
-0.456018328666687,
0.3646034598350525,
-0.057224735617637634,
-0.6967926621437073,
0.06818940490484238,
-0.305403470993042,
-0.09111359715461731,
0.09700264036655426,
-0.37237846851348877,
-0.028332073241472244,
0.7639483213424683,
-0.3452810049057007,
0.2839820981025696,
-0.3250770568847656,
0.031330984085798264,
0.0408451110124588,
-0.24275223910808563,
0.033916741609573364,
-0.10818853229284286,
-0.5921843647956848,
-0.300692081451416,
0.6168842315673828,
0.8882611393928528,
0.03668387606739998,
0.17486552894115448,
-0.22088965773582458,
-0.5235650539398193,
-0.16214676201343536,
0.7046254277229309,
-0.01941087655723095,
0.5220218300819397,
-0.007623450364917517,
0.14362283051013947,
-0.3304259777069092,
0.2362065464258194,
-0.17970801889896393,
-0.5785183906555176,
-0.36075136065483093,
0.7696661353111267,
0.33558741211891174,
0.3402901887893677,
0.3140272796154022,
-0.48578229546546936,
0.40955933928489685,
0.28859132528305054,
0.22566890716552734,
-0.25016048550605774,
-0.37521812319755554,
0.2278510183095932,
-0.7513042688369751,
-0.7057091593742371,
0.26363569498062134,
0.9431089162826538,
-0.1418367624282837,
-0.028871268033981323,
0.4709685146808624,
0.2886463701725006,
-0.8925906419754028,
0.09642893075942993,
-0.5603128671646118,
-0.09747308492660522,
-0.3356603682041168,
-0.3343988358974457,
0.3300095498561859,
-0.062013644725084305,
-0.22030259668827057,
0.3311213552951813,
0.4124554693698883,
-0.5127504467964172,
-0.1283252239227295,
0.5454329252243042,
1.1456607580184937,
-1.0433192253112793,
-0.7265442609786987,
0.032717663794755936,
0.1877906620502472,
0.1543150544166565,
0.16124685108661652,
0.3517968952655792,
-0.8354170918464661,
0.01309940405189991,
0.6701177954673767,
0.6074888706207275,
-0.44508427381515503,
0.06797350943088531,
-0.6326212882995605,
0.41371023654937744,
0.2869684398174286,
-0.8225088715553284,
-0.6487212181091309,
-0.09655026346445084,
0.06985156983137131,
-0.44003599882125854,
0.27566128969192505,
-0.8092519044876099,
0.11915194988250732,
0.3020094633102417,
0.3167751133441925,
0.5723156929016113,
-0.12764647603034973,
0.5425027012825012,
0.52846759557724,
0.015743376687169075,
0.11278572678565979,
0.33195483684539795,
-0.5635039806365967,
-0.21207402646541595,
-0.09798853099346161,
0.3236827850341797,
0.016024939715862274,
0.02533995732665062,
0.19981084764003754,
-0.07149100303649902,
-0.6244516372680664,
0.6719087362289429,
0.006026302929967642,
0.6856474280357361,
0.05980735644698143,
-0.3359607458114624,
0.355089008808136,
0.15204492211341858,
0.35084912180900574,
0.16242805123329163,
-0.21134226024150848,
-0.08258595317602158,
-1.5112316608428955,
0.3786397874355316,
1.0541082620620728,
0.2439584583044052,
-1.0416446924209595,
-0.2894716262817383,
-0.27304279804229736,
-0.1872864067554474,
0.016854049637913704,
0.020866889506578445,
-0.4101561903953552,
-0.5225512385368347,
0.3812008500099182,
-0.651372492313385,
0.2540108263492584,
0.06164630874991417,
0.03508272022008896,
-0.11785663664340973,
0.16971518099308014,
-0.03196011483669281,
-0.06529766321182251,
0.3283209502696991,
-0.10958123952150345,
-0.23445087671279907,
-0.2823741137981415,
0.6407797336578369,
-0.05820649117231369,
-0.09201600402593613,
-0.4055366814136505,
-5.329939842224121,
0.8346475958824158,
-0.0933842808008194,
-0.41090938448905945,
0.5331239700317383,
-0.2529201805591583,
0.18284066021442413,
-0.3490111827850342,
0.41498732566833496,
-0.42917224764823914,
-0.4461476802825928,
-0.5299733877182007,
0.20395606756210327,
-0.11055164784193039,
0.17558874189853668,
0.011190284974873066,
0.35362088680267334,
-0.6376709938049316,
0.2125609964132309,
0.8860957622528076,
0.3676508069038391,
0.24249140918254852,
-0.5375959277153015,
-0.24749329686164856,
-0.14259347319602966,
0.28557828068733215,
-0.5875908732414246,
0.39592960476875305,
-0.0754200890660286,
-0.043279990553855896,
-0.07836328446865082,
0.024902943521738052,
-0.06870761513710022,
-0.9237738847732544,
0.1884729117155075,
0.0801117867231369,
0.6503482460975647,
0.19282831251621246,
0.6863921284675598,
-0.46519050002098083,
0.012249045073986053,
0.2065376192331314,
-0.5904831290245056,
-0.020423810929059982,
1.0366030931472778,
-0.07872413843870163,
-0.4918879568576813,
-0.6063716411590576,
-0.5753715634346008,
0.3793192207813263,
0.5164210796356201,
-0.6361250877380371,
-0.051512349396944046,
0.041953783482313156,
0.6155996918678284,
-0.7163734436035156,
-0.11686049401760101,
-0.4567500352859497,
-0.37040165066719055,
0.23542053997516632,
0.5203450322151184,
-0.18908269703388214,
0.2496974617242813,
-0.10531094670295715,
-0.036965347826480865,
-0.30143365263938904,
0.7931423783302307,
0.1470036804676056,
-0.2448020875453949,
0.11955094337463379,
0.14727172255516052,
0.11282329261302948,
-0.299368292093277,
-1.3527358770370483,
0.10384274274110794,
-0.13674145936965942,
-0.29390138387680054,
0.6872703433036804,
-0.8024812340736389,
-0.2600700259208679,
0.215835303068161,
0.2903091013431549,
-0.25093939900398254,
1.120251178741455,
-0.31667089462280273,
-0.49502578377723694,
-0.19419199228286743,
0.5024352073669434,
-1.1898301839828491,
-0.13162080943584442,
-0.2248854637145996,
-0.06602764874696732,
0.023281989619135857,
0.24155431985855103,
-0.2010132074356079,
-0.5466477870941162,
0.23278948664665222,
0.4372551441192627,
0.00453943619504571,
0.3751509487628937,
0.6469231843948364,
-0.27354198694229126,
0.1737610250711441,
-0.6733033657073975,
0.7809514403343201,
-0.4649833142757416,
-0.23410636186599731,
-0.016694197431206703,
0.3693621754646301,
-0.10969001054763794,
0.12595954537391663,
0.22523772716522217,
-0.7588412761688232,
-0.0187242291867733,
0.8025044202804565,
-0.09022565931081772,
-0.07265736907720566,
-0.49148261547088623,
0.10713724046945572,
0.5234329104423523,
0.4500594437122345,
0.778538703918457,
0.40447092056274414,
0.25570476055145264,
-0.7430829405784607,
-0.2465197890996933,
0.22677594423294067,
0.22148531675338745,
-0.1859256625175476,
0.5743868350982666,
0.12363826483488083,
0.5080083608627319,
-0.14807674288749695,
0.32218673825263977,
0.358167439699173,
-0.06738827377557755,
-0.11065773665904999,
-1.0585113763809204,
0.25396615266799927,
-1.009812355041504,
0.3520457148551941,
-0.38344764709472656,
0.5503935217857361,
0.11632176488637924,
0.9521006345748901,
-0.017789989709854126,
-0.148668110370636,
-0.2045377641916275,
-0.6403493881225586,
0.5785765647888184,
-0.045688483864068985,
-0.46755245327949524,
0.5267907977104187,
-0.5571851134300232,
-0.27553462982177734,
0.32582125067710876,
0.24330462515354156,
0.018571747466921806,
0.48342961072921753,
-0.6534451842308044,
0.6985470652580261,
-0.8704325556755066,
-0.802471935749054,
0.07208335399627686,
-0.5945159792900085,
0.0021594681311398745,
-0.23269520699977875,
-0.2565290629863739,
-0.8002626299858093,
-0.007012481335550547,
-0.2710726857185364,
-0.46691566705703735,
0.0690477043390274,
-0.17627646028995514,
-0.31346994638442993,
0.2978510558605194,
-0.14815905690193176,
-0.13078516721725464,
0.23038680851459503,
0.08918756246566772,
-0.37032386660575867,
0.19447165727615356,
-0.17173196375370026,
0.06718036532402039,
0.4160440266132355,
0.3976469337940216,
-0.32827526330947876,
-0.22126536071300507,
0.09596665948629379,
0.022943571209907532,
-0.13747958838939667,
0.11086855828762054,
0.6481112241744995,
0.25323057174682617,
0.17693643271923065,
-0.7063635587692261,
0.10884898155927658,
0.8672956228256226,
0.04612251743674278,
-0.028438620269298553,
0.3196820318698883,
-0.050850894302129745,
-0.14959435164928436,
0.41572704911231995,
0.744698166847229,
-0.2825044095516205,
-0.07485063374042511,
0.025406399741768837,
-0.5290063619613647,
0.5419978499412537,
0.09072913974523544,
-0.40521419048309326,
0.2590464949607849,
0.12148825079202652,
0.0012291695456951857,
0.017067980021238327,
0.10695314407348633,
0.4059394598007202,
0.186089426279068,
-0.630163848400116,
-0.29389914870262146,
-0.4929160177707672,
-0.33240363001823425,
0.0856955274939537,
-0.47971096634864807,
0.13357733190059662,
0.14404384791851044,
0.22373870015144348,
0.34904348850250244,
-0.08378122746944427,
0.2053571194410324,
-0.21625125408172607,
0.44639796018600464,
0.3127678632736206,
-0.46985742449760437,
0.21217545866966248,
-0.25126707553863525,
1.115268349647522,
0.2311846762895584,
-0.03798200935125351,
0.6229268312454224,
1.1280418634414673,
0.0023968664463609457,
-0.21795931458473206,
0.2985711991786957,
0.04054008796811104,
0.6026597023010254,
-0.02015572041273117,
-0.2974211871623993,
0.13137699663639069,
0.26296237111091614,
-0.008332733996212482,
-0.6528130769729614,
-0.05014727637171745,
0.6045401096343994,
-0.6542841792106628,
-0.18333356082439423,
-0.4152732789516449,
-0.3370983302593231,
0.36837831139564514,
0.7892154455184937,
0.5902599096298218,
-0.3923267722129822,
0.006179538555443287,
-0.06292224675416946,
-0.2451622635126114,
0.06571538001298904,
0.3104386627674103,
-0.005080621223896742,
-0.4489772915840149,
0.525428056716919,
0.13022150099277496,
0.20348162949085236,
0.25228336453437805,
-0.8148123621940613,
0.7110633850097656,
0.18341058492660522,
-0.25091251730918884,
-0.07048540562391281,
0.3626650273799896,
-0.1977296620607376,
0.15908417105674744,
0.02435404807329178,
-0.7010823488235474,
0.49478277564048767,
-0.4691203534603119,
-0.0711689293384552,
-0.019207710400223732,
-0.24214328825473785,
-0.13189154863357544,
0.0012102213222533464,
0.5820359587669373,
-0.7578626275062561,
-0.06488937139511108,
-0.2622881829738617,
0.2644776701927185,
-0.5408864617347717,
0.3847172260284424,
0.5385667681694031,
0.16534960269927979,
-0.3590015769004822,
0.7397341728210449,
0.059995800256729126,
-0.26204147934913635,
-0.08186620473861694,
-0.6572471857070923,
0.507624626159668,
-0.4510653018951416,
0.38675644993782043,
0.3574105203151703,
-0.29680219292640686,
-0.20061808824539185,
0.110435850918293,
0.21626673638820648,
-0.9616756439208984,
0.47493213415145874,
1.0399762392044067,
0.3491893708705902,
-0.012020145542919636,
0.314948171377182,
-0.4282602071762085,
-0.9937266111373901,
0.6114742159843445,
0.4550625681877136,
0.8302584886550903,
0.6744418144226074,
-0.5897760987281799,
0.3702070415019989,
0.35166412591934204,
0.015626419335603714,
0.1710551232099533,
-0.6471819877624512,
0.36887291073799133,
0.6064051985740662,
0.34346461296081543,
-0.18373265862464905,
-0.141587033867836,
0.20274589955806732,
-0.5013787150382996,
0.6909151673316956,
-0.2093610316514969,
0.22985796630382538,
-0.4752541184425354,
-0.1007690355181694,
0.17457816004753113,
0.12807779014110565,
-0.316138356924057,
0.19825375080108643,
0.7122471332550049,
-0.31174832582473755,
0.07302112877368927,
-0.16219837963581085,
-0.044428519904613495,
0.05023057386279106,
0.6200169920921326,
-0.22099986672401428,
0.2836928963661194,
-0.22412292659282684,
-1.1440712213516235,
-0.14083954691886902,
0.26448744535446167,
-0.0025094125885516405,
0.8940541744232178,
0.3396263122558594,
-0.4226534068584442,
-0.7579674124717712,
-0.37459275126457214,
-0.3412100672721863,
0.23430059850215912,
0.3888664245605469,
0.16679683327674866,
0.6007916331291199,
-0.37119048833847046,
0.7189845442771912,
0.05980557203292847,
0.12398674339056015,
-0.04680514708161354,
-0.027473876252770424,
-0.5212085247039795,
-0.20650339126586914,
-0.19255363941192627,
-0.5038307905197144,
-0.40472692251205444,
-0.4079299569129944,
0.28295087814331055,
0.053239982575178146,
-0.13879002630710602,
0.2443799078464508,
-0.028237292543053627,
-0.11102963238954544,
0.34337061643600464,
-0.7624072432518005,
-0.3308435082435608,
0.16067557036876678,
-0.41150185465812683,
-0.4697170853614807,
0.20926114916801453,
0.5817142128944397,
0.4688791334629059,
-0.23747618496418,
0.42260754108428955,
0.1235470101237297,
0.1876278966665268,
-0.06959551572799683,
-0.5623347163200378,
0.3360261023044586,
-0.4941028952598572,
0.13972356915473938,
-0.8306242823600769,
1.254904866218567,
-0.007970146834850311,
0.019636375829577446,
-0.37682345509529114,
0.36354753375053406,
0.3204036056995392,
0.883879542350769,
0.4383823275566101,
-0.30883049964904785,
-0.7462573051452637,
-0.36343568563461304,
0.3246755003929138,
0.34846946597099304,
-0.07061407715082169,
0.17675791680812836,
-0.2904835045337677,
0.22960105538368225,
-0.5471752882003784,
-0.32507461309432983,
-0.31780317425727844,
0.3774309456348419,
0.005081444978713989,
-0.7230201959609985,
-0.379316121339798,
-0.23173876106739044,
0.07149855047464371,
-0.83977210521698,
0.6275230646133423,
0.7513437271118164,
0.4580209255218506,
-0.007527500856667757,
0.6741552948951721,
-0.21251414716243744,
-0.09341488033533096,
-0.16647125780582428,
-0.08257007598876953,
0.2069089710712433,
-0.2249291092157364,
-0.43599435687065125,
-0.32054850459098816,
-0.0695849359035492,
-0.1534864902496338,
0.029038814827799797,
0.04171712324023247,
-0.1399850845336914,
-0.14100882411003113,
-0.3308299779891968,
0.27810317277908325,
0.01934959553182125,
0.11538539826869965,
-0.09929334372282028
] |
261075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settle%E2%80%93Carlisle%20line | Settle–Carlisle line | The Settle–Carlisle line (also known as the Settle and Carlisle (S&C)) is a main railway line in northern England. The route, which crosses the remote, scenic regions of the Yorkshire Dales and the North Pennines, runs between Settle Junction, on the Leeds–Morecambe line, and , near the English-Scottish borders. The historic line was constructed in the 1870s and has several notable tunnels and viaducts such as the imposing Ribblehead.
The line is managed by Network Rail. All passenger services are operated by Northern apart from temporary diverted services (due to closures of the West Coast Main Line) and are part of the National Rail network. Stations serve towns such as Settle in North Yorkshire, Appleby-in-Westmorland in Cumbria and small rural communities along its route.
In the 1980s, British Rail planned to close the Settle–Carlisle line. This prompted a campaign to save the line by rail groups, enthusiasts, local authorities and residents along the route. In 1989, the UK government announced the line would be saved from closure. Since then, passenger numbers have grown steadily to 1.2 million in 2012. Eight formerly closed stations have been reopened and several quarries have been reconnected to the line. It remains one of the most popular railway routes in the UK for charter trains and specials. After damage by a landslip, part of the line was closed from February 2016 to March 2017. To celebrate the reopening, the first regular mainline scheduled service in England for nearly half a century ran with a steam engine.
History
Background
The Settle–Carlisle line (S&C) had its origins in railway politics; the expansion-minded Midland Railway company was locked in dispute with the rival London and North Western Railway (LNWR) over access rights to the latter's tracks to Scotland.
The Midland's access to Scotland was via the "Little North Western" route to Ingleton. The Ingleton branch line from Ingleton to Low Gill, where it joined the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway, was under the control of the rival LNWR. Initially the routes, although physically connected at Ingleton, were not logically connected, as the LNWR and Midland could not agree on sharing the use of Ingleton station. Instead the LNWR terminated its trains at its own station at the end of Ingleton Viaduct, and Midland Railway passengers had to walk about a mile over steep gradients between the two stations in order to change into/from LNWR trains.
An agreement was reached over station access, enabling the Midland to attach through carriages to LNWR trains at Ingleton. Passengers could continue their journey north without leaving the train. The situation was not ideal, as the LNWR handled the through carriages of its rival with deliberate obstructiveness, for example attaching the coaches to slow goods trains instead of fast passenger workings.
The route through Ingleton is closed, but the major structures, Low Gill and Ingleton viaducts, remain. It was a well-engineered line suitable for express passenger running, but its potential was never realised due to the rivalry between the companies. The Midland board decided that the only solution was a separate route to Scotland. Surveying began in 1865, and in June 1866, Parliamentary approval was given to the Midland's bill, for which Samuel Carter was solicitor. Soon afterwards, the Overend-Gurney banking failure sparked a financial crisis in the UK. Interest rates rose sharply, several railways went bankrupt and the Midland's board, prompted by a shareholders' revolt, began to have second thoughts about a venture whose estimated cost was £2.3 million (equivalent to £ in ). As a result, in April 1869, with no work started, the company petitioned Parliament to abandon the scheme it had earlier fought for. However Parliament, under pressure from other railways which would benefit from the scheme that would cost them nothing, refused, and construction commenced in November that year.
As this date falls between the publication of the 1st Edition 1:2500 Ordnance Survey map and its 1st Revision, the impact of construction can be observed by studying those maps.
Construction
The line was built by over 6,000 navvies, who worked in remote locations, enduring harsh weather conditions. Large camps were established to house the navvies, most of them Irish, with many becoming complete townships with post offices and schools. They were named Inkerman, Sebastapol and Jericho. The remains of one camp – Batty Green – where over 2,000 navvies lived and worked, can be seen near Ribblehead. The Midland Railway helped pay for scripture readers to counteract the effect of drunken violence in these isolated communities.
A plaque in the church at Chapel-le-Dale records the workers who died, both from disease and from accidents, while building the railway. The death toll is unknown, but 80 people died at Batty Green alone in a smallpox epidemic.
A memorial stone was laid in 1997 in the churchyard of St Mary's Church, Mallerstang to commemorate the 25 railway builders and their families who died during the construction of this section of the line, and who were buried there in unmarked graves.
The engineer for the project was John Crossley from Leicestershire, a veteran of other Midland schemes. The terrain traversed is among the bleakest and wildest in England, and construction was halted for months at a time due to frozen ground, snowdrifts and flooding. One contractor had to give up as a result of underestimating the terrain and the weather – Dent Head has almost four times the rainfall of London. Another long-established partnership dissolved under the strain: that of William Eckersley and John Bayliss (1826-1900), Bayliss continued the project until its completion in 1877. They were contracted to construct the section from Kirkby Thore to Petteril Bridge in Carlisle.
The line was engineered to express standards throughout – local traffic was secondary, and many stations were miles from the villages they purported to serve. The railway's summit at is at Aisgill, north of Garsdale. To keep the gradients to less than 1 in 100 (1%), a requirement for fast running using steam traction, huge engineering works were required. Even so, the terrain imposed a climb from Settle to Blea Moor, almost all of it at 1 in 100, and known to enginemen as "the long drag".
The line required 14 tunnels and 22 viaducts; the most notable is the 24-arch Ribblehead Viaduct which is high and long. The swampy ground meant that the piers had to be sunk below the peat and set in concrete in order to provide a suitable foundation. Soon after crossing the viaduct, the line enters Blea Moor tunnel, long and below the moor, before emerging onto Dent Head Viaduct. The summit at Aisgill is the highest point reached by main-line trains in England. The tunnel at Lazonby was constructed at the request of a local vicar as he did not want the railway to run past the vicarage.
Water troughs were laid between the tracks at Garsdale, enabling steam engines to take water without losing speed.
The remains of the navvies' camp at Rise Hill tunnel were investigated by Channel 4's Time Team in 2008, for a programme that was broadcast on 1 February 2009.
Operation
The line opened for goods traffic in August 1875 with the first passenger trains starting in April 1876. The cost of the line was £3.6 million (equivalent to £ in ) – 50 percent above the estimate and a colossal sum for the time.
For some time the Midland dominated the market for London-Glasgow traffic, providing more daytime trains than its rival. In 1923 the Midland and the LNWR were both merged into the new London Midland & Scottish Railway. In the new company, the disadvantages of the Midland's route were clear – its steeper gradients and greater length meant it could not compete on speed from London to Glasgow, especially as Midland route trains had to make more stops to serve major cities in the Midlands and Yorkshire. The Midland had long competed on the extra comfort it provided for its passengers but this advantage was lost in the merged company.
After nationalisation in 1948, the pace of rundown quickened. It was regarded as a duplicate line, and control over the through London-Glasgow route was split over several regions which made it hard to plan popular through services. Mining subsidence affected speeds through the East Midlands and Yorkshire. In 1962, the Thames–Clyde Express travelling via the S&C took almost nine hours from London to Glasgow – over the West Coast Main Line the journey length was 7 hours 20 minutes.
In the 1963, Beeching Report into the restructuring of British Rail recommended the withdrawal of all passenger services from the line. Some smaller stations had closed in the 1950s. Although the Beeching recommendations were shelved, it is clear that closure of the line was planned as early as the late 1960s. Such closure is referred to in paragraph 40 of the official report into the accident involving two goods trains between Horton-in-Ribblesdale and Selside on 30 October 1968, by Lt. Colonel I.K.A. McNaughton: "... Even if the Settle and Carlisle line were planned to form part of the long term railway network of the country, it would still come fairly low in the priority list for installation of AWS; this route, however, is planned for closure within the next few years ..." In May 1970 all stations except for Settle and Appleby West were closed, and its passenger service cut to two trains a day in each direction, leaving mostly freight.
Few express passenger services continued to operate, The Waverley from London St Pancras to Edinburgh Waverley via Nottingham ended in 1968, while the Thames–Clyde Express from London to Glasgow Central via Leicester, lasted until 1975. Night sleepers from London to Glasgow continued until 1976. After that a residual service from Glasgow – cut back at Nottingham (three trains each way) – survived until May 1982.
Threat of closure
During the 1970s, the S&C suffered from a lack of investment, and most freight traffic was diverted onto the electrified West Coast Main Line. The condition of many viaducts and tunnels deteriorated due to lack of investment. DalesRail began operating services to closed stations on summer weekends in 1974. These were promoted by the Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority to encourage ramblers.
In the early 1980s, the S&C was carrying only a handful of trains per day, and British Rail decided the cost of renewing the viaducts and tunnels would be prohibitively expensive, given the small amount of traffic carried on the line. In June 1981 a protest group, the Friends of the Settle–Carlisle Line (FoSCL), held its inaugural meeting at Settle Town Hall and campaigned against the line's closure even before it was officially announced.
In 1984, closure notices were posted at the S&C's remaining stations. However, local authorities and rail enthusiasts joined together and campaigned to save the S&C, pointing out that British Rail was ignoring the S&C's potential for tourism, ignoring the need for a diversionary route to the West Coast main line, and failing to promote through traffic from the Midlands and Yorkshire to Scotland.
There was outrage over the closure plan: critics pointed out that this was a main line, not a small branch railway. The campaign uncovered evidence that British Rail had mounted a dirty tricks campaign against the line, exaggerating the cost of repairs (£6 million for Ribblehead Viaduct alone) and diverting traffic away from the line in order to justify its closure plans, a process referred to as closure by stealth.
Publicity over British Rail's tactics succeeded in a huge increase in traffic. Journeys per year were 93,000 in 1983 when the campaign began, 450,000 by 1989. As late as August 1988, the British Rail Board posted adverts stating they had appointed Lazard Brothers to 'advise on the sale of the Settle–Carlisle line'. As a result of the successful campaign, the government finally refused consent to close the line in 1989, and British Rail started to repair the deteriorating tunnels and viaducts.
Statue of Ruswarp
In 2009 a statue of the border collie Ruswarp (pronounced Russup) was sited on the platform of the refurbished Garsdale railway station. The commemorative sculpture, funded by public subscription, was made by sculptor Joel Walker and cast in bronze. It celebrates the saving of the railway line which was coordinated by the Friends of the Settle to Carlisle Line, whose first secretary, Graham Nuttall, was a keen hillwalker; his dog Ruswarp signed the petition to save the line with his paw print. On 20 January 1990 Graham Nuttall had gone missing. He and Ruswarp had bought day return tickets from Burnley to Llandrindod Wells to go walking in the Welsh Mountains, but they never returned. Searches in the Elan Valley and Rhayader found nothing until on 7 April 1990, a lone walker found Nuttall's body beside a stream. The 14-year-old Ruswarp was nearby, having stayed by his master's body for 11 weeks in winter weather; he was so weak that he had to be carried down the mountain. His veterinary fees were paid by the RSPCA, who awarded him their Animal Medallion and collar for 'vigilance' and Animal Plaque for 'intelligence and courage'. He died shortly after Nuttall's funeral.
Current situation
Anglo-Scottish expresses have not been fully restored. The former regional franchisee Arriva Trains Northern initiated a twice daily Leeds–Glasgow Central service in 1999 (calling at Settle, Appleby, Carlisle, Lockerbie and Motherwell). The service was withdrawn at the behest of the Strategic Rail Authority in 2003, and there remains no link from Yorkshire or the East Midlands to Glasgow over the line. The link from Lancashire operates on Sundays during the summer months for the benefit of ramblers under the DalesRail brand. In recent years, due to congestion on the West Coast Main Line, much rail-freight traffic is using the S&C once again. Gypsum is transported from Hull Docks and Drax Power Station to the British Gypsum plasterboard factory at Kirkby Thore, and coal was carried to power stations in Yorkshire and Fife from the Hunterston coal terminal until 2016. Major engineering work was needed to upgrade the line to the standards required for such heavy freight traffic and additional investment made to reduce the length of signal sections.
In July 2009, work to stabilise a length of embankment near Kirkby Thore and remove a long-standing permanent speed restriction was undertaken.
As of 2013, the line has experienced an upturn in fortunes. Eight formerly closed stations have reopened and in 2012 1.2 million passenger journeys were recorded compared with just 90,000 in 1983. Ribblehead station features a special visitor centre. The line is an important diversionary route from the electrified West Coast Main Line during engineering works. However, as the line is not electrified, electric trains such as Pendolinos need to be hauled by diesel locomotives (typically a Class 57 Thunderbird) along the diversion section.
In April 2014, the 25th anniversary of the line's reprieve was celebrated by the running of a special train from Leeds to Carlisle over the route. This conveyed many of the campaigners who fought to save the line and called at Settle station, where a ceremony was held to commemorate the announcement made on 11 April 1989 that the line would be kept open. Michael Portillo, the Minister of State with responsibility for railways in the Thatcher government of the time (and who made the official announcement regarding the line in parliament) attended the celebrations.
From April 2016 Arriva Rail North Ltd took over all passenger services on the line from the previous operator which was run by Serco & Abellio. As part of the new franchise agreement with the DfT, service improvements were implemented from the May 2018 timetable change with one extra weekday service each way and two extra trains each way on Sundays. Arriva also began work to install digital information screens and ticket machines at each station in early 2019. As from 1 March 2020, passenger services are now operated by the publicly run company Northern Trains, who have maintained this level of service.
In March 2020 it was discovered that the 144-year-old Ribblehead Viaduct required further major repairs. There were numerous defects to the masonry which had opened up, and pieces of debris had fallen off the edge. Alongside issues with the masonry there were fractures to the arches and piers, together with problems with the drainage system. Repair work was completed in April 2021 at a cost of around £2.1 million.
Steam excursions and Diesel charter services
Since the privatisation of British Rail the Settle and Carlisle line has proved to be popular with charter train operating companies like West Coast Railways, which operate excursion trains using steam locomotives. Classes of LMS locomotive that have run over the line vary from express to mixed traffic, such as Black Fives, Jubilees, Coronations, Princess Royals and even goods engines like the 8Fs. Non-LMS engines that would never have worked on the line during the days of steam include 4468 Mallard, 5043 Earl of Mount Edgcumbe, 5972 Olton Hall, 35018 British India Line, 60103 Flying Scotsman and Britain's newest mainline steam locomotive 60163 Tornado.
Between 19 July and 9 September 2021, Rail Charter Services operated The Staycation Express, with the service running between Skipton, Settle, Appleby and Carlisle. Running four times a day, every day except Friday, this fully refurbished HST 125, features five, all first class coaches and offers travellers an alternative method of enjoying the route. Statesman Rail also run occasional services with restored Class 47 diesels and Pullman coaches.
Reconnection to quarries
In July 2015 it was announced that the stone quarries at Arcow and Dry Rigg would be reconnected to the line via north facing points. Stone from both of these quarries is in demand for road building due to its high Polished Stone Value (PSV) and would be taken out of the Yorkshire Dales National Park by freight train instead of lorries. The work was undertaken during the last quarter of 2015 with the link opening to traffic in 2016.
2015–17 temporary closures
The winter of 2015–16 saw services over the route repeatedly disrupted by flooding and a serious landslip north of . Storm Desmond saw the line closed for several days at the beginning of December by flooding at several different locations, while the landslip at Eden Brows near Armathwaite resulted in the closure of the southbound line between Cumwhinton and from 29 January 2016 to allow the damaged embankment to be inspected and stabilised. Problems had first been reported in mid-December 2015, but repairs were carried out and services resumed on 22 December. Single-line working was in place for several days over the northbound line while the remedial work continued and an emergency timetable was in operation. Further ground movement at the site (due to the base of the embankment being eroded by the river and the saturated nature of the fill material originally used to construct the embankment) led to the complete closure of the line between Appleby & Carlisle on 9 February 2016, with buses replacing trains over this section. Repairs to the affected section entailed building a 100m-long piled retaining wall and support platform for the track and stabilising the embankment beneath it; work began in July 2016 and was completed in March 2017. The line between Appleby and Armathwaite was reopened to traffic on 27 June 2016 on a temporary timetable; the repair project was estimated to cost £23 million. In February 2017, to celebrate the forthcoming reopening of the line on 31 March, scheduled trains drawn by 60163 Tornado ran in February, the first regular mainline scheduled service in England using steam for more than half a century. The service carried more than 5,500 passengers during its three days of operation.
In March 2017, work on the piled wall and trackbed at Eden Brows was completed and the work site was handed back to Network Rail, allowing the infrastructure operator to recommission and test the track and signalling system over the affected section ahead of the reopening date. On 31 March 2017 LNER Class A3 Pacific No. 60103 Flying Scotsman operated a special trip to Carlisle and back to celebrate the full opening to traffic.
Rolling stock
Passenger services are usually operated by Class 158 Diesel Multiple Units, although Class 153 and Class 156 units can also be used (the former to add additional capacity on certain services and the latter on the seasonal DalesRail trains from Preston and Blackpool). Class 150 units have also begun to appear occasionally (as substitutes for the booked 158s) since a batch of the units were transferred to Northern Rail from London Midland in the autumn of 2011.
Route
– the start of the line. Site of the junction with the Leeds to Morecambe Line and a short-lived (1876–77) passenger station.
Settle
Taitlands Tunnel (now called Stainforth Tunnel)
Horton in Ribblesdale
Ribblehead- here is the Ribblehead Viaduct (originally named Batty Moss Viaduct) 440 yd (396 m), with 24 piers
Blea Moor here is Blea Moor signal box and loop. Blea Moor signalbox is the remotest signal box in England
Blea Moor Tunnel 2629 yd (2366 m) long
here are the Dent Head & Arten Gill viaducts.
Dent (4.5 miles outside the village of Dent)
Rise Hill Tunnel
Dent is the highest railway station in England.
Garsdale – originally named Hawes Junction then Hawes Junction & Garsdale.
At Hawes station, on the Hawes branch to the east of the main line, there was an end-on-junction with the North Eastern Railway (NER) line across the Pennines to Northallerton (now the Wensleydale Railway).
here is Dandry Mire Viaduct
here were the highest water troughs in the United Kingdom. Steam locomotives were able to pick up water from these troughs whilst still moving.
On the next stretch, there were three tunnels (Moorcock Tunnel, Shotlock Hill Tunnel and Birkett Tunnel).
On this stretch also was the summit of the line at Ais Gill, 1169 ft (350 m) ASL. From 1954, the summit was marked by a vitreous enamel sign.
Kirkby Stephen - There were two stations here, one (Kirkby Stephen West) for the Midland line and Kirkby Stephen East for the NER (the latter's line from Darlington to Tebay). The two stations are about half a mile apart. The Midland station also served the village of Ravenstonedale
Crosby Garrett (closed 1952)
Ormside (closed 1952)
Appleby – as with Kirkby Stephen, there were separate stations for the Midland (Appleby West) and NE lines (Appleby East), with a siding connection. The NE line was the branch known as the Eden Valley Railway between Kirkby Stephen and Eden Valley Junction on the West Coast Line near Clifton
Long Marton (closed 1970)
New Biggin (closed 1970)
Culgaith (closed 1970)
there are three tunnels between these stations
Langwathby
Little Salkeld (closed 1970)
here is Lazonby Tunnel
Lazonby and Kirkoswald
there are three more tunnels between these two stations
Armathwaite
Cotehill (closed 1952)
Cumwhinton (closed 1956)
Scotby (closed 1942 – not the same station as the one of the same name on the adjoining Tyne Valley line)
Petterill Bridge Junction – junction with the Newcastle – Carlisle line and the end of Midland Railway metals.
Carlisle: the station – full title Carlisle Citadel was owned jointly by the LNWR and the Caledonian Railway: the Midland (among others) was a "tenant Company".
Accidents
1910 – Hawes Junction rail crash; 12 killed, 17 injured.
1913 – Ais Gill rail accident (1913); 16 killed, 38 injured.
1918 – Little Salkeld rail accident; 7 killed.
1930 – rail accident; 2 killed, 8 injured.
1933 – station collision; 1 killed, 35 injured.
1952 – Blea Moor derailment 34 injured.
1960 – Settle rail crash; 5 killed, 8 injured.
1968 – Horton rail crash; Major damage, no fatalities; 2 injured.
1995 – Ais Gill rail accident (1995); 1 killed.
1999 – Crosby Garrett rail accident.
Simulators
The line is featured in Microsoft Train Simulator, which depicts the line as it was in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, and in modern-day for Dovetail Games' Train Simulator.
Trainz Railway Simulator has a Settle & Carlisle package modelled on the line under British Railways ownership in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
In popular culture
In 1983 a film documentary about the line was released, named 'Steam on the Settle & Carlisle'. In March 2016 a fifty-minute colour documentary "The Long Drag", made in 1962-3 was released for free viewing on the British Film Institute website.
References
Bibliography
Abbott, Stan and Whitehouse, Alan (1994) [first published 1990] The line that refused to die. Hawes: Leading Edge.
Baughan P E (1966) The Midland Railway North of Leeds
Houghton F W & Foster W H (1948) The Story of the Settle – Carlisle line.
Towler J (1990) The Battle for the Settle & Carlisle Platform 5 Publishing, Sheffield
Williams F S (1875, reprinted 1968) Williams' Midland Railway
Further reading
External links
Settle–Carlisle Partnership – timetables, online secure shop, route guides and the latest news, plus information about FoSCL
Friends of the Settle–Carlisle Line (FoSCL) – information, recent news and events, guided walks and membership information
Friends of DalesRail – Free guided walks from the Settle–Carlisle railway
A history of the Mallerstang section of the line, and a commemoration of those who died during its construction, and in three accidents in this dale
Images and information of each railway station
Report on the attempt to close the line and the campaign to keep it open.
Time Team: Blood, Sweat and Beers – Rise Hill, Cumbria
Settle to Carlisle update – February 2016. Network Rail video on the 2016 landslip at Eden Brows
Eden Brows Landslip – Contractor video on the status of repair works at Eden Brows in July 2016
Rail transport in North Yorkshire
Yorkshire Dales
Rail transport in Cumbria
Carlisle, Cumbria
Railway lines opened in 1875
Railway lines in North West England
Railway lines in Yorkshire and the Humber
Standard gauge railways in England | [
0.08998607099056244,
-0.426968514919281,
0.3834981918334961,
-0.4055306315422058,
0.6505884528160095,
-0.3615410029888153,
0.026236264035105705,
0.2895141541957855,
0.3303915858268738,
0.0292561873793602,
-0.25143158435821533,
-0.21437756717205048,
-0.46864014863967896,
0.44231486320495605,
-0.6663691997528076,
0.1331038922071457,
-0.4727969765663147,
0.19799132645130157,
-0.03352819010615349,
-0.6917083263397217,
0.04761519283056259,
0.3108600974082947,
0.31162315607070923,
0.3422129154205322,
0.6298497915267944,
-0.4175029993057251,
0.24697501957416534,
0.3339079022407532,
-0.12999160587787628,
-0.3518977761268616,
0.31676536798477173,
-0.027881799265742302,
0.5994074940681458,
-0.33473023772239685,
0.06885623186826706,
0.11928360909223557,
0.1854405254125595,
0.0011047746520489454,
-1.0008333921432495,
-0.4366319477558136,
-0.1499291956424713,
-0.2124672830104828,
-0.4303613603115082,
0.1915978044271469,
0.3311777710914612,
0.34224626421928406,
-0.4397374987602234,
0.6106775999069214,
-0.5862891674041748,
-0.5217575430870056,
-0.9951290488243103,
0.3676566481590271,
-0.12324920296669006,
0.3528185784816742,
0.9205227494239807,
-0.11821629106998444,
-0.1971966177225113,
-0.056558120995759964,
0.4963003695011139,
0.2320462316274643,
-0.33569443225860596,
0.8745360374450684,
0.21422556042671204,
-0.09423348307609558,
0.12610839307308197,
-0.01607349142432213,
-0.39497077465057373,
0.7005171775817871,
-0.5998252034187317,
-0.31193265318870544,
0.11044913530349731,
-0.4151560068130493,
0.08094001561403275,
0.831343948841095,
0.18001699447631836,
-0.2502821981906891,
0.3013046383857727,
0.19918422400951385,
-0.20429864525794983,
0.46503308415412903,
0.004766658414155245,
0.2990902066230774,
0.2874622046947479,
0.12570229172706604,
0.7711067199707031,
0.6292608380317688,
-0.5894242525100708,
0.09286389499902725,
-0.1624721884727478,
0.2715808153152466,
0.014230755157768726,
0.2177688330411911,
-0.3559134900569916,
-0.2112167924642563,
-0.01790960691869259,
-0.5625212788581848,
0.05129936710000038,
0.13499437272548676,
0.30684903264045715,
0.10899249464273453,
0.08045879751443863,
0.4426038861274719,
0.23676835000514984,
-0.17171815037727356,
-0.5394335389137268,
-0.5907993316650391,
-0.25388243794441223,
-0.21770048141479492,
0.31264394521713257,
0.10769046097993851,
-1.0522631406784058,
-0.3308808207511902,
-0.4830183982849121,
0.060371581465005875,
-0.007648905273526907,
0.326300710439682,
-0.1963418573141098,
-0.7019045948982239,
0.2709134519100189,
0.09841696918010712,
-0.209743931889534,
0.4928465783596039,
-0.4037635326385498,
0.7648978233337402,
0.3502819836139679,
0.35189130902290344,
-0.012033206410706043,
0.7053854465484619,
-0.3167837858200073,
-0.006618852727115154,
0.7658838033676147,
1.1646974086761475,
0.28034859895706177,
-0.10621785372495651,
-0.5800973773002625,
-0.5150054693222046,
-0.039604801684617996,
0.13265396654605865,
0.5734427571296692,
0.36393049359321594,
-1.297459363937378,
-0.27287158370018005,
0.5076819658279419,
-0.34071117639541626,
0.19599732756614685,
-0.16630278527736664,
-0.4110102355480194,
-0.9863303303718567,
-0.19803108274936676,
-0.36708864569664,
0.9082552194595337,
0.1353721022605896,
-0.3876664638519287,
-0.6631378531455994,
-0.7267266511917114,
0.2309570461511612,
0.6930439472198486,
0.23497776687145233,
-0.13392408192157745,
-0.010729779489338398,
-0.3743439316749573,
0.9182024002075195,
0.3798997700214386,
-0.4360440969467163,
0.6619337201118469,
-0.04329990595579147,
-0.06324797123670578,
-0.07162989675998688,
0.3654593527317047,
-0.3214552402496338,
-0.1769375056028366,
0.13304737210273743,
0.6705483794212341,
-0.7537160515785217,
0.5118765234947205,
-0.11783809214830399,
0.30476614832878113,
0.6808317303657532,
0.005026939325034618,
-0.8445261716842651,
-0.8646923303604126,
-0.03943833336234093,
0.157169371843338,
-0.3453844487667084,
-0.7994750142097473,
0.12603448331356049,
0.029203390702605247,
0.0045780157670378685,
-0.6306301951408386,
-0.3846646547317505,
-0.21917712688446045,
-0.33673563599586487,
0.18918755650520325,
-0.6658447980880737,
0.6329628229141235,
-0.4813750684261322,
0.07912693172693253,
0.3123275339603424,
-0.6249794363975525,
0.38378605246543884,
0.6569515466690063,
-0.5260714888572693,
0.28674376010894775,
-0.1645079404115677,
-0.5608373284339905,
0.40792739391326904,
0.052424803376197815,
-0.2799258232116699,
-0.23016919195652008,
-0.3320574462413788,
0.025289202108979225,
-0.2780960202217102,
0.19760951399803162,
0.36790624260902405,
0.23054073750972748,
-0.403498113155365,
-0.25256115198135376,
-0.08779539167881012,
0.6261036396026611,
-0.3713681101799011,
0.26588818430900574,
0.3735286295413971,
-0.008969947695732117,
0.6343568563461304,
-0.9737057685852051,
0.4710133969783783,
0.3101038336753845,
0.795113205909729,
0.23519061505794525,
-0.3080403506755829,
-0.5489031076431274,
0.48852914571762085,
-0.2384641021490097,
-0.08704784512519836,
0.312613844871521,
-0.8445554375648499,
-0.22723698616027832,
-0.4382070302963257,
0.3058110177516937,
-0.2180173099040985,
0.3687032163143158,
0.29981645941734314,
-0.4727829098701477,
0.38426318764686584,
-0.3555156886577606,
0.6857289671897888,
-0.28125396370887756,
0.3740672767162323,
0.2410609871149063,
0.3357866108417511,
-0.17619940638542175,
0.07995958626270294,
0.38718661665916443,
0.21451401710510254,
-0.21495920419692993,
-0.916513204574585,
-0.17435063421726227,
0.07772395759820938,
0.0830242931842804,
0.3693141043186188,
0.5915057063102722,
-0.7767758369445801,
-0.2514803111553192,
-0.052370648831129074,
-0.18670441210269928,
-0.31869450211524963,
-0.7329630851745605,
-0.45936015248298645,
0.34920310974121094,
0.11998699605464935,
0.8020228147506714,
0.3159632682800293,
0.1670585572719574,
0.04773992672562599,
-0.21170179545879364,
0.0948777049779892,
0.6574198603630066,
0.15944789350032806,
-0.6685949563980103,
-0.13105258345603943,
0.07691387087106705,
0.6497097611427307,
-0.3476932644844055,
-0.4523380994796753,
-0.1986149251461029,
-0.10016503930091858,
0.4937725365161896,
-0.05349068343639374,
-0.06759470701217651,
-0.01415189541876316,
0.14070509374141693,
-0.03642178326845169,
-0.16533038020133972,
0.1331568956375122,
0.40119749307632446,
-0.11488036066293716,
0.3829837143421173,
-0.0779687911272049,
0.5273284316062927,
-0.5645144581794739,
-0.5610774159431458,
0.5231949090957642,
-0.04659847170114517,
0.2209581732749939,
-0.1230364441871643,
-0.4803459346294403,
-0.6745662093162537,
-0.6644074320793152,
-5.162930011749268,
0.3982788920402527,
-0.5409345030784607,
0.28882941603660583,
0.7173526287078857,
0.32251501083374023,
0.09464415907859802,
-0.29796549677848816,
0.667772114276886,
-0.5695765614509583,
0.26933690905570984,
-0.2145148366689682,
0.01648634672164917,
-0.6725048422813416,
0.5108565092086792,
-0.09581958502531052,
0.23653532564640045,
0.08615228533744812,
0.8927450180053711,
-0.2866568863391876,
-0.440201997756958,
-0.23357531428337097,
0.04907474294304848,
0.5000459551811218,
-0.028253186494112015,
1.129659652709961,
-0.31177815794944763,
0.10274413228034973,
-0.8129115104675293,
-0.0754140093922615,
0.7944956421852112,
-0.2472054809331894,
0.017073165625333786,
-0.47795185446739197,
-0.15474669635295868,
-0.2284841239452362,
0.2729988396167755,
1.1301332712173462,
0.6719968318939209,
0.09306767582893372,
0.07857496291399002,
0.9080263376235962,
0.21953359246253967,
-0.4699125289916992,
0.34049415588378906,
-0.3065885603427887,
-0.6092345714569092,
-0.17081740498542786,
-0.4252583682537079,
0.7485638856887817,
-0.2718435525894165,
0.6983745098114014,
0.917231023311615,
-0.3785230219364166,
-0.5440645217895508,
0.012490269728004932,
0.17551545798778534,
-0.6546475291252136,
-0.5807414650917053,
0.3522211015224457,
0.08355363458395004,
-0.16780468821525574,
-0.2121024876832962,
-0.17995771765708923,
-0.5276364088058472,
-0.24179960787296295,
-0.4647548794746399,
0.18482831120491028,
0.817172110080719,
-0.16843141615390778,
-0.6216141581535339,
0.33178338408470154,
0.6594265699386597,
-0.31870555877685547,
0.11960430443286896,
-0.3904063105583191,
-0.6461709141731262,
0.3639901876449585,
0.9405266642570496,
-0.4195311665534973,
0.3794425427913666,
-0.3912404477596283,
0.5491418838500977,
0.2680720388889313,
0.7243943214416504,
-0.060213543474674225,
-0.5849933624267578,
0.16958098113536835,
0.10780642926692963,
-0.21832478046417236,
-0.015621480531990528,
-0.6575222015380859,
-0.030906574800610542,
0.4879137873649597,
0.03567397966980934,
-0.013829912059009075,
-0.4494350850582123,
0.020435785874724388,
0.06951173394918442,
-0.6218741536140442,
0.9505055546760559,
0.15300141274929047,
0.4179689884185791,
0.10527102649211884,
-0.3461085259914398,
-0.7100740671157837,
0.011894733645021915,
0.013586283661425114,
0.3350249230861664,
-0.5205047726631165,
-0.02460392564535141,
-0.8887712359428406,
-1.192543387413025,
-0.08416592329740524,
-0.5212059020996094,
-0.11250656098127365,
-1.1674749851226807,
0.15389014780521393,
0.4495621919631958,
0.38792675733566284,
-0.12905088067054749,
0.10295179486274719,
0.1986588090658188,
0.2250940501689911,
-0.07564537972211838,
0.021484296768903732,
0.6971590518951416,
0.9476304054260254,
0.3862764239311218,
0.3893619179725647,
0.13880904018878937,
-0.2633904218673706,
-0.22378936409950256,
-0.28475421667099,
-0.46342962980270386,
0.4175502061843872,
-0.15535421669483185,
0.32779034972190857,
0.1017693281173706,
-0.031178049743175507,
0.02937338873744011,
0.02928328700363636,
0.15239666402339935,
0.12912693619728088,
0.28017568588256836,
0.5619802474975586,
-0.11613324284553528,
-0.41289278864860535,
-0.7741739749908447,
0.12595368921756744,
-0.09470896422863007,
-0.3199826180934906,
0.40956780314445496,
-0.5415762066841125,
0.3301315903663635,
-0.2592134475708008,
-0.09207423031330109,
0.1442752331495285,
-0.1380154937505722,
-0.34238603711128235,
-0.009056496433913708,
-0.3786347806453705,
-0.6548991203308105,
0.659299910068512,
-0.08248747140169144,
-0.0049054622650146484,
-0.4683797359466553,
-0.20700675249099731,
0.016222644597291946,
0.3409503996372223,
0.15856701135635376,
-0.2306470423936844,
-0.30867642164230347,
-0.19843193888664246,
-0.18490414321422577,
0.9193311929702759,
-0.6544745564460754,
-0.18308357894420624,
0.07218145579099655,
-0.3219291865825653,
-0.1915050595998764,
-0.29461583495140076,
-0.056944943964481354,
0.49602386355400085,
-0.1030496284365654,
-1.141456127166748,
-0.44767874479293823,
0.7287722229957581,
0.18349343538284302,
0.004236307460814714,
0.6215662360191345,
-0.5724902153015137,
0.1891849786043167,
0.6416533589363098,
0.1279381364583969,
-0.5149993300437927,
0.14825215935707092,
0.0826866403222084,
0.31245535612106323,
-0.9695314168930054,
-0.27794551849365234,
0.5207367539405823,
-0.6270566582679749,
-0.09730446338653564,
0.651439368724823,
-0.7987384796142578,
-0.23849444091320038,
0.17627260088920593,
-1.0122476816177368,
0.410773903131485,
0.06283999979496002,
-0.8905162215232849,
-0.27843689918518066,
0.6108375191688538,
-0.6011701226234436,
-0.11202163249254227,
0.42157822847366333,
-0.017918890342116356,
-0.058849137276411057,
-0.10751219838857651,
-0.31933900713920593,
-0.32547104358673096,
-0.5642428398132324,
-0.04551377892494202,
-0.49305295944213867,
0.46490705013275146,
0.5686648488044739,
-0.790679395198822,
0.6134133338928223,
-0.7654889225959778,
-0.1424194723367691,
-0.4502662420272827,
0.4910750687122345,
0.2416376918554306,
0.3922674059867859,
0.3607180714607239,
0.13518646359443665,
-0.5759533643722534,
0.8380516171455383,
0.3181198835372925,
0.8774511218070984,
0.8974629640579224,
0.3953286111354828,
-0.7146307826042175,
0.3753541111946106,
-0.07605910301208496,
1.0961991548538208,
-0.8092969059944153,
-0.37686705589294434,
0.30196481943130493,
0.7834264636039734,
-0.20323635637760162,
-0.5404955744743347,
-0.03966900333762169,
1.0699820518493652,
-0.348989337682724,
-0.4308892786502838,
-0.1928483545780182,
0.3072150945663452,
-0.04595314711332321,
0.3522164225578308,
-0.18303735554218292,
-0.7269964218139648,
0.5171436071395874,
0.7131434082984924,
-0.19724172353744507,
0.21502694487571716,
-0.0918692871928215,
0.637333333492279,
-0.49969202280044556,
-0.08969486504793167,
-0.7353478074073792,
0.2079569548368454,
0.07369735836982727,
-0.029731385409832,
-0.16657699644565582,
0.49242886900901794,
-0.19183437526226044,
0.8468771576881409,
0.00839106272906065,
-0.5871205925941467,
-0.3796111047267914,
0.19479401409626007,
-0.5552845597267151,
-0.3165108561515808,
0.003853603033348918,
0.035587843507528305,
-0.21297088265419006,
-0.6479095220565796,
-0.5201204419136047,
-0.6740350127220154,
-0.4275445342063904,
-0.03652161732316017,
0.10852890461683273,
-0.3867022693157196,
-0.009896618314087391,
-0.2449341118335724,
0.40716058015823364,
0.4694364070892334,
0.32121771574020386,
-0.9685350060462952,
0.5901503562927246,
-0.7160450220108032,
-0.23097898066043854,
-0.1469009816646576,
0.2902337908744812,
0.05864406004548073,
-0.44827181100845337,
0.16902707517147064,
-0.2930407226085663,
0.5543259978294373,
0.4121025502681732,
0.034544914960861206,
0.9631771445274353,
0.21452650427818298,
-0.34584763646125793,
0.8862895369529724,
-0.3929080069065094,
0.4488580524921417,
0.7119225859642029,
-0.09163662046194077,
0.8572207689285278,
0.764244556427002,
0.9155208468437195,
0.15682601928710938,
0.5621860027313232,
-0.024445051327347755,
-0.5391015410423279,
-0.1712615191936493,
0.9836028218269348,
-0.3306243121623993,
-0.03879563882946968,
-0.6202351450920105,
1.1232432126998901,
-0.2795013189315796,
-0.4182106852531433,
0.30934059619903564,
-0.25819721817970276,
-0.08829031139612198,
0.7462558150291443,
-0.3845541477203369,
0.19553083181381226,
0.20086334645748138,
-0.3194092810153961,
-0.47829318046569824,
0.25172048807144165,
0.3673388659954071,
-0.477115273475647,
0.0271011795848608,
0.20545056462287903,
0.4650351107120514,
0.3789931833744049,
0.3602367043495178,
-0.4240136444568634,
0.19383645057678223,
0.509223997592926,
0.3705001175403595,
0.042643528431653976,
-0.209596648812294,
0.14833737909793854,
0.1896892935037613,
0.4092158079147339,
-0.28295642137527466,
-0.7449157238006592,
-0.7380103468894958,
-0.2599971890449524,
-0.5356141924858093,
-1.1139613389968872,
-0.24925462901592255,
0.2573608458042145,
0.17441987991333008,
0.0920194759964943,
-0.18713074922561646,
-0.23214226961135864,
-0.3268287777900696,
0.23128831386566162,
0.5817930102348328,
0.942696750164032,
0.1902880221605301,
-0.029721390455961227,
0.012958569452166557,
0.44023647904396057,
0.09586465358734131,
-0.8088159561157227,
-0.12986493110656738,
-0.7640291452407837,
-0.4518117904663086,
-0.07655306905508041,
-1.0754770040512085,
-0.5991060733795166,
0.05825096741318703,
-0.20738020539283752,
-0.07143490016460419,
-0.08801901340484619,
-0.9319237470626831,
0.2810831665992737,
-0.25675657391548157,
0.5014047622680664,
0.08150524646043777,
-0.39155644178390503,
0.1625366508960724,
0.7009676098823547,
0.031710185110569,
0.37455788254737854,
-0.07282207161188126,
1.1603820323944092,
-0.4245338439941406,
0.381100058555603,
-0.1857079565525055,
0.789993941783905,
0.2407522052526474,
0.004959677811712027,
-0.1336013525724411,
0.43633797764778137,
-0.21063151955604553,
0.12231308221817017,
0.17252810299396515,
-0.3464365005493164,
-0.33332833647727966,
-0.41316860914230347,
0.4861895740032196,
-0.10990417003631592,
-0.3853550851345062,
-0.045572418719530106,
0.44394639134407043,
-0.5744901299476624,
0.3733910918235779,
0.2776886224746704,
-0.3096142113208771,
1.1012091636657715,
0.3431892991065979,
0.04697161912918091,
-0.6782089471817017,
-0.3529769480228424,
-0.16132940351963043,
0.2143307328224182,
-0.17745818197727203,
0.3001147508621216,
0.37509429454803467,
0.10773459821939468,
0.35391151905059814,
-0.16379579901695251,
0.5627546906471252,
-0.1806253343820572,
0.3611184358596802,
-0.4422535002231598,
0.09750457108020782,
-0.1889905035495758,
-1.4410713911056519,
0.4100538492202759,
0.14249297976493835,
-0.16359426081180573,
0.2815302312374115,
-0.07977253943681717,
0.45826616883277893,
-0.4416740834712982,
-0.0772983580827713,
-0.9363086223602295,
0.008168431930243969,
-0.09447624534368515
] |
261077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20New%20Republic | The New Republic | The New Republic is an American magazine of commentary on politics, contemporary culture, and the arts. Founded in 1914 by several leaders of the progressive movement, it attempted to find a balance between "a liberalism centered in humanitarian and moral passion and one based in an ethos of scientific analysis". Through the 1980s and 1990s, the magazine incorporated elements of the Third Way and conservatism.
In 2014, two years after Facebook co-founder Chris Hughes purchased the magazine, he ousted its editor and attempted to remake its format, operations, and partisan stances, provoking the resignation of the majority of its editors and writers. In early 2016, Hughes announced he was putting the magazine up for sale, indicating the need for "new vision and leadership". The magazine was sold in February 2016 to Win McCormack, under whom the publication has returned to a more progressive stance. A weekly or near-weekly for most of its history, the magazine currently publishes ten issues per year.
Political views
In its current incarnation, The New Republic has been unambiguously to the political left and is often critical of the Democratic Party establishment and strongly in favor of universal health care. In The American Conservative, Telly Davidson wrote that "its love letters to the Bernie Bro and Millennial Marxist movements and its attacks on Hillary and the Democratic establishment from the left, instead of from the right, bring back memories of its decidedly radical days in the '30s and '40s". In May 2019, The New Republic published a roundtable on socialism where three of four contributions were favorable, while the owner and editor-in-chief, Win McCormack, wrote a more dismissive piece.
In February 2019, staff writer Alex Shephard wrote that "it doesn't make political sense to put bumpers on hypothetical policies, which dampens voter enthusiasm. Pragmatism doesn't track as a legislative argument, either". In June 2019, staff writer Alex Pareene wrote: "All the while, Democratic leaders continue to campaign and govern from a crouched, defensive position even after they win power. They have bought into the central ideological proposition, peddled by apparatchiks and consultants aligned with the conservative movement, that America is an incorrigible 'center-right' nation, and they have precious little strategy or inclination to move that consensus leftward—to fight, in other words, to change the national consensus; the sort of activity that was once understood as 'politics'".
History
Early years
The New Republic was founded by Herbert Croly, Walter Lippmann, and Walter Weyl through the financial backing of heiress Dorothy Payne Whitney and her husband, Willard Straight, who maintained majority ownership. The magazine's first issue was published on November 7, 1914. The magazine's politics were liberal and progressive, and as such concerned with coping with the great changes brought about by middle-class reform efforts designed to remedy the weaknesses in America's changing economy and society. The magazine is widely considered important in changing the character of liberalism in the direction of governmental interventionism, both foreign and domestic. The most important of them was the emergence of the U.S. as a great power on the international scene. In 1917, TNR urged America's entry into the Great War on the side of the Allies.
One consequence of the war was the Russian Revolution of 1917. During the interwar years, the magazine was generally positive in its assessment of the Soviet Union and Joseph Stalin. However, the magazine changed its position after the Cold War began in 1947, and in 1948, its leftist editor, Henry A. Wallace, departed to run for president on the Progressive ticket. After Wallace, the magazine moved toward positions more typical of mainstream American liberalism. Throughout the 1950s, the publication was critical of both Soviet foreign policy and domestic anticommunism, particularly McCarthyism. During the 1960s, the magazine opposed the Vietnam War but also often criticized the New Left.
Until the late 1960s, the magazine had a certain "cachet as the voice of re-invigorated liberalism," in the opinion of the commentator Eric Alterman, who has criticized the magazine's politics from the left. That cachet, Alterman wrote, "was perhaps best illustrated when the dashing, young President Kennedy had been photographed boarding Air Force One holding a copy."
Peretz ownership and eventual editorship, 1974–1979
In March 1974, the magazine was purchased for $380,000 by Martin Peretz, a lecturer at Harvard University, from Gilbert A. Harrison. Peretz was a veteran of the New Left but had broken with the movement over its support of various Third World liberationist movements, particularly the Palestine Liberation Organization. Harrison continued editing the magazine and expected Peretz to let him continue running the magazine for three years. However, by 1975, when Peretz became annoyed at having his own articles rejected for publication while he was pouring money into the magazine to cover its losses, he fired Harrison. Much of the staff, including Walter Pincus, Stanley Karnow, and Doris Grumbach, was fired or quit and were replaced largely by recent Harvard graduates, who lacked journalistic experience. Peretz became the editor and served in that post until 1979. In 1980, it endorsed the moderate Republican John B. Anderson, who ran as an independent, rather than the Democratic incumbent Jimmy Carter. As other editors were appointed, Peretz remained editor-in-chief until 2012.
Kinsley and Hertzberg editorships, 1979–1991
Michael Kinsley, a neoliberal, was editor (1979–1981, 1985–1989), alternating twice with the more leftleaning Hendrik Hertzberg (1981–1985; 1989–1991). Kinsley was only 28 years old when he first became editor and was still attending law school.
Writers for the magazine during this era included the neoliberals Mickey Kaus and Jacob Weisberg, along with Charles Krauthammer, Fred Barnes, Morton Kondracke, Sidney Blumenthal, Robert Kuttner, Ronald Steel, Michael Walzer, and Irving Howe.
In the 1980s, the magazine generally supported President Ronald Reagan's anticommunist foreign policy, including his provision of aid to the Nicaraguan Contras. The magazine's editors also supported both the Gulf War and the Iraq War and, reflecting its belief in the moral efficacy of American power, intervention in "humanitarian" crises, such as those in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo during the Yugoslav Wars.
It was widely considered a "must read" across the political spectrum. An article in Vanity Fair judged it "the smartest, most impudent weekly in the country" and the "most entertaining and intellectually agile magazine in the country." According to Alterman, the magazine's prose could sparkle and the contrasting views in its pages were "genuinely exciting." He added, "The magazine unarguably set the terms of debate for insider political elites during the Reagan era."
The magazine won the respect of many conservative opinion leaders. Twenty copies were sent by messenger to the Reagan White House each Thursday afternoon. Norman Podhoretz called the magazine "indispensable, " and George Will called it "currently the nation's most interesting and most important political journal." National Review described it as "one of the most interesting magazines in the United States."
Credit for its influence was often attributed to Kinsley, whose wit and critical sensibility were seen as enlivening, and Hertzberg, a writer for The New Yorker and speechwriter for Jimmy Carter.
Hertzberg and Kinsley alternated as editor and as the author of the magazine's lead column, "TRB from Washington." Its perspective was described as center-left in 1988.
A final ingredient that led to the magazine's increased stature in the 1980s was its "back of the book" or literary, cultural and arts pages, which were edited by Leon Wieseltier. Peretz discovered Wieseltier, then working at Harvard's Society of Fellows, and installed him in charge of the section. Wieseltier reinvented the section along the lines of The New York Review of Books and allowed his critics, many of them academics, to write longer, critical essays, instead of simple book reviews. Alterman calls the selection of Wieseltier "probably... Peretz's single most significant positive achievement" in running the magazine. Despite changes of other editors, Wieseltier remained as cultural editor. Under him the section was "simultaneously erudite and zestful," according to Alterman."
Sullivan editorship, 1991–1996
In 1991, Andrew Sullivan, a 28-year-old gay, self-described conservative from Britain, became editor. He took the magazine in a somewhat more conservative direction, but the majority of writers remained liberal or neoliberal. Hertzberg soon left the magazine to return to The New Yorker. Kinsley left the magazine in 1996 to found the online magazine Slate.
In 1994, Sullivan invited Charles Murray to contribute a 10,000-word article, excerpted from his coauthored book The Bell Curve. The article, which contended that "African Americans score differently from whites on standardized tests of cognitive ability," proved to be very controversial and was published in a special issue together with many responses and critiques. The magazine also published a very critical article by Elizabeth McCaughey about the Clinton administration's health care plan, commonly known as "Hillarycare" because of its close association with First Lady Hillary Clinton. Alterman described the article as "dishonest, misinformed," and "the single most influential article published in the magazine during the entire Clinton presidency. James Fallows of The Atlantic noted the article's inaccuracies and said, "The White House issued a point-by-point rebuttal, which The New Republic did not run. Instead it published a long piece by McCaughey attacking the White House statement." Sullivan also published a number of pieces by Camille Paglia.
Ruth Shalit, a young writer for the magazine in the Sullivan years, was repeatedly criticized for plagiarism. After the Shalit scandals, the magazine began using fact-checkers during Sullivan's time as editor. One was Stephen Glass. When later working as a reporter, he was later found to have made up quotes, anecdotes, and facts in his own articles.
Kelly, Lane, Beinart, Foer, Just editorships, 1996–2012
After Sullivan stepped down in 1996, David Greenberg and Peter Beinart served jointly as acting editors. After the 1996 election, Michael Kelly served as editor for a year. During his tenure as editor and afterward, Kelly, who also wrote the TRB column, was intensely critical of Clinton. Writer Stephen Glass, who had been a major contributor under Kelly's editorship, was later shown to have falsified and fabricated numerous stories, which was admitted by The New Republic after an investigation by Kelly's successor, Charles Lane. Kelly had consistently supported Glass during his tenure, including sending scathing letters to those challenging the veracity of Glass's stories. (The events were later dramatized in the feature film Shattered Glass, adapted from a 1998 report by H.G. Bissinger.)
Chuck Lane held the editor's position between 1997 and 1999. During Lane's tenure, the Stephen Glass scandal occurred. Peretz has written that Lane ultimately "put the ship back on its course," for which Peretz said he was "immensely grateful." But Peretz later fired Lane, who learned of his ouster when a Washington Post reporter called him for a comment.
Peter Beinart, a third editor who took over when he was 28 years old, followed Lane. He served as editor from 1999 to 2006.
In the early 2000s, the TNR added Buzz weblogs &c., Iraq'd, and Easterblogg, replaced in 2005 with the sole blog The Plank. The Stump was added in 2007 and covered the 2008 presidential election.
The magazine remained well known, with references to it occasionally popping up in popular culture. Lisa Simpson was once portrayed as a subscriber to The New Republic for Kids. Matt Groening, the creator of The Simpsons''', once drew a cover for The New Republic. In the pilot episode of the HBO series Entourage, which first aired on July 18, 2004, Ari Gold asks Eric Murphy: "Do you read The New Republic? Well, I do, and it says that you don't know what the fuck you're talking about."
Franklin Foer took over from Beinart in March 2006. The magazine's first editorial under Foer said, "We've become more liberal.... We've been encouraging Democrats to dream big again on the environment and economics...." Foer is the brother of novelist Jonathan Safran Foer, author of Everything Is Illuminated (2002).
Other prominent writers who edited or wrote for the magazine in those years include senior editor and columnist Jonathan Chait, Lawrence F. Kaplan, John Judis and Spencer Ackerman.
Political stances under PeretzThe New Republic gradually became much less left-wing under Peretz, which culminated in the editorship of the conservative Andrew Sullivan. The magazine was associated with the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC) and "New Democrats," such as Bill Clinton and Joseph Lieberman, who received the magazine's endorsement in the 2004 Democratic primary.
In the 21st century, the magazine gradually shifted left but was still more moderate and hawkish than conventional liberal periodicals. Policies supported by both The New Republic and the DLC in the 1990s were increased funding for the Earned Income Tax Credit program, the reform of the federal welfare system, and supply-side economics, especially the idea of reducing higher marginal income tax rates, which in the later Peretz years received heavy criticism from senior editor Jonathan Chait.
Foreign policy stances under Peretz
Support for Israel was a strong theme: "Support for Israel is deep down an expression of America's best view of itself." According to the journalism professor Eric Alterman:
Nothing has been as consistent about the past 34 years of The New Republic as the magazine's devotion to Peretz's own understanding of what is good for Israel.... It is really not too much to say that almost all of Peretz's political beliefs are subordinate to his commitment to Israel's best interests, and these interests as Peretz defines them almost always involve more war.
Unsigned editorials prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq expressed strong support for military action and cited the threat of facilities for weapons of mass destruction as well as humanitarian concerns. In the first years of the war, editorials were critical of the handling of the war but continued to justify the invasion on humanitarian grounds although they no longer maintained that Iraq's weapons of mass destruction posed any threat to the United States. In the November 27, 2006 issue, the editors wrote:
At this point, it seems almost beside the point to say this: The New Republic deeply regrets its early support for this war. The past three years have complicated our idealism and reminded us of the limits of American power and our own wisdom.
Peretz sells remaining shares and buys magazine back from CanWest
Until February 2007, The New Republic was owned by Martin Peretz, New York financiers Roger Hertog and Michael Steinhardt, and Canadian media conglomerate Canwest.
In late February 2007, Peretz sold his share of the magazine to CanWest, which announced that a subsidiary, CanWest Media Works International, had acquired a full interest in the publication. Peretz retained his position as editor-in-chief.
In March 2009, Peretz and a group of investors, led by the former Lazard executive Laurence Grafstein and including Michael Alter, bought the magazine back from CanWest, which was on the edge of bankruptcy. Frank Foer continued as editor and was responsible for the day-to-day management of the magazine, and Peretz remained editor-in-chief.
New format
Starting with the March 19, 2007 issue, the magazine implemented major changes:
Decreased frequency: the magazine went to publishing twice a month, or 24 times a year. This replaced the old plan of publishing 44 issues a year. The magazine described its publication schedule as "biweekly," with specified "skipped publication dates." There were ten of these in 2010.
New design and layout: Issues featured more visuals, new art and other "reader friendly" content. Warnock typeface throughout was accented by woodcut-style illustrations.
More pages and bigger size: Issues became bigger and contained more pages.
Improved paper: Covers and pages became sturdier.
Increased newsstand price: Although the subscription prices did not change, the newsstand price increased from $3.95 to $4.95.
Website redesign: The website offered more daily content and new features. Richard Just took over as editor of the magazine on December 8, 2010.
Chris Hughes ownership and editorial crisis, 2012–2016
On March 9, 2012, Chris Hughes, co-founder of Facebook, was introduced as the New Republic's majority owner and Editor-in-Chief. Under Hughes, the magazine became less focused on "The Beltway," with more cultural coverage and attention to visuals. It stopped running an editorial in every issue. Media observers noted a less uniformly pro-Israel tone in the magazine's coverage than its editorial stance during Peretz's ownership.
On December 4, 2014, Gabriel Snyder, previously of Gawker and Bloomberg, replaced Franklin Foer as editor. The magazine was reduced from twenty issues per year to ten and the editorial offices moved from Penn Quarter, Washington DC, to New York, where it was reinvented as a "vertically integrated digital-media company." The changes provoked a major crisis among the publication's editorial staff and contributing editors. The magazine's literary editor, Leon Wieseltier, resigned in protest. Subsequent days brought many more resignations, including those of executive editors Rachel Morris and Greg Veis; nine of the magazine's eleven active senior writers; legal-affairs editor Jeffrey Rosen; the digital-media editor; six culture writers and editors; and thirty-six out of thirty-eight contributing editors (including Paul Berman, Jonathan Chait, William Deresiewicz, Ruth Franklin, Anthony Grafton, Enrique Krauze, Ryan Lizza, Sacha Z. Scoblic, Helen Vendler, Sean Wilentz). In all, two-thirds of the names on the editorial masthead were gone.
The mass resignations forced the magazine to suspend its December 2014 edition. Previously a weekly for most of its history, it was immediately before suspension published ten times per year with a circulation of approximately 50,000. The company went back to publishing twenty issues a year, and editor Gabriel Snyder worked with staff to reshape it.
In the wake of the editorial crisis, Hughes indicated that he intended to stay with The New Republic over the long term, telling an NPR interviewer of his desire to make sure the magazine could produce quality journalism "hopefully for decades to come." He published an open letter about his "commitment" to give the magazine "a new mandate for a new century." However, on January 11, 2016, Hughes put The New Republic up for sale. In another open letter, he said, "After investing a great deal of time, energy, and over $20 million, I have come to the conclusion that it is time for new leadership and vision at The New Republic."
Win McCormack ownership, 2016–present
In February 2016, Win McCormack bought the magazine from Hughes and named Eric Bates, the former executive editor of Rolling Stone, as editor. In September 2017, Bates was demoted from his leadership role to a masthead title of "editor at large." J.J. Gould then served as editor for just over a year until December 2018. In November 2017, Hamilton Fish V, the publisher since McCormack's acquisition of the magazine, resigned amid allegations of workplace misconduct. Kerrie Gillis was named publisher in February 2019 and Chris Lehmann, formerly the editor in chief of The Baffler, was named editor April 9, 2019. Within months his management style faced public criticism for his hiring process of an Inequality Editor, posted on June 28. Within weeks, another scandal erupted, with Lehmann facing even harsher criticism from the public and the media for his decision to publish a controversial op-ed by Dale Peck called "My Mayor Pete Problem." The op-ed was retracted, with Lehmann commenting in a separate statement: "The New Republic recognizes that this post crossed a line, and while it was largely intended as satire, it was inappropriate and invasive." In March 2021, it was announced that Lehmann would be departing his role as editor and would be replaced by Michael Tomasky.
Circulation
Print circulation in the 2000sThe New Republics average paid circulation for 2009 was 53,485 copies per issue.The New Republics last reported circulation numbers to media auditor BPA Worldwide were for the six months ending on June 30, 2009.
Online
According to Quantcast, the TNR website received roughly 120,000 visitors in April 2008, and 962,000 visitors in April 2012. By June 9, 2012, the TNR website's monthly page visits dropped to 421,000 in the U.S. and 521,000 globally. As of April 16, 2014, the TNR website's Quantcast webpage contains the following messages: "This publisher has not implemented Quantcast Measurement. Data is estimated and not verified by Quantcast...," and "We do not have enough information to provide a traffic estimate...," and "Traffic data unavailable until this site becomes quantified." Demographically, data show that visitors tend to be well educated (76% being college graduates, with 33% having a graduate degree), relatively affluent (55% having a household income of over $60,000 and 31% having a six figure income), white (83%), and more likely to be male (61%). Eighty two percent were at least 35 years old with 38% being over the age of 50.
Controversies
Michael StraightNew Republic editor Michael Whitney Straight (1948 to 1956) was later discovered to be a spy for the KGB, recruited into the same network as Donald Maclean, Guy Burgess, Kim Philby, and Anthony Blunt. Straight's espionage activities began at Cambridge during the 1930s; he later claimed that they ceased during World War II. Later, shortly before serving in the Kennedy administration, he revealed his past ties and turned in fellow spy Anthony Blunt. In return for his cooperation, his own involvement was kept secret and he continued to serve in various capacities for the US Government until he retired. Straight admitted his involvement in his memoirs; however, subsequent documents obtained from the former KGB after the fall of the Soviet Union indicated that he drastically understated the extent of his espionage activities.
Ruth Shalit plagiarism
In 1995, writer Ruth Shalit was fired for repeated incidents of plagiarism and an excess of factual errors in her articles.
Stephen Glass scandal
In 1998, features writer Stephen Glass was revealed in a Forbes Digital investigation to have fabricated a story called "Hack Heaven". A TNR investigation found that most of Glass's stories had used or been based on fabricated information. The story of Glass's fall and TNR editor Chuck Lane's handling of the scandal was dramatized in the 2003 film Shattered Glass, based on a 1998 article in Vanity Fair.
Lee Siegel
In 2006, long-time contributor, critic, and senior editor Lee Siegel, who had maintained a blog on the TNR site dedicated primarily to art and culture, was revealed by an investigation to have collaborated in posting comments to his own blog under an alias aggressively praising Siegel, attacking his critics and claiming not to be Lee Siegel when challenged by an anonymous detractor on his blog. The blog was removed from the website and Siegel was suspended from writing for the print magazine. He resumed writing for TNR in April 2007. Siegel was also controversial for his coinage "blogofascists" which he applied to "the entire political blogosphere", though with an emphasis on leftwing or center-left bloggers such as Daily Kos and Atrios.
Spencer Ackerman
In 2006, associate editor Spencer Ackerman was fired by editor Franklin Foer. Describing it as a "painful" decision, Foer attributed the firing to Ackerman's "insubordination": disparaging the magazine on his personal blog, saying that he would "skullfuck" a terrorist's corpse at an editorial meeting if that was required to "establish his anti-terrorist bona fides and sending Foer an e-mail where he said—in what according to Ackerman was intended to be a joke—he would "make a niche in your skull" with a baseball bat. Ackerman, by contrast, argued that the dismissal was due to "irreconcilable ideological differences." He believed that his leftward drift as a result of the Iraq War and the actions of the Bush administration was not appreciated by the senior editorial staff. Within 24 hours of being fired by The New Republic, Ackerman was hired as a senior correspondent for a rival magazine, The American Prospect.
Scott Thomas Beauchamp controversy
In July 2007, after The New Republic published an article by an American soldier in Iraq titled "Shock Troops", allegations of inadequate fact-checking were leveled against the magazine. Critics alleged that the piece contained inconsistent details indicative of fabrication. The identity of the anonymous soldier, Scott Thomas Beauchamp, was revealed. Beauchamp was married to Elspeth Reeve, one of the magazine's three fact-checkers. As a result of the controversy, The New Republic and the United States Army launched investigations, reaching different conclusions.Story, Louise (July 24, 2007). "Doubts Raised by 'Baghdad Diarist'". The New York Times. In an article titled "The Fog of War", published on December 1, 2007, Franklin Foer wrote that the magazine could no longer stand behind the stories written by Beauchamp.
Pete Buttigieg article
On July 12, 2019, gay writer Dale Peck wrote an article for The New Republic critical of Pete Buttigieg, a 2020 Democratic Party presidential primary candidate, in which he repeatedly referred to Buttigieg as "Mary Pete", which he described as the "gay equivalent of Uncle Tom", saying, "Pete and I are just not the same kind of gay." The article went on to describe the candidate as a "fifteen-year-old boy in a Chicago bus station wondering if it's a good idea to go home with a fifty-year-old man so that he'll finally understand what he is." The piece was harshly received by some media figures and the center of controversy.
Editors
Herbert Croly (1914–1930)
Bruce Bliven (1930–1946)
Henry A. Wallace (1946–1948)
Michael Straight (1948–1956)
Gilbert A. Harrison (1956–1975)
Martin Peretz (1975–1979)
Michael Kinsley (1979–1981; 1985–1989)
Hendrik Hertzberg (1981–1985; 1989–1991)
Andrew Sullivan (1991–1996)
Michael Kelly (1996–1997)
Charles Lane (1997–1999)
Peter Beinart (1999–2006)
Franklin Foer (2006–2010; 2012–2014)
Richard Just (2010–2012)
Gabriel Snyder (2014–2016)
Eric Bates (2016–2017)
J.J. Gould (2017–2018)
Chris Lehmann (2019–2021)
Michael Tomasky (2021–Present)
Before Wallace's appointment in 1946, the masthead listed no single editor in charge but gave an editorial board of four to eight members. Walter Lippmann, Edmund Wilson, and Robert Morss Lovett, among others, served on this board at various times. The names given above are the first editor listed in each issue, always the senior editor of the team.
Notable contributors
1910s–1940s
Eugene Szekeres Bagger, author and essayist
John Dewey, essayist and philosopher
W. E. B. Du Bois, writer, professor and sociologist
Otis Ferguson, film critic
John T. Flynn, essayist and New Deal critic
Learned Hand, Judge
John Maynard Keynes, economist
Clara Littledale, writer on home and family life
George Henry Soule Jr., labor economist
Agnes de Lima, lead writer on education
Thomas Mann, "Letter to Alexey Tolstoy (sent to Russia through Russian War Relief Inc.)" (1943)
George Orwell, author and essayist
Virginia Woolf, author and essayist
Edmund Wilson, assistant book reviewer
1943–1983
John Beecher, contributing writer
Richard Strout, correspondent, The Christian Science Monitor, "TRB From Washington"
Stark Young, drama critic, scholar, novelist, painter, contributing writer.
1950s–1970s
Stanley Kauffmann, film critic (1958–2013)
Reinhold Niebuhr, theologian
L. Fletcher Prouty, former Chief of Special Operations for the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Roger Rosenblatt
Philip Roth, author
Judd L. Teller, author, editor, poet
Philip Terzian, author/editor
1980s–1990s
Fred Barnes
Eric Breindel
Jeane Kirkpatrick
Jacob Heilbrunn
Irving Howe
Robert Kagan
Morton Kondracke
Charles Krauthammer
Irving Kristol
Edward Luttwak
Michael Ledeen
Joshua Muravchik
Ronald Radosh
1990s–present
Fouad Ajami, professor of Middle East Studies at Johns Hopkins University
Scott Thomas Beauchamp, freelance writer, soldier
Paul Berman, essayist, author
Simon Blackburn, philosopher
Alan Brinkley, historian
Jonathan Chait, senior editor
Jonathan Cohn, senior editor
Michelle Cottle, senior editor
Jerry Coyne, evolutionary biologist
Michael Crowley, senior editor
E. J. Dionne Jr., journalist
Barbara Ehrenreich, journalist
Niall Ferguson, historian
Franklin Foer, journalist
William Galston, political philosopher
Stephen Glass, reporter fired by TNR for submitting fabricated stories, dramatized in the 2003 film Shattered Glass J.J. Gould, Canadian-American journalist
David Grann, senior editor
David Greenberg, historian and journalist
Blaine Greteman, professor at University of Iowa
Matt Groening, illustrator and The Simpsons creator
Suki Kim, contributing editor
Adam Kirsch, poet and critic
Jacob Hacker, political scientist
Johann Hari, British writer
David Hazony, Israeli writer
Jeet Heer, writer
John Judis, essayist
Tony Judt, historian
Jo Livingstone, culture staff writer
Alvaro Vargas Llosa, writer
John McWhorter, linguist and political commentator
Dana Milbank, senior editor
Sherwin B. Nuland, medical doctor and author
Michael Oren, historian and author
Camille Paglia, essayist
Dale Peck, literary reviewer
George Pelecanos, author
Caryl Phillips, writer
Steven Pinker, cognitive linguist and Harvard professor
David Plotz, editor of Slate Richard Rorty, philosopher
Kent Russell, writer
Richard Posner, federal judge
Hanna Rosin, senior editor
Noam Scheiber, senior editor
Peter Scoblic, executive editor
Amartya Sen, economist
Alex Shephard, news editor
Lee Siegel, cultural critic
Zadie Smith, writer
Joseph Stiglitz, economist
Margaret Talbot, senior editor
Richard Taruskin, musicologist
Helen Vendler, literary critic
Michael Walzer, philosopher, essayist, author
Alan Wolfe, political scientist/ sociologist
Gordon S. Wood, historian
James Wood, literary critic
Robert Wright, journalist; former TNR senior editor and columnist
Jason Zengerle, senior editor
References
Citations
Primary sources
Groff Conklin, ed. New Republic Anthology: 1914–1935, 1936.
Cowley, Malcolm. And I Worked at the Writer's Trade, 1978.
Wickenden, Dorothy (1994). The New Republic Reader.
Secondary sources
Mott, Frank L. A History of American Magazines. Vol. 3. Harvard University Press, 1960.
Seideman, David. The New Republic: A Voice of Modern Liberalism, 1986
Steel, Ronald. Walter Lippmann and the American Century'', 1980
External links
The New Republic Online, offering online subscription
Political magazines published in the United States
1914 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Modern liberal magazines published in the United States
News magazines published in the United States
Weekly magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1914
Magazines published in Washington, D.C.
Ten times annually magazines | [
-0.09028024226427078,
-0.47866421937942505,
-0.15031470358371735,
0.46838879585266113,
-0.313463032245636,
0.22123385965824127,
-0.1766493022441864,
0.2393404245376587,
-0.3020050823688507,
-0.5394802093505859,
-0.30283570289611816,
0.5024206042289734,
-0.02993612363934517,
0.2621954381465912,
-0.007331203203648329,
-0.0168558731675148,
0.14240460097789764,
-0.20049816370010376,
0.3671994209289551,
-0.14847132563591003,
-0.27778083086013794,
-0.06549254804849625,
0.48357316851615906,
-0.41429251432418823,
0.35044172406196594,
-0.20423537492752075,
0.5366663336753845,
-0.5814754962921143,
-0.7512273192405701,
-0.023310303688049316,
-0.7229121923446655,
0.35583266615867615,
-0.30763471126556396,
0.04574998468160629,
-0.5628238320350647,
0.06440017372369766,
-0.3105275332927704,
-0.47495684027671814,
-0.10185077786445618,
0.23862238228321075,
-0.13057416677474976,
-0.13612571358680725,
0.28731685876846313,
0.5090603232383728,
0.2376500368118286,
-0.5535592436790466,
-1.5271213054656982,
0.5236920714378357,
-0.7855205535888672,
-0.1625555008649826,
-0.42610102891921997,
0.7508994340896606,
0.4530085325241089,
0.7052299976348877,
-0.5463423132896423,
0.4033264219760895,
-0.30973881483078003,
-0.06031828373670578,
-0.3989150822162628,
-0.7009172439575195,
0.07972382754087448,
0.27168959379196167,
0.30209171772003174,
-0.06658560037612915,
0.6595056653022766,
-0.1405467689037323,
-0.3060548007488251,
0.046504609286785126,
0.20228055119514465,
-0.42990949749946594,
-0.515591561794281,
-0.21311995387077332,
0.15592560172080994,
0.45986127853393555,
-0.008655093610286713,
-0.12864373624324799,
0.16990849375724792,
0.29962122440338135,
0.026855820789933205,
-0.4151286482810974,
-0.03391701355576515,
0.47929662466049194,
0.7890607714653015,
0.3921002447605133,
0.27774104475975037,
-0.25870195031166077,
-0.03900142386555672,
-0.2801095247268677,
0.02903727814555168,
0.07443941384553909,
-0.3003336191177368,
0.24969486892223358,
0.5440055727958679,
0.5403255224227905,
-0.13719448447227478,
-0.4421001672744751,
0.6150391697883606,
-0.20145313441753387,
-0.3468070924282074,
0.17405718564987183,
0.2821617126464844,
0.13857826590538025,
0.8289926052093506,
0.025865282863378525,
-0.268318235874176,
-0.4929526746273041,
-0.09848158806562424,
-0.7347599267959595,
0.8034569025039673,
0.5942337512969971,
0.2540339231491089,
0.7352070808410645,
-0.012420528568327427,
0.15429501235485077,
-0.19082601368427277,
0.7615172863006592,
-0.1012507826089859,
-0.6125383377075195,
-0.7215691804885864,
-0.654909610748291,
-0.021388966590166092,
0.7243111729621887,
0.30862006545066833,
-0.091060571372509,
-0.18892669677734375,
0.0390552319586277,
0.5322166085243225,
-0.23067572712898254,
-0.47236138582229614,
0.1059383749961853,
0.30121898651123047,
0.3105040192604065,
-0.1644269824028015,
-0.20379666984081268,
0.21252769231796265,
0.017676614224910736,
0.6187591552734375,
0.26618269085884094,
0.6565331220626831,
0.5220708847045898,
0.35895267128944397,
-0.3825390040874481,
-0.5878583192825317,
-0.6083371639251709,
0.5518350601196289,
-0.5243771076202393,
0.3725966811180115,
-0.5547094941139221,
-0.3382921814918518,
-0.46603521704673767,
0.14847205579280853,
-0.2586665451526642,
-0.17341162264347076,
0.14938750863075256,
0.07794374972581863,
-0.3517659902572632,
0.30267077684402466,
0.3019656240940094,
0.5634016394615173,
0.46244844794273376,
0.18732883036136627,
0.17397117614746094,
0.09377413988113403,
-0.2067977637052536,
-0.34213507175445557,
-0.6112966537475586,
0.19103136658668518,
0.16799427568912506,
0.5438141226768494,
-0.10951114445924759,
0.06173739582300186,
0.021386705338954926,
0.5915524363517761,
0.1344379484653473,
0.3825128376483917,
0.18381476402282715,
1.1319048404693604,
0.185498908162117,
-0.057796016335487366,
-0.012902742251753807,
-0.7171383500099182,
0.39470285177230835,
0.08489470928907394,
-0.3962673246860504,
0.046381957828998566,
-0.5043080449104309,
0.5900348424911499,
0.12425289303064346,
0.28117987513542175,
0.1150774359703064,
-0.6443336009979248,
-0.10162880271673203,
-0.45770689845085144,
-0.14811711013317108,
0.8648782968521118,
0.1815514862537384,
-0.037003859877586365,
1.8428560495376587,
-0.3846970498561859,
0.07657453417778015,
-0.07756728678941727,
-0.18032339215278625,
0.21039265394210815,
0.2995971441268921,
-0.07921329140663147,
-0.1262158453464508,
0.1606583148241043,
0.3385847210884094,
0.44427499175071716,
-0.05109710246324539,
0.36571893095970154,
-0.5626774430274963,
0.2560570240020752,
0.3248754143714905,
0.054948605597019196,
-0.4414881765842438,
-0.17585442960262299,
0.276547908782959,
-0.5685948133468628,
-0.004674226976931095,
1.732366681098938,
0.14263637363910675,
0.4639050364494324,
0.1769227236509323,
-0.43221861124038696,
0.21574261784553528,
0.14577297866344452,
-0.05529991537332535,
-0.3630487322807312,
-0.5661147832870483,
0.61861652135849,
0.24794870615005493,
0.20142239332199097,
-0.854319155216217,
0.12133659422397614,
-0.41282737255096436,
0.026920735836029053,
-0.539735734462738,
0.10801989585161209,
-0.3408155143260956,
0.3477727174758911,
-0.3992863595485687,
0.4803169071674347,
0.6450039744377136,
-0.11114092171192169,
0.41614261269569397,
-0.012327144853770733,
0.6981416940689087,
-0.37500908970832825,
0.0861133486032486,
0.5466816425323486,
0.47964268922805786,
0.4479199945926666,
-0.2226591557264328,
-0.19431141018867493,
0.008114662021398544,
-0.561434268951416,
0.1598454713821411,
0.7648903727531433,
0.5549206733703613,
-0.14367461204528809,
-0.36317411065101624,
0.038218047469854355,
0.09648823738098145,
0.11525452882051468,
-0.08026185631752014,
-0.006055458914488554,
-0.5064147710800171,
-0.31632673740386963,
0.2091490924358368,
0.30093055963516235,
0.6316156387329102,
-0.2911815941333771,
0.03796873241662979,
0.29301226139068604,
-0.3223377764225006,
0.06163724884390831,
0.0419825054705143,
-0.28862592577934265,
-0.691836416721344,
-0.3300284445285797,
0.47456979751586914,
0.34852638840675354,
-0.4542575478553772,
-0.3435535132884979,
-0.1735478937625885,
0.3866265118122101,
-0.34369373321533203,
0.013154162093997002,
0.18392035365104675,
-0.2716469168663025,
-0.36685338616371155,
-0.06868374347686768,
-0.18391931056976318,
0.1982361227273941,
-0.003705819370225072,
0.41598978638648987,
-0.16393990814685822,
-0.6286903023719788,
-0.07103659212589264,
-0.11389105767011642,
0.21136778593063354,
0.1537637859582901,
0.6708776354789734,
0.45820072293281555,
-0.44543030858039856,
-0.03554755076766014,
-0.11852478235960007,
-5.845696449279785,
-0.28209996223449707,
-0.3114232122898102,
-0.11167308688163757,
0.07095417380332947,
0.019905757158994675,
0.6088271737098694,
-0.3818623125553131,
-0.46958136558532715,
0.05861635506153107,
-0.4438401162624359,
-0.08763119578361511,
-0.04967528209090233,
0.6872978806495667,
-0.10580074042081833,
0.22705024480819702,
-0.06382966041564941,
0.4821828007698059,
-0.095988929271698,
0.7141739130020142,
-0.306379497051239,
0.16705603897571564,
0.39820054173469543,
0.1817028969526291,
0.5169492959976196,
0.041713058948516846,
-0.2436523735523224,
0.05223894864320755,
-0.09042756259441376,
-0.011409261263906956,
0.16692835092544556,
0.2041798084974289,
0.026955680921673775,
0.004484266042709351,
0.6739987134933472,
0.36571165919303894,
0.43263372778892517,
-0.1103004664182663,
0.26834484934806824,
-0.17995448410511017,
-0.2115720808506012,
0.6600204706192017,
0.35537341237068176,
-0.05081002041697502,
0.22412656247615814,
0.20265352725982666,
-0.4073837697505951,
-0.3153793215751648,
-0.7821988463401794,
0.6881316900253296,
-0.05792130157351494,
-0.1535220742225647,
0.4522033631801605,
0.16022135317325592,
-0.3083416819572449,
-0.018027372658252716,
0.3532150089740753,
-0.529183030128479,
-0.43059366941452026,
-0.5425478219985962,
0.26145318150520325,
-0.020746583119034767,
-0.1641332507133484,
0.026423202827572823,
-0.3690735995769501,
-0.9729448556900024,
-0.7623030543327332,
-0.07315884530544281,
0.7858774662017822,
0.3680298924446106,
-0.3686803877353668,
0.3023253381252289,
0.05168440565466881,
-0.9367296695709229,
-0.017471572384238243,
-0.5222153067588806,
0.017012985423207283,
-0.3272797763347626,
-0.0606289878487587,
0.06091174855828285,
-0.17619124054908752,
-0.11829698085784912,
0.07318033277988434,
-0.023232704028487206,
-0.23476555943489075,
-0.9479697942733765,
-0.019674601033329964,
0.6828424334526062,
-1.0245089530944824,
-0.45278167724609375,
0.13616853952407837,
-0.364627480506897,
0.44581830501556396,
-0.41802895069122314,
0.23708723485469818,
0.6379417777061462,
0.11763034760951996,
0.4991184175014496,
0.36562249064445496,
0.1662599742412567,
0.21028636395931244,
-0.05760609731078148,
0.060358863323926926,
-0.5341653227806091,
-0.04191537946462631,
-0.09067840874195099,
-0.25176098942756653,
0.18623687326908112,
0.08571010082960129,
-0.6217376589775085,
-0.24689112603664398,
-0.23503296077251434,
-0.3280136287212372,
-0.48224836587905884,
0.4836784303188324,
0.3602026402950287,
-0.3023167550563812,
0.112479567527771,
-0.2113025188446045,
0.61611008644104,
0.14769604802131653,
0.17110778391361237,
-0.5798485279083252,
-0.07679802179336548,
-0.5645659565925598,
-0.22259195148944855,
-0.32839977741241455,
-0.21098867058753967,
-0.06429146230220795,
0.12018676847219467,
0.39436081051826477,
-0.47959253191947937,
-0.16797997057437897,
-0.2556937038898468,
0.46915191411972046,
-0.27686890959739685,
-0.06732924282550812,
-0.004773102235049009,
-0.29317450523376465,
0.1724725216627121,
-0.2093845009803772,
-0.21643587946891785,
0.49263671040534973,
-0.14315101504325867,
0.7053608894348145,
0.1383117288351059,
-0.09581438452005386,
0.1409803181886673,
-0.5558586120605469,
0.7291209101676941,
-0.1954347789287567,
-0.10441738367080688,
0.27330222725868225,
-0.27832549810409546,
0.18960025906562805,
-0.39734864234924316,
0.3558218777179718,
0.32016807794570923,
-0.24465519189834595,
-0.0713173896074295,
-0.22923628985881805,
-0.7701181173324585,
-0.5556410551071167,
0.009771902114152908,
0.3793737590312958,
0.14380374550819397,
0.1035793349146843,
-0.5371637344360352,
-0.10039322078227997,
0.3855675756931305,
0.13300761580467224,
0.06360743194818497,
-0.1408892720937729,
-0.6263488531112671,
0.3011093735694885,
0.20941118896007538,
0.16785787045955658,
-0.41914457082748413,
-0.061943452805280685,
0.016895059496164322,
0.4059548079967499,
-0.3286760449409485,
-0.4008844196796417,
0.005322040989995003,
0.5895723104476929,
-0.5749000906944275,
-0.06427569687366486,
-0.06590929627418518,
-0.4063321352005005,
-0.07371016591787338,
0.5976353287696838,
0.30870118737220764,
0.13803081214427948,
-0.23885175585746765,
-0.5666962265968323,
-0.43337899446487427,
-0.18805436789989471,
0.053927455097436905,
-0.5533552169799805,
-0.08577729761600494,
0.6921471953392029,
0.2519790232181549,
-0.42035043239593506,
0.20603260397911072,
0.2508160173892975,
-0.7506563663482666,
0.2843230664730072,
-0.29949888586997986,
-0.43996676802635193,
0.3353174328804016,
-0.0060755470767617226,
-0.05665544420480728,
-0.27156373858451843,
-0.5726199150085449,
-0.16488829255104065,
0.005630554631352425,
-0.36021336913108826,
-0.32845136523246765,
-0.6451766490936279,
-0.21171236038208008,
0.1009654626250267,
-0.000961445621214807,
-0.5863537192344666,
0.14808931946754456,
-0.04851622134447098,
0.4967411756515503,
0.012755941599607468,
-0.3718266487121582,
-0.06626726686954498,
-0.6492199301719666,
0.6380313038825989,
-0.115749791264534,
0.12819725275039673,
-0.1754990518093109,
-0.2635880410671234,
0.0525704026222229,
-0.3762783706188202,
0.1925603598356247,
-0.24402271211147308,
0.2633286416530609,
-0.13034391403198242,
0.3997681736946106,
-0.286600798368454,
-0.15438273549079895,
-0.20843027532100677,
0.6458657383918762,
0.14011508226394653,
0.31089475750923157,
-0.5794933438301086,
0.2689235210418701,
0.30940040946006775,
-0.6019753217697144,
-0.6157703399658203,
-0.044281940907239914,
0.36089223623275757,
-0.4308917820453644,
-0.06977564841508865,
0.2593618333339691,
-0.24537509679794312,
0.034938156604766846,
0.1469976156949997,
-0.6238828897476196,
-0.4709289073944092,
0.4716941714286804,
0.37584343552589417,
0.03288552165031433,
0.3526935577392578,
-0.46785449981689453,
-0.07221921533346176,
-0.547004222869873,
-0.4632273018360138,
0.08596373349428177,
-0.027483204379677773,
0.2006508708000183,
0.39200615882873535,
-0.17208224534988403,
-0.35697364807128906,
-0.3189651072025299,
-0.051390718668699265,
-0.15807756781578064,
0.34507548809051514,
0.27536824345588684,
-0.7123094201087952,
-0.3624021112918854,
0.23789121210575104,
-0.24849215149879456,
0.5161565542221069,
0.09693661332130432,
-0.2713675796985626,
-0.072685606777668,
0.15031321346759796,
-0.3128809928894043,
0.4324687123298645,
0.3217558264732361,
-0.23518650233745575,
0.3652355968952179,
0.8779033422470093,
-0.05868314951658249,
-0.021517278626561165,
-0.047518160194158554,
0.1651182621717453,
-0.07457433640956879,
0.29724323749542236,
-0.150614932179451,
0.2510300576686859,
-0.3378153145313263,
-0.2620064914226532,
0.2904338240623474,
-0.23633018136024475,
0.0356718972325325,
0.32964223623275757,
-0.1401364505290985,
0.9083698391914368,
0.16477417945861816,
-0.4153924584388733,
0.22368764877319336,
0.20160779356956482,
-0.5835422873497009,
0.4321689009666443,
0.1740885227918625,
0.13198204338550568,
0.044945038855075836,
-0.19586005806922913,
0.00855629239231348,
-0.27728068828582764,
0.04434606060385704,
-0.6030913591384888,
0.10134729743003845,
0.1957244724035263,
-0.4537321925163269,
0.1759519875049591,
0.77484530210495,
-0.5294692516326904,
0.28402775526046753,
-0.01641307957470417,
-1.0398683547973633,
0.41618144512176514,
-0.3852996230125427,
-0.7304628491401672,
0.14588026702404022,
0.5837199091911316,
-0.2132682055234909,
0.13967256247997284,
0.31146350502967834,
-0.24375109374523163,
0.07124552875757217,
0.5153780579566956,
0.08703485876321793,
-0.31059184670448303,
0.3050050437450409,
0.3336755931377411,
0.3650706708431244,
-0.1428079605102539,
-0.5081791877746582,
0.5090778470039368,
-1.2098628282546997,
0.2088983952999115,
-0.14564156532287598,
0.1559196561574936,
-0.2626288831233978,
-0.4019421637058258,
0.9945092797279358,
-0.11098092049360275,
-0.2713451385498047,
-0.1794547140598297,
0.3523885905742645,
0.6921738982200623,
-0.06822428852319717,
0.17944684624671936,
-0.051591988652944565,
-0.003985227085649967,
-0.21293587982654572,
-0.32138216495513916,
-0.14370335638523102,
-0.04338861629366875,
0.03755092993378639,
0.7712007761001587,
-0.249160498380661,
0.24074211716651917,
0.11455350369215012,
-0.33424869179725647,
-0.011695359833538532,
-0.5875427722930908,
0.49623823165893555,
0.3172275424003601,
0.37864169478416443,
-0.06788045167922974,
0.1485779732465744,
-0.8063101768493652,
0.06560919433832169,
-0.17740102112293243,
-0.8137508034706116,
-0.18917368352413177,
0.539047122001648,
-0.5628634095191956,
0.13303273916244507,
0.02490958385169506,
1.1717489957809448,
-0.5309378504753113,
0.3856319189071655,
0.09939120709896088,
0.32645368576049805,
0.01652541197836399,
0.34296882152557373,
-0.6776250600814819,
0.29117533564567566,
-0.4114343523979187,
-0.4427678883075714,
-0.19277028739452362,
0.10901367664337158,
0.22570055723190308,
0.18046866357326508,
0.11728064715862274,
1.1259251832962036,
0.04213033616542816,
0.4878045916557312,
0.6477583050727844,
0.16597706079483032,
0.3185743987560272,
-0.45080989599227905,
0.26892799139022827,
0.3995179533958435,
0.05804911628365517,
0.17322032153606415,
-0.4608747065067291,
-0.20264601707458496,
0.08443527668714523,
0.20914091169834137,
0.22141794860363007,
-0.005601913668215275,
-0.262977659702301,
-0.546668291091919,
-0.3545368015766144,
0.47231870889663696,
-0.4895225465297699,
0.3561602234840393,
0.13120023906230927,
0.497677206993103,
0.23848682641983032,
-0.25670620799064636,
-0.057593315839767456,
-0.1614851951599121,
-0.052224572747945786,
-0.40702056884765625,
0.07812241464853287,
0.7469606995582581,
-0.40310513973236084,
0.06840390712022781,
-0.35023900866508484,
0.47846245765686035,
-0.3317500054836273,
0.07611268013715744,
-0.10499480366706848,
-0.3420383036136627,
-0.12896576523780823,
-0.49610456824302673,
-0.38842636346817017,
0.00862120557576418,
1.15397047996521,
-0.12684759497642517
] |
261078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Bigod%2C%205th%20Earl%20of%20Norfolk | Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk | Roger Bigod (c. 1245 – bf. 6 December 1306) was 5th Earl of Norfolk.
Origins
He was the son of Hugh Bigod (1211–1266), Justiciar, and succeeded his father's elder brother Roger Bigod, 4th Earl of Norfolk (1209–1270) as 5th Earl of Norfolk in 1270.
Career
Bigod is the hero of a famous altercation with King Edward I in 1297, which arose from the king's command that Bigod should serve against the King of France in Gascony, while Edward himself went to Flanders. Bigod asserted that by the feudal tenure of his lands he was only compelled to serve across the seas in the company of the king himself, whereupon Edward said, "By God, Earl, you shall either go or hang," to which Bigod replied, "By the same oath, O king, I will neither go nor hang."
Bigod gained his point, and after Edward had left for France, together with Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford, Bigod prevented the collection of an aid for the war and forced Edward to confirm the charters in this year of 1297 and again in 1301. The historian William Stubbs reckoned Bigod and Bohun as "but degenerate sons of mighty fathers; greater in their opportunities than in their patriotism."
Bigod had done good service for the King in the past. In August 1282, for instance, contemporary accounts record Bigod "going to Wales on the king's service." During his absence in Ireland, Bigod had sent letters nominating Reginald Lyvet and William Cadel to act as his attorneys in England for the year. Reginald Lyvet was probably the son of Gilbert de Lyvet, who was Lord Mayor of Dublin for several terms in the early thirteenth century, and was a partisan of William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke. Some scholars have wondered how English barons like Bigod and the Clares kept such tight hold on their Irish lands during a time when the English grip on Ireland was starting to weaken. Apparently part of the secret was delegation of authority, as in this case by Bigod to his lieutenants Lyvet and Cadel.
Marriages
Bigod married firstly Aline Basset, widow of Hugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer (d.1265), and daughter and heiress of Sir Philip Basset of Soham, Cambridgeshire, by his first wife Hawise de Lovaine, daughter of Sir Matthew de Lovaine, by whom he had no issue.
He married secondly Alice of Hainault, daughter of John II de Avenes, Count of Hainault, by Philippine, daughter of Henry, Count of Luxembourg and Roche, Marquis of Arlon, by whom he had no issue.
Death
Bigod died 6 December 1306.
Succession
In 1302 the elderly and childless Bigod surrendered his earldom to the king and received it back entailed "to the heirs of his body". This had the effect of disinheriting his brother John. Thus, when Roger died without issue in December 1306, his title became extinct, and his estates escheated to the crown and were eventually bestowed on Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk.
Notes
References
, reprinted from History, 50 (1965), 145–59
Attribution
1240s births
1306 deaths
Earls Marshal
5th Earl of Norfolk
Roger | [
-0.8218086361885071,
0.3776807188987732,
-0.26237964630126953,
-0.36828529834747314,
-0.9256001114845276,
0.8260997533798218,
0.8054476976394653,
0.5061938762664795,
-0.9796003699302673,
0.07454942911863327,
-0.17723265290260315,
-0.12128884345293045,
-0.4079327881336212,
0.36158743500709534,
0.04200875014066696,
0.32689031958580017,
-0.21326011419296265,
0.34456872940063477,
0.043301794677972794,
-0.7793684601783752,
0.6346337199211121,
-0.4637373685836792,
-0.3759553134441376,
-0.340899795293808,
0.12206438183784485,
0.3103068172931671,
0.14322718977928162,
-0.13589122891426086,
-0.5089662075042725,
-0.23999015986919403,
-0.14436084032058716,
0.9546297192573547,
0.2425161898136139,
-0.0796809196472168,
0.21355846524238586,
-0.32627224922180176,
-0.04811393469572067,
-0.43572890758514404,
0.11824099719524384,
-0.015932230278849602,
0.14188796281814575,
0.25129809975624084,
0.1311950981616974,
0.03099655918776989,
-0.23027628660202026,
-0.6760495901107788,
-1.3208885192871094,
-0.5674026608467102,
-0.10427109152078629,
0.03405473753809929,
0.3078276216983795,
0.030621860176324844,
0.5517008304595947,
0.009280647151172161,
0.41691529750823975,
0.5046931505203247,
-0.8180285692214966,
-0.09284858405590057,
1.2063088417053223,
0.8472263216972351,
0.37932464480400085,
-0.20653684437274933,
-0.08709364384412766,
0.006801427807658911,
0.17924365401268005,
0.5527050495147705,
-0.19653023779392242,
1.0001810789108276,
-0.47651028633117676,
-0.23007945716381073,
-0.5215492248535156,
-0.3714239299297333,
0.7837512493133545,
0.9774110913276672,
-0.6773824691772461,
0.19618116319179535,
0.4211421608924866,
0.03499064967036247,
0.44133034348487854,
-0.5888745784759521,
0.9704527258872986,
-0.1226712167263031,
0.6262680888175964,
0.20920667052268982,
0.30269068479537964,
0.7156257033348083,
-0.5217052698135376,
-0.17331135272979736,
-0.13370180130004883,
0.9474028944969177,
-0.33607232570648193,
0.14156053960323334,
-0.30653244256973267,
0.3871682286262512,
-0.6286285519599915,
0.49458855390548706,
-0.37711021304130554,
-0.430002897977829,
-0.043538548052310944,
0.04693063721060753,
0.1382981836795807,
0.6741464734077454,
0.714874804019928,
0.07348606735467911,
-0.5860959887504578,
0.1494528353214264,
-0.606379508972168,
-0.29501742124557495,
0.2612830400466919,
-1.2722055912017822,
-0.6888560056686401,
0.5551230907440186,
-0.8201240301132202,
-0.19504104554653168,
-0.03770480677485466,
0.9458882808685303,
1.0389505624771118,
-0.7609413266181946,
-0.448461651802063,
0.12527859210968018,
0.10040883719921112,
0.7298266291618347,
-0.7034470438957214,
0.21110272407531738,
-0.46359682083129883,
0.12432408332824707,
0.6775258183479309,
-0.05500928312540054,
0.4786379039287567,
0.8673637509346008,
-0.15859003365039825,
1.3497861623764038,
-0.5277740359306335,
-0.6312409043312073,
0.2771244943141937,
-0.2320696860551834,
0.31508174538612366,
0.8718588352203369,
0.12316194176673889,
0.16886378824710846,
-0.9853706359863281,
-0.1274266242980957,
-1.7091704607009888,
-0.0050981249660253525,
0.6630819439888,
0.369502454996109,
-0.29060208797454834,
0.3043375611305237,
0.13494984805583954,
0.5129678845405579,
-0.0755893886089325,
-0.2647969424724579,
0.2591869831085205,
-0.1479068547487259,
-0.5576717257499695,
0.3802100718021393,
0.36731022596359253,
-0.22813427448272705,
0.5654985308647156,
0.8292196393013,
-0.03791801631450653,
-0.08924069255590439,
0.15828852355480194,
-0.2055908590555191,
-0.3138464093208313,
0.15196627378463745,
1.1241676807403564,
-0.4689966142177582,
-0.7272205352783203,
0.31041666865348816,
-1.2767271995544434,
0.020900703966617584,
0.28901082277297974,
-0.7578793168067932,
-0.2069021761417389,
0.07968635857105255,
1.0859423875808716,
0.01921963505446911,
0.28232669830322266,
-0.7308045625686646,
-0.640274167060852,
0.11001470685005188,
0.43897679448127747,
-0.3543687164783478,
0.7152336239814758,
0.37007254362106323,
0.35711541771888733,
-0.3520973026752472,
-0.053405728191137314,
-0.024965805932879448,
0.18537071347236633,
-0.19233694672584534,
0.6078329682350159,
0.27089041471481323,
0.5045090317726135,
0.39515212178230286,
0.0074256849475204945,
-0.30405327677726746,
0.36237695813179016,
1.5377503633499146,
-0.12642991542816162,
-0.007136485539376736,
0.3430526852607727,
0.13799715042114258,
-0.02603038400411606,
1.5333672761917114,
0.0783577561378479,
-0.06217037886381149,
0.8977257013320923,
1.0304230451583862,
0.6126818060874939,
-0.13972601294517517,
-0.19010338187217712,
0.18366479873657227,
0.2032456398010254,
-0.14796926081180573,
0.5733439922332764,
-0.1753654181957245,
-0.2704576551914215,
-0.7908769249916077,
-0.053723376244306564,
0.1865491271018982,
-0.24399793148040771,
0.582568883895874,
-0.027257535606622696,
0.8991966843605042,
-0.13378994166851044,
0.2897129952907562,
-0.6504497528076172,
-1.1942100524902344,
0.3128838837146759,
-0.16306419670581818,
-0.3190324008464813,
-0.8175039887428284,
-0.3550574481487274,
0.22127526998519897,
-0.5886667966842651,
-0.16524752974510193,
0.20677950978279114,
0.4155086576938629,
-0.04233216866850853,
0.5110188126564026,
-0.35153520107269287,
0.2842170000076294,
-0.36328208446502686,
0.6652558445930481,
0.24898840487003326,
0.13401643931865692,
0.013002381660044193,
-0.9215850830078125,
0.917504608631134,
0.14651094377040863,
0.17065958678722382,
-0.7179207801818848,
0.1703079640865326,
-0.20612506568431854,
0.2766569256782532,
0.19830293953418732,
-0.3952485918998718,
0.5046533942222595,
-0.45621636509895325,
0.6989505887031555,
0.40736719965934753,
0.00927639752626419,
-0.016146283596754074,
-0.8928025364875793,
-0.42885807156562805,
-0.06711959838867188,
0.009444302879273891,
-0.5554751753807068,
0.12676016986370087,
-0.53504878282547,
-0.3051258325576782,
-2.175614356994629,
0.5550351738929749,
0.041423048824071884,
-0.2115405648946762,
0.5737547874450684,
-0.8391597270965576,
-0.32151371240615845,
0.5072587132453918,
0.6738718748092651,
-0.6423934698104858,
0.09802261739969254,
-0.12084384262561798,
0.13538523018360138,
0.24663472175598145,
-0.021234750747680664,
0.018560810014605522,
0.02416948974132538,
-0.08404559642076492,
-0.05050358176231384,
-0.49720561504364014,
0.5216283202171326,
-0.21136504411697388,
0.42112743854522705,
-0.24633853137493134,
-0.6216503381729126,
-0.3726990520954132,
-0.3184533417224884,
-0.5047945380210876,
0.4938845634460449,
-0.43286630511283875,
0.17533087730407715,
-0.15885670483112335,
-0.045218829065561295,
-0.11831437796354294,
-0.1645258516073227,
-3.7727339267730713,
0.3062913715839386,
-0.007261916063725948,
0.32284852862358093,
0.1854829639196396,
-0.24475128948688507,
1.0067472457885742,
-0.31850823760032654,
-0.3933386206626892,
0.3542109727859497,
0.3337118923664093,
-0.3537738025188446,
-0.1991240531206131,
0.5849759578704834,
1.3762187957763672,
0.7667461037635803,
1.3261336088180542,
0.02651941031217575,
0.6624471545219421,
-0.13387291133403778,
-0.34017428755760193,
0.35408711433410645,
-0.4674018919467926,
-0.4143195152282715,
0.5048633813858032,
0.5763514637947083,
0.353949636220932,
-0.27924057841300964,
-1.2983478307724,
-0.04726988077163696,
-0.3295150697231293,
0.5328681468963623,
0.3425638675689697,
-0.32101812958717346,
-1.207055687904358,
0.18019957840442657,
0.24718819558620453,
0.7041916251182556,
0.33417457342147827,
-0.7343243956565857,
-0.1420712023973465,
0.21824708580970764,
-0.4192349314689636,
0.8002244234085083,
0.5815057158470154,
0.2672983705997467,
-1.1051006317138672,
0.03424985334277153,
0.0161732267588377,
0.6222511529922485,
-0.18496550619602203,
-0.1204005554318428,
0.7222598791122437,
0.2004634290933609,
-0.07328260689973831,
-0.4569108486175537,
0.29574719071388245,
-0.3096933364868164,
-0.38632920384407043,
0.24339039623737335,
1.1797304153442383,
-0.7296682000160217,
0.41922885179519653,
0.25560981035232544,
0.480318546295166,
-0.6092749238014221,
0.3188827633857727,
-0.17234894633293152,
0.20775876939296722,
0.16917845606803894,
-0.32147106528282166,
0.5927984714508057,
0.17409579455852509,
-0.49375903606414795,
0.05248107388615608,
-0.07822947949171066,
-0.457010954618454,
0.8695270419120789,
0.45409488677978516,
-0.16085438430309296,
0.303371399641037,
-0.3519200384616852,
-0.7855989336967468,
1.296708345413208,
0.06653868407011032,
-0.6560866832733154,
-0.5431174039840698,
-0.13839776813983917,
-0.5770599246025085,
-0.38368019461631775,
0.09555214643478394,
-0.3618611991405487,
-0.1853514462709427,
1.1529099941253662,
-0.36444318294525146,
-0.31487053632736206,
0.2530972957611084,
-0.5540852546691895,
0.13071060180664062,
-0.4826338589191437,
-0.5673485994338989,
-0.637281596660614,
-0.4956381916999817,
-0.7022973299026489,
-0.6542448401451111,
-0.42313921451568604,
-0.4144575595855713,
0.643309473991394,
-0.19401513040065765,
-0.3750925660133362,
0.34577375650405884,
-0.11320140212774277,
0.21623948216438293,
-0.749875009059906,
0.5061785578727722,
-0.09341937303543091,
0.18013598024845123,
0.5793178677558899,
0.5053685307502747,
0.25785645842552185,
0.09387663006782532,
0.5156252980232239,
-0.2936609089374542,
-0.35593828558921814,
-0.7723909020423889,
0.37790921330451965,
0.4951280653476715,
-0.4220882058143616,
-0.7837986946105957,
-0.059168219566345215,
-0.1669471561908722,
0.40117472410202026,
-0.1696622371673584,
-0.03696979582309723,
-0.08785852789878845,
-0.9909822344779968,
-0.42444321513175964,
-0.02572295255959034,
0.8116276264190674,
-0.2505146861076355,
0.5202779173851013,
-0.17641481757164001,
0.05180099233984947,
0.3810032606124878,
-0.2529188096523285,
0.3625694513320923,
1.027847170829773,
0.3359725773334503,
-0.46754735708236694,
0.6047258377075195,
-0.17138859629631042,
-0.994282603263855,
0.46342921257019043,
-0.7157613635063171,
-0.11110534518957138,
0.139274001121521,
0.11639365553855896,
0.1001724824309349,
-0.3449384868144989,
-0.12975649535655975,
-0.2319653481245041,
0.6400371193885803,
-0.41087770462036133,
0.45121973752975464,
0.7071688771247864,
-0.2044561207294464,
-0.19506202638149261,
-0.13176792860031128,
-0.9823235273361206,
0.9466302394866943,
-0.2819424569606781,
-0.333132803440094,
-0.87086421251297,
-0.2692740261554718,
0.8925150036811829,
-0.22328194975852966,
0.5100529193878174,
0.411155641078949,
0.3267155587673187,
0.1076914370059967,
0.01586282067000866,
0.06582951545715332,
-0.23628275096416473,
0.38622575998306274,
0.6820148825645447,
-0.6480233073234558,
-0.8217586874961853,
-0.23348738253116608,
-0.23186177015304565,
-0.39490777254104614,
-0.5599749684333801,
0.16204142570495605,
0.7793418765068054,
0.211700901389122,
-0.5888817310333252,
-0.37920111417770386,
0.46803197264671326,
0.119489386677742,
-0.19116957485675812,
-0.5381829142570496,
0.36697232723236084,
1.0082557201385498,
-0.22007741034030914,
0.3436925709247589,
0.49499326944351196,
-0.9713900089263916,
-0.0679221972823143,
0.2201889604330063,
-0.6772903203964233,
1.2664117813110352,
-0.046673744916915894,
-1.5837260484695435,
0.19136090576648712,
0.4819072484970093,
-0.41258862614631653,
-0.11467859894037247,
0.29040172696113586,
0.07542792707681656,
0.11690925061702728,
-0.7633996605873108,
-0.1522497683763504,
-0.46043986082077026,
-0.32974132895469666,
-0.4339908957481384,
-0.9935160279273987,
0.3834491968154907,
0.4354311227798462,
-0.4083109498023987,
0.9287089109420776,
-0.6160370707511902,
-0.3721199035644531,
0.1635725498199463,
0.04578917473554611,
0.4630029499530792,
-0.27268874645233154,
0.1932821273803711,
0.028048040345311165,
0.07484946399927139,
0.1494978666305542,
0.48541969060897827,
0.8760477304458618,
1.4310123920440674,
0.8783254027366638,
-0.37814271450042725,
-0.1873389631509781,
0.24177129566669464,
-0.26511913537979126,
-0.3702189326286316,
-0.16177411377429962,
0.4947470426559448,
0.010955004952847958,
-0.5378965139389038,
-0.9173721671104431,
-0.42954879999160767,
1.1266180276870728,
-0.06367515027523041,
-0.22877855598926544,
0.2743597626686096,
-0.078512042760849,
0.5053842663764954,
-0.14586561918258667,
0.5558439493179321,
-0.29507026076316833,
0.6427384614944458,
0.1999349594116211,
0.3653542399406433,
0.11006839573383331,
0.18126332759857178,
0.5764002799987793,
-0.29886960983276367,
-0.8741254210472107,
-0.8719689846038818,
-0.36127468943595886,
0.4344995617866516,
-0.17280596494674683,
-0.28386828303337097,
0.708350419998169,
-1.0312061309814453,
0.6395499110221863,
-0.36760395765304565,
0.464770644903183,
0.3886835277080536,
1.182025671005249,
-0.7553843855857849,
0.22271540760993958,
-0.06490405648946762,
-0.5910590887069702,
0.2078615128993988,
0.2351190596818924,
0.17444472014904022,
-0.2717532217502594,
-0.6180555820465088,
-0.5522106289863586,
0.28844544291496277,
0.1781253069639206,
0.22190319001674652,
-0.3875250816345215,
-0.6375856399536133,
-0.24098479747772217,
-0.29739245772361755,
-1.3183643817901611,
1.127581000328064,
0.1380239725112915,
-0.30510789155960083,
0.5396595597267151,
0.2603229284286499,
-0.40520337224006653,
-0.603106677532196,
-0.24272897839546204,
0.24225953221321106,
-0.16832609474658966,
-0.2355632185935974,
0.013212672434747219,
0.7914977669715881,
0.020592067390680313,
-0.6348925828933716,
0.25863394141197205,
-0.6659566760063171,
-0.2748785614967346,
-0.11362297832965851,
-0.39652153849601746,
-0.8436968326568604,
0.2825530469417572,
0.15779006481170654,
-0.08673439174890518,
0.6338135600090027,
-0.5679470300674438,
-0.29105567932128906,
0.23573876917362213,
0.07215063273906708,
0.09682999551296234,
-0.6876754760742188,
-1.2878623008728027,
0.7952361702919006,
-0.27418845891952515,
0.24535849690437317,
0.32295748591423035,
-0.5255600214004517,
0.4374445080757141,
0.28672611713409424,
0.24480874836444855,
0.29231083393096924,
-0.4727685749530792,
-0.4519606828689575,
-0.6911067366600037,
0.32098308205604553,
-0.36036503314971924,
0.49081993103027344,
0.36331477761268616,
-0.07640563696622849,
0.2440008819103241,
0.017375772818922997,
0.5841767191886902,
-0.5604664087295532,
0.06333965063095093,
0.42047902941703796,
0.5613356828689575,
-0.3496743440628052,
-0.41300734877586365,
-1.8232722282409668,
-0.10541393607854843,
-0.5827810168266296,
0.3825829327106476,
0.22141724824905396,
0.10648637264966965,
-0.4968738555908203,
0.6728061437606812,
0.03525051474571228,
0.48380371928215027,
0.38006341457366943,
0.6284435391426086,
0.01315992046147585,
0.576140820980072,
-0.12017999589443207,
0.3609861731529236,
0.23598189651966095,
-0.14362138509750366,
-0.6019534468650818,
-0.10692742466926575,
-0.8089346289634705,
-0.4675033688545227,
-0.3146219253540039,
-0.15866899490356445,
-0.8403955698013306,
0.14377674460411072,
0.08597803860902786,
-0.44053322076797485,
0.3243906795978546,
-0.014553558081388474,
-0.531713604927063,
0.06602892279624939,
-0.5893226265907288,
-0.386555016040802,
0.3352968990802765,
-1.4828546047210693,
0.062332749366760254,
-0.4257465600967407,
0.4164445698261261,
0.2805686891078949,
0.2170272022485733,
-0.15600405633449554,
0.5987238883972168,
-0.3157847821712494,
0.3355834186077118,
-0.09687691926956177,
0.46390777826309204,
-0.5014220476150513,
0.18544547259807587,
-1.0920175313949585,
0.503598153591156,
-0.2279359996318817,
-0.18780368566513062,
-0.2356726974248886,
1.1558213233947754,
0.21623004972934723,
-0.18657280504703522,
0.3368676006793976,
-0.9889858365058899,
-0.4800560176372528,
-0.04295298829674721,
-0.1062154769897461,
0.15532341599464417,
-0.17265212535858154,
-0.12533575296401978,
0.14669619500637054,
-0.47296974062919617,
0.18174955248832703,
-0.27488037943840027,
-0.6875653266906738,
0.23363856971263885,
-0.28721147775650024,
0.586744487285614,
-0.26044124364852905,
-0.8772861361503601,
0.15590237081050873,
0.2661083936691284,
0.7352172136306763,
1.3355662822723389,
0.23984771966934204,
0.19913971424102783,
-0.0983719676733017,
-0.4666878581047058,
0.5113826394081116,
0.632388710975647,
-3.060321569442749,
-0.9545533657073975,
-0.09136185050010681,
-0.48489391803741455,
0.2811771333217621,
0.24711894989013672,
0.4890556037425995,
0.211159348487854,
0.29063647985458374,
-0.1508021503686905,
0.25310957431793213,
-0.13719144463539124,
-0.3484223484992981,
-0.4146261513233185,
0.22171220183372498,
-0.013714572414755821
] |
261079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Fert%C3%A9-Alais | La Ferté-Alais | La Ferté-Alais () is a commune in the Essonne department in Île-de-France in northern France. It is south of Paris. It used to be a fortress closing the access to the French royal estate from the Essonne valley, then became an industrial village with sand and stones. Its airfield (in Cerny really), hosts a world-famous air show for vintage World War I and WWII aircraft and a museum of such aircraft.
It even has the aircraft (still airworthy) that Louis Blériot used to cross the English Channel in 1909.
Inhabitants of La Ferté-Alais are known as Fertois.
Town Name history
The town name was known under the name Firmitas, Firmitas Aalipdis, Firmitas Adelaidis, Ferte in 1091, Firmitas Balduini, la Ferté Baudouin in the 12th century from the name of its lord in the 11th century, Feritas, Firmitas Aidelaidis around 1200, apud Feritatem Alisie in 1266, la Ferté Aales around 1263. The name La Ferte-Aleps appears in the Cassini maps and the final name of the commune is registered during its creation in 1793. It is possible to find the name La Ferté-Alaix and afterwards La Ferté-Alais in the law bulletin in 1801. But the final name will remain from 1845 onwards.
See also
La Ferté-Alais Air Show
Communes of the Essonne department
References
External links
Official website
Non-official website
Mayors of Essonne Association
Communes of Essonne | [
-0.8051713705062866,
0.37136131525039673,
-0.18108026683330536,
-0.5512823462486267,
-0.09756570309400558,
0.3794865012168884,
0.5595220327377319,
0.20547667145729065,
-0.22751399874687195,
-0.9341742992401123,
-0.18522891402244568,
0.48494309186935425,
-0.20499436557292938,
0.6107295751571655,
-0.08867281675338745,
0.5464602112770081,
0.1772650182247162,
0.5699065923690796,
0.2934911251068115,
-0.9330171346664429,
0.23723506927490234,
-0.3052836060523987,
0.506560742855072,
0.16808129847049713,
0.32167524099349976,
-0.22140638530254364,
0.14040914177894592,
0.5650074481964111,
0.5359002351760864,
-0.27081483602523804,
-0.31170710921287537,
1.143105149269104,
-0.243231400847435,
-0.7687522768974304,
-0.577855110168457,
0.8094418048858643,
0.6518133282661438,
-0.01680901274085045,
0.6331393122673035,
0.33472028374671936,
-0.8826638460159302,
0.4494868516921997,
0.027032073587179184,
-0.06774159520864487,
-0.505422055721283,
-0.5529493689537048,
-1.152793049812317,
-0.0110094603151083,
-0.7754374146461487,
0.3527787923812866,
-0.1666991412639618,
-0.7117093801498413,
0.6064161062240601,
-0.4153323769569397,
-0.23893499374389648,
0.9314585328102112,
-1.461850643157959,
0.1765657514333725,
0.6345181465148926,
0.21119970083236694,
-0.4776645004749298,
0.6831649541854858,
0.2842790484428406,
0.09754770249128342,
0.7190172076225281,
0.6460410356521606,
-0.6828618049621582,
0.08554533123970032,
-0.3351679742336273,
-0.0013235670048743486,
-0.4992348551750183,
0.07940367609262466,
0.5218068957328796,
-0.08324047923088074,
-0.6196867227554321,
-0.18892721831798553,
-0.29631122946739197,
0.3947247564792633,
-0.014838176779448986,
0.5566511154174805,
-0.10374289005994797,
-0.2514009177684784,
1.0547633171081543,
0.15108469128608704,
0.08145857602357864,
0.7254347801208496,
-0.7607993483543396,
0.13388796150684357,
-0.841387152671814,
1.0056902170181274,
-0.45154550671577454,
-0.08606839925050735,
-0.31135404109954834,
-0.0056300382129848,
0.3127492070198059,
0.24604880809783936,
0.18932706117630005,
0.030424438416957855,
-0.17240987718105316,
1.1497522592544556,
-0.2064346820116043,
0.54371577501297,
0.17487145960330963,
-0.31853291392326355,
-0.19839653372764587,
-0.29739275574684143,
-1.123043179512024,
-0.525698184967041,
-0.17176957428455353,
-0.2818811535835266,
-1.2714194059371948,
1.0934791564941406,
-0.4548507034778595,
0.036819107830524445,
0.10166584700345993,
0.6361822485923767,
0.9228679537773132,
-0.024200554937124252,
-0.48994681239128113,
0.25327980518341064,
0.0005461762775667012,
0.8455826640129089,
-0.37283748388290405,
-0.1096482127904892,
-0.06870762258768082,
0.6951051950454712,
-0.07438163459300995,
-0.07914693653583527,
-0.2005692571401596,
0.9738405346870422,
0.6852340698242188,
0.5715375542640686,
-0.901033878326416,
-0.49079620838165283,
-0.3007831871509552,
0.050734665244817734,
-0.04376773163676262,
0.6512662172317505,
0.9237805008888245,
0.28051865100860596,
-1.7191240787506104,
0.4890833795070648,
-0.42551687359809875,
0.21083399653434753,
0.2938634157180786,
0.43014052510261536,
-0.002604168839752674,
-0.2753680348396301,
0.3252708911895752,
-0.24404722452163696,
-0.14255870878696442,
-0.05647478625178337,
0.22399716079235077,
0.3701286315917969,
-1.533385992050171,
-0.08030310273170471,
0.60219407081604,
0.23267796635627747,
0.27649015188217163,
0.43127015233039856,
0.3213350474834442,
0.10325432568788528,
0.9101027250289917,
0.0333205871284008,
0.2476276457309723,
0.0832410454750061,
0.06778920441865921,
0.06770865619182587,
0.484283447265625,
0.318645179271698,
-1.0415141582489014,
-0.017111150547862053,
1.1716183423995972,
-0.7113722562789917,
-0.587895929813385,
0.3586269021034241,
0.6367167234420776,
0.3164655864238739,
0.019801532849669456,
0.0010434549767524004,
-0.791100263595581,
0.30616024136543274,
0.5233315229415894,
-0.483318567276001,
0.44695672392845154,
0.6134698987007141,
0.28485384583473206,
-0.4827718138694763,
-0.47061535716056824,
0.1965949833393097,
-0.11367181688547134,
-0.5701500773429871,
1.1643857955932617,
-0.5582939386367798,
0.3700660467147827,
0.48420557379722595,
-0.3304297924041748,
0.779395580291748,
-0.8726999163627625,
0.145497128367424,
-0.14283524453639984,
-0.09499455988407135,
0.5692903399467468,
0.4569060802459717,
-0.15918631851673126,
0.6743733286857605,
0.28119221329689026,
-0.22410236299037933,
-0.13651736080646515,
1.013150930404663,
-0.2372976839542389,
0.026600228622555733,
0.804577648639679,
0.7189272046089172,
0.180608332157135,
-0.1248735785484314,
-0.7136754989624023,
0.20010392367839813,
-0.2764325439929962,
0.4133202135562897,
0.10043814033269882,
-0.17773637175559998,
-0.1916174292564392,
-0.06384016573429108,
-0.1824847012758255,
0.3231060206890106,
0.9036177396774292,
0.3438222408294678,
-0.5119897723197937,
-0.7724148631095886,
0.24900825321674347,
0.5428631901741028,
0.1528213918209076,
-0.3919301927089691,
-0.1563756912946701,
-0.1294676959514618,
-0.43708571791648865,
-0.9210070967674255,
0.04853947088122368,
-0.6185930967330933,
0.1999349594116211,
0.8203491568565369,
-0.440752774477005,
0.5585867762565613,
0.3319817781448364,
0.597214937210083,
-0.28718334436416626,
0.22029916942119598,
0.6632497906684875,
-1.1325089931488037,
-0.23074451088905334,
0.09304990619421005,
0.6892026662826538,
0.19495663046836853,
0.1537875533103943,
-0.3881840705871582,
-0.2335229516029358,
0.5000176429748535,
0.47307080030441284,
-0.009224817156791687,
-0.17789548635482788,
0.13348166644573212,
0.3812035918235779,
0.5878835320472717,
0.1281537115573883,
-0.5331546068191528,
0.2690262794494629,
-0.21942657232284546,
0.20639356970787048,
-0.11895915120840073,
-0.2534007132053375,
-0.5855169296264648,
0.1735709309577942,
-0.33016249537467957,
-0.041318271309137344,
-0.23937031626701355,
-0.5538085103034973,
-0.21434612572193146,
-0.683296263217926,
0.30980539321899414,
0.3147672414779663,
1.169449806213379,
-0.018929099664092064,
0.20311929285526276,
0.010342694818973541,
-0.6821190118789673,
0.9220532178878784,
-0.611990213394165,
0.2632614076137543,
0.04477875679731369,
-0.4432302415370941,
-0.3082699775695801,
-1.1080377101898193,
0.5289509892463684,
0.3309176564216614,
-0.3219718039035797,
-0.5172985196113586,
-0.11040571331977844,
-0.02347429282963276,
-0.6763342022895813,
-0.5085920095443726,
0.09896989166736603,
-0.3107805550098419,
0.20500719547271729,
-0.40898215770721436,
-0.24414844810962677,
0.5840833783149719,
-0.0013694866793230176,
-3.9183599948883057,
0.42175015807151794,
0.03949694707989693,
0.38754603266716003,
-0.35384392738342285,
-0.7442025542259216,
0.09411857277154922,
-0.2301001250743866,
-1.185516595840454,
-0.26005393266677856,
-0.6372872591018677,
-0.7007060647010803,
0.17854295670986176,
1.232458472251892,
0.7876436710357666,
1.154263973236084,
-0.32424768805503845,
-0.06196808069944382,
0.6478363275527954,
-0.06624603271484375,
-0.1398954689502716,
0.17352786660194397,
-0.021435752511024475,
0.23548613488674164,
0.7475635409355164,
-0.1100190207362175,
0.04101770371198654,
-0.4234752058982849,
-1.3147352933883667,
-0.0725775957107544,
0.16098690032958984,
0.0008848704746924341,
0.42041367292404175,
0.06579329073429108,
-0.17552100121974945,
-0.13977079093456268,
0.12195948511362076,
-0.0540030412375927,
0.31279727816581726,
-0.8751910328865051,
-0.1818883866071701,
0.7874440550804138,
-0.09549877047538757,
0.7134875655174255,
0.2201392501592636,
-0.5776110887527466,
-0.8790667057037354,
-0.40789511799812317,
1.0172489881515503,
0.6075704097747803,
-0.01997358910739422,
-0.6589124798774719,
0.21589264273643494,
0.411876916885376,
0.2114124745130539,
-0.4186997711658478,
0.39516016840934753,
-0.25169792771339417,
0.32081106305122375,
0.8520296812057495,
0.6403719782829285,
-0.4412600100040436,
-0.12410856783390045,
-0.93567955493927,
0.6586210131645203,
-0.28239133954048157,
0.19216561317443848,
0.23004472255706787,
-0.09121207147836685,
-0.23155586421489716,
0.004828617908060551,
-0.1710519790649414,
-1.0121054649353027,
-0.46677690744400024,
-1.02671480178833,
-0.25539177656173706,
-0.3264024555683136,
0.09034375101327896,
-0.42793574929237366,
-0.04868944734334946,
0.05423592031002045,
-0.747366726398468,
-0.16784203052520752,
0.6591729521751404,
0.217439204454422,
-0.4669882655143738,
0.148457869887352,
0.26051732897758484,
-0.4297674298286438,
-0.22976389527320862,
0.01086302101612091,
-0.5103877782821655,
0.26416224241256714,
0.0921570435166359,
-0.5650484561920166,
0.5152642726898193,
0.6091126203536987,
0.2546272277832031,
0.13527488708496094,
-0.3156464695930481,
-0.7085099220275879,
-0.17614251375198364,
0.7081828117370605,
0.1087692528963089,
-0.13875587284564972,
-0.5094742178916931,
0.47437137365341187,
0.02818913199007511,
0.8412138819694519,
0.42299893498420715,
0.5644429922103882,
0.0753258541226387,
-0.41782698035240173,
-0.6997856497764587,
0.6417111158370972,
-0.6033700704574585,
-0.18815353512763977,
0.7855137586593628,
-0.04640183597803116,
-0.06904423981904984,
-0.10078877210617065,
0.39336371421813965,
0.028505360707640648,
0.09099915623664856,
-0.11081846803426743,
-0.3844175934791565,
0.9887158870697021,
0.35560357570648193,
-0.7315894365310669,
-0.028851304203271866,
-0.1825592964887619,
-0.0027869008481502533,
-1.0293813943862915,
-0.42429235577583313,
0.4307452142238617,
-0.4171985685825348,
0.46591004729270935,
-0.2632541358470917,
0.6937314867973328,
-0.10493562370538712,
1.1572726964950562,
-0.45490604639053345,
-0.785098135471344,
0.46843069791793823,
-0.1310938447713852,
0.7340391278266907,
0.8490724563598633,
0.0479375496506691,
-0.9470108151435852,
0.34843146800994873,
-0.8581612706184387,
-0.06288730353116989,
0.4184848964214325,
-0.6668577194213867,
-0.7431451678276062,
-0.31560271978378296,
0.4399895966053009,
0.6920679211616516,
-0.36312681436538696,
-0.3869801163673401,
-0.3845290541648865,
0.1097717210650444,
-1.0956168174743652,
1.0480822324752808,
0.20615652203559875,
-0.16607370972633362,
-0.5138722658157349,
-0.7113029956817627,
-0.9759865999221802,
0.7259054183959961,
0.22344864904880524,
-0.7687519192695618,
-0.427807092666626,
-1.0407259464263916,
-0.08106102794408798,
-0.4816810190677643,
0.1724705696105957,
0.27340012788772583,
-0.3046477437019348,
-0.5565419793128967,
-0.40789440274238586,
0.0681503638625145,
-0.3526003658771515,
0.09117405116558075,
0.37669873237609863,
-0.80628901720047,
-0.26750466227531433,
0.29230353236198425,
-0.5563720464706421,
-1.5666186809539795,
0.37120306491851807,
0.0308147631585598,
0.03826088458299637,
-0.015657559037208557,
-0.4944123327732086,
-0.9587011337280273,
0.2713659107685089,
-0.6655994057655334,
0.04620189592242241,
-1.0526883602142334,
0.37652456760406494,
0.5511173009872437,
0.053424183279275894,
1.175244688987732,
-0.1776488870382309,
-1.2168760299682617,
0.6618160605430603,
0.19878636300563812,
-0.7382236123085022,
0.8165299892425537,
-1.2080157995224,
-1.7604937553405762,
1.214343547821045,
1.123311996459961,
-0.2969968914985657,
0.016866929829120636,
-0.4202738106250763,
0.9919096827507019,
-0.658073365688324,
0.03460383415222168,
-0.41804561018943787,
-1.050482153892517,
-0.8458796143531799,
-0.314859539270401,
-1.6646918058395386,
0.7497833967208862,
0.3898947238922119,
0.03954724222421646,
1.3007153272628784,
-0.6976938247680664,
-0.12320341169834137,
0.6420905590057373,
0.5790812373161316,
0.17108839750289917,
-0.22862474620342255,
-0.12004005163908005,
-0.10657425969839096,
-0.02843647263944149,
0.6515989899635315,
0.1818120926618576,
0.1662859320640564,
0.34517794847488403,
0.9825711846351624,
-0.5997008085250854,
0.047876857221126556,
0.6340563893318176,
-0.014587393961846828,
-0.4414418339729309,
-0.4196343719959259,
0.42858144640922546,
-0.7521665096282959,
-0.1309250146150589,
-1.3370420932769775,
0.28229984641075134,
0.7704477906227112,
0.378993421792984,
-0.7767857909202576,
0.5384277105331421,
0.18088583648204803,
0.5478023886680603,
-0.23784460127353668,
-0.4275818467140198,
-0.47107410430908203,
0.30107390880584717,
0.2253609001636505,
-0.054355770349502563,
0.18676204979419708,
-0.09024070203304291,
0.6855844855308533,
0.03433128446340561,
-0.5166869163513184,
-0.5752275586128235,
-0.08114320784807205,
0.14023807644844055,
-0.7847530841827393,
-0.4817475974559784,
0.3921310603618622,
-0.8585327863693237,
0.20861110091209412,
-0.32357773184776306,
-0.7906530499458313,
0.30331453680992126,
0.35141274333000183,
0.43485575914382935,
0.39468836784362793,
-0.5680737495422363,
-0.0418030321598053,
0.7667084336280823,
-0.31391504406929016,
0.25687429308891296,
-0.5706605315208435,
0.011613204143941402,
0.5892096757888794,
0.29301145672798157,
0.06935645639896393,
0.4663243889808655,
-0.36487969756126404,
0.10408609360456467,
0.2846411466598511,
0.20885364711284637,
-1.0238606929779053,
0.2931078374385834,
0.19598081707954407,
-0.4009209871292114,
0.5910590291023254,
0.5981761813163757,
-0.13494287431240082,
-0.5416037440299988,
0.03660641610622406,
0.47113895416259766,
-0.6959825754165649,
0.007227796595543623,
0.11732938885688782,
1.1523131132125854,
-0.007164967246353626,
0.5886886119842529,
-0.14233548939228058,
-1.0182603597640991,
-0.7049834728240967,
0.6491259932518005,
-0.24916303157806396,
-0.7013843059539795,
0.6256874203681946,
0.05458550155162811,
0.5710387229919434,
1.1938250064849854,
-0.3265770375728607,
-0.10379736870527267,
-0.04569634795188904,
0.04412466287612915,
-0.07473093271255493,
-0.06188898906111717,
-1.0768216848373413,
0.9960900545120239,
-0.45743995904922485,
-0.21021457016468048,
-0.7131191492080688,
-0.41686123609542847,
0.5644360184669495,
-0.09823544323444366,
0.10598552972078323,
1.1055586338043213,
-0.23174650967121124,
-0.5890713334083557,
-0.39708858728408813,
0.2555035650730133,
-0.3030136823654175,
0.5060149431228638,
0.7151954174041748,
-0.8558788299560547,
0.32385528087615967,
-0.10474000871181488,
0.2632063329219818,
-0.9535552263259888,
-0.2982320785522461,
1.007906198501587,
0.5706191062927246,
-0.7942413091659546,
-1.0205522775650024,
0.8896185755729675,
0.5152578353881836,
-0.7985987067222595,
0.22622649371623993,
0.023560544475913048,
-0.7634570598602295,
-0.5919843316078186,
0.47408533096313477,
-0.19236014783382416,
-0.30619099736213684,
0.3272213041782379,
-0.10560713708400726,
-0.06024841591715813,
0.4165476858615875,
0.025509119033813477,
0.699828565120697,
0.3846850097179413,
-0.0992417261004448,
-0.07531837373971939,
-0.03806249797344208,
-0.22025641798973083,
0.5644682049751282,
0.07807376980781555,
-0.02201998606324196,
-0.11899349838495255,
-0.12846244871616364,
-0.4051658809185028,
0.06314738839864731,
0.28630372881889343,
0.4652269184589386,
-0.31086745858192444,
0.10864131152629852,
-0.3575081527233124,
-0.3699328601360321,
-0.4354882538318634,
-0.49493804574012756,
-0.3195066750049591,
0.11279468983411789,
0.6988174319267273,
0.31736794114112854,
-0.18395160138607025,
0.23079419136047363,
0.2773420810699463,
-0.8435249924659729,
0.05086485296487808,
0.9244493246078491,
0.1987585872411728,
-0.48023685812950134,
0.47395792603492737,
-0.9288156628608704,
0.2616003453731537,
0.297115683555603,
-0.04922504723072052,
0.07989398390054703,
0.5546535849571228,
0.15055829286575317,
-0.4289756715297699,
-0.13513335585594177,
0.48663896322250366,
-0.2148360162973404,
-0.43380922079086304,
0.12811413407325745,
-0.5604711771011353,
0.4015071392059326,
0.8044772744178772,
-0.06848956644535065,
0.2070697695016861,
-0.19967998564243317,
-0.1465766876935959,
0.7787174582481384,
-0.3328430652618408,
0.3035410940647125,
0.516263484954834,
-0.038925591856241226,
-0.4457002878189087,
-0.6111301183700562,
0.2232908308506012,
0.01299993135035038,
0.6502005457878113,
0.31401199102401733,
0.27314332127571106,
0.02908557839691639,
0.1418970823287964,
0.7599765658378601,
0.2319898158311844,
-0.03173432871699333,
0.09754673391580582,
-0.8808058500289917,
-0.5190438032150269,
-0.06395045667886734,
-0.12603165209293365,
-0.29354074597358704,
-0.6469391584396362,
0.3770448565483093,
0.10963992774486542,
-0.5157017707824707,
-0.04006224125623703,
0.01449245773255825,
-0.6629723310470581,
-0.02898332290351391,
-0.2376052737236023
] |
261080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Bigod%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Norfolk | Roger Bigod, 4th Earl of Norfolk | Roger Bigod (c. 1209–1270) was 4th Earl of Norfolk and Marshal of England.
Origins
He was the eldest son and heir of Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk (1182-1225) by his wife Maud, a daughter of William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke (1147-1219), Marshal of England. His younger brother was Hugh Bigod (1211-1266), Justiciar. After the death of his father in 1225, the young Roger became the ward of William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury.
Career
In 1228, although still under-age but by now married and in a second wardship to Alexander II of Scotland following his 1225 marriage to Alexander's sister Isabella, he succeeded to his father's estates including Framlingham Castle after his unexpected death in 1225. However, the earldom was only granted to him by Henry III in 1233. Roger was already a wealthy magnate, but in 1248 he received vast lands in south Wales and Ireland on the death of his mother. Through his mother, Roger had gained the hereditary title of Marshal of England, one of the most influential royal offices of medieval England, in 1246. Responsible for keeping order around the king, in peacetime the marshal performed a ceremonial and judicial role, with lucrative rights, such as securing gifts from newly created knights. During wartime, the marshal was responsible for the discipline of the army.
Roger attended Henry III's Court and even hosted the king at Framlingham, but tensions arose over the repayment of debts to the king, as well as growing criticism of royal government. In 1255 the chronicler Matthew Paris reported an exchange between the two men. When Henry called Roger a traitor, the earl replied, "You lie. I have never been a traitor, nor shall I ever be. If you are just, how can you harm me." "I can seize your corn and thresh it, and sell it," retorted the king. "Do so," said Roger, "and I will send back your threshers without their heads." In 1258, Roger was at the head of a rebel group of barons and knights who marched on Westminster Hall, compelling the king to accept major constitutional reforms, known as the Provisions of Oxford. Despite having other property around the country, Roger always retained his strong East Anglian loyalties. He died in 1270 and was buried, like his forefathers, at Thetford Priory.
Marriage
His first warder married him to Isabella of Scotland, daughter of William the Lion, King of Scotland, whereupon still under-age he became a ward of his new brother-in-law, Alexander II of Scotland until 1228.
Succession
Roger had no children, and was succeeded by his nephew Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk (1245-1306).
Notes
References
1209 births
1270 deaths
Earls Marshal
4th Earl of Norfolk
Roger | [
-0.8390592336654663,
0.39467471837997437,
-0.22466042637825012,
-0.3828815519809723,
-0.9436951279640198,
0.832251250743866,
0.8292772769927979,
0.4684237837791443,
-1.0142379999160767,
0.07118654996156693,
-0.15066014230251312,
-0.1279962807893753,
-0.4470844566822052,
0.3480072021484375,
0.04355628788471222,
0.35719576478004456,
-0.2275247573852539,
0.3006483316421509,
0.06086564064025879,
-0.789673388004303,
0.6516252756118774,
-0.4338509142398834,
-0.38775449991226196,
-0.3304678201675415,
0.1424013078212738,
0.29921483993530273,
0.17650637030601501,
-0.13645215332508087,
-0.5399235486984253,
-0.2657669484615326,
-0.15407897531986237,
0.9318152070045471,
0.2719363570213318,
-0.03013509325683117,
0.22934778034687042,
-0.34705641865730286,
-0.04816647619009018,
-0.4233773946762085,
0.09248899668455124,
0.0028352849185466766,
0.09520326554775238,
0.21397192776203156,
0.12890243530273438,
0.02901410683989525,
-0.23257774114608765,
-0.688683032989502,
-1.3250247240066528,
-0.5858910083770752,
-0.12867799401283264,
0.019319875165820122,
0.279590368270874,
0.06749609857797623,
0.49649617075920105,
-0.0019973968155682087,
0.41592833399772644,
0.4786408543586731,
-0.8489571213722229,
-0.1259414404630661,
1.183518648147583,
0.8487349152565002,
0.3652425706386566,
-0.2144230753183365,
-0.05250152200460434,
0.034291476011276245,
0.16738788783550262,
0.5477283000946045,
-0.20580275356769562,
1.048828363418579,
-0.48599374294281006,
-0.2673533856868744,
-0.5137726664543152,
-0.342000275850296,
0.7430638670921326,
0.9485918879508972,
-0.6344457268714905,
0.14582820236682892,
0.4248715341091156,
0.009247365407645702,
0.49511682987213135,
-0.581530749797821,
0.985537588596344,
-0.12764930725097656,
0.6112526059150696,
0.20807142555713654,
0.3235163688659668,
0.7528719305992126,
-0.5315155386924744,
-0.18672585487365723,
-0.15824155509471893,
0.940887987613678,
-0.3177715539932251,
0.12891501188278198,
-0.30934450030326843,
0.3889470398426056,
-0.6693457961082458,
0.49377039074897766,
-0.3646871745586395,
-0.452112078666687,
-0.07625014334917068,
0.05205637961626053,
0.13595837354660034,
0.6343021988868713,
0.6609795093536377,
0.08928263187408447,
-0.6033155918121338,
0.16523243486881256,
-0.6278745532035828,
-0.26647302508354187,
0.21450768411159515,
-1.1518666744232178,
-0.7215777635574341,
0.5607869625091553,
-0.8388490676879883,
-0.21346697211265564,
-0.05193771421909332,
0.8731865286827087,
1.0001260042190552,
-0.779445469379425,
-0.4776352345943451,
0.1180577427148819,
0.16131508350372314,
0.7504808306694031,
-0.682945728302002,
0.2521584630012512,
-0.4461263418197632,
0.09265828132629395,
0.614165723323822,
-0.028412003070116043,
0.4967341125011444,
0.8752901554107666,
-0.11448431760072708,
1.315624475479126,
-0.4876958131790161,
-0.6162167191505432,
0.2841683328151703,
-0.25449126958847046,
0.3147445023059845,
0.8888408541679382,
0.1001754179596901,
0.1337161511182785,
-1.0527904033660889,
-0.10944274067878723,
-1.6039248704910278,
-0.016092399135231972,
0.6527093648910522,
0.4006308317184448,
-0.29026511311531067,
0.3194650113582611,
0.10725527256727219,
0.5128728151321411,
-0.07651695609092712,
-0.23085401952266693,
0.24087707698345184,
-0.1576080620288849,
-0.56828773021698,
0.42857202887535095,
0.35103148221969604,
-0.20472469925880432,
0.5740723609924316,
0.8154966831207275,
-0.05393242463469505,
-0.09511853009462357,
0.10595691204071045,
-0.18343904614448547,
-0.30145463347435,
0.1697598248720169,
1.130618691444397,
-0.4479721784591675,
-0.7667229771614075,
0.2753315269947052,
-1.294592022895813,
0.07154456526041031,
0.2951298952102661,
-0.7482700943946838,
-0.2629088759422302,
0.07370548695325851,
1.0960559844970703,
0.002869601594284177,
0.2607223093509674,
-0.7251772880554199,
-0.6397129893302917,
0.08636339008808136,
0.4385587275028229,
-0.3682377338409424,
0.6922867894172668,
0.3851528465747833,
0.36069586873054504,
-0.3890898823738098,
-0.047574885189533234,
-0.09177138656377792,
0.17242006957530975,
-0.1654057800769806,
0.5696424841880798,
0.2364155352115631,
0.5335126519203186,
0.3553949296474457,
-0.012198923155665398,
-0.31843578815460205,
0.36441871523857117,
1.5681205987930298,
-0.10267695039510727,
-0.01703343726694584,
0.381397545337677,
0.11948565393686295,
-0.039179347455501556,
1.4326039552688599,
0.034224607050418854,
-0.03188014775514603,
0.9179457426071167,
1.0637733936309814,
0.613319993019104,
-0.12179664522409439,
-0.19728058576583862,
0.16958670318126678,
0.22607198357582092,
-0.10034389048814774,
0.5783113837242126,
-0.20244044065475464,
-0.24106264114379883,
-0.8023238182067871,
-0.04127121344208717,
0.18821954727172852,
-0.24800953269004822,
0.5905255675315857,
-0.01845906861126423,
0.9017071723937988,
-0.07571619004011154,
0.23286958038806915,
-0.684942364692688,
-1.214195728302002,
0.29910922050476074,
-0.16167040169239044,
-0.3299618065357208,
-0.8602992296218872,
-0.31299519538879395,
0.2372967153787613,
-0.5998435616493225,
-0.15609940886497498,
0.2279510200023651,
0.41642242670059204,
-0.007162031717598438,
0.5360232591629028,
-0.3106624484062195,
0.2791235148906708,
-0.3245299458503723,
0.6517525315284729,
0.2767360508441925,
0.10708793252706528,
-0.010571707040071487,
-0.9229390621185303,
0.9595751166343689,
0.20369431376457214,
0.15518102049827576,
-0.6929168701171875,
0.21435131132602692,
-0.19221439957618713,
0.25935545563697815,
0.13399042189121246,
-0.3880366384983063,
0.5263001322746277,
-0.4127197861671448,
0.7297888994216919,
0.3911561071872711,
0.010014466941356659,
0.025283144786953926,
-0.8623151779174805,
-0.4183337688446045,
-0.04936213791370392,
-0.015105430968105793,
-0.5527749061584473,
0.12456705421209335,
-0.529730498790741,
-0.3686189353466034,
-2.0316994190216064,
0.5369918942451477,
0.041023362427949905,
-0.1958354413509369,
0.5599757432937622,
-0.8681755065917969,
-0.3038107454776764,
0.5037931203842163,
0.6701874732971191,
-0.6500236988067627,
0.021422529593110085,
-0.12681256234645844,
0.12002048641443253,
0.24004600942134857,
-0.018753474578261375,
0.021001936867833138,
0.002658798126503825,
-0.02140071988105774,
-0.06924644857645035,
-0.47725754976272583,
0.5567777156829834,
-0.2014743685722351,
0.42935773730278015,
-0.27414050698280334,
-0.6138869524002075,
-0.34416764974594116,
-0.323097288608551,
-0.5534473657608032,
0.43336665630340576,
-0.41863560676574707,
0.1625230610370636,
-0.14541274309158325,
-0.06359758973121643,
-0.1151246502995491,
-0.11581744998693466,
-3.8509671688079834,
0.35623103380203247,
-0.03202585130929947,
0.28910812735557556,
0.21379350125789642,
-0.234500452876091,
1.0228160619735718,
-0.3306126892566681,
-0.3739264905452728,
0.32165226340293884,
0.3806809186935425,
-0.3727526366710663,
-0.1889978051185608,
0.6067435145378113,
1.381184697151184,
0.7731856107711792,
1.3682947158813477,
0.0636557787656784,
0.6753736138343811,
-0.15393921732902527,
-0.34788012504577637,
0.3511236310005188,
-0.47014498710632324,
-0.4675257205963135,
0.529328465461731,
0.5827388763427734,
0.3648069202899933,
-0.3051559329032898,
-1.2937122583389282,
0.013844618573784828,
-0.336309552192688,
0.5314911007881165,
0.3625754117965698,
-0.3378857970237732,
-1.2375625371932983,
0.1395689994096756,
0.27463945746421814,
0.7109001278877258,
0.3189803659915924,
-0.7155885100364685,
-0.14487695693969727,
0.18213266134262085,
-0.44135698676109314,
0.8293668627738953,
0.5791449546813965,
0.23655806481838226,
-1.1109960079193115,
0.06904866546392441,
0.004766480531543493,
0.6115099191665649,
-0.15526166558265686,
-0.13719600439071655,
0.7040681838989258,
0.16699688136577606,
-0.05112835019826889,
-0.43607115745544434,
0.2810288071632385,
-0.32001304626464844,
-0.3985065817832947,
0.2364005744457245,
1.1821805238723755,
-0.7357481718063354,
0.3903330862522125,
0.2795979976654053,
0.45233210921287537,
-0.5695001482963562,
0.32229846715927124,
-0.1723918616771698,
0.2424028068780899,
0.18023034930229187,
-0.34825220704078674,
0.6115521788597107,
0.2235448956489563,
-0.5097511410713196,
0.07342617958784103,
-0.05436178669333458,
-0.48246556520462036,
0.8961125016212463,
0.4570331871509552,
-0.13672924041748047,
0.2996211349964142,
-0.3587837815284729,
-0.7717430591583252,
1.3050543069839478,
0.09080801904201508,
-0.6496238112449646,
-0.5672251582145691,
-0.11865848302841187,
-0.5791661143302917,
-0.37604883313179016,
0.08733883500099182,
-0.37565967440605164,
-0.1581651121377945,
1.1754416227340698,
-0.39173978567123413,
-0.3031672239303589,
0.2360878884792328,
-0.5597563982009888,
0.13377384841442108,
-0.4891412854194641,
-0.5865969061851501,
-0.6199671626091003,
-0.5296618342399597,
-0.7145766019821167,
-0.6951360702514648,
-0.40026846528053284,
-0.4175371527671814,
0.6454588174819946,
-0.20120593905448914,
-0.34682366251945496,
0.3600764572620392,
-0.07825132459402084,
0.22340823709964752,
-0.7795355916023254,
0.4999816119670868,
-0.1316252201795578,
0.2135455310344696,
0.5723417401313782,
0.5406812429428101,
0.18254448473453522,
0.08967610448598862,
0.5347219705581665,
-0.305627703666687,
-0.3934975564479828,
-0.8039625883102417,
0.39758235216140747,
0.5060175061225891,
-0.40677255392074585,
-0.7803859710693359,
-0.06704366207122803,
-0.17652219533920288,
0.40143004059791565,
-0.17396220564842224,
0.011928638443350792,
-0.11369092762470245,
-1.0421727895736694,
-0.3726643919944763,
-0.03594940900802612,
0.798515796661377,
-0.2649347484111786,
0.5053145289421082,
-0.17782767117023468,
0.052904512733221054,
0.38599178194999695,
-0.23977409303188324,
0.36354735493659973,
1.0291668176651,
0.3913234770298004,
-0.44886186718940735,
0.5846779942512512,
-0.15110939741134644,
-1.005157470703125,
0.48320233821868896,
-0.711897611618042,
-0.0925939679145813,
0.11853335797786713,
0.0789010152220726,
0.13670115172863007,
-0.34094059467315674,
-0.1860433667898178,
-0.1951824128627777,
0.6430637836456299,
-0.43191784620285034,
0.461575448513031,
0.6795454025268555,
-0.19000670313835144,
-0.1704220473766327,
-0.14021816849708557,
-0.9379913210868835,
0.9644916653633118,
-0.2648463845252991,
-0.3598436415195465,
-0.8975893259048462,
-0.25697818398475647,
0.880784809589386,
-0.20805692672729492,
0.4847010374069214,
0.37557512521743774,
0.2712927460670471,
0.09903393685817719,
0.03133496269583702,
0.03936247155070305,
-0.23143234848976135,
0.3842679560184479,
0.7159186601638794,
-0.6433883905410767,
-0.8180333971977234,
-0.2716292440891266,
-0.20426739752292633,
-0.41372981667518616,
-0.5923824310302734,
0.13702040910720825,
0.7740389704704285,
0.2201056331396103,
-0.591481626033783,
-0.40562206506729126,
0.455471932888031,
0.12039976567029953,
-0.19773370027542114,
-0.5470705628395081,
0.30455824732780457,
0.9874107241630554,
-0.21276715397834778,
0.3128419518470764,
0.4931374192237854,
-0.9719459414482117,
-0.058097075670957565,
0.181827113032341,
-0.6914165019989014,
1.2959554195404053,
-0.08444996923208237,
-1.616059422492981,
0.1703833043575287,
0.47567567229270935,
-0.42810842394828796,
-0.07128051668405533,
0.2732532024383545,
0.07889805734157562,
0.12609198689460754,
-0.7894610166549683,
-0.17137359082698822,
-0.5014520883560181,
-0.3638463020324707,
-0.40943363308906555,
-0.9585251808166504,
0.39185839891433716,
0.4765458106994629,
-0.3957107961177826,
0.9493115544319153,
-0.6288278698921204,
-0.3699800372123718,
0.1553030163049698,
0.011745539493858814,
0.4274086654186249,
-0.2666001319885254,
0.26187950372695923,
0.07964372634887695,
0.08401768654584885,
0.16305282711982727,
0.5046884417533875,
0.8545234799385071,
1.4500161409378052,
0.8686058521270752,
-0.3525426983833313,
-0.11236128956079483,
0.2572873830795288,
-0.3051929473876953,
-0.4112935960292816,
-0.1685127466917038,
0.48697394132614136,
-0.01627470925450325,
-0.5321130752563477,
-0.9150003790855408,
-0.37946295738220215,
1.1569807529449463,
-0.05689432471990585,
-0.23460756242275238,
0.2877449095249176,
-0.08998636901378632,
0.5144721269607544,
-0.15622484683990479,
0.5741862654685974,
-0.2672822177410126,
0.6371920108795166,
0.22250142693519592,
0.3609403371810913,
0.13003438711166382,
0.14661721885204315,
0.5878944993019104,
-0.3151673376560211,
-0.9283078908920288,
-0.8706254959106445,
-0.3511772155761719,
0.4215424358844757,
-0.20870444178581238,
-0.2292226254940033,
0.671370267868042,
-1.063950538635254,
0.6951853036880493,
-0.386478066444397,
0.3317350149154663,
0.3674188554286957,
1.2019476890563965,
-0.7865204215049744,
0.24415141344070435,
-0.04498440399765968,
-0.5700522661209106,
0.18063099682331085,
0.23446419835090637,
0.16905361413955688,
-0.2559884786605835,
-0.6579892635345459,
-0.5623785853385925,
0.24158859252929688,
0.15904545783996582,
0.21884629130363464,
-0.40426310896873474,
-0.6228201985359192,
-0.2317550778388977,
-0.29631730914115906,
-1.2707535028457642,
1.1538171768188477,
0.1333826780319214,
-0.28387966752052307,
0.5342145562171936,
0.26679477095603943,
-0.4135724604129791,
-0.6200752258300781,
-0.2646551728248596,
0.20698927342891693,
-0.1744988113641739,
-0.25095105171203613,
0.040138985961675644,
0.7664927840232849,
0.029374459758400917,
-0.6431255340576172,
0.27174514532089233,
-0.6426640748977661,
-0.28150972723960876,
-0.10327783226966858,
-0.40556424856185913,
-0.7930297255516052,
0.2773481607437134,
0.137433260679245,
-0.05297987535595894,
0.62713223695755,
-0.5869980454444885,
-0.27602776885032654,
0.2151481956243515,
0.11350654065608978,
0.1185276061296463,
-0.6848585605621338,
-1.3126176595687866,
0.828086256980896,
-0.28404977917671204,
0.23412005603313446,
0.3261053264141083,
-0.5249239206314087,
0.51274573802948,
0.2979590892791748,
0.21511098742485046,
0.3251657783985138,
-0.47111132740974426,
-0.46161821484565735,
-0.6900505423545837,
0.35420820116996765,
-0.3641483187675476,
0.42731454968452454,
0.36312806606292725,
-0.07015934586524963,
0.2710309326648712,
0.05432116985321045,
0.5470507144927979,
-0.5840780735015869,
0.0672864019870758,
0.4828762710094452,
0.6064231395721436,
-0.34350085258483887,
-0.3951271176338196,
-1.7104243040084839,
-0.10450273007154465,
-0.5706095099449158,
0.3943541646003723,
0.23335309326648712,
0.08781109750270844,
-0.4558408260345459,
0.7046235799789429,
0.03390473872423172,
0.5065087080001831,
0.381416380405426,
0.6274179816246033,
-0.00819260161370039,
0.5895538926124573,
-0.1677122414112091,
0.3701987862586975,
0.28482434153556824,
-0.11939116567373276,
-0.5986191034317017,
-0.10603000223636627,
-0.7954049110412598,
-0.45626014471054077,
-0.3503026068210602,
-0.17086516320705414,
-0.8588075041770935,
0.1389150768518448,
0.08374767005443573,
-0.43563422560691833,
0.3046586215496063,
-0.050107747316360474,
-0.5578644275665283,
0.06282113492488861,
-0.5860922932624817,
-0.3747720718383789,
0.3755106031894684,
-1.4926644563674927,
0.05398068577051163,
-0.3819865584373474,
0.4453618824481964,
0.306240975856781,
0.2606378495693207,
-0.18977344036102295,
0.6020154356956482,
-0.36374449729919434,
0.34060463309288025,
-0.11022322624921799,
0.5119183659553528,
-0.49101901054382324,
0.12859615683555603,
-1.109963297843933,
0.5629554390907288,
-0.2730693519115448,
-0.21730728447437286,
-0.2571830749511719,
1.1315644979476929,
0.22316640615463257,
-0.16574236750602722,
0.3720954656600952,
-1.0065641403198242,
-0.48999282717704773,
-0.052363842725753784,
-0.09399984031915665,
0.16289030015468597,
-0.17337581515312195,
-0.11035602539777756,
0.18011826276779175,
-0.4363905191421509,
0.17903518676757812,
-0.26808348298072815,
-0.7292294502258301,
0.2348177134990692,
-0.28309282660484314,
0.5619407892227173,
-0.26552852988243103,
-0.9164473414421082,
0.14250411093235016,
0.26915931701660156,
0.7282145023345947,
1.3470137119293213,
0.21483714878559113,
0.19331656396389008,
-0.07245083898305893,
-0.4563281238079071,
0.5354335308074951,
0.6162064075469971,
-2.7502055168151855,
-0.9504552483558655,
-0.08467097580432892,
-0.5151176452636719,
0.2610357403755188,
0.26767170429229736,
0.49965009093284607,
0.23609808087348938,
0.30033695697784424,
-0.17255240678787231,
0.23716077208518982,
-0.10418546944856644,
-0.3524145781993866,
-0.4245026111602783,
0.2399781495332718,
-0.03753127157688141
] |
261082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Bigod%2C%202nd%20Earl%20of%20Norfolk | Roger Bigod, 2nd Earl of Norfolk | Roger Bigod ( – 1221) was the son of Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk and his first wife, Juliana de Vere. Although his father died 1176 or 1177, Roger did not succeed to the earldom of Norfolk until 1189 for his claim had been disputed by his stepmother for her sons by Earl Hugh in the reign of Henry II. Richard I confirmed him in his earldom and other honours, and also sent him as an ambassador to France in the same year. Roger inherited his father's office as royal steward. He took part in the negotiations for the release of Richard from prison, and after the king's return to England became a justiciar.
During the Revolt of 1173–74, Roger remained loyal to the king while his father sided with the king's rebellious sons. Roger fought at the Battle of Fornham on 17 October 1173, where the royalist force defeated a rebel force led by Robert de Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Leicester.
In most of the years of the reign of King John, the earl was frequently with the king or on royal business. Yet Roger was to be one of the leaders of the baronial party which obtained John's assent to Magna Carta, and his name and that of his son and heir Hugh II appear among the twenty-five barons who were to ensure the king's adherence to the terms of that document. The pair were excommunicated by the pope in December 1215, and in 1216 John marched to East Anglia with a force of mercenaries and laid siege to Roger's seat of Framlingham Castle. Bigod was away, but Framlingham's garrison has 26 knights, 20 sergeants-at-arms, 7 crossbowmen, 1 chaplain and 3 others, perhaps enough to hold out until Roger returned to command support. Yet the castle surrendered two days, most likely for political expediency. The loss of the castle was temporary (Bigod made peace with the regents of John's son Henry III in 1217) but Roger seems to have retired from public life after this time. He died in 1221, his lands intact, the Bigod powerhouse secured and himself a respected figure.
Around Christmas 1181, Roger married Ida, apparently Ida de Tosny (or Ida de Toesny), and by her had a number of children including:
Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk who married in 1206/ 1207, Maud, a daughter of William Marshal
William Bigod
Ralph Bigod
Roger Bigod
Margery, married William de Hastings
Mary Bigod, married Ralph fitz Robert
Many historians, including Marc Morris have speculated that the couple had a third daughter, Alice, who married Aubrey de Vere IV, Earl of Oxford as his second wife. If so, the marriage would have been well within the bounds of consanguinity, for the couple would have been quite closely related, a daughter of the second earl of Norfolk being first cousin once removed to the second earl of Oxford.
Roger Bigod in fiction
Roger Bigod and his wife Ida de Tosny are the main characters in Elizabeth Chadwick's The Time of Singing (Sphere, 2008), published in the USA as For the King's Favor. They appear as minor characters in other of her books set at the same time, notably To Defy a King, which concerns the marriage of their son Hugh to Maud, a daughter of William Marshal. As Bigot, Bigod also appears as a character in the play King John by William Shakespeare.
References
Liber Vitae Ecclesiae Dunelmensis, Vol. 13
Morris, Marc. The Bigod Earls of Norfolk in the Thirteenth Century (2005)
Norfolk, Roger Bigod, 2nd Earl of
Male Shakespearean characters
2nd Earl of Norfolk
Roger
Norfolk, Roger Bigod, 2nd Earl of
Norfolk, Roger Bigod, 2nd Earl of | [
-1.1963937282562256,
-0.07549165934324265,
-0.013580769300460815,
-0.11013235151767731,
-0.8854394555091858,
0.8034887909889221,
0.6740817427635193,
0.14732730388641357,
-0.9244579076766968,
-0.23069995641708374,
-0.10846403241157532,
0.0010626428993418813,
-0.34140244126319885,
-0.08780215680599213,
-0.19754160940647125,
0.06783012300729752,
0.22742390632629395,
-0.4103942811489105,
-0.04164735600352287,
-0.7917703986167908,
0.521445095539093,
-0.47252514958381653,
-0.21958081424236298,
0.0855371505022049,
0.3831615149974823,
0.33427488803863525,
0.6464072465896606,
0.04337283968925476,
-0.6031054258346558,
-0.508537769317627,
-0.11111076921224594,
0.6562051773071289,
0.22818046808242798,
-0.032859355211257935,
0.046018894761800766,
-0.003772010328248143,
-0.29837724566459656,
-0.40318331122398376,
-0.11499481648206711,
0.3919874131679535,
-0.0005848630680702627,
0.2346831113100052,
-0.2789894640445709,
0.3373221457004547,
-0.27435967326164246,
-0.5800692439079285,
-1.2601613998413086,
-0.5666619539260864,
-0.15229526162147522,
-0.14868366718292236,
0.21412011981010437,
0.7496247887611389,
-0.10051251202821732,
0.17639803886413574,
0.3658157289028168,
0.4562455117702484,
-0.8897392749786377,
-0.2232341170310974,
0.42793509364128113,
0.4532625079154968,
0.5962763428688049,
0.05402589216828346,
0.1239900216460228,
0.27561095356941223,
0.1290261298418045,
0.08309640735387802,
0.04748135060071945,
0.717839777469635,
-0.693028450012207,
-0.6828510761260986,
-0.3640957176685333,
-0.07183866202831268,
0.2034582942724228,
0.7783546447753906,
-0.3667072057723999,
-0.028325511142611504,
0.3324168026447296,
-0.21096669137477875,
0.5948105454444885,
-0.3713531196117401,
0.6839724779129028,
-0.43980860710144043,
0.5457152724266052,
0.2804625928401947,
0.29884418845176697,
0.5559593439102173,
-0.5615183115005493,
0.25893378257751465,
-0.5943396687507629,
0.274777352809906,
0.046720005571842194,
-0.02110668271780014,
-0.4980834424495697,
0.21015335619449615,
-0.5208260416984558,
0.4988049268722534,
-0.32783809304237366,
-0.6107217669487,
-0.17340876162052155,
-0.3698502779006958,
0.08393168449401855,
0.6445212364196777,
0.49185845255851746,
0.10845067352056503,
-0.8234243392944336,
-0.2610371708869934,
-0.411713182926178,
0.004677773918956518,
-0.1982242465019226,
0.24774405360221863,
-0.49567094445228577,
0.30993780493736267,
-0.5464251041412354,
-0.36721768975257874,
0.11852598935365677,
0.8588789701461792,
0.30387136340141296,
-1.047080636024475,
-0.6394742727279663,
-0.241271510720253,
0.37294715642929077,
1.0478051900863647,
-0.48857253789901733,
0.42195945978164673,
-0.42262235283851624,
-0.21375755965709686,
0.45710310339927673,
0.18865500390529633,
0.08028295636177063,
0.698173463344574,
-0.04490802064538002,
1.121976613998413,
-0.36724138259887695,
-0.6085917353630066,
0.4782494008541107,
-0.07259564101696014,
0.23606307804584503,
0.633713960647583,
-0.10642122477293015,
0.09239371865987778,
-0.5527979731559753,
-0.08834055811166763,
-0.31456103920936584,
0.17581608891487122,
0.3834526836872101,
0.26972582936286926,
-0.022756874561309814,
0.11910486966371536,
-0.4631609320640564,
0.44225072860717773,
-0.02660619094967842,
0.28789401054382324,
0.12122470140457153,
-0.37311121821403503,
-0.2816702127456665,
0.7978705167770386,
0.5377407073974609,
0.07115127146244049,
0.4720457196235657,
0.6832876801490784,
-0.10981278866529465,
-0.08002428710460663,
-0.5264809131622314,
-0.5554297566413879,
0.17370107769966125,
0.1344689279794693,
1.0578831434249878,
-0.3206841051578522,
-0.8178901672363281,
-0.2521999478340149,
-1.1783677339553833,
0.15735384821891785,
0.282005250453949,
-0.4489831030368805,
-0.3400000333786011,
0.19907933473587036,
1.1742832660675049,
-0.1899203658103943,
0.3988761901855469,
-0.595421552658081,
-0.8372209072113037,
-0.026797164231538773,
0.5898407697677612,
-0.302036851644516,
1.1591132879257202,
0.4015723168849945,
0.23988504707813263,
-0.3321859836578369,
-0.12182774394750595,
-0.219584658741951,
0.3480677008628845,
-0.3542749285697937,
0.2196066975593567,
-0.23388376832008362,
0.4625721573829651,
0.21161843836307526,
-0.19899825751781464,
0.130696102976799,
0.28471073508262634,
1.2893067598342896,
-0.2957494258880615,
0.05251248553395271,
0.43363815546035767,
0.40203234553337097,
0.4054085910320282,
-0.22494260966777802,
-0.16476647555828094,
0.3800840675830841,
1.007895827293396,
1.1354376077651978,
0.6136816740036011,
-0.3507503569126129,
-0.15518741309642792,
0.3007546067237854,
-0.05673263221979141,
0.008851896971464157,
0.7411654591560364,
-0.1675463765859604,
0.16712065041065216,
-0.8795804977416992,
0.4107309579849243,
-0.05357283353805542,
-0.19283956289291382,
0.37613746523857117,
0.20178136229515076,
1.0228664875030518,
-0.19518868625164032,
0.16666941344738007,
-0.6809806227684021,
-1.1772948503494263,
-0.35495778918266296,
0.17494697868824005,
0.2797115445137024,
-0.643627405166626,
-0.02972710132598877,
0.4144385755062103,
-0.46940380334854126,
-0.39927157759666443,
0.27446720004081726,
-0.037129659205675125,
-0.2891729176044464,
0.3523361384868622,
-0.41026949882507324,
0.44448426365852356,
-0.2560722529888153,
0.17370691895484924,
0.24696201086044312,
-0.11431468278169632,
-0.025232890620827675,
-0.7247048020362854,
0.5917057991027832,
0.507985532283783,
-0.13049781322479248,
-0.27860134840011597,
0.46654823422431946,
-0.4958222508430481,
0.18225376307964325,
0.10038028657436371,
0.04043086618185043,
0.4184383153915405,
-0.2053791582584381,
0.8131600022315979,
0.2504233121871948,
0.21434855461120605,
0.1545795351266861,
-0.8676096200942993,
-0.2683698832988739,
-0.08201716095209122,
-0.056888651102781296,
-0.25736233592033386,
0.20896804332733154,
-0.13302072882652283,
-0.4186118543148041,
-0.3469911813735962,
0.5075578093528748,
-0.3364952802658081,
-0.32151663303375244,
0.745893120765686,
-0.4744935929775238,
-0.718591034412384,
0.5179728865623474,
0.4853105843067169,
-0.3581840693950653,
-0.016499806195497513,
-0.05748598277568817,
0.026064082980155945,
-0.016738325357437134,
-0.23028959333896637,
-0.07267142832279205,
-0.2008548229932785,
0.06184231862425804,
-0.20041853189468384,
-0.40804046392440796,
0.3602403700351715,
-0.2795463800430298,
1.0977985858917236,
-0.7749720215797424,
-0.4491231441497803,
-0.21903595328330994,
-0.16013677418231964,
-0.4702126979827881,
0.40562888979911804,
-0.3016851544380188,
0.09769745916128159,
0.16503851115703583,
-0.20439504086971283,
-0.22973330318927765,
-0.3022754490375519,
-4.982809066772461,
0.21796348690986633,
-0.2527550756931305,
0.09728805720806122,
0.06893077492713928,
-0.062412749975919724,
0.22197750210762024,
-0.23531091213226318,
0.017334088683128357,
0.18447066843509674,
0.502022922039032,
-0.44914180040359497,
-0.10456980019807816,
0.4018985331058502,
1.2489125728607178,
0.40130308270454407,
1.3171969652175903,
0.3653774559497833,
0.06539604812860489,
0.029651833698153496,
-0.34597936272621155,
-0.08544735610485077,
-0.37544533610343933,
-0.1178911030292511,
0.616225004196167,
0.284714013338089,
0.020464638248085976,
-0.4533539116382599,
-1.0685802698135376,
-0.40516427159309387,
0.16257312893867493,
0.7965447902679443,
0.3424336016178131,
0.19622309505939484,
-0.6520915031433105,
0.20621468126773834,
0.26980751752853394,
0.7520626783370972,
0.39572611451148987,
-0.6382608413696289,
0.01348969154059887,
-0.13962237536907196,
-0.5712739825248718,
0.636499285697937,
0.2967430651187897,
-0.3276098668575287,
-0.8580977916717529,
0.3511996567249298,
-0.06906580924987793,
0.44553259015083313,
0.0771511122584343,
0.01738535612821579,
-0.11738557368516922,
0.004116837866604328,
-0.10678169876337051,
-0.034074731171131134,
0.00348861375823617,
-0.2667868435382843,
-0.281436949968338,
0.32934054732322693,
0.8361604809761047,
-0.6920520067214966,
0.21974405646324158,
0.27517563104629517,
0.2950946092605591,
-0.2634223401546478,
0.226481631398201,
-0.21411526203155518,
0.21086031198501587,
0.27780723571777344,
-0.2462940514087677,
0.6719540357589722,
0.5016640424728394,
-0.7057369351387024,
0.16971291601657867,
-0.1785462349653244,
-0.38358274102211,
0.668136715888977,
0.31876882910728455,
-0.4030344784259796,
0.13393904268741608,
-0.4281342327594757,
-0.3179101347923279,
1.0469932556152344,
0.23473507165908813,
-0.7711589336395264,
-0.38443368673324585,
-0.2241774946451187,
-0.26058050990104675,
-0.437204509973526,
0.2280139923095703,
-0.4995449483394623,
-0.10007874667644501,
0.8992611169815063,
-0.30497851967811584,
-0.3197406232357025,
-0.3104136288166046,
-0.2005869597196579,
0.22196805477142334,
-0.2722088396549225,
-0.7964155077934265,
-0.13121511042118073,
-0.4146351218223572,
-0.8572230935096741,
-0.3720575273036957,
-0.016035765409469604,
-0.5357576608657837,
0.4765905737876892,
-0.07329795509576797,
-0.3479849696159363,
0.5527416467666626,
0.03187213093042374,
-0.15910093486309052,
-0.7731916904449463,
-0.1866951584815979,
-0.3928794860839844,
0.2527730166912079,
0.19480983912944794,
0.735446572303772,
0.022348303347826004,
-0.14957548677921295,
0.6208038330078125,
-0.5131898522377014,
-0.2523857057094574,
-0.7712198495864868,
0.5164597630500793,
0.41639652848243713,
0.035318758338689804,
-0.7692911028862,
0.10653897374868393,
0.16756126284599304,
0.1368127167224884,
-0.16876058280467987,
0.23131708800792694,
-0.1509086638689041,
-1.2372738122940063,
-0.6444137096405029,
-0.19835291802883148,
0.4875994324684143,
0.07787087559700012,
0.41723981499671936,
0.01141458097845316,
0.5338230133056641,
-0.05698505789041519,
-0.17695672810077667,
0.3486636281013489,
1.0294170379638672,
0.49804288148880005,
-0.48205479979515076,
0.22347772121429443,
0.3036043047904968,
-0.5352387428283691,
0.8463512063026428,
-0.38639217615127563,
-0.2788553535938263,
0.11591387540102005,
0.03197462111711502,
0.14133666455745697,
-0.14965994656085968,
-0.2289714366197586,
-0.46586498618125916,
0.6538927555084229,
-0.19981828331947327,
0.15905846655368805,
0.597664475440979,
0.14593593776226044,
-0.5666462182998657,
-0.18043136596679688,
-0.6781578660011292,
0.8647156953811646,
0.05173301324248314,
-0.7468804121017456,
-0.6157625913619995,
-0.09696290642023087,
0.7017307281494141,
-0.418108195066452,
0.3297783434391022,
0.16627556085586548,
-0.09857991337776184,
0.33205726742744446,
0.10433329641819,
0.012901784852147102,
-0.29804450273513794,
0.2394251525402069,
1.1264641284942627,
-0.446757048368454,
-0.8513892889022827,
-0.47738882899284363,
-0.3651965260505676,
-0.4571065604686737,
-0.5715494155883789,
0.0997009202837944,
0.778789222240448,
0.4668916165828705,
-0.12118782848119736,
-0.4290156364440918,
0.7359885573387146,
0.5585814714431763,
-0.4016283452510834,
-0.4178096354007721,
-0.1678999960422516,
0.8477827310562134,
-0.33764171600341797,
-0.0601721927523613,
0.39643236994743347,
-1.1283907890319824,
-0.015903573483228683,
0.08710520714521408,
-0.23796556890010834,
1.0432771444320679,
-0.4447878301143646,
-1.174677848815918,
0.1296929121017456,
0.31869423389434814,
-0.3698228895664215,
0.2868502736091614,
-0.044639505445957184,
-0.08824720233678818,
0.17346273362636566,
-0.8485469818115234,
-0.39136457443237305,
-0.7683847546577454,
-0.3957066237926483,
-0.16547416150569916,
-0.8553337454795837,
0.24754497408866882,
0.6577672362327576,
0.019856128841638565,
0.7543176412582397,
-0.4523968994617462,
-0.08860275894403458,
-0.05885925516486168,
-0.13891245424747467,
0.41295620799064636,
-0.30753588676452637,
-0.282375305891037,
0.5226367115974426,
0.08847323805093765,
0.2694154381752014,
0.26323190331459045,
0.9197835326194763,
1.6224393844604492,
0.5757009387016296,
-0.04500891640782356,
0.19085292518138885,
-0.08708158880472183,
-0.4572385847568512,
-0.47814276814460754,
0.03818759694695473,
0.3151420056819916,
0.05398998036980629,
-0.4351448714733124,
-0.7729170322418213,
-0.18139393627643585,
1.115724802017212,
-0.34573468565940857,
-0.3773292005062103,
0.18437345325946808,
-0.06147781386971474,
0.33315056562423706,
0.07148858904838562,
0.3929016590118408,
-0.05276140570640564,
0.2173476368188858,
0.0653657615184784,
0.025677381083369255,
0.0026738070882856846,
0.07844268530607224,
0.25928834080696106,
-0.326813280582428,
-0.7301107048988342,
-0.50913006067276,
-0.5419557094573975,
0.11007186025381088,
-0.12163315713405609,
-0.11180819571018219,
0.4873875379562378,
-0.8661539554595947,
1.0299769639968872,
-0.09480028599500656,
-0.6320131421089172,
-0.1366567313671112,
0.895782470703125,
-0.856574296951294,
-0.1342388391494751,
-0.050335709005594254,
-0.18570001423358917,
0.01848698779940605,
0.5717878937721252,
0.25052204728126526,
-0.13692885637283325,
-0.5217509269714355,
-0.48020368814468384,
-0.07224289327859879,
-0.20726613700389862,
0.2011900544166565,
-0.32228511571884155,
-0.09736507385969162,
-0.30348068475723267,
-0.7900843024253845,
-0.6602663397789001,
1.1817173957824707,
-0.0008675368153490126,
-0.20765352249145508,
0.2196388989686966,
0.4274633526802063,
-0.58717942237854,
-0.7190507054328918,
-0.1515348255634308,
0.42904362082481384,
-0.22482243180274963,
-0.4317329227924347,
0.030039595440030098,
0.7021484971046448,
-0.43290627002716064,
-0.7261626124382019,
0.473107248544693,
-0.2750414311885834,
-0.15731866657733917,
-0.4978368878364563,
-0.005044842138886452,
-0.46063175797462463,
0.15950167179107666,
-0.04596903920173645,
0.13914234936237335,
0.782430112361908,
-0.5382416248321533,
-0.11965590715408325,
-0.07860129326581955,
0.39299407601356506,
0.24682098627090454,
-0.3623691201210022,
-1.038525104522705,
0.7520354986190796,
-0.03905385360121727,
-0.0018054279498755932,
0.2300875037908554,
-0.4571860134601593,
0.4656013250350952,
0.14297115802764893,
0.49994218349456787,
0.5582350492477417,
-0.5794395804405212,
-0.25943079590797424,
-0.681168794631958,
0.4397567808628082,
-0.05349641665816307,
0.157265305519104,
0.2942773699760437,
-0.036669760942459106,
0.43193385004997253,
0.22656762599945068,
0.35593223571777344,
-0.7481021285057068,
0.25783056020736694,
0.5114089846611023,
0.7494608759880066,
-0.4046003818511963,
-0.5954702496528625,
-0.47180160880088806,
0.23763087391853333,
-0.5037886500358582,
0.4895583987236023,
0.26184600591659546,
-0.24948851764202118,
-0.43802058696746826,
0.6919729113578796,
0.06340907514095306,
0.5763296484947205,
0.17673146724700928,
0.4974508583545685,
0.01543132308870554,
0.23479735851287842,
-0.16780896484851837,
0.34210309386253357,
0.6163935661315918,
0.2737148404121399,
-0.40736255049705505,
0.10684885084629059,
-0.8724617958068848,
-0.38963782787323,
-0.1603291928768158,
-0.0014878184301778674,
-0.9486685991287231,
-0.08452562242746353,
0.09735437482595444,
0.06111827492713928,
0.2910211384296417,
-0.47500550746917725,
-0.6959162354469299,
0.04220445826649666,
-0.8262985944747925,
-0.38968437910079956,
0.3897828161716461,
-1.3154102563858032,
-0.4256748855113983,
-0.2519529163837433,
0.6763846278190613,
0.5398831963539124,
0.5330410003662109,
-0.2870965898036957,
0.025915058329701424,
-0.35496121644973755,
0.6095615029335022,
-0.19369013607501984,
0.5070177316665649,
-0.5428445339202881,
-0.32226094603538513,
-1.1479616165161133,
0.5509645342826843,
0.256194531917572,
-0.10131137818098068,
-0.24479414522647858,
0.7681229114532471,
0.2296377718448639,
-0.016483381390571594,
0.28032049536705017,
-0.8010902404785156,
-0.13767944276332855,
0.18827174603939056,
0.08921004831790924,
0.12859274446964264,
-0.036054980009794235,
-0.07454202324151993,
0.1769900918006897,
-0.4791911840438843,
0.4404599368572235,
-0.5091737508773804,
-0.9090233445167542,
0.5409484505653381,
-0.10303211212158203,
0.28587427735328674,
-0.33617040514945984,
-0.6312379837036133,
0.026522096246480942,
0.48013344407081604,
0.5410710573196411,
1.0456677675247192,
-0.04291423037648201,
0.2184891253709793,
0.3486414849758148,
-0.4891366958618164,
0.6524364352226257,
0.5889297127723694,
0.5855991840362549,
-0.995656430721283,
-0.02755335159599781,
-0.5137237906455994,
0.19198854267597198,
0.7941615581512451,
0.7917588949203491,
0.5396789312362671,
0.313637375831604,
-0.21726110577583313,
-0.01912802644073963,
-0.06144753098487854,
-0.22059200704097748,
-0.3227851092815399,
0.1844126284122467,
0.0765138566493988
] |
261083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flesh-n-Bone | Flesh-n-Bone | Stanley Howse, better known as Flesh-n-Bone (born June 10, 1973), is an American rapper known as a member of the hip hop group Bone Thugs-n-Harmony. He is the older brother of Layzie Bone and cousin of Wish Bone.
Legal troubles
In 1998, police reportedly caught Flesh-n-Bone with a loaded sawed-off shotgun at a relative's home and claimed he refused when asked to leave.
Flesh was brought up on charges for parole violation after he pulled a rifle on a neighbor over a heated dispute about Flesh's music being played too loudly. Flesh explained that he had been involved in several altercations that week, many of them on the day, and that the rifle was pulled in his distress. The weapon was pulled out in order to protect himself, Flesh-n-Bone states, though he admits he let his frustration get the better of him and that he pulled the rifle out at a time when it wasn't needed.
In December 1999, Flesh-n-Bone was involved in a dispute with one-time friend Tarrance Vickers. During the dispute, Flesh-n-Bone pulled out a loaded semiautomatic AK-47 rifle and took aim at Vickers. The presiding Van Nuys Superior Court Judge deemed Howse's life story "one of the worst cases of child abuse she had ever read, full of beatings and other physical, emotional, and mental traumas." Flesh-n-Bone apologized and took responsibility for his actions and pleaded guilty. On September 22, 2000, Howse was sent to Pleasant Valley State Prison for 12 years on charges of assault with a deadly weapon and probation violation. He was also required to undertake an anger-management course.
He was released in July 2008, when he reunited with fellow group members Krayzie Bone, Layzie Bone, Bizzy Bone, and Wish Bone. They immediately went to the studio and started recording for their reunion album Uni5: The World's Enemy, which was released on May 4, 2010.
Flesh-n-Bone was picked up on gun possession charges on Thursday, April 2, 2009, in Santa Clarita, CA, according to TMZ. He was held without bail. However, the gun possession charges against him were dropped on April 20, 2009 in a Santa Clarita courthouse. "The defense turned over some information, and we investigated and realized we were unable to proceed with the charges as filed, so the judge dismissed the case," said Jane Robinson, a spokeswoman for the Los Angeles district attorneys office.
On March 28, 2010, during the Bone Thugs-n-Harmony reunion tour, Flesh-n-Bone was picked up on a 10-year-old felony warrant in Cleveland, Ohio during a show at the House Of Blues. He was released from custody five days later and charges were dismissed.
Discography
Solo albums
T.H.U.G.S. (Trues Humbly United Gatherin' Souls) (1996)
5th Dog Let Loose (2000)
Blaze of Glory (2011)
Do You (2020)
References
External links
Official website
Living people
African-American male rappers
American hip hop singers
Bone Thugs-n-Harmony members
Gangsta rappers
Horrorcore artists
Rappers from Cleveland
1973 births
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people | [
0.24347881972789764,
0.028339112177491188,
-0.36616742610931396,
-0.2738351821899414,
0.32204359769821167,
0.9767235517501831,
0.09470633417367935,
0.18781881034374237,
-0.30235663056373596,
-0.24095198512077332,
0.24088449776172638,
0.7250922918319702,
-0.3160247802734375,
-0.3339577317237854,
-0.39320746064186096,
-0.1558007299900055,
0.1757558435201645,
-0.19366362690925598,
-0.024513842537999153,
0.31597813963890076,
-0.13848580420017242,
0.34390708804130554,
0.3471759557723999,
-0.15470397472381592,
-0.5138537883758545,
0.7895135879516602,
-0.3455197215080261,
0.21052487194538116,
0.2927528917789459,
-0.4765510559082031,
0.6864230632781982,
0.3646441102027893,
0.1276777684688568,
-0.9104136228561401,
-0.17739729583263397,
-0.05365018546581268,
-0.9073135852813721,
0.09734343737363815,
-0.0019964464008808136,
-0.18882538378238678,
-0.21506360173225403,
0.18185119330883026,
0.09807168692350388,
0.1922813057899475,
-0.19885332882404327,
-0.4112280011177063,
-1.309674859046936,
1.1181236505508423,
-1.3757331371307373,
-0.2077409029006958,
-0.019835395738482475,
0.2564375400543213,
-0.6891106963157654,
-0.017977241426706314,
0.21173802018165588,
-0.16712647676467896,
-0.6457111239433289,
-0.42017754912376404,
0.486380398273468,
-0.10456264019012451,
0.5411622524261475,
-0.09113851934671402,
0.33328354358673096,
-1.0995439291000366,
-0.4020702540874481,
0.4502478241920471,
0.3301745653152466,
0.7533525228500366,
-0.20500405132770538,
0.3434399962425232,
0.21713592112064362,
0.14405633509159088,
-0.14356248080730438,
0.6789501309394836,
0.3703608512878418,
0.06677979230880737,
0.574622392654419,
-0.17195340991020203,
0.14043556153774261,
0.8537865877151489,
0.28435495495796204,
-0.3800389766693115,
0.9269763231277466,
0.8071533441543579,
-0.3109603822231293,
-0.019379673525691032,
-0.4909895360469818,
0.7041386961936951,
-1.0268791913986206,
0.7518510818481445,
-0.26325857639312744,
0.08892739564180374,
0.44278308749198914,
0.07955746352672577,
-0.24010829627513885,
-0.016626732423901558,
-0.34271857142448425,
0.6219286918640137,
0.48981982469558716,
0.1486920565366745,
-0.06425260007381439,
0.05769078806042671,
-0.11593330651521683,
-0.3795957565307617,
-0.6203911304473877,
0.402042418718338,
0.520396888256073,
-0.3224097490310669,
-0.5440390110015869,
-0.3041500151157379,
-0.39692965149879456,
0.1608782708644867,
-0.16531772911548615,
0.16616308689117432,
0.04692447930574417,
0.5402690172195435,
-0.1643151193857193,
-0.45397505164146423,
-1.2264701128005981,
-0.7759423851966858,
-0.6414191126823425,
0.036416128277778625,
0.3964039981365204,
0.4675949513912201,
-0.33219113945961,
0.19444842636585236,
-0.04122988507151604,
0.2867261469364166,
-0.011425052769482136,
0.4065242409706116,
0.40030986070632935,
0.7443389296531677,
-0.2623038589954376,
-0.45960068702697754,
-0.19396963715553284,
-0.49157246947288513,
0.6549985408782959,
-0.0975194200873375,
0.2782287895679474,
-0.07418803125619888,
-0.5944861769676208,
-0.47444266080856323,
-0.7569016814231873,
-0.12181277573108673,
0.12275059521198273,
-0.3701113164424896,
-0.24911940097808838,
-0.1270977407693863,
0.3423357903957367,
-0.3206269443035126,
0.266573041677475,
-0.11184535175561905,
-0.48687657713890076,
-0.9717912077903748,
0.27054059505462646,
0.4034426808357239,
0.3166050910949707,
-0.4263060986995697,
0.0085063511505723,
-0.25232377648353577,
-0.07660702615976334,
-0.18353120982646942,
-0.42566296458244324,
-0.38662391901016235,
0.5365679264068604,
-0.5040391683578491,
0.21328525245189667,
-0.7309167981147766,
-0.14544852077960968,
0.08401203900575638,
-0.3534369170665741,
-0.2245546579360962,
0.17002135515213013,
-0.5482800602912903,
-0.14721350371837616,
0.6187179684638977,
0.9162052869796753,
0.05156732723116875,
0.2591153681278229,
-0.2668627202510834,
-0.7825228571891785,
0.052282869815826416,
0.851072371006012,
0.001857138704508543,
0.2397233545780182,
-0.6032111048698425,
0.07744345813989639,
-0.8352039456367493,
0.23568430542945862,
0.09347092360258102,
-1.0162919759750366,
-0.32162994146347046,
1.6916882991790771,
0.194570854306221,
0.6764140725135803,
0.46771159768104553,
-0.6943670511245728,
0.4360201060771942,
0.00969916582107544,
0.19821523129940033,
-0.55617755651474,
-0.21245858073234558,
0.06306140869855881,
-0.5704506039619446,
-0.8701696395874023,
0.35287871956825256,
0.6456228494644165,
-0.5129504203796387,
0.3644729256629944,
0.25040990114212036,
0.4761785864830017,
-0.619405210018158,
-0.09268268942832947,
-0.4647771716117859,
0.2803318202495575,
-0.5837939381599426,
-0.1897338628768921,
0.08780127763748169,
-0.2702213227748871,
-0.33520567417144775,
0.6028674840927124,
0.30937352776527405,
-0.041119758039712906,
0.3435155749320984,
0.08245960623025894,
1.052749752998352,
-0.4013948142528534,
-0.3304177224636078,
-0.018862184137105942,
0.12701287865638733,
0.2693113684654236,
0.2909557521343231,
0.13664597272872925,
-0.882845401763916,
0.04173101484775543,
0.12507015466690063,
0.7414243221282959,
-0.6172278523445129,
-0.10787231475114822,
-0.6064845323562622,
0.025101279839873314,
0.7357572913169861,
-1.1737651824951172,
-1.1247246265411377,
-0.19763322174549103,
0.22413940727710724,
-0.5078263878822327,
-0.33566999435424805,
-0.734589695930481,
0.09265981614589691,
-0.3317470848560333,
0.5382174849510193,
0.38097816705703735,
-0.13709010183811188,
0.5350643992424011,
-0.0760272666811943,
0.5119432210922241,
0.3165397047996521,
-0.3118162155151367,
-0.8075147271156311,
-0.31656530499458313,
-0.3633580505847931,
0.31449955701828003,
0.45559200644493103,
0.21853052079677582,
-0.13195399940013885,
0.21118243038654327,
-0.5961142778396606,
0.5842612981796265,
0.02822812832891941,
1.2323896884918213,
-0.15616914629936218,
-0.4417765438556671,
0.407365083694458,
0.2652527391910553,
0.13491636514663696,
-0.2761884331703186,
-0.4908711016178131,
-0.24534879624843597,
-1.355139136314392,
0.7040632367134094,
1.0931593179702759,
0.42679688334465027,
-0.7889381647109985,
0.1902143955230713,
0.10360867530107498,
0.3966396450996399,
-0.11904919147491455,
-0.27720531821250916,
-0.23645170032978058,
-0.4533267617225647,
0.5793251395225525,
-0.5674328804016113,
0.23475129902362823,
0.6636958122253418,
-0.25270065665245056,
0.04302198439836502,
-0.21241070330142975,
-0.20502376556396484,
-0.07640761882066727,
0.1508217602968216,
0.2987452745437622,
-0.17319650948047638,
0.18081161379814148,
-0.054813943803310394,
-0.11301239579916,
-0.17187662422657013,
-0.27342504262924194,
-5.224176406860352,
0.8066109418869019,
0.033223044127225876,
-0.2544110417366028,
0.4519747197628021,
-0.08026132732629776,
0.39502236247062683,
-0.3965424597263336,
0.6494134068489075,
-0.7319409847259521,
-0.3650754988193512,
-0.4529716372489929,
0.6852173805236816,
-0.08484203368425369,
-0.5041555762290955,
-0.12010888755321503,
0.08686266094446182,
-0.6480103135108948,
0.10780330002307892,
0.5732266902923584,
0.25012892484664917,
-0.37905192375183105,
-0.4118961989879608,
0.16510161757469177,
-0.5411702394485474,
0.6349428296089172,
-0.6064891219139099,
0.30507272481918335,
-0.007626351434737444,
0.034601274877786636,
-0.3144347369670868,
0.13517966866493225,
-0.007687973324209452,
-0.5075956583023071,
-0.37382423877716064,
-0.5560195446014404,
0.5453224182128906,
-0.006758950650691986,
0.30734124779701233,
-0.46935197710990906,
0.030299721285700798,
0.43598535656929016,
-0.40184417366981506,
-0.09147478640079498,
1.2034586668014526,
0.10549978166818619,
-0.4199627935886383,
-0.4963030517101288,
-0.24521146714687347,
0.585903525352478,
0.3871316909790039,
-0.7908068895339966,
-0.33565738797187805,
0.19382831454277039,
0.6554542779922485,
-0.29494500160217285,
0.07095649093389511,
0.13124322891235352,
-0.1295425146818161,
0.20173826813697815,
0.4073166847229004,
-0.7588701844215393,
0.15375125408172607,
-0.2403406947851181,
-0.0005745121161453426,
0.05633972957730293,
0.6212077140808105,
-0.4377002716064453,
-0.18115074932575226,
0.036028336733579636,
0.5967154502868652,
0.4763357937335968,
-0.022889424115419388,
-1.3030927181243896,
-0.2334178239107132,
-0.4139448404312134,
-0.33005857467651367,
0.12745940685272217,
-0.5849111676216125,
-0.28242021799087524,
0.4881773889064789,
-0.4511256515979767,
0.05656222254037857,
0.5801886320114136,
-0.3177819848060608,
-0.11554120481014252,
-0.24292461574077606,
0.5664228796958923,
-0.5349428653717041,
0.023566395044326782,
0.4200316369533539,
-0.75081866979599,
0.22537711262702942,
0.34056758880615234,
-0.02292410470545292,
-0.4556708037853241,
0.1696556955575943,
0.8915069103240967,
0.14707764983177185,
0.38477611541748047,
0.968137800693512,
-0.29194405674934387,
-0.07129184156656265,
-0.29264310002326965,
0.6784883141517639,
-0.6046656370162964,
-0.012039368972182274,
0.22049759328365326,
0.356382817029953,
-0.24169646203517914,
0.006033564452081919,
-0.13517409563064575,
-0.7385871410369873,
-0.21625909209251404,
0.4694574773311615,
-0.08456572145223618,
-0.4268021881580353,
-0.34649568796157837,
0.5503047704696655,
0.4608052968978882,
0.1297387331724167,
0.4034574329853058,
0.12723685801029205,
-0.12831762433052063,
-0.13066703081130981,
-0.40783488750457764,
0.24850329756736755,
0.3855443298816681,
-0.0808844193816185,
0.2435731738805771,
-0.20758874714374542,
0.918830931186676,
-0.20635171234607697,
0.3108256161212921,
0.3979511559009552,
0.1714026927947998,
-0.35345080494880676,
-0.6876786351203918,
-0.20332308113574982,
-0.21285416185855865,
0.4088445007801056,
-0.4675486385822296,
0.49029740691185,
0.09801547974348068,
0.7470251321792603,
0.3196483850479126,
-0.2786124646663666,
-0.2803979814052582,
-0.19977395236492157,
1.0252546072006226,
0.011507552117109299,
-0.38900071382522583,
0.3622153401374817,
-0.3104487955570221,
-0.3985855281352997,
0.18806906044483185,
-0.3311196267604828,
-0.021850086748600006,
-0.14442460238933563,
-0.6999572515487671,
0.8432508707046509,
-0.07848148792982101,
-0.9554954767227173,
0.03268086537718773,
-0.3646094799041748,
-0.32246360182762146,
-0.2442944049835205,
-0.6498748064041138,
-0.9843060970306396,
-0.34823259711265564,
-0.567574143409729,
-0.46741199493408203,
0.23373395204544067,
-0.1951092779636383,
-0.4066120982170105,
-0.16149696707725525,
-0.061919622123241425,
0.06781145185232162,
-0.08364325761795044,
0.4005216658115387,
-0.3261321187019348,
0.005513716954737902,
-0.18521401286125183,
-0.07024602591991425,
0.6206752061843872,
-0.21679586172103882,
-0.16895993053913116,
0.22435849905014038,
-0.11619388312101364,
-0.13657523691654205,
0.03628408908843994,
0.0718633383512497,
0.390732079744339,
0.39979928731918335,
0.49081432819366455,
-0.6522987484931946,
0.49882566928863525,
0.35335686802864075,
0.22971412539482117,
-0.16034232079982758,
0.29108384251594543,
0.02739308774471283,
-0.21490758657455444,
0.6173109412193298,
1.275179386138916,
-0.08707147091627121,
0.3339709937572479,
0.14699822664260864,
-0.3037416338920593,
0.2894749939441681,
0.07179856300354004,
-0.23271942138671875,
0.22402814030647278,
-0.0033627001103013754,
-0.3073623478412628,
-0.24468477070331573,
0.3185880482196808,
0.40526214241981506,
-0.010623381473124027,
-0.5111314058303833,
-0.08688265830278397,
-0.523463785648346,
-0.3180757761001587,
0.3011302947998047,
-0.7573554515838623,
0.28719374537467957,
0.2860572636127472,
0.12787394225597382,
0.6168790459632874,
0.041218601167201996,
-0.034179724752902985,
-0.044871725142002106,
0.602146327495575,
0.5165093541145325,
-0.5449587106704712,
0.04807976260781288,
0.0017606437904760242,
0.6435237526893616,
0.3965015411376953,
-0.10685307532548904,
0.7111221551895142,
0.9726732969284058,
-0.1492902636528015,
0.41759148240089417,
0.44119730591773987,
0.40096601843833923,
0.7498788833618164,
-0.1382027268409729,
-0.48823830485343933,
-0.21292808651924133,
0.4043043255805969,
0.04575985670089722,
-0.4488700032234192,
-0.05810876935720444,
0.2608252763748169,
-0.6420002579689026,
0.11035633087158203,
-0.19968216121196747,
-0.3398626148700714,
-0.07325737178325653,
-0.04906629025936127,
0.10404308885335922,
-0.07087597995996475,
0.21791815757751465,
-0.0057143112644553185,
0.05346306413412094,
0.05808980017900467,
0.5698004961013794,
0.29285427927970886,
-0.48403626680374146,
-0.26867425441741943,
-0.4381844997406006,
0.06785111129283905,
0.014375228434801102,
-0.7657374143600464,
0.35704395174980164,
0.21372029185295105,
-0.2935110926628113,
-0.024099305272102356,
0.09400465339422226,
-0.1897251456975937,
0.28904443979263306,
-0.18898221850395203,
-0.45880234241485596,
0.3334556519985199,
-0.10920317471027374,
0.555957019329071,
-0.12808412313461304,
-0.2731747031211853,
-0.08256105333566666,
-0.012684936635196209,
0.4083704352378845,
0.10401393473148346,
-0.07470697909593582,
-0.1704305112361908,
0.27330225706100464,
-0.04255256429314613,
0.18033239245414734,
0.3922426402568817,
0.03805219754576683,
-0.3684631288051605,
0.6403270363807678,
0.21516674757003784,
-0.15613512694835663,
0.02487783320248127,
-0.40837323665618896,
0.019156353548169136,
-0.28319257497787476,
0.36335739493370056,
0.5232281684875488,
-0.08121263980865479,
-0.25240013003349304,
-0.042254138737916946,
0.3051856756210327,
-0.9315555095672607,
0.22453752160072327,
0.6877342462539673,
-0.724523663520813,
-0.07591479271650314,
0.17922353744506836,
-0.5485234260559082,
-0.5929501056671143,
0.9392675161361694,
0.5955992341041565,
0.7469520568847656,
0.9637780785560608,
-0.09157175570726395,
0.2099413424730301,
0.4004083275794983,
0.5560063123703003,
0.3057917654514313,
-0.14720089733600616,
-0.22040385007858276,
0.01364104263484478,
0.588418185710907,
0.004604238085448742,
0.15833759307861328,
0.4083467423915863,
0.16345086693763733,
0.8895152807235718,
-0.27874693274497986,
0.23785611987113953,
-0.5105181932449341,
0.22761626541614532,
-0.02968919463455677,
-0.16783329844474792,
-0.29326361417770386,
0.19049488008022308,
0.4945404529571533,
0.032826151698827744,
-0.0841514840722084,
-0.6498469114303589,
-0.17723265290260315,
0.05994677171111107,
0.7167721390724182,
-0.4659472703933716,
-0.12900853157043457,
-0.0527542345225811,
-0.7727250456809998,
0.1408863663673401,
0.48661357164382935,
0.22492466866970062,
1.0959416627883911,
0.15581130981445312,
-0.66691654920578,
0.13488619029521942,
-0.41363924741744995,
-0.4165543019771576,
0.09357840567827225,
0.22726058959960938,
-0.8597329258918762,
0.2312340885400772,
-0.452359676361084,
0.11013388633728027,
-0.20426307618618011,
0.21077419817447662,
0.13171915709972382,
0.3110433518886566,
-0.7515304088592529,
0.27691179513931274,
-0.3783890902996063,
-0.6428565382957458,
-0.4416823387145996,
-0.03358469530940056,
0.9061890840530396,
0.6929159164428711,
-0.25147202610969543,
0.20325064659118652,
-0.43085047602653503,
-0.09414356201887131,
0.1615011990070343,
-1.0354350805282593,
0.062423717230558395,
0.3311210870742798,
-0.5966230630874634,
0.1022220253944397,
-0.08815377950668335,
0.783261775970459,
0.60385662317276,
0.2043309062719345,
0.2669319212436676,
0.46577152609825134,
0.3242568373680115,
-0.12726441025733948,
-0.7656726837158203,
0.1736573427915573,
-0.957832396030426,
-0.10150885581970215,
-0.9541186690330505,
0.752189576625824,
0.10319827497005463,
0.2921687662601471,
-0.17813733220100403,
0.5345845222473145,
0.058898597955703735,
0.5735123157501221,
0.0993117094039917,
0.08666064590215683,
-0.05590782314538956,
-0.6444380283355713,
0.3726918697357178,
0.10394953936338425,
-0.16889835894107819,
0.3206194341182709,
-0.17942610383033752,
0.19385580718517303,
0.007680738810449839,
-0.12731894850730896,
-0.1660228818655014,
0.6319277882575989,
-0.167730450630188,
0.02998199686408043,
-0.6690719723701477,
-0.584010899066925,
-0.12234382331371307,
-0.5730908513069153,
0.5890032052993774,
0.204097718000412,
-0.0902109295129776,
-0.22034958004951477,
0.9773999452590942,
-0.14330676198005676,
-0.6400749683380127,
-0.21661785244941711,
0.0015893073286861181,
-0.11307511478662491,
-0.634993314743042,
-0.1285720020532608,
-0.48160237073898315,
0.4233187735080719,
0.04627866670489311,
-0.29298630356788635,
1.1268706321716309,
-0.459200918674469,
-0.12013881653547287,
0.03749842196702957,
0.3142732083797455,
0.2554705739021301,
0.18514291942119598,
-0.5119430422782898
] |
261084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Ager%20Sanguinis | Battle of Ager Sanguinis | In the Battle of Ager Sanguinis, also known as the Battle of the Field of Blood, the Battle of Sarmada, or the Battle of Balat, Roger of Salerno's Crusader army of the Principality of Antioch was annihilated by the army of Ilghazi of Mardin, the Artuqid ruler of Aleppo on June 28, 1119.
Background
Antioch and the other Crusader States were constantly at war with the Muslim states of Northern Syria and the Jazeerah, principally Aleppo and Mosul. When Ridwan of Aleppo died in 1113, there was a period of peace, at least for a few years. However, Roger of Salerno, who was ruling Antioch as regent for Bohemond II, did not take advantage of Ridwan's death; likewise, Baldwin II, count of Edessa, and Pons, count of Tripoli, looked after their own interests and did not ally with Roger against Aleppo. In 1115, Roger defeated a Seljuk Turkish invasion force led by Bursuq ibn Bursuq at the Battle of Sarmin.
In 1117 Aleppo came under the rule of the Artuqid atabeg Ilghazi. In 1118 Roger captured Azaz, which left Aleppo open to attack from the Crusaders; in response, Ilghazi invaded the Principality in 1119. Roger marched out from Artah with Bernard of Valence, the Latin Patriarch of Antioch. Bernard suggested they remain there, as Artah was a well-defended fortress only a short distance away from Antioch, and Ilghazi would not be able to pass if they were stationed there. The Patriarch also advised Roger to call for help from Baldwin, now king of Jerusalem, and Pons, but Roger felt he could not wait for them to arrive.
Roger camped in the pass of Sarmada, while Ilghazi besieged the fort of al-Atharib. A force under Robert of Vieux-Pont set out to break the siege, and Ilghazi feigned a retreat, Robert's men were drawn out from the fort and ambushed.
The battle
Ilghazi was also waiting for reinforcements from Toghtekin, the Burid emir of Damascus, but he too was tired of waiting. Using little-used paths, his army quickly surrounded Roger's camp during the night of June 27. The prince had recklessly chosen a campsite in a wooded valley with steep sides and few avenues of escape. Roger's army of 700 knights, 500 Armenian cavalry and 3,000 foot soldiers, including turcopoles, hastily formed into five divisions. These drew up in a V-shaped line with the tip farthest from the Muslim battle array. From left to right, the divisions were commanded by Robert of St. Lo, Prince Roger, Guy de Frenelle, Geoffrey the Monk and Peter. Meanwhile, Roger told off a sixth division under Renaud Mansoer to protect the Antiochene rear.
As the Muslim army waited, the qadi Abu al-Fadl ibn al-Khashshab, wearing his lawyer's turban but brandishing a lance, rode out in front of the troopers. At first they were incredulous at being harangued by a scholar but at the end of his passionate evocation of the duties and merits of the jihad warrior, according to Kamal ad-Din, the contemporary historian of Aleppo, these hardened professionals wept with emotion and rode into battle.
That morning, June 28, the battle was begun by an archery duel between the Antiochene infantry, posted in front of the knights, and the Turkish bowmen. The crusader army was at first successful when the right-hand divisions of Peter and Geoffrey the Monk attacked and defeated the Artuqids opposed to them. Guy de Frenelle's center division had some success also, but the battle was soon decided on the left flank. Robert of St. Lo and the Turcopoles were driven back into Roger's division, disrupting it. A north wind blew dust in the faces of the Antioch knights and footmen, confusing them further. Soon, Artuqid flanking forces enveloped the crusaders.
During the fighting, Roger was killed by a sword in the face at the foot of the great jewelled cross which had served as his standard. The rest of the army was killed or captured; only two knights survived. Renaud Mansoer took refuge in the fort of Sarmada to wait for King Baldwin, but was later taken captive by Ilghazi. Among the other prisoners was likely Walter the Chancellor, who later wrote an account of the battle. The massacre led to the name of the battle, ager sanguinis, Latin for "the field of blood."
Name "ager sanguinis"
The description ager sanguinis is possibly a Biblical reference to the field purchased by Judas with the money he had been given to betray Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles records that Judas killed himself in the field, and it was thus known as acheldemach in Aramaic, and ager sanguinis in the Vulgate.
Casualties
The Turks captured 70 knights and 500 soldiers of inferior rank. The high-ranking prisoners were ransomed and 30 men who could not pay their way out were executed.
Aftermath
Ilghazi soon went on an alcoholic binge and did not advance to Antioch, where Patriarch Bernard was organizing whatever defense he could. Even so, because of the loss of the Antiochene field army, Atharib, Zerdana, Sarmin, Ma'arrat al-Numan and Kafr Tab rapidly fell into Muslim hands.
Ilghazi was defeated by Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Count Pons at the Battle of Hab on August 14, and Baldwin took over the regency of Antioch. Subsequently, Baldwin recovered some of the lost towns. Even so, the defeat at the Field of Blood left Antioch severely weakened, and subject to repeated attacks by the Muslims in the following decade. Eventually, the Principality came under the influence of a resurgent Byzantine Empire.
The Crusaders regained some of their influence in Syria at the Battle of Azaz six years later in 1125.
Citations
Bibliography
Thomas S. Asbridge and Susan B. Edgington, trans. & eds. Walter the Chancellor's The Antiochene Wars: a translation and commentary. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999. (Appendices also contain the accounts of Fulcher of Chartres, Albert of Aix, Matthew of Edessa, Orderic Vitalis, and William of Tyre.)
Geoffrey Hindley, The Crusades: a history of armed pilgrimage and holy war. London: Constable, 2003
Battles involving the Principality of Antioch
Conflicts in 1119
12th century in the Seljuk Empire
1119 in Asia
1110s in the Crusader states | [
-0.5117796063423157,
-0.24794097244739532,
-0.2108457088470459,
-0.08257874101400375,
-0.6564323902130127,
0.5461361408233643,
0.48978638648986816,
-0.06098094955086708,
-0.14709743857383728,
-0.5432454347610474,
0.2765568196773529,
0.6658121347427368,
-0.16769228875637054,
0.6490411758422852,
-0.4602593779563904,
0.548670768737793,
0.16704002022743225,
-0.03754209727048874,
0.28237226605415344,
-0.7636407017707825,
-0.20468628406524658,
-0.5632337927818298,
0.4809720516204834,
0.6759803295135498,
0.41445595026016235,
0.245328888297081,
0.32176268100738525,
-0.06332498043775558,
0.5276772975921631,
-0.2115367203950882,
0.5140963196754456,
0.130915567278862,
0.036062270402908325,
-0.5265820026397705,
-0.37912270426750183,
-0.113014817237854,
0.21021872758865356,
-0.3289646804332733,
0.09271667897701263,
-0.2863503694534302,
-0.10689593106508255,
0.254610538482666,
0.08276205509901047,
0.5360234379768372,
0.22839735448360443,
0.5514443516731262,
-1.2182564735412598,
0.20449404418468475,
-0.786292314529419,
-0.22639088332653046,
-0.14002424478530884,
0.12470395117998123,
-0.0411326102912426,
0.1437787264585495,
-0.40056875348091125,
0.6515859365463257,
-0.753628134727478,
-0.22859758138656616,
0.3659089505672455,
-0.3613744378089905,
0.6863024234771729,
0.3032322824001312,
0.1429472118616104,
-0.47468578815460205,
-0.46715545654296875,
-0.21511632204055786,
0.5890793800354004,
0.7918208241462708,
0.07324271649122238,
-0.6011697053909302,
0.03701987490057945,
0.29460617899894714,
-0.3781631588935852,
0.4815595746040344,
0.10264412313699722,
-0.257053017616272,
-0.695988118648529,
-0.006937375292181969,
0.32803159952163696,
-0.3769725263118744,
0.10971810668706894,
-0.4385685324668884,
0.37321004271507263,
-0.36840176582336426,
0.2682923972606659,
0.27586793899536133,
0.011762565933167934,
0.20355771481990814,
-0.6798259019851685,
0.016224455088377,
0.054974302649497986,
-0.9966846704483032,
0.22211690247058868,
0.22898367047309875,
-0.19985772669315338,
-0.27889302372932434,
0.11388880014419556,
0.07665565609931946,
-0.3742481470108032,
-0.15386275947093964,
0.16167472302913666,
0.8222876787185669,
-0.1672225147485733,
-0.5524936318397522,
-0.6608572602272034,
0.04406566917896271,
0.033170778304338455,
-0.5985206961631775,
-0.3138885498046875,
-0.5934540629386902,
0.16883718967437744,
0.3030425012111664,
-0.4010753333568573,
-0.5166519284248352,
-0.05121757835149765,
0.3212467432022095,
0.261525422334671,
-0.843942403793335,
0.3555354177951813,
0.42669421434402466,
0.48603519797325134,
0.6314675807952881,
-0.7818202972412109,
0.1028657779097557,
-0.26276829838752747,
0.080630362033844,
0.3468626141548157,
0.21988078951835632,
-0.6219499707221985,
0.5110106468200684,
0.1534593105316162,
0.6242467164993286,
-0.3386865258216858,
0.09411930292844772,
0.48484277725219727,
-0.2054377645254135,
0.3134806156158447,
0.03434264659881592,
0.43537163734436035,
0.2637085020542145,
-0.843370795249939,
-0.37445640563964844,
-0.09929612278938293,
-0.0483434684574604,
0.4902953505516052,
-0.2749275267124176,
0.7582082748413086,
-1.0336860418319702,
0.4417807459831238,
-0.9856258034706116,
0.3120720088481903,
-0.5052603483200073,
-0.2951778471469879,
-0.10466226190328598,
-0.2025216519832611,
0.5601815581321716,
0.37631380558013916,
-0.6694728136062622,
0.1753079742193222,
0.289459228515625,
0.5660367608070374,
0.24100151658058167,
0.07329601049423218,
0.5602890253067017,
0.2319149225950241,
-0.13072744011878967,
0.46239030361175537,
0.38482949137687683,
0.017633479088544846,
-0.3098571300506592,
-0.445504754781723,
-0.22231252491474152,
-0.3134775459766388,
-0.4626096487045288,
-0.09820342808961868,
0.6560500860214233,
0.9695851802825928,
0.38305985927581787,
-0.0003802371211349964,
-0.8073751926422119,
-0.44148656725883484,
0.03344302251935005,
0.2905551791191101,
0.3569808304309845,
0.977230966091156,
0.6375123262405396,
0.13122807443141937,
-0.4998750388622284,
0.024234574288129807,
0.30905038118362427,
-0.1839076280593872,
-0.5376462936401367,
0.3684954345226288,
-0.42287713289260864,
1.0526601076126099,
-0.14063885807991028,
-0.6642155051231384,
0.5392626523971558,
0.20402145385742188,
0.6972143650054932,
-0.5222181677818298,
-0.3337044417858124,
0.7458817958831787,
0.18427790701389313,
-0.18935441970825195,
-0.21473541855812073,
-0.2762685716152191,
-0.014672678895294666,
0.36262011528015137,
0.5682223439216614,
0.6115066409111023,
-0.3202734887599945,
-0.6617381572723389,
0.5225244760513306,
-0.4342922568321228,
0.22075147926807404,
-0.3775351345539093,
0.1995861679315567,
0.4005570113658905,
-0.29607999324798584,
-0.01654762774705887,
-0.39623919129371643,
-0.13073700666427612,
0.18194839358329773,
0.32355448603630066,
0.6111220717430115,
0.09300588071346283,
0.16996964812278748,
0.09449838846921921,
-0.9111126065254211,
0.18631307780742645,
0.4418233036994934,
0.17435120046138763,
-0.1643734574317932,
0.09275374561548233,
-0.4861733913421631,
-0.31590044498443604,
-0.4283720552921295,
0.6683313250541687,
-0.24080580472946167,
0.09597200900316238,
0.12755851447582245,
-0.15495066344738007,
0.17798647284507751,
0.17387868463993073,
0.728195309638977,
-0.3091588020324707,
0.593718945980072,
-0.15849344432353973,
-0.2165873497724533,
0.14116813242435455,
0.22661417722702026,
-0.4635496735572815,
-0.10784776508808136,
0.02992905117571354,
-0.3486717641353607,
0.5004484057426453,
0.23114192485809326,
0.05574846267700195,
-0.48285359144210815,
-0.17683352530002594,
-0.44044211506843567,
0.4670701026916504,
0.42335566878318787,
0.8297230005264282,
-0.5133121013641357,
-1.0314308404922485,
-0.5594757199287415,
0.5169223546981812,
-0.4503205716609955,
0.25371670722961426,
0.3195931911468506,
-0.13866089284420013,
0.1692599207162857,
-0.19927844405174255,
-0.6240264177322388,
-0.46190381050109863,
-0.04061279818415642,
-0.33831986784935,
-0.2827708423137665,
0.27058151364326477,
0.7861375212669373,
0.1436963826417923,
-0.235446497797966,
-0.7980390191078186,
0.32037225365638733,
0.4492180049419403,
-0.44777894020080566,
0.6508142948150635,
-0.23708489537239075,
0.4638758599758148,
0.45978453755378723,
0.1053372323513031,
0.3686680197715759,
0.26766809821128845,
0.09082404524087906,
0.020841781049966812,
-0.36036768555641174,
0.6429833173751831,
-0.23560798168182373,
-0.49239668250083923,
0.20799343287944794,
-0.6115124225616455,
0.011085055768489838,
0.3347100019454956,
0.016672540456056595,
-0.009127496741712093,
0.04260924831032753,
-5.487146854400635,
0.4400205910205841,
-0.36476942896842957,
-0.1322043091058731,
-0.1533801108598709,
-0.43148064613342285,
0.3423948884010315,
-0.2676945924758911,
0.014030266553163528,
-0.25797900557518005,
-0.2927221953868866,
-0.44518017768859863,
0.11616937071084976,
-0.25940120220184326,
0.6078581213951111,
-0.16753943264484406,
0.5367547869682312,
-0.2731967866420746,
0.15856070816516876,
0.12106626480817795,
-0.04949812963604927,
-0.17475031316280365,
-0.2181227207183838,
0.9929040670394897,
0.33509570360183716,
0.45156705379486084,
0.17357707023620605,
-0.47673332691192627,
-0.49452218413352966,
0.37989044189453125,
0.012691162526607513,
-0.15396295487880707,
0.46063822507858276,
0.5959447622299194,
-0.30560898780822754,
-0.1388556957244873,
0.8853216171264648,
0.1052708849310875,
0.7692838907241821,
-0.7009632587432861,
0.09682760387659073,
0.002017119200900197,
-0.1189226433634758,
-0.0693085566163063,
0.26008814573287964,
-0.5785237550735474,
-0.3224492073059082,
0.6747254729270935,
-0.353259801864624,
0.5828920006752014,
0.4652928411960602,
-0.08547721058130264,
-0.5017114281654358,
0.13089287281036377,
0.002668987959623337,
0.12423263490200043,
-0.22650374472141266,
-0.6438635587692261,
-0.11253460496664047,
0.35002240538597107,
0.4827514886856079,
-0.35457509756088257,
0.19007474184036255,
-0.7715158462524414,
0.9171332120895386,
0.05592218041419983,
0.314022421836853,
-0.3689149022102356,
0.04022425785660744,
0.37667253613471985,
0.34331509470939636,
0.6108797192573547,
-0.7455498576164246,
-0.8916819095611572,
-0.1287859082221985,
-0.3100382685661316,
-0.1830936223268509,
0.09421668946743011,
0.11003639549016953,
0.2788069248199463,
0.25378966331481934,
-0.7277873158454895,
0.14094315469264984,
0.03471452742815018,
0.6350035667419434,
-0.10968755930662155,
-0.15348948538303375,
-0.13415281474590302,
-0.4046073257923126,
0.015721742063760757,
1.063158631324768,
-0.448101282119751,
-0.33114317059516907,
0.05124030262231827,
0.10009779781103134,
1.0473965406417847,
-0.4807029068470001,
0.2961784303188324,
0.9774895310401917,
0.3343823254108429,
0.8556318283081055,
0.04928649216890335,
0.9292528033256531,
-0.29838916659355164,
-0.29416364431381226,
-0.020062154158949852,
-0.5696303844451904,
0.5421076416969299,
0.6032239198684692,
0.014620975591242313,
-0.4106997847557068,
-0.3366420567035675,
-0.18626639246940613,
-0.31167858839035034,
0.24260735511779785,
-0.6142770648002625,
0.057235635817050934,
0.35127249360084534,
0.6440713405609131,
-0.03794980049133301,
0.09800469130277634,
-0.04831840842962265,
-0.5468959808349609,
-0.12784318625926971,
0.3797529339790344,
-0.30666953325271606,
-0.47705650329589844,
0.47799599170684814,
-0.33434683084487915,
0.00027924933237954974,
0.10742056369781494,
-0.30232083797454834,
0.1610013246536255,
-0.0811280906200409,
-0.22964049875736237,
-0.9201624989509583,
-0.4882754385471344,
-1.2189403772354126,
0.23774632811546326,
0.11313657462596893,
0.0489950105547905,
-0.17345348000526428,
-0.5273116230964661,
0.2204532027244568,
0.4086313545703888,
0.25388777256011963,
0.154434472322464,
-0.6366942524909973,
-0.16321006417274475,
0.3706875443458557,
-0.3218992352485657,
-0.27874112129211426,
0.5231800079345703,
-0.5103710889816284,
-0.3943977355957031,
-0.004639337304979563,
-0.21534360945224762,
0.07466399669647217,
-0.4373224973678589,
-0.4540283977985382,
-0.37325066328048706,
0.15106183290481567,
-0.898405134677887,
0.07373733818531036,
-0.2076127678155899,
-0.2528172731399536,
0.5033589005470276,
-0.843628466129303,
-0.8846277594566345,
0.5991250872612,
0.07476362586021423,
0.04651357978582382,
-0.5326108336448669,
0.17863941192626953,
0.19333438575267792,
-0.4680202305316925,
-0.020748961716890335,
-0.09811138361692429,
0.11555047333240509,
-0.5404162406921387,
-0.24600178003311157,
0.2388889491558075,
-0.07208464294672012,
0.6087075471878052,
0.3349287807941437,
-0.08870519697666168,
-0.4339292049407959,
-0.26863551139831543,
-1.225193977355957,
-0.046890851110219955,
0.19980508089065552,
0.03016708604991436,
-0.14718018472194672,
-0.5004542469978333,
-0.5553169250488281,
-0.30836278200149536,
0.06444693356752396,
-0.3276054561138153,
0.26227128505706787,
-0.1558690369129181,
-0.1616421490907669,
0.8257907629013062,
-0.9002422094345093,
0.09103226661682129,
0.011578153818845749,
-1.231685757637024,
0.3588983714580536,
0.44745901226997375,
-1.124700665473938,
0.6216586828231812,
0.012328317388892174,
-0.667830765247345,
-0.21492499113082886,
0.7596902251243591,
-0.13991452753543854,
0.5473828911781311,
-0.3924069404602051,
0.06699266284704208,
-0.20942352712154388,
-0.5434138774871826,
0.06266538798809052,
-0.37595662474632263,
-0.1853465884923935,
-0.30707883834838867,
-0.34594497084617615,
0.49521133303642273,
0.6910154819488525,
-0.4572518467903137,
0.4022502303123474,
0.1629788875579834,
-0.2511962354183197,
0.14460548758506775,
0.06227327510714531,
0.24930313229560852,
-0.012711127288639545,
0.1533428579568863,
0.6337624788284302,
-0.15601010620594025,
-0.01939435862004757,
0.40770357847213745,
0.4375431537628174,
0.5788285732269287,
0.4387139678001404,
0.0974540188908577,
0.5193289518356323,
-0.06477554142475128,
-0.08603314310312271,
-0.38853493332862854,
-0.13050274550914764,
-0.1555914431810379,
0.013624132610857487,
0.18300777673721313,
-0.28303730487823486,
-0.07559895515441895,
0.5788425803184509,
-0.595193088054657,
-0.2001529037952423,
-0.06767493486404419,
-0.22080476582050323,
0.46394357085227966,
-0.15110670030117035,
0.0650772750377655,
-0.2932032644748688,
0.17033985257148743,
0.39763393998146057,
0.01918558031320572,
0.02458990551531315,
-0.5703887939453125,
0.16566959023475647,
0.2740049362182617,
0.05917259305715561,
-0.544376790523529,
0.343840092420578,
-0.08534697443246841,
0.07862116396427155,
-0.3404492437839508,
-0.03639979287981987,
-0.2437785267829895,
0.5389229655265808,
0.3373302221298218,
-0.9840654730796814,
-0.679013729095459,
-0.0489732101559639,
-0.15043088793754578,
0.13281677663326263,
-1.1479616165161133,
-0.2727699279785156,
0.4084530770778656,
0.34771835803985596,
0.09840207546949387,
-0.1098826453089714,
-0.22923731803894043,
0.15803112089633942,
0.21706700325012207,
0.32237815856933594,
0.4958493411540985,
-0.6890963315963745,
0.7252891659736633,
-0.7358818650245667,
-0.2312392294406891,
-0.48626384139060974,
1.244076132774353,
0.3338608741760254,
-0.531038224697113,
0.06698562204837799,
0.4297614097595215,
0.29877790808677673,
0.09055358916521072,
-0.08648308366537094,
0.35525813698768616,
0.22148966789245605,
0.48933663964271545,
-0.39943307638168335,
0.2685638666152954,
-0.4674406349658966,
-0.32341697812080383,
0.20964907109737396,
0.08594860136508942,
-0.021009057760238647,
0.1520477831363678,
-0.16008903086185455,
0.48567038774490356,
0.21755750477313995,
0.14168605208396912,
-0.13996493816375732,
0.627082884311676,
-0.23653140664100647,
0.07284586131572723,
0.6144874095916748,
0.5841822028160095,
0.11745548248291016,
-0.28023695945739746,
-0.5650030970573425,
0.885159432888031,
-0.2063634693622589,
-0.43351301550865173,
-0.07141293585300446,
-1.1070973873138428,
0.18433961272239685,
0.2789376378059387,
0.5126003623008728,
0.6598649024963379,
-0.07903017848730087,
-0.21114450693130493,
-0.5413045287132263,
0.3328559398651123,
-0.6040692329406738,
0.32162508368492126,
0.5442295074462891,
-0.2653994858264923,
0.480743408203125,
-0.2901570796966553,
0.10896776616573334,
-0.6822987198829651,
0.12740612030029297,
0.3232918381690979,
-0.027962468564510345,
0.10958028584718704,
-0.2939857840538025,
-0.1686517894268036,
-0.06695564836263657,
-0.2619100511074066,
0.5468289852142334,
-0.4587368369102478,
-0.3016285300254822,
-0.01387119572609663,
-0.14848488569259644,
-0.1582125723361969,
0.2847428321838379,
0.2522483468055725,
0.11928685009479523,
-0.058195311576128006,
0.08688227832317352,
-0.44063568115234375,
0.7998349666595459,
-0.16222628951072693,
0.057523004710674286,
0.19823166728019714,
-0.4230822026729584,
0.45969343185424805,
-0.08870937675237656,
-0.0037708624731749296,
-0.34443584084510803,
-0.3986089527606964,
-0.4086616039276123,
-0.3724338710308075,
0.3806320130825043,
0.10234226286411285,
0.20058058202266693,
-0.6825735569000244,
0.5928745269775391,
-0.15463705360889435,
-0.19053754210472107,
-0.34377971291542053,
-0.01161299180239439,
0.07728364318609238,
0.1499001830816269,
0.761730968952179,
0.5921836495399475,
0.037279367446899414,
-0.3883472681045532,
-0.11743656545877457,
0.36578747630119324,
0.39088770747184753,
-0.2590710520744324,
0.23469077050685883,
0.08631367236375809,
0.40353649854660034,
-0.21275335550308228,
0.30699047446250916,
0.40238842368125916,
-0.4942741096019745,
0.24917545914649963,
0.5526502132415771,
-0.8907212615013123,
-0.5333936810493469,
0.6780285835266113,
0.05280398204922676,
-0.07959026843309402,
-0.5072937607765198,
0.19361284375190735,
-0.16359950602054596,
0.050062671303749084,
0.06799735873937607,
0.2598598003387451,
-0.3438844382762909,
-0.310435026884079,
0.47667086124420166,
-0.25968602299690247,
0.6885780692100525,
0.3158721923828125,
-0.24945716559886932,
-0.18123339116573334,
-0.29266685247421265,
-0.3096170127391815,
-0.2799737751483917,
0.6421990990638733,
-0.6604902744293213,
0.04774395376443863,
-0.3103526532649994,
0.4575859606266022,
-0.7001798152923584,
0.48672357201576233,
0.012971874326467514,
0.516444742679596,
-0.5158594846725464,
-0.11712896823883057,
-0.19205006957054138,
0.11707568913698196,
0.8138240575790405,
0.5064058303833008,
0.3913492262363434,
0.6418137550354004,
-0.04428540915250778,
-0.10818030685186386,
-0.22937949001789093,
-0.6771942377090454,
-0.5819932818412781,
0.020091034471988678,
0.17417292296886444
] |
261087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauren%20Bacall | Lauren Bacall | Lauren Bacall (; born Betty Joan Perske; September 16, 1924 – August 12, 2014) was an American actress. She was named the 20th-greatest female star of classic Hollywood cinema by the American Film Institute and received an Academy Honorary Award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 2009 in recognition of her contribution to the Golden Age of motion pictures. She was known initially for her alluring, sultry presence and her distinctive, husky voice. Bacall was one of the last surviving major stars from the Golden Age of Hollywood cinema.
Bacall began a career as a model for the Walter Thornton Modeling agency before making her film debut at the age of 19 as the leading lady opposite future husband Humphrey Bogart in To Have and Have Not (1944). She continued in the film noir genre with appearances alongside her new husband in The Big Sleep (1946), Dark Passage (1947), and Key Largo (1948), and she starred in the romantic comedies How to Marry a Millionaire (1953) with Marilyn Monroe and Betty Grable, and Designing Woman (1957) with Gregory Peck. She co-starred with John Wayne in his final film The Shootist (1976) by Wayne's personal request. She also worked on Broadway in musicals, earning Tony Awards for Applause (1970) and Woman of the Year (1981). She won a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for an Academy Award for her performance in The Mirror Has Two Faces (1996).
Early life
Lauren Bacall was born Betty Joan Perske on September 16, 1924, in The Bronx, New York City, the only child of Natalie (née Weinstein-Bacal; 1901–1969), a secretary who later legally changed her surname to Bacal, and William Perske (1889–1982), who worked in sales. Both of her parents were Jewish. Her mother emigrated from Iași, Romania, through Ellis Island. Her father was born in New Jersey, to parents who were born in Valozhyn, a predominantly Jewish community in present-day Belarus.
Bacall's parents divorced when she was five, after which she no longer saw her father. She later took the Romanian form of her mother's last name, Bacall. Bacall was close to her mother, who remarried to Lee Goldberg and went to live in California after Bacall became a movie star. Through her father, she was a relative of Shimon Peres (born Szymon Perski), the eighth Prime Minister of Israel and ninth President of Israel. Peres attributed Bacall as the source of the claim of relation and said he knew nothing of it until she told him.
Bacall's family moved soon after her birth to Brooklyn's Ocean Parkway. Money from a wealthy family allowed Bacall to go to school at the Highland Manor Boarding School for Girls in Tarrytown, New York, a private boarding school founded by philanthropist Eugene Heitler Lehman, and at Julia Richman High School in Manhattan.
Early career and modeling
In 1941, Bacall took lessons at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York, where she dated classmate Kirk Douglas, she worked as a theatre usher at the St. James Theatre and as a fashion model in department stores.
She made her acting debut on Broadway in 1942, at age 17, as a walk-on in Johnny 2 X 4. By then, she lived with her mother at 75 Bank Street, and in 1942, she was crowned Miss Greenwich Village.
As a teenage fashion model, she appeared on the cover of Harper's Bazaar, and in magazines such as Vogue. An article in Life magazine in 1948 referred to her "cat-like grace, tawny blonde hair, and blue-green eyes".
Though Diana Vreeland is often credited with discovering Bacall for Harper's Bazaar, it was in fact Nicolas de Gunzburg who introduced the 18-year-old to Vreeland. He had first met Bacall at Tony's, a club in the East 50s. De Gunzburg suggested that Bacall stop by his Bazaar office the next day. He then turned her over to Vreeland, who arranged for Louise Dahl-Wolfe to shoot Bacall in Kodachrome for the March 1943 cover.
The Harper's Bazaar cover caught the attention of "Slim" Keith, the wife of Hollywood producer and director Howard Hawks. She urged her husband to have Bacall take a screen test for his forthcoming film, To Have and Have Not. Hawks asked his secretary to find out more about her, but the secretary misunderstood and sent Bacall a ticket to come to Hollywood for the audition.
Hollywood
After meeting Bacall in Hollywood, Hawks immediately signed her to a seven-year contract, with a weekly salary of $100, and personally began to manage her career. He changed her first name to Lauren, and she chose "Bacall", a variant of her mother's maiden name, as her screen surname. Slim Hawks also took Bacall under her wing, dressing Bacall stylishly and guiding her in matters of elegance, manners, and taste. At Hawks' suggestion, Bacall was also trained by a voice coach to make her voice lower and deeper, instead of her normal high-pitched, nasal voice. As part of her training, she was required to shout verses of Shakespeare for hours every day. Her height, at , unusual among young actresses in the 1940s and 1950s, also helped her stand out. Her voice was characterized as a "smoky, sexual growl" by most critics, and a "throaty purr".
During her screen tests for To Have and Have Not (1944), Bacall was so nervous that, to minimize her quivering, she pressed her chin against her chest, faced the camera, and tilted her eyes upward. This effect, which came to be known as "The Look", became another Bacall trademark, along with her sultry voice.
Bacall's character in the film used Slim Hawks' nickname "Slim", and Bogart used Howard Hawks' nickname "Steve". The on-set chemistry between the two was immediate, according to Bacall. She and Bogart, who was married at the time to Mayo Methot, began a romantic relationship several weeks into shooting.
Bacall's role in the script was originally much smaller, but during filming, her part was revised multiple times to extend it into the lead part that it became in the released film. Once released, To Have and Have Not catapulted Bacall into instant stardom, and her performance became the cornerstone of her star image, the impact of which extended into popular culture at large, even influencing fashion, as well as film-makers and other actors.
Warner Bros. launched an extensive marketing campaign to promote the picture and to establish Bacall as a movie star. As part of the public relations push, Bacall made a visit to the National Press Club in Washington, D.C., on February 10, 1945. It was there that Bacall's press agent, chief of publicity at Warner Bros. Charlie Enfield, asked the 20-year-old Bacall to sit on the piano while U.S. Vice President Harry S. Truman played.
After To Have and Have Not, Bacall was seen opposite Charles Boyer in Confidential Agent (1945), which was poorly received by critics. By her own estimation, it could have caused considerable damage to her career, but her next performance as the mysterious, acid-tongued Vivian Rutledge in Hawks's film noir The Big Sleep (1946), co-starring Bogart, provided a quick career resurgence.
The Big Sleep laid the foundation for her status as an icon of film noir. She would be strongly associated with the genre for the rest of her career, and would often be cast as variations of the independent and sultry femme fatale character of Vivian she played in the movie. As described by film scholar Joe McElhaney, "Vivian displays an almost total command of movement and gesture. She never crawls."
Bacall was cast with Bogart in two more films. In Dark Passage (1947), another film noir, she played an enigmatic San Francisco artist. "Miss Bacall... generates quite a lot of pressure as a sharp-eyed, knows-what-she-wants girl," wrote Bosley Crowther of The New York Times of her performance. Bacall appeared in John Huston's melodramatic suspense film Key Largo (1948) with Bogart, Edward G. Robinson and Lionel Barrymore. In the film, according to film critic Jessica Kiang, "Bacall brings an edge of ambivalence and independence to the role that makes her character much more interesting than was written."
1950s
Bacall turned down scripts she did not find interesting, and thereby earned a reputation for being difficult. Despite this, she further solidified her star status in the 1950s by appearing as the leading lady in a string of films that won favorable reviews.
Bacall was cast opposite Gary Cooper in Bright Leaf (1950). In the same year, she played a two-faced femme fatale in Young Man with a Horn (1950), a jazz musical co-starring Kirk Douglas, Doris Day, and Hoagy Carmichael.
From 1951 to 1952, Bacall co-starred with Bogart in the syndicated action-adventure radio series Bold Venture.
She starred in the first CinemaScope comedy How to Marry a Millionaire (1953), a runaway hit among critics and at the box office. Directed by Jean Negulesco and co-starring Marilyn Monroe and Betty Grable, Bacall got positive notices for her turn as the witty gold-digger, Schatze Page. "First honors in spreading mirth go to Miss Bacall," wrote Alton Cook in the New York World-Telegram & Sun. "The most intelligent and predatory of the trio, she takes complete control of every scene with her acid delivery of viciously witty lines."
After the success of How to Marry a Millionaire, she was offered, but declined, with Bogart's support, the coveted invitation from Grauman's Chinese Theatre to press her hand- and footprints in the theatre's cemented forecourt. She felt at the time that "anyone with a picture opening could be represented there, standards had been so lowered" and didn't feel she had yet achieved the status of a major star, and was thereby unworthy of the honor: "I want to feel I've earned my place with the best my business has produced."
At the time, Bacall was under contract to 20th Century Fox. Following How to Marry a Millionaire, she appeared in yet another CinemaScope comedy directed by Jean Negulesco, Woman's World (1954), which failed to match its predecessor's success at the box office.
A television version of Bogart's early film success, The Petrified Forest (1955), was performed as a live installment of Producers' Showcase, a weekly dramatic anthology, featuring Bogart once more as Duke Mantee, Henry Fonda as Alan, and Bacall as Gabrielle, the parts originally played in the 1936 movie by Leslie Howard and Bette Davis. In the late 1990s, Bacall donated the only known kinescope of the 1955 performance to The Museum of Television & Radio (now the Paley Center for Media), where it remains archived for viewing in New York City and Los Angeles.
Bacall starred in two feature films, The Cobweb and Blood Alley, which were both released in 1955. Directed by Vincente Minnelli, The Cobweb takes place at a mental institution in which Bacall's character works as a therapist. It was her second collaboration with Charles Boyer and the film also starred Richard Widmark and Lillian Gish. "In the only two really sympathetic roles, Mr. Widmark is excellent and Miss Bacall shrewdly underplays," wrote The New York Times critic.
Many film scholars consider Written on the Wind, (1956) directed by Douglas Sirk, to be a landmark melodrama. Appearing with Rock Hudson, Dorothy Malone and Robert Stack, Bacall played a career woman whose life is unexpectedly turned around by a family of oil magnates. Bacall wrote in her autobiography that she did not think much of her role, but reviews were favorable. Wrote Variety, "Bacall registers strongly as a sensible girl swept into the madness of the oil family."
While struggling at home with Bogart suffering from terminal esophageal cancer, Bacall starred with Gregory Peck in Designing Woman (1957) to solid reviews. The musical comedy was her second feature with director Vincente Minnelli and was released in New York on May 16, 1957, four months after Bogart's death on January 14.
Bacall appeared in two more films in the 1950s: the Jean Negulesco-directed melodrama The Gift of Love (1958), which co-starred Robert Stack; and the British adventure film North West Frontier (1959), which was a box-office hit.
1960s and 1970s
Bacall was seen in only a handful of films in the 1960s. She starred on Broadway in Goodbye, Charlie in 1959, and went on to have a successful on-stage career in Cactus Flower (1965), Applause (1970), and Woman of the Year (1981). She won Tony Awards for her performances in the latter two.
Applause was a musical version of the film All About Eve, in which Bette Davis had starred as stage diva Margo Channing. According to Bacall's autobiography, she and a girlfriend won an opportunity in 1940 to meet her idol Bette Davis at Davis' hotel. Years later, Davis visited Bacall backstage to congratulate her on her performance in Applause. Davis told Bacall, "You're the only one who could have played the part."
The few films Bacall made during this period were all-star vehicles such as Sex and the Single Girl (1964) with Henry Fonda, Tony Curtis, and Natalie Wood; Harper (1966) with Paul Newman, Shelley Winters, Julie Harris, Robert Wagner, and Janet Leigh; and Murder on the Orient Express (1974), with Ingrid Bergman, Albert Finney, Vanessa Redgrave, Martin Balsam, and Sean Connery.
In 1964, she appeared in two episodes of Craig Stevens's Mr. Broadway: first in "Take a Walk Through a Cemetery" with then husband, Jason Robards, Jr., and later as Barbara Lake in the episode "Something to Sing About" co-starring future co-star Balsam.
For her work in the Chicago theatre, Bacall won the Sarah Siddons Award in 1972, and again in 1984.
In 1976, she co-starred with John Wayne in The Shootist. They had also worked together in Blood Alley (1955).
Later career
Bacall appeared in the star vehicle The Fan, a horror film released in 1981. The film received mixed reviews, but her performance gained a favorable reception. Variety magazine wrote that Bacall and director Edward Bianchi "make the audience care what happens" to her character.
Bacall was featured in Robert Altman's comedy Health (1980) and Michael Winner's Appointment with Death (1988). She had a small role in Misery (1990), which starred Kathy Bates and James Caan.
She was nominated for a Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for her supporting role in The Mirror Has Two Faces (1996), her first nomination after a career span of more than 50 years. She had already won a Golden Globe and was widely expected to win the Oscar, but she lost to Juliette Binoche for The English Patient.
Bacall received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1997, and she was voted one of the 25 most significant female movie stars in history in 1999 by the American Film Institute. Her movie career saw something of a renaissance, and she attracted respectful notices for her performances in high-profile projects such as Dogville (2003) and Birth (2004), both with Nicole Kidman, and in Howl's Moving Castle (2004) as the Witch of the Waste. She was a leading actress in Paul Schrader's The Walker (2007).
In 1999, Bacall starred on Broadway in a revival of Noël Coward's Waiting in the Wings. Her commercial ventures in the 2000s included being a spokesman for the Tuesday Morning discount chain and producing a jewelry line with the Weinman Brothers. She was also a celebrity spokesman for High Point coffee and Fancy Feast cat food. In March 2006, she was at the 78th Annual Academy Awards introducing a film montage dedicated to film noir. She made a cameo appearance as herself on The Sopranos in the April 2006 episode "Luxury Lounge", during which she was mugged by Christopher Moltisanti (Michael Imperioli).
In September 2006, Bryn Mawr College awarded Bacall their Katharine Hepburn Medal, which recognizes "women whose lives, work, and contributions embody the intelligence, drive, and independence" of Hepburn. She gave an address at the memorial service of Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. at the Reform Club in London in June 2007. She finished her role in The Forger in 2009. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences gave her an Honorary Academy Award at the inaugural Governors Awards on November 14, 2009.
In July 2013, Bacall expressed interest in the film Trouble Is My Business. In November, she joined the English dub voice cast for StudioCanal's animated film Ernest & Celestine. Her final role was in 2014, as a guest voice appearance in the Family Guy episode "Mom's the Word".
Personal life
Relationships and family
On May 21, 1945, Bacall married Humphrey Bogart. Their wedding and honeymoon took place at Malabar Farm, Lucas, Ohio, the country home of Pulitzer Prize-winning author Louis Bromfield, a close friend of Bogart. She was married to Bogart until he died in 1957.
During the filming of The African Queen (1951), Bacall and Bogart became friends with Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy. She began to mix in non-acting circles, becoming friends with the historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. and the journalist Alistair Cooke. In 1952, she gave campaign speeches for Democratic presidential contender Adlai Stevenson. Along with other Hollywood figures, Bacall was a strong opponent of McCarthyism.
Bacall had a relationship with Frank Sinatra after Bogart's death. During an interview with Turner Classic Movies's Robert Osborne, Bacall stated that she had ended the romance, but, in her autobiography Lauren Bacall by Myself, she wrote that Sinatra ended the relationship abruptly after becoming upset that his marriage proposal had been leaked to the press, believing Bacall to be responsible. However, Bacall states in Lauren Bacall by Myself that when she was out with her friend Irving "Swifty" Lazar, they encountered the gossip columnist Louella Parsons, to whom Lazar revealed the news. Bacall wrote in By Myself that Sinatra only found out the truth years later.
Bacall then met and began a relationship with Jason Robards. Their wedding was originally scheduled to take place in Vienna, Austria, on June 16, 1961. The wedding plans were shelved after Austrian authorities refused to grant the couple a marriage license, due to Robards being unable to produce divorce documents from his previous marriage, and Bacall being unable to produce Humphrey Bogart's death certificate. They were also refused a marriage in Las Vegas, Nevada, due to similar documentation issues. On July 4, 1961, the couple drove to Ensenada, Mexico, where they wed. The couple divorced in 1969. According to Bacall's autobiography, she divorced Robards mainly because of his alcoholism.
Bacall had two children with Bogart and one with Robards. Son Stephen Humphrey Bogart (born January 6, 1949) is a news producer, documentary film maker, and author who is named after Bogart's character in To Have and Have Not. Their daughter Leslie Howard Bogart (born August 23, 1952) is named after the actor Leslie Howard. A nurse and yoga instructor, she is married to Erich Schiffmann. In his 1995 memoir, Stephen Bogart wrote, "My mother was a lapsed Jew, and my father was a lapsed Episcopalian", and that he and his sister were raised Episcopalian "because my mother felt that would make life easier for Leslie and me during those post-World War II years". Sam Robards (born December 16, 1961), Bacall's son with Robards, is an actor.
Bacall wrote two autobiographies, Lauren Bacall by Myself (1978) and Now (1994). In 2006, the first volume of Lauren Bacall by Myself was reprinted as By Myself and Then Some with an extra chapter.
In a 1996 interview, Bacall, reflecting on her life, told the interviewer Jeremy Isaacs that she had been lucky:
I had one great marriage, I have three great children and four grandchildren. I am still alive. I still can function. I still can work ... You just learn to cope with whatever you have to cope with. I spent my childhood in New York, riding on subways and buses. And you know what you learn if you're a New Yorker? The world doesn't owe you a damn thing."BBC – The Late Show – Face to Face: Lauren Bacall", Interview with Jeremy Isaacs, BBC, March 20, 1995
Political views
Bacall was a staunch liberal Democrat, and proclaimed her political views on numerous occasions. Bacall and Bogart were among about 80 Hollywood personalities to send a telegram protesting the House Un-American Activities Committee's investigations of Americans suspected of adhering to communism. The telegram said that investigating individuals' political beliefs violated the basic principles of American democracy. In October 1947, Bacall and Bogart traveled to Washington, D.C., along with a number of other Hollywood stars in a group that called itself the Committee for the First Amendment (CFA), which also included Danny Kaye, John Garfield, Gene Kelly, John Huston, Ira Gershwin, and Jane Wyatt.
She appeared alongside Humphrey Bogart in a photograph printed at the end of an article he wrote, titled "I'm No Communist", in the May 1948 edition of Photoplay magazine, written to counteract negative publicity resulting from his appearance before the House Committee. Bogart and Bacall distanced themselves from the Hollywood Ten, and said: "We're about as much in favor of Communism as J. Edgar Hoover."
Bacall campaigned for Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential election, accompanying him on motorcades along with Bogart, and flying east to help in the final laps of Stevenson's campaign in New York and Chicago. She also campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy in his 1964 run for the U.S. Senate.
In a 2005 interview with Larry King, Bacall described herself as "anti-Republican... A liberal. The L-word". She added that "being a liberal is the best thing on Earth you can be. You are welcoming to everyone when you're a liberal. You do not have a small mind."
According to her son Stephen Bogart in his book “Bogart: In Search of My Father”, his father’s reputation as a staunch liberal Democrat is largely due to his mother’s status as such, and that she has built up his reputation as such. Stephen claims that his father was much more moderate in his views than has been spread, and that, had he lived, he would have even been conservative on some issues.
Death
Bacall died on August 12, 2014, one month before her 90th birthday, at her longtime apartment in The Dakota, the Upper West Side building near Central Park in Manhattan. According to her grandson Jamie Bogart, Bacall died after suffering a massive stroke. She was confirmed dead at New York–Presbyterian Hospital.
Bacall had an estimated $26.6 million estate. The bulk of her estate was divided among her three children: Leslie Bogart, Stephen Humphrey Bogart, and Sam Robards. Additionally, Bacall left $250,000 each to her youngest grandsons, the sons of Sam Robards, for college.
Filmography
Radio appearances
Lux Radio Theatre (1946) - Episode: To Have and Have Not
Bold Venture (1951–1952) - 78 episodes
Accolades
Books
By Myself (1978)
Now (1994)
By Myself and Then Some (2005)
In popular culture
Film
The 1980 television film Bogie, directed by Vincent Sherman and based on a book by Joe Hyams, tells the story of Bogart meeting Bacall while making To Have and Have Not in 1943, and beginning the affair with her that led to the dissolution of Bogart's marriage to Mayo Methot. Bacall is portrayed by Kathryn Harrold in the film; Kevin O'Connor plays Bogart; and Methot is played by Ann Wedgeworth.
Television
She appeared in The Sopranos season six, episode 7 “Luxury Lounge” as herself.
Animation
Bacall and Bogart are parodied in the Warner Brothers Merrie Melodies shorts Bacall to Arms (1946) and Slick Hare (1947).
Music
Bacall and Bogart are referenced in Bertie Higgins' song "Key Largo" (1981).
Bacall is referenced in The Clash's song "Car Jamming" (1982).
Bacall and Bogart are referenced in Suzanne Vega's song "Freeze Tag" (1985).
She is referenced in "Vogue", the 1990 song by Madonna. Bacall was the last to die of the celebrities mentioned in the lyrics.
She is the subject of the song "Just Like Lauren Bacall" (2008) written by Kevin Roth.
Books
Bacall and her Manhattan apartment are featured in The Dakota Scrapbook (2014), a photo-journalism volume on the history of the Dakota apartment building in New York City, and its famous residents over the years.
In the novel Forgive Me, Leonard Peacock, a character named Lauren is often recognized by the protagonist, Leonard, as having a striking resemblance to Lauren Bacall.
Marshall Islands namesake
The town of Laura—on the island of Majuro in the Marshall Islands—is one of several island towns code-named after the troops' favorite actresses by World War II U.S. forces.
See also
Bogart and Bacall
Bogart–Bacall syndrome
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Lauren Bacall at aenigma
1924 births
2014 deaths
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Academy Honorary Award recipients
Actresses from New York City
American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni
American film actresses
American musical theatre actresses
American people of Jewish descent
American people of Romanian-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American stage actresses
American voice actresses
Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
California Democrats
Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners
César Honorary Award recipients
Female models from New York (state)
Jewish American actresses
Jewish female models
Julia Richman Education Complex alumni
Kennedy Center honorees
Models from New York City
National Book Award winners
New York (state) Democrats
Deaths from cerebrovascular disease
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners
People from Holmby Hills, Los Angeles
People from the Upper West Side
Tony Award winners
Warner Bros. contract players
Writers from Manhattan
21st-century American Jews | [
-0.4311230480670929,
-0.29068681597709656,
-1.1040292978286743,
-0.4084986746311188,
0.12168032675981522,
1.2429823875427246,
0.7073662281036377,
0.2306739240884781,
-0.47753027081489563,
0.3815753757953644,
-0.11268654465675354,
0.5791134834289551,
0.39804983139038086,
0.2624725103378296,
-0.7228491902351379,
0.39865511655807495,
0.48220357298851013,
0.3962225317955017,
-0.0907459482550621,
-0.5395078659057617,
-0.5448200106620789,
-0.17847701907157898,
0.27062809467315674,
0.3407801389694214,
-0.7705449461936951,
0.5722026228904724,
-0.5422109961509705,
0.10452286154031754,
0.27106913924217224,
0.39155787229537964,
-0.21378640830516815,
-0.09386786073446274,
0.492564857006073,
-0.18487794697284698,
-0.7703247666358948,
0.28131103515625,
-0.27237987518310547,
-0.21036863327026367,
-0.2753913402557373,
-0.03372347354888916,
-0.4227936863899231,
-0.08205245435237885,
0.435092031955719,
0.20233453810214996,
-0.6068716049194336,
-0.3035745918750763,
-1.9596922397613525,
0.006627378519624472,
-0.7256118655204773,
-0.6356953978538513,
-0.4111098349094391,
0.8595240712165833,
0.9282315373420715,
0.1467837691307068,
0.022269539535045624,
-0.4897434711456299,
-0.5136740803718567,
0.08211908489465714,
-0.034413933753967285,
-0.2510291635990143,
0.19808651506900787,
-0.5127155780792236,
0.6971405744552612,
-0.588441789150238,
0.15993010997772217,
0.24762332439422607,
0.2539512515068054,
-0.3148183524608612,
-0.00020790475537069142,
-0.6297849416732788,
0.2564118504524231,
0.719683825969696,
0.6392868757247925,
-0.5681184530258179,
0.24140691757202148,
-0.4000093936920166,
0.488675981760025,
-0.10434650629758835,
-0.018030114471912384,
0.13638655841350555,
0.005402397830039263,
-0.4163196384906769,
0.3711405098438263,
0.613049328327179,
0.1556893289089203,
-0.4448849558830261,
-0.3029675781726837,
0.14143095910549164,
-0.3206613063812256,
-0.20098015666007996,
-1.1154284477233887,
-0.20193897187709808,
-0.3689813017845154,
0.40981239080429077,
-0.19430990517139435,
-0.3436252176761627,
0.22416885197162628,
-0.2173963487148285,
0.19672003388404846,
-0.12403298914432526,
-0.583976686000824,
-0.40571075677871704,
0.14152900874614716,
-0.8222173452377319,
-0.7779144048690796,
0.5503185987472534,
0.37822404503822327,
0.04476262629032135,
-0.37251967191696167,
-0.14158698916435242,
-0.2111196368932724,
-0.07381710410118103,
-0.03559926524758339,
-0.2051834613084793,
-0.47291064262390137,
-0.04418420419096947,
0.044388528913259506,
0.16903258860111237,
-0.986018180847168,
0.22887693345546722,
0.1611194908618927,
-0.268634170293808,
0.13932670652866364,
-0.11245008558034897,
-0.3544982075691223,
0.2934466004371643,
-0.2806255519390106,
0.27058592438697815,
0.03789827972650528,
0.5214838981628418,
0.1913304179906845,
0.484630286693573,
-0.3538803160190582,
-0.26362934708595276,
-0.0323648676276207,
-0.3365981876850128,
0.06052367016673088,
0.23252199590206146,
0.23484529554843903,
0.022291293367743492,
-0.08307290077209473,
0.25833892822265625,
-0.43113741278648376,
-0.024535825476050377,
1.2120870351791382,
-0.5549089908599854,
0.36022284626960754,
0.37739506363868713,
-0.2478274255990982,
-0.32164931297302246,
-0.4448668360710144,
0.052416346967220306,
0.43351417779922485,
-0.7003512382507324,
-0.6018268465995789,
0.37098589539527893,
0.28452610969543457,
-0.11774661391973495,
-0.03602401912212372,
0.08111244440078735,
0.3967253863811493,
0.39111557602882385,
0.09918727725744247,
-0.0986022874712944,
0.3296344578266144,
0.0023318754974752665,
-0.10378433763980865,
-0.7735295295715332,
-0.08895321190357208,
0.4730003774166107,
-0.02340913750231266,
0.7930741906166077,
0.409032940864563,
0.40220731496810913,
-0.9038470983505249,
0.21505974233150482,
-0.114227794110775,
0.34538862109184265,
-0.5830017924308777,
-0.2014632523059845,
-0.21269018948078156,
0.2944776117801666,
-0.0837068110704422,
0.33047884702682495,
0.25808483362197876,
0.3639598786830902,
0.22219441831111908,
-0.4507715404033661,
0.2758065164089203,
-0.21032628417015076,
-0.4723528325557709,
-0.44379475712776184,
-0.018164137378335,
0.5155349969863892,
0.46033188700675964,
-0.46676117181777954,
-0.669037401676178,
0.012386786751449108,
-0.008556339889764786,
-0.17966967821121216,
-0.31517094373703003,
-0.5260787606239319,
0.02267240174114704,
-0.016724975779652596,
-0.1471090465784073,
0.04995445907115936,
0.43568873405456543,
0.4822482466697693,
0.6455783247947693,
0.7121372222900391,
-0.006068299524486065,
-0.8024849891662598,
0.3189108073711395,
0.9310173988342285,
-0.13630372285842896,
-0.7247868776321411,
-1.100988745689392,
-0.2320879101753235,
0.6814642548561096,
-0.40954357385635376,
0.10581505298614502,
0.6935606598854065,
-0.42945122718811035,
-0.2665545344352722,
-0.26337170600891113,
0.27443161606788635,
-0.4475471079349518,
0.041174858808517456,
0.5277713537216187,
0.1932510882616043,
0.5770692229270935,
0.3257930874824524,
-0.0011389275314286351,
-1.054052710533142,
-0.14101830124855042,
-0.1063585877418518,
0.2785364091396332,
0.0356878824532032,
0.03598237782716751,
-0.9252620339393616,
0.10852223634719849,
-0.013337960466742516,
-0.5185896754264832,
0.7295897603034973,
-0.13998018205165863,
-0.37970322370529175,
0.09639737010002136,
-0.34283140301704407,
0.23051749169826508,
-0.11992574483156204,
0.07092437148094177,
0.5551795363426208,
0.2110620141029358,
0.3128894865512848,
0.06144356727600098,
0.07957654446363449,
0.016146797686815262,
0.023067444562911987,
0.9247773289680481,
0.3597256541252136,
0.4205072820186615,
0.07408829033374786,
-0.13142246007919312,
0.2575524151325226,
-0.09458921104669571,
-0.048454202711582184,
0.056135088205337524,
-0.5449080467224121,
-0.22614526748657227,
0.03858222812414169,
0.1235584169626236,
-0.1305536925792694,
-0.16103020310401917,
0.21526165306568146,
0.2556508183479309,
0.6590102910995483,
-0.5905711054801941,
-0.018229059875011444,
-0.681042492389679,
-0.7454056143760681,
0.5155810117721558,
0.9325284957885742,
-0.20245970785617828,
-0.193073108792305,
-0.0056716566905379295,
-0.38322916626930237,
-0.19821202754974365,
-0.14541147649288177,
-0.15365523099899292,
0.06970136612653732,
-0.27956709265708923,
0.4442506432533264,
-0.8768383264541626,
0.44859209656715393,
-0.35099056363105774,
0.17876319587230682,
-0.06669799983501434,
0.25202417373657227,
-0.36369889974594116,
0.06541416794061661,
0.07561783492565155,
0.7890053987503052,
-0.2985767722129822,
-0.020490355789661407,
0.8904620409011841,
0.7182760238647461,
-0.05041871592402458,
-0.39016100764274597,
-5.366060256958008,
0.2398928850889206,
0.31066271662712097,
-0.557701051235199,
0.6125203967094421,
-0.22751924395561218,
0.027561184018850327,
-0.23511767387390137,
0.4071916937828064,
0.48621273040771484,
-0.24340373277664185,
-0.033581383526325226,
-0.8941150307655334,
0.6791160106658936,
0.36610209941864014,
-0.14736546576023102,
-0.08270444720983505,
-0.5354204773902893,
-0.27740705013275146,
0.9252777099609375,
0.1411655694246292,
-0.6414076685905457,
-0.17339658737182617,
0.2463865876197815,
0.16237206757068634,
0.16192804276943207,
-0.16383814811706543,
-0.04599282145500183,
-0.5549541115760803,
-0.46986329555511475,
-0.2358686923980713,
-0.00816456787288189,
-0.681343138217926,
0.04729488864541054,
0.03037651814520359,
0.4186813533306122,
0.40954360365867615,
-0.4268573522567749,
0.08573215454816818,
-0.25618070363998413,
-0.17469508945941925,
0.19858619570732117,
-0.902346134185791,
0.16528896987438202,
0.28737908601760864,
0.15680453181266785,
-0.325347900390625,
-0.7041080594062805,
0.12373167276382446,
0.4517424404621124,
0.5811107754707336,
0.4348469376564026,
0.23314723372459412,
-0.47353243827819824,
0.8066008687019348,
-0.20541885495185852,
0.11019112914800644,
-0.06485200673341751,
-0.8311097621917725,
-0.046720415353775024,
0.29659828543663025,
-0.1783449500799179,
-0.13563910126686096,
0.07638774812221527,
-0.39263415336608887,
-0.2956688404083252,
0.3909171521663666,
0.3373054563999176,
0.1932474821805954,
-0.6333882212638855,
0.15770438313484192,
0.0038618091493844986,
-0.07817301899194717,
-1.2257038354873657,
0.12645958364009857,
-0.422051340341568,
0.3443188965320587,
-0.18712133169174194,
-0.9968934655189514,
0.0016819225857034326,
0.29568034410476685,
-0.4127896726131439,
0.8343628644943237,
0.5473426580429077,
0.5417241454124451,
-0.10221876204013824,
-0.2295282483100891,
0.6161560416221619,
-0.33860406279563904,
-0.11206607520580292,
-0.4911264181137085,
-0.2939765155315399,
0.013956702314317226,
0.0805916115641594,
-0.0632360428571701,
0.041044022887945175,
0.08232171833515167,
0.46361157298088074,
0.0522930882871151,
0.3670045733451843,
-0.5515768527984619,
-0.4091140925884247,
0.5949060916900635,
-0.487636923789978,
0.3096782863140106,
-0.20683011412620544,
0.39963170886039734,
0.015488803386688232,
0.509894609451294,
-0.8234120607376099,
0.026056556031107903,
0.5125322937965393,
-0.45358705520629883,
-0.5941960215568542,
0.553307056427002,
-0.02956686168909073,
0.3104401230812073,
0.261707603931427,
0.0919533297419548,
0.30788853764533997,
0.08949556201696396,
0.2857763469219208,
-0.09152085334062576,
0.520941436290741,
0.0704902783036232,
-0.3205883800983429,
0.05282782018184662,
0.14111274480819702,
-0.21192112565040588,
0.21766386926174164,
-0.6539376974105835,
0.2912464439868927,
0.3300309181213379,
0.17261531949043274,
0.5830854177474976,
-0.27066361904144287,
-0.5773593783378601,
0.06966563314199448,
-0.0018121199682354927,
-0.15290948748588562,
0.09791909903287888,
-0.3133622705936432,
0.24157102406024933,
0.35312744975090027,
0.0038162844721227884,
-0.4396419823169708,
0.45459166169166565,
-0.06275447458028793,
-0.17249596118927002,
0.2646964490413666,
0.13717442750930786,
0.653862476348877,
0.47267693281173706,
-0.40117648243904114,
-0.3443305790424347,
-0.2696465849876404,
0.190779909491539,
-0.46069785952568054,
-0.14810042083263397,
0.10528389364480972,
-0.23841702938079834,
-0.5199801325798035,
-0.801266610622406,
0.48209255933761597,
-0.41138383746147156,
-0.003358706831932068,
-0.18169750273227692,
-0.23060470819473267,
-0.27273860573768616,
0.7784978151321411,
-0.31037968397140503,
-0.5751115679740906,
0.26996421813964844,
0.3909645974636078,
0.19976447522640228,
0.4654274582862854,
-0.4050556719303131,
-0.5984106063842773,
-0.00729459198191762,
0.16840775310993195,
-0.02144816890358925,
-0.760479211807251,
-1.1185530424118042,
0.05540110170841217,
0.34547778964042664,
-0.4870581328868866,
-0.7034376859664917,
-0.2332984209060669,
-0.48241519927978516,
0.030591219663619995,
0.11359421908855438,
-0.7181500792503357,
-0.19449102878570557,
0.4125605821609497,
-0.7328249216079712,
0.3941110372543335,
0.18303783237934113,
-0.058999598026275635,
0.3389512002468109,
0.23231787979602814,
-0.9273588061332703,
0.07253874838352203,
-0.701549232006073,
-0.4501227140426636,
0.7054082155227661,
-0.9931336045265198,
0.20529696345329285,
0.1406765580177307,
-0.4404219686985016,
1.0025540590286255,
-0.32510891556739807,
-0.0452599972486496,
0.29197633266448975,
-0.05181943252682686,
0.23582448065280914,
0.44112956523895264,
0.6300524473190308,
0.2533210217952728,
-0.01988094113767147,
-0.7588136792182922,
-0.2644714415073395,
-1.1542614698410034,
-0.05400846153497696,
0.298053115606308,
-0.9312620162963867,
0.18333826959133148,
-0.2678637206554413,
-0.110165074467659,
0.4642971456050873,
0.10086679458618164,
0.20464566349983215,
0.06093709170818329,
0.07977093756198883,
0.2472245991230011,
0.07177890092134476,
-0.5762683749198914,
-0.25033038854599,
0.2660989463329315,
-0.5631559491157532,
-0.04097139090299606,
0.5709072351455688,
0.29942649602890015,
0.09448724240064621,
0.659135103225708,
0.2480703890323639,
0.32294365763664246,
-0.35940825939178467,
-0.7212241888046265,
-0.07035614550113678,
0.0464220829308033,
0.30997663736343384,
0.1296439915895462,
-0.42362815141677856,
0.14150872826576233,
-0.08864404261112213,
-0.4361603260040283,
-0.09837672114372253,
0.1635965257883072,
-0.4379226863384247,
0.20806564390659332,
0.007210483308881521,
0.20988379418849945,
-0.33322980999946594,
0.21361763775348663,
-0.303483784198761,
0.18802285194396973,
0.045072946697473526,
0.018117327243089676,
0.3469829261302948,
-0.4903624355792999,
0.10722783207893372,
0.3081253170967102,
-0.21696098148822784,
0.2610150873661041,
-0.5606650114059448,
0.4160690903663635,
0.4183274805545807,
-0.3214223086833954,
0.22700494527816772,
-0.19305823743343353,
-0.20572762191295624,
0.4673337936401367,
-0.2013864815235138,
-0.6563445329666138,
-0.20604157447814941,
-0.6171054244041443,
0.36611923575401306,
-0.48041558265686035,
-0.5104655027389526,
0.22948028147220612,
0.12814734876155853,
0.934144914150238,
0.16957874596118927,
-0.2852628529071808,
-0.45085757970809937,
-0.08858918398618698,
0.053263455629348755,
1.3583905696868896,
-0.13266491889953613,
-0.04090602323412895,
-0.042361389845609665,
0.1747756153345108,
0.26089054346084595,
0.03201423957943916,
-0.0734347328543663,
-0.5386267304420471,
-0.14232785999774933,
-0.8751505017280579,
-0.5221554040908813,
0.7523313164710999,
0.1110546812415123,
0.11091215908527374,
0.6146105527877808,
0.7235418558120728,
-0.37264543771743774,
0.26415035128593445,
0.8616080284118652,
-0.11969496309757233,
-0.4125205874443054,
-0.027379604056477547,
-0.5794915556907654,
-0.003705005394294858,
0.2884606122970581,
-0.47216448187828064,
0.6640897989273071,
0.870887279510498,
0.7789987921714783,
0.39241108298301697,
-0.40780913829803467,
0.288860946893692,
0.24159279465675354,
-0.7938330173492432,
1.0566881895065308,
0.37606391310691833,
0.3799966871738434,
-1.0885802507400513,
0.3096902072429657,
0.2502317428588867,
0.5241818428039551,
0.5840789675712585,
-0.45380839705467224,
0.2562900483608246,
0.2482641488313675,
0.4771486818790436,
0.08680751174688339,
0.07119753956794739,
0.10997064411640167,
1.007291316986084,
-0.2477889358997345,
-0.5178506374359131,
0.20928755402565002,
0.21986930072307587,
0.04678349196910858,
-0.2563950717449188,
1.3483771085739136,
-0.247553750872612,
0.31501197814941406,
-0.06071089580655098,
-0.3315233886241913,
0.054985079914331436,
-0.6492099761962891,
-0.5564766526222229,
1.0034550428390503,
0.3626985549926758,
-0.17721305787563324,
-0.2027420848608017,
-0.1065232902765274,
-0.17000773549079895,
0.11169429868459702,
0.2626263499259949,
0.2878212630748749,
0.4392891526222229,
-0.33560657501220703,
0.3779743015766144,
0.4935978055000305,
0.12838700413703918,
0.6889004111289978,
-0.5884125828742981,
0.2075439989566803,
0.3364844024181366,
-0.3007687032222748,
0.2867421805858612,
-0.13652384281158447,
-0.17577072978019714,
0.28647381067276,
-0.1907360851764679,
-0.21904869377613068,
0.11588533967733383,
0.4776673913002014,
-0.3718588054180145,
0.644868016242981,
-0.5816526412963867,
-0.006861294619739056,
0.4220343232154846,
-0.1995105743408203,
0.2548781633377075,
-0.2282697707414627,
0.5839564800262451,
0.6265692710876465,
0.02699025720357895,
0.30503737926483154,
1.0072298049926758,
0.46883171796798706,
0.39755600690841675,
-0.5227396488189697,
0.06833523511886597,
-0.15311658382415771,
0.16707512736320496,
-0.720644474029541,
-0.340194433927536,
-0.0071759033016860485,
0.09261734038591385,
-0.41010892391204834,
0.16921968758106232,
-0.4189762473106384,
0.21973510086536407,
0.5872992277145386,
0.6971306800842285,
-0.19471068680286407,
-0.0370570532977581,
0.2544265389442444,
-0.03289688006043434,
0.18198281526565552,
-0.3072609305381775,
-0.14557582139968872,
1.0785959959030151,
-0.20986606180667877,
-0.5653670430183411,
-0.21979837119579315,
-0.2211754322052002,
-0.13025353848934174,
0.6388934850692749,
0.28147995471954346,
-0.38183337450027466,
-0.23266521096229553,
-0.11672589927911758,
0.39007505774497986,
0.08813221007585526,
0.9448152780532837,
-0.7205134034156799,
0.37841638922691345,
-0.03059251978993416,
0.000927866087295115,
0.030258776620030403,
0.06436994671821594,
-0.28721463680267334,
0.1119682714343071,
-0.1553603559732437,
0.4287267029285431,
0.7065795660018921,
-0.6434758901596069,
-0.39631393551826477,
0.2856394946575165,
-0.4071517884731293,
-0.06886202841997147,
-0.37943220138549805,
-0.10014340281486511,
-0.021443326026201248,
0.41219910979270935,
-0.2592279314994812
] |
261088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layzie%20Bone | Layzie Bone | Steven Howse (born September 23, 1974), known professionally as Layzie Bone, is a rapper known primarily for being a member of the group Bone Thugs-n-Harmony. He has also gone by the names L-Burna and The #1 Assassin. He is the younger brother of fellow group member Flesh-N-Bone and cousin of group member Wish Bone. Layzie is also a member of the rap group Bone Brothers and CEO of the record label Harmony Howse Entertainment.
Music career
The group formed the band B.O.N.E. Enterpri$e (all except for Flesh-N-Bone) and recorded an album entitled Faces Of Death in the studio of their then mentor, Kermit Henderson on his indie label Stoney Burke in 1993. After this Layzie and the rest of the Bone Family boarded a Greyhound Bus to Los Angeles where they worked with notable producer and rapper Eazy-E and his Ruthless/Relativity Records label. Diego Blak (born Diego Hodge), a marketer and promoter and co-executive producer of Faces Of Death introduced them to Eazy-E at a concert he promoted in Cleveland, Ohio where they auditioned for him in his dressing room and then traveled back to Los Angeles, California after the show to seal the deal. At this point Eazy named them Thugs-n-Harmony but they wanted to keep the Bone name so they were called Bone Thugs-N-Harmony.
Solo career, Mo Thugs & Bone Brothers
Layzie has also promoted the indie label Mo Thugs Records which he and the rest of Bone originated. He released his first solo album Thug By Nature on March 20, 2001, exactly the same day Bizzy Bone released his second solo album The Gift. He also has collaborative albums with Young Noble from The Outlawz and A.K. of Do or Die, solo albums out such as It's Not A Game, The New Revolution, Cleveland, Startin' from Scratch: How A Thug Was Born, and the upcoming solo album to be announced Ruthless. He has had a series of albums with Bizzy Bone; Still Creepin On Ah Come Up and under the name Bone Brothers entitled: Bone Brothers, Bone Brothers 2, Bone Brothers 3. In the fall of 2010, Layzie established a new label, Harmony Howse Entertainment. As of 2011, he and Fredro Starr of the Onyx group are planning to release a collaborative EP entitled FireSquad, which is set to be released late 2011. By the middle of 2013, Layzie has announced on Twitter that he is taking a step aside from performing and appearing with Bone Thugs-n-Harmony to focus on his solo-career. He's the uncle of the independent rapper, Dizzy Wright.
Layzie is currently working on his latest album Perfect Timing, scheduled to be released on April 20, 2016, now TBD, Layzie releases Cleveland is The City Featuring Aaron "D-Boyy" Dissell. The song was used by Fox News during the 2015 NBA Finals as the Cleveland Cavaliers theme song.
On July 6, 2020, Layzie Bone released his new album titled Wanted Dead or Alive featuring Krayzie Bone, Flesh-N-Bone, Dame Dolla, Willy Ray, Cyrano ESQ, Maybach Dice, Paul Zero, Dame Dolla, Stew Deez, Ken Dawg, Ebony Burks.
Discography
Studio albums
Thug by Nature (2001)
The New Revolution (2006)
Cleveland (2006)
Thugz Nation (2008)
The Definition (2011)
The Meaning (2011)
Annihilation (2019)
Lost & Found (2019)
Wanted Dead or Alive (2020)
Collaboration albums
Bone Brothers with Bone Brothers (2005)
Thug Brothers with Young Noble (2006)
Bone Brothers 2 with Bone Brothers (2007)
Bone Brothers III with Bone Brothers (2008)
Still Creepin on Ah Come Up with Bone Brothers (2008)
Finally with A.K. (2008)
Thug Twinz with Big Sloan (2009)
References
External links
Layzie Bone
1975 births
Living people
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
American hip hop singers
Bone Thugs-n-Harmony members
Rappers from Cleveland
Gangsta rappers
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people | [
0.07016760110855103,
-0.015489504672586918,
-0.638836145401001,
-0.38784128427505493,
0.342317670583725,
0.5475239753723145,
0.6575235724449158,
0.16263526678085327,
-0.3599937856197357,
-0.15067069232463837,
-0.09661083668470383,
0.31054016947746277,
-0.4843623638153076,
-0.19931837916374207,
-0.39858245849609375,
0.03663357347249985,
0.12047458440065384,
-0.5458385944366455,
-0.047207579016685486,
0.056800708174705505,
-0.04173606261610985,
0.5336595177650452,
0.29119130969047546,
-0.3257903754711151,
-0.08208005875349045,
0.6358664035797119,
-0.4678258001804352,
0.4021338224411011,
0.39194247126579285,
-0.6689674258232117,
0.5647542476654053,
0.05774123966693878,
0.583207905292511,
-0.7641497850418091,
-0.13803571462631226,
0.24668358266353607,
-0.7818388938903809,
0.09053270518779755,
0.022133732214570045,
-0.5029824376106262,
-0.3483816087245941,
-0.05360656604170799,
0.27860355377197266,
0.1601947396993637,
-0.399483859539032,
-0.6343068480491638,
-1.282632827758789,
1.121535301208496,
-0.7898930907249451,
-0.7135910391807556,
0.04974592477083206,
0.6330828666687012,
-0.19094784557819366,
0.026722870767116547,
0.24434472620487213,
-0.015033249743282795,
-0.8067553043365479,
-0.6331216096878052,
0.502996027469635,
0.008565755560994148,
0.5403473973274231,
0.0384226068854332,
0.20910364389419556,
-1.2091840505599976,
-0.6481183767318726,
0.2970358729362488,
0.08257516473531723,
0.6935152411460876,
-0.35306790471076965,
0.32799088954925537,
0.1870419830083847,
0.3416770398616791,
-0.2099345177412033,
0.46677398681640625,
0.05722285062074661,
0.18000298738479614,
0.7176231145858765,
0.07038181275129318,
0.26528987288475037,
0.6347429156303406,
-0.09007865190505981,
-0.3411579728126526,
0.6783145666122437,
0.7201084494590759,
-0.10275684297084808,
-0.052214328199625015,
-0.7162505388259888,
0.4803450107574463,
-1.1875420808792114,
0.9093547463417053,
-0.49479377269744873,
0.12319410592317581,
0.31914427876472473,
0.17301654815673828,
-0.3454038202762604,
-0.24122901260852814,
-0.14578720927238464,
0.44411003589630127,
0.4732638895511627,
0.4563659727573395,
0.13368549942970276,
0.044196952134370804,
0.054145097732543945,
-0.07945341616868973,
-0.4547205865383148,
0.35048457980155945,
0.5666565895080566,
-0.3359506130218506,
-0.7813132405281067,
-0.46865734457969666,
-0.4762035310268402,
-0.3735823929309845,
-0.06694427132606506,
0.08213579654693604,
0.23246920108795166,
0.715305745601654,
0.1843557208776474,
-0.6099957227706909,
-1.2602485418319702,
-0.519692063331604,
-0.8379640579223633,
-0.1778746396303177,
0.23395667970180511,
0.45687583088874817,
-0.4293340742588043,
0.07557215541601181,
-0.1448587030172348,
0.3309305012226105,
-0.19461217522621155,
0.14045636355876923,
0.4121677577495575,
0.6995551586151123,
-0.07733119279146194,
-0.42824897170066833,
-0.35166728496551514,
-0.4784727096557617,
0.6003294587135315,
0.18697594106197357,
0.3702124059200287,
-0.13823552429676056,
-0.6185993552207947,
-0.4150794446468353,
-0.9763643741607666,
0.15998338162899017,
-0.17945906519889832,
-0.09580948203802109,
-0.29166847467422485,
0.23281355202198029,
0.3608829379081726,
0.027766535058617592,
0.23640063405036926,
-0.13723716139793396,
-0.4493925869464874,
-0.6370349526405334,
-0.14924289286136627,
0.343757301568985,
0.05911362171173096,
-0.2513052523136139,
-0.15179817378520966,
-0.34718912839889526,
-0.29299426078796387,
-0.2026187628507614,
-0.023204565048217773,
-0.39005303382873535,
0.447995126247406,
-0.7585037350654602,
0.32798320055007935,
-0.21643608808517456,
-0.2917637228965759,
-0.13832464814186096,
-0.4480798840522766,
-0.30644553899765015,
0.25787001848220825,
-0.7342566251754761,
-0.17854367196559906,
0.5381661057472229,
0.8941987156867981,
-0.2412351816892624,
0.4069952666759491,
-0.17800180613994598,
-0.649002194404602,
-0.04969730228185654,
0.9134117960929871,
-0.21331281960010529,
0.6614153981208801,
-0.32733047008514404,
0.01617656834423542,
-0.3354009985923767,
0.2520850896835327,
-0.04120729863643646,
-0.970880925655365,
-0.5105898976325989,
1.3073830604553223,
0.3967019021511078,
0.26999735832214355,
0.5131704211235046,
-0.37115082144737244,
0.34012725949287415,
0.09711305797100067,
0.17805880308151245,
-0.2913280725479126,
-0.1817287802696228,
-0.12489086389541626,
-0.9625954627990723,
-0.7940556406974792,
0.21388675272464752,
0.6523818373680115,
-0.32573556900024414,
0.017885835841298103,
0.4549669027328491,
0.41909798979759216,
-1.0576456785202026,
0.08158332109451294,
-0.43928325176239014,
0.006095787975937128,
-0.404497891664505,
-0.36332765221595764,
0.17316028475761414,
-0.2180621325969696,
-0.49236562848091125,
0.4826676547527313,
0.5913470983505249,
-0.21057340502738953,
0.32984477281570435,
0.2179243564605713,
1.0622771978378296,
-0.6886304020881653,
-0.07823290675878525,
-0.010011808015406132,
0.36621779203414917,
-0.058586761355400085,
-0.006287956610321999,
0.12307989597320557,
-0.9888761639595032,
0.17547278106212616,
0.3317336142063141,
0.5269836783409119,
-0.8110643029212952,
-0.260567843914032,
-0.6175569295883179,
0.3602554500102997,
0.5191890001296997,
-1.1440718173980713,
-1.069777011871338,
-0.19640815258026123,
0.17843425273895264,
-0.5080232620239258,
-0.36513033509254456,
-0.8000080585479736,
0.17105096578598022,
-0.34015676379203796,
0.5992300510406494,
0.60145103931427,
-0.10404737293720245,
0.5229179263114929,
0.04531989246606827,
0.09720247238874435,
0.36229345202445984,
-0.02008136920630932,
-0.6739879846572876,
-0.29472610354423523,
-0.4409964680671692,
0.26450157165527344,
-0.12854930758476257,
0.13739284873008728,
-0.1933395117521286,
0.11770220100879669,
-0.48197653889656067,
0.8003585338592529,
-0.20787376165390015,
0.9551271200180054,
-0.28545045852661133,
-0.11262860894203186,
0.4659191966056824,
-0.07033993303775787,
0.21701756119728088,
-0.056516796350479126,
-0.7517758011817932,
-0.42101776599884033,
-1.3355709314346313,
0.6623503565788269,
0.9446088075637817,
0.211485356092453,
-0.9423390626907349,
0.21538804471492767,
-0.02437467686831951,
0.508461058139801,
-0.18197646737098694,
-0.11064790189266205,
-0.019094053655862808,
-0.7307605147361755,
0.5905158519744873,
-0.5927289128303528,
0.17716878652572632,
0.7647663354873657,
-0.23623716831207275,
0.07210100442171097,
-0.2375597506761551,
-0.3632391095161438,
-0.02045738697052002,
0.12905669212341309,
0.5342286825180054,
-0.18684819340705872,
0.02929864451289177,
0.26788997650146484,
-0.09972858428955078,
-0.1650647222995758,
0.20003850758075714,
-5.09156608581543,
0.9371777772903442,
-0.14355581998825073,
-0.3332469165325165,
0.3692610263824463,
-0.07935614883899689,
0.5167577862739563,
-0.29699215292930603,
0.34263113141059875,
-0.7704811692237854,
-0.011768462136387825,
-0.9449495673179626,
0.5121934413909912,
-0.24852769076824188,
-0.14714106917381287,
0.16077497601509094,
0.5094195604324341,
-0.8706653714179993,
0.4476446509361267,
0.7424536347389221,
0.5814504027366638,
-0.33820223808288574,
-0.670214056968689,
0.17720019817352295,
-0.7047454118728638,
0.6305785775184631,
-0.18835435807704926,
0.17621858417987823,
-0.31394466757774353,
0.03422829508781433,
-0.23014229536056519,
0.12796299159526825,
-0.2194291353225708,
-0.3004268407821655,
-0.5332227349281311,
-0.05446276813745499,
0.4930497407913208,
0.01414041593670845,
0.5435473918914795,
-0.2183525115251541,
0.05822780728340149,
0.31545084714889526,
-0.5677196383476257,
0.11842536926269531,
1.1282662153244019,
0.061779845505952835,
-0.47606611251831055,
-0.6410231590270996,
-0.4804149568080902,
0.6441928148269653,
0.5295698642730713,
-0.7144986391067505,
-0.049056313931941986,
-0.20947347581386566,
0.5622011423110962,
-0.3788943886756897,
-0.06638132035732269,
-0.17238150537014008,
-0.21075847744941711,
0.29492610692977905,
0.5940556526184082,
-0.4603135883808136,
0.5457531809806824,
-0.37970227003097534,
0.032114651054143906,
-0.08250784873962402,
0.6678390502929688,
-0.16210944950580597,
-0.33358529210090637,
0.44423291087150574,
0.5867817401885986,
0.4651474952697754,
-0.0071462769992649555,
-1.285489559173584,
-0.08553439378738403,
-0.006085194647312164,
-0.10634375363588333,
0.2523112893104553,
-0.3646395206451416,
-0.11064742505550385,
0.3801689147949219,
0.012993017211556435,
0.2670154273509979,
0.7435029745101929,
-0.3933824598789215,
-0.6350470781326294,
-0.28850793838500977,
0.4099522829055786,
-0.7054633498191833,
0.1304660141468048,
-0.10677310079336166,
-0.522794783115387,
0.19683310389518738,
0.566819429397583,
-0.08564111590385437,
-0.3384474515914917,
0.1460389941930771,
0.6573675870895386,
-0.0016470941482111812,
0.35480013489723206,
1.0226496458053589,
-0.37432849407196045,
0.43272942304611206,
-0.42575961351394653,
0.7941911220550537,
-0.7009915113449097,
-0.1761009246110916,
0.08381139487028122,
0.31991904973983765,
-0.04392959922552109,
0.19383195042610168,
-0.24799732863903046,
-0.6600929498672485,
-0.21513579785823822,
0.5983630418777466,
-0.3186641335487366,
-0.10761867463588715,
-0.20608365535736084,
0.1543385535478592,
0.5256472229957581,
-0.02813008613884449,
0.4934966266155243,
0.21687307953834534,
-0.08018220961093903,
-0.45387449860572815,
-0.6401152610778809,
0.11619797348976135,
0.3763483166694641,
-0.21452684700489044,
0.30548611283302307,
0.07376763969659805,
0.9904841780662537,
-0.13120083510875702,
0.4911753833293915,
0.26951971650123596,
0.12281037867069244,
-0.30040913820266724,
-1.0913875102996826,
-0.4847440719604492,
-0.6797254085540771,
0.5316667556762695,
-0.44801127910614014,
0.4417685568332672,
0.22397443652153015,
0.920734167098999,
-0.06281328946352005,
-0.15718431770801544,
-0.12046012282371521,
-0.29228848218917847,
0.8933284282684326,
0.026836808770895004,
-0.4114709198474884,
0.5365527272224426,
-0.3963765799999237,
-0.4561674892902374,
0.2302614003419876,
-0.17889994382858276,
0.05226534977555275,
0.3971209228038788,
-0.554931640625,
0.7413880825042725,
-0.19643031060695648,
-0.8694427609443665,
0.2241714745759964,
-0.569075345993042,
-0.002145900158211589,
-0.39072462916374207,
-0.5228949785232544,
-0.8533093333244324,
-0.13704420626163483,
-0.4315278232097626,
-0.8110272884368896,
0.10428186506032944,
-0.5520762801170349,
-0.16415652632713318,
-0.1430426836013794,
-0.011522256769239902,
0.01426923368126154,
-0.16414014995098114,
0.3489638864994049,
-0.5628965497016907,
-0.18813227117061615,
-0.6639283895492554,
0.39854589104652405,
0.45745402574539185,
0.20279638469219208,
-0.351325660943985,
-0.011143126524984837,
-0.062269341200590134,
-0.13375838100910187,
0.07304795831441879,
-0.09307323396205902,
0.2311299741268158,
0.81937175989151,
0.4363681674003601,
-0.7997416853904724,
0.7885149121284485,
0.5460245013237,
0.09533919394016266,
-0.07591089606285095,
0.4351256489753723,
0.08829638361930847,
-0.21618857979774475,
0.7481008768081665,
1.1132773160934448,
-0.320239394903183,
0.1845133751630783,
0.08716588467359543,
0.025093447417020798,
0.42417991161346436,
-0.14697334170341492,
-0.4037970006465912,
0.4826993942260742,
-0.17837642133235931,
-0.03305497393012047,
-0.1827680468559265,
0.5556459426879883,
0.20836113393306732,
0.19232577085494995,
-0.6421049237251282,
-0.25600603222846985,
-0.4888715147972107,
-0.4715474247932434,
0.14414232969284058,
-0.7961280941963196,
0.2822355628013611,
0.18216727674007416,
0.11974252760410309,
0.5336820483207703,
0.14622792601585388,
-0.2376892864704132,
0.15113632380962372,
0.5451538562774658,
0.5207508206367493,
-0.6714630126953125,
-0.20438621938228607,
0.3798868954181671,
0.8707408905029297,
0.000719016301445663,
0.01962130516767502,
0.8614833354949951,
1.0555506944656372,
0.01439906470477581,
-0.0006961851613596082,
0.433963805437088,
-0.045125801116228104,
0.9468270540237427,
-0.12905433773994446,
-0.4503451883792877,
0.12527011334896088,
0.3269004821777344,
0.356455534696579,
-0.5968608260154724,
-0.33173465728759766,
0.5539478063583374,
-0.3454441726207733,
-0.10520616918802261,
-0.43522360920906067,
-0.07165667414665222,
-0.0191106665879488,
0.27123168110847473,
0.3497536778450012,
-0.20325350761413574,
0.19143542647361755,
0.014729172922670841,
-0.15928427875041962,
0.0398903489112854,
0.5065909028053284,
0.5374440550804138,
-0.6250394582748413,
-0.14251145720481873,
-0.6740730404853821,
0.13087090849876404,
0.3806583881378174,
-0.8577380180358887,
0.6215747594833374,
0.45548710227012634,
-0.20183996856212616,
-0.22586208581924438,
0.39731788635253906,
-0.42543825507164,
0.19197537004947662,
-0.16061490774154663,
-0.48842599987983704,
0.4801846146583557,
-0.21679192781448364,
0.10176853835582733,
0.02836989425122738,
-0.10568855702877045,
-0.25468289852142334,
-0.31539949774742126,
0.56771320104599,
-0.07107631862163544,
0.13335192203521729,
-0.354306161403656,
0.34740081429481506,
0.08825449645519257,
0.30135002732276917,
0.6252259016036987,
-0.1702626496553421,
-0.23064586520195007,
0.7874435186386108,
0.15430262684822083,
-0.008410247042775154,
0.1985858529806137,
-0.6697585582733154,
0.15071307122707367,
-0.1252969354391098,
0.588972806930542,
0.5478508472442627,
-0.21288786828517914,
0.012820491567254066,
-0.0181594081223011,
0.4337831437587738,
-1.1639089584350586,
0.14097365736961365,
0.6014090776443481,
-0.1306648701429367,
0.10228058695793152,
0.1600663661956787,
-0.745138943195343,
-0.5615507364273071,
0.6560070514678955,
0.675822377204895,
0.765702486038208,
0.8971696496009827,
0.04459919407963753,
-0.0015160327311605215,
0.4848496615886688,
0.10598626732826233,
0.24055173993110657,
-0.3800988495349884,
0.07012790441513062,
0.36764612793922424,
0.6100358963012695,
0.03810900077223778,
-0.1562625616788864,
0.2109205722808838,
-0.05382892116904259,
0.9345123767852783,
-0.26452019810676575,
-0.11916874349117279,
-0.3699798583984375,
0.045607421547174454,
-0.1631942242383957,
-0.0034990892745554447,
-0.26325520873069763,
0.039210982620716095,
0.5220222473144531,
-0.02266988717019558,
0.05616729333996773,
0.06992058455944061,
0.10184593498706818,
0.03704502806067467,
1.0033481121063232,
-0.40841540694236755,
-0.16423775255680084,
-0.07578343152999878,
-0.7815843820571899,
0.11531705409288406,
0.26164963841438293,
0.3489830493927002,
1.1937150955200195,
0.14669060707092285,
-0.4923529028892517,
-0.0003696175117511302,
-0.6431969404220581,
-0.5706491470336914,
0.13371430337429047,
0.3781929612159729,
-0.2562997341156006,
0.45066577196121216,
-0.1998174786567688,
0.5178301930427551,
-0.15282490849494934,
-0.03669886663556099,
0.03235248476266861,
0.10350226610898972,
-0.6244458556175232,
0.035652823746204376,
-0.3445601165294647,
-0.6895950436592102,
-0.5271779894828796,
-0.06689370423555374,
0.3466438949108124,
0.607523500919342,
-0.318746417760849,
0.2625330090522766,
-0.20766061544418335,
0.08897081762552261,
0.5014359951019287,
-0.9618822336196899,
-0.3191806972026825,
-0.009983728639781475,
-0.34022989869117737,
0.17480726540088654,
-0.05530811473727226,
1.0623010396957397,
0.3915105164051056,
0.11430830508470535,
0.38348838686943054,
0.08227239549160004,
0.1647653877735138,
-0.2323269546031952,
-0.6852747201919556,
0.2508889436721802,
-0.5822955965995789,
-0.24079491198062897,
-1.1407333612442017,
0.9470884799957275,
0.14951267838478088,
0.06500973552465439,
-0.19573083519935608,
0.3035975992679596,
0.28432542085647583,
0.7950016856193542,
0.12785683572292328,
-0.07015267759561539,
-0.16938897967338562,
-0.36886996030807495,
0.6511433124542236,
0.12603822350502014,
-0.1968686878681183,
0.13587437570095062,
-0.11428101360797882,
0.18704280257225037,
0.14966242015361786,
-0.20187075436115265,
-0.235001802444458,
0.6454965472221375,
0.12900342047214508,
-0.5025168061256409,
-0.3388747274875641,
-0.3217432498931885,
-0.15571169555187225,
-0.809725821018219,
0.8937178254127502,
0.5984181761741638,
0.004243411123752594,
-0.17786723375320435,
1.1335848569869995,
-0.3378586173057556,
-0.607193648815155,
-0.1920710802078247,
-0.1208137795329094,
-0.12447436898946762,
-0.3160838186740875,
-0.2654070556163788,
-0.1736382097005844,
0.5123955011367798,
0.09577517211437225,
-0.24359837174415588,
0.37887653708457947,
-0.3495244085788727,
-0.13242480158805847,
-0.17190693318843842,
0.14389190077781677,
-0.018233224749565125,
0.2823528051376343,
-0.6821491122245789
] |
261091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alistair%20MacLean | Alistair MacLean | Alistair Stuart MacLean (; 21 April 1922 – 2 February 1987) was a 20th-century Scottish novelist who wrote popular thrillers and adventure stories. Many of his novels have been adapted to film, most notably The Guns of Navarone (1957) and Ice Station Zebra (1963). In the late 1960s, encouraged by film producer Elliott Kastner, MacLean began to write original screenplays, concurrently with an accompanying novel. The most successful was the first of these, the 1968 film Where Eagles Dare, which was also a bestselling novel. MacLean also published two novels under the pseudonym Ian Stuart. His books are estimated to have sold over 150 million copies, making him one of the best-selling fiction authors of all time.
According to one obituary, "he never lost his love for the sea, his talent for portraying good Brits against bad Germans, or his penchant for high melodrama. Critics deplored his cardboard characters and vapid females, but readers loved his combination of hot macho action, wartime commando sagas, and exotic settings that included Greek Islands and Alaskan oil fields."
Early life
Alistair Stuart Maclean was born on 21 April 1922 in Shettleston, Glasgow, the third of four sons of a Church of Scotland minister, but spent much of his childhood and youth in Daviot, south of Inverness. He learned English as a second language after his mother tongue, Scottish Gaelic.
In 1941, at the age of 19, he was called up to fight in the Second World War with the Royal Navy, serving with the ranks of Ordinary Seaman, Able Seaman, and Leading Torpedo Operator. He was first assigned to PS Bournemouth Queen, a converted excursion ship fitted for anti-aircraft guns, on duty off the coasts of England and Scotland. Beginning in 1943, he served on , a Dido-class light cruiser. There he saw action in 1943 in the Atlantic theatre, on two Arctic convoys and escorting aircraft carrier groups in operations against and other targets off the Norwegian coast. He took part in Convoy PQ 17 on Royalist. In 1944 he and Royalist served in the Mediterranean theatre, as part of the invasion of southern France and in helping to sink blockade runners off Crete and bombard Milos in the Aegean. During this time MacLean may have been injured in a gunnery practice accident. In 1945, in the Far East theatre, MacLean and Royalist saw action escorting carrier groups in operations against Japanese targets in Burma, Malaya, and Sumatra. (MacLean's late-in-life claims that he was captured by the Japanese after blowing up bridges, and tortured by having his teeth pulled out, have been dismissed by both his son and his biographer as drunken ravings). After the Japanese surrender, Royalist helped evacuate liberated POWs from Changi Prison in Singapore.
MacLean was discharged from the Royal Navy in 1946. He then studied English at the University of Glasgow, working at the Post Office and as a street sweeper. He lived with his mother at 26 Carrington Street, at St Georges Cross, Glasgow while attending the university. He graduated with an MA (Hons.) in 1950, briefly worked as a hospital porter, and then worked as a schoolteacher at Gallowflat School (now Stonelaw High School) in Rutherglen.
Early Writing career
First works
Whilst a university student MacLean began writing short stories for extra income, winning a competition in 1954 with the maritime story "Dileas". He sold stories to the Daily Mirror and The Evening News. The wife of Ian Chapman, editor at the publishing company Collins, had been particularly moved by "Dileas" and the Chapmans arranged to meet with MacLean, suggesting he write a novel. MacLean responded three months later with HMS Ulysses, based on his own war experiences, as well as credited insight from his brother Ian, a master mariner.
MacLean later described his writing process,
MacLean was paid with a large advance of $50,000, which made the headlines. Collins were rewarded when the book sold a quarter of a million copies in hardback in England in the first six months of publication. It went on to sell millions more. Film rights were sold to Robert Clark of Associated British for £30,000, though a film was never made. This money meant MacLean was able to devote himself to writing full-time.
Guns of Navarone
His next novel, The Guns of Navarone (1957), was about an attack on the fictitious island of Navarone (based on Milos). The book was very successful, selling over 400,000 copies in its first six months. In 1957 MacLean said "I'm not a literary person. If someone offered me £100,000 tax free I'd never write another word."
MacLean was unhappy at the tax paid on earnings for his first two novels so he moved to Lake Lucerne in Switzerland where he would pay less tax. He planned to write one novel a year. "It's all the market can stand," he said, adding it took him three months to write it.
MacLean followed it with South by Java Head (1958), based on his experiences in the seas off southeast Asia in World War Two, and The Last Frontier (1959), a thriller about the Hungarian Uprising of 1956. Film rights for Java Head were sold but no movie resulted.
His next novels were Night Without End (1959) and Fear Is the Key (1961). The Last Frontier was turned into a movie, The Secret Ways (1961), which was not very successful while the film version of The Guns of Navarone (1961) was hugely successful.
Ian Stuart
In the early 1960s MacLean published two novels under the pseudonym "Ian Stuart" in order to prove that the popularity of his books was due to their content rather than his name on the cover. These were The Dark Crusader (1961) and The Satan Bug (1962). He also said it was because "I usually write adventure stories. But this is a sort of Secret Service or private eye book. I didn't want to confuse my readers."
The Ian Stuart books sold well, and MacLean made no attempt to change his writing style. He also continued to publish novels under his own name such as The Golden Rendezvous (1962) and Ice Station Zebra (1963).
"I'm not a novelist", he once said. "That's too pretentious a claim. I'm a storyteller, that's all. I'm a professional and a craftsman. I will make that claim for myself." MacLean also claimed he wrote very fast (35 days for a novel) because he disliked writing and the "sooner he finished the better." He never re-read a book after it was finished. His novels were notable for their lack of sex. "I like girls", he said. "I just don't write them well. Everyone knows that men and women make love, laddie – there is no need to show it."
Retirement
In 1963 MacLean decided to retire from writing, saying he never enjoyed it and only did it to make money. He decided to become a hotelier and bought the Jamaica Inn on Bodmin Moor and then bought two more hotels, the Bank House near Worcester and the Bean Bridge at Wellington in Somerset.
MacLean focused on his hotel career for three years. It was not a success, and by 1976 he sold all three hotels. During this time a film was made of The Satan Bug (1965).
Return to writing
Screenwriter
MacLean returned to writing with When Eight Bells Toll (1966).
Cinema producer Elliot Kastner admired MacLean, and asked him if he was interested in writing an original screenplay. MacLean agreed to the proposition, and Kastner sent the writer two scripts, one by William Goldman, one by Robert and Jane Howard-Carrington, to familiarize himself with the format. Kastner said he wanted a World War Two story with a group of men on a mission to rescue someone, with a "ticking clock" and some female characters. MacLean agreed to write it for an initial $10,000 with $100,000 to come later. This script was Where Eagles Dare.
In July 1966, Kastner and his producing partner Jerry Gershwin announced they had purchased five screenplays from MacLean: Where Eagles Dare, When Eight Bells Toll, and three other unnamed ones. (Kastner made four MacLean movies.) MacLean also wrote a novel for Where Eagles Dare after the screenplay which was published in 1967 before the film came out. The book was a bestseller, and the 1968 film version was a huge hit.
"MacLean is a natural storyteller", said Kastner. "He is a master of adventure. All his books are conceived in cinematic terms. They hardly need to be adapted for the screen; when you read them, the screen is in front of your mind." MacLean wrote a sequel to Guns of Navarone, Force 10 from Navarone (1968). A film version was announced in 1967 but did not result for another decade. The same year saw the release of an expensive film based on Ice Station Zebra (1968).
Producer
In 1967 MacLean formed a partnership with Geoffrey Reeve and Lewis Jenkins to make films for MacLean to write and Reeves to direct. They planned to make a sequel to Guns of Navarone only to discover that Carl Foreman, producer of the original film, had registered the title After Navarone. This led to a falling-out with Foreman, and a delay in the Navarone sequel.
Maclean wrote a thriller about narcotics, Puppet on a Chain (1969), and Caravan to Vaccarès (1970). These books all began as screenplays for Kastner. Maclean said Puppet was "a change of style from the earlier books. If I went on writing the same stuff I'd be guying myself."
When Puppet on a Chain was made Maclean said "I've been connected with it for three years and its too much for me. All those entrepreneurs and promoters who aren't creative. All that time wasted."
"There is nobody to touch him," said Ian Chapman. "But he is a storyteller not a film man."
MacLean then wrote Bear Island (1971), the last of his first person narratives.
MacLean moved to Switzerland in 1970 as a tax exile. That year he said "there's Harold Robbins, Agatha Christie, Georges Simenon and me." He added, "I'm a storyteller, that's all. There's no art in it, no mystique. It's a job like any other. The secret, if there is one, is speed. That's why there's so little sex in my books – it holds up the action." He said he enjoyed the plotting "but the rest is a pain."
In 1970 MacLean, whose hero was Raymond Chandler, said "give me ten years, a few more books, and maybe, maybe I'll be half as good as Chandler."
Kastner produced a film version of When Eight Bells Toll (1971), based on a script by MacLean, and Fear Is the Key (1972), adapted by another writer. Another producer made Puppet on a Chain (1971), directed by Reeves, from a script by MacLean. Neither performed particularly strongly at the box office.
Mary MacLean
In 1972 MacLean married his second wife Mary. She was going to produce three films based on his books but the box office failure of the last three MacLean adaptations put these on hold. One of these proposed films was The Way to Dusty Death, which was to star Jackie Stewart. It ended up being a 1973 novel and a 1995 film.
In 1973 MacLean was looking at moving to Jamaica. He also considered moving to Ireland but decided to stay in Switzerland.
Geoffrey Reeve directed a film of Caravan to Vaccarès (1974). By 1973 MacLean had sold over 24 million novels. "I am not a writer," he said in 1972. "I am a businessman. My business is writing." MacLean had spent a number of years focusing on screenplays but disliked it and decided to return to being predominantly a novel writer. "Hollywood destroys writers," he said. He wrote a biography of Captain James Cook which was published in 1972. He wrote Breakheart Pass (1974), Circus (1975), The Golden Gate (1976), Seawitch (1977), Goodbye California (1979) and Athabasca (1980).
"I read a lot, I travel some," he said in 1975. "But mostly what I don't know I invent." In 1976 he was living in Los Angeles and said he wanted to write a four volume serious piece called "The Rembrandt Quarter" based on the painting The Night Watch. These books were never published.
In 1977 it was announced MacLean, then worth £5 million, would divorce Mary, who said the author was impossible to live with.
In 1978 MacLean said he "just can't understand" why people bought his novels. "It's not as if I write that well: I do feel my English isn't very good. In fact, I'd rather write in Gaelic or Spanish than English."
He said his stories tended to pit "character against character as a kind of intellectual chess game" and that he found writing "boring" and "lonely" but "I guess it all boils down to that rather awful philosophy of take the money and run." "I am just a journeyman," he said. "I blunder along from one book to the next always hopeful that one day I will write something really good."
Films were still being made out of his novels including Breakheart Pass (1975) (from Kastner), Golden Rendezvous (1977), Force 10 from Navarone (1978), and Bear Island (1979) but none did very well.
In 1976 MacLean's second wife Mary formed a company with producer Peter Snell, Aleelle Productions, who aimed to make movies based on MacLean novels including Golden Gate, Bear Island, The Way to Dusty Death and Captain Cook. This company still owned these film rights after MacLean divorced Mary in 1977. However the rights soon passed to Snell.
MacLean decided to focus on American television, writing a novella titled Air Force One is Down, which was turned down by the American television network NBC (it would be produced in 2012). He then pitched six new ideas to networks, each with a 25–30-page synopsis to see which was commercially viable before. The Hostage Tower was approved by CBS, and aired on America television in 1980.
Later career
His later works include River of Death (1981) (filmed in 1989), Partisans (1982), Floodgate (1983), and San Andreas (1984). Often these novels were worked on by ghost writers specializing in drama, with MacLean providing only the plots and characters. His last novel was Santorini (1986), which was published after his death. His estate left behind several outlines. One of them was filmed as Death Train (1993). His later books were not as well received as the earlier publications and, in an attempt to keep his stories in keeping with the time, he sometimes lapsed into unduly improbable plots.
Death
MacLean died of a stroke at the age of 64 in Munich on 2 February 1987; his last years were afflicted by alcoholism. According to one obituary, "A master of nail-chewing suspense, MacLean met an appropriately mysterious death: when he died in the Bavarian capital after a brief illness, no one, including the British Embassy, knew what he was doing there." His body was buried a few yards from Richard Burton's grave in Vieux Cemetery at Céligny, Switzerland.
Personal life
He was married twice and had three sons (one adopted) by his first wife, Gisela, viz., Lachlan, Michael and Alistair. He married for a second time in 1972; that marriage ended in divorce in 1977.
His niece Shona MacLean (also published under S.G. Maclean) is a writer and historical novelist.
MacLean was awarded a Doctor of Letters by the University of Glasgow in 1983.
Critical appraisal
The writer Algis Budrys described MacLean's writing style as: "hit 'em with everything but the kitchen sink, then give 'em the sink, and when they raise their heads, drop the plumber on 'em".
Screenwriter Derek Kolstad, who wrote the John Wick film series, cited MacLean and Stephen King as among his primary influences.
List of works
Novels
Source for The New York Times Best Seller list: Figures are for the Adult Hardcover Fiction lists, 1956 through 1987: highest position reached and total number of weeks on list. A "—" indicates it did not make the list. Note that the Times list consisted of a Top 10 from 1963 through 1976, but a Top 15 or 16 before and after; thus, books during that middle period may have had longer stays relative to the others.
UNACO books by other authors
Golden Girl series by other authors
Films with screenplay contribution
Other films
Allegedly written by Alistair MacLean
See also
Hammond Innes
References
Bibliography
Lee, Robert A. Alistair MacLean: The Key is Fear. Borgo Press, 1976. .
Webster, Jack. Alistair MacLean: A Life. Chapmans Publishers, 1991. . (Alternative title: Alistair MacLean: A Biography of a Master Storyteller.)
"Maclean, Alistair". Chambers Biographical Dictionary. Liam Rodger and Joan Bakewell. London: Chambers Harrap, 2011.
External links
Harper dares with Alistair MacLean reissue, 2009.09.11
1922 births
1987 deaths
Writers from Glasgow
Royal Navy sailors
Royal Navy personnel of World War II
Scottish biographers
Scottish non-fiction writers
Scottish screenwriters
Scottish short story writers
Scottish thriller writers
Scottish Gaelic language
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
People educated at Inverness Royal Academy
People educated at Hillhead High School
20th-century British novelists
20th-century British dramatists and playwrights
20th-century biographers
20th-century British short story writers
20th-century British screenwriters | [
-0.5229135155677795,
0.2108522355556488,
-0.43805450201034546,
0.09346487373113632,
0.3585381805896759,
0.4893980026245117,
0.6485453844070435,
0.07310952991247177,
-0.34749528765678406,
0.258877694606781,
-0.6832852363586426,
0.3573041558265686,
-0.43398213386535645,
0.591233491897583,
0.8853192925453186,
0.37607818841934204,
-0.550172746181488,
-0.22271545231342316,
-0.7756417393684387,
-0.5721439123153687,
-0.5688296556472778,
-0.36149486899375916,
0.27321991324424744,
0.19898825883865356,
-0.4025874733924866,
0.5614050030708313,
0.0035619153641164303,
-0.22388838231563568,
0.04403833672404289,
0.13631296157836914,
0.06259085237979889,
0.04416381195187569,
-0.25057855248451233,
0.039418257772922516,
-0.4263819456100464,
-0.263287752866745,
-0.6882289052009583,
-0.578495442867279,
-0.8189129829406738,
-0.269386351108551,
-0.17364993691444397,
0.3632274568080902,
0.4698805809020996,
-0.14975300431251526,
-0.3919464647769928,
-0.7556788325309753,
-1.6491695642471313,
0.46056991815567017,
-0.7073885202407837,
0.01668381318449974,
0.14515356719493866,
0.8198214173316956,
0.7842671871185303,
-0.5060350298881531,
0.21318718791007996,
1.09818434715271,
-0.38422340154647827,
-0.2352176159620285,
0.01790887862443924,
-0.364822655916214,
0.2877098321914673,
0.07581529766321182,
0.846809446811676,
0.46722304821014404,
0.1444082260131836,
0.7856379151344299,
0.12704920768737793,
0.05630677565932274,
0.13264212012290955,
0.2965211272239685,
-0.04254303127527237,
1.0017898082733154,
0.337263286113739,
0.395368367433548,
-0.2590865194797516,
-0.28322872519493103,
0.5337496399879456,
-0.06908063590526581,
0.11370192468166351,
0.06474163383245468,
0.011995944194495678,
-0.137619748711586,
0.6433689594268799,
0.48989227414131165,
0.4897817075252533,
-0.21110734343528748,
-0.6153461933135986,
0.5339248180389404,
-0.024713335558772087,
0.3237195909023285,
-0.204040065407753,
-0.8343151807785034,
-0.143161803483963,
0.08273496478796005,
-0.0019117053598165512,
0.07311779260635376,
-0.07501782476902008,
0.1547963172197342,
-0.2691407799720764,
-0.3261454105377197,
0.06470965594053268,
0.09627021104097366,
0.10882342606782913,
-0.6689847111701965,
-0.6026395559310913,
0.20518708229064941,
-0.33576929569244385,
-0.9614710807800293,
0.024364331737160683,
0.25565090775489807,
-0.8883735537528992,
0.09645774960517883,
0.2274617701768875,
0.26898473501205444,
0.1690061390399933,
0.444123238325119,
-0.2233918309211731,
-0.2814820408821106,
-0.7900970578193665,
0.019504398107528687,
-0.10014019906520844,
-0.7372381091117859,
-0.36692848801612854,
0.22667433321475983,
-0.07015158236026764,
-0.5938071608543396,
-0.09557171165943146,
-0.1063869521021843,
-0.872536301612854,
0.15001262724399567,
0.2720791697502136,
0.782795250415802,
-1.0357985496520996,
-0.2532771825790405,
-0.19630300998687744,
0.19934438169002533,
0.0108624417334795,
-0.10077367722988129,
-0.14700952172279358,
0.404251366853714,
-0.6224117279052734,
-0.030900299549102783,
-0.5850701332092285,
-0.13535185158252716,
0.5297167301177979,
0.10386846959590912,
-0.08258708566427231,
-0.5483424663543701,
-0.15448330342769623,
-0.5295835733413696,
-0.3054296672344208,
-0.042762238532304764,
-0.11558756232261658,
-0.9933665990829468,
-0.20438730716705322,
0.5309370756149292,
0.655493974685669,
1.0707224607467651,
0.5654028058052063,
-0.955722451210022,
0.43044689297676086,
0.278878778219223,
-0.15732432901859283,
-0.2302880883216858,
0.3786478638648987,
-0.24495522677898407,
0.5105960965156555,
-0.5204527974128723,
-0.35851147770881653,
0.24585182964801788,
-0.029603170230984688,
0.28189969062805176,
0.802478015422821,
0.1953105479478836,
0.1839500367641449,
0.15648439526557922,
0.2135632336139679,
0.5763280391693115,
0.020528296008706093,
-0.46579521894454956,
-0.7329539656639099,
-0.271792471408844,
-0.4235650897026062,
-0.5388081669807434,
0.01973772421479225,
0.3480556905269623,
-0.0574704073369503,
-0.171316459774971,
0.43349891901016235,
0.22585676610469818,
-0.7559227347373962,
-0.20270517468452454,
-0.14731784164905548,
-0.5697011947631836,
1.079046607017517,
-0.07970928400754929,
-0.303729385137558,
1.0364134311676025,
0.1342032253742218,
0.8209008574485779,
-0.09601429104804993,
0.23351791501045227,
0.3997511863708496,
-0.254689484834671,
-0.2024783194065094,
0.19439558684825897,
0.10283391177654266,
0.5611661672592163,
0.6176486015319824,
0.565558910369873,
0.31267592310905457,
-0.6060857176780701,
0.16577598452568054,
0.3262080252170563,
-0.6630219221115112,
-0.4476855993270874,
-0.648606538772583,
-0.2472764551639557,
-0.06051843240857124,
-0.157759889960289,
0.5548797845840454,
0.15144866704940796,
-0.13575896620750427,
0.5177295804023743,
0.11327113211154938,
0.750557005405426,
0.0683022290468216,
-0.3082326054573059,
0.22958606481552124,
-0.643102765083313,
-0.6122402548789978,
0.2725483179092407,
0.3299815356731415,
-0.39170581102371216,
0.09778068214654922,
0.17857399582862854,
-0.02050945535302162,
-0.001834216294810176,
0.06670365482568741,
0.11408496648073196,
0.15519171953201294,
-0.04592233523726463,
-0.6668825745582581,
0.8979172706604004,
0.8760063648223877,
0.16032466292381287,
-0.3876250982284546,
-0.24542836844921112,
0.17339445650577545,
0.12783557176589966,
-0.07717525213956833,
0.8866277933120728,
0.7163095474243164,
0.37742045521736145,
0.17906782031059265,
-0.2690102159976959,
0.18834595382213593,
-0.27025946974754333,
0.3910072445869446,
0.1578529179096222,
-0.15584063529968262,
0.24545517563819885,
0.05690928176045418,
0.07193547487258911,
-0.039950497448444366,
-0.09541351348161697,
-0.022147975862026215,
-1.3434596061706543,
0.13121820986270905,
0.5260606408119202,
-0.19906386733055115,
-0.38573771715164185,
0.08063693344593048,
0.5119597911834717,
0.4962022006511688,
-0.24854090809822083,
0.21254345774650574,
-0.29812783002853394,
-0.23824842274188995,
-0.3689120411872864,
-0.042729031294584274,
0.7502834796905518,
0.0032885107211768627,
-0.32138708233833313,
-0.3056870102882385,
-0.23759132623672485,
-0.16283546388149261,
0.07454558461904526,
0.10579755157232285,
0.012675393372774124,
-0.3371637165546417,
0.2664397954940796,
-0.36240363121032715,
0.2961953282356262,
-0.6122573018074036,
0.18563979864120483,
-0.5076260566711426,
0.03519737720489502,
0.005150801967829466,
-0.15867164731025696,
0.10942117124795914,
-0.07607150077819824,
-0.20758041739463806,
0.4435836970806122,
1.052105188369751,
0.49091896414756775,
0.07011814415454865,
0.2043192982673645,
-5.250267505645752,
-0.10382499545812607,
0.09620632976293564,
-0.6835131049156189,
0.25241708755493164,
0.7713197469711304,
0.5092326998710632,
0.20589156448841095,
0.10742316395044327,
-0.3990240693092346,
0.03584301471710205,
-0.19850046932697296,
-0.030714882537722588,
0.322518914937973,
0.5925762057304382,
0.24943186342716217,
0.25000879168510437,
0.29844337701797485,
-0.18016518652439117,
0.3847322463989258,
0.2195642590522766,
0.25579938292503357,
-0.43877142667770386,
0.22370290756225586,
-0.026861069723963737,
0.6375141143798828,
-0.12590035796165466,
-0.22359536588191986,
-0.5983807444572449,
0.18848180770874023,
-0.16426514089107513,
-0.20395977795124054,
-0.30008190870285034,
-0.03292796388268471,
0.06961457431316376,
-0.47303712368011475,
0.4152584373950958,
0.2613108158111572,
0.5842306613922119,
0.38028717041015625,
-0.5897672176361084,
0.14008928835391998,
-0.39526665210723877,
0.13401494920253754,
0.46011844277381897,
-0.7626491785049438,
-0.4701913595199585,
0.5891083478927612,
0.20166312158107758,
0.4871979057788849,
0.1467612087726593,
-0.0032734384294599295,
-0.12954941391944885,
0.0762101411819458,
0.31484735012054443,
0.3917737901210785,
-0.19443003833293915,
-0.33247509598731995,
-0.8357440233230591,
0.6293256282806396,
0.6875849962234497,
-0.015853358432650566,
-0.032979369163513184,
0.012937037274241447,
-0.21578486263751984,
0.04658568277955055,
0.24607300758361816,
-0.37572914361953735,
-0.09563341736793518,
-0.17912989854812622,
-0.5006567239761353,
0.5651658773422241,
0.11025653034448624,
-1.3375071287155151,
-0.24954746663570404,
-0.43736162781715393,
0.04061561077833176,
0.3467697203159332,
-0.6469739079475403,
-0.3925354480743408,
-0.23897133767604828,
-0.31478384137153625,
-0.9865602254867554,
0.7427331805229187,
0.32559308409690857,
-0.3973696231842041,
-0.8196311593055725,
0.290835440158844,
-0.5160360932350159,
-0.5359256267547607,
0.2924838960170746,
-0.10593096166849136,
0.36619529128074646,
0.22885367274284363,
0.16482245922088623,
0.06145798787474632,
-0.2576098144054413,
0.21046987175941467,
0.5020697116851807,
-0.15864014625549316,
-0.808212161064148,
-0.20377983152866364,
0.4241301715373993,
-0.5961014032363892,
-0.3944160044193268,
-0.419663667678833,
0.3580186665058136,
0.27723804116249084,
0.32062792778015137,
0.09036051481962204,
-0.262811541557312,
0.18019969761371613,
-0.5812508463859558,
0.43892666697502136,
0.01422205287963152,
-0.1313401609659195,
0.2979144752025604,
0.39143049716949463,
0.09118936955928802,
0.6493023633956909,
-0.34654712677001953,
0.54346764087677,
0.31949594616889954,
-0.11415794491767883,
0.38950616121292114,
-0.752352237701416,
0.4084465205669403,
-0.8065735697746277,
0.270014226436615,
-0.12394364923238754,
-0.09641668200492859,
0.2768078148365021,
0.5008374452590942,
-0.04081607609987259,
-0.35460320115089417,
-0.35721513628959656,
-0.44495517015457153,
-0.396087646484375,
-0.23952986299991608,
0.3129962086677551,
0.04142168164253235,
-0.028067011386156082,
0.5138953328132629,
0.38379842042922974,
-0.16232040524482727,
-0.34176015853881836,
0.13233770430088043,
0.5139034986495972,
0.27625077962875366,
0.6012193560600281,
-0.5083251595497131,
0.45531246066093445,
0.968715488910675,
-0.684960126876831,
-0.5139105319976807,
0.2538357377052307,
-0.6813555359840393,
0.42086681723594666,
-0.03355032205581665,
-0.33568161725997925,
0.29079586267471313,
-0.4558026194572449,
-0.9194183349609375,
0.03408028185367584,
0.17077849805355072,
0.9120507836341858,
-1.1845686435699463,
-0.25914448499679565,
-0.43698999285697937,
0.6469539403915405,
-0.2605394721031189,
-0.44741734862327576,
-0.21306313574314117,
-0.17659270763397217,
0.23612096905708313,
0.5038627982139587,
-0.6170335412025452,
-0.40805158019065857,
-0.05486798286437988,
-0.011346838437020779,
0.10325716435909271,
0.49204060435295105,
-0.4101746380329132,
0.3965778052806854,
0.8272536396980286,
-0.334391713142395,
-0.24095316231250763,
-0.16417662799358368,
-0.2075195461511612,
0.29028844833374023,
0.3628907799720764,
0.28660115599632263,
0.8658343553543091,
0.4740389883518219,
-0.20212334394454956,
-0.1264672428369522,
-0.20749697089195251,
-0.23893284797668457,
-0.015476441942155361,
0.14427247643470764,
0.11241946369409561,
0.01647900976240635,
0.07441096007823944,
-0.43658947944641113,
0.1555902063846588,
-1.0411206483840942,
-0.37597423791885376,
-0.6824753284454346,
0.0021092682145535946,
1.1746450662612915,
-0.4060197174549103,
-0.08555707335472107,
-0.20061782002449036,
0.2469751536846161,
-0.08809415251016617,
0.3345755934715271,
0.10530830174684525,
-0.4038960039615631,
-0.5595015287399292,
-0.1826300323009491,
-0.6737068891525269,
-0.15436862409114838,
-0.27547383308410645,
-0.4480148255825043,
-0.7819035649299622,
-0.5921250581741333,
0.37974482774734497,
-0.2087281346321106,
0.5838300585746765,
0.05424419417977333,
-0.02137712948024273,
-0.229474738240242,
0.048523277044296265,
-0.5809574723243713,
-0.3610466718673706,
0.02572738379240036,
0.6095196008682251,
0.33669304847717285,
0.5599472522735596,
0.1670464426279068,
0.6912311911582947,
1.0560781955718994,
0.8174756765365601,
0.026264866814017296,
0.0897778645157814,
0.13379690051078796,
0.5980499982833862,
-0.42305469512939453,
-0.45530882477760315,
0.30433446168899536,
0.4450658857822418,
-0.6483922004699707,
-0.11752181500196457,
-0.7589130401611328,
0.6672370433807373,
-0.46708133816719055,
0.2149847447872162,
0.2487814575433731,
0.2661460041999817,
-0.5206345319747925,
0.4211757481098175,
0.12410107254981995,
-0.43764591217041016,
-0.24670201539993286,
0.08434052020311356,
0.33351144194602966,
-0.10986923426389694,
0.10772963613271713,
0.3759734332561493,
-0.25248438119888306,
0.007500085048377514,
-0.19559915363788605,
0.3325064182281494,
1.005458950996399,
-0.520930826663971,
0.36177098751068115,
0.2928049862384796,
-0.665810763835907,
0.09559813141822815,
-0.8495161533355713,
-0.886487603187561,
0.7558014988899231,
0.20659342408180237,
-0.5774051547050476,
-0.6082026958465576,
-0.28930535912513733,
0.29771968722343445,
-0.41733601689338684,
0.19051577150821686,
0.36660149693489075,
-0.2805120348930359,
0.08574583381414413,
-0.09011471271514893,
0.3983292579650879,
0.4660777151584625,
-0.45680928230285645,
-0.990636944770813,
0.8781753778457642,
-0.38768237829208374,
0.10946553200483322,
-0.21857203543186188,
0.3452692925930023,
0.30970287322998047,
-0.4174049198627472,
0.4596831500530243,
-0.2611946761608124,
-0.34208357334136963,
-0.12055174261331558,
-0.2666745185852051,
0.35567399859428406,
0.5061397552490234,
0.0805073231458664,
-0.13321897387504578,
0.43917688727378845,
-0.382302463054657,
-0.2130236178636551,
0.5590739250183105,
-0.78059983253479,
-0.0629892498254776,
0.20011131465435028,
0.3080759048461914,
0.8921663165092468,
0.47650086879730225,
-0.8623155951499939,
0.216035857796669,
0.5076183676719666,
-0.6935500502586365,
0.3772801458835602,
-0.30698227882385254,
0.2709018886089325,
-0.036396123468875885,
-0.35850510001182556,
-0.4649394452571869,
0.34092047810554504,
-0.44079574942588806,
-0.5132105350494385,
0.41558897495269775,
-0.07311786711215973,
0.19833654165267944,
0.11860105395317078,
0.21267589926719666,
0.28439655900001526,
-0.2989974617958069,
0.13623687624931335,
-0.4140138328075409,
0.09331035614013672,
0.8236904740333557,
0.5680280923843384,
-0.16789117455482483,
-0.17487013339996338,
0.6255043148994446,
0.3288171589374542,
0.26663050055503845,
-0.8399752974510193,
0.4527619183063507,
0.27426356077194214,
-0.12590236961841583,
-0.46060991287231445,
-0.3501940965652466,
0.09727858752012253,
-0.5473915338516235,
0.020766494795680046,
1.0264335870742798,
-0.15950554609298706,
0.5225246548652649,
0.09731326252222061,
0.704238772392273,
-0.5380276441574097,
0.47555333375930786,
0.17304612696170807,
0.5623546242713928,
-0.03426773101091385,
-0.33100447058677673,
0.2053069919347763,
0.3682449460029602,
0.2674011290073395,
0.6011103391647339,
0.2999802529811859,
-0.4103008210659027,
-0.035902101546525955,
-0.8048363327980042,
0.37076959013938904,
0.061020366847515106,
0.005774165503680706,
0.8727191090583801,
-0.13920721411705017,
0.010250283405184746,
-0.13454140722751617,
0.28433695435523987,
-0.1678255945444107,
0.671591579914093,
-0.8566890954971313,
-0.9652615785598755,
0.724621593952179,
-0.10940968990325928,
-0.11323660612106323,
-0.3106829822063446,
0.8252949714660645,
-0.03216990828514099,
-0.06478548794984818,
-0.3509824275970459,
-0.14545243978500366,
0.04366376996040344,
0.4314514696598053,
-0.34183961153030396,
0.407087504863739,
0.02614804357290268,
0.15939518809318542,
-1.484779715538025,
0.17658893764019012,
0.0073167928494513035,
0.36578139662742615,
-0.15951868891716003,
0.3779706656932831,
-0.5037046670913696,
-0.601611852645874,
0.16240935027599335,
-0.1366233080625534,
0.05221733823418617,
-0.5568836331367493,
0.13431403040885925,
0.13147591054439545,
0.4000172019004822,
0.13107985258102417,
-0.8176480531692505,
0.44948533177375793,
-0.1342218518257141,
-0.19647905230522156,
-0.34023550152778625,
0.3486585021018982,
-0.17613403499126434,
-0.35520949959754944,
-0.6791197061538696,
0.1024683266878128,
0.31398606300354004,
-0.5258646011352539,
0.7539969682693481,
0.9816294312477112,
0.21266824007034302,
-0.27125003933906555,
0.44817760586738586,
0.10800942778587341,
-0.02385859563946724,
0.011065706610679626,
-0.165153369307518,
-0.19884271919727325,
-0.027211995795369148,
-0.27585694193840027,
-0.1797759085893631,
-0.07887906581163406,
-0.24704290926456451,
-0.43142983317375183,
0.020324690267443657,
-0.9666483402252197,
0.006424137856811285,
0.25689536333084106,
-0.4338856339454651,
-0.36518973112106323,
0.5054581165313721,
0.0010066574905067682
] |
261093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Bruce%20%28poet%29 | Michael Bruce (poet) | Michael Bruce (27 March 1746 – 15 July 1767) was a Scottish poet and hymnist.
Early life
Bruce was born at Kinnesswood in the parish of Portmoak, Kinross-shire. His father, Alexander Bruce, was a weaver. Michael was taught to read before he was four years old, and one of his favourite books was a copy of Sir David Lyndsay's works. His attendance at school was often interrupted, because he had to herd cattle on the Lomond Hills in summer, and this early companionship with nature greatly influenced his poetry. A delicate child, he grew up as the pet of his family and friends. He studied Latin and Greek, and at fifteen, when his schooling was completed, a small legacy left to his mother, with some additions from kindly neighbours, enabled him to go to the University of Edinburgh, which he attended during the four winter sessions 1762–1765.
Adult life
In 1765 he taught during the summer months at Gairney Bridge, receiving about 5/- a year in fees and free board in a pupil's home. He became a divinity student at the Theological Hall, Kinross, with a Scottish seceding church, classified at that time as the Burghers. Bruce was sincere in his Christian deportment and it was said of him 'Religion was obviously with him a matter of experience'.,'only an evangelical Christian of reformed faith could have penned his hymns and paraphrases'. In the first summer (1766) of his course at Kinross he was put in charge of a new school at Forestmill, near Clackmannan, where he led a life marred by poverty, disease and loneliness. There he wrote "Lochleven," a poem inspired by the memories of his childhood, which shows the influence of Thomson and confirmed his reputation as a 'local poet and one of the heralds of the later outburst of Scottish song '. He had already been threatened with consumption, and now became seriously ill. During the winter he returned on foot to his father's house, where he wrote his last and finest poem, "Elegy written in Spring" considered among ' the sweetest and most moving compositions in the English language'. He died in 1767, cheerful to the last.
A poetical genius James Grant Wilson said of him in 1876, 'cut off in life's green spring'
Logan Issue
As a poet his reputation spread, through sympathy for his early death; and also because of the alleged theft by John Logan of several of his poems. Logan, a fellow-student of Bruce, obtained Bruce's manuscripts from his father, shortly after the poet's death. For the letters, poems, etc., that he allowed to pass out of his hands, Alexander Bruce took no receipt and did not keep any list of the titles. Logan edited in 1770 Poems on Several Occasions, by Michael Bruce, in which the "Ode to the Cuckoo" appeared. In the preface he stated that "to make up a miscellany, some poems written by different authors are inserted." In a collection of his own poems in 1781, Logan printed the "Ode to the Cuckoo" as his own; the friends of Bruce did not challenge its appropriation publicly but Dr Davidson, Professor of Natural & Civil History wrote at the time that he saw a copy of the Ode to the Cuckoo in the possession of a friend, in Bruce's handwriting, and signed by Bruce, with the words 'you think I might have been better employed than writing about a gowk (cuckoo)'. In a manuscript Pious Memorials of Portmoak, drawn up by Bruce's friend, David Pearson, Bruce's authorship of the "Ode to the Cuckoo" is emphatically asserted.
This book was in the possession of the Birrell family, and John Birrell, another friend of the poet, adds a testimony to the same effect. Pearson and Birrell also wrote to Dr Robert Anderson while he was publishing his British Poets, pointing out Bruce's claims. Their communications were used by Anderson in the "Life" prefixed to Logan's works in the British Poets (vol. ii. p. 1029). The volume of 1770 had struck Bruce's friends as being incomplete, and his father missed his son's "Gospel Sonnets," which are supposed by the partisans of Bruce against Logan to have been the hymns printed in the 1781 edition of Logan's poems. Logan tried to prevent by law the reprinting of Bruce's poems (see James Mackenzie's Life of Michael Bruce, 1905, chap. xii.), but the book was printed in 1782, 1784, 1796 and 1807.
Dr William McKelvie revived Bruce's claims in Lochleven and Other Poems, by Michael Bruce, with a Life of the Author from Original Sources (1837). Logan's authorship rests on the publication of the poems under his own name, and his reputation as author during his lifetime. His failure to produce the "poem book" of Bruce entrusted to him, and the fact that no copy of the "Ode to the Cuckoo" in his handwriting was known to exist during Bruce's lifetime, make it difficult to relieve him of the charge of plagiarism. John Veitch, in The Feeling for Nature in Scottish Poetry (1887, vol. ii. pp. 89–91), points out that the stanza known to be Logan's addition to this ode is out of keeping with the rest of the poem, and is in the manner of Logan's established compositions, in which there is nothing to suggest the direct simplicity of the little poem on the cuckoo.
Bibliography
The Poetical Works of Michael Bruce: With Life and Writings (1895) by Michael Bruce (Author), William Stephen (Editor), Kessinger Publishing (Oct 2009)
Poems on Several Occasions (1770) Additions thereto were made by Dr McKelvie in his 1837 edition. He gives (p. 97) a list of the poems not printed in Logan's selection, and of those that are lost.
"Lives" of Bruce and of Logan in Anderson's British Poets (1795); a paper on Bruce in The Mirror (No. 36, 1779), said to be by William Craig, one of the lords of session;
The Poetical Works of Michael Bruce, with Life and Writings (1895), by William Stephen, who, like Dr AB Grosart in his edition (1865) of The Works of Michael Bruce, adopts McKelvie's view.
Life of Michael Bruce, Poet of Loch Leven, by James Mackenzie.A restatement of the case for Bruce's authorship, coupled with a rather violent attack on Logan, is to be found in with Vindication of his Authorship of the "Ode to the Cuckoo" and other Poems, also Copies of Letters written by John Logan, first published (1905),
A Cottage Full of Dreams: The Story of Michael Bruce's Life and Landscape (2017), PPS Publishing. Graphical design by David MacKenzie. A book by the children of Portmoak Primary School, it details the life of Michael Bruce, excerpts of his poetry, art inspired by his work, and descriptions of life in the 18th century.
Poetry
Elegy to Spring
Elegy written in Spring
Ode to a Fountain
Ode to the Cuckoo
A Pastoral
A Pastoral Song
Danish Ode
The Works of the Eagle, Crow, and Shepherd
An Epigram-Celia talking
Inscription on a Bible
The Fall of the Table
Elegy to Spring-as a motto
The Complaint of Nature
Anacreontic to a Wasp
Daphnis-A monody
Fragments of Satires
The Lovers (1760)
Hymns
Three of his hymns were chosen and printed in The Church Hymn book 1872 (n. 1064, 1356 and 1393).
As Jesus died, and rose again n. 1393 in The Church Hymn book 1872
Where high the heavenly temple stands n. 1064 i(see external link below )The Church Hymn book 1872 (1765). This hymn is translated into Swedish by Erik Nyström I himlens tempel, högt och stort.
The hour of my departure's come n. 1356 i The Church Hymn book 1872 (1766)
O happy is the man who hears The Book of Praise No. 446
"Behold, the Mountain of the Lord" is Hymn number 54 in "Hymns of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints". (https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/hymns/title-page?lang=eng)
See also
Scottish literature
References
External links
Read and listen to the poetry of Where high the heavenly temple stands
The Michael Bruce Way - Portmoak Path Network
Scottish poets
1746 births
1767 deaths
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh | [
-0.43351754546165466,
0.7097746133804321,
-0.2532266080379486,
-0.8847434520721436,
-0.3920513093471527,
0.7776280045509338,
1.134366750717163,
0.06956262141466141,
-0.2557927668094635,
-0.22956353425979614,
-0.12121299654245377,
0.14006170630455017,
-0.2250181883573532,
0.2534976303577423,
-0.0070449188351631165,
0.7184548377990723,
-0.444304496049881,
-0.2811843454837799,
-0.13556216657161713,
-0.44203656911849976,
-0.25521570444107056,
-0.473574697971344,
0.45590564608573914,
-0.10957272350788116,
0.44294169545173645,
-0.002224744064733386,
0.33849772810935974,
-0.0505211241543293,
0.06016599014401436,
-0.009538124315440655,
-0.2511494755744934,
0.8504236936569214,
0.9503794312477112,
0.058353252708911896,
-0.023098435252904892,
-0.04522157460451126,
-0.4600684940814972,
-0.33170345425605774,
0.13690662384033203,
0.2611948251724243,
0.069841668009758,
-0.4854764938354492,
0.5344555377960205,
-0.35361188650131226,
0.3559851050376892,
-0.11717316508293152,
-1.763540506362915,
0.0086159473285079,
-0.3811214864253998,
-0.09963474422693253,
0.2499208152294159,
0.4430834949016571,
0.4440283477306366,
0.057195279747247696,
-0.724104642868042,
0.16389892995357513,
-0.9291394948959351,
-0.18474790453910828,
0.49577540159225464,
-0.3652005195617676,
0.14749790728092194,
0.41491949558258057,
0.16231921315193176,
0.3462270498275757,
0.5135736465454102,
0.4734642803668976,
-0.8901038765907288,
-0.13887794315814972,
-0.22614897787570953,
0.03256841376423836,
0.12745387852191925,
0.43124571442604065,
0.067031130194664,
0.4367836117744446,
-0.05760888382792473,
-0.019808057695627213,
0.45760059356689453,
-0.17343571782112122,
0.4716625511646271,
0.0162169449031353,
-0.21629664301872253,
0.03288937360048294,
0.9525608420372009,
0.8311718106269836,
0.02153122052550316,
-0.027333049103617668,
0.08265941590070724,
0.5813354253768921,
-0.16151592135429382,
-0.6942102909088135,
0.0828922912478447,
-0.6382994651794434,
-0.47832393646240234,
0.4882349967956543,
0.018876802176237106,
0.7182074785232544,
-0.16075733304023743,
0.7871734499931335,
-0.563952624797821,
-0.4279058277606964,
0.11561745405197144,
0.40992364287376404,
0.07749161124229431,
-0.06590687483549118,
-0.910666286945343,
0.15911760926246643,
0.08688545227050781,
0.05046747252345085,
0.4446346163749695,
-0.18472617864608765,
-0.24313214421272278,
0.20270635187625885,
-0.509544312953949,
0.08787058293819427,
0.40704867243766785,
0.40130335092544556,
0.8196235299110413,
-0.6255777478218079,
-0.6434653401374817,
0.14520128071308136,
-0.16248951852321625,
0.4245326817035675,
0.08942734450101852,
0.3362730145454407,
-0.6436655521392822,
-0.30138322710990906,
0.1140781044960022,
0.7007837295532227,
-0.2579651474952698,
0.6095525026321411,
-0.14208407700061798,
1.4025862216949463,
-0.2428620159626007,
-0.7010472416877747,
-0.14414356648921967,
0.5000832080841064,
0.47147801518440247,
-0.03804708272218704,
0.0539277121424675,
0.25709930062294006,
-0.4457440972328186,
-0.44744378328323364,
-1.066532850265503,
-0.40650707483291626,
0.09108494967222214,
0.21894654631614685,
-0.17538361251354218,
-0.45794540643692017,
0.10736831277608871,
0.15724410116672516,
0.02701673097908497,
0.16087323427200317,
0.0473424531519413,
-0.048272307962179184,
-0.3883453905582428,
0.12434765696525574,
0.5853152871131897,
0.4745086431503296,
0.1422639638185501,
0.20304396748542786,
-0.3755362033843994,
0.32915088534355164,
-0.1655111461877823,
-0.09302669018507004,
0.13700035214424133,
0.001049483078531921,
0.13734008371829987,
-0.9477891325950623,
-0.3815576732158661,
-0.7806100845336914,
-0.4455137252807617,
-0.22971248626708984,
0.02886284701526165,
-0.12470405548810959,
0.07487340271472931,
-0.04283049702644348,
0.7175306677818298,
0.5526419281959534,
-0.03099946118891239,
-0.33582496643066406,
-1.020552158355713,
0.0944366604089737,
-0.06081107631325722,
-0.1736127734184265,
0.4778767228126526,
0.529551088809967,
0.5217026472091675,
-0.04800831526517868,
0.48099783062934875,
-0.08332835137844086,
-0.9652146100997925,
-0.7186111807823181,
0.21969525516033173,
-0.11662333458662033,
1.0911555290222168,
-0.15191516280174255,
0.23237244784832,
-0.10681852698326111,
0.42366546392440796,
1.1464704275131226,
-0.09707759320735931,
0.18296492099761963,
-0.0461900569498539,
-0.09789419174194336,
0.41119083762168884,
0.5466002225875854,
-0.2139752209186554,
-0.06809013336896896,
0.060772571712732315,
0.060291778296232224,
0.5827778577804565,
-0.27944377064704895,
-0.11556404829025269,
0.25144150853157043,
-0.6664040088653564,
-0.9585732221603394,
-0.15378738939762115,
-0.24987399578094482,
0.015897538512945175,
-0.6502792835235596,
0.25258541107177734,
0.05628547444939613,
0.4315839111804962,
0.5395330190658569,
-0.17478738725185394,
0.653858482837677,
-0.3193804919719696,
-0.1238965317606926,
-0.08793535083532333,
-0.9182791709899902,
-0.8596219420433044,
-0.00038864294765517116,
-0.17305026948451996,
-0.6595907807350159,
-0.14092415571212769,
0.26827380061149597,
-0.022297890856862068,
-0.09839676320552826,
0.5653877258300781,
-0.11694937199354172,
0.02362353727221489,
0.08996886014938354,
-0.5497050881385803,
0.11609659343957901,
0.11494693905115128,
0.26826611161231995,
-0.2840012013912201,
-0.6367367506027222,
0.28086990118026733,
-0.04855974018573761,
0.06337203085422516,
0.6505558490753174,
0.39418768882751465,
0.3535131812095642,
0.4217574894428253,
0.46482542157173157,
0.5458893775939941,
-0.08815908432006836,
-0.1675676554441452,
-0.09491685032844543,
-0.5555174350738525,
0.05972893536090851,
0.07912487536668777,
0.05635756626725197,
0.26947641372680664,
-0.047736264765262604,
-0.21303732693195343,
-0.14744940400123596,
-0.171178936958313,
-0.30023953318595886,
-0.11791250109672546,
0.17708034813404083,
-0.4823048710823059,
0.007807659450918436,
0.46162018179893494,
0.003945507109165192,
0.13275380432605743,
-0.47860386967658997,
-0.30397164821624756,
-0.6679742932319641,
0.06345366686582565,
0.8218729496002197,
-0.5885429978370667,
-0.1242997869849205,
-0.4457533657550812,
0.4293648302555084,
0.14098487794399261,
0.17449532449245453,
-0.007561141159385443,
-0.09477697312831879,
0.13863372802734375,
0.7130835056304932,
0.054994191974401474,
0.07884306460618973,
0.009645886719226837,
0.3328273594379425,
0.2153209149837494,
-1.002547025680542,
-0.2938401699066162,
-0.13411472737789154,
-0.5042576789855957,
-0.08990883827209473,
0.028625592589378357,
0.36117419600486755,
0.17394964396953583,
-0.2312336564064026,
-0.4181981384754181,
0.3672197759151459,
-5.272153854370117,
-0.154067724943161,
-0.17324523627758026,
-0.25144076347351074,
0.4674759805202484,
-0.009022998623549938,
0.7986564636230469,
-0.7721466422080994,
0.31612882018089294,
-0.11401654779911041,
0.6189659237861633,
0.08203433454036713,
0.22080399096012115,
0.061730798333883286,
0.9092844128608704,
0.4416979253292084,
0.7261824607849121,
-0.14245232939720154,
0.21340858936309814,
0.008034097030758858,
0.4893847405910492,
0.09760353714227676,
-0.08160088211297989,
-0.12087805569171906,
0.27624568343162537,
0.25098133087158203,
0.16017329692840576,
0.4172162115573883,
-0.9059498310089111,
0.15109051764011383,
0.12035656720399857,
0.4088936746120453,
0.30738168954849243,
-0.40614187717437744,
0.17573660612106323,
-0.3063465356826782,
0.15675872564315796,
0.6847748160362244,
0.5835859179496765,
-0.0695343017578125,
0.20898325741291046,
-0.7791281342506409,
-0.47438791394233704,
-0.16025148332118988,
-0.7286492586135864,
-0.7443723678588867,
-0.6796481609344482,
0.05075647309422493,
-0.13630850613117218,
0.8120524883270264,
-0.3496024012565613,
-0.22039009630680084,
0.5305673480033875,
0.206986203789711,
0.09270448237657547,
0.10993777960538864,
0.40378350019454956,
-0.16207507252693176,
-0.028905168175697327,
0.344522088766098,
0.7748284339904785,
-0.6337200403213501,
-0.10444065928459167,
-0.5918848514556885,
-0.25380921363830566,
-0.22292031347751617,
-0.001707197050563991,
-0.49390578269958496,
-0.14772270619869232,
0.04308789223432541,
-0.001581145217642188,
0.7769346237182617,
-0.05885869637131691,
-1.231575846672058,
-0.6310068368911743,
-0.11377111822366714,
-0.17906951904296875,
0.35472017526626587,
-0.7696724534034729,
-0.6498780250549316,
0.23339802026748657,
-0.6777581572532654,
-0.4657396376132965,
1.1251314878463745,
0.5527678728103638,
0.20215488970279694,
-0.7371554970741272,
0.4943402111530304,
-0.37458693981170654,
-0.5559628009796143,
0.5584927797317505,
-0.18087922036647797,
-0.5164097547531128,
0.4693056643009186,
0.6764150261878967,
0.1299600452184677,
0.3446331322193146,
-0.3410443663597107,
0.34997639060020447,
-0.1489744633436203,
-0.210130974650383,
0.33690616488456726,
0.26214319467544556,
-0.12579345703125,
0.12329033017158508,
0.005303898360580206,
-1.0603950023651123,
0.5638659596443176,
0.459109902381897,
0.1354101151227951,
0.16977499425411224,
-0.40627142786979675,
0.006611817982047796,
-0.13462726771831512,
-0.5703822374343872,
-0.4598284065723419,
0.47577330470085144,
0.18629896640777588,
0.7817560434341431,
0.5410752892494202,
-0.1801764816045761,
0.4597693979740143,
-0.150447815656662,
-0.25340691208839417,
-0.6377208232879639,
0.07982324063777924,
0.5682083964347839,
-0.06475745141506195,
-0.7972261905670166,
-0.15755973756313324,
0.7503854632377625,
0.474496454000473,
-0.08817459642887115,
-0.050413936376571655,
-0.2989661395549774,
-0.41406765580177307,
0.005768510978668928,
-0.42312344908714294,
0.3148019015789032,
-0.24490346014499664,
0.05851109325885773,
-0.5766610503196716,
0.1413475126028061,
0.10555599629878998,
0.24374106526374817,
0.06411449611186981,
0.09342093765735626,
-0.2254641354084015,
-0.076589435338974,
0.6512405276298523,
-0.3140221834182739,
-0.12871327996253967,
1.213036298751831,
-1.001287579536438,
0.1299205869436264,
0.01185858529061079,
-0.7993586659431458,
0.05495647341012955,
-0.04621322825551033,
-0.28734543919563293,
-0.20207223296165466,
0.48275673389434814,
-1.2143419981002808,
0.019387274980545044,
-0.3463815152645111,
-0.24638672173023224,
-0.39804762601852417,
-0.3602127730846405,
0.14400902390480042,
0.4187853932380676,
0.17636540532112122,
-0.0905841812491417,
-0.4441376328468323,
-0.3502397835254669,
0.413648784160614,
-0.14717045426368713,
0.042166706174612045,
0.4085041880607605,
0.10364615172147751,
-0.380353182554245,
-0.2131107747554779,
-0.055101022124290466,
-0.4639381170272827,
0.03222279995679855,
1.1986671686172485,
-0.2429274469614029,
-0.4966871738433838,
-0.6736279726028442,
-0.1035529300570488,
0.16850145161151886,
-0.3483138084411621,
-0.42054203152656555,
0.1933148205280304,
0.41869407892227173,
0.04796014353632927,
-0.15725994110107422,
0.3731772005558014,
-0.1615966409444809,
0.11247069388628006,
-0.9478321671485901,
0.3494885563850403,
0.2686772644519806,
-0.5350247621536255,
-0.3162728250026703,
-0.5763387084007263,
-1.3497321605682373,
0.02625684067606926,
-0.6134044528007507,
-0.7684286236763,
1.1548939943313599,
0.12178754061460495,
-0.7888407707214355,
-0.44849660992622375,
0.6473556160926819,
-0.15066222846508026,
-0.17701363563537598,
-0.023944895714521408,
0.011262202635407448,
-0.764065682888031,
-0.6513460874557495,
-0.616509735584259,
-0.29297512769699097,
-0.5784932374954224,
0.2591579258441925,
-0.35326868295669556,
-0.39139026403427124,
-0.2878737151622772,
-0.4173450767993927,
0.45765748620033264,
-0.2840973436832428,
-0.6018245220184326,
0.3126473128795624,
0.45291680097579956,
0.2363361120223999,
-0.19006560742855072,
-0.005461574997752905,
0.001035319990478456,
0.22554413974285126,
-0.05726516619324684,
0.6249377727508545,
0.5830925703048706,
1.3917540311813354,
0.5050625801086426,
-0.2966407239437103,
0.24987907707691193,
0.05249524861574173,
0.031899988651275635,
-0.20784439146518707,
-0.01497354730963707,
0.2605818510055542,
0.1547057032585144,
-0.11072517931461334,
-0.21730256080627441,
-0.18690674006938934,
1.0410200357437134,
-0.11862999200820923,
-0.22343432903289795,
0.24104419350624084,
0.052608199417591095,
-0.24169252812862396,
0.7759413123130798,
0.038942016661167145,
-0.05205150693655014,
-0.05487855523824692,
0.25824567675590515,
0.03465311601758003,
0.5393943786621094,
-0.3562281131744385,
0.3824489414691925,
-0.11477899551391602,
-0.915232241153717,
-0.37255623936653137,
-0.6740530133247375,
0.44090136885643005,
-0.27313032746315,
-0.056219134479761124,
0.36115580797195435,
-0.4533195495605469,
0.8711852431297302,
-0.07314010709524155,
-0.3222106397151947,
0.11056768894195557,
-0.005606362130492926,
0.011291817761957645,
-0.2539369761943817,
-0.4972040355205536,
-0.2670573592185974,
-0.0035028252750635147,
0.2951963543891907,
0.10507768392562866,
-0.38413605093955994,
-0.05864453315734863,
-0.007548589259386063,
0.5360924601554871,
-0.15518370270729065,
0.024979788810014725,
-0.4601641595363617,
-0.09584932774305344,
-0.40906140208244324,
-0.6678909659385681,
-0.6224959492683411,
0.5113245844841003,
0.89505934715271,
-0.6479383707046509,
0.639726459980011,
-0.3006074130535126,
0.020729923620820045,
-0.16841815412044525,
-0.5006135106086731,
0.2835683822631836,
0.44649720191955566,
0.2285284399986267,
0.45818352699279785,
0.2675989866256714,
-0.4514140188694,
-0.30842670798301697,
0.5217983722686768,
-0.3352746367454529,
-0.11448095738887787,
0.34961116313934326,
0.11706885695457458,
-0.30472978949546814,
0.7718793153762817,
-0.008973970077931881,
-0.15833713114261627,
0.5554221272468567,
-0.4442294239997864,
-0.28355881571769714,
-0.19649702310562134,
0.32674601674079895,
0.07824191451072693,
-0.2658388912677765,
-0.952501654624939,
0.7858806848526001,
-0.2197357416152954,
-0.1634005755186081,
0.339665949344635,
-0.11235617846250534,
-0.10603415966033936,
0.16380710899829865,
0.030290687456727028,
0.26100489497184753,
0.6078495979309082,
0.1757228821516037,
-0.05706655606627464,
0.35929471254348755,
-0.2889908254146576,
-0.13254433870315552,
-0.0999671220779419,
-0.1165325716137886,
0.19306622445583344,
0.4097329080104828,
0.2745056748390198,
-1.0302475690841675,
0.17149513959884644,
0.5110630989074707,
0.5513375401496887,
-0.5049219727516174,
0.258771151304245,
-0.029743807390332222,
-0.27081406116485596,
-0.014695828780531883,
0.5130772590637207,
-0.12032207101583481,
-0.7043116688728333,
0.22902438044548035,
0.7222407460212708,
-0.4067235589027405,
0.3252866864204407,
0.7054498791694641,
0.11266683042049408,
-0.33631089329719543,
-0.3239171504974365,
0.6044958233833313,
0.5991146564483643,
-0.11140840500593185,
0.8096219301223755,
0.2712024450302124,
-0.19141362607479095,
0.21582868695259094,
-0.6762512922286987,
0.5209596157073975,
0.1813591867685318,
-0.5535580515861511,
0.2912367582321167,
-0.010565386153757572,
-0.45086488127708435,
-0.1816047877073288,
-0.06333357840776443,
-0.5644307732582092,
0.4307500123977661,
-0.2172968089580536,
-0.41440773010253906,
-0.08873060345649719,
-0.946806013584137,
0.21880733966827393,
-0.2926332354545593,
1.0821856260299683,
0.18820707499980927,
0.0955209732055664,
-0.12101756036281586,
0.047140538692474365,
-0.10854733735322952,
0.6274788975715637,
-0.4048537015914917,
0.5469706058502197,
-0.463217556476593,
0.6870271563529968,
-1.1241463422775269,
0.5023579001426697,
0.3249311149120331,
0.46874508261680603,
0.06296344846487045,
0.5731614232063293,
-0.2930920720100403,
-0.20328091084957123,
0.90027916431427,
-0.20282116532325745,
-0.41261565685272217,
-0.46768373250961304,
0.5640509128570557,
0.2767550051212311,
0.3299451470375061,
-0.5267722010612488,
-0.17443405091762543,
-0.008650848641991615,
0.3562212288379669,
0.41724443435668945,
-0.004867257084697485,
0.2403964251279831,
0.07099179923534393,
-0.1523713767528534,
-0.5043869018554688,
0.26881158351898193,
-0.03151099011301994,
0.18561072647571564,
0.34794357419013977,
0.2602776288986206,
0.0026735574938356876,
-0.6958385109901428,
0.6242787837982178,
-0.3768904507160187,
0.19324740767478943,
0.3004048764705658,
-1.332762598991394,
-0.2404920607805252,
0.30366918444633484,
-0.17678458988666534,
-0.23996712267398834,
0.7273843288421631,
0.21881982684135437,
-0.7641932368278503,
0.3203088045120239,
-0.3682577908039093,
0.6627299189567566,
-0.01793092116713524,
-0.23421427607536316,
-0.22815148532390594,
0.25364458560943604,
-0.2133859097957611
] |
261096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Eastern%20Solomons | Battle of the Eastern Solomons | The naval Battle of the Eastern Solomons (also known as the Battle of the Stewart Islands and, in Japanese sources, as the Second Battle of the Solomon Sea) took place on 24–25 August 1942, and was the third carrier battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II and the second major engagement fought between the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Guadalcanal campaign. As at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway, the ships of the two adversaries were never within sight of each other. Instead, all attacks were carried out by carrier-based or land-based aircraft.
After several damaging air attacks, the naval surface combatants from both America and Japan withdrew from the battle area without either side securing a clear victory. However, the U.S. and its allies gained tactical and strategic advantage. Japan's losses were greater and included dozens of aircraft and their experienced aircrews. Also, Japanese reinforcements intended for Guadalcanal were delayed and eventually delivered by warships rather than transport ships, giving the Allies more time to prepare for the Japanese counteroffensive and preventing the Japanese from landing heavy artillery, ammunition, and other supplies.
Background
On 7 August, Allied forces, consisting mainly of U.S. Marine Corps units, landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases to threaten supply routes between the U.S. and Australia, and secure the islands as launching points for a campaign with an eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign.
The Allied landings were directly supported by three U.S. aircraft carrier task forces (TFs): TF 11 centered around ; TF 16 based on ; and TF 18 formed around ; their respective air groups; and supporting surface warships, including a battleship, four cruisers, and 11 destroyers. Not all of the ships were U.S. warships; attached to TF 18 was TF 44, commanded by Victor Alexander Charles Crutchley, which included the Royal Australian Navy cruisers and . The overall commander of the three carrier task forces was Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher, who flew his flag on Saratoga. The aircraft from the three carriers provided close air support for the invasion forces and defended against Japanese air attacks from Rabaul. After a successful landing, they remained in the South Pacific Area charged with four main objectives: guarding the line of communication between the major Allied bases at New Caledonia and Espiritu Santo; giving support to Allied ground forces at Guadalcanal and Tulagi against possible Japanese counteroffensives; covering the movement of supply ships aiding Guadalcanal; and engaging and destroying any Japanese warships that came within range.
Between 15 and 20 August, the U.S. carriers covered the delivery of fighter and bomber aircraft to the newly opened Henderson Field on Guadalcanal. This small, hard-won airfield was a critical point in the entire island chain, and both sides considered that control of the airbase offered potential control of the local airspace. In fact, Henderson Field and the aircraft based there soon limited the movement of Japanese forces in the Solomon Islands and in the attrition of Japanese air forces in the South Pacific Area. Allied control of Henderson Field became the key factor in the entire battle for Guadalcanal.
Surprised by the Allied offensive in the Solomons, Japanese naval forces, commanded by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, and army forces prepared a counteroffensive, with the goal of driving the Allies off of Guadalcanal and Tulagi. The counteroffensive was called "Operation Ka", from the first syllable in the Japanese name for Guadalcanal. The naval forces had the additional objective of destroying Allied warship forces in the South Pacific Area, specifically the U.S. carriers.
Battle
Prelude
On 16 August, a Japanese convoy of three slow transport ships loaded with 1,411 soldiers from the 28th "Ichiki" Infantry Regiment, as well as several hundred naval troops from the 5th Yokosuka Special Naval Landing Force (SNLF), departed the major Japanese base at Truk Lagoon (Chuuk) and headed towards Guadalcanal. The transports were guarded by the light cruiser , eight destroyers, and four patrol boats, with the escort force commanded by Rear Admiral Raizō Tanaka, who flew his flag in Jintsū. Also departing from Rabaul to help protect the convoy was a "close cover force" of four heavy cruisers from the 8th Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa. These were the same, relatively old, heavy cruisers that had defeated an Allied naval surface force in the earlier Battle of Savo Island, less the , which had been sunk by an American submarine on her journey from that battle to her base. The 4 heavy cruisers of Mikawa's group depart the Shortlands on 23 August and become tangentially involved, dropping bombs on Henderson Field during the following nights with their float planes. Tanaka planned to land the troops from his convoy on Guadalcanal on 24 August.
On 21 August, the rest of the Japanese Ka naval force departed Truk, heading for the southern Solomons. These ships were basically divided into three groups. The "main body" contained the Japanese carriers and , the light carrier , and a screening force of one heavy cruiser and eight destroyers, commanded by Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo in Shōkaku. The "vanguard force" consisted of two battleships, three heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and six destroyers, commanded by Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe. The "advanced force" contained five heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, five destroyers, the seaplane carrier , and a "covering group" consisting of the battleship Mutsu and three destroyers, commanded by Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō. Finally, a force of about 100 IJN land-based bombers, fighters, and reconnaissance aircraft at Rabaul and nearby islands were positioned for operational support. Nagumo's main body positioned itself behind the "vanguard" and "advanced" forces in an attempt to more easily remain hidden from U.S. reconnaissance aircraft.
The Ka plan dictated that once U.S. carriers were located, either by Japanese scout aircraft or an attack on one of the Japanese surface forces, Nagumo's carriers would immediately launch a strike force to destroy them. With the U.S. carriers destroyed or disabled, Abe's "vanguard" and Kondo's "advanced" forces would close with and destroy the remaining Allied naval forces in a warship surface action. This would then allow Japanese naval forces the freedom to neutralize Henderson Field through bombardment while covering the landing of the Japanese army troops to retake Guadalcanal and Tulagi.
In response to an unanticipated land battle fought between U.S. Marines and Japanese forces on Guadalcanal on 19–20 August, the U.S. carrier task forces under Fletcher reversed towards Guadalcanal from their positions to the south on 21 August. The U.S. carriers were to support the Marines, protect Henderson Field, engage the enemy and destroy any Japanese naval forces that arrived to support Japanese troops in the land battle on Guadalcanal.
Both Allied and Japanese naval forces continued to converge on 22 August and both sides conducted intense aircraft scouting efforts, however neither side spotted its adversary. At least one Japanese scouting aircraft was shot down by aircraft from Enterprise before it could send a radio report, and this caused the Japanese to strongly suspect that U.S. carriers were in the immediate area. The U.S. forces, however, were unaware of the disposition and strength of the approaching Japanese surface warship forces.
At 09:50 on 23 August, a U.S. PBY Catalina flying boat operating out of Ndeni in the Santa Cruz Islands initially sighted Tanaka's convoy. By late afternoon, with no further sightings of Japanese ships, two aircraft strike forces from Saratoga and Henderson Field took off to attack the convoy. However, Tanaka, knowing that an attack would be forthcoming following the PBY sighting, reversed course once it had departed the area, and eluded the strike aircraft. After Tanaka reported to his superiors his loss of time by turning north to avoid the expected Allied airstrike, the landings of his troops on Guadalcanal was pushed back to 25 August. By 18:23 on 23 August, with no Japanese carriers sighted and no new intelligence reporting of their presence in the area, Fletcher detached Wasp, which was getting low on fuel, and the rest of TF 18 for the two-day trip south toward Efate Island to refuel. Thus, Wasp and her escorting warships missed the upcoming battle.
Carrier action on 24 August
At 01:45 on 24 August, Nagumo ordered Rear Admiral Chūichi Hara, commanding the light carrier Ryūjō, the heavy cruiser and the destroyers and , to proceed ahead of the main Japanese force and send an aircraft attack force against Henderson Field at daybreak. The Ryūjō mission was most likely in response to a request from the naval commander at Rabaul, Nishizō Tsukahara, for help from the combined fleet in neutralizing Henderson Field. The mission may also have been intended by Nagumo as a feint maneuver to divert U.S. attention, allowing the rest of the Japanese force to approach the U.S. naval forces undetected, as well as to help provide protection and cover for Tanaka's convoy. Most of the aircraft on Shōkaku and Zuikaku were readied to launch on short notice if the U.S. carriers were located. Between 05:55 and 06:30, the U.S. carriers, mainly Enterprise, augmented by PBY Catalinas from Ndeni, launched their own scout aircraft to search for the Japanese naval forces.
At 09:35, a Catalina made the first sighting of the Ryūjō force. Later that morning, several more sightings by carrier and other U.S. reconnaissance aircraft followed, including Ryūjō and ships of Kondo's and Mikawa's forces. Throughout the morning and early afternoon, U.S. aircraft also sighted several Japanese scout aircraft and submarines, leading Fletcher to believe that the Japanese knew where his carriers were, which actually was not yet the case. Still, Fletcher hesitated to order a strike against the Ryūjō group until he was sure there were no other Japanese carriers in the area. Finally, with no firm word on the presence or location of other Japanese carriers, at 13:40 Fletcher launched a strike of 38 aircraft from Saratoga to attack Ryūjō. However, he kept aircraft in reserve on both U.S. carriers in case any Japanese fleet carriers were sighted.
Meanwhile, at 12:20, Ryūjō launched six Nakajima B5N2 bombers and 15 A6M3 Zero fighters to attack Henderson Field in conjunction with an attack by 24 Mitsubishi G4M2 bombers and 14 Zero fighters from Rabaul. However, unknown to the Ryūjō aircraft, the Rabaul aircraft had encountered severe weather and returned to their base at 11:30. The Ryūjō aircraft were detected on radar by Saratoga as they flew toward Guadalcanal, further fixing the location of their ship for the impending U.S. attack. The Ryūjō aircraft arrived over Henderson Field at 14:23, and tangled with the Cactus Air Force based at Henderson while they bombed the airfield. In the resulting engagement, three B5N level bombers, three Zeros, and three U.S. fighters were shot down, and no significant damage was done to Henderson Field.
Almost simultaneously, at 14:25 a Japanese scout aircraft from the cruiser sighted the U.S. carriers. Although the aircraft was shot down, its report was transmitted in time, and Nagumo immediately ordered his strike force launched from Shōkaku and Zuikaku. The first wave of aircraft, consisting of 27 Aichi D3A2 dive bombers and 15 Zeros under the command of Lieutenant Commander Mamoru Seki, was in the air by 14:50 and on its way toward Enterprise and Saratoga. About this same time, two U.S. scout aircraft finally sighted the main Japanese force. However, due to communication problems, these sighting reports never reached Fletcher. Before leaving the area, the two U.S. scout aircraft attacked Shōkaku, causing negligible damage, but forcing five of the first-wave Zeros to give chase, thus aborting their mission. At 16:00 a second wave of 9 Zeros and 27 D3A dive bombers, under the command of Lieutenant Sadamu Takahashi, was launched by the Japanese carriers and headed south toward the U.S. carriers. Abe's "Vanguard" force also surged ahead in anticipation of meeting the U.S. ships in a surface action after nightfall.
Also at this time, the Saratoga strike force arrived and attacked Ryūjō, hitting and heavily damaging her with three to five bombs and perhaps one torpedo, and killing 120 of her crew. Also during this time, several U.S. B-17 heavy bombers attacked the crippled Ryūjō but caused no additional damage. The crew abandoned the heavily damaged Japanese carrier at nightfall and she sank soon after. Amatsukaze and Tokitsukaze rescued Ryūjōs survivors and the aircrews from her returning strike force, who ditched their aircraft in the ocean nearby. After the rescue operations were complete, both Japanese destroyers and Tone rejoined Nagumo's main force.
At 16:02, still waiting for a definitive report on the location of the Japanese fleet carriers, the U.S. carriers' radar detected the first incoming wave of Japanese strike aircraft. Fifty-three F4F-4 Wildcat fighters from the two U.S. carriers were directed by radar control towards the attackers. However, communication problems, limitations of the aircraft identification capabilities of the radar, primitive control procedures, and effective screening of the Japanese dive bombers by their escorting Zeros, prevented all but a few of the U.S. fighters from engaging the D3A dive bombers before they began their attacks on the U.S. carriers. Just before the Japanese dive bombers began their attacks, Enterprise and Saratoga cleared their decks for the impending action by launching the aircraft that they had been holding ready in case the Japanese fleet carriers were sighted. These aircraft were told to fly north and attack anything they could find, or else to circle outside the battle zone, until it was safe to return.
At 16:29, the Japanese dive bombers began their attacks. Although several attempted to set up to attack Saratoga, they quickly shifted back to the nearer carrier, Enterprise. Thus, Enterprise was the target of almost the entire Japanese air attack. In a desperate attempt to disrupt their attacks, several Wildcats followed the D3A dive bombers into their attack dives, despite the intense anti-aircraft artillery fire from Enterprise and her screening warships. As many as four Wildcats were shot down by U.S. anti-aircraft fire, as well as several D3A dive bombers.
Because of the effective anti-aircraft fire from the U.S. ships, plus evasive maneuvers, the bombs from the first nine D3A dive bombers missed Enterprise. However, the second division, which was led by Lieutenant Keiichi Arima, managed to score three hits. Initially, the lead D3A dive bomber, piloted by Petty Officer Kiyoto Furuta, scored a hit with a 250 kg semi-armor-piercing, delayed-action "ordinary" bomb that penetrated the flight deck near the aft elevator and passed through three decks before detonating below the waterline, killing 35 men and wounding 70 more. Incoming seawater caused Enterprise to develop a slight list, but it was not a major breach of hull integrity.
Just 30 seconds later, the next D3A dive bomber, piloted by Petty Officer Tamotsu Akimoto, planted its 242 kg high-explosive "land" bomb only away from where the first bomb hit. The resulting detonation ignited a large secondary explosion from one of the nearby guns' ready powder casings, killing 35 members of the nearby gun crews and starting a large fire.
About a minute later, at 16:46, a third and last bomb (also a 242 kg "land" bomb), dropped by Petty Officer Kazumi Horie, hit Enterprise on the flight deck forward of where the first two bombs hit. This bomb exploded on contact, creating a hole in the deck, but caused no further damage. Seven D3A dive bombers—three from Shokaku and four from Zuikaku—then broke off from the attack on Enterprise to attack the U.S. battleship North Carolina. However, all of their bombs missed and all the D3A bombers involved were shot down by either anti-aircraft fire or U.S. fighters. The attack was over at 16:48, and the surviving Japanese aircraft reassembled in small groups and returned to their ships.
Both sides thought that they had inflicted more damage than was the case. The U.S. claimed to have shot down 70 Japanese aircraft, even though there were only 37 aircraft in all. Actual Japanese losses—from all causes—in the engagement were 25 aircraft, with most of the crews of the lost aircraft not being recovered or rescued. The Japanese, for their part, mistakenly believed that they had heavily damaged two U.S. carriers, instead of just one. The U.S. lost six aircraft in the engagement, along with five pilots.
Although Enterprise was heavily damaged and on fire, her damage-control teams were able to make sufficient repairs for the ship to resume flight operations at 17:46, only one hour after the engagement ended. At 18:05, the Saratoga strike force returned from sinking Ryūjō and landed without major incident. The second wave of Japanese aircraft approached the U.S. carriers at 18:15 but was unable to locate the U.S. formation because of communication problems and had to return to their carriers without attacking any U.S. ships. It lost five aircraft from operational mishaps. Most of the U.S. carrier aircraft launched just before the first wave of Japanese aircraft attacked failed to find any targets. However, two SBD Dauntlesses from Saratoga sighted Kondo's advanced force and attacked the seaplane tender Chitose, scoring two near-misses which heavily damaged the unarmored ship. The U.S. carrier aircraft either landed at Henderson Field or were able to return to their carriers after dusk. The U.S. ships retired to the south to get out of range of any approaching Japanese warships. In fact, Abe's "vanguard force" and Kondō's "advanced force" were steaming south to try to catch the U.S. carrier task forces in a surface battle, but they turned around at midnight without having made contact with the U.S. warships. Nagumo's main body, having taken heavy aircraft losses in the engagement and being low on fuel, also retreated northward.
Actions on 25 August
Believing that two U.S. carriers had been taken out of action with heavy damage, Tanaka's reinforcement convoy again headed toward Guadalcanal, and by 08:00 on 25 August they were within of their destination. At this time, Tanaka's convoy was joined by five destroyers which had shelled Henderson Field the night before, causing slight damage. At 08:05, 18 U.S. aircraft from Henderson Field attacked Tanaka's convoy, causing heavy damage to Jintsu, killing 24 crewmen, and knocking Tanaka unconscious. The troop transport Kinryu Maru was also hit and eventually sank. Just as the destroyer pulled alongside Kinryu Maru to rescue her crew and embarked troops, she was attacked by four U.S. B-17s from Espiritu Santo, which landed five bombs on or around Mutsuki, sinking her immediately. An uninjured but shaken Tanaka transferred to the destroyer , sent Jintsu back to Truk, and took the convoy to the Japanese base in the Shortland Islands.
Both the Japanese and the U.S. elected to completely withdraw their warships from the area, ending the battle. The Japanese naval forces lingered near the northern Solomons, out of range of the U.S. aircraft based at Henderson Field, before finally returning to Truk on 5 September.
Aftermath
The battle is generally considered to be a tactical and strategic victory for the U.S. because the Japanese lost more ships, aircraft, and aircrew, and Japanese troop reinforcements for Guadalcanal were delayed. Summing up the significance of the battle, historian Richard B. Frank states:
The Battle of the Eastern Solomons was unquestionably an American victory, but it had little long-term result, apart from a further reduction in the corps of trained Japanese carrier aviators. The [Japanese] reinforcements that could not come by slow transport would soon reach Guadalcanal by other means.
The U.S. lost only seven aircrew in the battle. However, the Japanese lost 61 veteran aircrew, who were hard for the Japanese to replace because of an institutionalized limited capacity in their naval aircrew training programs and an absence of trained reserves. The troops in Tanaka's convoy were later loaded onto destroyers at the Shortland Islands and delivered piecemeal to Guadalcanal without most of their heavy equipment, beginning on 29 August. The Japanese claimed considerably more damage than they had inflicted, including that —not in the battle—had been sunk, thus avenging its part in the Doolittle Raid.
Emphasizing the strategic value of Henderson Field, in a separate reinforcement effort, the Japanese destroyer was sunk and two other Japanese destroyers heavily damaged on 28 August, north of Guadalcanal in New Georgia Sound by U.S. aircraft based at the airfield.
The damaged Enterprise traveled to Pearl Harbor for extensive repairs, which were completed on 15 October. She returned to the South Pacific on 24 October, just in time for the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and her rematch with Shōkaku and Zuikaku.
See also
United States Navy in World War II
Imperial Japanese Navy of World War II
Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
Pacific Theater aircraft carrier operations during World War II
WWII carrier-versus-carrier engagements between Allied and Japanese naval forces:
Battle of the Coral Sea
Battle of Midway
Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands
Battle of the Philippine Sea
Battle off Cape Engaño
References
Notes
Bibliography
First-hand account of the battle by the captain of the Japanese destroyer Amatsukaze.
Further reading
External links
Somewhat inaccurate on details, since it was written during the war.
1942 in Japan
1942 in the Solomon Islands
Eastern Solomons
Eastern Solomons
Eastern Solomons
Military history of Japan during World War II
Eastern Solomons
Eastern Solomons
Eastern Solomons
August 1942 events | [
-0.1469118595123291,
-0.023179540410637856,
-0.6441925168037415,
-0.04581994190812111,
-0.060706641525030136,
-0.11121769994497299,
0.42649561166763306,
-0.38552749156951904,
0.010211589746177197,
-0.06885787844657898,
-0.35324203968048096,
1.141502857208252,
-0.2233590930700302,
0.748582124710083,
-0.16511571407318115,
0.6940855979919434,
0.6072982549667358,
-0.30204352736473083,
0.2040635645389557,
-0.2769638001918793,
-0.7709178328514099,
-0.29450589418411255,
0.30054086446762085,
0.3751969337463379,
0.3272671103477478,
-0.03372813016176224,
0.34264856576919556,
-0.025926046073436737,
0.3836382329463959,
-0.07550990581512451,
0.6126376986503601,
-0.13264264166355133,
-0.22746452689170837,
-0.2651146650314331,
-0.22517496347427368,
-0.08969183266162872,
-0.23377184569835663,
-0.12818719446659088,
0.0964660719037056,
0.0009581649210304022,
-0.004734524060040712,
0.5644916892051697,
0.36348462104797363,
0.3641268312931061,
0.3643096387386322,
0.19353465735912323,
-1.3726825714111328,
-0.2614060938358307,
-0.32806119322776794,
-0.46967023611068726,
-0.26580750942230225,
0.024866333231329918,
0.37212684750556946,
0.2489602416753769,
-0.04680715873837471,
0.5275589227676392,
-0.5554330945014954,
-0.05912702530622482,
-0.20808041095733643,
-1.0762807130813599,
0.561011016368866,
0.2184136062860489,
0.31284844875335693,
-0.4247342348098755,
-0.224890798330307,
-0.39054593443870544,
0.18060120940208435,
0.3943122625350952,
-0.15044401586055756,
-0.4314054548740387,
0.05131023749709129,
0.4998156428337097,
-0.3530305027961731,
0.07399826496839523,
-0.16870862245559692,
-0.5691792368888855,
-0.5558617115020752,
0.2689712345600128,
-0.3740907311439514,
0.33528298139572144,
-0.32928013801574707,
-0.3346627950668335,
0.34971728920936584,
-0.7062493562698364,
0.4023197591304779,
-0.35855087637901306,
0.2935139834880829,
0.10467055439949036,
-0.5035499930381775,
0.28350627422332764,
-0.45629453659057617,
-0.1955806314945221,
-0.2735414206981659,
-0.22714917361736298,
-0.20326612889766693,
-0.7509707808494568,
-0.15054656565189362,
0.6891589760780334,
0.14657938480377197,
0.5627814531326294,
-0.15038979053497314,
-0.16903795301914215,
0.8201816082000732,
0.47926005721092224,
-0.6690794229507446,
-0.4302028715610504,
0.1392664760351181,
0.131492018699646,
-0.2178620845079422,
-0.2960188090801239,
-0.36742186546325684,
-0.09549868106842041,
-0.25785377621650696,
-0.285373330116272,
-0.706567645072937,
-0.05195906013250351,
-0.008712632581591606,
-0.8661667108535767,
-0.5563968420028687,
-0.23316261172294617,
0.4753543436527252,
0.7990281581878662,
-0.5849791169166565,
0.7369049787521362,
-0.18393251299858093,
-0.16154395043849945,
0.6196509599685669,
0.10264831781387329,
-0.8686285018920898,
0.23219038546085358,
-0.08024758100509644,
0.48610547184944153,
-0.41301536560058594,
0.43437254428863525,
-0.1135193333029747,
-0.5600883364677429,
0.022332632914185524,
0.551588773727417,
0.06916666775941849,
-0.34375807642936707,
-0.5641549229621887,
-0.3932774066925049,
-0.5301033854484558,
0.08344782888889313,
0.4525723457336426,
-0.08908344805240631,
-0.14331388473510742,
-0.4424671232700348,
-0.030809447169303894,
-0.7295782566070557,
0.18838785588741302,
-0.06839648634195328,
-0.565641462802887,
0.18294768035411835,
-0.1988908052444458,
0.118444062769413,
1.069908857345581,
-0.3029741942882538,
0.42848271131515503,
0.6240481734275818,
-0.22883959114551544,
0.08095380663871765,
0.0897005945444107,
0.4167202413082123,
0.08718526363372803,
-0.15425324440002441,
0.6268543601036072,
0.4332832098007202,
0.45616692304611206,
0.38506048917770386,
-0.156403586268425,
-0.10660137981176376,
0.038798656314611435,
0.0030647662933915854,
-0.46411287784576416,
-0.4084985852241516,
0.4258597493171692,
0.17016661167144775,
-0.02097333036363125,
-0.8230686783790588,
-0.5163803696632385,
-0.05989357456564903,
-0.0065268599428236485,
-0.21025386452674866,
0.20761443674564362,
0.39356091618537903,
0.20306283235549927,
0.029765812680125237,
0.2037893682718277,
0.618527889251709,
0.02209951914846897,
-0.7021661400794983,
0.11391923576593399,
-0.07962580770254135,
0.9266231060028076,
0.5687827467918396,
0.024458058178424835,
0.651623547077179,
0.3460787832736969,
0.2940734028816223,
0.1409631073474884,
-0.12418489158153534,
0.5786072015762329,
0.21275094151496887,
-0.28410089015960693,
-0.013915200717747211,
0.3184245824813843,
0.31048858165740967,
0.30852848291397095,
0.59246426820755,
-0.47023269534111023,
0.24185723066329956,
-0.4646252691745758,
0.18391993641853333,
0.48947104811668396,
-0.30183669924736023,
-0.12452638894319534,
0.03174111247062683,
0.4653320610523224,
-0.3782598078250885,
-0.01054493896663189,
0.18370088934898376,
-0.1876521110534668,
-0.08893698453903198,
0.6314595341682434,
0.7048506140708923,
-0.07068278640508652,
0.4493837356567383,
-0.2544996738433838,
0.18687951564788818,
0.059193629771471024,
0.4851704239845276,
-0.06809788197278976,
-0.37323927879333496,
0.14265376329421997,
0.10127319395542145,
0.08332859724760056,
-0.6658670902252197,
0.2674865424633026,
-0.21871861815452576,
0.2433028519153595,
0.04798874631524086,
-0.5079143643379211,
0.5427635312080383,
0.20970942080020905,
0.052511632442474365,
0.07920635491609573,
-0.003424921305850148,
0.15552909672260284,
0.3408817648887634,
-0.11678615212440491,
-0.10202372819185257,
0.2786395847797394,
-0.22199638187885284,
-0.03271345794200897,
-0.17598021030426025,
-0.3234832286834717,
-0.4459746181964874,
0.5059878826141357,
-0.22315162420272827,
0.057226356118917465,
0.23991750180721283,
-0.15647092461585999,
0.3435335159301758,
0.8903828859329224,
0.1489022970199585,
-0.25000590085983276,
-0.12658630311489105,
0.49706634879112244,
-0.06347401440143585,
0.37423545122146606,
-0.1333041936159134,
-0.20174890756607056,
-0.5045203566551208,
-0.053318336606025696,
-0.6192163228988647,
-0.3301796615123749,
0.0706600695848465,
-0.13008946180343628,
-0.42400920391082764,
0.7279311418533325,
0.33248305320739746,
-0.17820215225219727,
-1.016380786895752,
-0.33954286575317383,
-0.04035581275820732,
-0.009569439105689526,
-0.42637330293655396,
-0.3145328164100647,
-0.28851374983787537,
-0.38155725598335266,
-0.40659868717193604,
-0.8064380288124084,
0.34100770950317383,
-0.5799766778945923,
0.4748736619949341,
-0.4692957103252411,
-0.03255939483642578,
0.4234039783477783,
-0.7019352912902832,
-0.32979947328567505,
-0.15849658846855164,
-0.7979235053062439,
-0.07977723330259323,
0.471224844455719,
-0.8261858820915222,
-0.5363925695419312,
0.5291361212730408,
-5.6691694259643555,
0.13369157910346985,
-0.5247366428375244,
0.03621216490864754,
0.061680905520915985,
0.22863715887069702,
-0.1769988238811493,
-0.3584558367729187,
0.5558812022209167,
-0.5334005355834961,
0.10058433562517166,
-0.19743584096431732,
-0.2306128740310669,
0.06882794201374054,
0.401755690574646,
0.002323737135156989,
0.35385510325431824,
-0.3200070559978485,
0.3974767327308655,
0.10193909704685211,
0.4712079167366028,
-0.24530097842216492,
-0.051215771585702896,
-0.09720869362354279,
0.5065643191337585,
0.5650160908699036,
-0.28413769602775574,
0.08599745482206345,
0.07033437490463257,
0.15085990726947784,
-0.5829198956489563,
-0.16228139400482178,
0.48453912138938904,
0.16579735279083252,
-0.0720977783203125,
-0.44927772879600525,
0.6402410268783569,
0.40581077337265015,
0.5543617010116577,
-0.02579733543097973,
-0.3911675810813904,
-0.1491781324148178,
-0.5207083225250244,
-0.05722803622484207,
0.5526212453842163,
-0.32050758600234985,
-0.02829631417989731,
-0.04363057017326355,
0.24876195192337036,
0.44836217164993286,
0.3642628788948059,
0.36403971910476685,
-0.1362881362438202,
0.17314937710762024,
0.13269206881523132,
-0.10444039106369019,
-0.6058328151702881,
-0.38342803716659546,
-0.06110909953713417,
0.1859336942434311,
-0.11939141899347305,
-0.4906596839427948,
-0.14466801285743713,
-0.5352504849433899,
0.34247058629989624,
-0.04169730097055435,
0.3724501430988312,
0.2780795395374298,
0.21171922981739044,
-0.22538480162620544,
-0.19857251644134521,
0.5469939708709717,
-0.40160948038101196,
-1.093545913696289,
0.48285773396492004,
-0.19940268993377686,
-0.28788477182388306,
-0.4515855312347412,
0.11085344851016998,
-0.3157661557197571,
-0.16106171905994415,
-0.5367573499679565,
0.0011468430748209357,
0.18530182540416718,
0.6159570813179016,
-0.4349852204322815,
-0.5269966125488281,
-0.2829146683216095,
0.1442980170249939,
0.09336605668067932,
0.23770283162593842,
-0.6133820414543152,
0.138086199760437,
0.1370183229446411,
0.5682153105735779,
0.5290526151657104,
-0.31249555945396423,
0.7319682240486145,
1.2385414838790894,
0.32383397221565247,
0.28707411885261536,
-0.706358015537262,
0.05082884058356285,
-0.3503197133541107,
0.2465944141149521,
-0.2941708564758301,
0.14254342019557953,
0.392222136259079,
0.2915126383304596,
0.24328452348709106,
-0.207506462931633,
0.059480782598257065,
-0.4108676016330719,
-0.24053633213043213,
0.0983639508485794,
-0.1041354089975357,
0.29964369535446167,
-0.15253481268882751,
0.9684061408042908,
0.24796456098556519,
-0.053574029356241226,
-0.02672807313501835,
-0.10909322649240494,
0.4293249547481537,
0.622193455696106,
-0.4392918348312378,
-0.24957796931266785,
0.21869125962257385,
-0.5185991525650024,
0.5481593608856201,
0.6107316017150879,
0.07961171120405197,
0.532356321811676,
0.20208358764648438,
0.06756458431482315,
-0.395709753036499,
0.25324371457099915,
-1.225542664527893,
-0.3368636667728424,
0.02474508434534073,
-0.45441895723342896,
-0.0381767712533474,
-0.5522603988647461,
0.2822849750518799,
-0.7036155462265015,
0.2908347249031067,
-0.010869179852306843,
-1.0292577743530273,
0.12325833737850189,
0.24516449868679047,
-0.47401782870292664,
-0.41117846965789795,
0.2923029065132141,
0.01403894368559122,
-0.22177110612392426,
0.05145363137125969,
0.6386258006095886,
0.09543397277593613,
-0.5272359848022461,
-0.11062008887529373,
0.18662278354167938,
-0.3797856569290161,
-0.85239577293396,
-0.0536399707198143,
-0.28993356227874756,
-0.4250829517841339,
-0.6601171493530273,
-0.4079577624797821,
-0.21158266067504883,
0.15616469085216522,
0.7637806534767151,
-0.4644193947315216,
-0.5992790460586548,
0.5872822999954224,
0.34091290831565857,
0.039589133113622665,
-0.5639217495918274,
0.007211585994809866,
-0.1259639412164688,
-0.455754816532135,
0.30089354515075684,
-0.17033304274082184,
-0.9155771732330322,
0.44713354110717773,
0.4114999771118164,
-0.1495225876569748,
-0.569840669631958,
0.00741533050313592,
-0.7421873807907104,
0.3267274796962738,
0.3111632466316223,
-0.26362788677215576,
0.03459472209215164,
0.21401739120483398,
-0.4765019714832306,
-0.27235347032546997,
0.2366621196269989,
0.8066292405128479,
0.35726484656333923,
0.006864963099360466,
-0.27089521288871765,
0.8176361918449402,
-0.701087474822998,
0.2431812435388565,
-0.34039661288261414,
-0.00789821706712246,
0.3905264437198639,
0.3157133460044861,
-0.1267748773097992,
0.45348039269447327,
-0.3405117094516754,
-0.4267420768737793,
-0.22350551187992096,
0.7650567889213562,
0.0533403642475605,
0.5105951428413391,
-0.3366139531135559,
0.201535165309906,
0.4670807421207428,
-0.5232149958610535,
-0.2324388176202774,
-0.019404597580432892,
-0.17385877668857574,
-0.5111066102981567,
-0.34407690167427063,
0.9258407950401306,
-0.2413901537656784,
-0.9227856993675232,
-0.3041209578514099,
0.1877201795578003,
-0.130760058760643,
-0.49754607677459717,
0.07519737631082535,
0.7265656590461731,
0.5690431594848633,
0.14089342951774597,
0.4149068593978882,
-0.027693916112184525,
-0.5772125720977783,
0.3628905117511749,
0.648561418056488,
0.9882475733757019,
0.2713657021522522,
0.4546939730644226,
0.03250337019562721,
0.44736775755882263,
0.21754631400108337,
-0.5866356492042542,
-0.5093987584114075,
-0.09442836046218872,
0.029444165527820587,
0.05197480693459511,
-0.7269812822341919,
0.09456302970647812,
0.6709190011024475,
-0.4153091609477997,
-0.5144611597061157,
-0.13646985590457916,
-0.3012242615222931,
0.1346440613269806,
-0.016697514802217484,
0.09617931395769119,
-0.6894651055335999,
0.1861213594675064,
0.5390831828117371,
0.020566996186971664,
-0.1938716471195221,
-0.05858264118432999,
-0.4224270284175873,
0.6097181439399719,
-0.1084994450211525,
-0.12011908739805222,
0.3610522449016571,
0.07789663970470428,
0.29737576842308044,
0.31834638118743896,
0.08027917146682739,
-0.3783244490623474,
-0.012310586869716644,
0.1229444295167923,
-0.3232220411300659,
-0.4339616596698761,
-0.6127393841743469,
-0.6621858477592468,
-0.2869928777217865,
-0.9230380058288574,
-0.749846339225769,
0.1854405403137207,
-0.1364322155714035,
0.37210723757743835,
0.20891466736793518,
-0.25808045268058777,
-0.1831713616847992,
-0.9810920357704163,
-0.17286691069602966,
0.37389835715293884,
-0.3654607832431793,
0.5769964456558228,
-0.5543326735496521,
-0.31643450260162354,
-0.052264053374528885,
0.5961313843727112,
0.043671026825904846,
0.1047968938946724,
0.27523311972618103,
-0.32187554240226746,
-0.04550747573375702,
0.03875545412302017,
-0.2225109487771988,
0.5542104244232178,
0.7233321666717529,
0.006831539329141378,
0.11438020318746567,
0.43729230761528015,
-0.6923130750656128,
0.3332974314689636,
0.9235932230949402,
-0.5715460181236267,
-0.08071283251047134,
0.023768696933984756,
-0.3390321135520935,
-0.38900646567344666,
0.182721808552742,
0.6958563923835754,
0.3789491653442383,
0.2914581298828125,
-0.06830451637506485,
0.0992625430226326,
0.6508222222328186,
0.3134230077266693,
0.029796037822961807,
-0.4148881137371063,
-0.2471451461315155,
0.06065905839204788,
-0.34256741404533386,
-0.07025006413459778,
-0.05655190721154213,
-0.700583815574646,
-0.10866208374500275,
0.8796366453170776,
0.5266477465629578,
0.43066316843032837,
0.3133574426174164,
-0.20060837268829346,
-0.1440654844045639,
0.18292942643165588,
0.04046734422445297,
0.1386032998561859,
0.6109315752983093,
0.1648159623146057,
0.6047205924987793,
0.25902360677719116,
-0.06350114941596985,
-0.6939597725868225,
0.8918153643608093,
0.1316404491662979,
0.6616266965866089,
-0.3700471520423889,
0.07669258862733841,
-0.16886581480503082,
-0.03826838359236717,
0.38297244906425476,
0.6522335410118103,
-0.1364743411540985,
0.027398737147450447,
0.04192981496453285,
-0.3756793141365051,
-0.22310490906238556,
0.17887671291828156,
0.40560171008110046,
0.39858806133270264,
0.12644264101982117,
-0.7763470411300659,
-1.151526689529419,
0.49277064204216003,
0.7787798047065735,
-0.21742019057273865,
0.13222628831863403,
-0.13814584910869598,
0.7480159401893616,
-0.029143523424863815,
-0.0015062529128044844,
-0.41030430793762207,
-0.7882803678512573,
0.20374630391597748,
-0.27488335967063904,
0.39670178294181824,
0.2904474139213562,
-0.10008835047483444,
-0.25696271657943726,
0.6133878827095032,
-0.7466781139373779,
-0.37362754344940186,
-0.09630893170833588,
0.03703528270125389,
0.6597912311553955,
0.2064485251903534,
0.7734495401382446,
0.8941773772239685,
0.4698312282562256,
-0.04163633659482002,
0.4419894814491272,
0.4202210307121277,
0.02144904062151909,
-0.5210006833076477,
0.5995981097221375,
-0.1291721761226654,
-0.07748614996671677,
0.14417919516563416,
0.15223906934261322,
0.44761228561401367,
0.13127762079238892,
-0.22325217723846436,
-0.1033017560839653,
-0.5562770366668701,
-0.035210441797971725,
0.6070094108581543,
-0.35143738985061646,
0.007722423877567053,
0.19038982689380646,
-0.399435818195343,
-0.11952470242977142,
-0.40989476442337036,
0.22854487597942352,
-0.02957218512892723,
-0.1338403820991516,
-0.07347097247838974,
0.43571972846984863,
-0.3920491337776184,
0.19633249938488007,
0.3829319179058075,
-0.47387024760246277,
-0.1907755583524704,
-0.40601930022239685,
0.11247485131025314,
-0.547885537147522,
0.23802725970745087,
-0.09098075330257416,
0.6171046495437622,
-0.16617754101753235,
0.7875161170959473,
-0.40638312697410583,
0.13608908653259277,
-0.12008686363697052,
0.5822674632072449,
-0.37687137722969055,
-0.06935734301805496,
-0.5003839731216431,
0.03381986916065216,
0.9118552803993225,
-0.026691969484090805,
0.0343005433678627,
0.3617231547832489,
-0.028903931379318237,
-0.4037807583808899,
0.07224950939416885,
0.2670482397079468,
-0.06911566108465195,
0.4039572775363922,
-0.319571852684021
] |
261099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington%20Library | Huntington Library | The Huntington Library, Art Museum and Botanical Gardens, known as The Huntington, is a collections-based educational and research institution established by Henry E. Huntington (1850–1927) and Arabella Huntington (c.1851–1924) in San Marino, California, United States. In addition to the library, the institution houses an extensive art collection with a focus on 18th- and 19th-century European art and 17th- to mid-20th-century American art. The property also includes approximately of specialized botanical landscaped gardens, most notably the "Japanese Garden", the "Desert Garden", and the "Chinese Garden" (Liu Fang Yuan).
History
As a landowner, Henry Edwards Huntington (1850–1927) played a major role in the growth of Southern California. Huntington was born in 1850, in Oneonta, New York, and was the nephew and heir of Collis P. Huntington (1821–1900), one of the famous "Big Four" railroad tycoons of 19th century California history. In 1892, Huntington relocated to San Francisco with his first wife, Mary Alice Prentice, as well as their four children. He divorced Mary Alice Prentice in 1906; in 1913, he married his uncle's widow, Arabella Huntington (1851–1924), relocating from the financial and political center of Northern California, San Francisco, to the state's newer southern major metropolis, Los Angeles. He purchased a property of more than that was then known as the "San Marino Ranch" and went on to purchase other large tracts of land in the Pasadena and Los Angeles areas of Los Angeles County for urban and suburban development. As president of the Pacific Electric Railway Company, the regional streetcar and public transit system for the Los Angeles metropolitan area and southern California and also of the Los Angeles Railway Company, (later the Southern California Railway), he spearheaded urban and regional transportation efforts to link together far-flung communities, supporting growth of those communities as well as promoting commerce, recreation and tourism. He was one of the founders of the City of San Marino, incorporated in 1913.
Huntington's interest in art was influenced in large part by his second wife, Arabella Huntington (1851–1924), and with art experts to guide him, he benefited from a post-World War I European market that was "ready to sell almost anything". Before his death in 1927, Huntington amassed "far and away the greatest group of 18th-century British portraits ever assembled by any one man". In accordance with Huntington's will, the collection, then worth $50 million, was opened to the public in 1928.
On October 17, 1985, a fire erupted in an elevator shaft of the Huntington Art Gallery and destroyed Sir Joshua Reynolds's 1777 portrait of Mrs. Edwin Lascelles. After a year-long, $1 million refurbishing project, the Huntington Gallery reopened in 1986, with its artworks cleaned of soot and stains. Most of the funds for the cleanup and refurbishing of the Georgian mansion and its artworks came from donations from the Michael J. Connell Foundation, corporations and individuals. Both the Federal art-supporting establishment of the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment for the Humanities gave emergency grants, the former of $17,500 to "support conservation and other related costs resulting from a serious fire at the Gallery of Art", and the latter of $30,000 to "support the restoration of several fire-damaged works of art that depict the story of Western culture."
On September 5, 2019, The Huntington kicked off a year-long celebration of its centennial year with exhibitions, special programs, initiatives, a special Huntington 100th rose, and a float in the 2020 Rose Parade in nearby Pasadena, California.
Management
The current executive leaders of The Huntington Library, Art Museum, and Botanical Gardens are:
President: Karen R. Lawrence
Chief Financial Officer: Janet Alberti
Chief Human Resources Officer: Misty Bennett
Director of the Library: Sandra Ludig Brooke
Director of the Botanical Gardens: James Folsom (retired), Nicole Cavender (May 17, 2021)
Director of the Art Museum: Christina Nielsen
Vice Presidents and other executive leaders: Heather Hart, Steve Hindle, Thomas Polansky, Randy Shulman, Susan Turner-Lowe, and Elizabeth (Elee) Wood
With an endowment of more than $400 million (and half a billion dollars raised between 2001 and 2013), the Huntington is among the wealthiest cultural institutions in the United States. It has undertaken major restorations and construction including a $60 million education and visitors center opened in 2015. Each year some 1,700 scholars conduct research there, and 600,000 people visit.
Library
The library building was designed in 1920 by the southern California architect Myron Hunt in the Mediterranean Revival style. Hunt's previous commissions for Mr. and Mrs. Huntington included the Huntington's residence in San Marino in 1909, and the Huntington Hotel in 1914. The library contains a substantial collection of rare books and manuscripts, concentrated in the fields of British and American history, literature, art, and the history of science. Spanning from the 11th century to the present, the library's holdings contain 7 million manuscript items, over 400,000 rare books, and over a million photographs, prints, and other ephemera. Highlights include one of eleven vellum copies of the Gutenberg Bible known to exist, the Ellesmere manuscript of Chaucer (ca. 1410), and letters and manuscripts by George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and Abraham Lincoln. It is the only library in the world with the first two quartos of Hamlet; it holds the manuscript of Benjamin Franklin's autobiography, Isaac Newton's personal copy of his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica with annotations in Newton's own hand, the first seven drafts of Henry David Thoreau's Walden, John James Audubon's Birds of America, and first editions and manuscripts from authors such as Charles Bukowski, Jack London, Alexander Pope, William Blake, Mark Twain, and William Wordsworth.
The Library's Main Exhibition Hall showcases some of the most outstanding rare books and manuscripts in the collection, while the West Hall of the Library hosts rotating exhibitions. The Dibner Hall of the History of Science is a permanent exhibition on the history of science with a focus on astronomy, natural history, medicine, and light.
With the 2006 acquisition of the Burndy Library, a collection of nearly 60,000 items, the Huntington became one of the top institutions in the world for the study of the history of science and technology.
Research
Use of the collection for research is restricted to qualified scholars, generally requiring a doctoral degree or at least candidacy for the PhD, and two letters of recommendation from known scholars. Through a rigorous peer-review program, the institution awards approximately 150 grants to scholars in the fields of history, literature, art, and the history of science. The Huntington also hosts numerous scholarly events, lectures, conferences, and workshops.
In September 1991, then-director William A. Moffett announced that the library's photographic archive of the Dead Sea Scrolls would be available to all qualified scholars, not just those approved by the international team of editors that had so long limited access to a chosen few. The collection consists of 3,000 photographs of all the original scrolls.
Through a partnership with the University of Southern California, The Huntington has established two research centers: the USC-Huntington Early Modern Studies Institute and the Huntington-USC Institute on California and the West.
Art collections
The Huntington's collections are displayed in permanent installations housed in the Huntington Art Gallery and Virginia Steele Scott Gallery of American Art. Special temporary exhibitions are mounted in the MaryLou and George Boone Gallery, with smaller, focused exhibitions displayed in the Works on Paper Room in the Huntington Art Gallery and the Susan and Stephen Chandler Wing of the Scott Galleries. In addition the gallery also hosts different exhibitions of photography throughout the year including those about different social and political subjects.
European art
The European collection, consisting largely of 18th- and 19th-century British & French paintings, sculptures and decorative arts, is housed in The Huntington Art Gallery, the original Huntington residence. The permanent installation also includes selections from the Arabella D. Huntington Memorial Art Collection, which contains Italian and Northern Renaissance paintings and a spectacular collection of 18th-century French tapestries, porcelain, and furniture. Some of the best known works in the European collection include The Blue Boy by Thomas Gainsborough, Pinkie by Thomas Lawrence, and Madonna and Child by Rogier van der Weyden.
American art
Complementing the European collections is the Huntington's American art holdings, a collection of paintings, prints, drawings, sculptures, and photographs dating from the 17th to the mid-20th century. The institution did not begin collecting American art until 1979, when it received a gift of 50 paintings from the Virginia Steele Scott Foundation. Consequently, The Virginia Steele Scott Gallery of American Art was established in 1984. In 2009, the Virginia Steele Scott Galleries were expanded, refurbished, and reinstalled. The new showcase, a $1.6 million project designed to give the Huntington's growing American art collection more space and visibility, combines the original, 1984 American gallery with the Lois and Robert F. Erburu Gallery, a modern classical addition designed by Los Angeles architect Frederick Fisher. Highlights among the American art collections include Breakfast in Bed by Mary Cassatt, The Long Leg by Edward Hopper, Small Crushed Campbell's Soup Can (Beef Noodle) by Andy Warhol, and Global Loft (Spread) by Robert Rauschenberg. As of 2014, the collection numbers some 12,000 works, ninety percent of them drawings, photographs and prints.
In 2014, the library acquired the Millard Sheets mural Southern California landscape (1934), the dining room wall painting originally painted for homeowners Fred H. and Bessie Ranke in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles.
Acquisitions
In 1999, the Huntington acquired the collection of materials relating to Arts and Crafts artist and designer William Morris amassed by Sanford and Helen Berger, comprising stained glass, wallpaper, textiles, embroidery, drawings, ceramics, more than 2,000 books, original woodblock prints, and the complete archives of Morris's decorative arts firm Morris & Co. and its predecessor Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. These materials formed the foundation for the 2002 exhibit "William Morris: Creating the Useful and the Beautiful".
In 2005, actor Steve Martin gave $1 million to the Huntington to support exhibitions and acquisitions of American art, with three-quarters of the money to be spent on exhibitions and the rest on purchases of artworks. In 2009, Andy Warhol's painting Small Crushed Campbell's Soup Can (Beef Noodle) (1962) as well as group of the artist's Brillo Boxes were donated by the estate of Robert Shapazian, the founding director of Gagosian Gallery in Beverly Hills. In 2011, a $1.75 million acquisition fund for post-1945 American art was established by unidentified patrons in honor of the late Shapazian. The first purchase from the fund was the painting Global Loft (Spread) (1979) by Robert Rauschenberg.
In 2012, the museum acquired its first major work by an African-American artist when it purchased a 22-foot-long carved redwood panel from 1937 by sculptor Sargent Claude Johnson.
Botanical gardens
The Huntington's botanical gardens cover and showcase plants from around the world. Huntington worked to make them thrive in the generous California climate. Today his many projects of horticulture live on, providing opportunities for botanical research and for enjoyment. The gardens are divided into more than a dozen themes, including the Australian Garden, Camellia Collection, Children's Garden, Desert Garden, Herb Garden, Japanese Garden, Lily Ponds, North Vista, Palm Garden, Rose Garden, the Shakespeare Garden, Subtropical and Jungle Garden, and the Chinese Garden (Liu Fang Yuan 流芳園 or the Garden of Flowing Fragrance).
The Rose Hills Foundation Conservatory for Botanical Science has a large tropical plant collection, as well as a carnivorous plants wing. The Huntington has a program to protect and propagate endangered plant species. In 1999, 2002, 2009, 2010, 2014, 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2021, specimens of Amorphophallus titanum, or the odiferous "corpse flower", bloomed at the facility. There were a total of fourteen corpse flowers bloomed at Huntington since 1999. Three flowers opened in July, 2021.
The Camellia Collection, recognized as an International Camellia Garden of Excellence, includes nearly eighty different camellia species and some 1,200 cultivated varieties, many of them rare and historic. The Rose Garden contains approximately 1,200 cultivars (4,000 individual plants) arranged historically to trace the development of roses from ancient to modern times.
Chinese Garden (Liu Fang Yuan 流芳園)
A Chinese garden, the largest outside of China, was dedicated on February 26, 2008 after artisans from Suzhou, China spent some six months at Huntington to construct the first phase of the newest facility. On at the northwest corner of the Huntington, the garden features man-made lakes ("Pond of Reflected Greenery" and "Lake of Reflected Fragrance") with pavilions connected by bridges. Unique Chinese names are assigned to many of the facilities in the garden, such as the tea house, known as the "Hall of the Jade Camellia". Other pavilions are the "Love for the Lotus Pavilion", "Terrace of the Jade Mirror", and "Pavilion of the Three Friends". The initial phase cost $18.3 million to build.
The second phase, which includes the "Clear and Transcendent Pavilion (Qing Yue Tai 清越臺)", "Lingering Clouds Peak (Liu Yun Xiu 留雲岫)" (with a waterfall), "Waveless Boat (Bu Bo Xiao Ting 不波小艇)", "Crossing through Fragrance" bridge and the "Cloud Steps" bridge, opened on March 8, 2014. There were other pavilions, including the "Flowery Brush Studio", and structures completed under phase two. A place to display its large collections of penjing and bonsai has completed.
Desert Garden
The Desert Garden, one of the world's largest and oldest outdoor collections of cacti and other succulents, contains plants from extreme environments, many of which were acquired by Henry E. Huntington and William Hertrich (the garden curator). One of the Huntington's most botanically important gardens, the Desert Garden brings together a plant group largely unknown and unappreciated in the beginning of the 1900s. Containing a broad category of xerophytes (aridity-adapted plants), the Desert Garden grew to preeminence and remains today among the world's finest, with more than 5,000 species.
Japanese Garden
In 1911, art dealer George Turner Marsh (who also created the Japanese Tea Garden at the Golden Gate Park) sold his commercial Japanese tea garden to Henry E. Huntington to create the foundations of what is known today as the Japanese Garden. The garden was completed in 1912 and opened to the public in 1928. According to historian Kendall Brown, the garden consists of three gardens: the original stroll garden with koi-filled ponds and a drum or moon bridge, the raked-gravel dry garden added in 1968, and the traditionally landscaped tea garden.
In addition, the gardens feature a large bell, the authentic ceremonial teahouse Seifu-an (the Arbor of Pure Breeze), a fully furnished Japanese house, the Zen Garden, and the bonsai collections with hundreds of trees. The Bonsai Courts at the Huntington is the home of the Golden State Bonsai Federation Southern Collection. Another ancient Japanese art form can be found at the Harry Hirao Suiseki Court, where visitors can touch the suiseki or viewing stones.
Other gardens
Australian Garden
Camellia Garden
Children's Garden
Conservatory
Herb Garden
Jungle Garden
Lily Ponds
Palm Garden
Ranch Garden
Rose Garden
Shakespeare Garden
Subtropical Garden
In popular culture
The Huntington Botanical Gardens were honored with a postal stamp as a part of the American Gardens stamps on May 13, 2020. The Desert Garden was featured.
The gardens are frequently used as a filming location. Footage shot there has been included in:
Mame (1974)
"Only Yesterday" (music video) – Carpenters (1975)
Midway (1976)
Beverly Hills Cop II (1987)
Justice (Star Trek: The Next Generation) (1987)
Heathers (1989)
"Ordinary World" (music video) – Duran Duran (1993)
Indecent Proposal (1993)
Beverly Hills Ninja (1997)
The Wedding Singer (1998)
Mystery Men (1999)
Charlie's Angels (2000)
The Wedding Planner (2001)
The Hot Chick (2002)
S1m0ne (2002)
Anger Management (2003)
The West Wing (2003), used as the National Arboretum
Intolerable Cruelty (2003)
Starsky & Hutch (2004)
Monster-in-Law (2005)
Memoirs of a Geisha (2005)
Serenity (2005)
Ned's Declassified Field Trip, the final episode of Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide (2007)
National Treasure: Book of Secrets (2007), used as the White House rose garden
CSI Miami, in You May Now Kill the Bride (2008)
G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra (2009), used during the flashback fighting scenes between ten-year-old Snake Eyes and Storm Shadow.
"A Beautiful End" (music video) – J.R. Richards (2009)
The Muppets (2011)
Bridesmaids (2011), the driveway to Helen's bridal shower
Parks and Recreation, used as Five Mile Grounds, the new Eagleton park, in the episode "Pawnee Commons" (2012)
The Good Place, as the afterlife's fictional setting (2016–2020)
Gallery
See also
List of botanical gardens in the United States
The Constance Perkins House, donated to the Library in 1991
List of museums in California
References
Footnotes
Citations
Additional sources
External links
Virtual tour
Hathi Trust. Publications of the Huntington Library, fulltext, various dates
Art museums and galleries in California
Botanical gardens in California
Libraries in Los Angeles County, California
Museums in Los Angeles County, California
Art in Greater Los Angeles
Parks in Los Angeles County, California
San Marino, California
Sculpture gardens, trails and parks in California
Chinese gardens
Former private collections in the United States
Gardens in California
Historic house museums in California
Japanese gardens in California
Landscape design history of the United States
Literary archives
Open-air museums in California
Outdoor sculptures in Greater Los Angeles
Rare book libraries
Research libraries
Special collections libraries
San Gabriel Valley
San Rafael Hills
Libraries established in 1928
Museums established in 1928
1928 establishments in California
Elmer Grey buildings
Myron Hunt buildings
Neoclassical architecture in California
Tourist attractions in Los Angeles County, California
Greenhouses in California
Herb gardens | [
-0.08974777162075043,
-0.005894238129258156,
-0.34342291951179504,
0.3087937533855438,
0.5590086579322815,
0.5714482665061951,
-0.06627752631902695,
0.11487474292516708,
-0.5197628736495972,
-0.3874286413192749,
-0.057292383164167404,
-0.35202211141586304,
-0.20200291275978088,
0.8053985238075256,
-0.46025824546813965,
0.23452144861221313,
-0.07546090334653854,
0.12119613587856293,
-0.11029010266065598,
0.24425317347049713,
-0.5043593049049377,
-0.11594442278146744,
0.510800838470459,
-0.30992650985717773,
-0.102254219353199,
-0.3909150958061218,
0.595113217830658,
-0.2288225293159485,
-0.004901011008769274,
0.39808687567710876,
-0.27100029587745667,
-0.14100337028503418,
0.030810348689556122,
-0.0354999303817749,
-0.09477027505636215,
-0.42355671525001526,
-0.28093862533569336,
-0.6287751793861389,
0.3542332649230957,
-0.35701948404312134,
0.31200939416885376,
0.16273322701454163,
-0.0900593101978302,
0.7243797779083252,
0.013278253376483917,
0.14109283685684204,
-2.134831428527832,
0.2366291880607605,
-0.9831345677375793,
0.15546751022338867,
-0.23078419268131256,
0.4096648395061493,
0.7138289213180542,
0.45460864901542664,
-0.03586561232805252,
0.9950405359268188,
-0.3189409673213959,
0.2825167179107666,
0.2013259083032608,
-0.21857118606567383,
0.3749718964099884,
0.28190216422080994,
0.8958651423454285,
0.24877341091632843,
-0.2372967004776001,
-0.255933940410614,
0.09441932290792465,
0.4206128418445587,
0.062096018344163895,
-0.16747142374515533,
0.050501748919487,
-0.017754092812538147,
-0.08078739792108536,
0.2687026858329773,
-0.3954339325428009,
-0.04814315587282181,
0.4066329300403595,
-0.37194737792015076,
-0.055200137197971344,
0.04273810610175133,
-0.5821180939674377,
0.2399846613407135,
0.6772863268852234,
0.3861222267150879,
0.46977531909942627,
-0.0585220567882061,
-0.7132304906845093,
-0.194156214594841,
-0.09059888869524002,
0.09536173194646835,
-0.6275002360343933,
-0.08341874927282333,
0.12789104878902435,
0.14348465204238892,
0.1878506988286972,
-0.6505707502365112,
0.3137017786502838,
0.033606018871068954,
-0.0410921536386013,
0.2478131353855133,
-0.5071398615837097,
0.41995880007743835,
0.025151310488581657,
-0.28928545117378235,
-0.2825877070426941,
-0.05177861452102661,
0.09537994116544724,
-0.25396832823753357,
-0.052896033972501755,
-0.07269296795129776,
-0.17143480479717255,
0.03475377708673477,
-0.2340906262397766,
-0.3154640197753906,
-0.10108649730682373,
0.5325436592102051,
1.016378402709961,
-0.9148541688919067,
-0.6525715589523315,
0.16168294847011566,
0.0012581906048581004,
1.0466723442077637,
-0.00219812523573637,
-0.7099602818489075,
-0.08028475195169449,
-0.0555901862680912,
1.047713041305542,
0.06269115954637527,
-0.2853204011917114,
-0.5095482468605042,
0.24757546186447144,
0.3538660407066345,
0.2812134325504303,
-0.7479252815246582,
0.25365573167800903,
-0.4898936152458191,
-0.3810991644859314,
-0.06892087310552597,
0.2056625336408615,
0.35598647594451904,
0.08470407873392105,
-0.16204337775707245,
-0.6840075254440308,
-1.0209240913391113,
0.7133408188819885,
-0.04970155283808708,
0.014383732341229916,
-0.21663716435432434,
-0.31362518668174744,
-0.2675575315952301,
0.23566140234470367,
0.12546363472938538,
-0.2921559512615204,
-0.03622668609023094,
-0.42668265104293823,
0.014356236904859543,
0.4748946726322174,
-0.06128945201635361,
0.7730515599250793,
0.6108331084251404,
-0.056120745837688446,
-0.5937485098838806,
-0.1766657829284668,
0.00585215026512742,
-0.9160984754562378,
-0.11437037587165833,
0.3687015473842621,
0.44128096103668213,
-0.1389174461364746,
-0.49600932002067566,
-0.4335397481918335,
-0.30337947607040405,
0.24288903176784515,
0.2803652286529541,
0.13999411463737488,
0.3136975169181824,
0.5023146271705627,
0.0027993598487228155,
0.19998827576637268,
-0.7074918150901794,
-0.6665220260620117,
0.04516226425766945,
-0.03943431377410889,
-0.04397645220160484,
0.10837087780237198,
-0.33097511529922485,
0.39584243297576904,
0.5900988578796387,
0.3039339780807495,
-0.0381288044154644,
-0.09926030784845352,
-0.7569893598556519,
-0.27312958240509033,
0.04923659563064575,
1.0088049173355103,
0.18613746762275696,
-0.6739448308944702,
0.7422788143157959,
-0.2803754508495331,
0.5196195244789124,
0.038586944341659546,
-0.19969995319843292,
0.10790535807609558,
-0.4795095920562744,
-0.4828267991542816,
-0.6338202357292175,
0.1767989844083786,
-0.08625103533267975,
0.21691402792930603,
0.0767311081290245,
0.2800155580043793,
-0.7475259900093079,
0.2847939431667328,
0.33960631489753723,
0.10048787295818329,
-0.6293331384658813,
-0.11147668212652206,
0.3761475086212158,
-0.37601929903030396,
-0.05593647062778473,
0.9670884609222412,
0.22663232684135437,
0.15537819266319275,
0.23023000359535217,
-0.06664082407951355,
0.9850825071334839,
-0.2533659040927887,
0.04612740874290466,
0.2860465347766876,
0.005229169502854347,
0.11837794631719589,
-0.3528263568878174,
-0.11062414944171906,
-1.0426514148712158,
0.35011154413223267,
0.14293529093265533,
-0.05264284461736679,
-0.5165896415710449,
0.21654066443443298,
0.004900268279016018,
0.19188836216926575,
-0.4352159798145294,
-0.5450996160507202,
0.0888102650642395,
0.3110629916191101,
-0.17642398178577423,
-0.238884836435318,
0.02582598477602005,
0.1965542882680893,
-0.8739988803863525,
0.007974976673722267,
0.5798789858818054,
-0.06489983201026917,
-0.3108883500099182,
0.167516827583313,
-0.38324376940727234,
0.5558108687400818,
-0.215568408370018,
0.4140412509441376,
0.2770404517650604,
-0.10539793223142624,
0.2520955204963684,
-0.7110319137573242,
0.13381759822368622,
-0.10173765569925308,
-0.40712615847587585,
0.3794935643672943,
-1.028435468673706,
0.00018825371807906777,
0.3008735477924347,
0.878960907459259,
0.1201333999633789,
-0.002142791636288166,
0.14684130251407623,
-0.1647586226463318,
-0.12371742725372314,
0.5178367495536804,
-0.010262539610266685,
-0.3786661624908447,
-0.7006999850273132,
0.2463836520910263,
0.42209509015083313,
-0.07428908348083496,
-0.32911932468414307,
-0.580150842666626,
-0.3139716386795044,
-0.16339044272899628,
-0.29964810609817505,
0.04970742389559746,
0.3974287211894989,
-0.17383190989494324,
0.2068151831626892,
-0.14954593777656555,
0.1926134079694748,
-0.17838150262832642,
0.9113034009933472,
-0.37645408511161804,
-0.5959795117378235,
-0.353568434715271,
-0.2908863127231598,
-1.074920415878296,
0.008217215538024902,
-0.471051424741745,
-0.47431284189224243,
0.3536472022533417,
0.3249146640300751,
-0.2553357183933258,
-0.08926653116941452,
-5.776982307434082,
0.4816834628582001,
-0.7866964936256409,
-0.1714412122964859,
-0.09141291677951813,
-0.10268402099609375,
0.317131370306015,
0.08392544835805893,
-0.13806958496570587,
-0.1384052038192749,
0.18280421197414398,
0.005983447656035423,
-0.21606077253818512,
0.32887977361679077,
0.21646766364574432,
0.3866333067417145,
-0.16170920431613922,
0.191496342420578,
-0.3488383889198303,
0.1335894614458084,
-0.3074999153614044,
-0.3736742436885834,
-0.11068253219127655,
1.0941483974456787,
0.5273512005805969,
0.6595972776412964,
-0.4215308725833893,
-0.042675409466028214,
-0.5747500061988831,
0.062385108321905136,
0.43201109766960144,
-0.3668229281902313,
0.048847466707229614,
0.15819410979747772,
0.09175100177526474,
0.05547548085451126,
0.4662003815174103,
0.11951614916324615,
0.3449760377407074,
-0.1299363076686859,
0.3455599546432495,
0.1625637412071228,
-0.49514487385749817,
0.04253055900335312,
0.15830303728580475,
-0.3233940005302429,
-0.45988908410072327,
0.16780605912208557,
-0.28341343998908997,
-0.012202609330415726,
-0.026697255671024323,
0.13324640691280365,
0.2895762324333191,
-0.14880390465259552,
-0.24123261868953705,
-0.4721580743789673,
0.38698258996009827,
-0.17868030071258545,
-0.32619476318359375,
-0.4833267331123352,
0.4310021698474884,
-0.027235938236117363,
0.36462318897247314,
0.3812236189842224,
-1.0174028873443604,
-0.501508355140686,
-0.1157940998673439,
0.392060250043869,
0.027647672221064568,
0.1401245892047882,
-0.19547434151172638,
0.9455549716949463,
-0.024986794218420982,
-1.0782619714736938,
0.09552722424268723,
0.04754771664738655,
-0.36756157875061035,
-0.4460900127887726,
0.11173245310783386,
0.33210593461990356,
-0.2924763560295105,
0.14298507571220398,
0.04567080736160278,
0.9527506232261658,
0.23449236154556274,
-0.7455147504806519,
-0.5041595697402954,
0.17044435441493988,
-0.5997127890586853,
-0.469097763299942,
-0.15491387248039246,
-0.14660905301570892,
0.4424668252468109,
0.2504149377346039,
-0.09118824452161789,
-0.06040000915527344,
0.285214900970459,
0.33782562613487244,
0.1310974806547165,
0.2592654824256897,
0.9299389719963074,
0.07800136506557465,
-0.21539998054504395,
-0.2417401671409607,
-0.2526661157608032,
0.0761280357837677,
-0.46171554923057556,
-0.07236547023057938,
0.7032070159912109,
-0.005909419152885675,
-0.6346669793128967,
-0.37985900044441223,
0.15756073594093323,
-0.9066845774650574,
0.41386082768440247,
-0.10918673872947693,
0.4027685523033142,
0.5967950224876404,
0.43827441334724426,
-0.04890716075897217,
0.19195124506950378,
0.3347761034965515,
0.26892876625061035,
-0.3323390483856201,
0.3893452286720276,
-0.2267625629901886,
0.053899750113487244,
0.07031963020563126,
-0.4031510651111603,
0.030634265393018723,
0.699454665184021,
0.12614627182483673,
0.04494819790124893,
0.2532618045806885,
-0.07306279242038727,
0.19067683815956116,
-0.7458392977714539,
-0.6503781080245972,
-0.11212722212076187,
0.045367833226919174,
0.32780617475509644,
-0.12389148026704788,
-0.11761341243982315,
0.02755534090101719,
0.6843358278274536,
0.04399171099066734,
-0.018247973173856735,
0.2086056023836136,
-0.8535541296005249,
-0.09176457673311234,
-0.509937584400177,
-0.7425777316093445,
0.13228046894073486,
0.0017718609888106585,
0.16386979818344116,
-0.39293038845062256,
-0.33787792921066284,
0.33528003096580505,
-0.23551024496555328,
0.36974743008613586,
-0.5668656229972839,
-0.21068260073661804,
-0.6729147434234619,
-0.14451833069324493,
-0.6021134257316589,
0.046422310173511505,
-0.45392653346061707,
0.19284117221832275,
-0.2633979916572571,
0.5008949041366577,
0.24021324515342712,
0.07615185528993607,
-0.012547296471893787,
-0.27633869647979736,
0.4843902587890625,
-0.10555984079837799,
0.28883668780326843,
0.3173544108867645,
-0.07967832684516907,
0.005897578317672014,
0.2855857014656067,
-0.5871888995170593,
-0.4456246495246887,
0.21875467896461487,
0.6209096312522888,
-0.09172609448432922,
0.005637423135340214,
-0.16363343596458435,
-0.25856682658195496,
-0.06687680631875992,
-0.3832475543022156,
-0.31675785779953003,
0.3618242144584656,
0.64625483751297,
-0.19574160873889923,
-0.07468867301940918,
0.6666609048843384,
0.023821724578738213,
0.0315951369702816,
-0.0042011067271232605,
-0.4320051670074463,
0.34888818860054016,
-0.7029739022254944,
0.37199345231056213,
0.11515604704618454,
-0.6264136433601379,
0.06082448363304138,
0.0836784690618515,
0.16781353950500488,
0.8678683042526245,
-0.05008300021290779,
0.27103322744369507,
0.17868949472904205,
-0.0315685048699379,
-0.3195646405220032,
0.21569427847862244,
0.20314539968967438,
-0.5179438591003418,
-0.13088358938694,
-0.3164183795452118,
0.0008729553082957864,
0.23995010554790497,
-0.3164246678352356,
-0.3228727877140045,
-0.17451627552509308,
0.5749140977859497,
0.500552773475647,
-0.16200301051139832,
-0.01353969145566225,
-0.39521896839141846,
0.24442419409751892,
-0.4346837103366852,
-0.28413209319114685,
0.4073602259159088,
0.3802885413169861,
-0.20197629928588867,
0.004557435400784016,
0.34638670086860657,
0.17146334052085876,
0.5547482371330261,
-0.016239624470472336,
0.9222813248634338,
-0.26101934909820557,
-0.2059425562620163,
-0.3919205665588379,
0.21402320265769958,
0.45872950553894043,
-0.10293595492839813,
-0.15451668202877045,
0.5573717951774597,
0.6668640971183777,
-0.8454933166503906,
-0.08332366496324539,
-0.4391268789768219,
0.25587114691734314,
0.09485530108213425,
-0.06112313270568848,
0.19807954132556915,
-0.08519571274518967,
-0.022454209625720978,
0.10034453123807907,
-0.04684607312083244,
-0.6995751261711121,
-0.10781023651361465,
-0.087143674492836,
0.3215789496898651,
0.32291218638420105,
-0.45262420177459717,
0.6644178032875061,
-0.5619483590126038,
0.1732233762741089,
0.5460686087608337,
0.06332965940237045,
0.2683129608631134,
-0.7815529704093933,
0.08182375133037567,
0.06508321315050125,
-0.3566567301750183,
-0.03351300582289696,
-0.6322587728500366,
-0.28082817792892456,
0.399968683719635,
-0.06175975129008293,
-0.4113374352455139,
0.2561590373516083,
-0.4911627471446991,
-0.30528464913368225,
0.29545846581459045,
0.1526879370212555,
0.001336555229499936,
-0.10482867807149887,
-0.3845990002155304,
0.367800235748291,
0.05018644779920578,
-0.20542709529399872,
0.24750813841819763,
0.1955382078886032,
0.38985389471054077,
0.09066351503133774,
0.34147098660469055,
-0.7890216112136841,
0.42978358268737793,
0.3500659167766571,
-0.020931005477905273,
0.587040364742279,
0.005412429571151733,
0.07147946208715439,
0.13948947191238403,
-0.7424052953720093,
-0.43326643109321594,
0.28251489996910095,
-0.3143501877784729,
0.5084492564201355,
0.8985045552253723,
-0.9196358919143677,
-0.13326366245746613,
-0.05754201486706734,
-0.09187869727611542,
0.3302949070930481,
-0.03597498685121536,
-0.5517237782478333,
0.6512659788131714,
0.47070610523223877,
0.02771688438951969,
-0.20203061401844025,
0.6322461366653442,
0.03892446681857109,
0.3862094283103943,
0.06498521566390991,
-0.04426838830113411,
0.4321725368499756,
-0.42405620217323303,
-0.3927387297153473,
0.8669818043708801,
0.4790803790092468,
-0.28953102231025696,
-0.11717436462640762,
-0.7673484086990356,
-0.7948799133300781,
0.5758894085884094,
0.39507612586021423,
0.3853917419910431,
0.01805434189736843,
0.4568925201892853,
-0.4092385172843933,
0.288455992937088,
0.20187091827392578,
0.4317823350429535,
0.12302692979574203,
0.1480247676372528,
0.34525066614151,
0.5664218664169312,
0.2443450391292572,
-0.2938516139984131,
0.20332655310630798,
-0.12496693432331085,
0.2677876651287079,
-0.18170566856861115,
-0.20371566712856293,
-0.1928933560848236,
-0.08701539039611816,
0.5963761806488037,
0.26963457465171814,
-0.255193829536438,
-0.3081302046775818,
-0.30473998188972473,
0.3152768313884735,
-0.2572616636753082,
0.06621131300926208,
0.006304857786744833,
-0.018132133409380913,
0.4758860170841217,
-0.047710031270980835,
0.2493625432252884,
0.7971705794334412,
-0.0486382432281971,
0.5828726887702942,
-0.040639325976371765,
0.5627955198287964,
0.27595067024230957,
-0.09213177114725113,
-0.13162171840667725,
0.23194189369678497,
-0.1301402896642685,
0.07221326977014542,
-0.13975705206394196,
0.33471742272377014,
0.29891711473464966,
0.037493180483579636,
-0.5520605444908142,
0.46724995970726013,
-0.0013344038743525743,
0.20002388954162598,
0.0971406027674675,
-0.19019071757793427,
0.12112418562173843,
-0.6503641605377197,
0.38058343529701233,
-0.20584909617900848,
-0.14898504316806793,
-0.6400142908096313,
0.23451611399650574,
0.4057827591896057,
0.5363328456878662,
-0.7207991480827332,
0.2433955818414688,
-0.42922961711883545,
-0.5151805877685547,
-0.48966896533966064,
0.6084361672401428,
-0.038630347698926926,
-0.039661284536123276,
-0.03984062373638153,
0.2669667899608612,
-0.06999838352203369,
0.26825428009033203,
0.5950355529785156,
0.3735078275203705,
-0.6128191351890564,
-0.15885472297668457,
0.5312258005142212,
0.023997539654374123,
0.0057759759947657585,
0.5849885940551758,
-0.6363672614097595,
-0.3128328323364258,
-0.18518364429473877,
-0.12508879601955414,
-0.2662145793437958,
0.163439080119133,
0.1718587726354599,
-0.2707946300506592,
-0.7077078819274902,
0.20698942244052887,
-0.2640934884548187,
0.05348879098892212,
-0.18869227170944214,
0.7784539461135864,
0.25943753123283386,
-0.6434956789016724,
-0.2404327392578125,
-0.04012463986873627,
0.2248053401708603,
0.04590068385004997,
-0.04833593964576721,
0.5191519260406494,
0.5121868848800659,
-0.47112929821014404,
-0.7700708508491516,
1.1643695831298828,
-0.20032653212547302,
0.07189489901065826,
0.21143537759780884,
0.10454963892698288,
-0.03681228682398796,
0.10551519691944122,
0.06391972303390503,
-0.3298546373844147,
-0.21504473686218262,
0.2303876429796219
] |
261101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebenezer%20Learned | Ebenezer Learned | Ebenezer Learned (April 18, 1728 – April 1, 1801) was a brigadier general in the American Continental Army during the Revolutionary War.
Early life and career
He was the son of Ebenezer and Deborah Haynes Learned, and was born at Oxford, Massachusetts, and lived his entire life in the area. On October 5, 1749, he married Jerusha Baker (1732–1799) and they had nine children. When his grandfather died in 1750, he inherited 200 acres (0.8 km²) known as Prospect Hill, and built his home there.
Learned was an active member of the local militia, and raised and drilled a company at Oxford during the French and Indian War. In the summer of 1756 he led his company to Fort Edward at Lake George. There is little record of his service, except that he served sporadically from then until 1763. He fell ill with smallpox in 1757 and was hospitalized for a month.
After that war, he remained at home for several years, farming and operating a tavern at Oxford. He was prominent in both church and community, and served as a town selectman for 25 of the years between 1758 and 1794.
American Revolution
He remained active in the militia, and led his own and a neighboring company of minutemen to Boston, where he received the news of the Battle of Lexington on April 19, 1775. On April 24, the Massachusetts committee of safety named him a colonel and authorized him to organize a regiment that was known as Learned's Regiment. His regiment was adopted into the Continental Army in June. In 1776 those who re-enlisted were augmented by men from Danielson's Regiment to form the 3rd Continental Regiment.
By the end of the Siege of Boston, General Washington had given Learned command of the important Dorchester Heights position. When the British evacuated Boston on March 17, 1776, Colonel Learned was the first to enter the city. He led a battalion of 500 specially selected men, to clean out the traps, abatis, caltrops, and garbage left by the British. He and the men were selected because they had all had survived smallpox or had been inoculated.
Learned resigned in May 1776 due to ill health, but returned to duty on April 2, 1777. He was named a brigadier general and assigned to the Northern Department. In the first phase of the Battle of Saratoga, the Battle of Freeman's Farm, his brigade was not very effective. Working forward in the center of the line, they mainly got lost in the woods, and exchanged light fire near the end of the battle.
At the Battle of Bemis Heights his brigade was in the center of the left division, fighting alongside Daniel Morgan and Enoch Poor. They were commanded by General Benjamin Lincoln. Learned's own brigade (the 2nd, 8th, and 9th Massachusetts line), was expanded by James Livingston's 1st Canadian Regiment and 2 regiments of New Hampshire Militia the 2nd and 4th. The attack on the American far left was turned by Daniel Morgan's men, but the enemy's center was held by Hessian troops. Benedict Arnold came onto the field and encouraged the men. Arnold and Learned led a joint charge on the Hessian positions, and, even though Arnold fell wounded, Learned and his men carried through and broke the enemy lines. Burgoyne's forces had to retreat to their starting fortifications around Freeman's Farm. When their charge carried the first bunker, Burgoyne's forces withdrew to the positions they had held before the Freeman's Farm battle.
After Saratoga, his was the first unit to guard and escort the surrendered Convention Army on its trek to the south. In 1777–78, he commanded a brigade of Massachusetts troops in Major General deKalb's division at Valley Forge. On March 24, 1778, his continuing health problems led to his final resignation.
Later life and activities
Ebenezer returned home to Oxford. He served as the Chairman of the Massachusetts Convention of 1779 that adopted a new constitution for the state. He served as a Judge of Common Pleas for Worcester County, Massachusetts. In 1783 he was elected to the Massachusetts General Court (the state's House of Representatives).
He died at home in Oxford in 1801.
References
Ebenezer Learned at Saratoga
Ebenezer Learned at Valley Forge
1728 births
1801 deaths
Continental Army generals
Continental Army officers from Massachusetts
People of Massachusetts in the French and Indian War
People of colonial Massachusetts
People from Oxford, Massachusetts | [
-0.46895965933799744,
0.355125367641449,
-1.1200823783874512,
-0.1776539832353592,
0.09393440186977386,
0.6067167520523071,
1.040753960609436,
0.22751949727535248,
0.08863727748394012,
-0.49241024255752563,
-0.10588842630386353,
0.25943127274513245,
-0.3463435173034668,
0.19124992191791534,
-0.765297532081604,
0.6462638974189758,
-0.1263553947210312,
-0.2070203572511673,
-0.22523005306720734,
-0.14847616851329803,
0.07921965420246124,
-0.09049522131681442,
0.4775182902812958,
0.31564638018608093,
0.16701357066631317,
0.42496925592422485,
0.22537168860435486,
-0.39647674560546875,
0.03564662113785744,
-0.2236051857471466,
-0.2881552577018738,
0.04503346607089043,
0.609058678150177,
-0.29772379994392395,
-0.9285203814506531,
-0.012551149353384972,
-0.7990568280220032,
0.1274290829896927,
0.3165073096752167,
0.27919596433639526,
-0.33456939458847046,
-0.042749274522066116,
0.12348074465990067,
0.12494902312755585,
-0.13676702976226807,
0.09890256077051163,
-1.9452053308486938,
-0.302528440952301,
-0.5766013860702515,
-0.8379841446876526,
-0.1472983956336975,
-0.2450542002916336,
0.19741515815258026,
0.3469454348087311,
-0.5202962756156921,
0.09507863223552704,
-0.26792511343955994,
-0.39438119530677795,
0.5034322738647461,
-0.13182006776332855,
0.26494595408439636,
0.36604005098342896,
0.5405587553977966,
-0.30695733428001404,
0.11212898790836334,
-0.0953909307718277,
-0.4752826392650604,
0.7893297076225281,
-0.19727760553359985,
0.025147631764411926,
-0.1731245517730713,
0.22438150644302368,
-0.018162516877055168,
0.5900819897651672,
0.20343706011772156,
-0.5974736213684082,
0.26869362592697144,
0.24399125576019287,
0.02102934569120407,
0.3068089187145233,
-0.4446714222431183,
-0.3399764597415924,
0.688899040222168,
0.04599571228027344,
-0.290524423122406,
0.8293315172195435,
-0.15885353088378906,
0.13680604100227356,
-0.42663076519966125,
0.06771060824394226,
-0.07512536644935608,
-0.4114808440208435,
-0.3013361096382141,
0.37172824144363403,
-0.4908485412597656,
-0.046812500804662704,
-0.015970375388860703,
-0.2147037386894226,
-0.40826281905174255,
-0.25966352224349976,
0.45844727754592896,
0.15459668636322021,
0.6318965554237366,
0.12317516654729843,
-0.09065280854701996,
0.3141619563102722,
0.3374078571796417,
-0.2726748287677765,
0.1200464740395546,
0.15522943437099457,
-0.38688933849334717,
0.38529685139656067,
-0.35776254534721375,
-0.16846896708011627,
-0.2131621092557907,
0.8962754011154175,
0.16565583646297455,
-1.0400769710540771,
-0.3427653908729553,
-0.5194417238235474,
-0.08662600070238113,
0.1439451426267624,
-0.05762377008795738,
0.596343457698822,
-1.0329827070236206,
0.14179833233356476,
0.3847638964653015,
0.2336563766002655,
0.15738855302333832,
0.19981074333190918,
0.3909190595149994,
0.49817517399787903,
-0.26992690563201904,
-0.07272011786699295,
-0.27166947722435,
-0.3262776732444763,
0.16703467071056366,
0.0201227068901062,
-0.7373064756393433,
0.1733045130968094,
-0.5274022221565247,
-0.21319721639156342,
-0.30331742763519287,
-0.5004241466522217,
0.27953487634658813,
-0.19808490574359894,
0.41693586111068726,
0.1662316769361496,
-0.0728335902094841,
0.7388030290603638,
0.07261510193347931,
-0.30780184268951416,
0.22711485624313354,
-0.5361329913139343,
-0.5791805386543274,
-0.3711264729499817,
0.4804735779762268,
-0.04378005117177963,
0.07432036846876144,
0.6508973836898804,
-0.3290337026119232,
-0.2508627772331238,
-0.002211816841736436,
-0.15701407194137573,
0.5619310140609741,
0.1803356558084488,
0.4567728340625763,
-0.5717389583587646,
-0.31359854340553284,
-0.2474512904882431,
-0.32194575667381287,
0.046490926295518875,
0.23993733525276184,
-0.2906208336353302,
-0.21184203028678894,
0.48320916295051575,
0.6941046714782715,
0.34727323055267334,
0.3978610336780548,
-0.7342847585678101,
-0.6264561414718628,
-0.3026655614376068,
0.8687097430229187,
0.036307476460933685,
0.12984418869018555,
0.17374522984027863,
0.18066154420375824,
-0.28399360179901123,
0.7452130913734436,
0.3654879927635193,
-0.8030550479888916,
-0.5657792687416077,
-0.2149452269077301,
-0.2935047149658203,
0.8455896973609924,
0.14630338549613953,
-0.5270604491233826,
0.4798896908760071,
0.045283328741788864,
0.5602350831031799,
0.06420611590147018,
-0.5558889508247375,
-0.012654946185648441,
0.09930622577667236,
0.2592078149318695,
0.2688615322113037,
-0.19801142811775208,
0.13079576194286346,
0.45093604922294617,
0.373786985874176,
0.8332191705703735,
-0.08673785626888275,
0.06322630494832993,
0.6053038239479065,
-0.36355650424957275,
-0.5641527771949768,
-0.29425376653671265,
-0.34473544359207153,
0.5366783142089844,
-0.37031906843185425,
0.2590976655483246,
0.03275379538536072,
0.06516269594430923,
0.565747082233429,
0.31196725368499756,
0.7255972027778625,
-0.8168162703514099,
0.22101590037345886,
-0.2479194849729538,
-0.5959343910217285,
0.10597968101501465,
-0.17497606575489044,
0.2395387589931488,
-0.492415189743042,
0.3267849385738373,
-0.2743481993675232,
-0.5227680802345276,
-0.5739937424659729,
0.6725819110870361,
-0.2914983034133911,
-0.18762840330600739,
0.5065910220146179,
-0.5348164439201355,
-0.2526206970214844,
0.051263295114040375,
0.24890536069869995,
0.044424232095479965,
-0.1438901573419571,
-0.3635933995246887,
-0.3684326410293579,
0.19238419830799103,
0.22324703633785248,
0.5487886667251587,
0.348518967628479,
0.31854048371315,
-0.20740272104740143,
-0.02645765244960785,
0.3279215693473816,
0.045552849769592285,
-0.15416604280471802,
0.008188352920114994,
0.11329726129770279,
0.23808342218399048,
0.7139133810997009,
0.2389458566904068,
-0.19831304252147675,
-0.5356051325798035,
0.16758625209331512,
-0.1162492036819458,
-0.14150738716125488,
0.7373080849647522,
-0.34055671095848083,
0.017903853207826614,
0.6052398681640625,
0.2998393774032593,
-0.21276050806045532,
-0.12702378630638123,
0.5667741894721985,
-0.6723150610923767,
-0.3608289361000061,
0.2934257686138153,
0.8164729475975037,
-0.32336267828941345,
0.19568467140197754,
0.08761509507894516,
-0.4169935882091522,
-0.007932495325803757,
-0.2952251136302948,
-0.30479660630226135,
0.06937428563833237,
0.2553960084915161,
0.6604057550430298,
-0.19253291189670563,
0.33579516410827637,
0.3812999725341797,
0.7111930251121521,
-0.21421518921852112,
-0.6992090940475464,
0.058147676289081573,
0.06762807816267014,
-0.5313284397125244,
0.18631482124328613,
-0.3075810372829437,
0.011940398253500462,
-0.06084536761045456,
-0.46850520372390747,
-0.0715256929397583,
-0.1341078281402588,
-5.144804954528809,
0.2605655789375305,
-0.20718805491924286,
-0.23479539155960083,
0.6310259103775024,
0.1224231943488121,
0.5684504508972168,
0.004330584313720465,
-0.2938078045845032,
0.6965996026992798,
0.6115142703056335,
-0.45271968841552734,
0.04268965497612953,
0.12955737113952637,
0.5779136419296265,
0.6977973580360413,
1.3353415727615356,
-0.1719333976507187,
0.09755966812372208,
0.301299124956131,
0.20115914940834045,
-0.3888554275035858,
-0.06993235647678375,
0.0717845931649208,
0.5594794750213623,
0.06192629411816597,
-0.11736445128917694,
0.06464213877916336,
0.08035335689783096,
0.003849949687719345,
0.6894392371177673,
0.49578070640563965,
-0.48008623719215393,
-0.35150063037872314,
-0.1426689177751541,
-0.5235792398452759,
0.3186466097831726,
0.4243204891681671,
0.28470802307128906,
-0.2792658805847168,
0.016715727746486664,
-0.1760709136724472,
-1.2132601737976074,
-0.1558934450149536,
0.2002207487821579,
-0.4204462468624115,
-0.3183459937572479,
0.6129023432731628,
-0.11405403912067413,
0.24595902860164642,
-0.05556648597121239,
0.3857717216014862,
0.49021029472351074,
0.14085744321346283,
0.048815321177244186,
0.06000467389822006,
0.13163717091083527,
0.592887282371521,
-0.3974945545196533,
0.013063691556453705,
0.5122122764587402,
-0.6227040886878967,
0.04575718194246292,
-0.32940998673439026,
0.34480738639831543,
-0.7235697507858276,
0.16748569905757904,
-0.5186998248100281,
0.2723408639431,
-0.20809923112392426,
0.31079885363578796,
1.018908977508545,
0.8092182278633118,
-0.8594039678573608,
0.382503479719162,
-0.16962343454360962,
-0.5161331295967102,
0.26834505796432495,
-0.5550777316093445,
-0.4099910855293274,
0.5378624796867371,
-0.8399263024330139,
0.564329206943512,
1.1438759565353394,
0.5778469443321228,
0.39171159267425537,
-0.2818291485309601,
-0.16273559629917145,
-0.45125725865364075,
-0.4312807023525238,
0.29641130566596985,
0.06616397947072983,
-0.20223300158977509,
0.2732357382774353,
-0.1616789698600769,
0.12652939558029175,
0.06335343420505524,
0.4280804395675659,
0.3725505769252777,
0.30341485142707825,
0.05805651471018791,
0.22577343881130219,
0.013535850681364536,
-0.7388630509376526,
0.7638266086578369,
-0.00018835911760106683,
-0.29163843393325806,
0.32801657915115356,
1.0858120918273926,
-0.07626863569021225,
0.09574385732412338,
-0.28469976782798767,
-0.34745070338249207,
-0.13295193016529083,
-0.37604084610939026,
-0.9872701168060303,
0.6271131038665771,
-0.03941061347723007,
1.1456661224365234,
0.10378441959619522,
-0.17253868281841278,
0.4120326042175293,
-0.32898226380348206,
-0.8797982335090637,
-0.4678964614868164,
0.013442578725516796,
0.30818605422973633,
-0.34398984909057617,
-0.5923359394073486,
-0.2056625783443451,
0.56032395362854,
0.6681156754493713,
-0.9298275709152222,
0.4853288531303406,
-0.4677644968032837,
-0.6542088985443115,
-0.08215900510549545,
-0.4999799132347107,
-0.8697794675827026,
0.13832491636276245,
-0.09679317474365234,
-0.3367888927459717,
-0.41469496488571167,
-0.47394976019859314,
0.6828556656837463,
0.11071614921092987,
1.0617005825042725,
-0.2021714597940445,
-0.9341930747032166,
0.5354411602020264,
0.0344826765358448,
-0.5791466236114502,
0.271170437335968,
-0.27334362268447876,
0.03127168491482735,
0.35809433460235596,
-0.5305198431015015,
-0.22483572363853455,
-0.42514485120773315,
-0.20633336901664734,
0.14344219863414764,
0.7621577382087708,
-0.8345446586608887,
-0.18147282302379608,
0.3808589279651642,
0.19733679294586182,
-0.3932415544986725,
-0.19236472249031067,
-0.7345324754714966,
0.7323647737503052,
0.7074359059333801,
-0.6365894079208374,
-0.39212438464164734,
-0.11589323729276657,
0.3899751603603363,
0.2582892179489136,
-0.18200811743736267,
0.17441031336784363,
0.24525034427642822,
-0.22794793546199799,
0.33374592661857605,
0.0639270693063736,
-0.7576160430908203,
-0.31324532628059387,
0.7772387266159058,
-0.5447925925254822,
-0.030931591987609863,
-0.5604129433631897,
-0.18530641496181488,
-0.640351414680481,
-0.028188519179821014,
-0.679033100605011,
0.3051730692386627,
0.452592670917511,
0.10728861391544342,
-0.32188880443573,
0.4508773982524872,
-0.28141501545906067,
-0.03193863853812218,
-0.6712042689323425,
0.08585503697395325,
0.3118184804916382,
-0.5688154101371765,
0.010255598463118076,
-0.08029068261384964,
-1.018979549407959,
-0.016361944377422333,
0.03309096395969391,
-0.22416983544826508,
0.6061269044876099,
-0.030962076038122177,
-0.7683507800102234,
0.04376397281885147,
-0.3463439345359802,
0.3558181822299957,
-0.17149673402309418,
0.2932608723640442,
0.5427413582801819,
-0.20618398487567902,
-0.7959432005882263,
-1.3058500289916992,
-0.1016232818365097,
0.10911718755960464,
0.13775634765625,
-0.5922204852104187,
-0.3870997428894043,
0.32383760809898376,
0.3271826505661011,
0.9442675113677979,
-0.3483082354068756,
-0.7405632138252258,
0.05599622428417206,
0.12784850597381592,
0.2840192914009094,
-0.30190789699554443,
0.07667888700962067,
0.08400470018386841,
0.06563720107078552,
-0.5108887553215027,
-0.19586902856826782,
0.4884597957134247,
1.3566734790802002,
0.17769601941108704,
-0.4813573956489563,
0.27455878257751465,
0.1605321168899536,
0.13433675467967987,
0.07408491522073746,
-0.27549806237220764,
0.16842317581176758,
0.4511634111404419,
0.007341107819229364,
-0.6010621786117554,
-0.23971565067768097,
1.0371103286743164,
-0.35592368245124817,
0.37690460681915283,
0.471535325050354,
0.32476741075515747,
-0.23643067479133606,
-0.027252698317170143,
0.430848628282547,
-0.069353848695755,
0.23896686732769012,
0.01734289899468422,
-0.4596206545829773,
-0.09646602720022202,
-0.20234031975269318,
0.169979065656662,
-0.3219292163848877,
-1.0441746711730957,
-0.7498839497566223,
-0.12167348712682724,
0.5105314254760742,
0.06591405719518661,
-0.34439370036125183,
0.36157798767089844,
-0.20097650587558746,
0.0676446184515953,
-0.01159632857888937,
-1.2527133226394653,
-0.5542147159576416,
-0.15155363082885742,
-0.17735208570957184,
-0.042620882391929626,
-1.0596683025360107,
-0.07050227373838425,
-0.13375939428806305,
-0.37739139795303345,
-0.26610955595970154,
-0.9869517087936401,
0.510927140712738,
-0.40502631664276123,
-0.31501534581184387,
-0.48227739334106445,
0.4080082178115845,
-0.6911689639091492,
0.5723395347595215,
-0.020922990515828133,
-0.19384486973285675,
-0.5176257491111755,
1.0730074644088745,
0.7660020589828491,
0.07051438838243484,
0.1475580483675003,
0.2261226624250412,
-0.061146415770053864,
0.08553454279899597,
0.08334705978631973,
0.1589866727590561,
-0.06786329299211502,
-0.41891083121299744,
0.2719087600708008,
0.4829603135585785,
-0.41047412157058716,
-0.5715276598930359,
0.7045142650604248,
-0.6264868378639221,
-0.5084063410758972,
0.07203937321901321,
0.01263731624931097,
-0.10068654268980026,
0.697089672088623,
0.34099581837654114,
0.2530938982963562,
1.2710156440734863,
-0.45902585983276367,
-0.28909093141555786,
-0.370000958442688,
-0.045483388006687164,
-0.014013359323143959,
-0.30757465958595276,
-0.6570922136306763,
0.5598138570785522,
0.17262206971645355,
0.21818001568317413,
-0.013475277461111546,
-0.38810962438583374,
-0.3227086663246155,
0.7514699101448059,
0.132136270403862,
1.07466459274292,
0.28617656230926514,
0.07651789486408234,
-0.11985070258378983,
0.04712889716029167,
0.2565006613731384,
0.6201099157333374,
0.30064857006073,
-0.32127758860588074,
0.23108133673667908,
0.22417786717414856,
0.5154968500137329,
-0.23655074834823608,
-0.1410273313522339,
0.27176153659820557,
1.0038303136825562,
-0.00337457493878901,
-0.9654359221458435,
-0.061625782400369644,
0.23998640477657318,
-0.650062620639801,
1.3695214986801147,
-0.695400059223175,
-0.12669190764427185,
-0.09423404932022095,
-0.5968577861785889,
-0.3994200825691223,
-0.43004006147384644,
0.6647732257843018,
0.0641198679804802,
-0.3608410656452179,
-0.004365934990346432,
-0.5088015198707581,
0.3285556733608246,
0.6639195084571838,
0.7307012677192688,
0.3839623034000397,
-0.18417029082775116,
0.20902234315872192,
-0.338727205991745,
-0.29780006408691406,
-0.5006607174873352,
-0.49329838156700134,
0.3913465738296509,
0.34787359833717346,
-0.2757928669452667,
-0.21956504881381989,
-0.4977904260158539,
-0.455594003200531,
0.21440266072750092,
-0.5708264708518982,
-0.3272635340690613,
-0.15392404794692993,
-0.26131153106689453,
0.34133413434028625,
0.3531002998352051,
1.427699327468872,
0.31089016795158386,
0.5255968570709229,
-0.4378138780593872,
-0.13879242539405823,
0.12983566522598267,
-0.19836635887622833,
-0.13040928542613983,
0.2504275143146515,
-0.5434722304344177,
0.40111932158470154,
-0.8605190515518188,
0.6354793310165405,
0.5697513818740845,
0.34597843885421753,
-0.47594892978668213,
0.23456890881061554,
-0.5828137993812561,
-0.380268394947052,
0.3838138282299042,
-0.20781370997428894,
-0.3499399423599243,
-0.3070565462112427,
0.26405492424964905,
0.026685182005167007,
-0.14573247730731964,
0.19290997087955475,
-0.474277526140213,
-0.44809263944625854,
0.5175996422767639,
-0.21862006187438965,
-0.29096660017967224,
0.6556928157806396,
0.22630518674850464,
-1.3356629610061646,
-0.2564012110233307,
-0.3436218202114105,
0.019213085994124413,
-0.6149852275848389,
0.6756465435028076,
0.7090190649032593,
-0.033653274178504944,
-0.09100599586963654,
0.3940548002719879,
-0.3471333086490631,
0.1798115074634552,
0.29701030254364014,
0.7751117944717407,
-0.23871175944805145,
0.06922238320112228,
-0.3897363245487213,
0.3421573042869568,
1.1542506217956543,
0.08290552347898483,
-0.5035653710365295,
0.4913959503173828,
-0.4025360643863678,
0.6344137787818909,
-0.10457128286361694,
-0.30865514278411865,
-0.2141924947500229,
0.48149508237838745,
0.4640439450740814
] |
261102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Lyndsay | David Lyndsay | Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount (c. 1490 – c. 1555; alias Lindsay) was a Scottish herald who gained the highest heraldic office of Lyon King of Arms. He remains a well regarded poet whose works reflect the spirit of the Renaissance, specifically as a makar.
Biography
He was the son of David Lyndsay, second of the Mount (Fife), and of Garmylton, (Haddingtonshire) (d.circa. 1503). His place of birth and early education are unknown, but he may have attended the University of St Andrews, on the books of which appears an entry "Da Lindesay" for the session 1508–1509. He was engaged as a courtier in the Royal Household; first as an equerry, then as an usher (assistant to a head-tutor) to the future King James V of Scotland. His poems mention that he was involved in the education of James V and some contain advice for the young king.
In 1522 he married Janet Douglas, a court seamstress. His first heraldic appointment was as Snowdon Herald and in 1529 he was appointed Lord Lyon King of Arms, and knighted. He was engaged in diplomatic business (twice on embassies abroad—to the Netherlands and France), and was, in virtue of his heraldic office, a general master of ceremonies. He was involved in organising the ceremonies and celebrations welcoming the French brides of James V, Madeleine of Valois in 1537, and Mary of Guise in 1539.
Lyndsay signed the only surviving letter from this time, "Dauid Lyndsay." His handwriting shows no trace of the italic forms used by those Scots who had finished their education abroad.
After the death of James V, in 1542, Lyndsay continued to sit in Parliament of Scotland as commissioner for Cupar, Fife. In 1548 he was member of a mission to Denmark which obtained certain privileges for Scottish merchants. There is reason to believe that he died in or about 1555.
Heraldic works
In 1542 he produced a Scottish roll of arms known today as the Lindsay of the Mount Roll. It contains 400 Scottish coats of arms, some of which were added later in the 16th century, and forms the basis of the official Scots heraldic registry in use today. A facsimile comprising accurate redrawing of his own drawings was published in Edinburgh in 1878.
Literary works
Most of Lyndsay's literary work, by which he secured great reputation in his own day and by which he still lives, was written during the period of prosperity at court. In this respect he is different from Gavin Douglas, who abandoned literature to become a politician. The difference is due partly to the fact that Lyndsay's muse was more occasional and satirical, and that the time was suitable to the exercise of his special gifts. It is more difficult to explain how he enjoyed such unparalleled freedom of speech. He chastised all classes, from his royal master to the most simple. There is no evidence that he abjured Catholicism; yet his leading purpose was the exposure of its errors and abuses. His aid was readily accepted by the reforming party, and by their use of his work he shared with their leaders throughout many generations a reputation which is almost exclusively political and ecclesiastical.
Lyndsay's longer poems represent, with reasonable completeness, the range of Lyndsay's literary talent. No single poem can give him a chief place, though here and there, especially in the last, he gives hints of the highest competence. Yet the corporate effect of these pieces is to secure for him the allowance of more than mere intellectual vigour and common sense. There is in his craftsmanship, in his readiness to apply the traditional methods to contemporary requirements, something of that accomplishment which makes even the second-rate man of letters interesting.
Lyndsay, the Makar, is not behind his fellow-poets in acknowledgment to Geoffrey Chaucer. As piously as they, he reproduces the master's forms; but in him the sentiment and outlook have suffered change. His nearest approach to Chaucer is in The Historie and Testament of Squyer Meldrum, which recalls the sketch of the "young squire"; but the reminiscence is verbal rather than spiritual. Elsewhere his memory serves him less happily, as when he describes the array of the lamented Queen Magdalene in the words which Chaucer had applied to the eyes of his wanton Friar. So too, in the Dreme, the allegorical tradition survives only in the form. "Remembrance" conducts the poet over the old-world itinerary, but only to lead him to speculation on Scotland's woes and to an "Exhortatioun to the Kingis Grace" to bring relief. The tenor is well expressed in the motto from the Vulgate--"Prophetias nolite spernere. Omnia autem probate: quod bonum est tenete."
This didactic habit is freely exercised in the long poem (sometimes called the Monarchie), a universal history of the medieval type, in which the falls of princes by corruption supply an object lesson to the unreformed church of his day. Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis is more direct in its attack on ecclesiastical abuse; and its dramatic form permits more lively treatment. This piece is of great historical interest, being the only extant example of a complete Scottish morality. It is in respect of literary quality Lyndsay's best work, and in dramatic construction and delineation of character it holds a high place in this genre. The farcical interludes (in places too coarse for modern taste) supply many touches of genuine comedy; and throughout the play there are passages, as in the speeches of Veritie in the First Part and of Dame Chastitie in the "Interlude of the Sowtar and the Taylor," in which word and line are happily conceived.
The Testament of the Papyngo (parrot), drawn in the familiar medieval manner, is another tract for the time, full of admonition to court and clergy. Of his shorter pieces, , and the Answer to the Kingis Flyting have a like pulpit resonance. The former is interesting as a forerunner of Burns's device in the "Twa Dogs." The Deploratioun of the Death of Queen Magdalene is in the extravagant style of commemoration illustrated in Dunbar's Elegy on the Lord Aubigny. is a contribution to the popular taste for boisterous fun, in spirit, if not in form, akin to the Christis Kirk on the Grene series; and indirectly, with Dunbar's Turnarnent and Of ane Blak-Moir, a burlesque of the courtly tourney. Lyndsay approaches Dunbar in his satire ("wide" trains of the ladies), which recalls the older poet's realistic lines on the filthy condition of the city streets. In Lyndsay's Descriptioun of Pedder Coffeis (pedlars) we have an early example of the studies in vulgar life which are so plentiful in later Scottish literature. In Kitteis Confessioun he returns, but in more sprightly mood, to his attack on the church.
In Lyndsay we have the first literary expression in Scotland of the Renaissance. His interest lies on the theological side of the revival; he is in no sense a humanist, and he is indifferent to the artistic claims of the movement. Still he appeals to the principle which is fundamental to all. He demands first-hand impression. He feels that men must get their lesson direct, not from intermediaries who understand the originals no more "than they do the ravyng of the rukis." Hence his persistent plea for the vernacular, nowhere more directly put than in the Dialog, in the "Exclamatioun to the Redar, toucheyng the wrytting of the vulgare and maternall language." Though he is concerned only in the theological and ecclesiastical application of this, he undoubtedly stimulated the use of the vernacular in a Scotland which in all literary matters beyond the concern of the irresponsible poet still used the lingua franca of Europe.
Critical literature
A complete edition of Lyndsay's poetical works was published by David Laing in 3 vols. in 1879. The E.E.T.S. issued the first part of a complete edition in 1865 (ed. F. Hall). Five parts have appeared, four edited by F. Hall, the fifth by J.A.H. Murray. For the bibliography see Laing's 3 vol. edition, u.s. iii. pp. 222 et seq., and the E.E.T.S. edition passim. The Association for Scottish Literary Studies issued Janet Hadley Williams, David Lyndsay, Selected Poems, (2000) freshly establishing texts with detailed notes. See also the editions by Pinkerton (1792), Sibbald (1803), and George Chalmers (1806); and the critical accounts in Henderson's Scottish Vernacular Literature (1898), Gregory Smith's Transition Period (1900), and J.H. Millar's Literary History of Scotland (1903).
A professional work prepared by Lyndsay in the Lyon Office, entitled the Register of Scottish Arms (now preserved in manuscript in the Advocates' Library), was printed in 1821 and reprinted in 1878. It remains the most authoritative document on Scottish heraldry. Lyndsay's brother David Lyndsay, Rothesay Herald, offered to show the Armorial to the English diplomat Thomas Randolph in October 1561, "wherein are all the arms of all the noblemen and barons both new and old that are in Scotland."
Diplomatic duties
Mission of June 1531
As Snowdon Herald, Lindsay was sent to the Emperor Charles V at the end of June 1531. He was to conclude their Treaty of Perpetual Peace for a duration of 100 years. This would succeed a treaty made 100 years previously. Other business included the long-standing issue of Robert Barton of Over Barnton's ship the Black Bark, seized by Spanish pirates off England in 1519. In his Latin letters to Charles V, James V refers to Lindsay as "chief herald" or "first of our order." Lindsay stayed 7 weeks at court with the Emperor and Queen of Hungary at Brussels.
Mission of March 1532
Lyndsay was set to go to France as a herald accompanying Thomas Erskine of Haltoun and the Bishop of Ross in January 1532. This Scottish embassy was delayed till March 1532. The ambassadors were to contract with Francis I of France the marriage of James V to Madeleine of Valois.
England 1535
Lyndsay as Lion King of Arms accompanied Lord Erskine with Robert Hart, Rothesay Herald, to Windsor Castle, where they acted as proxy for the installation of James V as a Knight of the Order of the Garter. After travelling to meet Henry VIII at Thornbury Castle, they returned to London, where a servant of Thomas Cromwell gave Lindsay £20.
Edinburgh 1540
Lyndsay conducted the visit of the English ambassador Ralph Sadler at Holyroodhouse in February 1540 with his assistant Rothesay Herald. They met Sadler, and brought him to James V at the Chapel Royal in the Palace then returned him to his lodgings and dined with him. Later, Lindsay arranged Sadler's meeting with Margaret Tudor, and brought him to meet her again in Chapel on the following Sunday.
England 1543
After the death of James V, Lyndsay was sent by Regent Arran to England to return the late King's collar, garter, and statutes of the Order of the Garter to Stephen Gardiner Bishop of Winchester the prelate of the Order. Henry VIII wrote to Arran that Lindsay had fulfilled his office "right discreetly."
Longer poems
The Dreme (1134 lines)
The Testament and Complaynt of the Papyngo (1190 lines)
The Historie and Testament of Squyer Meldrum (1848 lines)
Ane Dialog betwix Experience and ane Courteour of the Miserabyll Estait of the World (6333 lines)
Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis (over 4000 lines).
Other literature
Lyndsay of the Mount appears as the sympathetic major character in Nigel Tranter's well-researched James V trilogy: The Riven Realm (1984), James V, By the Grace of God (1985), and Rough Wooing (1987).
Lindsay's description of the Tower of Babel in his Dialog ("The shadow of that hyddeous strength [the Tower of Babel] sax myle and more it is of length") is used as the motto of the novel "That Hideous Strength" by C. S. Lewis, and the book's name is also derived from it.
Lyndsay appears as a character in Sir Walter Scott's epic poem Marmion. He is depicted amongst the sixteen Scottish writers and poets on the lower section of the Scott Monument on Princes Street in Edinburgh. He is shown on the left side of the southern face.
Lindsay of the Mount is a major character in John Arden's play Armstrong's Last Goodnight set in 16th Century Scotland.
Arms
See also
Scottish literature
References
External links and editions
Works of David Lindsay, Edinburgh (1776)
Pinkerton, John, Scottish Poems: Lindsay's Eight interludes from the Bannatyne Manuscript, vol.2, London (1792)
Chalmers, George, ed., The poetical works of Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount: Lion king at arms, under James V, vol.1, London (1806)
Chalmers, George, ed., The poetical works of Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount: Lion king at arms, under James V, vol.2, London (1806)
Chalmers, George, ed., The poetical works of Sir David Lyndsay of the Mount: Lion king at arms, under James V, vol.3, London (1806)
Laing, David, ed., Poetical Works of David Lyndsay, vol.1, Edinburgh (1879)
Laing, David, ed., Poetical Works of David Lyndsay, vol.2, Edinburgh (1879)
Laing, David, ed., Poetical Works of David Lyndsay, vol.3, Edinburgh (1879)
Full text of The Dreme in Scottish Poetry of the Sixteenth Century at archive.org
Early English Text Society edition
Hall, Fitzedward, ed., Ane Satyre of the Thrie Estaits, (1602), Trübner / EETS
Murray, J.A.H., ed., The Minor Poems of Lyndesay, Trübner / EETS (1871)
Hall, Fitzedward, ed., Historie and Testament of Meldrum, Trübner / EETS (1868)
1490s births
1550s deaths
16th-century dramatists and playwrights
16th-century Scottish poets
16th-century Scottish writers
16th-century male writers
Alumni of the University of St Andrews
Court of James V of Scotland
Lallans poets
Members of the pre-1707 Parliament of Scotland
Middle Scots poets
People from East Lothian
People from Fife
Place of birth unknown
Place of death unknown
Politics of Fife
Scots Makars
Scottish diplomats
Scottish dramatists and playwrights
Scottish genealogists
Lord Lyon Kings of Arms
Scottish Renaissance writers
David | [
-0.3237088620662689,
1.0148283243179321,
-0.16731664538383484,
-0.3814401924610138,
-0.6804537773132324,
0.6507212519645691,
0.6431083679199219,
0.23275978863239288,
-0.27051523327827454,
0.029751744121313095,
-0.18751761317253113,
-0.168627068400383,
-0.1797584891319275,
0.45382678508758545,
0.11637727916240692,
0.3994729518890381,
-0.45603013038635254,
0.6006138920783997,
-0.43020468950271606,
-0.6367737054824829,
0.5051231980323792,
-0.5556315183639526,
-0.4177186191082001,
-0.47621801495552063,
0.2143189013004303,
-0.06602979451417923,
0.19040338695049286,
0.17209899425506592,
0.1398211121559143,
0.006523286923766136,
0.07680078595876694,
0.7844173908233643,
-0.12549461424350739,
-0.041651610285043716,
-0.22704629600048065,
-0.17516161501407623,
0.5965983271598816,
-0.540497899055481,
0.04019558057188988,
-0.24838387966156006,
0.20804156363010406,
-0.037285707890987396,
0.11373972147703171,
-0.07892673462629318,
-0.07029683142900467,
-0.4893038868904114,
-2.084799289703369,
-0.31829994916915894,
-0.3342377841472626,
-0.16610878705978394,
0.3726625442504883,
-0.21824301779270172,
0.6252318024635315,
0.038529589772224426,
0.416970819234848,
0.9159035682678223,
-0.48392453789711,
0.29057544469833374,
1.1732983589172363,
0.38987240195274353,
0.38918977975845337,
-0.199398934841156,
0.007928580045700073,
-0.011119148693978786,
0.12091809511184692,
0.3593873679637909,
-0.7060722708702087,
0.5731692910194397,
-0.3702588975429535,
0.4187302887439728,
-0.3854016959667206,
0.00710760522633791,
0.8102926015853882,
0.9963454604148865,
-0.3458031117916107,
0.3182641267776489,
0.1638798713684082,
0.060675207525491714,
0.29040324687957764,
-0.6348885297775269,
0.6247032284736633,
-0.19858063757419586,
0.21517352759838104,
0.1758655607700348,
0.14560964703559875,
0.26567786931991577,
-0.5100515484809875,
-0.27233102917671204,
-0.009470010176301003,
0.6873622536659241,
-0.6372511982917786,
0.28079432249069214,
-0.18467587232589722,
0.3661895990371704,
-0.10715072602033615,
-0.16738666594028473,
-0.18894265592098236,
-0.017344849184155464,
0.15356133878231049,
-0.06477616727352142,
0.1362832635641098,
0.40093839168548584,
0.2795909345149994,
-0.11283241957426071,
-0.6182363033294678,
0.5317198038101196,
-0.6821747422218323,
-0.12040650844573975,
0.07108718156814575,
-1.9893136024475098,
-0.3913809061050415,
0.4377174973487854,
-0.6556519865989685,
0.2619550824165344,
0.3694385886192322,
0.5154094099998474,
0.7190343737602234,
-0.5742419958114624,
-0.3762633800506592,
-0.17953407764434814,
0.00698480661958456,
0.9038695693016052,
-0.6414910554885864,
0.16622164845466614,
-0.5737013220787048,
0.3712400197982788,
0.42842671275138855,
-0.08498947322368622,
0.4336104691028595,
0.7281299829483032,
-0.07392735779285431,
0.6578685641288757,
-0.236729696393013,
-0.24241003394126892,
-0.2040809541940689,
-0.5815258026123047,
0.4440794289112091,
0.3541317880153656,
0.020396525040268898,
0.2961410880088806,
-0.5537500977516174,
-0.026621844619512558,
-2.5119028091430664,
0.01271967962384224,
0.5777639150619507,
0.24499186873435974,
-0.4044549763202667,
0.11316046863794327,
0.10170797258615494,
0.5279136896133423,
0.32136374711990356,
-0.39735928177833557,
-0.02382189966738224,
0.178047314286232,
-0.26777973771095276,
0.44008103013038635,
0.5995832085609436,
-0.2432078868150711,
0.4037153422832489,
0.4849885404109955,
-0.027253512293100357,
0.022388901561498642,
0.12635479867458344,
-0.0032742684707045555,
0.24378356337547302,
-0.04150563105940819,
0.5482510924339294,
-0.6644454598426819,
-0.14978989958763123,
-0.09687316417694092,
-0.9053623676300049,
-0.15662874281406403,
0.28930220007896423,
-0.3326483368873596,
0.19620488584041595,
0.12825264036655426,
0.46305468678474426,
0.1705361306667328,
-0.022347208112478256,
-0.4430519938468933,
-0.5865797400474548,
-0.38954272866249084,
0.5056685209274292,
-0.3973102867603302,
0.5285207033157349,
0.06727145612239838,
0.5496976375579834,
-0.0031804335303604603,
0.14506568014621735,
0.2643965780735016,
-0.1040550023317337,
-0.22262239456176758,
0.5173812508583069,
0.4425537884235382,
0.8906621932983398,
0.3785535395145416,
-0.02189180999994278,
-0.4058600962162018,
0.5161206126213074,
1.389775037765503,
0.1462700217962265,
0.10589265823364258,
0.09259575605392456,
-0.33014893531799316,
-0.3778783082962036,
2.2898783683776855,
0.14973211288452148,
-0.046580970287323,
0.37140151858329773,
0.37694692611694336,
0.3964575529098511,
-0.10615672171115875,
0.019196977838873863,
0.2966242730617523,
0.27642378211021423,
-0.047426942735910416,
0.24101731181144714,
0.03670472651720047,
-0.21522890031337738,
-0.5793085098266602,
-0.1043076440691948,
0.3982989192008972,
-0.2460853010416031,
0.6338234543800354,
-0.07843577116727829,
0.9918019771575928,
0.16731968522071838,
0.34135064482688904,
-0.5568152666091919,
-1.2269213199615479,
-0.10304470360279083,
0.14457333087921143,
-0.2940484285354614,
-0.4940076172351837,
-0.3022388219833374,
-0.22773414850234985,
-0.2218194603919983,
-0.3817629814147949,
0.4846245348453522,
0.3082239031791687,
0.41613951325416565,
0.36859503388404846,
-0.23042070865631104,
0.3964822590351105,
-0.246787428855896,
1.0073950290679932,
0.1603769063949585,
0.4840930104255676,
-0.3270775079727173,
-0.41791418194770813,
0.530371367931366,
-0.2746371030807495,
0.16570121049880981,
-0.3187684714794159,
0.03879429027438164,
0.03977218270301819,
0.17182688415050507,
0.5387993454933167,
-0.7514095306396484,
0.06616581976413727,
-0.483328253030777,
0.4518562853336334,
0.2913135588169098,
0.09612933546304703,
0.19407156109809875,
-0.7488135099411011,
0.10102912038564682,
-0.5674998760223389,
0.15287302434444427,
-0.2386474460363388,
0.29195326566696167,
-0.2728743255138397,
-0.3659706711769104,
-2.9548916816711426,
0.14684119820594788,
0.15976177155971527,
0.16889171302318573,
0.2596934139728546,
-0.599254846572876,
-0.09702681005001068,
0.32777827978134155,
0.6660845875740051,
-0.18142303824424744,
0.5165846943855286,
-0.3648621737957001,
0.22657586634159088,
0.23913244903087616,
0.04583554342389107,
0.21783065795898438,
0.12795862555503845,
0.44523411989212036,
0.1081932932138443,
-0.0023381859064102173,
0.652804434299469,
-0.49451184272766113,
0.1538522094488144,
-0.16752032935619354,
-1.0276354551315308,
-0.1732485443353653,
-0.03551250323653221,
-0.6354008316993713,
0.5642956495285034,
-0.5295358300209045,
0.24960461258888245,
-0.2886126637458801,
-0.03145406022667885,
-0.3518955409526825,
0.07207680493593216,
-3.5529441833496094,
-0.22577407956123352,
-0.11770215630531311,
-0.10428552329540253,
0.16607877612113953,
-0.2557598054409027,
0.6096858978271484,
-0.45539426803588867,
-0.19992117583751678,
0.12851668894290924,
0.28889375925064087,
-0.203816756606102,
-0.20148450136184692,
0.21699880063533783,
1.448038101196289,
0.608661949634552,
1.1904462575912476,
0.18123894929885864,
0.7876400947570801,
-0.42038995027542114,
0.015858158469200134,
0.10658806562423706,
-0.37060412764549255,
-0.20830869674682617,
0.2830584645271301,
0.7380781173706055,
0.3909095525741577,
-0.26405563950538635,
-1.0705335140228271,
-0.110794797539711,
0.08110085874795914,
0.21266677975654602,
0.0378350093960762,
-0.08620966970920563,
-0.9364901781082153,
0.22576607763767242,
0.21528179943561554,
0.6377118229866028,
0.7778992056846619,
-0.5465282797813416,
-0.11382313817739487,
0.38548311591148376,
-0.08031507581472397,
0.5887247920036316,
0.36904335021972656,
0.11122283339500427,
-1.3072524070739746,
0.27390623092651367,
-0.17857562005519867,
0.4225980043411255,
-0.2719363868236542,
0.04807014390826225,
1.145937204360962,
0.47431179881095886,
-0.292752742767334,
-0.28421255946159363,
0.7331629395484924,
-0.21834617853164673,
-0.11975370347499847,
0.31641456484794617,
0.7311564683914185,
-0.5424818396568298,
0.5676131248474121,
0.05446493625640869,
0.1751074343919754,
-0.44512617588043213,
0.5314313769340515,
-0.21628893911838531,
-0.3393939435482025,
0.08985335379838943,
-0.2680476903915405,
0.5654593706130981,
0.023109501227736473,
-0.6622949242591858,
-0.12624944746494293,
-0.31319716572761536,
-0.03833220526576042,
0.653200089931488,
0.25950711965560913,
-0.09946458786725998,
0.08636830002069473,
-0.2876683175563812,
-0.7125567197799683,
1.1152170896530151,
-0.1383768767118454,
-0.37141501903533936,
-0.577527642250061,
0.05436357855796814,
-0.26745280623435974,
-0.5812946557998657,
-0.05783115327358246,
-0.10711359977722168,
-0.05645889788866043,
1.0869897603988647,
-0.28248170018196106,
-0.03567950055003166,
0.40215882658958435,
-0.8680907487869263,
0.196941539645195,
-0.4908002018928528,
-0.4305235743522644,
-0.6969634294509888,
-0.23262839019298553,
-0.29175692796707153,
-0.7480341792106628,
-0.9785187244415283,
-0.24143289029598236,
0.5670837759971619,
0.006295437458902597,
-0.09457223862409592,
0.24616900086402893,
0.19494038820266724,
-0.060474999248981476,
-0.5740405321121216,
0.8232936263084412,
-0.11600614339113235,
0.11749181896448135,
0.5011177062988281,
0.6439212560653687,
0.5421186685562134,
-0.04613654688000679,
0.4383808970451355,
0.057959653437137604,
-0.46318066120147705,
-0.21036523580551147,
0.30715134739875793,
0.7330407500267029,
-0.49920889735221863,
-0.7947708964347839,
-0.11673381179571152,
0.06143302097916603,
0.20741184055805206,
0.27022498846054077,
-0.25234830379486084,
-0.44911956787109375,
-0.5250922441482544,
-0.3558117151260376,
-0.07720017433166504,
0.2031896412372589,
-0.3265626132488251,
0.21019130945205688,
-0.10515857487916946,
-0.49046409130096436,
0.5023961663246155,
0.24142327904701233,
0.5396448969841003,
0.5888582468032837,
-0.10043339431285858,
-0.3739904761314392,
0.4022032916545868,
-0.5719575881958008,
-0.6089944243431091,
0.043666306883096695,
-0.9795902967453003,
0.04459968954324722,
0.18495476245880127,
-0.5358473658561707,
0.3055376708507538,
-0.2706517279148102,
0.009601392783224583,
-0.3662159740924835,
0.5155966877937317,
-0.8191554546356201,
0.5634796023368835,
0.4929076135158539,
-0.6180313229560852,
-0.2685399651527405,
-0.5299495458602905,
-0.6643254160881042,
0.5283011794090271,
-0.26820850372314453,
-0.2818649411201477,
-0.79510098695755,
-0.39163655042648315,
0.35870805382728577,
-0.25952643156051636,
0.5318570733070374,
0.13266097009181976,
0.4444839060306549,
-0.3189789354801178,
-0.11750142276287079,
0.14625407755374908,
0.053530968725681305,
0.6478815674781799,
0.613124430179596,
-0.46064507961273193,
-1.0968239307403564,
-0.370559960603714,
-0.07802574336528778,
0.26929277181625366,
-0.2277432382106781,
0.10095008462667465,
0.7056902647018433,
0.43570154905319214,
-0.5975454449653625,
-0.17311368882656097,
0.1375182420015335,
-0.10906997323036194,
0.3152618110179901,
-0.5837218761444092,
-0.02059006132185459,
0.35128146409988403,
-0.020575741305947304,
0.3431752622127533,
0.4516201615333557,
-0.8889909386634827,
-0.041081517934799194,
0.2501643896102905,
-0.7572351694107056,
0.8384243845939636,
0.119163379073143,
-0.7896559834480286,
0.3426867127418518,
0.5228409171104431,
-0.09968283027410507,
-0.26185235381126404,
0.5456354022026062,
0.30904698371887207,
-0.21160635352134705,
-0.6361439228057861,
0.21068261563777924,
-0.6085616946220398,
-0.33391833305358887,
-0.2585655450820923,
-0.6787844300270081,
0.46001702547073364,
0.19412368535995483,
-0.7363274097442627,
0.7478064298629761,
-0.3084149956703186,
-0.7204990386962891,
-0.10272348672151566,
0.12895804643630981,
0.4853562116622925,
-0.23496168851852417,
0.32108697295188904,
-0.06118691712617874,
0.2281409054994583,
-0.22120708227157593,
0.3323170244693756,
0.8020331859588623,
1.2687875032424927,
0.5409354567527771,
-0.5959660410881042,
-0.4425443708896637,
0.45955440402030945,
-0.1403074562549591,
-0.12411758303642273,
-0.1332385390996933,
0.3996158540248871,
0.2695983350276947,
-0.4959523677825928,
-0.4287029802799225,
-0.6151135563850403,
0.9848018288612366,
-0.04483995586633682,
0.16654613614082336,
0.08332185447216034,
0.08942832797765732,
0.23199017345905304,
0.1226845309138298,
0.5319619178771973,
-0.0010262836003676057,
0.7155548334121704,
0.09675298631191254,
0.49508482217788696,
0.11205901205539703,
-0.03928240388631821,
0.4019906520843506,
-0.022555695846676826,
-1.0771100521087646,
-0.4612599313259125,
-0.4818001687526703,
0.3835853636264801,
-0.07613565772771835,
-0.33206331729888916,
0.44779375195503235,
-0.8367571234703064,
0.20062097907066345,
-0.12839682400226593,
0.9131932258605957,
0.11722274869680405,
0.9134867787361145,
-0.5394651293754578,
-0.061950210481882095,
-0.37127819657325745,
-0.4818740487098694,
0.06711973994970322,
-0.232395738363266,
-0.07390642911195755,
-0.29057547450065613,
-0.7560166716575623,
-0.3053252696990967,
0.08471173048019409,
0.15644435584545135,
0.22767123579978943,
-0.5754813551902771,
-0.8052723407745361,
-0.4643906056880951,
-0.23597632348537445,
-1.2160078287124634,
1.089707612991333,
0.5256722569465637,
-0.24144384264945984,
0.4753461182117462,
0.520561933517456,
0.16747505962848663,
-0.4163624942302704,
0.09462972730398178,
-0.3186781704425812,
-0.19585105776786804,
0.11139138787984848,
-0.46040645241737366,
0.5388702750205994,
-0.16418898105621338,
-0.278399258852005,
0.23609453439712524,
-0.5040189027786255,
0.09383321553468704,
0.2678908705711365,
-0.3552551567554474,
-0.28562131524086,
0.4619976282119751,
0.27320221066474915,
-0.05571119859814644,
0.690495491027832,
-0.6205002069473267,
-0.904312014579773,
0.2675367593765259,
-0.1506098210811615,
-0.2945340871810913,
-0.5629345774650574,
-1.0909595489501953,
0.7593629956245422,
-0.49210843443870544,
0.30293264985084534,
0.1983693391084671,
-0.6485898494720459,
0.19544430077075958,
0.35454002022743225,
0.1779962033033371,
0.32525870203971863,
-0.14880886673927307,
-0.2630567252635956,
-0.4055420756340027,
0.33835068345069885,
-0.5407533049583435,
0.4011267423629761,
0.35723766684532166,
0.030617905780673027,
0.27014100551605225,
0.25966545939445496,
0.2916507422924042,
-0.5919287204742432,
-0.18413831293582916,
0.5264481902122498,
0.6530129909515381,
-0.32560569047927856,
-0.3808484673500061,
-2.2297258377075195,
-0.1221347451210022,
-0.456238329410553,
0.32572364807128906,
0.2609984278678894,
-0.020977234467864037,
-0.39467868208885193,
0.09518830478191376,
-0.24749578535556793,
0.3521591126918793,
0.8800675272941589,
0.4768321216106415,
-0.06052250415086746,
0.48505139350891113,
0.08525871485471725,
0.3048870265483856,
0.014681837521493435,
0.6423070430755615,
-0.07144885510206223,
0.4254940152168274,
0.018692122772336006,
-0.15323831140995026,
-0.3778439462184906,
-0.05923042073845863,
-0.47626030445098877,
0.45052164793014526,
-0.22016532719135284,
-0.5233108997344971,
0.17442741990089417,
0.09116515517234802,
-0.3489621579647064,
0.5626084804534912,
-0.3380871117115021,
-0.016453394666314125,
0.07900561392307281,
-0.7493486404418945,
0.284641295671463,
-0.6999466419219971,
0.5132496356964111,
-0.05362730100750923,
-0.3735745847225189,
-0.31028807163238525,
0.3962510824203491,
0.1067044734954834,
0.01810857094824314,
-0.1665535718202591,
0.2835983335971832,
-0.5369868874549866,
0.28442585468292236,
-0.7810355424880981,
0.1842936873435974,
-0.24069608747959137,
-0.36989179253578186,
-0.3427288234233856,
0.5592153668403625,
-0.11674545705318451,
-0.4310373067855835,
0.13019715249538422,
-0.5688824653625488,
-0.2217060923576355,
-0.1524745374917984,
-0.17095497250556946,
0.22379711270332336,
-0.062116265296936035,
0.04103723540902138,
0.09802839159965515,
-0.38877907395362854,
-0.045911259949207306,
0.14141178131103516,
-0.4178313612937927,
0.3849041759967804,
0.2910380959510803,
0.5062344670295715,
-0.17931823432445526,
-0.5884706974029541,
0.3346561789512634,
0.0943327397108078,
0.7728452086448669,
1.190360426902771,
-0.007447551470249891,
0.34024128317832947,
-0.2794041037559509,
-0.5459362268447876,
0.15849855542182922,
0.39753633737564087,
-5.391873359680176,
-0.31956830620765686,
-0.18004989624023438,
-0.34751030802726746,
0.4080216884613037,
0.25022029876708984,
0.42659494280815125,
-0.03911389783024788,
0.09891940653324127,
-0.0593268945813179,
0.1553502380847931,
-0.23808927834033966,
-0.26053157448768616,
-0.5385287404060364,
0.5040847063064575,
0.16318129003047943
] |
261104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Upham | Charles Upham | Charles Hazlitt Upham, (21 September 1908 – 22 November 1994) was a New Zealand soldier who was awarded the Victoria Cross (VC) twice during the Second World War - for gallantry in Crete in May 1941, and in Egypt, in July 1942. He was the most recent of only three people to receive the VC twice, the only one to receive two VCs during the Second World War and the only combat soldier to receive the award twice. As a result, Upham is often described as the most highly decorated Commonwealth soldier of that war, as the VC is the Commonwealth's highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy.
Early life
Upham was born at 32 Gloucester Street in central Christchurch on 21 September 1908, the son of John Hazlitt Upham, a lawyer, and his wife, Agatha Mary Coates. Agatha was a granddaughter of pioneer colonist Guise Brittan. He boarded at Waihi School, near Winchester, South Canterbury, between 1917 and 1922 and at Christ's College, Christchurch, from 1923 to 1927. From an early age he was a quiet and unusually determined boy, and on more than one occasion he intervened to defend schoolmates who were being bullied.
Upham attended Canterbury Agricultural College (now known as Lincoln University), where he earned a diploma in agriculture in 1930. He worked first as a sheep farmer, later as manager, and then valuing farms for the New Zealand government. In 1937, he joined the Valuation Department as assistant district valuer in Timaru. The following year, he became engaged to Mary (Molly) Eileen McTamney (a distant relative of Noel Chavasse, VC and Bar). In 1939, he returned to Lincoln to complete a diploma in valuation and farm management.
Second World War
In September 1939, Upham enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) at the age of 30, and was posted to the 20th Canterbury-Otago Battalion, part of the New Zealand 2nd Division. Although he already had five years experience in the New Zealand Army Territorial Force, in which he held the rank of sergeant, he signed on as a private. He was soon promoted to temporary lance corporal, but initially declined a place in an Officer Cadet Training Unit (OCTU). In December, he was promoted to sergeant and a week later sailed for Egypt. In July 1940, he was finally persuaded to join an OCTU.
First VC
In March 1941, Upham's battalion left for Greece and then withdrew to Crete, and it was here that he was wounded in the action, from 22 to 30 May 1941, that gained him his first VC. When informed of the award, his first response was "It's meant for the men."
Citation
Bar to VC
Upham was evacuated to Egypt, now promoted to captain. He received a Bar to his VC for his actions in July 1942, before and during the First Battle of El Alamein.
Citation
King George VI had invested Upham with his first Victoria Cross at Buckingham Palace on 11 May 1945. When the recommendation was made for a second VC, the King remarked to Major-General Howard Kippenberger that a bar to the cross would be "very unusual indeed" and enquired firmly, "Does he deserve it?" Kippenberger replied, "In my respectful opinion, sir, Upham won the VC several times over."
Colonel Burrows approached Kippenberger after the Minqar Qaim action and was already mooting the nomination for a second VC even before the battle at Ruweisat Ridge and Upham's capture. General Inglis received citations for both Minqar Qaim and Ruweisat that each individually suggested Upham merited the VC for either occasion independently, but because of the excessive rarity of multiple VC awards opted to combine the citations into the single one forwarded to the King.
With this award, Upham became the third man to be awarded a Bar to the VC. The previous recipients were Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Martin-Leake and Captain Noel Godfrey Chavasse, both doctors serving in the Royal Army Medical Corps. Martin-Leake received his VC for rescuing wounded under fire in the Second Boer War, and the Bar for similar actions in the First World War. Chavasse was similarly decorated for two such actions in the First World War, subsequently dying of wounds received during his second action. Neither of these men were combatants, so Upham remains the only fighting soldier to have been decorated with the VC and Bar.
Prisoner of war
After being taken prisoner of war (POW), he was sent to an Italian hospital where an Italian doctor recommended his wounded arm be amputated in view of their extremely scarce supplies and inability to prevent or treat gangrene. Upham refused. He knew that the operation would have to be carried out without anaesthetic and he had seen other patients dying in agony under surgery. He later had the wound dressed by an Allied POW doctor.
Upham refused on principle to escape from the hospital, but was branded "dangerous" after several later escape attempts.
One attempt occurred when POWs were being transported in open trucks through Italy. Upham jumped from the truck at a bend and managed to get away before being recaptured. He had broken an ankle in jumping from the moving truck.
By the summer of 1943 Upham was a POW at Campo PG47, near Modena, in the River Po Valley.
On another occasion, he tried to escape a camp by climbing its fences in broad daylight. He became entangled in barbed wire when he fell down between the two fences. When a guard pointed a pistol at his head and threatened to shoot, Upham calmly ignored him and lit a cigarette. This scene was photographed by the Germans as "evidence" and later reprinted in a biography, Kenneth Sandford's Mark of the Lion.
After this incident, Upham was considered dangerous and was placed in solitary confinement. He was only allowed to exercise alone, while accompanied by two armed guards and while covered by a machine gun in a tower. Despite these precautions, Upham bolted from his little courtyard, straight through the German barracks and out through the front gate of the camp. The guard in the machine-gun tower later told other prisoners that he refrained from shooting Upham out of respect, and as he could see German soldiers coming up the road whom he expected to capture Upham. Upham was soon recaptured and sent to the infamous Oflag IV-C (Colditz) on 14 October 1944.
During his transfer on a civilian train while guarded by two Germans, Upham made his final escape attempt. Upham was only allowed to visit the toilet when the train was travelling at high speed to prevent him from jumping through a window. Nevertheless, Upham prised open the toilet window and jumped onto the tracks, knocking himself unconscious. After awakening, he escaped into a nearby orchard, but the even rows of trees and lack of undergrowth provided poor cover and he was recaptured after 12 hours.
At Colditz, there were few opportunities to escape. Upham and most of his fellow prisoners waited until Colditz was captured by Allied forces.
Aftermath
When Colditz Castle was captured by American forces, most of the inmates made their own way home immediately. Upham joined an American unit, was armed and equipped, and wanted to fight the Germans.
Upham was keen to see action again, but was instead sent to Britain where he was reunited with Molly McTamney, who was then serving as a nurse. They were married at New Milton, Hampshire, on 20 June 1945. He returned to New Zealand in early September, and she followed him in December.
Upham was also mentioned in despatches on 14 November 1946.
Post-war
After the war, Upham returned to New Zealand, and the community raised £10,000 to buy him a farm. However, he declined and the money went into the C. H. Upham Scholarship for children of ex-servicemen to study at Lincoln University or the college of Canterbury.
He obtained a war rehabilitation loan and bought a farm on Conway Flat, Hundalee, North Canterbury. It is said that for the remainder of his life, Upham would allow no German manufactured machinery or car onto his property.
Although somewhat hampered by his injuries, he became a successful farmer and served on the board of governors of Christ's College for nearly 20 years. He and Molly had three daughters, and lived on their farm until January 1994, when Upham's poor health forced them to retire to Christchurch.
He died in Canterbury on 22 November 1994, surrounded by his wife and daughters. His funeral in the Christchurch Cathedral was conducted with full military honours. The streets of Christchurch were lined by over 5,000 people. Upham is buried in the graveyard of St Paul's Church Papanui. His death was also marked by a memorial service on 5 May 1995 in London's St Martin-in-the-Fields Church, attended by representatives for the Royal Family; senior New Zealand government and political figures; senior members of the British and New Zealand armed forces; Valerian Freyberg, 3rd Baron Freyberg, grandson of VC holder Lord Freyberg, the commander of Allied forces in Crete and 7th Governor-General of New Zealand; representatives of veterans' organisations; and other VC and George Cross holders.
Victoria Cross and Bar
In November 2006, Upham's VC and Bar were sold by his daughters to the Imperial War Museum for an undisclosed sum. However, as New Zealand legislation prohibits the export of such historic items, the Imperial War Museum agreed to a permanent loan of the medals to the National Army Museum at Waiouru. On 2 December 2007, Upham's VC was among nine stolen from locked, reinforced glass cabinets at the museum. On 16 February 2008, the New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ$300,000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess.
Other honours
In 1992, he was presented with the Order of Honour by the Government of Greece, in recognition of his service in the Battles of Greece and Crete.
HMNZS Charles Upham, a Royal New Zealand Navy ship, was commissioned in 1995, and decommissioned in 2001.
A bronze statue stands outside the Hurunui District Council buildings in Amberley, North Canterbury, depicting Charles Upham "the observer".
A street in suburban Christchurch is named Charles Upham Avenue, and there is an Upham Terrace in Palmerston North, and an Upham Crescent in Taradale, Napier. There is also an Upham Street in Havelock North, Hawke's Bay, near streets named after fellow VC recipients Elliott, Grant, Crichton and Ngarimu.
A Jetconnect Boeing 737-800 was named Charles Upham in August 2011.
In popular culture
Charles Upham is the subject of Tom Scott's book Searching for Charlie: In Pursuit of the Real Charles Upham VC & Bar.
The character of Lucas Riggs in video game Call of Duty: Vanguard is a second lieutenant with two Victoria Crosses fighting in Africa.
See also
New Zealand's Top 100 History Makers
Notes
References
Biography in 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand
Second Lieutenant C.H. Upham in The Art of War exhibition at The National Archives (United Kingdom)
Further reading
Scott, T. (2020). Searching For Charlie: In Pursuit of the Real Charles Upham VC & Bar. Auckland: Upstart Press Ltd.
External links
Charles Upham visiting 5th New Zealand Scout Jamboree 1969 (photo)
Charles Upham visiting Upham Subcamp at 5th New Zealand Scout Jamboree 1969 (photo)
Charles Upham visiting Upham Subcamp at 5th New Zealand Scout Jamboree 1969 (photo)
1908 births
1994 deaths
Burials at St Paul's Cemetery, Christchurch
Prisoners of war held at Colditz Castle
Hurunui District
Lincoln University (New Zealand) alumni
New Zealand Army officers
New Zealand farmers
New Zealand military personnel of World War II
New Zealand prisoners of war in World War II
New Zealand World War II recipients of the Victoria Cross
People educated at Christ's College, Christchurch
People from Christchurch
Recipients of the Order of Honour (Greece)
Recipients of the Victoria Cross
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany | [
-0.24961064755916595,
0.24693797528743744,
-0.6667292714118958,
-0.6115337014198303,
0.3143797516822815,
1.6949567794799805,
0.8416203856468201,
-0.5835492014884949,
-0.5312538146972656,
0.06989550590515137,
-0.28230634331703186,
0.011659757234156132,
-0.41690441966056824,
0.35749000310897827,
0.08573508262634277,
0.8509312868118286,
-0.5244241952896118,
0.3643113076686859,
-0.7196118235588074,
-0.1568862646818161,
0.0483558364212513,
-0.30298683047294617,
0.05478930473327637,
-0.10226425528526306,
0.3734953701496124,
0.1933787763118744,
0.03546735644340515,
0.5458793640136719,
-0.2567842900753021,
-0.2933623492717743,
-0.0834917426109314,
0.2638944089412689,
0.3725919723510742,
-1.0600662231445312,
-0.7036588191986084,
-0.6605940461158752,
-0.6254519820213318,
-0.3787474036216736,
-0.007032986264675856,
0.012426012195646763,
-0.043711066246032715,
-0.2089361548423767,
-0.004025294445455074,
-0.4268913269042969,
0.3190092146396637,
-0.5463005900382996,
-1.5298187732696533,
-0.32337936758995056,
-0.537949800491333,
-0.238669753074646,
-0.1211262047290802,
0.356768935918808,
0.12572942674160004,
-0.9414868950843811,
0.8497189879417419,
0.5548036694526672,
-0.47426122426986694,
-0.3537023663520813,
0.10484493523836136,
-0.3320083022117615,
0.026166554540395737,
-0.6658986806869507,
0.6728351712226868,
-0.6684738397598267,
0.09127017110586166,
0.1499011218547821,
-0.11041893810033798,
0.018679268658161163,
0.5812391042709351,
-0.2695755362510681,
0.829684317111969,
-0.27788302302360535,
0.4518987834453583,
0.3201627731323242,
-0.6095162630081177,
0.2286139726638794,
-0.1841728389263153,
-0.1289922147989273,
-0.289955735206604,
0.21635198593139648,
0.17543059587478638,
-0.7198602557182312,
0.3851032555103302,
0.26248475909233093,
-0.3658982217311859,
0.7865179181098938,
-0.4573027491569519,
-0.10941425710916519,
-0.215752974152565,
0.4727371335029602,
-0.39506796002388,
-0.5425831079483032,
0.024198293685913086,
0.27378714084625244,
0.1410212367773056,
-0.17003068327903748,
-0.2804775536060333,
0.7381823062896729,
-0.043132293969392776,
-0.6302613615989685,
0.2521141469478607,
-0.17930817604064941,
0.6767033338546753,
0.062682144343853,
-0.7191285490989685,
0.5993360280990601,
0.2353128343820572,
-0.3758313059806824,
-0.14681832492351532,
-0.5254703164100647,
-0.5330671668052673,
-0.23883219063282013,
-0.19946305453777313,
0.09772878140211105,
0.43589094281196594,
-0.3214665353298187,
0.2504919469356537,
-0.6200932264328003,
-0.12084484100341797,
-0.11574147641658783,
-0.0647592693567276,
0.7980762124061584,
-0.48376065492630005,
0.7552978992462158,
-0.4737834930419922,
-0.04246900975704193,
0.42128515243530273,
0.10154887288808823,
-0.38410553336143494,
0.6561060547828674,
0.5153446793556213,
1.017727255821228,
-0.28151437640190125,
0.285146564245224,
-0.44551923871040344,
-0.18892759084701538,
-0.08128747344017029,
0.183204784989357,
-0.7230401635169983,
0.31384074687957764,
-0.34749677777290344,
0.18194769322872162,
-0.11132767051458359,
-0.18903236091136932,
0.19361966848373413,
0.3557330369949341,
0.06094524264335632,
-0.05958953872323036,
-0.10346978902816772,
-0.6599522233009338,
0.8167332410812378,
-0.6082268357276917,
0.1712864190340042,
-0.5482507348060608,
-0.5047098994255066,
0.3866133987903595,
0.6835482716560364,
0.025122521445155144,
0.13817816972732544,
-0.3144253194332123,
-0.04029099643230438,
0.16868431866168976,
0.4982757270336151,
0.2358788400888443,
0.9893197417259216,
0.1845448911190033,
0.23592142760753632,
-0.09095118939876556,
-0.5598390102386475,
0.057850439101457596,
0.10171839594841003,
0.12876087427139282,
0.7698937058448792,
-0.17047522962093353,
-1.3220667839050293,
0.35575562715530396,
0.48385292291641235,
0.5324656963348389,
0.2564820349216461,
-1.0345370769500732,
-0.6137115359306335,
0.10744818300008774,
0.2348581701517105,
0.06219237670302391,
-0.20636171102523804,
0.49626871943473816,
0.14881834387779236,
-0.21322032809257507,
0.8721982836723328,
0.3467964828014374,
-0.15042954683303833,
-0.9711374640464783,
0.10044409334659576,
-0.15055935084819794,
0.7476904988288879,
-0.6403030157089233,
-0.4178072512149811,
0.6220130920410156,
0.9543135166168213,
0.4086889326572418,
0.2680054008960724,
0.041327934712171555,
0.6739955544471741,
-0.05880589783191681,
-0.1559165120124817,
0.007974308915436268,
0.5133746266365051,
0.6756122708320618,
-0.42970895767211914,
0.7756736874580383,
0.46413835883140564,
-0.35295242071151733,
-0.3860917389392853,
0.7327291965484619,
0.1172739788889885,
0.17842558026313782,
-0.280878484249115,
-0.41445910930633545,
0.193633034825325,
-0.8077220916748047,
-0.3407646119594574,
0.020579978823661804,
-0.14292098581790924,
0.5112643241882324,
0.5593575835227966,
1.1336055994033813,
0.10190030187368393,
0.02809036336839199,
-0.19748178124427795,
-1.1675621271133423,
0.22892503440380096,
0.08583172410726547,
0.11102272570133209,
0.07875356823205948,
-0.3454001545906067,
-0.09586233645677567,
0.4196883738040924,
-0.060952603816986084,
0.21078966557979584,
-0.34176549315452576,
-0.020116956904530525,
0.5524384379386902,
-0.05752670764923096,
-0.1979299932718277,
0.3996047377586365,
-0.012590395286679268,
-0.03503289073705673,
0.2942911684513092,
-0.7469300627708435,
0.12593229115009308,
-0.48973211646080017,
0.4053420424461365,
0.618584156036377,
0.22218939661979675,
-0.0590825118124485,
-0.7600758075714111,
-0.02548682689666748,
-0.6380723714828491,
-0.1616264134645462,
0.022590601816773415,
0.22711794078350067,
0.30613648891448975,
0.6091402769088745,
0.5476159453392029,
0.5023803114891052,
-0.4694419205188751,
-0.4849914610385895,
-0.8393347859382629,
0.34935981035232544,
0.3596212863922119,
0.32029807567596436,
-0.18435551226139069,
-0.01504059974104166,
0.4318719506263733,
0.2205342948436737,
-0.1260501891374588,
-0.17002898454666138,
0.05624443292617798,
-0.3082858920097351,
-0.7769611477851868,
0.7410600185394287,
0.8742905259132385,
0.043276697397232056,
-0.16912546753883362,
0.05743635445833206,
0.2963453531265259,
-0.2688728868961334,
0.17308959364891052,
-0.18800576031208038,
-0.17371957004070282,
-0.750081479549408,
0.4274498522281647,
-0.32960253953933716,
0.3221161663532257,
-0.46977362036705017,
0.0018180831102654338,
-0.4978139102458954,
-0.11460689455270767,
0.4260231852531433,
0.07338476181030273,
-0.9123312830924988,
0.2939307689666748,
0.020760035142302513,
0.23659497499465942,
0.04424505680799484,
0.13325129449367523,
-0.24654653668403625,
-0.20056909322738647,
-4.969967365264893,
0.2119767814874649,
0.7126742601394653,
0.07039543241262436,
-0.19371403753757477,
0.4140545725822449,
0.2583027482032776,
-0.684045672416687,
-0.12549911439418793,
-0.5431719422340393,
0.9867395162582397,
0.008066916838288307,
0.4984566271305084,
-0.3148035705089569,
0.8781005144119263,
-0.11659198254346848,
0.8453015685081482,
-0.10701604932546616,
0.7507993578910828,
0.022769851610064507,
-0.3433949947357178,
-0.1743367314338684,
0.04609496146440506,
0.09689543396234512,
-0.33729130029678345,
0.22538943588733673,
0.05946928262710571,
0.26172932982444763,
-0.5946228504180908,
-0.28154256939888,
0.3901042640209198,
-0.07994876056909561,
-0.4919528663158417,
0.16002997756004333,
-0.5520080924034119,
-0.06628486514091492,
-0.12745903432369232,
0.31015363335609436,
-0.040495410561561584,
0.10178666561841965,
0.6581954956054688,
-0.0962839126586914,
-0.6266775727272034,
-0.14185196161270142,
0.42621153593063354,
-0.6887666583061218,
-0.4561103880405426,
0.14571213722229004,
-0.5055283308029175,
-0.14472059905529022,
0.8277333378791809,
-0.1710391640663147,
0.1390669047832489,
0.31947553157806396,
-0.3353089988231659,
0.06804252415895462,
0.16521473228931427,
-0.022007502615451813,
-0.4093065857887268,
0.5342524647712708,
-0.0713789090514183,
-0.6147956848144531,
-0.1395433396100998,
0.07809168845415115,
-0.14056438207626343,
0.2504429221153259,
0.018215453252196312,
0.3774596154689789,
-0.014323881827294827,
-0.34381434321403503,
0.17936471104621887,
0.5985937714576721,
0.4875151813030243,
-0.5076932311058044,
0.0710623636841774,
-0.9016939997673035,
0.44308823347091675,
0.07094639539718628,
-0.693303108215332,
-0.1829141229391098,
-0.05016534775495529,
-0.8442199230194092,
0.06777927279472351,
0.05411438271403313,
0.561151921749115,
-0.370728999376297,
-1.093666911125183,
-0.10126685351133347,
0.542188286781311,
-0.5395971536636353,
0.014411812648177147,
-0.2632612884044647,
0.13360810279846191,
0.524878978729248,
0.537604808807373,
0.3377322852611542,
0.05690090358257294,
0.43037816882133484,
0.6762427687644958,
-0.10166633129119873,
-0.3528258502483368,
-0.22889705002307892,
0.33854150772094727,
-0.6249489188194275,
-0.1441364884376526,
0.24405303597450256,
0.2933283746242523,
-0.21680252254009247,
0.4352789521217346,
0.15335343778133392,
0.6580086350440979,
-0.23395486176013947,
-0.4515794813632965,
-0.00841632392257452,
-0.21516194939613342,
-0.10291939973831177,
0.4045983552932739,
0.19362425804138184,
0.7663825154304504,
0.01867644675076008,
-0.7483928203582764,
-0.10491438210010529,
-0.44304829835891724,
-0.14880916476249695,
0.7221499085426331,
-0.24596527218818665,
-0.31925666332244873,
-0.32189640402793884,
-0.8414546847343445,
0.3683710992336273,
0.2371770441532135,
1.1863243579864502,
-0.11223451048135757,
0.6927810907363892,
-0.4462471604347229,
-0.13780318200588226,
-0.0539337657392025,
-0.020035794004797935,
0.24774964153766632,
0.9307717680931091,
-0.24423792958259583,
0.17279113829135895,
-0.23917308449745178,
0.5021301507949829,
0.2808563709259033,
-0.21361558139324188,
0.4263945519924164,
-0.8775994777679443,
-0.2968669831752777,
1.0197827816009521,
-0.5487764477729797,
-0.5978244543075562,
0.12039827555418015,
-0.667349636554718,
-0.25473958253860474,
0.27862393856048584,
-0.6052467226982117,
0.14872577786445618,
-0.6246684193611145,
0.01832430250942707,
-0.10440145432949066,
0.4442061185836792,
-1.141252875328064,
-0.26658207178115845,
0.21558108925819397,
-0.26997581124305725,
-0.2390245497226715,
0.01509827934205532,
-0.06579766422510147,
0.11055932193994522,
-0.10164882242679596,
-0.634965717792511,
-0.09487564116716385,
0.06617990136146545,
-0.18023626506328583,
-0.37353307008743286,
-0.38390761613845825,
-0.6446834206581116,
-0.1727571338415146,
-0.3427655100822449,
-0.016833297908306122,
0.499722421169281,
-0.28199198842048645,
-0.18937437236309052,
0.748249351978302,
-0.02989637851715088,
-0.5673385262489319,
-0.718950629234314,
0.09557034820318222,
-0.7624162435531616,
-0.14714249968528748,
-0.7565135359764099,
0.15618601441383362,
1.5221292972564697,
-0.08895520120859146,
0.08441837131977081,
-0.6470491886138916,
-0.03782286494970322,
0.052913032472133636,
-0.25954878330230713,
0.07903950661420822,
0.12499969452619553,
0.029213741421699524,
-0.2789191007614136,
0.19465868175029755,
-1.114668369293213,
0.19633719325065613,
0.403413861989975,
0.09705616533756256,
0.14023245871067047,
-0.6010130047798157,
-0.7760939002037048,
-0.4128478467464447,
0.532217800617218,
-0.12860418856143951,
0.5419117212295532,
0.10971669107675552,
0.586021900177002,
-0.44424858689308167,
-0.2875419557094574,
-0.471567839384079,
-0.08024262636899948,
-0.8147553205490112,
-0.36054444313049316,
-0.6824554800987244,
0.10009746998548508,
0.4957001507282257,
-0.42569586634635925,
0.7833089828491211,
0.19894558191299438,
-0.11290329694747925,
-0.4289661943912506,
0.27018654346466064,
0.6013163328170776,
0.46895304322242737,
0.35214316844940186,
0.21549676358699799,
-0.404811829328537,
-0.1691359281539917,
0.5137671828269958,
0.3536437749862671,
1.6597542762756348,
0.7270066738128662,
-0.5536738038063049,
0.4487413167953491,
0.6301171183586121,
0.23560243844985962,
-0.7666739821434021,
-0.14705237746238708,
0.24035748839378357,
0.6947429776191711,
-0.17207254469394684,
-0.16428512334823608,
0.27036017179489136,
0.36516809463500977,
-0.04266279190778732,
-0.4614294171333313,
-0.2858276665210724,
0.3128126859664917,
0.9755290746688843,
0.7073471546173096,
0.4285404682159424,
-0.16211247444152832,
0.5531465411186218,
0.5159329175949097,
0.3339422941207886,
-0.4679921567440033,
0.07083522528409958,
0.14927521347999573,
-0.5634155869483948,
-0.6233071684837341,
0.02233179472386837,
0.18840201199054718,
0.41866347193717957,
-0.4103494882583618,
0.03547932952642441,
0.26994451880455017,
-0.5952500104904175,
0.18136146664619446,
-0.5220040082931519,
-0.445939838886261,
-0.15575513243675232,
0.20121724903583527,
-0.6191182732582092,
-0.7102460861206055,
-0.7382580041885376,
-0.41499048471450806,
-0.007195431273430586,
-0.271196186542511,
-0.3862641453742981,
-0.5646616816520691,
0.251797616481781,
-0.6204367876052856,
-0.20946219563484192,
0.4990460276603699,
-0.09526094049215317,
-0.8661672472953796,
0.6478621363639832,
-0.25955188274383545,
-0.0987461507320404,
-0.5704415440559387,
0.6315612196922302,
0.5407543182373047,
0.13666298985481262,
-0.3209060728549957,
0.47732165455818176,
0.059005171060562134,
-0.696317732334137,
-0.13785086572170258,
0.27037787437438965,
0.6128868460655212,
-0.3470290005207062,
0.42146065831184387,
-0.017519287765026093,
-0.7920515537261963,
-0.4922207295894623,
0.4668234884738922,
-0.8015862703323364,
0.029238810762763023,
0.3942453861236572,
-0.43857043981552124,
0.2648666799068451,
1.090564250946045,
0.11959631741046906,
0.14210107922554016,
0.41971635818481445,
0.05459732934832573,
-0.22312626242637634,
0.007017714902758598,
0.43103963136672974,
0.0785474106669426,
-0.44435036182403564,
-0.8831676244735718,
0.5259242057800293,
-0.2299872189760208,
0.26752713322639465,
0.2607729732990265,
-0.38925087451934814,
-0.47269949316978455,
0.09148682653903961,
0.37875211238861084,
0.22494687139987946,
-0.1255428045988083,
0.3728760778903961,
0.39938661456108093,
0.3443993031978607,
-0.05988107994198799,
0.27696219086647034,
0.6435697674751282,
0.5624616146087646,
0.36899664998054504,
0.7736815214157104,
0.3391492962837219,
-0.7683812379837036,
-0.11601386964321136,
0.45805278420448303,
0.8343216776847839,
-0.09358733147382736,
-0.8417108654975891,
0.45626938343048096,
-0.18796460330486298,
-0.4139518141746521,
0.6521292328834534,
-0.14602817595005035,
-0.15149123966693878,
-0.4546162188053131,
0.3470066785812378,
-1.0584828853607178,
-0.027001390233635902,
1.068440318107605,
0.28440091013908386,
0.25786861777305603,
-0.19061905145645142,
0.1298774927854538,
-0.10574814677238464,
0.4241523742675781,
0.6262373924255371,
0.5950218439102173,
-0.3987899720668793,
-0.05163490027189255,
-0.32293468713760376,
-0.2921135425567627,
-0.31702327728271484,
-0.7300999760627747,
-0.26772138476371765,
-0.911791205406189,
-0.023125478997826576,
0.27531060576438904,
-0.20372110605239868,
-0.7095069885253906,
0.3664530813694,
-0.5514116287231445,
-0.46449053287506104,
-0.3608444631099701,
0.11004995554685593,
-0.045183464884757996,
0.14747725427150726,
1.4932174682617188,
0.9734597206115723,
-0.30135881900787354,
-0.5417748093605042,
-0.0922740027308464,
-0.17241784930229187,
0.07112110406160355,
-0.14697977900505066,
0.11181027442216873,
-0.22094623744487762,
-0.19106628000736237,
-0.511952817440033,
0.4082760810852051,
0.5352794528007507,
0.8978416919708252,
-0.3074035942554474,
-0.06588642299175262,
-0.5596529841423035,
-0.5867698192596436,
0.5660207271575928,
-0.1631658673286438,
-0.04531775414943695,
-1.0073655843734741,
-0.07970298081636429,
-0.3532460927963257,
0.027101347222924232,
0.16587384045124054,
-0.07802188396453857,
0.1752694994211197,
-0.22942693531513214,
0.16747574508190155,
-0.3249526619911194,
0.3760744631290436,
0.16712412238121033,
-0.3854605257511139,
-0.5988986492156982,
-0.4640306532382965,
-0.40752267837524414,
-0.6605437994003296,
0.6954919695854187,
0.4679415225982666,
-0.06353238224983215,
-0.2448238879442215,
0.47631895542144775,
-0.08582615852355957,
-0.12076915055513382,
-0.48872050642967224,
0.5759621858596802,
0.3197181224822998,
-0.32268813252449036,
0.15606336295604706,
0.4828728139400482,
0.46616509556770325,
-0.3052551746368408,
-0.26532506942749023,
0.8725400567054749,
-1.0074316263198853,
0.8597471117973328,
0.032112229615449905,
-0.2358226180076599,
0.9990882277488708,
-0.022724933922290802,
0.3388059139251709
] |
261105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadkill | Roadkill | Roadkill is an animal or animals that have been struck and killed by drivers of motor vehicles on highways. Wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVC) have increasingly been the topic of academic research to understand the causes, and how it can be mitigated.
History
Essentially non-existent before the advent of mechanized transport, roadkill is associated with increasing automobile speed in the early 20th century. A contemporary observer, naturalist Joseph Grinnell, noted in 1920 that "This [roadkill] is a relatively new source of fatality; and if one were to estimate the entire mileage of such roads in the state [California], the mortality must mount into the hundreds and perhaps thousands every 24 hours."
In Europe and North America, deer are the animal most likely to cause vehicle damage. In Australia, specific actions taken to protect against the variety of animals that can damage vehicles – such as bullbars (usually known in Australia as 'roo bars', in reference to kangaroos) – indicate the Australian experience has some unique features with road kill.
Causes
The development of roads affects wildlife by altering and isolating habitat and populations, deterring the movement of wildlife, and resulting in extensive wildlife mortality. One writer states that "our insulated industrialized culture keeps us disconnected from life beyond our windshields." Driving "mindlessly" without paying attention to the movements of others in the vehicle's path, driving at speeds that do not allow stopping, and distractions contribute to the death toll. Moreover, a culture of indifference and hopelessness is created if people learn to ignore lifeless bodies on roads.
Intentional collisions
A study in Ontario, Canada in 1996 found many reptiles killed on portions of the road where vehicle tires do not usually pass over, which led to the inference that some drivers intentionally run over reptiles. To verify this hypothesis, research in 2007 found that 2.7% of drivers intentionally hit reptile decoys masquerading as snakes and turtles. Several drivers were seen to speed up when aiming for the decoys. Male drivers hit the reptile decoys more often than female drivers. However, 3.4% of male drivers and 3% of female drivers stopped to rescue the reptile decoys.
Road salt accumulations
On roadways where rumble strips are installed to provide a tactile vibration alerting drivers when drifting from their lane, the rumble strips may accumulate road salt in regions where it is used. The excess salt can accumulate and attract both small and large wildlife in search of salt licks; these animals are at great risk of becoming roadkill or causing accidents.
Distribution and abundance
Very large numbers of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates are killed on the world's roads every day. The number of animals killed in the United States has been estimated at a million per day.
The estimated number of birds killed on the roads in different European countries ranges from 350,000 to 27 million, depending on the factors such as the geography of the country and bird migration paths.
Species affected
Mortality resulting from roadkill can be very significant for species with small populations. Roadkill is estimated to be responsible for 50% of deaths of Florida panthers, and is the largest cause of badger deaths in England. Roadkill is considered to significantly contribute to the population decline of many threatened species, including wolf, koala and eastern quoll. In Tasmania, Australia the most common species affected by roadkill are brushtail possums and Tasmanian pademelons.
In 1993, 25 schools throughout New England, United States participated in a roadkill study involving 1,923 animal deaths. By category, the fatalities were: 81% mammals, 15% bird, 3% reptiles and amphibians, 1% indiscernible. Extrapolating these data nationwide, Merritt Clifton (editor of Animal People Newspaper) estimated that the following animals are being killed by motor vehicles in the United States annually: 41 million squirrels, 26 million cats, 22 million rats, 19 million opossums, 15 million raccoons, 6 million dogs, and 350,000 deer. This study may not have considered differences in observability between taxa (e.g. dead raccoons are easier to see than dead frogs), and has not been published in peer-reviewed scientific literature. Observability, amongst other factors. may be the cause for mammal species to dominate roadkill reports, whereas bird and amphibian mortality are likely underestimated.
In the United States, over 1 million vertebrate animals are killed by vehicle collisions every day. Globally, the number amounts to roughly 5.5 million killed per day, which when extrapolated climbs to over 2 billion annually.
Insects
A 2007 study showed that insects, too, are prone to a very high risk of roadkill incidence. Research showed interesting patterns in insect roadkills in relation to the vehicle density.
The decrease in insects being killed by cars is known as the "windshield phenomenon". In 2003–2004, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds investigated anecdotal reports of declining insect populations in the UK by asking drivers to affix a postcard-sized PVC rectangle, called a "splatometer", to the front of their cars. Almost 40,000 drivers took part, and the results found one squashed insect for every driven. This contrasts with 30 years ago when cars were covered more completely with insects, supporting the idea that insect numbers had waned.
In 2011, Dutch biologist Arnold van Vliet coordinated a similar study of insect deaths on car license plates. He found two insects killed on the license-plate area for every driven. This implies about 1.6 trillion insect deaths by cars per year in the Netherlands, and about 32.5 trillion deaths in the United States if the figures are extrapolated there. The number grows to 228 trillion per year if extended globally.
Scavengers
One rarely considered positive aspect of roadkill is the regular availability of carrion it provides for scavenger species such as vultures, crows, ravens, foxes, Virginia opossums and a wide variety of carnivorous insects. Areas with robust scavenger populations tend to see roadkilled animal corpses being quickly carried off, sometimes within minutes of being struck. This can skew data and cause a lower estimation of the number of roadkill animals per year. In particularly roadkill-prone areas, scavenging birds rely on roadkill for much of their daily nutritional requirements, and can even be seen observing the roadway from telephone poles, overhead wires and trees, waiting for animals, usually squirrels, opossums and raccoons to be struck so they can swoop down and feed. However, such scavengers are at greater risk of becoming roadkill themselves, and are subject to evolutionary pressure to be alert to traffic hazards.
In contrast, areas where scavengers have been driven out (such as many urban areas) often see roadkill rotting in place indefinitely on the roadways and being further macerated by traffic. The remains must be manually removed by dedicated disposal personnel and disposed of via sanitary cremation; this greatly increases the public nuisance inherent to roadkill, unnecessarily complicates its disposal, and consumes additional public money, time and fuel that could be spent on other roadway maintenance projects.
Research
Roadkill observation projects
The study of roadkill has proven highly amenable to the application of citizen science observation methods. Since 2009, statewide roadkill observation systems have been started in the US, enrolling hundreds of observers in reporting roadkill on a website. The observers, who are usually naturalists or professional scientists, provide identification, location, and other information about the observations. The data are then displayed on a website for easy visualization and made available for studies of proximate causes of roadkill, actual wildlife distributions, wildlife movement, and other studies. Roadkill observation system websites are available for the US states of California, Maine, and Idaho. In each case, index roads are used to help quantify total impact of vehicle collisions on specific vertebrate taxa. Researchers that use data from citizen science platforms may benefit from a large pool of data, specially for iconic, well known conspicuous species. Care must be taken when analyzing data for species that are not easy to identify, as studies have showed that misidentification is not uncommon amongst these platforms.
In the United Kingdom, ‘Project Splatter’ was started by Cardiff University in 2012, with the aim of estimating the impact of roads and motoring on British wildlife. Since then it has gathered data on its website, and on several social media platforms including Facebook and Twitter.
In India, the project "Provide Animals Safe Transit on Highways" (PATH) was initiated by the Environment Conservation Group in 2015, to study the impact of roads on Indian wildlife. A team of five wildlife conservationists led by Mr. R. Mohammed Saleem had undertaken a forty-four-day expedition, traveling more than 17,000 kilometers across 22 states to study and spread awareness on roadkill. It is also gathering data on its website, and social media platforms.
In the Czech Republic, an online animal-vehicle crash reporting system Srazenazver.cz is gathering both professional (Police, road maintenance) and volunteered data on roadkill and wildlife-vehicle crashes. The application allows users to input, edit and browse data. The data is visualized in the form of maps, graphs or tables and analyzed online (KDE+ hotspots identification, area statistics).
State wildlife roadkill identification guide
The first wildlife roadkill identification guide produced by a state agency in North America was published by the British Columbia Ministry of Transportation (BCMoT) in Canada in 2008. BCMoT's "Wildlife Roadkill Identification Guide" focused on the most common large carnivores and ungulates found in British Columbia. The guide was developed to assist BCMoT's maintenance contractors in identifying wildlife carcasses found on provincial highways as part of their responsibilities for BCMoT's Wildlife Accident Reporting System (WARS).
Prevention
Collisions with animals can have many negative consequences:
Death and suffering of animals struck by vehicles
Injury to, or death of, vehicle occupants
Harm to endangered species
Loss of livestock or pets
Vehicle damage
Economic losses (cleanup, repairs to vehicles, etc.)
Being distasteful sight, particularly costly to locations economically reliant on tourism
Regardless of the spatial scale at which the mitigation measure is applied, there are two main types of roadkill mitigation measures: changing driver behavior, and changing wildlife behavior.
There are three potential ways to change driver behavior. Primary methods focus on changing driver attitude by increasing public awareness and helping people understand that reducing roadkill will benefit their community. The second potential way is to make people aware of specific hazardous areas by use of signage, rumble strips or lighting. The third potential way is to slow traffic physically or psychologically, using chicanes or speed bumps.
There are three categories of altering wildlife behavior. Primary methods discourage wildlife from loitering on roadsides by reducing food and water resources, or by making the road surfaces lighter in color which may make wildlife feel more exposed on the roadway. Second are methods of discouraging wildlife from crossing roads, at least when cars are present, using equipment such as ultrasonic whistles, reflectors, and fencing. Third are mechanisms to provide safe crossing like overpass, underpasses and escape routes.
Although it is not illegal to help wild animals that are in danger of becoming roadkill, stopping on the highway to do is potentially dangerous and may result in injury or death of the person that is helping them and/or an inattentive driver that collides into their parked vehicle.
Large animals
In the US, an estimated 1.25 million insurance claims are filed annually due to collisions with deer, elk, or moose, amounting to 1 out of 169 collision damage claims.
Collisions with large animals with antlers (such as deer) are particularly dangerous, but any large, long-legged animal (e.g. horses, larger cattle, camels) can pose a similar cabin incursion hazard. Injury to humans due to driver failure to maintain control of a vehicle either while avoiding, or during and immediately after an animal impact, is also common. Dusk and dawn are times of highest collision risk.
The recommended reaction to a large animal (such as a moose) is to slow down in lane, if at all possible, and to avoid swerving suddenly, which could cause loss of control. If a collision cannot be avoided, it is best to swerve towards the rear end of the animal, as it is more likely to run forward. Drivers who see a deer near or in the roadway should be aware that it is very likely that other members of a herd are nearby.
Acoustic warning deer horns can be mounted on vehicles to warn deer of approaching automobiles, though their effectiveness is disputed. Ultrasonic wind-driven whistles are often promoted as a cheap, simple way to reduce the chance of wildlife-vehicle collisions. In one study, the sound pressure level of the whistle was 3 dB above the sound pressure level of the test vehicle, but caused no observable difference in behavior of animals when the whistles were activated and not activated, casting doubt on their effectiveness.
Small animals
Squirrels, rabbits, birds, or other small animals are often crushed by vehicles. Serious accidents may result from motorists swerving or stopping for squirrels in the road. Such evasive maneuvers often unproductive, since small rodents and birds are much more agile and quick to react than motorists in heavy vehicles. There is very little a driver can do to avoid an unpredictably darting squirrel or rabbit, or even to intentionally hit one. The suggested course of action is to continue driving in a predictable, safe manner, and let the small animal decide on the spur of the moment which way to run or fly; the majority of vehicular encounters end with no harm to either party.
Night driving
Although strikes can happen at any time of day, deer tend to move at dusk and dawn, and are particularly active during the October–December mating season as well as late March and early April in the Northern Hemisphere. Driving at night presents its own challenges: nocturnal species are active, and visibility, particularly side visibility, is reduced. Penguins, for example, are common roadkill traffic victims in Wellington, New Zealand, due to their color and the fact that they come ashore at dusk and leave again around dawn.
Night time drivers should reduce speed and use high beam headlights when possible to give themselves maximum time to avoid a collision. However, when headlights approach a nocturnal animal, it is hard for the creature to see the approaching car (nocturnal animals see better in low than in bright light). Furthermore, the glare of oncoming vehicle headlights can dazzle some species, such as rabbits; they will freeze in the road rather than flee. It may be better to flash the headlights on and off, rather than leaving them on continuously while approaching an animal.
The simple tactics of reducing speed and scanning both sides of the road for foraging deer can improve driver safety at night, and drivers may see the retro-reflection of an animal's eyes before seeing the animal itself.
Wildlife crossings
Wildlife crossings allow animals to travel over or underneath roads. They are most widely used in Europe, but have also been installed in a few US locations and in parts of Western Canada. As new highways cause habitats to become increasingly fragmented, these crossings can play an important role in protecting endangered species.
In the US, sections of road known to have heavy deer cross-traffic will usually have warning signs depicting a bounding deer; similar signs exist for moose, elk, and other species. In the American West, roads may pass through large areas designated as "open range", meaning no fences separate drivers from large animals such as cattle or bison. A driver may round a bend to find a small herd standing in the road. Open range areas are generally marked with signage and protected by a cattle guard.
In an attempt to mitigate US$1.2 billion in animal-related vehicular damage, a few US states now have sophisticated systems to protect motorists from large animals. One of these systems is called the Roadway Animal Detection System (RADS). A solar powered sensor can detect large animals such as deer, bear, elk, and moose near the roadway, and thereafter flash a light to alert oncoming drivers. The sensor's detection distance ranges from 650 feet to unlimited, depending on the terrain.
Canopy crossings
The removal of trees associated with road construction produces a gap in the forest canopy that forces arboreal (tree dwelling) species to come to the ground to travel across the gap. Canopy crossings have been constructed for red squirrels in Great Britain, colobus monkeys in Kenya, and ringtail possums in Far North Queensland, Australia. The crossings have two purposes: to ensure that roads do not restrict movement of animals and also to reduce roadkill. Installation of the canopy crossings may be relatively quick and cheap.
Escape routes
Banks, cuttings and fences that trap animals on the road are associated with roadkill. In order to increase the likelihood of escape from a main roadway, escape routes have been constructed on the access roads. Escape routes may be considered as one of the most useful measures, especially when new roads are being built or roads are being upgraded, widened or sealed. Research may be undertaken into the efficacy of escape routes by observation of animals’ response to vehicles in places with natural escape routes and barriers, rather than trialing purpose-built escape routes.
Fencing
In the New Forest, in southern England, there is a proposal to fence roads to protect the New Forest pony. However, this proposal is controversial.
Disposal
Removing animal carcasses from roadways is considered essential to public safety. The removal takes away the potential distraction and hazard of the carcass to other motorists. Quick removal can also prevent deaths of other animals that may wish to feed on the carcass, as well as animals that may go into the road to try to move the body of an animal in their social group. Sometimes rather than removal, the carcass is moved to a nearby public right-of-way where it can be consumed by scavengers, but not placed in a ditch or where waterways might be polluted. Covering the carcass with wood chips can aid in decomposition while minimizing odor.
Local governments and other levels of government have services that pick up dead animals from roadways, who will respond when advised about a dead animal.
New York City has an online request form which may be completed by residents of the city. New York State has a process to report dead wildlife to the Department of Environmental Conservation; they are especially interested in marked/tagged wildlife and endangered or threatened species.
In Toronto, Canada, the city accepts requests to remove a dead animal by telephone. If an animal is found along a major highway, depending on who has jurisdiction for maintaining the highway, the request may be directed to the city, the provincial Ministry of Transportation, or a highway operations centre. In Ontario, citizens may keep possession of roadkill in many circumstances, but may have to register their find.
Eating roadkill
If fresh enough, roadkill can be eaten, and there are several recipe books dedicated to roadkill. The practice of eating animals killed on the road is usually derided, and most people consider it not to be safe, sanitary, or wholesome. For example, when the Tennessee legislature attempted to legalize the use of accidentally killed animals, they became the subject of stereotyping and derisive humor. Nevertheless, in some cultures there is tradition of using fresh roadkill as a nutritious and economical source of meat similar to that obtained by hunting.
Cultural references
Music
Songwriter and performer Loudon Wainwright III released his deadpan humorous song, "Dead Skunk (in the Middle of the Road)" in 1972, and it peaked at number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100.
The American band Phish frequently plays the song "Possum", originally from the album The Man Who Stepped into Yesterday''' at its concerts. The song describes an encounter with a roadkilled opossum and includes the lyric, "Your end is the road".
Art
Roadkill is sometimes used as an art form. Several artists use traditional taxidermy preparation in their works whilst others explore different artforms. International artist Claudia Terstappen photographs roadkill and produces enormous prints which see the animals floating eerily in a void. American artist Gary Michael Keyes photographs and transforms them into "RoadKill Totems" in his "Resurrection Gallery". American artist Stephen Paternite has been exhibiting roadkill pieces since the 1970s.
Literature
Canadian writer Timothy Findley wrote about the experience of seeing killed animals on highways during travels: "The dead by the road, or on it, testify to the presence of man. Their little gestures of pain—paws, wings and tails—are the saddest, the loneliest, most forlorn postures of the dead I can imagine. When we have stopped killing animals as though they were so much refuse, we will stop killing one another. But the highways show our indifference to death, so long as it is someone else's. It is an attitude of the human mind I do not grasp."
Anthropology
In a 2013 essay, American anthropologist Jane Desmond examined at length the failure of American culture and public discourse to adequately confront the ubiquity of roadkill. She concluded: "The simplest answer is that these animal lives have little value for most of the populations in the United States, as these animals are unowned, lacking in monetary or emotional value, not pets or livestock, and without the charismatic following that megafauna like elephants and lions in zoos receive. This calculus of devaluation clears the way for such carnage to be ignored in public discourse and legal venues, to be out of mind while insistently in sight."
Video games
There are driving video games where players can run over animals, such as the arcade version of Cruis'n USA, as well as video games where players control an animal that crosses roads to avoid becoming roadkill, such as Frogger and Crossy Road''.
See also
Bird strike
Bushmeat
Deer–vehicle collisions
Estray
Habitat conservation
Habitat destruction
Habitat fragmentation
Moose test
Motor vehicle fatality rate in U.S. by year
Roadkill bingo
Tree squirrel as roadkill and traffic hazards
Wildlife
Wildlife corridor
Further reading
References
External links
Roadkill observation system in the US states of California and Maine
‘Project Splatter’ roadkill observation project in the United Kingdom
Map Road Kill in Ireland
Just Because It's In Slow Motion Doesn't Mean You Can Stop It - Joy Hunsberger – an artist who has been photographing roadkill as a form of ancestor worship since 1997
Roadkill prevention in the Northern Beaches of Sydney Australia
Hints for the Highway, What Drivers Can Do – prevention tips from Wildlife Collision Prevention Program of British Columbia Conservation Foundation
A Guide to Road Ecology in Ontario – 2010 report by Ontario Road Ecology Group, Toronto Zoo
Caution: Animals crossing – Canada Safety Council prevention tips including engineering solutions
Srazenazver.cz - roadkill observation system in the Czech Republic
KDE+ software - freeware software for roadkill's hotspots (clusters) identification
Road transport
Meat
Wildlife
Animal death
Transport and the environment
Ecological connectivity
Road hazards
Articles containing video clips | [
0.5020400285720825,
0.5104120373725891,
-0.5369924902915955,
0.12941354513168335,
0.12542401254177094,
-0.09624211490154266,
0.4005189836025238,
0.37698179483413696,
-0.12656810879707336,
-0.35867923498153687,
-0.2130863517522812,
0.3669149577617645,
-0.3779202699661255,
-0.045902855694293976,
-0.052555084228515625,
0.6864054203033447,
0.05131612718105316,
0.48443469405174255,
0.04416315630078316,
-0.012582983821630478,
-0.3814702332019806,
-0.34871047735214233,
0.2104002982378006,
0.08490634709596634,
0.30140888690948486,
0.3757319152355194,
0.2743106484413147,
0.22724518179893494,
-0.5176339745521545,
-0.0030690236017107964,
0.13044942915439606,
0.4973796606063843,
0.15276393294334412,
0.12705448269844055,
0.10195125639438629,
0.013270150870084763,
-0.06080908328294754,
-0.9353038668632507,
-0.10956669598817825,
-0.3332994282245636,
0.22077275812625885,
0.28337833285331726,
-0.5259287357330322,
0.4659327268600464,
0.23766282200813293,
-0.45218947529792786,
-1.5673532485961914,
0.23303556442260742,
-0.25769296288490295,
-0.5247200131416321,
-0.5629034042358398,
0.43673837184906006,
-0.134079709649086,
0.6352445483207703,
0.224131241440773,
0.530788004398346,
-0.6185960173606873,
-0.7513318657875061,
0.6454280614852905,
0.10096681118011475,
0.21131016314029694,
-0.07139383256435394,
-0.5003896355628967,
0.39079049229621887,
-0.03475666046142578,
0.007697378750890493,
-0.02926478534936905,
0.8581458330154419,
-0.06684734672307968,
-0.5697718262672424,
-0.3948419392108917,
-0.42591190338134766,
0.027346061542630196,
-0.04841497913002968,
-0.20285506546497345,
-0.2606317102909088,
0.2236655205488205,
-0.3148808479309082,
-0.19198627769947052,
0.039513617753982544,
0.044393390417099,
1.0012121200561523,
0.4513833224773407,
0.03773285448551178,
0.5640466809272766,
0.273017019033432,
-0.5623542070388794,
0.2106882482767105,
-0.16554948687553406,
0.39611878991127014,
0.4279068410396576,
0.11193899810314178,
0.46209651231765747,
-0.04724167659878731,
0.005602576769888401,
-0.011800017207860947,
0.31502240896224976,
0.3110951781272888,
0.6198850274085999,
0.2637540102005005,
0.09418981522321701,
-0.2575734555721283,
0.5757308602333069,
-0.003301117802038789,
0.02039324678480625,
-0.06935231387615204,
-0.016027646139264107,
0.13353078067302704,
0.22217530012130737,
-0.8481544852256775,
0.1102621927857399,
0.2811412215232849,
-0.7333607077598572,
-0.05457325279712677,
-0.1865536868572235,
0.5930643677711487,
0.2899681627750397,
0.35678234696388245,
-0.11525024473667145,
-0.4346177279949188,
-0.028816714882850647,
-0.10033046454191208,
-0.1858021467924118,
0.19965104758739471,
-0.4830728769302368,
0.5357260704040527,
0.2605595588684082,
0.80370032787323,
-0.2613537609577179,
0.42437243461608887,
0.04338688775897026,
0.791869580745697,
-0.6526167988777161,
-0.017762215808033943,
0.018027402460575104,
-0.11678056418895721,
0.224518284201622,
0.15574601292610168,
0.4172106981277466,
-0.33647963404655457,
-0.6434868574142456,
-0.8384923934936523,
-0.6380080580711365,
-0.2785954177379608,
0.3216831684112549,
0.03246527537703514,
0.4173654019832611,
-0.24462290108203888,
-0.0659095048904419,
-0.030597273260354996,
0.6792991757392883,
0.09397000819444656,
-0.6362122893333435,
0.32716262340545654,
-0.43975526094436646,
0.045033860951662064,
0.0861622765660286,
-0.4922036826610565,
-0.28123730421066284,
0.209751158952713,
0.07101034373044968,
0.31692004203796387,
-0.679072916507721,
-0.2165623903274536,
-0.10487943887710571,
-0.1411617249250412,
-0.09093109518289566,
-0.1487078219652176,
0.2716427743434906,
0.2494051456451416,
-0.2113185077905655,
0.3750638961791992,
0.0033471062779426575,
-0.45245060324668884,
0.6277456879615784,
0.282850980758667,
0.20136097073554993,
-0.03000965341925621,
0.0981401652097702,
0.40359973907470703,
-0.5495718121528625,
0.37943926453590393,
0.6846263408660889,
0.13932286202907562,
-0.23013736307621002,
-0.03560860827565193,
0.6037526726722717,
-0.20487838983535767,
-0.35897451639175415,
-0.5647764801979065,
-0.5123801827430725,
-0.32807978987693787,
0.00036830894532613456,
-0.1816776841878891,
1.4067894220352173,
-0.36083635687828064,
-0.49962031841278076,
0.22289614379405975,
0.3566458821296692,
0.4217640459537506,
-0.12435878068208694,
-0.19504648447036743,
0.5198106169700623,
-0.626032829284668,
-1.125796914100647,
0.8374104499816895,
0.11272487789392471,
-0.3792761564254761,
0.007573093753308058,
0.04545094072818756,
0.8005715608596802,
-0.2682179808616638,
0.1923341602087021,
-0.3336258828639984,
0.4643818438053131,
0.7104663848876953,
-0.2656387388706207,
0.40287625789642334,
-0.09577237069606781,
-0.5881950855255127,
-0.16771218180656433,
-0.4617862105369568,
-0.301073282957077,
0.5725299119949341,
-0.4208470284938812,
0.733955979347229,
-0.1817263513803482,
0.1946096271276474,
0.5993967056274414,
-1.3435492515563965,
0.3509889841079712,
0.270725816488266,
0.04498131573200226,
-0.23961564898490906,
-0.5774410367012024,
0.05024409294128418,
0.22482404112815857,
-0.2356896698474884,
0.03318843990564346,
-0.47676172852516174,
-0.25119924545288086,
0.1519671231508255,
0.14339418709278107,
0.20511192083358765,
-0.1332678347826004,
-0.09758076816797256,
0.2008751630783081,
0.3018350303173065,
-0.47435641288757324,
-0.10012215375900269,
0.2139931172132492,
0.1646571159362793,
0.42780399322509766,
-0.27227041125297546,
0.1957373321056366,
-0.29232943058013916,
-0.04879292473196983,
0.10201486200094223,
0.13320568203926086,
-0.5739555358886719,
-0.15719223022460938,
0.19378669559955597,
0.05080987140536308,
0.22323381900787354,
-0.6314091086387634,
-0.1947118043899536,
-0.4206218421459198,
0.01926255226135254,
-0.1339637041091919,
0.20213313400745392,
0.7363176345825195,
0.3122006952762604,
0.08528681844472885,
-0.7410868406295776,
-0.1650291085243225,
-0.32536378502845764,
0.49233531951904297,
0.7733996510505676,
-0.3257771134376526,
0.09812304377555847,
-0.100466288626194,
0.46043163537979126,
0.4303823709487915,
-0.7786802053451538,
-0.04730020463466644,
-0.3579461872577667,
0.2097214162349701,
0.0259905606508255,
-0.34184035658836365,
0.19295184314250946,
-0.5906410217285156,
0.11545389890670776,
-0.13742695748806,
0.8953365683555603,
0.25554540753364563,
0.2703520357608795,
-0.4156402051448822,
0.587608277797699,
1.0245087146759033,
-0.5480313301086426,
0.1536756306886673,
0.3801702558994293,
-0.9513670802116394,
0.18497230112552643,
-0.2962295711040497,
0.052340541034936905,
-0.7242315411567688,
-0.17521964013576508,
-5.64272403717041,
0.6608508229255676,
-0.2776096761226654,
-0.5678480267524719,
0.2203124612569809,
0.20655064284801483,
0.3968791961669922,
-0.266097754240036,
-0.23470106720924377,
0.25590506196022034,
0.5265070796012878,
0.09502045065164566,
0.7107137441635132,
-0.529599666595459,
0.39305004477500916,
-0.11972272396087646,
0.4831421971321106,
-0.4138825237751007,
0.07674652338027954,
0.18632666766643524,
-0.047662701457738876,
0.18644724786281586,
-0.13814568519592285,
0.2793516516685486,
-0.3831579089164734,
0.06847860664129257,
-0.3480202257633209,
0.3977985978126526,
0.17222586274147034,
0.2551167607307434,
0.46860718727111816,
-0.04239446297287941,
-0.064045749604702,
-0.07053712755441666,
-0.49182724952697754,
0.4067956507205963,
0.23561812937259674,
0.1704142987728119,
-0.6715461015701294,
-0.05271338298916817,
-0.5734026432037354,
0.43254944682121277,
0.8109724521636963,
-0.08148494362831116,
0.7991675734519958,
0.2180493175983429,
0.39691126346588135,
-0.791378915309906,
0.10329495370388031,
0.08115112036466599,
0.023304296657443047,
0.20614153146743774,
0.474223256111145,
0.35568368434906006,
0.45196717977523804,
-0.350898802280426,
0.372022420167923,
-0.3790495693683624,
-0.27639174461364746,
0.059811368584632874,
0.2762678563594818,
-0.17547914385795593,
-0.18115852773189545,
0.1113523542881012,
0.04216396063566208,
-0.26745396852493286,
-0.07677303999662399,
-0.6434131860733032,
0.34725311398506165,
-0.1676996648311615,
-0.25911062955856323,
0.3074462115764618,
0.27823227643966675,
-0.645187497138977,
0.11449851095676422,
-0.3690941631793976,
-0.02471877634525299,
-0.041785962879657745,
-0.09525427967309952,
-0.39110067486763,
-0.20924532413482666,
0.14941531419754028,
-0.4301179051399231,
-0.14013680815696716,
0.40577057003974915,
-0.12271645665168762,
-0.010971677489578724,
0.15054653584957123,
-0.40949511528015137,
-0.5768309831619263,
1.067044734954834,
0.22857297956943512,
0.1557871550321579,
0.044580068439245224,
0.15479408204555511,
0.5018011331558228,
0.31446659564971924,
0.14608898758888245,
0.19622071087360382,
-0.48728734254837036,
1.3783504962921143,
-0.1414235234260559,
0.2507784068584442,
-0.9521200060844421,
-0.48699477314949036,
-0.751075267791748,
-0.0006311211036518216,
0.22019541263580322,
0.9869998693466187,
-0.4886886477470398,
-0.17893142998218536,
0.38893938064575195,
-0.4509423077106476,
-0.701624870300293,
0.374259352684021,
0.003219019388779998,
-0.011350838467478752,
0.3457702398300171,
0.5454326272010803,
-0.06827740371227264,
0.34590476751327515,
0.5525243878364563,
-0.17568239569664001,
-0.3639754056930542,
0.2121041715145111,
-0.40341076254844666,
0.12127303332090378,
-0.040161196142435074,
0.08196955174207687,
-0.3664071559906006,
0.7728245854377747,
0.6526835560798645,
0.14977964758872986,
0.08006498962640762,
-0.3386331796646118,
-0.3354814052581787,
-0.4612118601799011,
0.026604272425174713,
0.08831043541431427,
-0.669791579246521,
-0.09413104504346848,
-0.4972333312034607,
-0.25047358870506287,
0.25219839811325073,
0.6590204834938049,
0.30431944131851196,
-0.3303554058074951,
-0.20120133459568024,
-0.26242780685424805,
0.4029514491558075,
-0.4652448892593384,
-0.26545852422714233,
-0.09836038202047348,
-0.4171886742115021,
0.31355011463165283,
0.058441173285245895,
0.2441912591457367,
-0.09529632329940796,
0.05417460948228836,
-0.9869332909584045,
0.38446784019470215,
-0.1374119371175766,
-0.7609198689460754,
0.14354391396045685,
-0.5167913436889648,
-0.015370606444776058,
0.1086326390504837,
-0.6400348544120789,
-0.2743434011936188,
0.8087409734725952,
-0.056924253702163696,
-0.494301438331604,
-0.468194842338562,
0.10865060240030289,
0.3377135396003723,
0.21977370977401733,
-0.3812219798564911,
-0.19251011312007904,
0.054524194449186325,
-0.3740365207195282,
0.10733732581138611,
-0.023579532280564308,
0.1651943475008011,
0.4465344548225403,
0.329132616519928,
-0.4899953305721283,
0.013919181190431118,
0.256747841835022,
-0.5290376543998718,
-0.10965222120285034,
0.23947854340076447,
-0.3320668637752533,
0.44150710105895996,
0.1904696524143219,
-0.1753121167421341,
-0.1483071744441986,
-0.403881311416626,
-0.21314863860607147,
-0.5718890428543091,
-0.15000349283218384,
0.5098646283149719,
0.45264777541160583,
-0.3511095345020294,
0.3644767701625824,
0.07153511792421341,
-0.6301519274711609,
-0.01885821297764778,
0.20440122485160828,
-0.7974583506584167,
0.4172478914260864,
-0.011607890948653221,
-0.3092813789844513,
-0.46579495072364807,
0.6104472279548645,
-0.280845046043396,
-0.03374001756310463,
0.23760299384593964,
-0.15397323668003082,
-0.3405635356903076,
-0.3562689423561096,
-0.15524941682815552,
0.09835343807935715,
-0.5852305889129639,
-0.20859497785568237,
-0.4360519051551819,
0.6933377981185913,
-0.057659100741147995,
-1.0694704055786133,
1.0960077047348022,
0.23271021246910095,
-0.6776873469352722,
-0.07190912961959839,
0.4430745840072632,
-0.24088484048843384,
0.1232416182756424,
-0.04506939277052879,
0.09971950203180313,
-0.0655503123998642,
0.20413483679294586,
0.25199058651924133,
0.17284530401229858,
1.170899510383606,
-0.06410106271505356,
-0.161906898021698,
-0.12572042644023895,
0.11078330874443054,
0.09678973257541656,
-0.6253771781921387,
-0.8407648205757141,
0.27190545201301575,
0.05481242015957832,
-0.06678926199674606,
-0.596712589263916,
0.0425700806081295,
0.4224192798137665,
-0.6156211495399475,
-0.5382535457611084,
-0.030337052419781685,
0.49086499214172363,
-0.23707808554172516,
-0.04027367755770683,
-0.15300607681274414,
0.1880975216627121,
0.3279218077659607,
0.05020390450954437,
-0.4279981553554535,
-0.039211977273225784,
0.14387598633766174,
0.012747863307595253,
-0.370118111371994,
-0.07812371850013733,
0.0560709685087204,
1.0228185653686523,
0.5251262784004211,
0.15168137848377228,
0.06087784469127655,
-0.3182893693447113,
-0.8427263498306274,
-0.605853796005249,
-0.02337035723030567,
0.4665238559246063,
-0.21814170479774475,
0.28612667322158813,
-0.766530454158783,
0.22595062851905823,
-0.2055313140153885,
0.29454106092453003,
-0.19899679720401764,
-0.7613903880119324,
-0.45654404163360596,
-0.2518759071826935,
-0.12754806876182556,
-0.15277962386608124,
0.4300386905670166,
0.15666592121124268,
0.5571419596672058,
0.08054345846176147,
0.5164991021156311,
-0.21743665635585785,
0.31083908677101135,
-0.8362827897071838,
0.6475269198417664,
-0.160263329744339,
-0.8808190226554871,
0.0950315073132515,
-0.14984415471553802,
-0.019804727286100388,
-0.2693440318107605,
0.575865626335144,
-0.28647398948669434,
0.07571757584810257,
-0.38308021426200867,
0.09742548316717148,
0.8873216509819031,
0.05480754375457764,
-0.08785763382911682,
0.5112550258636475,
-0.2237514704465866,
0.3777755796909332,
0.2032831907272339,
0.1896684765815735,
0.11466863006353378,
0.6043932437896729,
-0.015534060075879097,
-0.0603913888335228,
0.8069449663162231,
-0.2959202527999878,
-0.10423898696899414,
0.34715399146080017,
0.043595850467681885,
0.4818436801433563,
-0.20324893295764923,
-0.44088423252105713,
0.5244883894920349,
0.08999854326248169,
-0.12932844460010529,
0.4383681118488312,
-0.8517869114875793,
-0.46211493015289307,
0.34921586513519287,
0.2783898711204529,
0.03458763286471367,
0.40754637122154236,
0.5831594467163086,
-0.5089339017868042,
0.41247445344924927,
0.5840173363685608,
-0.022390365600585938,
-0.17625974118709564,
-0.2952118217945099,
0.30967947840690613,
-0.08665110170841217,
0.12185046076774597,
0.1818034052848816,
0.13873791694641113,
-0.5769699811935425,
0.26855090260505676,
-0.3604016900062561,
-0.6277076601982117,
-0.6688410639762878,
0.3356703817844391,
0.12755389511585236,
0.1669335514307022,
-0.31175580620765686,
0.3438701331615448,
-0.33610957860946655,
0.09464490413665771,
-0.48708948493003845,
-0.24686002731323242,
0.2816256880760193,
0.081210657954216,
0.3770654499530792,
-0.3391925096511841,
-0.002873967867344618,
-0.06090601533651352,
-0.06000344827771187,
0.34446093440055847,
0.344952255487442,
0.15447403490543365,
0.19978943467140198,
-0.24031734466552734,
0.0696551650762558,
0.12866713106632233,
-0.8958559036254883,
0.42197707295417786,
-0.49404385685920715,
-0.339149534702301,
0.29228296875953674,
0.1330510675907135,
-0.37090080976486206,
0.418071448802948,
-0.00841091014444828,
-0.43612995743751526,
-0.32083362340927124,
0.3673074245452881,
-0.10241232812404633,
0.35170140862464905,
0.7467281818389893,
-0.3414340317249298,
0.14859506487846375,
-0.07969367504119873,
-0.005182560998946428,
-0.2679460644721985,
0.28833332657814026,
-0.9267281889915466,
0.658650279045105,
-0.31435707211494446,
0.46793198585510254,
-0.051495373249053955,
0.7324101328849792,
0.4397260546684265,
-0.31076011061668396,
0.24960628151893616,
-0.2574918866157532,
0.0737413540482521,
-0.28606289625167847,
0.5277294516563416,
-0.7796145677566528,
-0.5312440991401672,
-0.3635462820529938,
0.7537326216697693,
-0.20276814699172974,
0.21042853593826294,
0.3814384639263153,
-0.4385840594768524,
-0.17645277082920074,
0.34838712215423584,
-0.26123300194740295,
0.13510499894618988,
0.4450990855693817,
-0.44004830718040466,
0.3270292282104492,
-0.7333127856254578,
0.03410511463880539,
0.24233825504779816,
-0.6363704800605774,
0.8893219828605652,
0.030441123992204666,
0.593774676322937,
0.5714056491851807,
0.27710995078086853,
-0.6066833138465881,
0.00610425416380167,
-0.2576884329319,
-1.497799277305603,
-0.00328406086191535,
-0.10565594583749771,
-0.19552943110466003,
-0.6585431098937988,
0.4776734709739685,
-0.18437707424163818,
-0.45180144906044006,
0.22901442646980286,
0.1282561868429184,
0.16257347166538239,
0.37950992584228516,
-0.08121843636035919,
-0.580336332321167,
-0.6532371640205383,
0.1114807277917862
] |
261106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20pit | Fire pit | A fire pit or a fire hole can vary from a pit dug in the ground to an elaborate gas burning structure of stone, brick, and metal. The common feature of fire pits is that they are designed to contain fire and prevent it from spreading.
Contemporary types
Pre-made fire pits are the most common form of fire pits and can be purchased from a store. These are commonly made of pre cast concrete or metal or a combination of metal table and stone. They are usually natural gas, propane (LP) or bio ethanol. Wood burning fire pits made of metal are also quite common but under increasing scrutiny due to fire bans and air particulate emissions. Natural gas and propane burners in these sort of pre fabricated vessels are certified under ANSI (American), CSA (Canadian) and CE (European) standards. Unregulated and uncertified fire pit burners are increasingly being scrutinized by regulatory authorities and being denied permits. Fire pits have recommended clearance to combustibles and require at least 5 feet above the flame and 16" circumference from the exterior perimeter of the vessel.
Essentially, to make a fire pit only a hole is required in order to safely contain a fire. This can be as simple as digging a hole in the ground, or as complex as hollowing out a brick or rock pillar. A wood-burning fire pit should be located at least ten feet (three metres) away from structures for safety. Use of a fire pit in adverse conditions should be avoided, and basic fire safety precautions apply.
Dakota fire pit
The Dakota fire pit is an efficient, simple fire design that produces little to no smoke. Two small holes are dug in the ground: one for the firewood and the other to provide a draft of air. Small twigs are packed into the fire hole and readily combustible material is set on top and lit. The fire burns from the top downward, drawing a steady, laminar stream of fresh air from the air hole as it burns. Because the air passes freely around the fuel, near complete combustion is achieved, the result being a fire that burns strongly and brightly and with little or no seen smoke. The Dakota fire pit is a tactical fire used by the United States military as the flame produces a low light signature, reduced smoke, and is easier to ignite under strong wind conditions.
This style of fire pit is said to get its name from the Dakota people, who used it while hunting Bison herds on the Great Plains during
the colonial era of the United States. As well as resisting the strong winds of that area, the design also reduced the risk of causing a prairie fire.
Fire pits in history
Many cultures, particularly nomadic ones, would cut the turf above the fire-pit in a turf cutting ceremony, replacing the turf afterwards to hide any evidence of the fire. The youth organization Woodcraft Folk also does this.
Modern fire pits
Many homeowners have a fire pit. Some recent trends are to install a fire bowl that can be placed in the ground or on legs.
Archaeological significance
The remains of fire pits preserve information about past cultures. Radiocarbon dating from charcoal found in old fire pits can estimate when regions were first populated or when civilizations died out. Bones and seeds found in fire pits indicate the diet of that area.
In archaeological terms fire pits are referred to as features because they can be seen and recorded as part of the site but cannot be moved without being destroyed.
See also
Fire ring
Earth oven
Rocket Stove
Limepit
References
External links
CBS Backyard fire pit article
Binghamton University Archaeology on the Divide Project
This Old House: Building A Fire
Fireplaces
Fire
Garden features
Firing techniques | [
0.473876416683197,
0.7253279685974121,
-0.7756813764572144,
0.14852450788021088,
0.2639189660549164,
0.05330374091863632,
0.4731524884700775,
-0.22198644280433655,
-0.26964738965034485,
-0.7893284559249878,
-0.5094808340072632,
0.0558396615087986,
-0.12477169930934906,
0.5221073031425476,
-0.33997148275375366,
0.5136621594429016,
0.4071376919746399,
0.3203810751438141,
-0.009597531519830227,
0.3472766876220703,
-0.15443386137485504,
-0.18126657605171204,
0.1688351035118103,
0.25488966703414917,
0.48497670888900757,
0.018800171092152596,
0.102472685277462,
0.18050633370876312,
0.07022597640752792,
-0.04789939522743225,
-0.3885935842990875,
0.11694378405809402,
0.2602706849575043,
-0.7090169191360474,
0.17043934762477875,
-0.37927353382110596,
-0.17721803486347198,
-0.3195100724697113,
-0.08241908997297287,
-0.870661199092865,
0.17564980685710907,
0.42576292157173157,
0.46884143352508545,
0.3938831388950348,
-0.237589493393898,
0.030219074338674545,
-1.2628369331359863,
0.48788025975227356,
-0.7341159582138062,
0.03662240505218506,
0.129492849111557,
0.08380679786205292,
0.3329499065876007,
0.37716254591941833,
-0.20004495978355408,
0.5067113041877747,
-0.18551047146320343,
0.5517752170562744,
0.532370388507843,
-0.5655487775802612,
0.22327394783496857,
0.2103647142648697,
-0.3278869390487671,
0.11380556225776672,
0.39959922432899475,
-0.039028216153383255,
-0.1637641042470932,
0.3517427444458008,
0.21160995960235596,
0.1628539264202118,
-0.05929449200630188,
-0.40916988253593445,
0.19993482530117035,
-0.01523523684591055,
-0.6967132091522217,
0.02791510708630085,
-0.03204420581459999,
-0.6355084776878357,
-0.6121786236763,
0.4666454792022705,
-0.42173880338668823,
0.08636680245399475,
0.0775257870554924,
-0.16339199244976044,
0.5273276567459106,
0.028775330632925034,
-0.42534950375556946,
0.4275313913822174,
-0.18901333212852478,
0.2789193093776703,
0.30959028005599976,
-0.3604188859462738,
0.48676371574401855,
0.11245843023061752,
0.07980992645025253,
0.11355537176132202,
0.5538397431373596,
0.30226004123687744,
0.5526158809661865,
0.20492130517959595,
-0.1780945360660553,
-0.08430858701467514,
0.26927605271339417,
-0.03143411502242088,
0.13829940557479858,
-0.23485371470451355,
-0.0035538962110877037,
-0.4163106679916382,
-0.03403778746724129,
-0.07738865166902542,
-0.06456960737705231,
0.3188711404800415,
-0.1442478597164154,
0.05845228582620621,
-0.21024492383003235,
-0.03678704798221588,
0.22706249356269836,
0.29219990968704224,
-0.025586174800992012,
-0.5172165632247925,
0.2855125367641449,
0.30630597472190857,
0.22765281796455383,
0.40040943026542664,
-0.16854138672351837,
0.35898593068122864,
0.48714256286621094,
1.0010058879852295,
-0.465137243270874,
-0.09551025927066803,
0.3048446476459503,
0.48511558771133423,
0.16891972720623016,
-0.057979293167591095,
-0.1787717342376709,
0.2230224311351776,
0.1789754033088684,
0.10457383841276169,
0.6729483604431152,
0.32681775093078613,
-0.6305058002471924,
-0.34110260009765625,
-0.009310671128332615,
-0.021565336734056473,
-0.21320673823356628,
-0.20777596533298492,
-0.2302112579345703,
-0.8269111514091492,
-0.47830766439437866,
-0.03143578767776489,
-0.06090637668967247,
0.15916192531585693,
-0.4200056493282318,
0.17223818600177765,
-0.5780666470527649,
-0.02537957765161991,
-0.08161181211471558,
-0.8026639223098755,
0.06105555593967438,
-0.06902742385864258,
0.08617847412824631,
0.196992889046669,
-0.0445835180580616,
-0.03784839063882828,
0.36748576164245605,
0.1516651213169098,
0.5628164410591125,
0.0708894282579422,
-0.11467725783586502,
0.29197564721107483,
-0.40443941950798035,
0.1982288807630539,
0.2668289840221405,
-0.035505324602127075,
-0.3574698269367218,
-0.21606634557247162,
0.7267917990684509,
0.32895031571388245,
0.6169198155403137,
0.040993619710206985,
-0.7014297246932983,
-0.2610301971435547,
0.2757893204689026,
-0.20248405635356903,
0.3035311996936798,
-0.42031511664390564,
0.3483816981315613,
-0.36954477429389954,
-0.21168780326843262,
0.050074491649866104,
-0.5929602384567261,
-0.31397125124931335,
0.06630822271108627,
-0.4360406994819641,
1.3826067447662354,
-0.6548818349838257,
-0.18649888038635254,
0.5310071110725403,
-0.009176737628877163,
0.26964884996414185,
0.11053963750600815,
0.3078528642654419,
0.441400945186615,
-0.7453427314758301,
-0.8037794828414917,
0.16741566359996796,
0.3525272309780121,
0.3128528296947479,
0.33098354935646057,
-0.6870484352111816,
0.4101835787296295,
-0.23116420209407806,
0.7510815858840942,
-0.7907479405403137,
0.3354879319667816,
0.3723834455013275,
-0.3430427610874176,
0.1751912236213684,
0.3758522868156433,
-0.19414187967777252,
1.0012924671173096,
-0.1985274702310562,
-0.48002082109451294,
0.07831306010484695,
-0.2518443167209625,
0.5080982446670532,
0.05562277510762215,
-0.14483828842639923,
0.7607762217521667,
-0.8987386226654053,
-0.19686630368232727,
-0.09894385933876038,
0.23351842164993286,
-0.4837881028652191,
-0.22947858273983002,
0.4376952052116394,
0.14852412045001984,
-0.1492256224155426,
0.19434203207492828,
-0.10413265973329544,
-0.059784580022096634,
0.2960638403892517,
-0.002016224432736635,
0.06134578213095665,
0.2582106590270996,
-0.18850772082805634,
-0.23704653978347778,
0.2383517473936081,
-0.044700413942337036,
0.08805832266807556,
-0.01864243671298027,
0.31150978803634644,
0.6483739614486694,
-0.5107638835906982,
0.13512662053108215,
-0.6017290353775024,
-0.6546430587768555,
-0.09221836179494858,
-0.3514688014984131,
-0.47736236453056335,
-0.47367578744888306,
-0.5641629099845886,
-0.47107627987861633,
-0.09404352307319641,
0.23637628555297852,
-0.3250942826271057,
-0.3958131968975067,
-0.3964332640171051,
0.2346138209104538,
0.6997076272964478,
0.3107820451259613,
0.31322765350341797,
-0.0015401826240122318,
-0.4094189703464508,
0.165593683719635,
-0.4154324531555176,
0.5403650403022766,
-0.06321465224027634,
0.1603388488292694,
-0.29177141189575195,
0.28087764978408813,
0.14886751770973206,
0.6796252131462097,
-0.6886271834373474,
-0.0286540687084198,
0.6054567694664001,
0.4184321165084839,
-0.1974419206380844,
-0.5607210397720337,
0.029219847172498703,
-0.2035055011510849,
0.10180539637804031,
0.17496073246002197,
0.4185573160648346,
0.7008945345878601,
0.36462000012397766,
-0.48869988322257996,
-0.35376301407814026,
0.4143851101398468,
-0.46737393736839294,
-0.4528603255748749,
0.07277514785528183,
-1.3245586156845093,
-0.0989842638373375,
-0.30290260910987854,
0.0375605970621109,
-0.14973261952400208,
0.07628246396780014,
-5.945065498352051,
0.04684562236070633,
-0.16023968160152435,
-0.6869885325431824,
-0.09711478650569916,
-0.022262653335928917,
0.14059647917747498,
0.02033255249261856,
-0.1639387011528015,
0.49589577317237854,
0.03629831224679947,
0.13508056104183197,
0.47507819533348083,
0.03840385749936104,
0.5882017612457275,
0.26921600103378296,
0.47863683104515076,
0.46309229731559753,
-0.16980163753032684,
-0.3853219449520111,
0.1968390941619873,
0.30044370889663696,
-0.4856959581375122,
0.2994147837162018,
0.2132171094417572,
-0.10405842959880829,
-0.09150535613298416,
-0.07792005687952042,
-0.34130486845970154,
-0.17422956228256226,
0.18708182871341705,
-0.32014015316963196,
-0.11610417813062668,
0.2684817314147949,
0.10056275874376297,
0.2507403790950775,
0.11927242577075958,
-0.11243152618408203,
0.004691004287451506,
0.06882143020629883,
-0.40111657977104187,
0.3438410460948944,
-0.028953777626156807,
-0.10442892462015152,
0.27198755741119385,
-0.9942481517791748,
-0.13773198425769806,
-0.3551974296569824,
-0.1971786469221115,
0.48116910457611084,
0.02603866159915924,
0.03795463219285011,
0.6275097727775574,
-0.5329365730285645,
0.2739540934562683,
0.08275305479764938,
0.4086035192012787,
0.167567640542984,
-0.20807380974292755,
-0.3848660886287689,
-0.04193758964538574,
-0.3764496147632599,
-0.08451627194881439,
-0.2383524477481842,
0.43115323781967163,
-0.06056390702724457,
-0.3603522479534149,
-0.4660508334636688,
0.5258916616439819,
0.1232156902551651,
-0.4459632635116577,
0.22827282547950745,
0.17937983572483063,
-0.8861992359161377,
0.2085321843624115,
-0.5423949956893921,
-0.13708114624023438,
-0.477996289730072,
0.13377580046653748,
-0.28438249230384827,
-0.40413910150527954,
-0.0768226757645607,
-0.3057185709476471,
-0.2434735745191574,
0.07816199213266373,
0.28863322734832764,
-0.20717449486255646,
-0.11442656815052032,
0.1826072335243225,
-0.08821918815374374,
1.2625688314437866,
0.04288405925035477,
0.06970038264989853,
0.6024665236473083,
0.5737292170524597,
0.616847038269043,
0.48559853434562683,
-0.5410885214805603,
0.43305960297584534,
-0.3166912794113159,
0.4382311999797821,
-0.23266193270683289,
-0.1667458415031433,
0.1607021689414978,
-0.029286375269293785,
-0.09411262720823288,
-0.29179537296295166,
0.40076586604118347,
0.664428174495697,
0.19045154750347137,
0.31120070815086365,
0.6127100586891174,
-0.3108323812484741,
-0.3179251253604889,
0.15501485764980316,
0.10865917801856995,
-0.3416579067707062,
0.31874048709869385,
0.33238404989242554,
-0.07504375278949738,
0.4558858573436737,
0.07648076862096786,
0.07606271654367447,
-0.07283009588718414,
0.050368018448352814,
-0.06275171786546707,
0.6279177665710449,
0.03025267831981182,
0.5404643416404724,
-0.26503095030784607,
0.6091606020927429,
0.04726647958159447,
0.02774864435195923,
0.1373579204082489,
0.07443229109048843,
-0.024454982951283455,
0.09068617224693298,
-0.6475027799606323,
-0.01818668469786644,
0.030621623620390892,
-0.21187125146389008,
-0.04624589905142784,
-0.3863069713115692,
-0.011331656947731972,
0.48235222697257996,
0.5000211000442505,
-0.7609384059906006,
-0.012260199524462223,
0.4479573667049408,
0.3362649381160736,
-0.7509147524833679,
-0.19779330492019653,
0.19251124560832977,
-0.508056640625,
-0.031803980469703674,
-0.3643345236778259,
-0.08094349503517151,
0.18559961020946503,
-0.17962947487831116,
-0.34771934151649475,
0.3445422053337097,
-0.04383433237671852,
-1.2198686599731445,
-0.0694403126835823,
-0.5268353819847107,
-0.303221195936203,
-0.21175429224967957,
0.16515427827835083,
-0.17322848737239838,
0.6813528537750244,
0.09667161852121353,
-0.503025233745575,
-0.1677844077348709,
-0.6520512700080872,
0.472089022397995,
-0.015525889582931995,
0.0702647939324379,
0.5224208831787109,
-0.11099577695131302,
-0.472769558429718,
0.09833869338035583,
-0.1835869401693344,
0.11867448687553406,
0.6449069380760193,
0.05066506937146187,
-0.09999676793813705,
-0.40328648686408997,
0.6978289484977722,
0.083687923848629,
-0.1818145364522934,
0.010102039203047752,
-0.4105210304260254,
-0.011147347278892994,
0.30531829595565796,
0.2759120464324951,
-0.3851039707660675,
0.16754746437072754,
0.26244020462036133,
-0.04058527946472168,
-0.5879557132720947,
-0.07333814352750778,
-0.333469033241272,
-1.030297040939331,
0.3059905171394348,
0.08864293992519379,
-0.5863243937492371,
0.42137256264686584,
-0.24985696375370026,
0.2791430652141571,
0.14780889451503754,
-0.23739688098430634,
0.01158020831644535,
-0.23851285874843597,
0.552609384059906,
-0.16457858681678772,
0.051562368869781494,
0.6302386522293091,
-0.14098599553108215,
0.014081274159252644,
-0.39967405796051025,
0.6317938566207886,
-0.22692465782165527,
0.038949135690927505,
0.6117075681686401,
-0.2382727414369583,
0.3462463617324829,
0.14468437433242798,
-0.48533719778060913,
0.07976868748664856,
-0.3803876042366028,
-0.060717854648828506,
0.04396719112992287,
-0.0299997441470623,
-0.34256088733673096,
0.14710520207881927,
-0.11653979867696762,
-0.0026824800297617912,
-0.21893511712551117,
-0.3072654604911804,
0.3299173414707184,
0.11048360168933868,
0.782697319984436,
0.21243160963058472,
-0.23752830922603607,
0.29329049587249756,
-0.2866150140762329,
0.04097351059317589,
-0.8653383255004883,
-0.6612298488616943,
0.2992298901081085,
0.5227749943733215,
-0.32117462158203125,
-0.2739923596382141,
-0.4991617798805237,
0.3794495463371277,
-0.07123835384845734,
-0.08035627007484436,
-0.07049766927957535,
0.014632659032940865,
0.685223400592804,
0.038254883140325546,
-0.48997607827186584,
-0.22890780866146088,
-0.2914449870586395,
0.5556089282035828,
-0.2105395495891571,
-0.444967120885849,
-0.3297632336616516,
-0.12431667745113373,
-1.1336771249771118,
0.29447418451309204,
0.4461376667022705,
0.6492891311645508,
0.1163906678557396,
0.932340145111084,
0.1324254721403122,
-0.19957582652568817,
-0.47020223736763,
0.011244075372815132,
0.217967689037323,
0.08799704909324646,
0.046399351209402084,
0.24659089744091034,
-0.2400759905576706,
0.09677767008543015,
-0.05528203770518303,
0.16181819140911102,
-0.460820734500885,
-0.6577668786048889,
-0.5053611397743225,
-0.4105464518070221,
-0.16552957892417908,
0.0818956196308136,
0.4305146336555481,
0.3991415500640869,
0.24832451343536377,
0.4208623170852661,
0.27125516533851624,
-0.11926447600126266,
0.5253120064735413,
-0.556052029132843,
0.8434467911720276,
-0.08299338072538376,
-0.8713222146034241,
0.7636433243751526,
-0.3377702534198761,
-0.13484837114810944,
-0.28308945894241333,
0.12993478775024414,
-0.42366233468055725,
0.1261066347360611,
0.18981194496154785,
0.1796325147151947,
0.27687254548072815,
-0.3797329068183899,
-0.21366934478282928,
0.42774561047554016,
-0.21804112195968628,
0.2654742896556854,
0.07057734578847885,
0.1247430369257927,
-0.23986291885375977,
0.6792621612548828,
-0.028969643637537956,
-0.11478323489427567,
0.5866655707359314,
-0.636599063873291,
-0.419313907623291,
0.06350217014551163,
-0.10050487518310547,
0.8549779057502747,
0.27153390645980835,
-0.02420014515519142,
-0.15132199227809906,
-0.061900246888399124,
-0.00405628327280283,
-0.4727380573749542,
-0.3599393963813782,
-0.6077638864517212,
0.40947479009628296,
0.27795594930648804,
-0.1519313007593155,
-0.07677602767944336,
0.14599667489528656,
-0.3087756931781769,
0.7036114931106567,
0.3309716582298279,
-0.003422726411372423,
-0.587572455406189,
0.5932043194770813,
0.0287312101572752,
-0.2774316668510437,
0.03243216499686241,
0.23750616610050201,
-0.2750968039035797,
-0.41778019070625305,
0.3999175429344177,
0.09760244935750961,
0.0581943616271019,
0.22170954942703247,
0.5522976517677307,
0.5266562700271606,
0.05340560898184776,
0.007248977664858103,
-0.2751207649707794,
-0.033609770238399506,
-0.15601851046085358,
-0.6703920960426331,
-0.2403726726770401,
-0.014007924124598503,
0.20703507959842682,
0.7067192792892456,
-0.5683178305625916,
0.2944752275943756,
0.26970216631889343,
-0.4266411066055298,
0.21792814135551453,
0.6933327913284302,
-0.06455346196889877,
-0.026349598541855812,
-0.22747570276260376,
-0.1468304842710495,
-0.5574192404747009,
-0.803540050983429,
0.009752403013408184,
0.06872221827507019,
-0.02802036888897419,
0.1261022537946701,
0.16383662819862366,
0.3038146197795868,
0.3300836682319641,
0.09508706629276276,
0.40833455324172974,
-0.22594238817691803,
-0.2495099902153015,
-0.23561520874500275,
0.22746384143829346,
0.29992714524269104,
0.15279032289981842,
0.30380475521087646,
0.006468561477959156,
0.6732579469680786,
0.26090413331985474,
0.34926384687423706,
-0.7455602288246155,
0.17317453026771545,
-0.3967331349849701,
0.07518317550420761,
-0.33730340003967285,
0.37088197469711304,
0.5479485988616943,
-0.13440419733524323,
0.36006996035575867,
-0.07343584299087524,
-0.37727785110473633,
-0.13011302053928375,
0.28052493929862976,
-0.34282153844833374,
0.6261740326881409,
-0.5057491064071655,
-0.07907070219516754,
-0.7663706541061401,
0.26721489429473877,
0.1743251234292984,
-0.2559407949447632,
-0.9967636466026306,
0.30472758412361145,
-0.7209400534629822,
0.05972547084093094,
0.6310303211212158,
-0.12506331503391266,
0.20892076194286346,
-0.8862300515174866,
0.5098711252212524,
-0.5007597208023071,
-0.6348762512207031,
0.13993550837039948,
-0.1188744381070137,
0.33287250995635986,
-0.24881042540073395,
0.061920180916786194,
-0.3327014446258545,
-0.3786199390888214,
-0.2656991481781006,
-0.5751195549964905,
0.4124692976474762,
-0.01091078668832779,
-0.0854412093758583,
-0.48661571741104126,
0.634044885635376,
0.3539910912513733,
-0.3387194275856018,
0.07910080999135971,
0.39466509222984314,
-0.40174660086631775,
-0.13667082786560059,
0.24329599738121033,
-0.4994746744632721,
-0.4492221474647522,
-0.03270561620593071
] |
261107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangers%20on%20a%20Train%20%28film%29 | Strangers on a Train (film) | Strangers on a Train is a 1951 American psychological thriller film noir produced and directed by Alfred Hitchcock, and based on the 1950 novel Strangers on a Train by Patricia Highsmith. It was shot in the autumn of 1950 and released by Warner Bros. on June 30, 1951, starring Farley Granger, Ruth Roman, and Robert Walker.
The story concerns two strangers who meet on a train, one of whom is a psychopath who suggests that they "exchange" murders so that neither will be caught. The film initially received mixed reviews but has since been regarded as one of Hitchcock's finest films. In 2021, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Plot
Amateur tennis star Guy Haines wants to divorce his promiscuous wife Miriam so he can marry Anne Morton, the daughter of a US Senator. On a train, wealthy smooth-talking psychopath Bruno Antony recognizes Haines and reveals his idea for a murder scheme: two perfect strangers meet and "swap murders" — Bruno suggests he kill Miriam and Guy kill Bruno's hated father. Each will murder a total stranger, with no apparent motive, so neither will be suspected. Guy humors Bruno by pretending to find his idea amusing, but is so eager to get away from Bruno that he carelessly leaves behind his engraved cigarette lighter, which Bruno keeps.
Guy meets with Miriam, who is pregnant by someone else, at her workplace in Metcalf, their hometown. Miriam informs Guy that she no longer wants to end their marriage. She threatens to claim that he is the father, in order to thwart any divorce-attempt. They argue loudly.
That evening, Bruno follows Miriam to an amusement park and strangles her to death while Guy is traveling on the train back to Washington. When Guy arrives home, Bruno informs him Miriam is dead and insists that he must now honor their deal, by killing Bruno's father.
Guy goes to the Mortons' home, where Anne's father informs Guy that his wife has been murdered. Anne's sister Barbara says that the police will think that Guy is the murderer since he has a motive. The police question Guy, but are unable to confirm his alibi: a professor Guy met on the train was so drunk that he cannot remember their encounter. Instead of arresting Guy, the police assign an around-the-clock escort to watch him.
To pressure Guy, Bruno follows him around Washington, introduces himself to Anne, and appears at a party at Senator Morton's house. To amuse another guest, Bruno playfully demonstrates how to strangle someone, by putting his hands around her neck. His gaze falls upon Barbara, whose glasses and physical appearance resemble Miriam's. This triggers a flashback; Bruno compulsively squeezes the woman's neck, and other guests intervene to stop him from strangling the woman to death. Barbara tells Anne that Bruno was looking at her while strangling the other woman, and Anne realizes Barbara's resemblance to Miriam. Her suspicions aroused, Anne confronts Guy, who tells her the truth about Bruno's crazy scheme.
Bruno sends Guy a package containing a pistol, a house key, and a map showing the location of his father's bedroom. Guy creeps into Bruno's father's room to warn him of his son's murderous intentions, but instead he finds the suspicious Bruno there waiting for him; the father is not at home. Guy tries to persuade Bruno to seek psychiatric help; Bruno threatens to punish Guy for breaking their deal.
Anne visits Bruno's home and unsuccessfully tries to explain to his befuddled mother that her son is a murderer. Bruno mentions Guy's missing cigarette lighter to Anne and claims that Guy asked him to search the murder site for it. Guy correctly infers that Bruno intends to plant it at the scene of the murder, and incriminate him. After winning a tennis match, Guy evades the police-escort, and heads for the amusement park to stop Bruno.
Bruno is delayed when he accidentally drops Guy's lighter down a storm drain and must retrieve it. When Bruno arrives at the amusement park, a carnival worker recognizes him from the night of the murder; he informs the police, who mistakenly think he has recognized Guy. After Guy arrives, he and Bruno fight on the park's carousel. Believing that Guy is trying to escape, a police officer shoots at him, but the shot misses, and instead kills the carousel operator, causing the carousel to spin out of control. A carnival worker crawls underneath it and applies the brakes too abruptly, causing the carousel to violently spin off its support, trapping the mortally injured Bruno underneath. The worker who had called the police now tells them that Bruno, not Guy, is the one whom he remembers seeing the night of the murder. As Bruno dies, his fingers open to reveal Guy's lighter in his hand. Realizing that Guy is not the murderer, the police ask him to come to the station the next day to tie up any loose ends.
In a final train scene, another stranger attempts to strike up conversation with Guy in the same way as had Bruno. Guy and Anne coldly walk away from him.
Cast
Farley Granger as Guy Haines
Ruth Roman as Anne Morton
Robert Walker as Bruno Antony
Leo G. Carroll as Senator Morton
Patricia Hitchcock as Barbara Morton
Kasey Rogers as Miriam Joyce Haines
Marion Lorne as Mrs. Antony
Jonathan Hale as Mr. Antony
Howard St. John as Police Capt. Turley
John Brown as Professor Collins
Norma Varden as Mrs. Cunningham
Robert Gist as Detective Hennessey
John Doucette as Detective Hammond (uncredited)
Georges Renavent as Monsieur Darville (uncredited)
Odette Myrtil as Madame Darville (uncredited)
Murray Alper as Boatman who recognizes Bruno (uncredited)
Barry Norton as Tennis Match Spectator (uncredited)
Alfred Hitchcock's cameo appearance occurs 11 minutes into the film. He is seen carrying a double bass as he climbs onto a train.
Hitchcock said that correct casting saved him "a reel of storytelling time", since audiences would sense qualities in the actors that did not have to be spelled out. Hitchcock said that he originally wanted William Holden for the Guy Haines role, but Holden declined. "Holden would have been all wrong—too sturdy, too put off by Bruno", writes critic Roger Ebert. "Granger is softer and more elusive, more convincing as he tries to slip out of Bruno's conversational web instead of flatly rejecting him."
Warner Bros. wanted their own stars, already under contract, cast wherever possible. In the casting of Anne Morton, Jack L. Warner got what he wanted when he assigned Ruth Roman to the project, over Hitchcock's objections. The director found her "bristling" and "lacking in sex appeal" and said that she had been "foisted upon him." Perhaps it was the circumstances of her forced casting, but Roman became the target of Hitchcock's scorn throughout the production. Granger described Hitchcock's attitude toward Roman as "disinterest" in the actress, and said he saw Hitchcock treat Edith Evanson the same way on the set of Rope (1948). "He had to have one person in each film he could harass," Granger said.
Kasey Rogers (credited as Laura Elliott) noted that she had perfect vision at the time the movie was made, but Hitchcock insisted she wear the character's thick eyeglasses, even in long shots when regular glass lenses would have been undetectable. Rogers was effectively blind with the glasses on and needed to be guided by the other actors.
Production
Pre-production
Hitchcock secured the rights to the Patricia Highsmith novel for just $7,500 since it was her first novel. As usual, Hitchcock kept his name out of the negotiations to keep the purchase price low. Highsmith was quite annoyed when she later discovered who bought the rights for such a small amount.
Securing the rights to the novel was the least of the hurdles Hitchcock would have to vault to get the property from printed page to screen. He got a treatment that pleased him on the second attempt, from writer Whitfield Cook, who wove a homoerotic subtext (only hinted at in the novel) into the story and softened Bruno from a coarse alcoholic into a dapper, charming mama's boy — a much more Hitchcockian villain. With treatment in hand, Hitchcock shopped for a screenwriter; he wanted a "name" writer to lend some prestige to the screenplay, but was turned down by eight writers, including John Steinbeck and Thornton Wilder, all of whom thought the story too tawdry and were put off by Highsmith's first-timer status. Talks with Dashiell Hammett got further, but here too communications ultimately broke down, and Hammett never took the assignment.
Hitchcock then tried Raymond Chandler, who had earned an Oscar nomination for his first screenplay, Double Indemnity, in collaboration with Billy Wilder. Chandler took the job despite his opinion that it was "a silly little story." But Chandler was a notoriously difficult collaborator and the two men could not have had more different meeting styles: Hitchcock enjoyed long, rambling off-topic meetings where often the film would not even be mentioned for hours, while Chandler was strictly business and wanted to get out and get writing. He called the meetings "god-awful jabber sessions which seem to be an inevitable although painful part of the picture business." Interpersonal relations deteriorated rapidly until finally Chandler became openly combative; at one point, upon viewing Hitchcock struggling to exit from his limousine, Chandler remarked within earshot, "Look at the fat bastard trying to get out of his car!" This would be their last collaboration. Chandler completed a first draft, then wrote a second, without hearing a single word back from Hitchcock; when finally he did get a communication from the director in late September, it was his dismissal from the project.
Next, Hitchcock tried to hire Ben Hecht, but learned he was unavailable. Hecht suggested his assistant, Czenzi Ormonde, to write the screenplay. Although Ormonde was without a formal screen credit, she did have two things in her favor: her recently published collection of short stories, Laughter From Downstairs, was attracting good notices from critics, and she was "a fair-haired beauty with long shimmering hair."—always a plus with Hitchcock. With his new writer, he wanted to start from square one:
There was not much time though — less than three weeks until location shooting was scheduled to start in the East. Ormonde hunkered down with Hitchcock's associate producer Barbara Keon—disparagingly called "Hitchcock's factotum" by Chandler—and Alma Reville, Hitchcock's wife. Together the three women, working under the boss's guidance and late into most nights, finished enough of the script in time to send the company East. The rest was complete by early November. Three notable additions the trio had made were the runaway merry-go-round, the cigarette lighter, and the thick eyeglasses.
There was one point of agreement between Chandler and Hitchcock, although it would come only much later, near the release of the film: they both acknowledged that since virtually none of Chandler's work remained in the final script, his name should be removed from the credits. Hitchcock preferred the writing credit of Whitfield Cook and Czenzi Ormonde, but Warner Bros. wanted the cachet of the Chandler name and insisted it stay on.
Even while the torturous writing stage was plodding its course, the director's excitement about the project was boundless. "Hitchcock raced ahead of everyone: the script, the cast, the studio... pieces of the film were dancing like electrical charges in his brain." The more the film resolved in his mind's eye, the more he knew his director of photography would play a critical role in the scenes' execution. He found exactly what he needed right on the Warners lot in the person of staff cameraman Robert Burks, who would continue to work with Hitchcock, shooting every Hitchcock picture through to Marnie (1964), with the exception of Psycho. "Low-keyed, mild mannered", Burks was "a versatile risk-taker with a penchant for moody atmosphere. Burks was an exceptionally apt choice for what would prove to be Hitchcock's most Germanic film in years: the compositions dense, the lighting almost surreal, the optical effects demanding." None was more demanding than Bruno's strangulation of Miriam, shown reflected in her eyeglass lens: "It was the kind of shot Hitchcock had been tinkering with for twenty years—and Robert Burks captured it magnificently."
Burks considered his fourteen years with Hitchcock the best of his career: "You never have any trouble with him as long as you know your job and do it. Hitchcock insists on perfection. He has no patience with mediocrity on the set or at a dinner table. There can be no compromise in his work, his food or his wines." Robert Burks received the film's sole Academy Award nomination for its black and white photography.
Production
With cast nailed down, a script in hand, and a director of photography in tune with Hitchcock's vision on board, the company was ready to commence filming. Hitchcock had a crew shoot background footage of the 1950 Davis Cup finals held August 25–27, 1950 at the West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills, New York. While there, the crew had done some other location scouting. Exteriors would be shot on both coasts, and interiors on Warner Brothers' soundstages.
Hitchcock and his cast and crew decamped for the East Coast on October 17, 1950. For six days, they shot at Penn Station in New York City, at the railroad station at Danbury, Connecticut—which became Guy's hometown Metcalf—and in spots around Washington, D.C.
By month's end, they were back in California. Hitchcock had written exacting specifications for an amusement park, which was constructed on the ranch of director Rowland Lee in Chatsworth, California. The amusement park exteriors were shot there and at an actual Tunnel of Love at a fairground in Canoga Park, California. Hitchcock had already shot the long shots for the tennis match at Forest Hills and would add closer shots with Granger and Jack Cushingham, Granger's tennis coach off-screen and Guy's tennis opponent Fred Reynolds on-screen at a tennis club in South Gate, California. The rest of the shooting would take place on Warner soundstages, including many seemingly exterior and on-location shots that were actually done inside in front of rear-projection screens.
Strangers on a Train marked something of a renaissance for Hitchcock, after several years of low enthusiasm for his late-1940s output, and he threw himself into the micromanagement of some of its production. Hitchcock himself designed Bruno's lobster necktie, revealed in a close-up to have strangling lobster claws, and "he personally selected an orange peel, a chewing-gum wrapper, wet leaves, and a bit of crumpled paper that were used for sewer debris" in the scene where Bruno inadvertently drops Guy's lighter down the storm drain.
He also showed intense interest in a seldom-considered detail of character delineation: food.
One of the most memorable single shots in the Hitchcock canon — it "is studied by film classes", says Laura Elliott, who played Miriam – is her character's strangulation by Bruno on the Magic Isle. "[I]n one of the most unexpected, most aesthetically justified moments in film," the slow, almost graceful, murder is shown as a reflection in the victim's eyeglasses, which have been jarred loose from her head and dropped to the ground. The unusual angle was a more complex proposition than it seems. First Hitchcock got the exterior shots in Canoga Park, using both actors, then later he had Elliott alone report to a soundstage where there was a large concave reflector set on the floor. The camera was on one side of the reflector, Elliott was on the other, and Hitchcock directed Elliott to turn her back to the reflector and "float backwards, all the way to the floor... like you were doing the limbo." The first six takes went badly—Elliott thudded to the floor with several feet yet to go—but on the seventh take, she floated smoothly all the way. Hitchcock's even-strained response: "Cut. Next shot." Hitchcock then had the two elements "ingenious[ly]" double printed, yielding a shot of "oddly appealing originality [with] a stark fusion of the grotesque and the beautiful.... The astheticizing of the horror somehow enables the audience to contemplate more fully its reality."
Hitchcock was, above all, the master of great visual setpieces, and "[p]erhaps the most memorable sequence in Strangers on a Train is the climactic fight on a berserk carousel." While Guy and Bruno fight, the ride runs out of control until it tears itself to pieces, flinging wooden horses into the crowd of screaming mothers and squealing children. "The climactic carousel explosion was a marvel of miniatures and background projection, acting close-ups and other inserts, all of it seamlessly matched and blended under film editor William H. Ziegler's eye."
The explosion is triggered by the attempts of a carnival man to stop the ride after crawling under the whirling carousel deck to get to the controls in the center. Although Hitchcock admitted to undercranking the shot (artificially accelerating the action), it was not a trick shot: the man actually had to crawl under the spinning ride, just inches from possible injury. "Hitchcock told me that this scene was the most personally frightening moment for him in any of his films", writes biographer Charlotte Chandler. "The man who crawled under the out-of-control carousel was not an actor or a stuntman, but a carousel operator who volunteered for the job. 'If the man had raised his head even slightly", Hitchcock said, "it would have gone from being a suspense film into a horror film."
The final scene of the so-called American version of the film has Barbara and Anne Morton waiting for Guy to call on the telephone. Hitchcock wanted the phone in the foreground to dominate the shot, emphasizing the importance of the call, but the limited depth-of-field of contemporary motion picture lenses made it difficult to get both phone and women in focus. So Hitchcock had an oversized phone constructed and placed in the foreground. Anne reaches for the big phone, but actually answers a regular one: "I did that on one take", Hitchcock explained, "by moving in on Anne so that the big phone went out of the frame as she reached for it. Then a grip put a normal-sized phone on the table, where she picked it up."
Principal photography wrapped just before Christmas, and Hitchcock and Alma left for a vacation in Santa Cruz, then in late March 1951, on to St. Moritz, for a 25th anniversary European excursion.
Music
Composer Dimitri Tiomkin was Jack Warner's choice to score Strangers on a Train. While he had previous Hitchcock experience on Shadow of a Doubt (1943), and would go on to score two more consecutive Hitchcock films, the director and composer "simply never developed much of a kinship" and "the Hitchcock films are not Tiomkin's best".
Nevertheless, the score does pick up on the ubiquitous theme of doubles — often contrasting doubles — right from the opening title sequence: "The first shot — two sets of male shoes, loud versus conservative, moving toward a train — carries a gruff bass motif set against Gershwin-like riffs, a two-part medley called "Strangers" and "Walking" that is never heard again." The powerful music accurately underscores the visuals of that title sequence — the massive granite edifice of New York's Pennsylvania Station, standing in for Washington's Union Station—because it was scored for an unusually large orchestra, including alto, tenor and baritone saxes, three clarinets, four horns, three pianos and a novachord.
Tiomkin's contrasting musical themes continued throughout the film, delineating two characters with substantial differences: "For 'Guy's Theme', Tiomkin created a hesitant, passive idea, made-to-order music for Farley Granger's performance." Bruno, who tells Guy on the train that he admires people "who do things", gets a more vigorous musical treatment from Tiomkin: "Harmonic complexity defines the motifs associated with Bruno: rumbling bass, shocking clusters, and glassy string harmonics. These disturbing sounds, heard to superb effect in cues such as 'The Meeting,' 'Senator's Office,' and 'Jefferson Memorial,' are not just about Bruno, but about how he is perceived by those whose lives he crosses—first Guy, then everyone in Guy's entourage."
But perhaps the most memorable music in Strangers is the calliope music, heard first at the fairground and again, later, when Bruno is strangling Mrs. Cunningham at Senator Morton's soirée, and experiences his unfortunate flashback and subsequent fainting spell. It was Hitchcock, not Tiomkin, whose idea brought the four evocative numbers — "The Band Played On", "Carolina in the Morning", "Oh, You Beautiful Doll", and "Baby Face" — to the soundtrack:In one of Hitchcock's most explicit operatic gestures, the characters at the fateful carnival sing the score, giving it full dimension as part of the drama. In a conventional movie, the tune would play in the background as a clever ironic backdrop. But Hitchcock takes music to another level. Miriam and the two boyfriends in her odd ménage à trois bring "The Band Played On" to life by singing it on the merry-go-round, lustily and loudly... Grinning balefully on the horse behind them, Bruno then sings it himself, making it his motto. The band plays on through Bruno's stalking of his victim and during the murder itself, blaring from the front of the screen, then receding into the darkness as an eerie obbligato when the doomed Miriam enters the Tunnel of Love."The Band Played On" makes its final reprise during Guy's and Bruno's fight on the merry-go-round, even itself shifting to a faster tempo and higher pitch when the policeman's bullet hits the ride operator and sends the carousel into its frenzied hyper-drive.
Critic Jack Sullivan had kinder words for Tiomkin's score for Strangers than did biographer Spoto: "[S]o seamlessly and inevitably does it fit the picture's design that it seems like an element of Hitchcock's storyboards", he writes. It is a score that "goes largely uncelebrated."
Promotion and release
With a release scheduled for early summer, the studio press agents swung into high gear early in 1951. Hitchcock, promotionally photographed many times over the years strangling various actresses and other women — some one-handed, others two — found himself in front of a camera with his fingers around the neck of a bust of daughter Patricia; the photo found its way into newspapers nationwide. He was also photographed adding the letter L to Strangers on the official studio poster for the film, thus changing the word to Stranglers.
One studio press release gave rise to a myth that still lingers on today. Hitchcock and Patricia both were afraid of heights, and father offered daughter a hundred dollars to ride the Ferris wheel — only to order the power cut, leaving her in the dark at the very top of the ride. The press release embellished the tale, claiming he left her "dangling in total darkness for an hour," only then allowing his "trembling daughter" to be lowered and released. Although that account continues to be published in books to this day, "it just wasn't true", according to Patricia Hitchcock O'Connell. First of all, she was not up there alone: flanking her were the actors playing Miriam's two boyfriends — "and I have a picture of us waving." "This was good stuff for press agents paid to stir up thrills and it has been repeated in other books to bolster the idea of Hitchcock's sadism," but "we were [only] up there two or three minutes at the outside.... My father wasn't ever sadistic. The only sadistic part was I never got the hundred dollars."
Strangers on a Train previewed on March 5, 1951 at the Huntington Park Theatre, with Alma, Jack Warner, Whitfield Cook and Barbara Keon in the Hitchcock party and it won a prize from the Screen Directors Guild. It premiered in New York on July 3, marking the reopening of the extensively remodeled Strand Theatre as the Warner Theatre, and in a dozen cities around the country. Hitchcock made personal appearances in most of them, and was often accompanied by his daughter.
Some audience feedback arriving at Jack Warner's office condemned the film for its sordid story, while just as many others were favorable. Of greater interest to Warner was the box office take, and the "receipts soon told the true story: Strangers on a Train was a success, and Hitchcock was pronounced at the top of his form as master of the dark, melodramatic suspense thriller."
Themes and motifs
The film includes a number of puns and visual metaphors that demonstrate a running motif of crisscross, double-crossing, and crossing one's double. Talking about the structure of the film, Hitchcock said to Truffaut, "Isn't it a fascinating design? One could study it forever."
The two characters, Guy and Bruno, can be viewed as doppelgängers. As with Shadow of a Doubt, Strangers on a Train is one of many Hitchcock films to explore the doppelgänger theme. The pair has what writer Peter Dellolio refers to as a "dark symbiosis." Bruno embodies Guy's dark desire to kill Miriam, a "real-life incarnation of Guy's wish-fulfillment fantasy".
Doubles
The theme of doubles is "the key element in the film's structure," and Hitchcock starts right off in his title sequence making this point: there are two taxicabs, two redcaps, two pairs of feet, two sets of train rails that cross twice. Once on the train, Bruno orders a pair of double drinks — "The only kind of doubles I play", he says charmingly. In Hitchcock's cameo he carries a double bass.
Hitchcock carries the theme into his editing, crosscutting between Guy and Bruno with words and gestures: one asks the time and the other, miles away, looks at his watch; one says in anger "I could strangle her!" and the other, far distant, makes a choking gesture.
This doubling has some precedent in the novel; but more of it was deliberately added by Hitchcock, "dictated in rapid and inspired profusion to Czenzi Ormonde and Barbara Keon during the last days of script preparation." It undergirds the whole film because it finally serves to associate the world of light, order, and vitality with the world of darkness, chaos, lunacy and death."
Guy and Bruno are in some ways doubles, but in many more ways, they are opposites. The two sets of feet in the title sequence match each other in motion and in cutting, but they immediately establish the contrast between the two men: the first shoes "showy, vulgar brown-and-white brogues; [the] second, plain, unadorned walking shoes." They also demonstrate Hitchcock's gift for deft visual storytelling: For most of the film, Bruno is the actor, Guy the reactor, and Hitchcock always shows Bruno's feet first, then Guy's. And since it is Guy's foot that taps Bruno's under the table, we know Bruno has not engineered the meeting.
Roger Ebert wrote that "it is this sense of two flawed characters — one evil, one weak, with an unstated sexual tension — that makes the movie intriguing and halfway plausible, and explains how Bruno could come so close to carrying out his plan."
Darkness–light continuum
It is those flaws that set up the real themes of Strangers. It was not enough for Hitchcock to construct merely a world of doubles — even contrasting doubles — in a strict polar-opposite structure; for Hitchcock, the good-and-evil, darkness-and-light poles "didn't have to be mutually exclusive." Blurring the lines puts both Guy and Bruno on a good-evil continuum, and the infinite shades of gray in between, became Hitchcock's canvas for telling the story and painting his characters.
At first glance, Guy represents the ordered life where people stick to rules, while Bruno comes from the world of chaos, where they get thrown out of multiple colleges for drinking and gambling. Yet both men, like so many of Hitchcock's protagonists, are insecure and uncertain of their identity. Guy is suspended between tennis and politics, between his tramp wife and his senator's daughter, and Bruno is seeking desperately to establish an identity through violent, outré actions and flamboyance (shoes, lobster-patterned tie, name proclaimed to the world on his tiepin)."
Bruno tells Guy early on that he admires him: "I certainly admire people who do things", he says. "Me, I never do anything important." Yet as Bruno describes his "theories" over lunch, "Guy responds to Bruno — we see it in his face, at once amused and tense. To the man committed to a career in politics, Bruno represents a tempting overthrow of all responsibility." And at this point the blurring of good and evil accelerates: Guy fails to repudiate Bruno's suggestive statement about murdering Miriam ("What's a life or two, Guy? Some people are better off dead.") with any force or conviction. "When Bruno openly suggests he would like to kill his wife, he merely grins and says 'That's a morbid thought,' but we sense the tension that underlies it." It ratchets up a notch when Guy leaves Bruno's compartment and "forgets" his cigarette lighter. "He is leaving in Bruno's keeping his link with Anne, his possibility of climbing into the ordered existence to which he aspires.... Guy, then, in a sense connives at the murder of his wife, and the enigmatic link between him and Bruno becomes clear.
Light and dark onscreen
Having given his characters overlapping qualities of good and evil, Hitchcock then rendered them on the screen according to a very strict template, with which he stuck to a remarkable degree. Ebert wrote:
Nowhere is this more evident than the scene where Guy arrives home at his D.C. apartment to find Bruno lurking across the street; Bruno killed Miriam that evening in Metcalf, and has her glasses to give to Guy almost as a "receipt" that he has executed his part of their "deal". "On one side of the street, [are] stately respectable houses; towering in the background, on the right of the screen, the floodlit dome of the U.S. Capitol, the life to which Guy aspires, the world of light and order." Bruno tells Guy what he has done and gives him the glasses. "You're a free man now", he says, just as a police car drives up, looking for the husband of a certain recent murder victim. Guy nervously steps into the shadows with Bruno, literally behind the bars of an iron fence; "You've got me acting like I'm a criminal", he says. "The scene gives a beautifully exact symbolic expression to Guy's relationship with Bruno and what he stands for."
Hitchcock continues the interplay of light and dark throughout the film: Guy's bright, light tennis attire, versus "the gothic gloominess of [Bruno's] Arlington mansion"; the crosscutting between his game in the sunshine at Forest Hills while Bruno's arm stretches into the dark and debris of the storm drain trying to fish out the cigarette lighter; even a single image where "Walker is photographed in one visually stunning shot as a malignant stain on the purity of the white-marble Jefferson Memorial, as a blot on the order of things."
Political subtext
Although its first rumblings came in 1947 with the trial and conviction of the "Hollywood Ten," the so-called Red Scare was gathering steam in 1950, with the espionage-related arrests of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and the trial of Alger Hiss. These events were the background to their work, while Hitchcock, Cook, Ormonde and Keon were preparing the script for Strangers, and film scholar Robert L. Carringer has written of a political subtext to the film. Treatment writer Cook used Guy to make the film "a parable quietly defiant of the Cold War hysteria sweeping America."
Carringer has argued that the film was crucially shaped by the Congressional inquiries, making Guy the stand-in for victims of the homophobic climate. "To all appearances Guy is the all-American stereotype, an athlete, unassuming despite his fame, conservatively dressed," wrote Carringer; he is "a man of indeterminate sexual identity found in circumstances making him vulnerable to being compromised." Hitchcock, who had drawn gay characters so sharply yet subtly in Rope in 1948, "drafted the left-leaning Cook... expressly because he was comfortable with sexually ambiguous characters."
Differences from the novel
Even before sewing up the rights for the novel, Hitchcock's mind was whirling with ideas about how to adapt it for the screen. He narrowed the geographic scope to the Northeast corridor, between Washington, D.C. and New York — the novel ranged through the southwest and Florida, among other locales. The scripting team added the tennis match — and the crosscutting with Bruno's storm drain travails in Metcalf — added the cigarette lighter, the Tunnel of Love, Miriam's eyeglasses; in fact, the amusement park is only a brief setting in the novel.
Hitchcock's biggest changes were in his two lead characters:
The character called Bruno Antony in the film is called Charles Anthony Bruno in the book. "Highsmith's Bruno is a physically repugnant alcoholic... but in [Whitfield Cook's] hands, the film's Bruno became a dandy, a mama's boy who speaks French, and who professes ignorance of women." In the book, Bruno dies in a boating accident far removed from a merry-go-round.
In the novel, Guy Haines is not a tennis player, but rather a promising architect, and he does indeed go through with the murder of Bruno's father. In the movie, "Guy became a decent guy who refuses to carry out his part of the crazed bargain..." writes Patrick McGilligan, "to head off the censors." In the novel, Guy is pursued and entrapped by a tenacious detective.
The merry-go-round scene is not in the book, but is taken from the climax of Edmund Crispin's 1946 novel The Moving Toyshop. All the major elements of the scene — the two men struggling, the accidentally shot attendant, the out-of-control merry-go-round, the crawling under the moving merry-go-round to disable it — are present in Crispin's account, though he received no screen credit for it.
In Raymond Chandler's second draft script — which Hitchcock ceremoniously dropped into the wastebasket while daintily holding his nose — the final shot is Guy Haines, institutionalized, bound in a straitjacket.
Reception
Critical reception
Upon its release in 1951, Strangers on a Train received mixed reviews. Variety praised it, writing: "Performance-wise, the cast comes through strongly. Granger is excellent as the harassed young man innocently involved in murder. Roman's role as a nice, understanding girl is a switch for her, and she makes it warmly effective. Walker's role has extreme color, and he projects it deftly."
Conversely, Bosley Crowther of The New York Times criticized the film: "Mr. Hitchcock again is tossing a crazy murder story in the air and trying to con us into thinking that it will stand up without support. ... Perhaps there will be those in the audience who will likewise be terrified by the villain's darkly menacing warnings and by Mr. Hitchcock's sleekly melodramatic tricks. ... But, for all that, his basic premise of fear fired by menace is so thin and so utterly unconvincing that the story just does not stand." Leslie Halliwell felt that Hitchcock was "at his best" and that the film "makes superior suspense entertainment," but called the story "unsatisfactory."
In contrast, modern reviews have been overwhelmingly positive. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 98% based on reviews from 52 critics, with an average rating of 8.80/10. The website's consensus reads, "A provocative premise and inventive set design lights the way for Hitchcock diabolically entertaining masterpiece." Roger Ebert has called Strangers on a Train a "first-rate thriller" that he considers one of Hitchcock's five best films. He added the film in his Great Movies list. In 2012, The Guardian praised the film writing "Hitchcock's study of the guilt that taints the human condition is just one cinematic masterstroke after another".
David Keyes, writing at Cinemaphile in 2002, saw the film as a seminal entry in its genre: "Aside from its very evident approach as a crowd-pleasing popcorn flick, the movie is one of the original shells for identity-inspired mystery thrillers, in which natural human behavior is the driving force behind the true macabre rather than supernatural elements. Even classic endeavors like Fargo and A Simple Plan seem directly fueled by this concept..."
Almar Haflidason was effusive about Strangers on a Train in 2001 at the BBC website: "Hitchcock's favourite device of an ordinary man caught in an ever-tightening web of fear plunges Guy into one of the director's most fiendishly effective movies. Ordinary Washington locations become sinister hunting grounds that mirror perfectly the creeping terror that slowly consumes Guy, as the lethally smooth Bruno relentlessly pursues him to a frenzied climax. Fast, exciting, and woven with wicked style, this is one of Hitchcock's most efficient and ruthlessly delicious thrillers."
Patricia Highsmith's opinion of the film varied over time. She initially praised it, writing: "I am pleased in general. Especially with Bruno, who held the movie together as he did the book." Later in life, while still praising Robert Walker's performance as Bruno, she criticized the casting of Ruth Roman as Anne, Hitchcock's decision to turn Guy from an architect into a tennis player, and the fact that Guy does not murder Bruno's father as he does in the novel.
Box office
According to Warner Bros' records, the film earned $1,788,000 domestically and $1,144,000 in foreign territories.
Accolades
American Film Institute listed the film as #32 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills.
Alternative versions
An early preview edit of the film, sometimes labeled the "British" version although it was never released in Britain or anywhere else, includes some scenes either not in, or else different from, the film as released. According to biographer Charlotte Chandler (Lyn Erhard), Hitchcock himself did not like either the "British" or the "American" version:
In 1997, Warner released the film onto DVD as a double sided disc, with the "British" version on one side, and the "Hollywood" version on the reverse. Between the two versions of the film, the "British" version most prominently omits the final scene on the train. A two-disc DVD edition was released in 2004 containing both versions of the film, this time with the "British" version titled "Preview Version" (102:49 long) and the "Hollywood" version titled "Final Release Version" (100:40 long). The film was later made available on Blu-ray in 2012 with the same contents as the 2004 DVD edition.
Legacy
Strangers on a Train was adapted for the radio program Lux Radio Theatre on two occasions: on December 3, 1951, with Ruth Roman, Frank Lovejoy, and Ray Milland, and on April 12, 1954, with Virginia Mayo, Dana Andrews, and Robert Cummings.
BBC Radio 4's Afternoon Play broadcast on 29 September 2011 was Strangers on a Film by Stephen Wyatt, which gives an imagined account of a series of meetings between Hitchcock (Clive Swift) and Raymond Chandler (Patrick Stewart), as they unsuccessfully attempt to create the screenplay for Strangers on a Train.
The 1987 film Throw Momma from the Train by Danny DeVito was inspired by Strangers on a Train, which is also watched by DeVito's character in the film.
In 2021, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
See also
Influence on Carol Burnett's Star on Hollywood Walk of Fame
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Hare, Bill. "Strangers on a Train: Hitchcock's Rich Imagery Reigning Supreme" on Noir of the Week, April 20, 2008.
Schneider, Dan. "Strangers On A Train – DVD" on Culturevulture.net.
External links
Strangers on a Train on Lux Radio Theater: April 12, 1954
1950s crime thriller films
1950s psychological thriller films
1950s mystery films
1951 films
American films
American black-and-white films
American crime thriller films
American mystery films
American psychological thriller films
English-language films
Film noir
Films about murderers
Films about psychopaths
Films based on American novels
Films based on thriller novels
Films based on works by Patricia Highsmith
Films directed by Alfred Hitchcock
Films produced by Alfred Hitchcock
Films scored by Dimitri Tiomkin
Films set in Washington, D.C.
Films set in amusement parks
Films shot in Connecticut
Films shot in New York City
Films shot in Washington, D.C.
Films with screenplays by Raymond Chandler
Rail transport films
Tennis films
United States National Film Registry films | [
-0.45401594042778015,
0.28319647908210754,
-0.9098074436187744,
0.31218165159225464,
0.2256094068288803,
0.15634088218212128,
0.7234861850738525,
-0.06340262293815613,
-0.297757089138031,
-0.002924395492300391,
-0.001980430679395795,
0.46946367621421814,
-0.7396420240402222,
0.3677375912666321,
0.38698896765708923,
-0.35691559314727783,
0.3212202489376068,
-0.1847836971282959,
-0.07237609475851059,
-0.8201757669448853,
-0.433207631111145,
-0.517514169216156,
0.7463357448577881,
-0.34046465158462524,
-0.22292998433113098,
-0.09888547658920288,
-0.25235316157341003,
0.21197904646396637,
0.2238718420267105,
0.06744926422834396,
0.23217858374118805,
0.2675071656703949,
-0.04195396229624748,
-0.05458595231175423,
-0.16582068800926208,
-0.15413637459278107,
-0.0748099833726883,
-0.1835094392299652,
-0.28958168625831604,
-0.601030707359314,
0.1376701146364212,
0.03325781226158142,
-0.13268114626407623,
0.2629103660583496,
-0.28557831048965454,
-0.22467614710330963,
-1.2218700647354126,
-0.1316218227148056,
-0.6426206827163696,
-0.8231887221336365,
0.2555025815963745,
0.9898278713226318,
0.40483155846595764,
0.6921408176422119,
0.3746556341648102,
0.8837153911590576,
-0.382348895072937,
-0.09939125180244446,
-0.1241677924990654,
-0.462276816368103,
0.4187650978565216,
-0.05877193436026573,
0.9458563327789307,
0.12780490517616272,
-0.10928686708211899,
0.8409990072250366,
0.0566866509616375,
0.20526045560836792,
0.7374140620231628,
-0.42903730273246765,
0.10757984220981598,
-0.32822465896606445,
0.39754512906074524,
0.30713990330696106,
0.574225902557373,
-0.6083919405937195,
0.6957070827484131,
-0.17787927389144897,
-0.411861777305603,
0.24384790658950806,
-0.3441564738750458,
0.48081034421920776,
0.8951736688613892,
0.5566386580467224,
0.36724764108657837,
-0.2497396618127823,
-0.7595046758651733,
0.6398621797561646,
0.0015211486024782062,
0.223659947514534,
-0.47653836011886597,
-0.28945493698120117,
-0.3792097270488739,
0.4582159221172333,
-0.42836931347846985,
-0.008424600586295128,
0.10948048532009125,
0.06975152343511581,
0.29752475023269653,
-0.12566155195236206,
0.3784400522708893,
0.016514698043465614,
0.37034982442855835,
-0.41561776399612427,
-0.24620307981967926,
0.18886791169643402,
0.1342667043209076,
-0.1893283724784851,
0.3753623366355896,
-0.02210160344839096,
0.02369651384651661,
-0.24857334792613983,
0.05504316836595535,
-0.07193754613399506,
-0.33817046880722046,
-0.2878425717353821,
-0.22409850358963013,
-0.5022816061973572,
-0.4217752516269684,
0.13141226768493652,
0.047809261828660965,
0.24604974687099457,
0.18493854999542236,
0.5551554560661316,
-0.5231256484985352,
0.5409101843833923,
0.22460807859897614,
0.458897203207016,
-0.24451488256454468,
0.9551421403884888,
-0.0052661169320344925,
0.8159767985343933,
-0.22320078313350677,
0.2723356783390045,
-0.1616911143064499,
0.08019545674324036,
0.3927088677883148,
0.37046048045158386,
-0.015458926558494568,
0.1656462699174881,
-0.8121070861816406,
0.04189213737845421,
-0.11308851093053818,
0.20494335889816284,
0.3827628195285797,
-0.17624831199645996,
-0.053175244480371475,
-0.10873664170503616,
0.011635254137217999,
-0.38246816396713257,
0.0850260853767395,
-0.14482751488685608,
0.08032478392124176,
-0.5183303356170654,
-0.6989248991012573,
0.5841084718704224,
0.03444468602538109,
-0.05125631019473076,
0.09971016645431519,
-0.3541938364505768,
0.12135171890258789,
0.6378070712089539,
-0.2137155681848526,
-0.16326215863227844,
0.0386141873896122,
-0.260018527507782,
0.17977023124694824,
-0.09026657044887543,
0.12787587940692902,
0.2555783987045288,
0.19620683789253235,
0.22416557371616364,
0.16599041223526,
0.0326542854309082,
-0.2096470594406128,
-0.019724758341908455,
0.4530418813228607,
0.8354207277297974,
0.04013208672404289,
-0.411783367395401,
-0.6576730608940125,
0.30935394763946533,
0.309743195772171,
-0.252851277589798,
0.256041556596756,
0.15586861968040466,
-0.2513639032840729,
-0.2532321512699127,
-1.2763093709945679,
-0.4839376211166382,
-0.7034491896629333,
-0.7014931440353394,
-0.049701061099767685,
-0.5248384475708008,
1.1462949514389038,
-0.5128183364868164,
-0.27544060349464417,
0.2758566439151764,
0.1284341663122177,
0.3341408967971802,
0.04395376518368721,
-0.11181335896253586,
0.5082712769508362,
0.11153360456228256,
-0.300754189491272,
0.2621573507785797,
0.05515590310096741,
0.3314787745475769,
0.3683634102344513,
0.5134602785110474,
0.10757622867822647,
-0.4051404297351837,
0.4657667875289917,
0.36950767040252686,
0.10262082517147064,
-0.10476329177618027,
-0.6627933979034424,
0.2897436320781708,
0.23535406589508057,
0.12167398631572723,
0.5628683567047119,
0.2069692462682724,
-0.24535544216632843,
0.32861655950546265,
-0.5277368426322937,
0.501625657081604,
0.4112044870853424,
0.40513187646865845,
0.10934287309646606,
-0.68099445104599,
0.3145795464515686,
0.5203487873077393,
-0.6231398582458496,
-0.7925782203674316,
-0.2159939408302307,
0.11373745650053024,
0.17874877154827118,
-0.21059243381023407,
-0.07593482732772827,
-0.0002888739691115916,
0.20716799795627594,
0.36164405941963196,
-0.49534159898757935,
0.45096448063850403,
0.2576766908168793,
-0.4344995319843292,
0.5400907397270203,
-0.08260048925876617,
0.0877043753862381,
0.16568326950073242,
-0.048046063631772995,
0.694721519947052,
-0.06732425093650818,
-0.06317134946584702,
-0.025094391778111458,
0.2614723742008209,
-0.09516864269971848,
-0.593818187713623,
0.6975599527359009,
0.2342846393585205,
0.3516896069049835,
0.3392527401447296,
0.2950640022754669,
-0.030207309871912003,
-0.4992102384567261,
-0.6749311685562134,
-0.481167733669281,
-0.37191471457481384,
0.19360122084617615,
0.7550995349884033,
0.43171802163124084,
-0.09924108535051346,
-0.2898157238960266,
0.8359570503234863,
0.16578799486160278,
0.3091406226158142,
-0.13842074573040009,
0.46967869997024536,
-0.39840683341026306,
0.017852745950222015,
0.05958128347992897,
0.4174685478210449,
0.09747902303934097,
-0.4346560835838318,
0.3515617847442627,
-0.29730868339538574,
0.21541397273540497,
0.05482858419418335,
0.042581427842378616,
-0.5508537888526917,
-0.23977971076965332,
0.4294804036617279,
-0.3744775652885437,
-0.0916425809264183,
-0.08723250776529312,
0.057475145906209946,
-0.03882782906293869,
0.73350590467453,
0.32320335507392883,
-0.022941933944821358,
-0.5668171048164368,
0.47529375553131104,
-0.6119856238365173,
-0.11983421444892883,
0.4688069820404053,
0.2443678379058838,
0.1713372766971588,
-0.5253854990005493,
-5.722463130950928,
0.4983188211917877,
-0.14109136164188385,
-0.37524697184562683,
0.6296313405036926,
0.03619325906038284,
0.21630629897117615,
-0.5751948952674866,
-0.0001212133138324134,
0.4265093207359314,
-0.07261916249990463,
0.1252623051404953,
-0.3939448297023773,
0.35819488763809204,
-0.13320410251617432,
-0.46379753947257996,
-0.30013471841812134,
-0.3076860308647156,
-0.19961833953857422,
-0.002122116507962346,
-0.6708824634552002,
-0.2301965057849884,
0.2449892908334732,
0.3085014224052429,
-0.14478163421154022,
1.0799130201339722,
-0.21171915531158447,
0.42815881967544556,
-0.2260534018278122,
0.11789438873529434,
0.09960497915744781,
-0.3217889070510864,
0.5131579041481018,
-0.5239914059638977,
-0.2083541750907898,
0.04141644015908241,
0.4425261914730072,
-0.1835721731185913,
0.4414651393890381,
0.07971293479204178,
-0.9415714144706726,
0.5962584614753723,
-0.0720384269952774,
-0.1792663186788559,
0.8922923803329468,
-0.3623553216457367,
-0.6836060881614685,
-0.34488430619239807,
0.25300511717796326,
0.5611153244972229,
0.409974068403244,
0.2980743944644928,
0.08354870975017548,
0.1718517690896988,
0.47347119450569153,
0.021685922518372536,
-0.2623942196369171,
-0.2291572242975235,
-0.00887597817927599,
0.37183284759521484,
0.46729588508605957,
-0.3977632224559784,
-0.5721346139907837,
-0.10519097745418549,
0.03309156745672226,
-0.5188788175582886,
-0.18062326312065125,
0.1924833357334137,
0.13642717897891998,
-0.10676292330026627,
-0.11868984997272491,
-0.06493692845106125,
0.4570920169353485,
-1.043615460395813,
-0.026864808052778244,
0.05239652469754219,
0.05070870742201805,
0.10141812264919281,
-0.1464444100856781,
0.031049812212586403,
-0.06171286106109619,
0.13297809660434723,
0.29991844296455383,
-0.1361791491508484,
0.5786966681480408,
-0.3896496593952179,
0.17644460499286652,
0.466968297958374,
-0.3884434700012207,
-0.7692944407463074,
0.6720031499862671,
-0.16588392853736877,
-0.039050135761499405,
0.28251615166664124,
0.2643197178840637,
0.09695322811603546,
-0.3397537171840668,
0.45459818840026855,
0.4324755370616913,
-0.27078938484191895,
-0.6585314869880676,
-0.5861582159996033,
-0.07575403153896332,
-0.6699913740158081,
-0.4174542725086212,
-0.5223850011825562,
-0.22282947599887848,
0.8743494749069214,
0.0027991344686597586,
-0.05555373430252075,
-0.4459456503391266,
-0.44882094860076904,
-0.353941410779953,
-0.3193713426589966,
0.6797277331352234,
-0.1142936572432518,
-0.33488190174102783,
0.3085509240627289,
-0.047510553151369095,
0.07434786111116409,
0.16849426925182343,
0.8768044710159302,
-0.39030107855796814,
0.06270763278007507,
-0.6221277713775635,
-0.026519397273659706,
0.31243109703063965,
0.0019061516504734755,
-0.014811855740845203,
-0.10868924856185913,
-0.7389764189720154,
0.26573795080184937,
0.21516208350658417,
0.07243996858596802,
-0.08233187347650528,
-0.8103396892547607,
-0.5003618001937866,
0.32407963275909424,
0.16325335204601288,
-0.06948255747556686,
0.30857980251312256,
-0.20974543690681458,
-0.40105313062667847,
0.17953208088874817,
0.07652507722377777,
0.07194173336029053,
-0.13156868517398834,
-0.44485580921173096,
-0.13966108858585358,
-0.3340566158294678,
-0.44380685687065125,
-0.32090041041374207,
0.5106339454650879,
-0.23059463500976562,
-0.4191786050796509,
0.09769307076931,
0.3465575575828552,
-0.14439819753170013,
-0.32047006487846375,
-0.09775931388139725,
0.14258676767349243,
0.020557329058647156,
-0.35632628202438354,
-0.09440795332193375,
0.03594324737787247,
-0.1973939836025238,
-0.018374191597104073,
-1.270981788635254,
-0.11445662379264832,
0.22051934897899628,
-0.23428301513195038,
-0.1782994121313095,
0.3751474916934967,
0.338154673576355,
0.08582615107297897,
0.7117351293563843,
-0.48823902010917664,
-0.313986599445343,
-0.07444225996732712,
-0.3971364498138428,
0.1937011331319809,
-0.47512245178222656,
-0.708315372467041,
0.2742924690246582,
0.3364524245262146,
-0.2916080057621002,
-0.5539579391479492,
0.052477896213531494,
-0.16178521513938904,
-0.22160276770591736,
-0.2012789398431778,
0.21158215403556824,
0.251595675945282,
0.15981756150722504,
-0.5715097188949585,
-0.44280049204826355,
-0.003311489475890994,
-0.23827800154685974,
0.03041147068142891,
-0.456318199634552,
-0.04525461420416832,
0.34303736686706543,
-0.21130163967609406,
-0.16810572147369385,
0.2635909914970398,
-1.0783742666244507,
0.3428714871406555,
0.27000170946121216,
-0.8180291056632996,
0.6707667112350464,
-0.4579985737800598,
-0.2620399296283722,
-0.015056350268423557,
-0.0535651259124279,
-0.4164625108242035,
0.2757067382335663,
0.5787566304206848,
-0.44738849997520447,
-0.11290444433689117,
-0.17712192237377167,
-0.4577960669994354,
-0.03077409788966179,
-0.9690389633178711,
-0.6354228854179382,
-1.140604853630066,
0.15558841824531555,
0.3754368722438812,
-0.36696377396583557,
0.16147172451019287,
0.023337528109550476,
-0.3598129153251648,
0.04363380745053291,
-0.16363917291164398,
0.1679982841014862,
-0.02630046382546425,
-0.05445359647274017,
0.10686647891998291,
-0.22693932056427002,
0.5646296739578247,
0.2248455435037613,
0.5941447019577026,
0.8037164211273193,
0.730195164680481,
0.1786014437675476,
0.16546477377414703,
0.738858699798584,
-0.05490713566541672,
-1.008415937423706,
-0.14801187813282013,
-0.08913301676511765,
0.37904679775238037,
-0.1740700900554657,
-0.9220839142799377,
-0.1202249601483345,
0.2620650827884674,
-0.3886256217956543,
-0.1751272976398468,
0.4179687201976776,
0.07299968600273132,
0.19778010249137878,
-0.1754317730665207,
0.1571698635816574,
-0.44972288608551025,
0.07335039228200912,
-0.039876170456409454,
0.42671069502830505,
0.287476509809494,
0.005590979941189289,
0.4537295401096344,
-0.276818186044693,
0.10379036515951157,
0.053783971816301346,
0.46396875381469727,
0.037815216928720474,
-0.12143393605947495,
0.14530502259731293,
-0.4534923732280731,
-0.8539583683013916,
-0.3281722664833069,
-0.29050180315971375,
-0.5742096304893494,
0.5456799864768982,
-0.3048914670944214,
-0.6736090779304504,
-0.4393766224384308,
-0.4178760051727295,
0.41595855355262756,
-0.5793611407279968,
-0.6682907342910767,
-0.1239825189113617,
-0.4405692219734192,
-0.055304817855358124,
0.09154949337244034,
0.25145116448402405,
0.08950325101613998,
-0.14088848233222961,
0.0778331458568573,
0.687113881111145,
-0.3194528818130493,
0.2647954523563385,
-0.7206028699874878,
0.6565605401992798,
-0.1989116370677948,
-0.6322043538093567,
0.14478148519992828,
0.3409586250782013,
0.12133146822452545,
-0.8173220157623291,
-0.1282264143228531,
0.5492979884147644,
-0.08924539387226105,
-0.32491669058799744,
0.1424965113401413,
1.3327341079711914,
-0.47657501697540283,
0.1239107996225357,
0.7795999050140381,
-0.553318977355957,
0.05731396749615669,
0.09076511859893799,
-0.3081166744232178,
0.4796544909477234,
0.46537071466445923,
-0.4994873106479645,
-0.161465585231781,
0.40938395261764526,
0.286276251077652,
0.7125126719474792,
-0.07773955166339874,
0.8442091941833496,
0.7079030871391296,
-0.2017955631017685,
0.025122417137026787,
0.09751379489898682,
-0.13100244104862213,
-0.02215694636106491,
0.19308508932590485,
-0.4276094436645508,
-0.025287935510277748,
-0.0700494796037674,
-0.4645370543003082,
0.19906124472618103,
-0.007882565259933472,
-0.02853301912546158,
0.3537142872810364,
0.26215994358062744,
1.0344483852386475,
0.4488086700439453,
0.005626901052892208,
0.3587110638618469,
-0.005980999208986759,
0.5059649348258972,
0.16011150181293488,
-0.2901771366596222,
0.7317166924476624,
0.37481144070625305,
-0.05657714232802391,
0.017085295170545578,
-0.12106510251760483,
0.36734727025032043,
-0.5017700791358948,
0.0951526015996933,
0.8084959983825684,
0.2436358630657196,
0.0254058800637722,
0.012322387658059597,
-0.22947821021080017,
-0.44336405396461487,
0.11605855077505112,
-0.3509170114994049,
-0.07625038921833038,
0.23217742145061493,
-0.34851789474487305,
0.2597409784793854,
0.666545033454895,
0.4513736069202423,
-0.11800957471132278,
-0.08538749068975449,
0.22785940766334534,
0.21624279022216797,
-0.3259764611721039,
-0.0045993030071258545,
-0.217573881149292,
-0.7681063413619995,
0.41324496269226074,
-0.28414514660835266,
-0.4855729639530182,
0.08066372573375702,
0.06939587742090225,
-0.9071326851844788,
0.02995936945080757,
-0.45187339186668396,
-0.15702061355113983,
0.22225433588027954,
-0.2525199353694916,
-0.5100148320198059,
-0.1419794112443924,
0.3826451897621155,
-0.17886929214000702,
0.13749675452709198,
0.31982722878456116,
0.1036931648850441,
-0.1001025065779686,
0.4989635646343231,
-0.1766357570886612,
0.3855166733264923,
-0.5225894451141357,
0.33595553040504456,
-0.736234188079834,
-0.07711896300315857,
0.09273944795131683,
-0.06855673342943192,
0.04081830382347107,
0.4576829671859741,
0.5591042041778564,
-0.019652221351861954,
0.15569238364696503,
0.23480698466300964,
-0.12240758538246155,
-0.2448040395975113,
0.016936711966991425,
-0.2693212032318115,
0.15021191537380219,
0.018899841234087944,
-0.33991074562072754,
0.3355681002140045,
0.4983452558517456,
-0.5199863314628601,
-0.21404589712619781,
0.46032100915908813,
0.0349530428647995,
0.20499587059020996,
-0.22598297894001007,
-0.3880366086959839,
0.026106124743819237,
0.22908295691013336,
0.4276866614818573,
0.7879893183708191,
0.6849406957626343,
-0.10611482709646225,
0.8325141668319702,
0.20179876685142517,
0.42257818579673767,
0.4430261254310608,
0.24287492036819458,
-0.34559985995292664,
-0.7312493324279785,
-0.41735267639160156,
-0.6186502575874329,
0.5310785174369812,
-0.19689086079597473,
-0.42323511838912964,
-0.0677216425538063,
-0.4474228620529175,
-0.38421812653541565,
0.39802414178848267,
0.37498190999031067,
-0.6237503886222839,
0.17417699098587036,
-0.469597727060318
] |
261108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ%20Yella | DJ Yella | Antoine Carraby (born December 11, 1967), better known by his stage name DJ Yella, is an American DJ, rapper, record producer and film director from Los Angeles, California.
DJ Yella began his career as a member of the World Class Wreckin' Cru along with Dr. Dre. He later joined the pioneering gangsta rap group N.W.A (originally composed of Dr. Dre, Ice Cube, MC Ren, Arabian Prince and Eazy-E) and became the least vocal but longest-lasting member of the group. His first and only studio album One Mo Nigga ta Go was released in 1996 through Street Life Records and was dedicated to Eazy-E. After the release of the album he left the music industry to direct pornographic films until 2011, when he started working on a new album called West Coastin.
In 2016, He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of N.W.A.
Early life
Antoine Carraby was born in Compton, California, on December 11, 1967 and raised in Los Angeles.
He was passionate about music from a young age. He grew up listening to funk music and learned to play the drums. As a teenager, he performed at various clubs of Los Angeles by the name of Yella which was inspired by Tom Tom Club's Mr. Yellow. After watching Run-D.M.C. perform in California for the first time, he and Dre both were amazed to see them on-stage with nothing more than a DJ scratching. They attempted to make a few records themselves in the nightclub Eve After Dark, owned by Alonzo Williams.
Career
Yella began DJ'ing as a teenager in a local club called Eve After Dark, At the club he met aspiring DJ Dr. J later to become member Dr. Dre of N.W.A. Eve After Dark had a back room with a small four-track studio. In this studio, Yella and Dre recorded several demos. In their first recording session, they recorded a song entitled "Surgery".
Influenced by Grandmaster Flash, Yella and Dre formed the World Class Wreckin' Cru in the early '80s, which released its debut album under the Kru-Cut label in 1985. The group would become stars of the electro-hop scene that dominated early-mid 1980s West Coast hip hop. "Surgery", which was officially released after being recorded prior to the group's official formation. The record would become the group's first hit, selling 50,000 copies within the Compton area. DJ Yella and Dr. Dre also performed mixes for local radio station KDAY, boosting ratings for its afternoon rush-hour show The Traffic Jam.
Along with Dre, Yella helped produce Eazy-E's debut album Eazy-Duz-It and the three N.W.A albums, with the first one being a compilation album translating into millions of sales. Along with Dr. Dre and Arabian Prince, Yella co-produced J.J. Fad's gold certified debut (Super Sonic) and also Michel'le's (self-titled) album and contributed to The D.O.C.'s 1989 album No One Can Do It Better (also produced by Dre). Jerry Heller, in his 2006 memoir Ruthless, witnessed Dre and Yella's work together, writing that the two had an almost eerie understanding, as they crafted high quality beats and productions with almost no words or full sentences needing to be spoken.
Yella remained close to Eazy and stayed on production duties at Ruthless Records after the acrimonious breakup of N.W.A. He produced J.J. Fad's second album Not Just a Fad (1990), Yomo & Maulkie's album Are U Xperienced? (1991), two tracks from Eazy-E's It's On (Dr. Dre) 187um Killa (1993), the gold-selling hit single "Foe tha Love of $" from Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's Creepin on ah Come Up EP, Menajahtwa's album Cha-licious, and tracks from H.W.A.'s Az Much Ass Azz U Want E.P. (all three from 1994). He also produced Eazy's final album Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton, released about a year after his death in 1995 because of AIDS.
Yella released his 1996 debut solo album One Mo Nigga ta Go on Street Life Records as a tribute to Eazy-E, featuring members of the Ruthless "family tree" Kokane, B.G. Knocc Out, and Dresta, rhyming over his productions. The album peaked at number 82 on the Billboard 200 albums chart and at number 23 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart in the United States.
After this record he retired from music to embark on a 12-year career directing and producing pornographic films. Yella says he produced more than 300 adult films.
In November 2011 Yella began working on a new album, entitled West Coastin, which was scheduled for release in the summer of 2012. This album remains unreleased as of 2021.
Yella was played by Neil Brown Jr. in the 2015 N.W.A. biopic, Straight Outta Compton. He is portrayed as very interested in sex and women, and also as less aggressive than the other members and unwilling to engage in conflict with Ice Cube.
In April 2016, Yella reunited with the former members of N.W.A at Coachella.
Discography
Studio albums
Collaboration albumswith World Class Wreckin' Cru World Class (1985)
Rapped in Romance (1986)with N.W.A.'''
N.W.A. and the Posse (1987)
Straight Outta Compton (1988)
100 Miles and Runnin' (1990)
Niggaz4Life'' (1991)
Selected works
Filmography
References
External links
DJ Yella at AllMusic
1967 births
Living people
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
20th-century American rappers
21st-century American rappers
African-American DJs
African-American male rappers
African-American record producers
American hip hop DJs
American hip hop record producers
Musicians from Compton, California
N.W.A members
Rappers from Los Angeles
Record producers from California
Ruthless Records artists
American pornographers | [
0.4717639982700348,
-0.01733621582388878,
-0.42091020941734314,
-0.4979810416698456,
-0.1370624154806137,
0.246470108628273,
0.2993180751800537,
0.11254747956991196,
-0.33799421787261963,
0.3355804681777954,
-0.5916165113449097,
0.21736310422420502,
-0.5197094082832336,
0.1695956587791443,
0.11741717904806137,
0.311599999666214,
-0.25705161690711975,
-0.13018818199634552,
0.34511128067970276,
0.3144887387752533,
-0.19770489633083344,
0.08526621758937836,
0.10426950454711914,
0.2688835561275482,
-0.32612448930740356,
0.7605593800544739,
-0.3825607895851135,
0.3667343258857727,
-0.12190015614032745,
-0.35511040687561035,
0.3358747661113739,
0.6058740615844727,
0.4256283938884735,
-0.9035865664482117,
-0.18992359936237335,
0.410083144903183,
-0.3179505169391632,
-0.1761559396982193,
0.06308484077453613,
-0.12778028845787048,
-0.41881534457206726,
-0.24789956212043762,
0.025089038535952568,
-0.4467412829399109,
-0.6159940958023071,
-0.43558400869369507,
-1.499441385269165,
0.6630712747573853,
-1.3004862070083618,
-0.5092243552207947,
-0.301213800907135,
-0.12175408750772476,
-0.43506863713264465,
0.03473839536309242,
0.10608100891113281,
-0.1094590574502945,
-0.5758264660835266,
-0.4843885004520416,
0.05897543206810951,
-0.02672433666884899,
0.6254042983055115,
-0.00011757588799810037,
0.281355619430542,
-0.5621461272239685,
-0.1384602040052414,
0.05140988901257515,
-0.016041310504078865,
0.4979023337364197,
-0.5186406970024109,
0.26056352257728577,
-0.09064509719610214,
0.6297892332077026,
-0.5956528186798096,
-0.2445729374885559,
-0.020203541964292526,
0.3909878730773926,
0.4068579077720642,
0.200988307595253,
-0.04931330308318138,
0.9511389136314392,
0.36574551463127136,
-0.11910899728536606,
1.7384271621704102,
0.511694610118866,
-0.16981512308120728,
-0.1625933051109314,
-0.5970275402069092,
0.4737103283405304,
-0.9200258255004883,
0.012495238333940506,
-0.6358606815338135,
-0.30389928817749023,
0.38993319869041443,
0.28067877888679504,
0.07046455889940262,
-0.2277238517999649,
-0.22838462889194489,
0.558523952960968,
0.05150359869003296,
0.034708745777606964,
-0.1406507045030594,
-0.10415329784154892,
0.00040679104859009385,
-0.23402288556098938,
-1.024259090423584,
0.28611165285110474,
0.2195347547531128,
-0.35777145624160767,
-0.9221842885017395,
-0.07512485980987549,
-0.48122039437294006,
0.6739771366119385,
0.12327483296394348,
-0.28886282444000244,
0.3881891369819641,
0.4820038080215454,
0.29569098353385925,
0.12482739239931107,
-0.4401158392429352,
-0.11710973083972931,
-0.3477921783924103,
0.33739426732063293,
0.16388492286205292,
0.7666613459587097,
-0.9542438387870789,
0.4372142553329468,
-0.09659494459629059,
0.13462574779987335,
-0.4635942280292511,
0.08984425663948059,
0.43675342202186584,
0.4140371084213257,
0.2303648144006729,
0.1390867829322815,
-0.2578423321247101,
-0.391976535320282,
0.1995885968208313,
-0.10772531479597092,
0.2884327173233032,
-0.4614034593105316,
-0.6344815492630005,
-0.21919451653957367,
-0.5821006298065186,
-0.0011187372729182243,
-0.25530898571014404,
-0.018023613840341568,
-0.6719469428062439,
-0.16063600778579712,
0.29943519830703735,
-0.12646259367465973,
-0.07741023600101471,
0.14477472007274628,
-0.6059508323669434,
-0.8719091415405273,
-0.6473467350006104,
0.02325037494301796,
-0.12873080372810364,
-0.5081731677055359,
0.3893732726573944,
-0.12956838309764862,
-0.2956317663192749,
0.010871652513742447,
0.014729367569088936,
0.24870547652244568,
0.827544093132019,
-0.5417088270187378,
-0.18800592422485352,
-0.2799029052257538,
-0.2181549072265625,
-0.1047121062874794,
-0.5222809910774231,
0.2927493751049042,
0.17325833439826965,
-0.15692108869552612,
-0.32879379391670227,
-0.08839748799800873,
0.8447554111480713,
0.0026402564253658056,
0.2592182457447052,
0.436230331659317,
-0.770913302898407,
0.1292673796415329,
0.44578391313552856,
-0.05391564965248108,
0.1873616874217987,
-0.3190383017063141,
0.1881527304649353,
-0.47166508436203003,
0.43175387382507324,
-0.2999526858329773,
-0.24596448242664337,
-0.2783048450946808,
0.24917791783809662,
-0.010009917430579662,
0.17333322763442993,
0.19503153860569,
-0.721078097820282,
0.40979376435279846,
0.602839469909668,
0.5875056385993958,
0.021726908162236214,
-0.5057797431945801,
0.27883994579315186,
-0.6138059496879578,
-0.6203373074531555,
0.09047717601060867,
0.8007135987281799,
0.16415445506572723,
-0.06168564781546593,
0.6610671281814575,
0.5218262672424316,
-0.7221496105194092,
0.24785412847995758,
0.12236042320728302,
-0.07392828911542892,
-0.14549322426319122,
-0.4498898386955261,
0.19023792445659637,
-0.27276384830474854,
0.2082870602607727,
0.9277125000953674,
0.5005764365196228,
-0.46808725595474243,
0.4810362756252289,
-0.13738709688186646,
0.8402230739593506,
0.18793731927871704,
-0.7740368843078613,
0.3207329511642456,
-0.7683301568031311,
0.43181419372558594,
-0.09738598763942719,
-0.3723936080932617,
-0.7267759442329407,
0.17415784299373627,
0.41581571102142334,
0.612132728099823,
0.1247185543179512,
0.030070455744862556,
-0.4787122905254364,
0.6672096848487854,
0.02217980846762657,
-0.8706212639808655,
-0.5522759556770325,
0.4060511589050293,
0.22636035084724426,
0.012730765156447887,
-0.2539360225200653,
-0.5827775001525879,
0.0664096474647522,
0.3472025692462921,
0.41016584634780884,
0.6581282615661621,
0.000767090474255383,
0.5205737352371216,
-0.023993898183107376,
0.44042345881462097,
0.010506559163331985,
0.2870519161224365,
-0.23866747319698334,
0.07893139123916626,
-0.25867360830307007,
0.4085334539413452,
0.0687931478023529,
0.04110727086663246,
-0.17550471425056458,
0.2533983290195465,
-0.2661503255367279,
0.3165428936481476,
-0.018191488459706306,
1.2118103504180908,
0.15260767936706543,
0.2498149275779724,
0.2917720079421997,
-0.1773090660572052,
-0.07519060373306274,
-0.13432252407073975,
-0.4341246485710144,
-0.34302571415901184,
-0.9950475692749023,
0.755749523639679,
0.44293537735939026,
-0.16675971448421478,
-0.44585251808166504,
-0.4928433299064636,
-0.37191876769065857,
0.40902432799339294,
-0.010548648424446583,
-0.033091023564338684,
-0.5777626633644104,
-0.608880341053009,
-0.06541093438863754,
-0.67073655128479,
0.45056504011154175,
0.10260239243507385,
-0.5449509024620056,
0.038259923458099365,
-0.11857600510120392,
-0.2867439389228821,
0.23087358474731445,
-0.2717592120170593,
0.8862326741218567,
-0.3851087987422943,
0.1342453807592392,
0.2290891706943512,
0.13164979219436646,
0.10660859197378159,
-0.5408315062522888,
-5.282552242279053,
0.589384138584137,
0.07669239491224289,
0.30599069595336914,
0.4389699399471283,
-0.13645698130130768,
0.5016143321990967,
-0.24815934896469116,
0.5454537868499756,
-0.6199391484260559,
-1.2765660285949707,
-0.47942054271698,
-0.1308222860097885,
0.3099695146083832,
0.16825725138187408,
0.28171348571777344,
0.4634336233139038,
-0.4140224754810333,
-0.07740478217601776,
0.8973893523216248,
-0.6603321433067322,
-0.0497971773147583,
-0.04333304241299629,
0.32116544246673584,
-0.5051831603050232,
0.08276887983083725,
-0.2474859356880188,
0.04397999867796898,
-0.6314022541046143,
-0.12969037890434265,
-0.19266021251678467,
0.2071407437324524,
-0.37258291244506836,
-0.4829292595386505,
-0.10347793251276016,
-0.04490010067820549,
0.713357150554657,
-0.558989405632019,
0.6365140080451965,
-0.5751978754997253,
0.3589564859867096,
0.08731554448604584,
-0.44463545083999634,
-0.28968286514282227,
0.4231829345226288,
-0.04479236155748367,
-0.8328743577003479,
-0.3196512758731842,
-0.5132299065589905,
0.5845649838447571,
0.29299765825271606,
-0.42103517055511475,
0.21806487441062927,
0.027330055832862854,
0.527542769908905,
-0.47482526302337646,
0.3120703399181366,
0.7213431000709534,
-0.24260462820529938,
0.38843438029289246,
0.7519457936286926,
-0.398899644613266,
-0.30711308121681213,
-0.1208718866109848,
0.02086128294467926,
0.09567832946777344,
0.8368958830833435,
0.035704515874385834,
0.04982202127575874,
0.015255514532327652,
-0.007547824177891016,
-0.11255723237991333,
0.10846806317567825,
-1.4206663370132446,
-0.24540047347545624,
0.03428323566913605,
-0.6240583062171936,
0.6145389080047607,
-0.4525787830352783,
-0.06521624326705933,
-0.01860756054520607,
-0.20129896700382233,
0.22386832535266876,
0.5210819840431213,
-0.40713614225387573,
-0.9796847701072693,
-0.34276652336120605,
0.6991170048713684,
-0.17352908849716187,
0.33116206526756287,
-0.0876397043466568,
-0.2841993570327759,
-0.16445134580135345,
-0.26299387216567993,
-0.21389730274677277,
-0.32396671175956726,
0.9595690965652466,
0.5511318445205688,
0.6578788757324219,
0.32086890935897827,
0.6388024091720581,
-0.16528508067131042,
-0.20457330346107483,
-0.5283840894699097,
0.36212337017059326,
-0.12198834121227264,
-0.16595640778541565,
0.02025432325899601,
0.3333893418312073,
-0.385961651802063,
-0.15459594130516052,
0.12317308038473129,
-0.6547658443450928,
-0.18159939348697662,
0.8081427812576294,
-0.03282666206359863,
-0.5311380624771118,
0.1946524679660797,
0.2522886395454407,
0.32135653495788574,
-0.2899820804595947,
0.6081163287162781,
0.01269999984651804,
-0.02104506455361843,
0.014508341439068317,
0.44150519371032715,
0.05282486602663994,
-0.1748238205909729,
-0.3421366214752197,
-0.024024197831749916,
-0.3387230634689331,
0.0444207563996315,
-0.07573196291923523,
-0.16866473853588104,
0.2914460301399231,
-0.4783371686935425,
-0.19713105261325836,
-0.7145885825157166,
0.5512766242027283,
-0.19950315356254578,
0.03665795922279358,
-0.3764461278915405,
0.8022723197937012,
0.6222962141036987,
0.7529668211936951,
0.02158549427986145,
0.0230425912886858,
0.10210320353507996,
-0.4588884115219116,
0.14028911292552948,
0.17772161960601807,
-0.507964551448822,
0.41341397166252136,
-0.4678541123867035,
-0.24061480164527893,
0.3021637201309204,
-0.553674578666687,
-0.22501549124717712,
0.23019035160541534,
-0.6911267042160034,
1.0101373195648193,
-1.0699195861816406,
-0.9600182175636292,
0.2801554799079895,
-0.19571338593959808,
0.4505038559436798,
-0.29417479038238525,
0.2595013976097107,
-0.5406063795089722,
-0.3076381981372833,
-0.6056064367294312,
-0.7357282638549805,
-0.07321465760469437,
-0.2843037247657776,
-0.5649887919425964,
0.261644184589386,
-0.02397545427083969,
-0.2549073100090027,
0.4446011185646057,
0.2868109941482544,
-0.316214382648468,
0.375264972448349,
-0.3708804249763489,
0.17553620040416718,
0.5670491456985474,
-0.24969582259655,
-0.6947594285011292,
0.11793823540210724,
-0.06407462805509567,
0.38412705063819885,
-0.25266528129577637,
0.5046305060386658,
0.5823128819465637,
0.06417527794837952,
0.014253588393330574,
-1.3332946300506592,
-0.24097885191440582,
0.09988153725862503,
0.11649676412343979,
-0.2441830188035965,
0.37052813172340393,
-0.07061392813920975,
0.03990940377116203,
0.4241286516189575,
0.7652862668037415,
-0.4526069462299347,
0.2542486786842346,
0.4651189148426056,
-0.21418315172195435,
0.35952654480934143,
-0.5605887770652771,
-0.5334050059318542,
-0.1576673537492752,
-0.025425037369132042,
-0.24076278507709503,
0.025352109223604202,
-0.11493606120347977,
0.06445001065731049,
0.03677171841263771,
-0.32969287037849426,
-0.3091990351676941,
-0.7189446687698364,
0.012050210498273373,
0.26384711265563965,
-0.6350881457328796,
0.20284569263458252,
0.11988680809736252,
0.27986109256744385,
0.6182792782783508,
-0.12387712299823761,
0.017735691741108894,
0.34399598836898804,
0.489656925201416,
0.9980983138084412,
-0.47969383001327515,
0.404001384973526,
0.059299953281879425,
1.1379501819610596,
0.10556134581565857,
0.1304590255022049,
0.2448391616344452,
0.8607142567634583,
-0.46707677841186523,
0.07773061096668243,
0.6579498648643494,
0.2156383991241455,
0.5850327014923096,
0.45848286151885986,
-0.6843411326408386,
-0.3432426452636719,
0.23169629275798798,
0.19038470089435577,
-0.506142795085907,
-0.13447842001914978,
0.7003363370895386,
-0.7123614549636841,
-0.10921906679868698,
-0.10198204964399338,
-0.24156492948532104,
0.23998239636421204,
0.4198070764541626,
0.32803669571876526,
-0.06173638999462128,
0.35668596625328064,
-0.04391154646873474,
0.1328747570514679,
-0.16811959445476532,
-0.11199234426021576,
0.15643420815467834,
-0.8354344367980957,
0.058183349668979645,
-0.5623149275779724,
0.10099015384912491,
0.32567641139030457,
0.3060262203216553,
0.28541994094848633,
0.2108510136604309,
-0.5386154651641846,
0.4467748701572418,
0.1587972491979599,
0.0956340953707695,
0.21795153617858887,
0.2594444155693054,
-0.22424186766147614,
0.8911222815513611,
-0.05053466185927391,
-0.49930861592292786,
-0.11494725942611694,
-0.09440558403730392,
-0.10687410831451416,
-0.28718629479408264,
0.7677875757217407,
0.2511022984981537,
0.13332641124725342,
-0.17030666768550873,
0.4796290397644043,
0.38014546036720276,
0.3339105546474457,
-0.21156321465969086,
-0.4346061646938324,
0.2353588044643402,
0.31297463178634644,
0.31572744250297546,
-0.17489001154899597,
-0.09486528486013412,
-0.19999730587005615,
0.49404478073120117,
-0.4314175844192505,
0.4770659804344177,
0.29610636830329895,
-0.141886368393898,
-0.11502229422330856,
0.19361062347888947,
0.27794021368026733,
-0.9329075813293457,
1.1989473104476929,
1.0813028812408447,
-0.019333530217409134,
0.5164179801940918,
-0.1438439041376114,
-0.1950942575931549,
-0.7556788325309753,
0.5461612939834595,
0.4775240421295166,
0.42405879497528076,
0.6981084942817688,
0.00834530871361494,
0.22453957796096802,
0.5999190211296082,
0.7533020973205566,
-0.16571545600891113,
0.41071343421936035,
0.1560388207435608,
0.6731593608856201,
-0.02571406029164791,
-0.38178980350494385,
-0.021161682903766632,
0.5273975729942322,
0.03669831156730652,
0.3401179611682892,
-0.2223816066980362,
1.1216431856155396,
0.047773975878953934,
0.18039992451667786,
0.32201191782951355,
-0.018531331792473793,
0.16994896531105042,
0.5865313410758972,
-0.05522580072283745,
0.16271179914474487,
-0.1915236860513687,
-0.017124535515904427,
0.04358174651861191,
-0.17209815979003906,
0.43477630615234375,
-0.7615389823913574,
-0.04602353274822235,
-0.005289909429848194,
-0.1365755945444107,
-0.03017449378967285,
-0.22065216302871704,
-0.08400198817253113,
0.6832639575004578,
0.10647604614496231,
-0.7734138369560242,
-0.15092642605304718,
-0.09779138118028641,
-0.23024307191371918,
0.060388967394828796,
0.5131189227104187,
0.32813769578933716,
0.31727978587150574,
-0.10318128019571304,
0.25575217604637146,
0.28520962595939636,
0.19635947048664093,
0.4369085729122162,
-0.04778603836894035,
-1.201682686805725,
0.22941190004348755,
-0.1047532856464386,
-0.11972060799598694,
-0.8555060029029846,
0.478206068277359,
0.5895344018936157,
0.3230234980583191,
-0.8515514135360718,
0.18196047842502594,
-0.39158257842063904,
-0.2829998731613159,
0.12809576094150543,
-0.608991265296936,
-0.3277113735675812,
0.1382412165403366,
-0.3421434462070465,
0.03853107616305351,
0.14637817442417145,
0.4571453332901001,
0.32973358035087585,
-0.17230960726737976,
0.5339986681938171,
-0.006662007421255112,
0.2942829132080078,
-0.6447800397872925,
-0.5364956855773926,
0.27136659622192383,
-0.7981082797050476,
-0.15589217841625214,
-0.609641969203949,
1.1753206253051758,
-0.17543528974056244,
-0.07316624373197556,
-0.29352542757987976,
0.3727417290210724,
-0.13018785417079926,
0.4084070324897766,
0.6705880761146545,
0.18242138624191284,
0.10660522431135178,
-0.61626136302948,
0.12129215896129608,
0.6393837928771973,
-0.09379328787326813,
-0.10122642666101456,
-0.22560715675354004,
0.5835589170455933,
-0.4909365177154541,
-0.027870841324329376,
-0.8046154975891113,
0.17509648203849792,
0.24079500138759613,
-0.6626486778259277,
-0.36399272084236145,
-0.8877411484718323,
-0.9021959900856018,
-1.137960433959961,
0.5040374994277954,
0.9221230149269104,
0.40542304515838623,
0.05900049954652786,
0.8141247630119324,
0.09339441359043121,
-0.8228285908699036,
-0.33109283447265625,
-0.05690561607480049,
-0.013171897269785404,
-0.6536346077919006,
-0.20902645587921143,
-0.15642410516738892,
-0.17849573493003845,
-0.4293387830257416,
-0.35408326983451843,
0.5008323192596436,
-0.09156065434217453,
-0.7499485611915588,
0.3684636354446411,
0.719639241695404,
0.18181580305099487,
0.15374472737312317,
-0.7789487838745117
] |
261109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fork%20bomb | Fork bomb | In computing, a fork bomb (also called rabbit virus or wabbit) is a denial-of-service attack wherein a process continually replicates itself to deplete available system resources, slowing down or crashing the system due to resource starvation.
History
Around 1978, an early variant of a fork bomb called wabbit was reported to run on a System/360. It may have descended from a similar attack called RABBITS reported from 1969 on a Burroughs 5500 at the University of Washington.
Implementation
Fork bombs operate both by consuming CPU time in the process of forking, and by saturating the operating system's process table. A basic implementation of a fork bomb is an infinite loop that repeatedly launches new copies of itself.
In Unix-like operating systems, fork bombs are generally written to use the fork system call. As forked processes are also copies of the first program, once they resume execution from the next address at the frame pointer, they continue forking endlessly within their own copy of the same infinite loop; this has the effect of causing an exponential growth in processes. As modern Unix systems generally use a copy-on-write resource management technique when forking new processes, a fork bomb generally will not saturate such a system's memory.
Microsoft Windows operating systems do not have an equivalent functionality to the Unix fork system call; a fork bomb on such an operating system must therefore create a new process instead of forking from an existing one.
A classic example of a fork bomb is the Unix shell one :(){ :|:& };:, which can be more easily understood as:
fork() {
fork | fork &
}
fork
In it, a function is defined (fork()) as calling itself (fork), then piping (|) its result to a background job of itself (&).
Prevention
As a fork bomb's mode of operation is entirely encapsulated by creating new processes, one way of preventing a fork bomb from severely affecting the entire system is to limit the maximum number of processes that a single user may own. On Linux, this can be achieved by using the ulimit utility; for example, the command ulimit -u 30 would limit the affected user to a maximum of thirty owned processes.
On PAM-enabled systems, this limit can also be set in /etc/security/limits.conf,
and on FreeBSD, the system administrator can put limits in /etc/login.conf.
Modern Linux systems also allow finer-grained fork bomb prevention through cgroups and process number (PID) controllers.
See also
Deadlock
Logic bomb
Time bomb (software)
References
External links
Examples of fork bombs in many languages
Denial-of-service attacks
Process (computing) | [
0.40867727994918823,
0.4190893769264221,
-0.7965418100357056,
0.01033412292599678,
-0.06191154569387436,
0.23568092286586761,
0.6310270428657532,
0.7082437872886658,
-0.08922018855810165,
-0.19977852702140808,
-0.45007196068763733,
-0.20117035508155823,
-0.5736376643180847,
0.8053195476531982,
-0.52822345495224,
-0.04394577816128731,
0.46150580048561096,
0.0798710286617279,
-0.10246409475803375,
0.12763898074626923,
-0.22308160364627838,
0.13950426876544952,
0.014039233326911926,
0.10413847863674164,
-0.3189525306224823,
0.20573216676712036,
0.06941007077693939,
-0.10075905919075012,
-0.11953747272491455,
0.02170385606586933,
-0.04495704174041748,
0.3104236125946045,
0.5535629987716675,
-0.17240630090236664,
-0.2141919732093811,
0.13130804896354675,
-0.5172674655914307,
-0.3086967170238495,
-0.26555532217025757,
-0.43123531341552734,
0.025884488597512245,
-0.3175801932811737,
-0.15922671556472778,
0.28021565079689026,
-0.1023823469877243,
-0.2398788332939148,
-1.6981812715530396,
0.29892581701278687,
-0.34167781472206116,
-0.10353802889585495,
-0.7744112014770508,
0.5524352788925171,
-0.10448694974184036,
0.04487185552716255,
-0.1614149659872055,
0.24443133175373077,
0.031678520143032074,
-0.5220524668693542,
0.3822747766971588,
-0.5061755776405334,
0.06479901820421219,
-0.724677562713623,
0.18082812428474426,
0.20366689562797546,
-0.2594181001186371,
0.05749182775616646,
0.13705429434776306,
1.031120777130127,
-0.43420910835266113,
-0.8465386629104614,
-0.3471565842628479,
-0.33660638332366943,
-0.19869913160800934,
0.017537137493491173,
-0.29533326625823975,
-0.5340034365653992,
-0.11735218018293381,
-0.030039433389902115,
-0.2516944408416748,
0.2645047903060913,
-0.6144899129867554,
0.8056559562683105,
0.029267780482769012,
-0.05457504093647003,
0.6898399591445923,
-0.36241355538368225,
-0.09349396824836731,
0.931793212890625,
-0.4743282198905945,
0.6245644092559814,
0.2294134944677353,
0.1341552734375,
0.6717620491981506,
-0.2828409969806671,
-0.2252204716205597,
-0.07415702193975449,
0.11903270334005356,
0.20958226919174194,
0.4280453026294708,
0.051785487681627274,
-0.1303749978542328,
-0.34042787551879883,
0.5238468050956726,
-0.002117342781275511,
-0.252595990896225,
-0.02989034354686737,
0.05283735319972038,
-0.6327666640281677,
-0.0077215819619596004,
-0.6178002953529358,
-0.07374431192874908,
0.45632144808769226,
-0.10362552106380463,
0.2750939726829529,
-0.4492250084877014,
0.07747407257556915,
-0.247533917427063,
-0.30213314294815063,
-0.23765234649181366,
-0.23296375572681427,
0.5491848587989807,
0.7823276519775391,
-0.1561809480190277,
-0.06547897309064865,
0.3856552243232727,
0.06773137301206589,
0.47946226596832275,
0.20196686685085297,
-0.3481271266937256,
0.25699859857559204,
0.5754318237304688,
1.1175222396850586,
-0.13508690893650055,
-0.23501212894916534,
-0.2030206173658371,
0.14766860008239746,
0.1115073636174202,
-0.0226289052516222,
0.12237267196178436,
-0.356793612241745,
-0.9005776643753052,
-0.4039863348007202,
-0.1209539845585823,
0.21945667266845703,
0.8625667691230774,
0.3060489296913147,
0.05301100015640259,
-0.246456578373909,
-0.012501317076385021,
-0.5014179348945618,
-0.13774670660495758,
0.2716413736343384,
-0.7508656978607178,
0.285592257976532,
0.4145418405532837,
0.292925089597702,
0.08017577230930328,
-0.6211723685264587,
0.1042226031422615,
0.33399340510368347,
0.443569153547287,
0.3846036195755005,
-0.9567925333976746,
-0.3537593483924866,
-0.2871021330356598,
-0.019974565133452415,
0.4126715064048767,
0.6075931787490845,
0.1796954721212387,
-0.11578775942325592,
-0.5374916195869446,
0.43203312158584595,
0.5458019971847534,
-0.1364646703004837,
0.4424929916858673,
0.009042467921972275,
0.5742238759994507,
-0.10848892480134964,
1.0006153583526611,
0.467033326625824,
-0.5142340064048767,
-0.19060803949832916,
0.22424936294555664,
0.45918458700180054,
-0.656798779964447,
-0.3773033618927002,
0.25641506910324097,
-0.36113008856773376,
-0.4074164927005768,
0.07809268683195114,
-1.2513713836669922,
-0.07939691096544266,
0.3161393404006958,
-0.17191265523433685,
1.2191082239151,
-0.1728762984275818,
-0.6723187565803528,
0.6244493126869202,
0.28868556022644043,
0.07221163064241409,
-0.14277750253677368,
0.1622079610824585,
0.25049760937690735,
-0.4067535996437073,
-0.7352975010871887,
0.2585192322731018,
0.21834497153759003,
-0.07377291470766068,
-0.29545697569847107,
0.11665841937065125,
0.43433085083961487,
0.041829608380794525,
-0.10495170950889587,
-0.5369253754615784,
0.28494688868522644,
0.7226710319519043,
-0.6070472598075867,
0.43546685576438904,
0.2300795465707779,
-0.3841196894645691,
0.14419503509998322,
-0.6461434364318848,
-0.14343507587909698,
0.37882930040359497,
0.44580215215682983,
0.9440217614173889,
0.4041161835193634,
0.4098696708679199,
1.0486856698989868,
-0.7580862045288086,
0.3191279470920563,
0.0713883712887764,
-0.1112159863114357,
-0.021008238196372986,
-0.4786054193973541,
0.45209285616874695,
0.22298668324947357,
-0.07027743756771088,
-0.28630584478378296,
-0.4825298488140106,
-0.021031958982348442,
0.5891475677490234,
-0.35508447885513306,
0.244778111577034,
0.04132681339979172,
-0.3682458996772766,
-0.22914765775203705,
-0.05449824407696724,
-0.4226019084453583,
-0.014013120904564857,
-0.1822928786277771,
0.7706946134567261,
0.3849334120750427,
-0.4534425139427185,
-0.024332497268915176,
-0.008304239250719547,
0.09824837744235992,
0.36252179741859436,
0.11121898889541626,
0.23506948351860046,
-0.18846361339092255,
0.03127925843000412,
-0.2681194841861725,
0.39925456047058105,
-0.05812209099531174,
-0.6766405701637268,
-0.3470717668533325,
0.2380456179380417,
-0.2750856876373291,
0.04049176350235939,
0.32033056020736694,
-0.617885947227478,
-0.4334601163864136,
-0.011108293198049068,
-0.18783056735992432,
-1.0714044570922852,
0.3263118863105774,
0.6186192631721497,
-0.5747133493423462,
-0.21313147246837616,
-0.6439041495323181,
0.4987233281135559,
-0.04136078432202339,
-0.7541240453720093,
0.07984015345573425,
-0.3730413019657135,
0.12457537651062012,
-0.08575133234262466,
-0.511105477809906,
-0.027173666283488274,
-0.7696524858474731,
0.29315635561943054,
0.10005571693181992,
0.5990589261054993,
0.11054233461618423,
0.09892318397760391,
0.10963428020477295,
-0.008907687850296497,
0.592318594455719,
-0.06772099435329437,
-0.3538777530193329,
0.13409912586212158,
-0.5267062783241272,
-0.10277512669563293,
-0.40989211201667786,
0.10167740285396576,
0.04569660872220993,
0.13561968505382538,
-5.724549293518066,
0.08440465480089188,
-0.22803522646427155,
-0.6624506711959839,
0.06222768872976303,
0.36608582735061646,
0.4395332932472229,
-0.25610312819480896,
-0.27898916602134705,
0.19409668445587158,
0.42404457926750183,
0.2522640824317932,
0.15251728892326355,
-0.0391542948782444,
-0.07704784721136093,
-0.47069263458251953,
0.3984070420265198,
-0.05967453494668007,
0.3627892732620239,
-0.285058856010437,
-0.15530294179916382,
0.1832859218120575,
0.3163086473941803,
0.571513295173645,
-0.5947660803794861,
0.014392280951142311,
-0.017514526844024658,
0.2945834696292877,
0.00005800637154607102,
0.22845186293125153,
0.2091253101825714,
-0.9331030249595642,
0.06207701936364174,
-0.10107589513063431,
-0.5089482069015503,
0.2642245888710022,
0.6273530721664429,
0.08881241083145142,
0.14408645033836365,
0.19178204238414764,
0.049710847437381744,
0.18597236275672913,
0.09037891775369644,
-0.3692759871482849,
0.9415141940116882,
-0.11499946564435959,
0.05104898288846016,
-0.2142682671546936,
-0.253933846950531,
0.027706114575266838,
0.0888480395078659,
-0.21919608116149902,
0.3178291618824005,
0.3709535300731659,
0.17594598233699799,
-0.10229115188121796,
0.11857238411903381,
-0.08740653842687607,
-0.03845621645450592,
0.16992610692977905,
0.46059587597846985,
-0.3315785527229309,
-0.17295843362808228,
-0.2322799265384674,
0.4338591396808624,
-0.30908775329589844,
-0.006747220177203417,
-0.38421568274497986,
0.5381588935852051,
-0.16633091866970062,
-0.07569221407175064,
-0.17499573528766632,
0.4656886160373688,
-0.9659202694892883,
0.44661328196525574,
-0.728073239326477,
-0.3255093991756439,
-0.15162472426891327,
-0.02834245376288891,
0.21993388235569,
-0.5354858636856079,
-0.026869354769587517,
-0.5812036991119385,
-0.49544981122016907,
0.4203868806362152,
-0.3673320710659027,
-0.010902591049671173,
0.000843355490360409,
0.04530055448412895,
0.05168689787387848,
0.7471626996994019,
-0.13618294894695282,
0.4834163188934326,
0.2690328061580658,
0.4517395794391632,
1.055983304977417,
0.11137882620096207,
0.8622472882270813,
-0.04846753552556038,
0.29186874628067017,
0.2369144707918167,
-0.3056281805038452,
0.19999200105667114,
-0.9708669781684875,
0.006626568268984556,
0.19262051582336426,
0.016791464760899544,
0.2677237391471863,
0.388312965631485,
-0.021607695147395134,
-0.4685256779193878,
0.6523508429527283,
0.005962750408798456,
-0.4495472013950348,
-0.04746415466070175,
0.12141628563404083,
-0.1751641482114792,
0.5197556018829346,
0.4507456123828888,
-0.16430151462554932,
0.033668022602796555,
0.3921692967414856,
-0.7179593443870544,
0.06398851424455643,
0.8363961577415466,
-0.7544673681259155,
0.007106563076376915,
0.1839514970779419,
0.709632396697998,
-0.6486596465110779,
0.5177611112594604,
0.4386470317840576,
0.2076500952243805,
0.20369504392147064,
0.024501407518982887,
0.11114335805177689,
-0.47089195251464844,
-0.2136622667312622,
-0.39137011766433716,
-0.6676301956176758,
0.0005905957077629864,
-0.16582150757312775,
-0.2788459360599518,
0.05790678411722183,
0.11200711131095886,
0.2645767629146576,
-0.05285362899303436,
-0.027401823550462723,
0.22423651814460754,
0.4428885877132416,
-0.5058877468109131,
-0.0038152916822582483,
0.03854803740978241,
-0.3889539837837219,
-0.16956806182861328,
0.14106348156929016,
0.3704874813556671,
0.12360645085573196,
0.11673343181610107,
0.1889205127954483,
-0.04026898369193077,
-0.837522566318512,
-0.9689658880233765,
0.010560656897723675,
-0.596939742565155,
0.28459432721138,
0.008163409307599068,
-0.41555455327033997,
0.06982294470071793,
0.41882073879241943,
-0.5980785489082336,
0.18811854720115662,
-0.5575882792472839,
0.5066326856613159,
0.4792543947696686,
-0.054771870374679565,
0.0050937882624566555,
-0.2103821337223053,
0.0038617749232798815,
-0.01107316929847002,
-0.15614458918571472,
-0.02822839841246605,
0.11109218001365662,
0.4894356429576874,
0.40466225147247314,
-0.7868714332580566,
-0.027239736169576645,
0.7912738919258118,
-0.4341762065887451,
-0.1848624050617218,
-0.1464453488588333,
0.009712872095406055,
0.8101098537445068,
0.41390547156333923,
-0.17177414894104004,
-0.016437022015452385,
-0.5364981293678284,
0.45728063583374023,
-0.0835270956158638,
-0.4230852425098419,
0.16908471286296844,
0.19594639539718628,
-0.7601397037506104,
-0.21977145969867706,
0.5652063488960266,
-0.28237244486808777,
-0.039612893015146255,
-0.31527677178382874,
0.2397797405719757,
0.1527172476053238,
0.11762963235378265,
-0.23177962005138397,
-0.5243492722511292,
0.7203561067581177,
-0.14070862531661987,
-0.38151228427886963,
0.2033817619085312,
-0.32641395926475525,
-0.016660640016198158,
0.14446167647838593,
-0.34068024158477783,
0.06303291767835617,
-0.08116809278726578,
0.31722763180732727,
-0.4657822549343109,
0.24517084658145905,
-0.10072451084852219,
-1.0801030397415161,
0.758039116859436,
0.11928008496761322,
0.4308732748031616,
-0.31436240673065186,
0.13485689461231232,
0.19042670726776123,
0.22759084403514862,
-0.5020573139190674,
0.3921131491661072,
0.2517867386341095,
-0.17801007628440857,
-0.21951916813850403,
-0.12201014906167984,
0.5227915644645691,
0.1318005919456482,
0.19619275629520416,
-0.3345455229282379,
-0.12099526077508926,
0.3253949284553528,
-0.16456295549869537,
-0.6985758543014526,
0.04314275458455086,
0.28219035267829895,
0.05310286581516266,
0.0690731629729271,
0.1999736726284027,
0.2230074107646942,
-0.7008371353149414,
-0.41001012921333313,
-1.0053651332855225,
0.21303418278694153,
-0.021632865071296692,
-0.17088431119918823,
-0.0721510797739029,
-0.06405424326658249,
0.03304530680179596,
0.14351296424865723,
-0.05413306504487991,
-0.16246585547924042,
-0.16936984658241272,
-0.214370459318161,
-0.3523392081260681,
0.41824057698249817,
0.17398065328598022,
0.428156316280365,
0.703720211982727,
0.39452284574508667,
0.1311076581478119,
-0.2037438452243805,
-0.7532249093055725,
-0.2029544562101364,
0.3430372476577759,
0.1548110842704773,
-0.15286433696746826,
-0.26753494143486023,
-0.8908809423446655,
0.3137003481388092,
-0.9234933853149414,
0.9312471151351929,
-0.1656619906425476,
0.2414683997631073,
-0.28337034583091736,
-0.9565120339393616,
0.5001117587089539,
0.3031155467033386,
0.2192169576883316,
-0.3868557810783386,
-0.10939539968967438,
-0.10686752945184708,
0.12063347548246384,
-0.6193176507949829,
-0.1808396577835083,
-0.495881050825119,
0.11822018027305603,
0.4553395211696625,
-0.6948894262313843,
0.3618416488170624,
0.012502278201282024,
-0.56045001745224,
-0.21795274317264557,
-0.48635029792785645,
-0.2273920774459839,
0.10852556675672531,
-0.11644481867551804,
0.15854275226593018,
0.4016052484512329,
-0.0030647958628833294,
0.3209086060523987,
0.32280513644218445,
-0.6662265658378601,
0.04379285126924515,
-0.11968085169792175,
0.34043967723846436,
-0.14804689586162567,
0.3150041401386261,
-0.18092292547225952,
0.22658850252628326,
0.04913852736353874,
0.1369020938873291,
-0.37242960929870605,
0.29288628697395325,
0.14024576544761658,
0.6400192975997925,
-0.2427518516778946,
-0.05256674811244011,
0.05267346650362015,
-0.18723176419734955,
-0.13720467686653137,
0.40337425470352173,
-0.2458781749010086,
-0.6160858273506165,
0.4512963891029358,
0.23656409978866577,
0.2899197041988373,
-0.10444621741771698,
0.155140683054924,
-0.45273929834365845,
0.5041451454162598,
0.5989219546318054,
0.48169654607772827,
-0.20890197157859802,
0.4441629946231842,
0.025563685223460197,
-0.39543822407722473,
0.06314107775688171,
0.12211249023675919,
0.33611151576042175,
-0.8919386863708496,
0.1598275750875473,
-0.11164388805627823,
-0.020442964509129524,
-0.27630773186683655,
0.4262097179889679,
0.3470386862754822,
0.38668954372406006,
0.016929587349295616,
0.7798835039138794,
0.11241205036640167,
-0.15071751177310944,
-0.468008816242218,
0.026341384276747704,
0.3538559377193451,
-0.27687108516693115,
0.06508763134479523,
0.01455613598227501,
0.2749905288219452,
0.2254936397075653,
-0.23854440450668335,
0.29090407490730286,
0.7117471098899841,
-0.29588204622268677,
0.0022173577453941107,
-0.4753447473049164,
-0.5413300395011902,
0.2064538449048996,
-0.33837708830833435,
0.23682725429534912,
0.12673212587833405,
-0.22173602879047394,
-0.03933393582701683,
-0.29024869203567505,
-0.34387022256851196,
0.1962880641222,
-0.020843856036663055,
-0.5474518537521362,
0.16446897387504578,
0.4525046646595001,
0.022909099236130714,
0.358642578125,
0.5834684371948242,
0.2138991355895996,
0.8455930948257446,
0.21261347830295563,
-0.11960379034280777,
0.12943193316459656,
0.4142470359802246,
-1.0240452289581299,
0.2419416606426239,
-0.08509121835231781,
-0.014207767322659492,
-0.7113897800445557,
0.20048700273036957,
0.7980654835700989,
0.13387486338615417,
0.0985400602221489,
0.08625918626785278,
-0.5134888291358948,
-0.21123522520065308,
1.0436469316482544,
-0.626838743686676,
0.05376189947128296,
-0.5232216119766235,
0.2218121886253357,
-0.5350107550621033,
0.4226475656032562,
0.12409769743680954,
-0.020009731873869896,
0.10085749626159668,
0.9736611247062683,
-0.3262234032154083,
-0.4662398099899292,
0.45817792415618896,
-0.5748779773712158,
0.06676851212978363,
-0.04234900325536728,
0.5450772643089294,
-0.3085640072822571,
-0.8458541631698608,
0.9166852235794067,
0.3722725510597229,
0.18817560374736786,
-0.5710740089416504,
0.049880340695381165,
-0.0805300772190094,
-0.26797521114349365,
-0.3364310562610626,
-0.7227945923805237,
0.09983983635902405,
0.45588555932044983,
-0.3129352331161499,
-0.23065480589866638,
0.25506022572517395,
0.16039824485778809,
-0.13212265074253082,
-0.08322291076183319,
0.033977147191762924,
0.14772824943065643,
0.5547159314155579,
0.34016528725624084,
-0.3579116463661194,
-0.4146842658519745,
0.6021779775619507
] |
261111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Chalmers%20%28antiquarian%29 | George Chalmers (antiquarian) | George Chalmers (1742 – 31 May 1825) was a Scottish antiquarian and political writer.
Biography
Chalmers was born at Fochabers, Moray; his father, James Chalmers, was a grandson of George Chalmers of Pittensear in Lhanbryde. After completing a course at King's College, Aberdeen, he studied law at the University of Edinburgh for several years.
Two uncles on the father's side had settled in British North America, and Chalmers visited Maryland in 1763, apparently to assist in recovering a tract of land about which a dispute had arisen. He began practising as a lawyer at Baltimore. As a Loyalist, however, at the outbreak of the American War of Independence, he abandoned his professional prospects and returned to Great Britain. Several years then passed before he found adequate employment.
In August 1786, Chalmers was appointed chief clerk to the committee of Privy Council on matters relating to trade, following its re-establishment. He retained this position for the rest of his life. It left him time to write.
Chalmers was a fellow of the Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries of London, an honorary member of the Antiquarian Society of Scotland, and a member of other learned societies. His library was left to his nephew, at whose death in 1841 it was sold and dispersed.
Controversialist
A dogmatic writer, Chalmers became involved in numerous literary controversies. Among his avowed opponents were Edmond Malone and George Steevens, the Shakespeare editors; Thomas James Mathias, the author of the Pursuits of Literature; Dr John Jamieson, the Scottish lexicographer; John Pinkerton, the historian; David Irving, the biographer of the Scottish poets; and James Currie of Liverpool.
Works
Caledonia
Chalmers's major work was his Caledonia, which he left incomplete. The first volume appeared in 1807, and is introductory to the others. It is divided into four books, treating successively of the Roman, the Pictish, the Scottish and the Scoto-Saxon periods, from 80 to 1306 AD. The books present, in a condensed form, with an account of the people, the language and the civil and ecclesiastical history, as well as the agricultural and commercial state of Scotland during the first thirteen centuries of the Common Era. The chapters on the Roman period are marred by the author's having accepted as genuine Charles Bertram's forgery De Situ Britanniae.
The second volume, published in 1810, gives an account of the seven southeastern counties of Scotland – Roxburgh, Berwick, East Lothian ("Haddington"), Edinburgh/Midlothian (all as "Edinburgh"), West Lothian ("Linlithgow"), Peebles and Selkirk – each covered by name, situation and extent, natural objects, antiquities, establishment as shires, civil history, agriculture, manufactures and trade, and ecclesiastical history.
In 1824 the third volume appeared, giving, under the same headings, a description of the seven south-western counties – Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigtown, Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew and Dumbarton. In the preface to this volume the author stated that the materials for the history of the central and northern counties were collected.
Early works (1776–1786)
Before his Privy Council appointment, Chalmers applied himself to investigating the history and establishment of the English colonies in North America, based on his access to the state papers and other documents of what were then termed the plantation records. His work, Political Annals of the present United Colonies from their Settlement to the Peace of 1763, (1780), was to have formed two volumes; but the second, for the period between 1688 and 1763, never appeared. The first volume traces the original settlement of the different American colonies, and the changes in their constitutions and forms of government, as affected by British politics.
Chalmers next wrote An Estimate of the Comparative Strength of Britain during the Present and Four Preceding Reigns (1782), which passed through several editions.
Mature works (1786–1824)
Chalmers wrote biographical sketches of Daniel Defoe, Sir John Davies, Allan Ramsay, Sir David Lyndsay, Thomas Churchyard and others, for editions of their works. The British government also paid Chalmers £500 to write a hostile biography of Thomas Paine; he published it under the assumed name of Francis Oldys, A.M., of the University of Pennsylvania. A life of Thomas Ruddiman, whom he admired, combined praise for the subject with an attack on the reputation of his contemporary James Anderson.
In 1818 Chalmers published a life of Mary, Queen of Scots, based on a manuscript left by John Whitaker, but rewritten. Mary's history occupied much of his attention, and his last work, A Detection of the Love Letters lately attributed in Hugh Campbell's work to Mary Queen of Scots, is an exposure of an attempt to represent as genuine some fictitious letters said to have passed between Mary and Bothwell. He had also prepared for the press a detailed history of the life and reign of David I of Scotland. In his later researches he was assisted by his nephew James, son of Alexander Chalmers, writer in Elgin.
Apology for the Believers in the Shakespeare Papers which were exhibited in Norfolk Street, appeared in 1797, followed by other tracts by Chalmers on the same subject, relating to the Ireland Shakespeare forgeries. He also took part in the controversy on the identity of Junius, and in The Author of Junius Ascertained, from a Concatenation of Circumstances amounting to Moral Demonstration (1817) asserted that the Junius letters were written by Hugh Boyd. In 1824 he published The Poetical Remains of some of the Scottish Kings, now first collected; and in the same year he edited, for the Bannatyne Club, Robene and Makyne and the Testament of Cresseid, by Robert Henryson.
Political writings by Chalmers included:
Collection of Treaties between Great Britain and other Powers (1790);
Vindication of the Privileges of the People in respect to the Constitutional Right of Free Discussion, etc. (1796), published anonymously;
A Chronological Account of Commerce and Coinage in Great Britain from the Restoration till 1850 (1810);
Opinions of Eminent Lawyers on various points of English Jurisprudence, chiefly concerning the Colonies, Fisheries, and Commerce of Great Britain (1814);
Comparative Views of the State of Great Britain before and since the War (1817).
Chalmers' works online
Political annals of the present United Colonies: ... (1779)
An Estimate of the Comparative Strength of Britain during the Present and Four Preceding Reigns (1782)
The Life of Thomas Ruddiman (1794)
An Apology for the Believers in the Shakespeare Papers which were exhibited in Norfolk Street (1797)
The Life of Mary, Queen of Scots, Derived from State Papers Volume 1 Volume 2 (1818)
A supplemental apology for the believers in the Shakspear papers (1799)
Caledonia (1888-1894 republication): Vols 3-7 (NLS), corresponding to the original books 2 and 3.
References
Notes
External links
"Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen"
1742 births
1825 deaths
People from Moray
Scottish antiquarians
Scottish biographers
Scottish economists
Scottish lawyers
Scottish statisticians
Scottish political writers
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal Society | [
0.11646398901939392,
0.6111916303634644,
-0.3642154633998871,
-0.5950108766555786,
0.3809477388858795,
0.6876740455627441,
0.9247215390205383,
0.41415467858314514,
-0.104864701628685,
-0.402240514755249,
-0.03097717836499214,
-0.1991390585899353,
-0.35529547929763794,
0.5314513444900513,
-0.17034271359443665,
0.5570420622825623,
-0.3314272463321686,
0.22887066006660461,
-0.48071300983428955,
-0.17787033319473267,
-0.3051530718803406,
-0.13589802384376526,
0.4147878885269165,
-0.3132255971431732,
-0.5024036765098572,
-0.2138056755065918,
0.1906801164150238,
-0.6475225687026978,
-0.18047912418842316,
-0.19932466745376587,
-0.04190406575798988,
0.8579921126365662,
0.5314584374427795,
-0.2660266160964966,
-0.5669689774513245,
-0.42310696840286255,
-0.44783151149749756,
-0.008221464231610298,
0.1523270606994629,
0.04101628437638283,
-0.09740551561117172,
-0.057564496994018555,
0.4247344732284546,
-0.041483666747808456,
-0.04747632145881653,
-0.7426750659942627,
-1.9406170845031738,
0.04044729843735695,
-0.9008514881134033,
-0.1046963483095169,
0.1198563277721405,
0.13750819861888885,
0.869300365447998,
0.5164533257484436,
-0.7724985480308533,
0.642665445804596,
-0.6203296780586243,
-0.45084598660469055,
0.8776684999465942,
-0.20637710392475128,
0.6638606190681458,
0.5717566609382629,
0.4473670423030853,
0.07039134949445724,
0.8836882710456848,
0.09980873018503189,
-0.8047441840171814,
0.2790892422199249,
-0.1534130573272705,
0.12055696547031403,
0.04378667101264,
0.14067871868610382,
0.3776891529560089,
0.5855314135551453,
-0.06919034570455551,
-0.043782275170087814,
0.10547542572021484,
-0.0512361004948616,
0.46943455934524536,
-0.4595831036567688,
-0.1528976410627365,
0.2465580403804779,
0.8834106922149658,
0.605398952960968,
0.01828819327056408,
0.5091668963432312,
-0.5319836139678955,
0.21789099276065826,
-0.01914120279252529,
-0.026340708136558533,
0.16289061307907104,
-0.22307102382183075,
0.031238043680787086,
0.29101771116256714,
-0.012087144888937473,
0.4238591194152832,
-0.09845644235610962,
0.14940933883190155,
-0.22326356172561646,
-0.5664616823196411,
-0.07376548647880554,
0.7038539052009583,
-0.13503701984882355,
-0.22877751290798187,
-0.2850336730480194,
0.21812789142131805,
-0.46891066431999207,
-0.00330018880777061,
0.6275457143783569,
-0.11255303025245667,
-0.6112394332885742,
0.30359891057014465,
-0.6061474084854126,
0.3549915850162506,
0.08786047995090485,
0.5159925222396851,
0.8439838290214539,
-0.8039308190345764,
-0.21781758964061737,
-0.17954018712043762,
-0.34943562746047974,
0.6746843457221985,
-0.22101125121116638,
0.02453751116991043,
-0.7675608992576599,
0.318824827671051,
-0.05166362226009369,
0.3914882242679596,
0.29423874616622925,
0.926491379737854,
0.11936421692371368,
1.6026965379714966,
-0.582457959651947,
-0.7428605556488037,
-0.7984743714332581,
-0.0752965658903122,
0.04135633632540703,
0.5261268019676208,
-0.4208361804485321,
0.2791616916656494,
-0.19893676042556763,
-0.18076074123382568,
-1.3524446487426758,
-0.11416669934988022,
0.24077290296554565,
0.0021443578880280256,
-0.27222388982772827,
0.03188382461667061,
-0.3586563766002655,
-0.18583863973617554,
-0.39609354734420776,
-0.027991415932774544,
0.1695026308298111,
0.15085487067699432,
-0.0758223757147789,
0.5800347924232483,
0.6996080279350281,
0.30534183979034424,
0.37625277042388916,
0.05641491711139679,
-0.027486588805913925,
-0.09368453174829483,
-0.22167187929153442,
-0.2940693199634552,
0.5303782224655151,
0.0979374349117279,
0.2555202543735504,
-0.2379896640777588,
-0.03325643762946129,
-0.12126338481903076,
-0.6525883674621582,
-0.08626117557287216,
0.6784781217575073,
-0.16500909626483917,
0.4042668342590332,
0.2848670780658722,
0.3014228343963623,
0.6773436665534973,
0.3491491973400116,
-0.8512617945671082,
-1.1465848684310913,
-0.1894853413105011,
0.4563431441783905,
-0.46806442737579346,
0.6027647256851196,
0.7061099410057068,
1.0712224245071411,
0.16342706978321075,
0.23682710528373718,
-0.06810465455055237,
-0.2579011917114258,
-0.8345251679420471,
0.03688472509384155,
-0.5086198449134827,
1.2315518856048584,
0.8031812906265259,
-0.1970834583044052,
0.008017374202609062,
0.20663270354270935,
1.2362360954284668,
-0.14378303289413452,
0.2965775430202484,
-0.46068957448005676,
-0.2634265124797821,
0.20391252636909485,
1.1482834815979004,
0.2166760414838791,
-0.21794259548187256,
0.5413819551467896,
0.21727128326892853,
0.8138050436973572,
-0.27697017788887024,
-0.05480087175965309,
0.34540465474128723,
-0.4966334402561188,
-0.6054059267044067,
0.185172438621521,
-0.20617030560970306,
0.25847142934799194,
-0.2891547679901123,
0.6639560461044312,
0.10118056833744049,
0.28914910554885864,
0.985265851020813,
0.1520518660545349,
0.6844199299812317,
-0.2107975035905838,
0.4079265594482422,
-0.1853421926498413,
-0.874499499797821,
-0.5456080436706543,
-0.1930302083492279,
0.3555566668510437,
-0.610637903213501,
-0.22138680517673492,
-0.3149724006652832,
-0.5453541874885559,
-0.3377859890460968,
0.12806518375873566,
-0.34733879566192627,
0.25408560037612915,
0.5837202072143555,
-0.573435366153717,
0.40900394320487976,
0.21938738226890564,
0.5531352162361145,
-0.6570237874984741,
-0.5391004681587219,
0.7542102336883545,
0.06948380917310715,
0.6959882378578186,
0.5095403790473938,
0.36798539757728577,
0.2860976457595825,
0.12165945023298264,
-0.19976294040679932,
0.515411913394928,
0.026792652904987335,
-0.1686665564775467,
0.16689452528953552,
-0.3012749254703522,
0.3443259298801422,
-0.23899833858013153,
0.35009583830833435,
0.06536810845136642,
-0.15039795637130737,
-0.057741764932870865,
-0.7007622122764587,
0.027398010715842247,
-0.28010112047195435,
0.5832406282424927,
-0.2989203631877899,
-0.39474940299987793,
-0.07290917634963989,
0.9231809973716736,
-0.16468162834644318,
-0.28240808844566345,
0.12302213907241821,
-0.44514650106430054,
-0.5259082913398743,
-0.20770372450351715,
1.1010466814041138,
-0.40329864621162415,
-0.1771668940782547,
-0.8153213858604431,
0.18257997930049896,
0.12472972273826599,
0.25081077218055725,
-0.03606036305427551,
-0.22849611937999725,
0.040148455649614334,
0.14059951901435852,
-0.8367531895637512,
-0.03336430341005325,
-0.25699275732040405,
0.4931158721446991,
-0.23996533453464508,
-0.5488792061805725,
0.1781497448682785,
-0.5555148720741272,
-0.6211695075035095,
0.1743808537721634,
-0.06637414544820786,
0.26423510909080505,
0.28338250517845154,
-0.07088175415992737,
0.014507204294204712,
0.014017423614859581,
-4.800515174865723,
-0.28742262721061707,
-0.4561290740966797,
-0.19679217040538788,
0.9868541955947876,
0.26139721274375916,
0.7810328602790833,
-0.44036561250686646,
-0.2659541964530945,
0.17542152106761932,
0.9175596237182617,
0.032509446144104004,
0.019983960315585136,
0.6702883243560791,
1.197022557258606,
0.4549025893211365,
0.4443347454071045,
0.6815476417541504,
0.1696656197309494,
-0.18222297728061676,
-0.07564634084701538,
0.005922171752899885,
-0.40022239089012146,
-0.023797042667865753,
0.28857743740081787,
0.7537837624549866,
-0.24601130187511444,
0.16360323131084442,
-0.6828248500823975,
-0.09448707848787308,
-0.04126788303256035,
0.5770907402038574,
-0.38742706179618835,
-0.5163435339927673,
-0.295950710773468,
-0.07487300038337708,
0.046051833778619766,
1.167561411857605,
0.11741861701011658,
0.0866793543100357,
0.08987771719694138,
-0.11315100640058517,
-0.6565164923667908,
0.33285489678382874,
-0.19221147894859314,
-0.7148990631103516,
-0.9913256168365479,
0.28171950578689575,
-0.42757871747016907,
0.6270303130149841,
-0.19740226864814758,
0.1574409455060959,
0.24073748290538788,
0.07584112882614136,
-0.12415806204080582,
-0.19200627505779266,
0.037053342908620834,
0.20121151208877563,
-0.6477184891700745,
-0.07487636804580688,
0.3639380931854248,
-0.6276246309280396,
0.0829874724149704,
-0.09248464554548264,
-0.14542178809642792,
-0.4310353398323059,
0.06880717724561691,
-0.708260715007782,
0.26618582010269165,
-0.4467014670372009,
-0.7662676572799683,
1.0589845180511475,
0.19662949442863464,
-1.0594192743301392,
-0.1293295919895172,
0.0005938048707321286,
-0.12296870350837708,
0.24432173371315002,
-0.25075653195381165,
-0.13195186853408813,
0.0557696595788002,
-0.6544276475906372,
-0.21196070313453674,
1.7704973220825195,
0.4945763647556305,
0.12360038608312607,
-0.6111928224563599,
-0.05227755010128021,
-0.8500263094902039,
-0.9420745372772217,
-0.1516362875699997,
0.12881822884082794,
-0.6664379835128784,
0.7594883441925049,
0.060921188443899155,
0.3327757716178894,
0.019922927021980286,
-0.17615379393100739,
0.3356991112232208,
-0.34331169724464417,
-0.2036176472902298,
0.10767459869384766,
-0.053498074412345886,
-0.2244807481765747,
-0.12315990775823593,
-0.5587283968925476,
-0.6903082132339478,
0.4763586223125458,
0.30860164761543274,
0.15628626942634583,
0.10066778212785721,
-0.2617528438568115,
-0.3292887210845947,
0.493770033121109,
-0.04975476861000061,
-0.10899960994720459,
0.33627748489379883,
0.6237965822219849,
0.9152452349662781,
0.33702221512794495,
-0.03511207178235054,
0.3208915591239929,
0.2679678201675415,
-0.44225651025772095,
-0.48881685733795166,
-0.39960429072380066,
0.7991109490394592,
-0.5019522905349731,
-0.8416470885276794,
-0.07208673655986786,
0.13794590532779694,
0.6030398011207581,
-0.09549568593502045,
-0.10731710493564606,
-0.3546614348888397,
-0.15233899652957916,
-0.4923744797706604,
-0.1577802151441574,
-0.11167257279157639,
-0.2956364154815674,
0.08488136529922485,
-0.40805524587631226,
-0.14604736864566803,
0.340919554233551,
-0.012480443343520164,
-0.09680169820785522,
0.43950575590133667,
0.17414867877960205,
-0.45198261737823486,
0.5285699367523193,
-0.7077329754829407,
-0.6603363752365112,
0.4027189612388611,
-0.7643545269966125,
0.6385774612426758,
-0.08400832861661911,
-0.15557892620563507,
0.22620759904384613,
-0.3788220286369324,
-0.17704708874225616,
-0.42639628052711487,
0.41116222739219666,
-1.1312754154205322,
0.15059497952461243,
0.01723051443696022,
-0.3511415719985962,
-0.916482150554657,
0.13229835033416748,
-0.2126474231481552,
0.8233833312988281,
-0.005206702277064323,
-0.07775235921144485,
-0.4756895899772644,
-0.22973480820655823,
0.9307429194450378,
-0.3781452476978302,
-0.08928690105676651,
0.35843077301979065,
-0.18672722578048706,
-0.1915155053138733,
0.11289528012275696,
0.1369878649711609,
-0.5434695482254028,
0.008430269546806812,
1.2689837217330933,
-0.15800492465496063,
-0.10864367336034775,
-0.7462800741195679,
0.0535476878285408,
-0.18930856883525848,
-0.24186289310455322,
-0.14911651611328125,
0.4360620081424713,
0.8385846018791199,
-0.013404786586761475,
-0.3812620937824249,
0.5024132132530212,
-0.16681337356567383,
0.099675253033638,
-1.1038850545883179,
0.5268338322639465,
0.1348298043012619,
-0.21841028332710266,
0.09419886022806168,
-0.39660951495170593,
-0.9045875668525696,
-0.17856906354427338,
-0.09140752255916595,
-0.6092312932014465,
1.111452579498291,
-0.024756738916039467,
-0.39114800095558167,
-0.1350463628768921,
0.6341456770896912,
-0.37578752636909485,
-0.2340329885482788,
0.4078684151172638,
0.16455510258674622,
-0.39848393201828003,
-0.4999125003814697,
-0.9834073781967163,
0.09021410346031189,
-0.4970363676548004,
-0.05797319486737251,
-0.2154598832130432,
-0.0057909185998141766,
0.28562459349632263,
-0.11300100386142731,
1.0264675617218018,
-0.35301223397254944,
-0.9028627872467041,
0.293849378824234,
0.30721670389175415,
-0.04464622959494591,
0.19243672490119934,
0.34208741784095764,
-0.15198107063770294,
0.32369938492774963,
-0.3102797567844391,
0.21081562340259552,
0.26275861263275146,
1.39002525806427,
0.5364260673522949,
-0.5242117643356323,
-0.18816180527210236,
-0.24760743975639343,
0.4686478078365326,
0.06970920413732529,
-0.31610360741615295,
-0.0013186048017814755,
0.6734269857406616,
-0.7116308212280273,
-0.7056450843811035,
-0.5369883179664612,
0.8369317650794983,
-0.3645545244216919,
0.2988463342189789,
0.6806513667106628,
0.3735549747943878,
-0.007512256503105164,
0.14954648911952972,
0.14602528512477875,
-0.14326536655426025,
0.20576055347919464,
0.18849292397499084,
0.08503963053226471,
0.04683573916554451,
-0.5666284561157227,
0.5564103722572327,
-0.058930106461048126,
-0.9619801044464111,
-1.0038740634918213,
-0.4343422055244446,
0.3464435040950775,
-0.09728094935417175,
-0.3884769380092621,
0.5548595190048218,
-0.7745682001113892,
0.6902494430541992,
-0.3451049327850342,
-0.4969407021999359,
0.1925784945487976,
0.2884875535964966,
-0.23065422475337982,
-0.2350805401802063,
-0.32210931181907654,
-0.46454736590385437,
-0.046360403299331665,
-0.20916111767292023,
0.1240025982260704,
-1.3814175128936768,
-0.0332842618227005,
-0.12547926604747772,
0.13726958632469177,
-0.0017756745219230652,
0.39293956756591797,
-0.6224656105041504,
0.1922728270292282,
-0.1487474888563156,
-0.3274531364440918,
-0.7567375302314758,
0.5548807978630066,
0.8079206943511963,
-0.30773690342903137,
0.8540613651275635,
0.2714790403842926,
-0.39440611004829407,
0.3364715874195099,
-0.21618659794330597,
-0.17504701018333435,
0.5607477426528931,
-0.20948977768421173,
0.09881366789340973,
0.4357665777206421,
-0.4786681830883026,
-0.828019917011261,
0.2571168541908264,
-0.789617657661438,
-0.402474969625473,
0.41645127534866333,
-0.043265342712402344,
0.0027605867944657803,
0.622902512550354,
-0.24455027282238007,
-0.23369452357292175,
0.7684630155563354,
-0.2726813554763794,
-0.1373477727174759,
-0.05612701177597046,
0.4995335638523102,
0.04195268079638481,
-0.00946353841573,
-0.6223931312561035,
0.6765581965446472,
-0.4923764765262604,
0.2490455061197281,
0.08795837312936783,
-0.5111454129219055,
-0.2501499056816101,
0.42023953795433044,
-0.16240337491035461,
0.5428555011749268,
0.2640337646007538,
-0.12990126013755798,
-0.937795102596283,
0.38142919540405273,
-0.09613923728466034,
-0.1218787431716919,
-0.009086601436138153,
-0.08605124056339264,
0.35626208782196045,
0.5050606727600098,
0.3427475094795227,
-0.7491676807403564,
-0.04813460260629654,
0.08789380639791489,
0.5538027286529541,
-0.39180704951286316,
-0.22057634592056274,
-0.22817274928092957,
0.3160167932510376,
0.11665978282690048,
0.4473026990890503,
-0.2589645981788635,
-0.5000946521759033,
-0.12097452580928802,
0.4670788049697876,
-0.25727471709251404,
-0.1003422960639,
0.6844151616096497,
0.15477660298347473,
-0.4741799831390381,
0.042578909546136856,
0.7510746717453003,
0.7693543434143066,
0.0631677433848381,
0.8231334686279297,
0.7817226052284241,
0.09244770556688309,
0.2764398157596588,
-0.7941071391105652,
0.7835509181022644,
0.14051836729049683,
-0.4263341724872589,
0.4725472927093506,
-0.18860910832881927,
-0.6832371354103088,
0.053340934216976166,
0.17465126514434814,
-0.9289563894271851,
0.32866936922073364,
-0.28334280848503113,
-0.27597156167030334,
0.03246995061635971,
-1.2395285367965698,
0.2587013840675354,
-0.628030002117157,
0.8824543952941895,
-0.0688529834151268,
-0.8294015526771545,
-0.5743525624275208,
0.12959936261177063,
-0.035472624003887177,
0.3954754173755646,
-0.1896357387304306,
0.7416662573814392,
-0.3603038489818573,
0.9233567118644714,
-0.7686184048652649,
0.8589636087417603,
-0.2746642529964447,
0.3760548233985901,
-0.530709981918335,
0.5144916772842407,
-0.42879122495651245,
-0.3852077126502991,
0.4499491751194,
-0.39809438586235046,
-0.4531400799751282,
-0.13220083713531494,
0.5061039924621582,
-0.22348755598068237,
0.15291985869407654,
-0.18775396049022675,
-0.6438419222831726,
-0.8462377190589905,
0.23659206926822662,
0.21353694796562195,
-0.1432044506072998,
0.4102312922477722,
-0.14228396117687225,
-0.012377806007862091,
-0.9505143165588379,
-0.5804319977760315,
0.13107120990753174,
-0.3043164610862732,
0.15731655061244965,
0.9115338921546936,
0.20357674360275269,
-0.16211184859275818,
0.49683886766433716,
-0.21960458159446716,
0.18515148758888245,
-0.031053079292178154,
-1.305713176727295,
-0.06025071442127228,
0.21125179529190063,
0.05650832876563072,
-0.021730998530983925,
0.8820858597755432,
0.12521524727344513,
-0.3734360933303833,
0.07913678884506226,
-0.612167477607727,
0.7479047179222107,
-0.004441632889211178,
-0.36596861481666565,
-0.7413663268089294,
0.6500764489173889,
0.33580663800239563
] |
261117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malice | Malice | Malice may refer to:
Law
Malice (law), a legal term describing the intent to harm
Entertainment
Film and literature
Malice (1926 film), a 1926 German silent film directed by Manfred Noa
Malice (1993 film), a 1993 film starring Alec Baldwin, Nicole Kidman and Bill Pullman
Malice, a novel by American romance author Danielle Steel
Malice, a novel by Japanese author Keigo Higashino (first published as Akui in 1996)
Malice (series), a 2009 young adult novel series by Chris Wooding
Malice (comics), the name of four different Marvel Comics villains
"Malice" (Stargate Universe), a 2010 episode of Stargate Universe
Music
Malice (British band), a UK punk rock group from Crawley, predecessor of The Cure
Malice (American band), an American heavy metal group
Malice (Through the Eyes of the Dead album), 2007
Malice (Gehenna album), 1996
No Malice (formerly Malice, born 1972), stage name of Gene Thornton, half of the hip-hop duo Clipse
Video games
Malice (1997 video game), a 1997 total conversion for Quake released by Quantum Axcess
Malice (2004 video game), a 2004 video game for PS2 and Xbox developed by Argonaut Games
People
Jerry Tuite (1966–2003), American professional wrestler also known by the ring name Malice
Malice Green (died 1992), man who died in the custody of Detroit Police after being arrested
Michael Malice (born 1976), author, podcaster, columnist, and media personality
Places
Malice, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, in north-central Poland
Malice, Lublin Voivodeship, in eastern Poland
Malice, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland
See also | [
0.1880115568637848,
0.3975086808204651,
-0.19918440282344818,
-0.06297461688518524,
-0.41796910762786865,
0.14134912192821503,
0.4971204996109009,
-0.37490424513816833,
-0.13179242610931396,
0.40914198756217957,
-0.05209491401910782,
0.685401976108551,
-0.1882365494966507,
0.20620597898960114,
-0.14803825318813324,
0.32908713817596436,
-0.20202778279781342,
0.32185426354408264,
-0.44246524572372437,
-0.2003006786108017,
-0.27285265922546387,
-0.2851910889148712,
0.8004080653190613,
-0.31814736127853394,
-0.3409478962421417,
0.3181416988372803,
0.6244021654129028,
0.30391740798950195,
-0.12756839394569397,
0.4883650541305542,
0.32720646262168884,
0.1306908130645752,
0.4072898030281067,
-0.009294630959630013,
-0.3547491133213043,
0.31145724654197693,
-0.642568826675415,
0.3132399320602417,
-0.02972552366554737,
-0.44330325722694397,
0.1823911964893341,
-0.08579745888710022,
0.08887965977191925,
-0.4182083308696747,
-0.40858593583106995,
-0.3127419948577881,
-1.3697432279586792,
0.5171576738357544,
-0.6865930557250977,
0.2847680151462555,
0.24199646711349487,
0.2440071702003479,
-0.18103939294815063,
0.1479787975549698,
0.7114413380622864,
0.8176862001419067,
-0.4468294084072113,
-0.5683984160423279,
0.15130852162837982,
-0.3412436842918396,
0.5400981307029724,
-0.09838015586137772,
0.564294159412384,
0.4116458296775818,
-0.599224328994751,
0.44314154982566833,
-0.01352792140096426,
0.45461133122444153,
-0.14890477061271667,
-0.4505123496055603,
0.4805049002170563,
-0.018705224618315697,
-0.3548247218132019,
0.3210984468460083,
-0.09247206151485443,
-0.39061951637268066,
0.26264718174934387,
-0.3166440725326538,
0.0027732260059565306,
0.5349366664886475,
-0.0028157851193100214,
-0.35961198806762695,
0.5013477802276611,
0.25177526473999023,
-0.12605838477611542,
-0.4035368263721466,
0.10758433490991592,
0.6816942095756531,
-0.3790624439716339,
-0.286153107881546,
0.2788168787956238,
-0.22914330661296844,
0.4186129570007324,
0.448877215385437,
0.08643952757120132,
0.06579288095235825,
0.5655036568641663,
-0.2240966558456421,
0.5142382979393005,
-0.10092497617006302,
0.007563673425465822,
-0.0037506052758544683,
-0.14946189522743225,
-0.5803789496421814,
-0.37955471873283386,
0.15348109602928162,
0.22495336830615997,
-0.5926048159599304,
0.1458738148212433,
0.2644580602645874,
-0.10551559180021286,
0.39289167523384094,
0.007684766780585051,
0.2046990841627121,
-0.25069931149482727,
0.11320280283689499,
-0.33643633127212524,
-0.5426849722862244,
-0.029704682528972626,
0.38526517152786255,
0.2651898264884949,
-0.17933009564876556,
0.548143744468689,
0.6801448464393616,
0.2374482899904251,
-0.016093868762254715,
-0.3173220455646515,
0.2291274517774582,
-0.23773621022701263,
0.1607193946838379,
0.584466814994812,
0.2381422221660614,
-0.08008786290884018,
0.038907554000616074,
0.05040329322218895,
0.1934381127357483,
0.019813422113656998,
-0.2825351655483246,
-0.3709283471107483,
-0.3560120761394501,
-0.9258944392204285,
-0.5569975972175598,
-0.6474363207817078,
-0.049878668040037155,
0.47555649280548096,
-0.6278168559074402,
0.18578872084617615,
0.07110632210969925,
-0.2862265408039093,
-0.15704284608364105,
-0.30933141708374023,
-0.0004193783679511398,
0.008118736557662487,
-0.9532263278961182,
0.062455303966999054,
0.20695997774600983,
0.6170567274093628,
0.47426772117614746,
-0.03001905232667923,
-0.11235965043306351,
0.36100199818611145,
0.6169070601463318,
-0.9108532667160034,
-0.27681028842926025,
0.48284903168678284,
-0.19033895432949066,
-0.07930366694927216,
-0.13823434710502625,
-0.25058990716934204,
-0.02789842151105404,
-0.621135950088501,
0.31980133056640625,
0.5595180988311768,
-0.3302682638168335,
0.08537160605192184,
0.45837128162384033,
0.5327775478363037,
0.6085917353630066,
0.33006736636161804,
0.049412138760089874,
-0.5249707698822021,
-0.004419833421707153,
-0.04864523187279701,
-0.3254469931125641,
-0.3211207091808319,
0.3708947002887726,
-0.28159815073013306,
-0.16277122497558594,
0.0933886170387268,
0.3087975084781647,
-1.0457900762557983,
0.09033689647912979,
0.7060980200767517,
-0.2929670214653015,
1.240764856338501,
0.027355268597602844,
-0.4585135877132416,
0.7968320250511169,
-0.3899133503437042,
0.4744996130466461,
-0.29256680607795715,
-0.05458138510584831,
0.35636335611343384,
0.09374740719795227,
-0.7595034837722778,
-0.10900279879570007,
-0.07068661600351334,
0.2661623954772949,
-0.08661195635795593,
0.5791054964065552,
0.3216297924518585,
-0.47567304968833923,
0.0008308554533869028,
-0.2824639678001404,
0.13481861352920532,
0.13804775476455688,
-1.2496708631515503,
0.29133081436157227,
-0.0564897358417511,
-0.23065949976444244,
0.25657981634140015,
-0.3473464250564575,
-0.426322877407074,
0.23656092584133148,
-0.11099988967180252,
0.7483417391777039,
0.43617650866508484,
0.10545846819877625,
0.43085533380508423,
-0.8125292658805847,
0.5608521103858948,
1.0625746250152588,
0.23335012793540955,
-0.4654325246810913,
0.32230284810066223,
0.2616788446903229,
0.5595229268074036,
0.15000759065151215,
0.4808127284049988,
-0.1295977532863617,
0.25988343358039856,
0.3799907863140106,
-0.2525860667228699,
0.20177283883094788,
0.12856101989746094,
0.252632737159729,
-0.029671963304281235,
-0.1637231409549713,
-0.1585838943719864,
0.0830216035246849,
-0.14609883725643158,
0.897969663143158,
0.35135313868522644,
0.22298072278499603,
0.455854594707489,
0.18136939406394958,
-0.1029462218284607,
0.04120472073554993,
0.33806177973747253,
-0.40794306993484497,
-0.8685710430145264,
-0.14735160768032074,
0.07430918514728546,
-0.18264833092689514,
-0.01365602109581232,
0.08233854919672012,
-0.07331810146570206,
-0.4214947521686554,
0.023950757458806038,
0.7568058371543884,
0.052900344133377075,
0.09653466194868088,
-0.7585861086845398,
0.2318231612443924,
0.03092995658516884,
-0.2602427005767822,
0.27522435784339905,
0.06501849740743637,
-0.4645833969116211,
-0.658989667892456,
-0.47317197918891907,
0.8731586337089539,
0.5328414440155029,
-0.8768507242202759,
0.14395593106746674,
-0.2320026457309723,
0.22681954503059387,
-0.23258507251739502,
-0.559710681438446,
-0.11103571951389313,
-0.19784031808376312,
0.17952775955200195,
-0.320565789937973,
-0.3141835927963257,
0.032956313341856,
0.42674314975738525,
-0.2187744379043579,
0.1174827441573143,
0.17829672992229462,
-0.029360445216298103,
-0.047725845128297806,
-0.007368160877376795,
-0.30324581265449524,
0.0013398693408817053,
0.2854742407798767,
-0.20858807861804962,
-0.13313688337802887,
0.26668038964271545,
-5.833335876464844,
-0.1951085925102234,
-0.9040942788124084,
-0.06274403631687164,
0.12169574201107025,
0.298980712890625,
0.46247944235801697,
-0.2237919569015503,
-0.07428327947854996,
-0.550543487071991,
0.5600921511650085,
-0.19108344614505768,
0.5904783010482788,
0.09969177097082138,
-0.12526264786720276,
-0.09543150663375854,
0.40449604392051697,
-0.37236499786376953,
-0.5482244491577148,
0.10277694463729858,
0.5487790107727051,
0.07024992257356644,
-0.5523534417152405,
0.2824995517730713,
-0.09867595881223679,
0.6499738097190857,
-0.16461744904518127,
0.050654612481594086,
-0.06485861539840698,
-0.07691226899623871,
-0.43752139806747437,
-0.06554703414440155,
-0.22744806110858917,
-0.1412830501794815,
-0.26496556401252747,
-0.10116566717624664,
0.5489019155502319,
-0.35106098651885986,
0.47998130321502686,
0.10300437361001968,
0.11993926763534546,
0.22337637841701508,
0.06431145966053009,
-0.4076194167137146,
0.4634356200695038,
-0.5720534920692444,
-0.7116006016731262,
0.31358101963996887,
-0.2093012034893036,
0.10242146253585815,
0.6013749837875366,
-0.27522411942481995,
-0.12300591170787811,
0.7694791555404663,
0.4555773437023163,
-0.34973663091659546,
0.0261174738407135,
-0.10539939254522324,
-0.3415783941745758,
0.29058578610420227,
0.2126101404428482,
-0.44207826256752014,
0.264297753572464,
-0.21219119429588318,
-0.30157533288002014,
0.3086649179458618,
0.1375332921743393,
-0.539194643497467,
0.5394154191017151,
0.24510236084461212,
-0.03176762908697128,
0.26260387897491455,
-0.16862639784812927,
-0.9726821780204773,
-0.032195184379816055,
0.28839004039764404,
0.04306991770863533,
-0.10386072844266891,
-0.5845320820808411,
0.02126031182706356,
0.3958694636821747,
-0.13208264112472534,
-0.31655871868133545,
-0.1521240472793579,
-0.30082595348358154,
-0.8365745544433594,
-0.06848639994859695,
0.011118420399725437,
-0.18149298429489136,
0.02142399363219738,
0.3213401138782501,
-0.37616977095603943,
0.26612022519111633,
0.43194594979286194,
0.2943228483200073,
0.44970422983169556,
0.5196881890296936,
-0.1245330199599266,
-0.054960016161203384,
0.020913438871502876,
0.004958712495863438,
-0.22054870426654816,
0.5338900089263916,
-0.9741052389144897,
-0.22666248679161072,
-0.3746423125267029,
0.37359192967414856,
0.12903828918933868,
0.40451934933662415,
-0.6562219858169556,
-0.011257576756179333,
-0.8081960082054138,
-0.21111248433589935,
-0.05041293054819107,
0.7546757459640503,
-0.6100146174430847,
0.02571706846356392,
0.7135781049728394,
0.2119029015302658,
0.2699042558670044,
-0.40725669264793396,
0.6773290634155273,
-0.6678047776222229,
-0.20190688967704773,
-0.5143619179725647,
-0.4219767451286316,
0.11020177602767944,
0.46173298358917236,
0.3994327783584595,
0.2786353826522827,
-0.4790482819080353,
0.3627895712852478,
-0.2317054718732834,
0.1070488691329956,
0.3319595456123352,
-0.28801220655441284,
-0.13648360967636108,
-0.23912736773490906,
-0.706358790397644,
-0.31596681475639343,
0.35149508714675903,
-0.32063567638397217,
-0.005851139780133963,
0.5328766703605652,
-0.01196034625172615,
-0.10848258435726166,
0.3663833439350128,
0.10890195518732071,
0.42055124044418335,
0.5322351455688477,
-0.11303280293941498,
0.4616607129573822,
1.2863949537277222,
-0.2525244951248169,
-0.344268262386322,
-0.07485013455152512,
0.20404662191867828,
0.056910473853349686,
0.07233057916164398,
0.1505657583475113,
0.2220948487520218,
0.00933917611837387,
-1.0989408493041992,
0.01488088071346283,
-0.0912884771823883,
0.1977340281009674,
-0.4163222014904022,
-0.8564239740371704,
-0.11564198136329651,
0.27975696325302124,
-0.13888926804065704,
-0.03857352212071419,
0.08706346899271011,
0.4357950985431671,
-0.002837623003870249,
0.47980067133903503,
-0.184737890958786,
-0.602592945098877,
0.08726128935813904,
-0.020141834393143654,
0.060544803738594055,
-0.46400314569473267,
-0.48731350898742676,
0.5160413980484009,
0.8341922163963318,
-0.10103221982717514,
-0.3312774896621704,
-0.11572031676769257,
-0.5606647729873657,
-0.36521926522254944,
-0.12719722092151642,
0.10945989936590195,
0.6079298257827759,
0.1290113925933838,
0.09771491587162018,
-0.16761329770088196,
0.17926891148090363,
0.1561436802148819,
-0.13318416476249695,
0.028521867468953133,
0.49214473366737366,
0.5037286281585693,
-0.4078163504600525,
-0.24812506139278412,
0.6482605934143066,
-1.0242866277694702,
0.13236279785633087,
-0.5392781496047974,
-0.41960352659225464,
0.1917911022901535,
0.02883795090019703,
0.32168328762054443,
0.36016038060188293,
0.31328973174095154,
0.014735337346792221,
-0.1859453022480011,
0.21862012147903442,
0.10434209555387497,
-0.5580204725265503,
-0.09295391291379929,
0.00047431510756723583,
-0.5601252913475037,
-0.6921306252479553,
0.27402055263519287,
-1.2260791063308716,
0.0901140347123146,
0.6430729627609253,
-0.7712752819061279,
0.1277930736541748,
0.2984524667263031,
-0.1183609887957573,
0.2705961763858795,
0.031702566891908646,
-0.3424678146839142,
-0.34865590929985046,
-0.18436160683631897,
0.3572588562965393,
-0.05157116428017616,
-0.023088842630386353,
0.14343872666358948,
0.37336236238479614,
0.4552239775657654,
0.47258394956588745,
0.0771595910191536,
0.7120357751846313,
0.08266427367925644,
-0.006861766334623098,
-0.9619083404541016,
-0.46307626366615295,
0.26946237683296204,
-0.4218795895576477,
0.09071632474660873,
-0.09856969863176346,
-0.22792023420333862,
0.6324741244316101,
-0.5438527464866638,
0.17204533517360687,
-0.2933257818222046,
-0.2045219987630844,
0.25234249234199524,
-0.1957036256790161,
0.7908942699432373,
-0.9743093848228455,
-0.33226263523101807,
-0.2557333707809448,
0.15699924528598785,
-0.026918889954686165,
-0.12595245242118835,
0.31407907605171204,
-0.03979092463850975,
-0.0005494968499988317,
0.088585264980793,
0.2969891130924225,
0.8692554235458374,
-0.0953793153166771,
0.09418641030788422,
-0.46289166808128357,
-0.5526317358016968,
-0.36527886986732483,
-0.38805094361305237,
-0.4460180699825287,
0.2509075105190277,
-0.32058364152908325,
-0.6241158843040466,
0.1912636011838913,
-0.5565105676651001,
0.39071542024612427,
-0.2533722221851349,
-0.06214906647801399,
-0.2621314525604248,
-0.3430505096912384,
0.5084943771362305,
0.11007897555828094,
-0.12364832311868668,
-0.3149699866771698,
0.42079320549964905,
-0.23660455644130707,
0.02881798706948757,
-0.32100480794906616,
-0.3188643157482147,
-0.2439514845609665,
-0.16275924444198608,
-0.1753278374671936,
-0.6869313716888428,
-0.0498364232480526,
-0.16687709093093872,
0.03516628220677376,
-0.09679556638002396,
-0.3876068592071533,
0.4706333577632904,
0.5847391486167908,
-0.7015180587768555,
0.16746869683265686,
0.2774123549461365,
0.2758496105670929,
0.35035425424575806,
0.1879071146249771,
-0.42176714539527893,
-0.17715930938720703,
-0.05174007639288902,
0.39235880970954895,
0.7373068928718567,
0.6998805999755859,
-0.18351316452026367,
0.15708373486995697,
0.05880214646458626,
-0.30732280015945435,
0.30094853043556213,
-0.022360974922776222,
-0.015507753938436508,
0.7453274130821228,
-0.4651644229888916,
-0.16564181447029114,
0.5524882674217224,
-0.4203247129917145,
-0.11800123751163483,
-0.024951908737421036,
-0.2667335271835327,
-0.013904745690524578,
0.46475937962532043,
0.4765291213989258,
0.2352530062198639,
-0.28930941224098206,
-0.2670602798461914,
0.027415188029408455,
0.25662219524383545,
0.5310896635055542,
-0.040196679532527924,
0.254359632730484,
0.09871785342693329,
0.08635427057743073,
-0.4901615381240845,
0.15196211636066437,
-0.6562386751174927,
0.6342145800590515,
0.021708635613322258,
-0.22428329288959503,
-0.35704120993614197,
0.26524266600608826,
0.02356235310435295,
-0.5909161567687988,
-0.3878417909145355,
0.35401594638824463,
0.15936844050884247,
-0.030100924894213676,
0.34640321135520935,
-0.14867189526557922,
-0.19467107951641083,
0.09213238954544067,
-0.4350290894508362,
-0.41392308473587036,
0.08144278824329376,
-0.18135865032672882,
-0.12960116565227509,
-0.16987863183021545,
-0.24051082134246826,
0.5621724724769592,
0.32462915778160095,
-0.152422696352005,
-0.13566403090953827,
-0.47729232907295227,
-0.44863149523735046,
-0.4007081389427185,
-0.21347260475158691,
0.7643100619316101,
-0.03986366465687752,
0.347493052482605,
-0.007601871620863676,
0.08798974007368088,
-0.8367860317230225,
0.48834508657455444,
-0.5974220037460327,
0.042083170264959335,
0.7261067032814026,
-0.18760982155799866,
0.2712118625640869,
-0.45841678977012634,
0.4384598433971405,
0.09497783333063126,
0.3256930410861969,
0.4067111015319824,
0.07505419850349426,
0.17712457478046417,
0.9127421975135803,
-0.810805082321167,
0.01795768551528454,
-0.5234954953193665,
-0.21142613887786865,
-0.9800405502319336,
0.23661445081233978,
0.3291480243206024,
0.029406411573290825,
0.2810497581958771,
-0.12637299299240112,
0.20671291649341583,
-0.5678359866142273,
0.17129653692245483,
-0.20280031859874725,
0.05223197489976883,
-0.09838708490133286,
0.10721014440059662,
0.11253158003091812,
0.1726718544960022,
0.15865449607372284,
-0.2824685573577881,
-0.14861564338207245,
0.3589777648448944,
-0.42275312542915344,
0.33292636275291443,
0.5854923725128174,
0.012378698214888573,
-0.11680730432271957,
0.04030982032418251,
0.91391921043396,
0.020901836454868317,
-0.2009238600730896,
0.6850453615188599,
0.862794816493988,
-0.006575365085154772,
-0.3588225841522217,
-0.06513174623250961,
0.06045452505350113,
-0.013195902109146118,
-0.044361211359500885,
-0.32271435856819153,
0.08726724982261658,
0.11118588596582413,
-0.819236159324646,
-0.21496811509132385,
0.5405054092407227,
-0.16414426267147064,
0.018868492916226387,
0.010703655891120434,
-0.21729904413223267,
0.01916222646832466,
-0.024794278666377068,
0.06504704058170319,
-0.03450612351298332,
0.015091421082615852,
-0.15734504163265228
] |
261118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malicious%20%281995%20film%29 | Malicious (1995 film) | Malicious is a 1995 Canadian-American erotic thriller film starring Molly Ringwald and Patrick McGaw. The plot follows a star college baseball player (McGaw) who has a fling with a disturbed medical student (Ringwald) who begins to stalk him.
The film's main character has been discussed by psychiatrists and film experts, and has been used as a film illustration for the psychiatric entity known as borderline personality disorder.
References
External links
1995 films
1990s psychological thriller films
1990s erotic thriller films
Canadian films
American films
American erotic thriller films
Canadian erotic thriller films
Erotic romance films
Borderline personality disorder in fiction
Films about sexuality
Films about stalking | [
0.15490049123764038,
0.09244625270366669,
-0.12768347561359406,
-0.1246076300740242,
0.01192924752831459,
0.44239893555641174,
0.667533814907074,
-0.054348886013031006,
-0.17447978258132935,
0.4688551425933838,
0.23087374866008759,
0.664465069770813,
-0.2746121287345886,
0.05608419328927994,
0.11768770217895508,
0.3396347165107727,
0.41351518034935,
-0.0322403609752655,
-0.1624472737312317,
-0.48842552304267883,
-0.29655179381370544,
-0.6721343398094177,
0.9779015183448792,
0.34845641255378723,
-0.35720452666282654,
0.7014448642730713,
0.45897772908210754,
0.3340266942977905,
-0.29358118772506714,
0.0914803147315979,
0.5058541893959045,
-0.2953883707523346,
0.7028820514678955,
-0.2898141145706177,
0.20731759071350098,
0.742087185382843,
-0.4805360734462738,
0.18231409788131714,
-0.8155512809753418,
-0.4274100661277771,
0.00022541001089848578,
0.022280585020780563,
0.03482009470462799,
-0.19289077818393707,
-0.1596137285232544,
0.07630027085542679,
-1.3280360698699951,
0.2562173306941986,
-0.18981045484542847,
0.1809682548046112,
0.0768815279006958,
0.294619083404541,
0.6477711796760559,
-0.2480703592300415,
0.5333455801010132,
0.8411962985992432,
-0.3495403826236725,
-0.1453833132982254,
-0.28048306703567505,
0.017230650410056114,
0.0022253897041082382,
-0.1313885897397995,
0.7661951780319214,
0.2227618396282196,
-0.36704689264297485,
0.723853349685669,
-0.0485093854367733,
0.31423065066337585,
-0.2740871012210846,
-0.9995262026786804,
0.6255093216896057,
-0.24022068083286285,
0.052019912749528885,
0.1955433487892151,
0.03300120681524277,
-0.5865107774734497,
0.18981704115867615,
-0.09881013631820679,
0.03572871536016464,
0.20872123539447784,
-0.19678263366222382,
0.0907614454627037,
0.28732767701148987,
0.4646253287792206,
0.6628308296203613,
-0.33875519037246704,
0.19318214058876038,
0.6115058064460754,
-0.059267740696668625,
0.24131755530834198,
-0.02458580583333969,
-0.5742100477218628,
0.14686891436576843,
0.9015937447547913,
0.42596420645713806,
0.005850753281265497,
-0.2786695957183838,
-0.15626797080039978,
-0.023729393258690834,
0.185949444770813,
0.2767045497894287,
0.9021275639533997,
-0.011886497028172016,
-0.7900798320770264,
-0.10606483370065689,
-0.04444978013634682,
-0.03839048370718956,
-0.8363751173019409,
-0.5533590912818909,
-0.06038741022348404,
-0.4420972466468811,
0.3999621570110321,
-0.39992785453796387,
-0.09375122934579849,
-0.002928756410256028,
0.80306476354599,
0.28147056698799133,
-0.29519593715667725,
-0.06587100028991699,
0.19279679656028748,
0.7198367118835449,
-0.04129035398364067,
-0.060386501252651215,
0.6585257053375244,
-0.12956351041793823,
0.0527484193444252,
-0.019263265654444695,
0.6483582854270935,
-0.026706304401159286,
0.09032977372407913,
0.0963108167052269,
0.3658597469329834,
-0.35840311646461487,
-0.10276123136281967,
-0.03279362618923187,
0.018178431317210197,
0.7256489992141724,
-0.15867768228054047,
-0.3225792646408081,
-0.17012950778007507,
-0.7918388247489929,
-0.5260658860206604,
-0.1876964122056961,
-0.35679373145103455,
0.32348349690437317,
-0.195231631398201,
0.40126287937164307,
-0.20683050155639648,
-0.4548369348049164,
-0.380435049533844,
-0.12075815349817276,
0.3257865309715271,
-0.12438425421714783,
-0.924259603023529,
-0.4016999304294586,
0.5860541462898254,
0.8659719824790955,
0.09242546558380127,
0.07912299036979675,
0.29125937819480896,
0.4028443992137909,
0.3713681399822235,
-0.21270155906677246,
-0.275800496339798,
0.6948605179786682,
-0.1935390830039978,
0.06306131184101105,
-0.585719108581543,
0.3949817419052124,
-0.0836435854434967,
-0.42695096135139465,
0.6588957905769348,
0.44510605931282043,
-0.5063850283622742,
0.10405449569225311,
-0.018414726480841637,
0.39838534593582153,
0.15071316063404083,
0.040303654968738556,
-0.2969062626361847,
-0.48565995693206787,
0.0739218071103096,
-0.1333186775445938,
0.08236190676689148,
0.05320947244763374,
0.33016595244407654,
0.047256454825401306,
0.15650109946727753,
-0.2544342577457428,
0.504215657711029,
-0.7694427371025085,
-0.5304399132728577,
0.5477348566055298,
-0.18141953647136688,
0.9814267158508301,
0.12946167588233948,
-0.2806803286075592,
-0.08900678157806396,
-0.06461849808692932,
0.6256930232048035,
-0.45669475197792053,
-0.3804393708705902,
0.23126010596752167,
0.48961132764816284,
-0.8144656419754028,
-0.578559160232544,
-0.2279146909713745,
0.3227446675300598,
0.29412877559661865,
0.8915355801582336,
-0.13100434839725494,
-0.7032418251037598,
0.5114827752113342,
0.3646062910556793,
-0.14668871462345123,
0.24928030371665955,
-0.8898876309394836,
0.13728266954421997,
0.2973741590976715,
-0.1648658663034439,
0.03256450593471527,
0.3043804168701172,
-0.46574386954307556,
0.4657028615474701,
0.02609650045633316,
1.17615807056427,
0.23438580334186554,
0.19111423194408417,
0.4983052611351013,
-0.3531520366668701,
0.12308400869369507,
0.8804166316986084,
-0.11026115715503693,
-0.5736174583435059,
-0.1207587793469429,
0.2019403874874115,
-0.13804061710834503,
-0.23989976942539215,
0.3377814292907715,
-0.008456080220639706,
0.591869592666626,
0.3497869670391083,
-0.6779735088348389,
0.5261662602424622,
0.04007456824183464,
-0.09418433904647827,
0.6237872242927551,
-0.060157373547554016,
-0.2562406361103058,
-0.002908859634771943,
0.1431022733449936,
0.41500481963157654,
0.19011496007442474,
-0.357384592294693,
0.19303907454013824,
-0.007695172913372517,
-0.3810376822948456,
-0.4298107624053955,
0.2923470139503479,
-0.24578914046287537,
-0.1802450567483902,
0.2748783230781555,
-0.03128056973218918,
0.2005884051322937,
-0.34247204661369324,
0.144006609916687,
-0.4124452769756317,
-0.3073456585407257,
-0.033356472849845886,
0.14590726792812347,
-0.2181929349899292,
-0.6406139731407166,
-0.41189298033714294,
0.4173767864704132,
0.17888738214969635,
0.3966936767101288,
0.06847003102302551,
0.08149973303079605,
-0.4024791121482849,
-0.5052784085273743,
-0.09314998239278793,
0.9597456455230713,
0.30464687943458557,
-0.7208689451217651,
-0.2892846167087555,
0.11529380083084106,
-0.04091937839984894,
-0.0916457325220108,
-0.3743857145309448,
-0.8099285364151001,
-0.2716788351535797,
-0.1925092488527298,
-0.22289538383483887,
0.2963649034500122,
-0.48689791560173035,
-0.21143586933612823,
-0.21931211650371552,
0.153702050447464,
0.15308833122253418,
0.005177245941013098,
-0.1025412529706955,
0.4416552782058716,
-0.5484940409660339,
-0.4012658894062042,
0.38192057609558105,
0.07807159423828125,
-0.1759129911661148,
-0.24188698828220367,
-5.681019306182861,
0.39501842856407166,
-0.014402857050299644,
-0.13681241869926453,
0.4581441581249237,
-0.035139743238687515,
0.21562904119491577,
-0.505233108997345,
-0.05812673270702362,
0.19664163887500763,
-0.2250310480594635,
-0.2534200847148895,
0.24276208877563477,
0.09414433687925339,
0.31858810782432556,
-0.1897132843732834,
-0.06180157512426376,
-0.8488584160804749,
0.3139287233352661,
0.05516331270337105,
-0.32681044936180115,
-0.04076346382498741,
-0.26881054043769836,
-0.13051153719425201,
0.20460538566112518,
1.0373315811157227,
0.017361780628561974,
-0.3172595202922821,
-0.34987494349479675,
0.07675095647573471,
-0.6010259985923767,
-0.00042073021177202463,
-0.22906795144081116,
0.1876712590456009,
-0.3348780870437622,
-0.1392206847667694,
0.508902370929718,
-0.19129207730293274,
0.4690302610397339,
-0.25743740797042847,
-0.16646432876586914,
0.309919148683548,
-0.4291183650493622,
0.19525748491287231,
0.8279910087585449,
-0.7571296095848083,
-0.8509598970413208,
-0.5029774308204651,
-0.3151613175868988,
0.30260634422302246,
0.6464623808860779,
-0.30382704734802246,
-0.09254661947488785,
0.5808195471763611,
0.6333369016647339,
-0.6362237930297852,
0.6078928112983704,
-0.31675419211387634,
-0.7493599057197571,
-0.07423665374517441,
-0.15306465327739716,
-0.13820774853229523,
0.19521477818489075,
-0.11590356379747391,
0.3851902484893799,
0.27699485421180725,
-0.014375113882124424,
-0.6767361760139465,
0.22381897270679474,
-0.08281558007001877,
0.206598699092865,
0.372907817363739,
-0.2368251532316208,
-1.141531229019165,
0.2349681407213211,
0.36800768971443176,
-0.26505014300346375,
-0.023164337500929832,
-0.5618300437927246,
-0.6320638060569763,
0.4047658145427704,
-0.3001183569431305,
0.04400210082530975,
0.4382799565792084,
0.18405364453792572,
-0.558905303478241,
0.191753551363945,
-0.10245005786418915,
-0.15012061595916748,
-0.2697679102420807,
0.12308346480131149,
-0.6127961277961731,
-0.19753611087799072,
0.3285456895828247,
0.03654233738780022,
0.4209188222885132,
0.5922651290893555,
0.17148661613464355,
0.29897966980934143,
-0.1707615852355957,
-0.032693106681108475,
-0.6230804920196533,
0.06382884085178375,
-0.698056697845459,
-0.11384323239326477,
-0.3198769688606262,
0.15905967354774475,
0.2721918821334839,
0.22829627990722656,
-0.6275449395179749,
0.3898485600948334,
-0.6375209093093872,
-0.20617197453975677,
0.28160208463668823,
0.28133904933929443,
-0.2833252251148224,
-0.20406751334667206,
0.5804846882820129,
0.17650803923606873,
-0.06977200508117676,
-0.036530062556266785,
0.23343287408351898,
-0.4014051556587219,
0.4131366014480591,
-0.10763371735811234,
-0.7384829521179199,
0.33368775248527527,
0.17917434871196747,
-0.074693463742733,
0.09246470779180527,
-0.17540276050567627,
-0.009841526858508587,
-0.32050058245658875,
-0.5172127485275269,
0.5412918925285339,
-0.3861430883407593,
-0.23279453814029694,
-0.028756946325302124,
-0.28954339027404785,
0.3920658230781555,
0.26908448338508606,
0.031280919909477234,
0.06067892163991928,
0.42593085765838623,
0.12951715290546417,
-0.3873901963233948,
0.43340134620666504,
0.09248387068510056,
0.043007686734199524,
0.10904548317193985,
-0.5736753344535828,
0.10090184956789017,
0.9381158947944641,
-0.4153989851474762,
0.004544389899820089,
0.036561328917741776,
0.3377126455307007,
-0.2772713005542755,
-0.2570330500602722,
0.35100698471069336,
0.10776763409376144,
0.06667207181453705,
-0.6527731418609619,
0.1515972763299942,
-0.22224828600883484,
0.11462973803281784,
-0.4378699064254761,
-0.5097805857658386,
-0.2735304832458496,
0.355733186006546,
0.03647590056061745,
-0.02573390118777752,
-0.1282770037651062,
0.7172748446464539,
0.4670521914958954,
0.44723761081695557,
-0.29836949706077576,
-0.6035298705101013,
-0.05749412253499031,
-0.03987410292029381,
0.229269877076149,
-0.2384491264820099,
-0.5647786259651184,
0.5574190616607666,
0.9342340230941772,
-0.36231082677841187,
-1.0958973169326782,
-0.5495303869247437,
-0.5325683951377869,
0.22721882164478302,
0.07431197911500931,
0.7421869039535522,
0.46577829122543335,
0.2132425606250763,
-0.7402824759483337,
-0.28116559982299805,
0.011322025209665298,
-0.10007699579000473,
0.12759187817573547,
-0.1283295899629593,
0.37432682514190674,
0.7558930516242981,
-0.40877437591552734,
0.007687890902161598,
0.23169885575771332,
-0.8584702610969543,
0.30729570984840393,
0.20616619288921356,
-0.8178195357322693,
0.5650842785835266,
0.35508662462234497,
-0.015875237062573433,
0.015944093465805054,
0.10094917565584183,
-0.2767063081264496,
-0.37721574306488037,
0.544365406036377,
0.23704899847507477,
-0.5842450261116028,
0.13717493414878845,
-0.5878984928131104,
-0.5551009178161621,
-0.2506014406681061,
-0.03660060465335846,
-1.4777312278747559,
0.0861942395567894,
0.540203869342804,
-0.6265631318092346,
0.09644255042076111,
0.20828737318515778,
0.0008304796065203846,
0.23754987120628357,
0.15841978788375854,
-0.5126577019691467,
-0.26776835322380066,
-0.5360575914382935,
0.0071487827226519585,
0.6099196076393127,
-0.11595939099788666,
0.36572474241256714,
0.43925559520721436,
1.1953637599945068,
0.45728999376296997,
0.25244826078414917,
0.5893076062202454,
0.2960134446620941,
-0.4092603623867035,
-0.8062284588813782,
-0.6122289896011353,
0.24589888751506805,
-0.08294917643070221,
0.4055091440677643,
-0.06597167998552322,
-0.24708405137062073,
1.0755703449249268,
-0.9313244819641113,
0.28981176018714905,
-0.2635287046432495,
-0.07638759911060333,
0.08139073103666306,
-0.37770164012908936,
0.6427785158157349,
-0.8793933391571045,
0.19819612801074982,
0.3262180984020233,
0.10021287202835083,
0.2497122883796692,
-0.42329147458076477,
0.3067225217819214,
-0.14686185121536255,
-0.12348885089159012,
0.1724073439836502,
0.43380531668663025,
0.5635074973106384,
-0.4152148365974426,
0.0835300162434578,
-0.418222039937973,
-0.5921423435211182,
-0.04369736462831497,
-0.6143923401832581,
-0.009695364162325859,
0.5017009377479553,
-0.25656741857528687,
-1.0285223722457886,
-0.39149636030197144,
-0.8145163655281067,
0.1321735382080078,
-0.7591232061386108,
-0.21826323866844177,
-0.18458549678325653,
0.33669301867485046,
0.11825473606586456,
-0.1499338299036026,
-0.09008563309907913,
-0.06988774240016937,
0.09636403620243073,
-0.23150379955768585,
0.09913261234760284,
-0.5868706703186035,
0.026631955057382584,
-0.45284557342529297,
0.20244379341602325,
0.02583899535238743,
-0.5068297386169434,
-0.04132704809308052,
-0.437910258769989,
0.06016895920038223,
-0.389335960149765,
-0.4071042537689209,
0.15264391899108887,
0.18547093868255615,
-0.07085464149713516,
0.13580173254013062,
0.23497211933135986,
-0.245951846241951,
0.34404006600379944,
0.4811696708202362,
-0.20217792689800262,
-0.39457768201828003,
0.009883171878755093,
0.08635296672582626,
0.1151953786611557,
0.474284827709198,
0.024654006585478783,
0.006071173120290041,
0.17629320919513702,
0.09951665252447128,
0.5936048626899719,
0.24534443020820618,
0.03990335389971733,
0.40215158462524414,
-0.5531265139579773,
0.002496046479791403,
1.1271635293960571,
0.11093322187662125,
-0.10491423308849335,
0.19325144588947296,
-0.16375994682312012,
-0.1713491529226303,
0.43161025643348694,
0.16130737960338593,
0.6528968811035156,
0.13711662590503693,
0.06929701566696167,
0.15924625098705292,
0.09447362273931503,
0.46340906620025635,
0.31045472621917725,
0.16382020711898804,
0.40415045619010925,
0.30910664796829224,
0.13151142001152039,
0.2720166742801666,
-0.28262320160865784,
0.23783744871616364,
-0.08887926489114761,
0.15297307074069977,
-0.33589205145835876,
-0.2808076739311218,
-0.36554720997810364,
-0.6242051720619202,
-0.27521729469299316,
0.013135656714439392,
0.6752752065658569,
-0.04143470898270607,
-0.1333025097846985,
-0.2528133690357208,
-0.25562313199043274,
0.06291386485099792,
0.1105986014008522,
0.3062724173069,
0.22614429891109467,
0.2805924117565155,
0.12077226489782333,
0.2891318202018738,
0.2975638508796692,
0.40317997336387634,
-0.47129547595977783,
-0.4996022582054138,
-0.26682043075561523,
-0.8909293413162231,
0.4845775365829468,
-0.7577556371688843,
-0.20754478871822357,
0.16714857518672943,
0.13048899173736572,
0.0768035352230072,
-0.026050612330436707,
0.5860406756401062,
-1.0526628494262695,
0.46769100427627563,
-0.2952865660190582,
-0.13720576465129852,
0.6370802521705627,
-0.7489287257194519,
0.17620451748371124,
-0.4921785295009613,
-0.012808479368686676,
0.17110557854175568,
0.5278570652008057,
0.12265311181545258,
0.4580635130405426,
-0.1846647709608078,
1.099208116531372,
-0.5758140087127686,
0.07139825820922852,
-0.4949498176574707,
-0.3587343394756317,
-0.8127476572990417,
-0.01381983794271946,
0.41991862654685974,
0.3476933538913727,
-0.05049470067024231,
0.11758628487586975,
0.10617212951183319,
-0.2919386625289917,
0.44427743554115295,
-0.22422732412815094,
-0.09130771458148956,
-0.05735841765999794,
0.03944353386759758,
-0.49034079909324646,
0.12395332008600235,
0.07416805624961853,
-0.14399023354053497,
0.0895514190196991,
-0.016126815229654312,
-0.31271636486053467,
0.3979467451572418,
0.22096842527389526,
0.03623662143945694,
0.4240688681602478,
0.2885739505290985,
0.36633291840553284,
-0.1300515979528427,
-0.23064154386520386,
0.5346722602844238,
0.7788462042808533,
0.5612195730209351,
-0.42446520924568176,
0.14486514031887054,
-0.5111404657363892,
0.40160641074180603,
-0.28686150908470154,
-0.21535266935825348,
-0.4517436623573303,
0.27923905849456787,
-0.4535970985889435,
-0.15196189284324646,
0.37039661407470703,
-0.052581511437892914,
-0.5593605041503906,
-0.47380897402763367,
-0.45745977759361267,
-0.5300168991088867,
0.41409075260162354,
0.17598895728588104,
-0.307949960231781,
-0.002075422089546919,
-0.032336220145225525
] |
261120 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara%C4%91or%C4%91e | Karađorđe | Đorđe Petrović (, ), better known by the sobriquet Karađorđe (, ; – ), was a Serbian revolutionary who led the struggle for his country's independence from the Ottoman Empire during the First Serbian Uprising of 1804–1813.
Born into an impoverished family in the Šumadija region of Ottoman Serbia, Karađorđe distinguished himself during the Austro-Turkish War of 1788–1791 as a member of the Serbian Free Corps, a militia of Habsburg and Ottoman Serbs, armed and trained by the Austrians. Fearing retribution following the Austrians' and Serb rebels' defeat in 1791, he and his family fled to the Austrian Empire, where they lived until 1794, when a general amnesty was declared. Karađorđe subsequently returned to Šumadija and became a livestock merchant. In 1796, the rogue governor of the Sanjak of Vidin, Osman Pazvantoğlu, invaded the Pashalik of Belgrade, and Karađorđe fought alongside the Ottomans to quash the incursion.
In early 1804, following a massacre of Serb chieftains by renegade Ottoman janissaries known as Dahis, the Serbs of the Pashalik rebelled. Karađorđe was unanimously elected to lead the uprising against the Dahis at an assembly of surviving chiefs in February 1804. Within six months, most of the Dahi leaders had been captured and executed by Karađorđe's forces, and by 1805, the final remnants of Dahi resistance had been crushed. Karađorđe and his followers demanded far-reaching autonomy, which Sultan Selim interpreted as but the first step towards complete independence. Selim promptly declared jihad against the rebels and ordered an army to march into the Pashalik. The Ottomans suffered a string of defeats at the hands of Karađorđe's forces. By 1806, the rebels had captured all the major towns in the Pashalik, including Belgrade and Smederevo, and expelled their Muslim inhabitants. Burdened by the demands of the Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812, Selim offered the Serbs extensive autonomy, but Karađorđe refused in light of Russia's avowal to aid the rebels should they continue fighting.
Frequent infighting, together with Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, weakened the rebels, and the Ottomans were able to reverse many of their gains. Karađorđe was forced to flee Serbia in October 1813 and Belgrade fell later that month, bringing the First Serbian Uprising to a close. He and his followers sought refuge in the Austrian Empire, but were arrested and detained. Despite Ottoman requests for his extradition, the Austrians handed Karađorđe over to the Russians, who offered him refuge in Bessarabia. There, he joined the Greek secret society known as Filiki Eteria, which planned to launch a pan-Balkan uprising against the Ottomans. Karađorđe returned to Serbia in secret in July 1817, but was killed shortly thereafter by agents of Miloš Obrenović, a rival rebel leader, who was concerned that Karađorđe's reappearance would cause the Ottomans to renege on the concessions they had agreed to following the Second Serbian Uprising of 1815. Karađorđe is considered the founder of the Karađorđević dynasty, which ruled Serbia in several intervals during the 19th and 20th centuries. His murder resulted in a violent, decades-long feud between his descendants and those of Obrenović, with the Serbian throne changing hands several times.
Origins
Đorđe Petrović was born into an impoverished family in the village of Viševac, in the Šumadija region of Ottoman Serbia, on . He was the oldest of his parents' five children. His father, Petar Jovanović, was a highwayman (or hajduk) in his youth, but had since become a peasant farmer. His mother, Marica ( Živković), was a homemaker. Petrović's surname was derived from his father's given name, in line with contemporary Serbian naming conventions. Like most of his contemporaries, Petrović was illiterate. His family celebrated the feast day of Saint Clement. They are said to have been descended from the Vasojevići tribe of Montenegro's Lim River valley. His ancestors are thought to have migrated from Montenegro to Šumadija in the late 1730s or early 1740s. Petrović's childhood was strenuous and difficult. His parents were forced to move around often in search of a livelihood. His father worked as a day labourer and servant for a sipahi (), an Ottoman cavalryman. Petrović himself spent his adolescence working as a shepherd. In 1785, he married Jelena Jovanović, whose family hailed from the village of Masloševo. The couple had seven children, six of whom reached adulthood.
Petrović worked for several landlords across Šumadija until 1787, when he and his family left the region and settled in the Austrian Empire, fearing persecution at the hands of the Ottoman janissaries. It is said that as they were preparing to cross the Danube into Austria, Petrović's father began to have second thoughts about leaving Šumadija. Knowing that the entire family would be put in jeopardy if his father stayed behind, Petrović either took his father's life or arranged for someone to kill him instead.
Early military exploits
Following the outbreak of the Austro-Turkish War of 1788–1791, Petrović joined the Serbian Free Corps (), and took part in fighting the Ottomans in western Serbia. The Free Corps was a volunteer militia made up of both Ottoman and Habsburg Serbs that was armed and trained by the Austrians. It was led by a Habsburg Serb officer, Major Mihailo Mihaljević. Petrović's participation in the war brought him invaluable military experience, as well as insight into the Austrians' military techniques. He distinguished himself in combat and was decorated for bravery, reaching the rank of sergeant (). In this capacity, he was given command over a squad of 25 men.
The Austrians and Serb rebels briefly succeeded in liberating a strip of land east and south of Belgrade, which in Serbian historiography came to be known as Koča's Frontier (), after one of the senior rebel leaders, Koča Anđelković. In 1791, the Austrians and Ottomans signed the Treaty of Sistova. The Austrians agreed to return all the territory that they and the Serbs had captured south of the Danube in exchange for minor territorial concessions in northern Bosnia, effectively abandoning the Serbs and leaving them to resist the Ottomans on their own. The rebels were crushed by 1792 and most of their leaders executed. Unwilling to surrender, Petrović became a hajduk and briefly fought the Ottomans as an outlaw. He and his family once again sought refuge in the Austrian Empire, this time finding sanctuary in the Krušedol Monastery, at the foot of Fruška Gora, where Petrović worked as a forester.
In 1793, Hadji Mustafa Pasha was appointed governor of the Pashalik of Belgrade. He declared a general amnesty for former rebels and announced that Muslims would no longer serve as tax-collectors in areas where Christians formed a majority of the population. These changes were part of a plan devised by Sultan Selim aimed at improving relations with the Pashalik's Christian population. Sensing that it was safe, Petrović returned to Šumadija in 1794, together with his family. He settled in Topola, where he became a livestock merchant and traded with the Austrians. His business dealings led him to establish connections with many Habsburg Serbs. In 1796, Osman Pazvantoğlu, the renegade governor of the Sanjak of Vidin, who had rejected the authority of the Sublime Porte, launched an invasion of the Pashalik of Belgrade. Overwhelmed, Mustafa Pasha formed a Serbian national militia to help stop the incursion. Petrović joined the militia and became a boluk-bashi (), leading a company of 100 men.
In return for their service, the Serbs of the Pashalik were granted a number of privileges. They were allowed to bear arms and raise autonomous military units. After the Serb militias joined the war on Mustafa Pasha's side, Pazvantoğlu suffered a string of defeats. He retreated to Vidin, which was subsequently besieged. The war against Pazvantoğlu marked the first time that Petrović distinguished himself in the eyes of the Ottomans, who bestowed him with the sobriquet "Black George" (; ), partly because of his dark hair and partly because of his sinister reputation. Karađorđe's service in the Serbian militia resulted in him becoming well acquainted with Ottoman military doctrine.
First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813)
Revolt against the Dahis
In 1798, Napoleon invaded Egypt, forcing the Porte to redeploy thousands of regulars from the Balkans in order to resist the French. The janissaries in the Pashalik of Belgrade, known as Dahis (), who had been expelled from the region on Selim's orders nearly a decade earlier, were pardoned and allowed to return to Belgrade on the condition that they obey Mustafa Pasha. The détente between the aging governor and the Dahis did not last long. In 1801, Mustafa Pasha was killed by a Dahi assassin.
The power vacuum caused by Mustafa Pasha's murder resulted in a period of infighting between the Dahis that would last until 1802. By this time, four senior Dahi commanders emerged triumphant and agreed to share power within the Pashalik. The Serbs were stripped of the privileges that they had been granted under Mustafa Pasha. Dahi bands roamed the countryside, killing peasants, looting property and setting homes on fire. Thousands of villagers were displaced and forced to flee into the mountains, where over the next several years, the able-bodied men formed ad hoc guerrilla bands.
In mid-July 1803, Karađorđe obtained arms and munitions from Habsburg Serb merchants in Zemun. Later that month, he dispatched couriers through Šumadija calling for a meeting of Serbian notables to devise a strategy for resisting the Dahis. The flow of arms from the Austrian Empire into the Pashalik, combined with their inability to crush the guerrillas in the countryside, made the Dahi leadership increasingly uneasy. In January and February 1804, the Dahis launched a pre-emptive assault against the Pashalik's Serbian chieftains (known as knezovi, or "princes"), killing between 70 and 150 of them. The killings outraged the Serbian rayah, the Pashalik's tax-paying lower class. By this time, Karađorđe was a well known and well respected figure in Šumadija. He narrowly escaped being killed in the two-month massacre, which came to be known as the Slaughter of the Knezes (). Upon killing the chieftains, the Dahis impaled their severed heads on wooden stakes and put them on public display.
On Candlemas, , the surviving chieftains assembled in the village of Orašac, near Aranđelovac, to decide on a course of action. They agreed to launch a rebellion against the Dahis and Karađorđe was elected without opposition to lead it. It is said that he twice refused to lead the uprising, arguing that his violent temper would make him unsuitable for the role. Karađorđe's initial refusal only reinforced the chieftains' convictions that he was the only suitable candidate, and eventually, he agreed to lead the rebels. This event marked the beginning of the First Serbian Uprising, the opening phase of what would come to be known as the Serbian Revolution.
By the start of the revolt, the Pashalik of Belgrade had a population of about 400,000, 10 percent of which was Muslim. Its Serb population was roughly 250,000. At first, the rebels numbered around 30,000 men. In this initial stage, they were joined by a significant amount of the Pashalik's Muslim population, whom the rebels dubbed the "Good Turks". Karađorđe and his followers appealed to Sultan Selim for assistance against the Dahis, who had since rejected the authority of the Porte. Austria sent weapons and supplies to the rebels, while Russia lobbied on their behalf, encouraging the Porte to grant the Serbs further autonomy following the Dahis' removal. In May, Selim ordered a 7,000-strong army under of the command of Bekir Pasha, the governor of Bosnia, to march into the Pashalik. The Serbs welcomed Bekir Pasha and his men as liberators, and the Dahis were soon defeated through the joint efforts of Bekir Pasha's army and the rebels. By late August, the most prominent Dahi leaders had been captured by Karađorđe's men, beheaded, and their severed heads sent to the Sultan as trophies.
The Dahis resisted for another year before they were completely defeated. Karađorđe and his followers then demanded that Serbia be granted autonomous status similar to that enjoyed by neighbouring Wallachia. Selim suspected that Karađorđe's demands for autonomy were but the first step towards complete independence. He responded by declaring a jihad against the rebels. Hafiz Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Niš, was then ordered to march into Šumadija and destroy Karađorđe's army.
Rebellion against the Porte
Initial successes
The rebels first clashed with Ottoman regulars at the Battle of Ivankovac in August 1805, scoring a decisive victory. Belgrade was soon besieged by about 16,000 rebel fighters. The rebel leaders used anti-Muslim rhetoric to mobilize the peasantry, calling upon them to rise up and drive the Ottomans "across the blue sea". In order to further galvanize the population, Karađorđe appealed to memories of the Battle of Kosovo of June 1389, which paved the way for the Ottoman conquest of Serbia and the rest of the western Balkans, declaring that Serbia's defeat in the battle needed to be avenged. He sought to further cement his authority by harkening back to symbols of Medieval Serbia, such as the relics of Stefan the First-Crowned, and placing old heraldic symbols on flags and seals to establish continuity between the Serbian Empire and himself. Portraits of Dušan the Mighty, the founder of the Serbian Empire, are said to have hung from the walls of the rebels' headquarters.
Karađorđe was feared by enemies and allies alike because of his volatile temper. He considered executions to be the only way in which military infractions could be rectified, and according to the military historian Brendon A. Rehm, personally killed 125 people. In 1806, he ordered that his brother Marinko be hanged. According to one account, Marinko had been accused of raping a peasant girl. Another suggests that he had been attempting to seduce young women whose husbands were away at the front. Whatever the case, Karađorđe entertained senior rebel leaders in his home while his brother's lifeless body dangled from the front gate—a warning to others to refrain from the behaviour in which Marinko had been engaging. Muslims, combatants and non-combatants alike, were killed unremittingly, as illustrated in this contemporary account describing the capture of the village of Čučuge, near Ub, in April 1806:
Serbs who neglected to join the uprising were brutalized in equal measure. Males who could not produce an adequate excuse for why they were not fighting were killed and their houses torched. While most of the rebels were Serbs, the Pashalik's Romani (Gypsy) residents, the majority of whom were Muslim, also fought on the rebel side. Some Albanians also pledged allegiance to Karađorđe and fought on his behalf.
In 1806, the rebels twice dispatched the diplomat Petar Ičko to Constantinople to negotiate with the Porte. The two parties eventually reached an understanding, which came to be known as Ičko's Peace, in which the Ottomans agreed to grant the rebels extensive autonomy. Due to the Balkans' poor communications and transport infrastructure, it took several months for news of the Porte's offer to reach the rebels. In August 1806, the rebels defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Mišar. Later that month, they scored another victory at the Battle of Deligrad. Smederevo was captured in November and made the capital of Karađorđe's revolutionary state. Belgrade, with the exception of its imposing fortress, fell in early December. The outbreak of the Russo-Ottoman War that month, compounded by Russia's avowal to provide extensive materiel and financial support to the rebels should they continue fighting, convinced Karađorđe not to accept anything short of complete independence. He promptly refused to accept the terms of the agreement negotiated by Ičko.
In March 1807, Karađorđe issued a promise to Suleiman Pasha, the Governor of Belgrade, that he and his garrison would be granted safe passage if they vacated the city's besieged fortress. When Suleiman and his garrison emerged from the fortress, they were ambushed. Adult men were killed on the spot, women and girls were forcibly converted to Orthodox Christianity and made to marry their captors, and young children were placed in the care of Orthodox Christian families. One contemporary account suggests that as many as 3,000 non-Christians – mostly Muslims, but also Jews – were forced to convert to Orthodox Christianity. Jews that resisted conversion were either killed or expelled. Belgrade's mosques were either destroyed or turned into churches.
Losses mount
As the revolution progressed, rebel strength peaked at around 50,000 fighters. Despite their initial successes, the rebel leaders were seldom on good terms, and constant infighting plagued their camp. In the western part of the country, Jakov Nenadović was the principal figure. In the east, Milenko Stojković and Petar Dobrnjac held sway. The latter two opposed Karađorđe's attempts to create a centralized state, fearing that this would result in their own power being diminished. Others, such as Nenadović, complained that Karađorđe was becoming too authoritarian. Nenadović suggested that the rebels establish a central council to rein in Karađorđe's power and write a constitution based on the rule of law. Karađorđe balked at the possibility. "It's easy for this sovereign law of yours to rule in a warm room, behind this table", he responded, "but let us see tomorrow, when the Turks strike, who will meet them and beat them."
In May 1809, the rebels captured Sjenica. They repulsed an Ottoman attack on the village of Suvodol in early June, and seized Novi Pazar later that month, but failed to take its fortress. Minor clashes also took place in the north of Kosovo. Lacking numbers and adequate military training, the rebels failed to establish a corridor to Montenegro and gain access to the Adriatic Sea, which Karađorđe had described as one of his key aims. The rebels experienced further setbacks in Niš, where 3,000 were surrounded at Čegar Hill in May–June 1809. Knowing that he and his men would be impaled if captured, rebel commander Stevan Sinđelić fired at his entrenchment's gun powder magazine, setting off a massive explosion that killed him and everyone else in the vicinity. On the site of the battle, the Ottoman commander Hurshid Pasha built a stone tower with the skulls of Sinđelić and his fighters embedded in its walls as a warning to others who wished to rebel.
The fall of Čegar allowed the Ottomans to establish a land corridor extending along the Morava River valley from Niš to the Danube. Their advance was brought to a halt after the Russians crossed the Danube in September 1809 and attacked the Ottomans in northern Bulgaria, offering the rebels temporary respite. The rebels soon recaptured all the land they had lost but were exhausted by the fighting. Henceforth, they were continuously on the defensive. The rebel leaders quarrelled amongst themselves, blaming each other for the recent defeats. Karađorđe blamed the Russians for not intervening earlier on the rebels' behalf. He subsequently wrote Napoleon seeking military assistance, and in 1810, dispatched an emissary to France. Nothing came of these requests, as the French did not believe that the rebels had the military capacity to dislodge the Ottomans from the Balkans. As his battlefield setbacks mounted, Karađorđe's behaviour became more volatile. In late 1809, he shot and wounded one of his commanders, , for making a poor military decision in the vicinity of Ćuprija.
In 1810, Dobrnjac mutinied against Karađorđe and nearly succeeded in dislodging him. He was joined in his revolt by Milenko Stojković. In June 1810, Russian troops entered Serbia for a second time, distributing weapons and supplies to Karađorđe and his followers. Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov took part in planning joint actions against both the Ottomans and the mutineers. By the following year, Dobrnjac and Stojković were defeated. Karađorđe attempted to placate the mutineers. In January 1811, he established the People's Governing Council (), a cabinet consisting of members who supported Karađorđe as well as those who opposed him. It consisted of twelve members, one for each of the nahije (districts) of rebel Serbia. Karađorđe appointed Stojković as the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Nenadović as the Minister of the Interior, and Dobrnjac as the Minister of Justice. Also inducted into Karađorđe's cabinet were Mladen Milovanović, as the Minister of War; Dositej Obradović, as the Minister of Education; and Sima Marković, as the Minister of Finance. Dobrnjac and Stojković refused to accept the posts that were offered to them, fearing that their acceptance would legitimize Karađorđe and undermine their own position. Karađorđe accused them of insubordination and exiled them to Wallachia, replacing them with loyalists. The Governing Council soon recognized Karađorđe as Serbia's hereditary leader and pledged allegiance to his "lawful heirs".
Defeat
In mid-1812, Russia and the Ottoman Empire signed the Treaty of Bucharest, bringing the Russo-Ottoman War to a close. For his efforts, Karađorđe received the Order of Saint Anna from the Russians. The Governing Council scrambled to take an oath of loyalty to Russia in the hope that this would garner them further protection, to no avail. The Russian Emperor, Alexander, was aware of Napoleon's plans to invade Russia and desperately sought to return as many Russian soldiers as possible in order to repel the attack. As part of the Treaty of Bucharest, the Russians and Ottomans agreed that Serbian fortifications built after 1804 were to be destroyed, while cities and forts from which the Ottomans had been expelled over the course of the uprising were to be reoccupied and garrisoned by Ottoman troops. In exchange, the Ottomans agreed to declare a general amnesty for former rebels, as well as to grant the Serbs of the Pashalik of Belgrade some degree of autonomy. As part of the agreement, the Russians agreed to withdraw their forces from Serbia, as well as from Wallachia and Moldavia. The Russians encouraged Karađorđe and his followers to negotiate directly with the Porte regarding the minutiae of the handover of cities and fortifications to the Ottomans. Trepidation filled the rebel camp once it became clear that there was nothing to prevent the Ottomans from exacting reprisals against the Pashalik's Serb population after the Russians withdrew. Karađorđe thus refused to abide by the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest and fighting continued.
Deprived of foreign assistance, the rebels were quickly routed by the Ottomans, whose units were manned primarily by Albanians and Bosnian Muslims. In early October, Karađorđe fled to the Austrian Empire. He was joined by around 100,000 other Serbs fleeing the Ottoman advance, including 50,000 from Belgrade and its environs alone. Belgrade fell later that month. The city's fall marked the end of the First Serbian Uprising. The Ottomans singled out men and boys over the age of 15 for execution, and sold women and children into slavery. Torture was used extensively and executions were particularly brutal. "Men were roasted alive, hanged by their feet over smoking straw until they asphyxiated, castrated, crushed with stones, and bastinadoed," one eyewitness wrote. "Their women and children were raped and sometimes taken by force to harems. Outside Stambul Gate in Belgrade, there were always on view the corpses of impaled Serbs being gnawed by packs of dogs." Another account relays how infants and toddlers were boiled alive. In one day alone, 1,800 women and children were sold into slavery at a Belgrade market. Churches across the city were destroyed and mosques that had been converted into churches following the city's capture in 1806 were returned to their original use. Others were deliberately torched by the Ottomans for the purpose of inflicting suffering on the city's inhabitants. In one instance, several dozen Serb refugees seeking shelter in a mosque were burned alive inside.
In late October 1813, Hurshid Pasha declared a general amnesty for the rebels that had survived, though Karađorđe and some senior Orthodox clerics were specifically exempted. Many rebel leaders agreed to lay down their arms, the most notable of these being Miloš Obrenović, the rebel commander in Užice. A large number of Serb refugees subsequently returned to their homes, as did many of the Muslims that had been displaced in the fighting.
Exile, return to Serbia and death
Upon crossing the Danube, Karađorđe and his followers were arrested by the Austrian authorities. They were initially detained at the Petrovaradin Fortress in Novi Sad and later transferred to a prison in Graz. The Ottomans demanded that Karađorđe and the other rebel leaders be extradited to face punishment. The Austrians refused and instead turned them over to the Russians. Karađorđe spent a year in Austrian custody before being allowed to go to Russia. Like many of the other rebel leaders, he settled in Bessarabia. He attempted to adjust to civilian life, commissioning a portrait of himself by the painter Vladimir Borovikovsky. In April 1815, Obrenović orchestrated another anti-Ottoman rebellion in Serbia, which came to be known as the Second Serbian Uprising. Unlike Karađorđe's revolt, the Second Serbian Uprising ended relatively quickly and resulted in a rebel victory. In November 1815, the Ottomans accepted Obrenović's demands for wide-ranging autonomy. The terms that they agreed to were identical to those rejected by Karađorđe in 1807.
The Russians prohibited Karađorđe from returning to the Balkans to take part in the Second Serbian Uprising. Karađorđe objected and traveled to Saint Petersburg to plead his case, but was arrested and detained. Upon his release, he joined the Filiki Eteria, a Greek nationalist secret society that intended to launch a pan-Balkan uprising against the Ottomans. The Filiki Eteria promised Karađorđe a position of military leadership in the planned uprising and offered to smuggle him into the Pashalik of Belgrade. Karađorđe secretly entered the Pashalik on , crossing the Danube together with his servant, Naum Krnar. He then contacted his kum, Vujica Vulićević, who offered him an abode in the oak forest of Radovanje Grove, near Velika Plana. Unbeknownst to Karađorđe, Vulićević was on Obrenović's payroll. After escorting Karađorđe and his servant to a tent in the forest, Vulićević informed Obrenović of Karađorđe's whereabouts through a courier. Shortly thereafter, he received a letter from Obrenović telling him that Karađorde was to be killed. Vulićević enlisted one of his close confidantes, Nikola Novaković, to take Karađorđe's life. The following morning, just before sunrise, Novaković snuck into Karađorđe's tent and axed him to death while he slept. He then went to the riverside and shot Krnar with a rifle as he was gathering water. Karađorđe's lifeless body was beheaded. His severed head was taken to Belgrade and presented to Marashli Ali Pasha, who had been appointed the governor of the Pashalik two years prior. Ali Pasha had the head flayed, stuffed and sent to the Sultan himself.
Obrenović feared that Karađorđe's return would prompt the Ottomans to renege on the agreement reached by the Porte and Obrenović's followers in November 1815. By extension, Karađorđe's murder precluded the Serbs of the Pashalik from taking part in the Balkan-wide rebellion that the Filiki Eteria had been planning. In Constantinople, Karađorđe's head was impaled on a stake and left on public display for a week. His body was buried on Serbian soil, but his skull ended up in the hands of a Constantinople museum. It was stolen some years later and buried in Greece.
Legacy
Karađorđe's descendants adopted the surname Karađorđević in his honour. His murder resulted in a violent, decades-long feud between his descendants and those of Obrenović, with the Serbian throne changing hands several times. The feud came to an abrupt end in June 1903, when rebellious Royal Serbian Army officers killed the Obrenović king, Alexander, and his wife, Queen Draga, thereby rendering the Obrenović line extinct. Karađorđe's grandson, Peter Karađorđević, then ascended the throne.
In order to tie himself to his grandfather's legacy, Peter commissioned a bronze crown cast from a piece of Karađorđe's first cannon. In addition, the Order of Karađorđe's Star was introduced as Serbia's highest state decoration. The first feature-length film to emerge from Serbia and the Balkans, whose plot revolves around Karađorđe and his actions before, during and after the First Serbian Uprising, was released in 1911. Work soon began on the construction of the Church of Saint George, a Karađorđević dynasty mausoleum at Oplenac, near Topola. In 1913, a monument to Karađorđe was unveiled at Kalemegdan Park. During the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia, the monument was torn down by the Austro-Hungarian Army and destroyed.
In November 1918, Peter ascended the throne of the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was later renamed Yugoslavia. Karađorđe's head was repatriated from Greece in 1923 and reunited with the rest of his body. His remains were buried in a white marble sarcophagus within the church in 1930. The Karađorđević dynasty ruled Yugoslavia until 1941, when its members were forced into exile by Germany's invasion and occupation of the country. The monarchy was abolished by Josip Broz Tito's communist government in 1945.
Misha Glenny, a journalist specializing in the Balkans, believes that the First Serbian Uprising "marked the beginning of modern history on the Balkan peninsula." The uprising kindled the flame of ethno-religious nationalism among the Christians of Southeastern Europe and inspired the subsequent Greek War of Independence. Karađorđe's struggle against the Ottomans also had an important influence on the Bosnian Muslim revolutionary Husein Gradaščević, who instigated the Great Bosnian Uprising. Karađorđe is viewed in a negative light by some modern Bosniaks. In 2011, the chief Mufti of the Islamic Community of Serbia, Muamer Zukorlić, filed a petition to rename a street in Sjenica named after Karađorđe. Zukorlić alleged that Karađorđe and his followers had indiscriminately targeted the town's residents in 1809, a notion disputed by Serbian historians. The historian Ivo Banac surmises that "there would be no Bosnian Muslims today" had Karađorđe extended his uprising west of the Drina.
Karađorđe's exploits were popularized across Europe by the linguist and folklorist Vuk Karadžić, who recorded and published the ballads of the blind gusle player and epic poet Filip Višnjić, many of which pertained to the First Serbian Uprising. Karađorđe is referenced in a number of works of 19th-century fiction. While he was still alive, the Hungarian dramatist wrote a stage play about him, titled Black George, which premiered in August 1812. Several years later, the Russian poet Alexander Pushkin penned a ballad about Karađorđe titled The Song of George the Black. The Irish poet George Croly also wrote a ballad about him. Karađorđe is mentioned in Honoré de Balzac's 1842 novel A Start in Life, as the grandfather of one of the book's main characters. The Montenegrin prince-bishop and poet Petar II Petrović-Njegoš dedicated his 1847 epic poem The Mountain Wreath to "the ashes of the Father of Serbia", a reference to Karađorđe. The surname Karamazov, used in the Russian writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky's 1880 novel The Brothers Karamazov, is believed to have partially been inspired by Karađorđe, whose exploits popularized the use of the prefix "kara" to mean "black" within Russia.
Karađorđe's likeness was featured on the obverse of five-million dinar banknotes issued by the National Bank of Yugoslavia in 1993 and 1994. The anniversary of the First Serbian Uprising's commencement, 15 February, is celebrated annually in Serbia through a public holiday known as Statehood Day, first introduced in July 2001. A monument to Karađorđe stands in front of Belgrade's Church of Saint Sava, within the eponymous Karađorđe's Park.
Descendants
See also
List of Serbian Revolutionaries
Footnotes
Citations
References
1768 births
1817 deaths
18th-century Freikorps
18th-century Serbian people
19th-century Serbian monarchs
Assassinated Serbian politicians
Assassinations in the Ottoman Empire
Burials at the Mausoleum of the Royal House of Karađorđević, Oplenac
Characters in Serbian epic poetry
Deaths by blade weapons
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Serbia
Founding monarchs
Habsburg Serbs
Serbian independence activists
Karađorđević dynasty
Murder in 1817
Assassinated revolutionaries
Patricides
People from Rača
People murdered in Serbia
People of the First Serbian Uprising
People of the Military Frontier
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna
Serbian military leaders
Serbian revolutionaries
Serbs of the Ottoman Empire
Shepherds
Trophy heads | [
-0.061879146844148636,
0.16044817864894867,
-0.9137780666351318,
-0.15168124437332153,
-0.5798864364624023,
0.45360204577445984,
0.8808337450027466,
-0.585096538066864,
-0.4729635715484619,
0.12917064130306244,
0.0851198360323906,
0.22365731000900269,
-0.8060046434402466,
0.08960237354040146,
-0.2502119839191437,
0.33092308044433594,
0.32494667172431946,
0.2701149880886078,
-0.05803750455379486,
-0.12246512621641159,
-0.2642534375190735,
0.30943426489830017,
-0.0007791544194333255,
-0.06818042695522308,
-0.09190473705530167,
0.04926122725009918,
0.2756880223751068,
-0.22143958508968353,
-0.6428897380828857,
0.16969092190265656,
0.08460548520088196,
0.26392319798469543,
-0.42535755038261414,
-0.33726269006729126,
-0.8449504971504211,
0.1234903410077095,
-0.17352253198623657,
-0.3786417543888092,
0.02510794624686241,
-0.696537971496582,
-0.45475706458091736,
0.036383673548698425,
-0.03941825404763222,
0.6872189044952393,
0.0901525691151619,
-0.8345849514007568,
-0.5218092799186707,
0.42022573947906494,
-0.27208244800567627,
-0.43126773834228516,
-0.12929512560367584,
0.40741226077079773,
0.06638988852500916,
-0.1187528595328331,
-0.3924151659011841,
-0.11436828970909119,
-0.5029724836349487,
-0.41273176670074463,
0.27572202682495117,
-0.8677930235862732,
0.4257186949253082,
0.575253963470459,
0.6795617341995239,
-0.38321182131767273,
0.6524844169616699,
0.40336325764656067,
-0.06053240969777107,
0.4730682075023651,
-0.010596737265586853,
-0.020282337442040443,
-0.2592986524105072,
0.5047568678855896,
-0.03726568818092346,
0.10394161939620972,
0.16374070942401886,
-0.34353968501091003,
-0.19633521139621735,
-0.12833702564239502,
0.1733502447605133,
0.6681756973266602,
0.09025516360998154,
-0.14552445709705353,
0.4952397048473358,
0.22475400567054749,
-0.18537718057632446,
-0.7183821201324463,
-0.027896765619516373,
0.11950884759426117,
-0.5099550485610962,
0.13536258041858673,
-0.04755784198641777,
-0.11894125491380692,
1.0450234413146973,
0.07581356912851334,
-0.37881365418434143,
0.26744815707206726,
-0.3333556652069092,
0.5068956613540649,
-1.027352213859558,
0.1750432252883911,
-0.1666448712348938,
0.3701426684856415,
-0.20699745416641235,
-0.13267216086387634,
-0.5382979512214661,
-0.05897665023803711,
-0.202730193734169,
0.5818141102790833,
-0.13756316900253296,
-0.030804021283984184,
-0.5309522747993469,
-0.032439664006233215,
-0.5505818128585815,
-0.20369242131710052,
0.019802525639533997,
0.725077211856842,
-0.12780599296092987,
-0.38252344727516174,
-0.11431721597909927,
-0.5366556644439697,
-1.0454221963882446,
0.35078635811805725,
-0.31429964303970337,
0.17784182727336884,
0.10100099444389343,
-0.2811611294746399,
0.09298355132341385,
-0.5275049805641174,
-0.36489877104759216,
0.801053524017334,
-0.062150631099939346,
1.2306023836135864,
-0.2745656371116638,
-0.02930574119091034,
-0.2144908308982849,
-0.11486489325761795,
0.4063847064971924,
0.1979125589132309,
-0.1484072059392929,
0.33663076162338257,
-0.009906122460961342,
-0.09932295978069305,
-0.2738392949104309,
0.511479377746582,
0.2094481885433197,
-0.45307859778404236,
-0.2969738841056824,
0.1499464213848114,
-0.3170633912086487,
-0.29160961508750916,
-0.1873752474784851,
-0.2335255891084671,
-0.012050743214786053,
0.0729823037981987,
-0.4034820795059204,
0.4297400414943695,
0.14568057656288147,
-0.09948548674583435,
0.7861762046813965,
-0.07600857317447662,
0.23692840337753296,
0.7314170598983765,
0.3002900183200836,
0.2915450632572174,
0.5274075865745544,
-0.22779566049575806,
-0.10514228045940399,
0.45247089862823486,
-0.37077629566192627,
-0.7200740575790405,
-0.2646350562572479,
0.37475407123565674,
-0.20039533078670502,
-0.03458474576473236,
-0.13463056087493896,
0.9428668022155762,
0.0932951495051384,
0.14094147086143494,
-0.2792331576347351,
-0.449968159198761,
-0.656283438205719,
0.17899776995182037,
-0.32222989201545715,
-0.22342655062675476,
0.3982565104961395,
0.5839933753013611,
0.16898956894874573,
-0.45361047983169556,
0.11016368865966797,
-0.7408115863800049,
-0.023503772914409637,
-0.7123697996139526,
0.04704779013991356,
-0.36556100845336914,
1.5981706380844116,
-0.0031425338238477707,
-0.5305390357971191,
0.07387059181928635,
0.2027934491634369,
0.7808547616004944,
-0.12671326100826263,
-0.3681744635105133,
-0.4933059811592102,
0.036004696041345596,
0.19109822809696198,
0.13446147739887238,
0.3890172243118286,
0.33357980847358704,
0.5230188369750977,
0.8352200388908386,
0.7527057528495789,
-0.10929292440414429,
-0.23609761893749237,
-0.5942375063896179,
-0.11892581731081009,
-0.5142812132835388,
-0.05661870166659355,
0.575860857963562,
0.4795995056629181,
0.16532011330127716,
0.7984513640403748,
-0.45242616534233093,
-0.3108360171318054,
0.9008930921554565,
0.07301957905292511,
0.10328123718500137,
-0.3008415997028351,
0.21405766904354095,
-0.12107004225254059,
-0.5458869934082031,
-0.5001040101051331,
0.26273444294929504,
-0.17512033879756927,
-0.09988059848546982,
-0.3181556165218353,
-0.06171383708715439,
-0.18056800961494446,
-0.4720204174518585,
0.17280040681362152,
-0.5037461519241333,
0.1875058263540268,
0.7654412984848022,
0.012743477709591389,
0.22536028921604156,
0.008915570564568043,
0.15182657539844513,
-0.404147744178772,
0.040873438119888306,
-0.6433718800544739,
-0.1607106328010559,
-0.4353959560394287,
0.21520952880382538,
0.12341806292533875,
-0.13309770822525024,
0.34363192319869995,
-0.6044296622276306,
0.5147402286529541,
-0.2562001049518585,
-0.7745925188064575,
0.43868759274482727,
0.18121324479579926,
-0.11840648204088211,
0.10695915669202805,
0.5129415392875671,
0.7113444209098816,
0.12899763882160187,
0.008916065096855164,
-0.3922678828239441,
0.4863113760948181,
0.32409289479255676,
0.5729608535766602,
-0.28230395913124084,
-0.37658196687698364,
-0.11114975810050964,
0.27682197093963623,
-0.1716141700744629,
-0.507510244846344,
-0.25906261801719666,
-0.29690414667129517,
-0.8052250742912292,
0.31614139676094055,
0.7361688017845154,
0.09788461774587631,
-0.35386669635772705,
-0.577479898929596,
-0.37234917283058167,
-0.14089848101139069,
-0.10449399799108505,
0.26090168952941895,
0.2841459810733795,
-0.08671979606151581,
0.3427260220050812,
0.3832279145717621,
-0.20296435058116913,
-0.1299518346786499,
0.3679973781108856,
0.07524898648262024,
0.19418945908546448,
0.4503226578235626,
-0.013320264406502247,
-1.2744368314743042,
-0.46673154830932617,
-0.3399851322174072,
0.010486307553946972,
0.9531688690185547,
-0.04880445450544357,
0.04305463656783104,
-0.022114377468824387,
-5.592460632324219,
0.20819784700870514,
0.047532934695482254,
0.04177608713507652,
-0.18718980252742767,
0.01804690808057785,
0.281022846698761,
-0.4898596405982971,
-0.10658272355794907,
-0.4987054169178009,
-0.007306632585823536,
0.29945680499076843,
-0.13259008526802063,
0.38089993596076965,
0.5151105523109436,
-0.188431978225708,
0.9731621146202087,
0.5199116468429565,
0.28005433082580566,
0.3315199911594391,
-0.12032555788755417,
0.2808670401573181,
-0.07827410101890564,
0.38395971059799194,
0.7592847943305969,
0.4005891978740692,
-0.020723622292280197,
0.4191407561302185,
-0.6235087513923645,
0.1138991042971611,
-0.07304774224758148,
-0.028860963881015778,
0.03319620341062546,
-0.159204363822937,
0.38879236578941345,
-0.5640872716903687,
0.16487491130828857,
0.5350401401519775,
-0.273333340883255,
-0.1987711638212204,
-0.01178540475666523,
-0.11128024756908417,
-0.11170246452093124,
-0.16740135848522186,
0.14046216011047363,
-0.3785876929759979,
-0.3396260142326355,
0.5841570496559143,
-0.48185840249061584,
0.4727177917957306,
-0.03887070342898369,
-0.4075356721878052,
0.46178144216537476,
-0.1191452294588089,
0.18554958701133728,
0.03896881267428398,
0.1663983166217804,
-0.38333067297935486,
-0.6989034414291382,
0.8267882466316223,
0.8884168267250061,
-0.13369491696357727,
0.041364625096321106,
-0.5252493619918823,
0.07044799625873566,
-0.44362562894821167,
0.05538920313119888,
-0.47852054238319397,
-0.5592679977416992,
0.5051375031471252,
-0.09857308119535446,
0.7294444441795349,
-0.5191214680671692,
-1.151976466178894,
0.7170873284339905,
-0.4367927610874176,
-0.8356265425682068,
0.16688203811645508,
0.14302174746990204,
0.2439267784357071,
-0.6315339803695679,
-0.2468515932559967,
0.024341292679309845,
0.9609327912330627,
0.556405246257782,
0.4452568292617798,
0.053654953837394714,
0.12618428468704224,
-0.32406699657440186,
0.41874411702156067,
0.501182496547699,
-0.9757265448570251,
0.004388466477394104,
0.11117203533649445,
-0.02786119282245636,
0.3598939776420593,
-0.8366734981536865,
0.011701853945851326,
0.845973551273346,
-0.14427775144577026,
-0.16403958201408386,
0.20293642580509186,
0.09401976317167282,
0.05557866394519806,
0.7373970746994019,
-0.28951266407966614,
-0.09275505691766739,
-0.30393174290657043,
0.9332436919212341,
0.46213552355766296,
0.271185964345932,
0.054463230073451996,
-0.32026806473731995,
-0.5398392081260681,
0.35128867626190186,
-0.012915459461510181,
0.5540325045585632,
0.34439870715141296,
0.506041944026947,
-0.09908024966716766,
-0.31255555152893066,
-0.1861218512058258,
-0.06656530499458313,
0.4306880235671997,
0.1793559342622757,
0.47630882263183594,
-0.2562560737133026,
-0.023425890132784843,
0.3498297929763794,
-0.19749470055103302,
0.364770770072937,
-0.021514685824513435,
-0.3179314434528351,
0.30975544452667236,
0.1656670719385147,
-0.2361563891172409,
-0.41317158937454224,
-0.828792154788971,
-0.04511157423257828,
-0.46537238359451294,
-0.634421169757843,
-0.47461196780204773,
-0.2208184003829956,
0.22650063037872314,
0.9088926315307617,
0.12443062663078308,
0.07179294526576996,
0.18430380523204803,
-0.17262205481529236,
0.2157287299633026,
-0.36061280965805054,
-0.17674949765205383,
0.4815673828125,
-0.26531437039375305,
-0.6133491396903992,
-0.26250043511390686,
0.3110015094280243,
0.6752880811691284,
-0.38503798842430115,
0.452295184135437,
-0.36262276768684387,
-0.9093774557113647,
-0.6079051494598389,
-0.5744113326072693,
0.6168480515480042,
-0.2634555697441101,
-0.6506637334823608,
-0.0824623629450798,
-0.08609819412231445,
0.372707724571228,
-0.13403739035129547,
-0.9889199137687683,
-0.4863765239715576,
-0.11850719153881073,
0.11329160630702972,
-0.767189085483551,
-0.028879627585411072,
0.5007400512695312,
-0.3838755488395691,
-0.18920038640499115,
-0.08668964356184006,
0.5280957221984863,
-0.4900971055030823,
-0.1630396693944931,
0.5797699689865112,
-0.10420803725719452,
-0.5482397079467773,
-0.3250598609447479,
-0.2345801293849945,
-0.28112176060676575,
0.09624943137168884,
0.2559395730495453,
-0.23723700642585754,
-0.5348402857780457,
-0.26036790013313293,
-0.5562619566917419,
-0.3684391975402832,
0.5101458430290222,
0.37488070130348206,
-0.037427566945552826,
0.3104013204574585,
0.014120508916676044,
-0.22558031976222992,
0.17708510160446167,
-0.22713878750801086,
-0.3646288812160492,
1.083790898323059,
0.21351009607315063,
0.028394296765327454,
0.42160552740097046,
-0.3535948395729065,
-1.554077386856079,
-0.10794045776128769,
0.88285893201828,
0.0020630068611353636,
0.2631871700286865,
0.18484555184841156,
-0.5165210962295532,
-0.36988624930381775,
-0.8125840425491333,
-0.24641527235507965,
-0.3395672142505646,
-0.2904075086116791,
0.1252397745847702,
-0.08019215613603592,
-0.03541193902492523,
0.10102992504835129,
0.061103109270334244,
0.266557902097702,
0.017915107309818268,
-0.07357651740312576,
0.094771608710289,
0.3184770941734314,
0.2121206820011139,
-0.2833477556705475,
-0.60768723487854,
0.3110150098800659,
-0.06233939155936241,
-0.23609192669391632,
0.16401425004005432,
0.24357306957244873,
1.3578505516052246,
-0.10671541839838028,
-0.1950688660144806,
0.48676180839538574,
0.2211083322763443,
0.2265932708978653,
-0.11848751455545425,
-0.08949587494134903,
-0.10207435488700867,
0.13271525502204895,
0.47909003496170044,
-0.8044211864471436,
-0.37494125962257385,
0.8073843121528625,
-0.18495936691761017,
-0.24761587381362915,
0.2861238121986389,
0.08478707075119019,
0.08521759510040283,
-0.13223622739315033,
0.4304601550102234,
0.13754060864448547,
0.1743863821029663,
0.13018225133419037,
0.04565790295600891,
-0.06343162059783936,
-0.04298273101449013,
-0.1869390606880188,
-0.7146565914154053,
-0.6864508390426636,
-0.9719995856285095,
0.24664857983589172,
0.17745527625083923,
-0.18412859737873077,
0.03695244342088699,
0.5179888010025024,
0.21082714200019836,
0.40129712224006653,
0.3691846430301666,
-0.5684220790863037,
-0.48946481943130493,
-0.19227324426174164,
0.0682266354560852,
-0.09865526109933853,
-0.7104034423828125,
0.13372015953063965,
0.18049414455890656,
-0.1010572537779808,
0.07783880829811096,
-0.7034701108932495,
0.0512993223965168,
0.48968297243118286,
0.43157047033309937,
0.19186276197433472,
0.11309903860092163,
-0.14449277520179749,
0.6361756324768066,
-0.4640478491783142,
0.3441489338874817,
-0.518501877784729,
0.5081345438957214,
0.5335533022880554,
-0.29798319935798645,
0.36753782629966736,
0.09093309938907623,
0.20843885838985443,
-0.5147006511688232,
0.05247713252902031,
0.1377614140510559,
0.19178932905197144,
0.42560791969299316,
0.6815465092658997,
0.046918146312236786,
-0.5740271210670471,
-0.3523203134536743,
0.9101042747497559,
-0.2708631157875061,
-0.1273331493139267,
0.03784700483083725,
0.09792178124189377,
-0.3904974162578583,
-0.09837906062602997,
-0.1700408011674881,
0.3729372024536133,
-0.05947701632976532,
-0.1688031405210495,
-0.056403808295726776,
-0.12618601322174072,
0.596245288848877,
-0.13017651438713074,
0.11030751466751099,
-0.546467661857605,
-0.17571352422237396,
-0.2551450729370117,
-0.19721993803977966,
0.1891009360551834,
-0.15063388645648956,
-0.340323269367218,
0.7224487066268921,
0.31218191981315613,
-0.13435696065425873,
-0.19497576355934143,
0.4670325517654419,
0.0785817801952362,
0.18758566677570343,
0.3126433491706848,
0.2588154077529907,
0.12624916434288025,
0.12792722880840302,
0.3746974468231201,
0.29307523369789124,
0.19615867733955383,
-0.6720159649848938,
-0.15916353464126587,
0.09335175156593323,
0.12677501142024994,
0.2841671109199524,
-0.04289167374372482,
-0.18627631664276123,
0.10645075142383575,
-0.3006567060947418,
0.5717831254005432,
-0.20916098356246948,
0.2202705293893814,
0.22015121579170227,
0.37209948897361755,
-0.39616262912750244,
0.31273263692855835,
0.11352352052927017,
0.5931381583213806,
-0.38465365767478943,
-0.45787084102630615,
-0.07384294271469116,
-0.07630085200071335,
-0.33689865469932556,
0.8409982919692993,
0.36317363381385803,
0.13926094770431519,
-0.04643427953124046,
-0.34043577313423157,
0.49369534850120544,
0.4481516480445862,
-0.5018771290779114,
0.12844762206077576,
0.1923294961452484,
0.23218122124671936,
0.039287615567445755,
-0.4104568660259247,
-0.1437302529811859,
0.060782160609960556,
-0.481069952249527,
-0.07452929019927979,
0.17959575355052948,
-0.18208931386470795,
0.09483123570680618,
-0.020665375515818596,
1.0445005893707275,
1.1289103031158447,
-0.1700832098722458,
-0.2919260561466217,
-0.042854927480220795,
-0.22572550177574158,
-0.0021955319680273533,
-0.30765417218208313,
0.48854729533195496,
-0.7289694547653198,
-0.023763280361890793,
-0.5831077694892883,
0.41219624876976013,
-0.24855434894561768,
0.3158389627933502,
-0.003697647713124752,
0.6561388373374939,
-0.7232875227928162,
0.4556843340396881,
0.5143755078315735,
-0.33426326513290405,
0.17471320927143097,
-0.3973596394062042,
0.17705553770065308,
-0.17232902348041534,
0.19162337481975555,
-0.29247403144836426,
-0.1647169589996338,
-0.03598766401410103,
0.30008646845817566,
0.37795552611351013,
-0.6948044300079346,
0.5645186305046082,
-0.10500512272119522,
-0.5035338401794434,
-0.03713554888963699,
-0.16424958407878876,
-0.6209514141082764,
0.016473179683089256,
0.49001240730285645,
0.39194247126579285,
-0.11643462628126144,
-0.6747379899024963,
0.5100415349006653,
0.2117859423160553,
0.8686060309410095,
0.7215778231620789,
0.5720168352127075,
-0.010311709716916084,
-0.8198588490486145,
0.32438695430755615,
-0.29292187094688416,
-0.40789321064949036,
0.8104752898216248,
0.062281087040901184,
0.37642902135849,
-0.7189568281173706,
0.5591250658035278,
-0.41005760431289673,
-0.158883735537529,
-0.4224618077278137,
0.04469995200634003,
-0.07801023125648499
] |
261128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s%20taxonomy | Bloom's taxonomy | Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used for classification of educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The three lists cover the learning objectives in cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. The cognitive domain list has been the primary focus of most traditional education and is frequently used to structure curriculum learning objectives, assessments and activities.
The models were named after Benjamin Bloom, who chaired the committee of educators that devised the taxonomy. He also edited the first volume of the standard text, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals.
History
The publication of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives followed a series of conferences from 1949 to 1953, which were designed to improve communication between educators on the design of curricula and examinations.
The first volume of the taxonomy, Handbook I: Cognitive was published in 1956, and in 1964 the second volume Handbook II: Affective was published. A revised version of the taxonomy for the cognitive domain was created in 2001.
Cognitive domain (knowledge-based), original version
In the 1956 original version of the taxonomy, the cognitive domain is broken into the six levels of objectives listed below. In the 2001 revised edition of Bloom's taxonomy, the levels have slightly different names and their order was revised: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create (rather than Synthesize).
Knowledge
Knowledge involves recognizing or remembering facts, terms, basic concepts, or answers without necessarily understanding what they mean. Some characteristics may include:
Knowledge of specifics—terminology, specific facts
Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics—conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories
Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field—principles and generalizations, theories and structures
Example: Name three common varieties of apple.
Comprehension
Comprehension involves demonstrating an understanding of facts and ideas by organizing, summarizing, translating, generalizing, giving descriptions, and stating the main ideas.
Example: Summarize the identifying characteristics of a Golden Delicious apple and a Granny Smith apple.
Application
Application involves using acquired knowledge to solve problems in new situations. This involves applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules. Learners should be able to use prior knowledge to solve problems, identify connections and relationships and how they apply in new situations.
Example: Would apples prevent scurvy, a disease caused by a deficiency in vitamin C?
Analysis
Analysis involves examining and breaking information into component parts, determining how the parts relate to one another, identifying motives or causes, making inferences, and finding evidence to support generalizations. Its characteristics include:
Analysis of elements
Analysis of relationships
Analysis of organization
Example: Compare and contrast four ways of serving foods made with apples and examine which ones have the highest health benefits.
Synthesis
Synthesis involves building a structure or pattern from diverse elements; it also refers to the act of putting parts together to form a whole or bringing pieces of information together to form a new meaning. Its characteristics include:
Production of a unique communication
Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
Derivation of a set of abstract relations
Example: Convert an "unhealthy" recipe for apple pie to a "healthy" recipe by replacing your choice of ingredients. Argue for the health benefits of using the ingredients you chose versus the original ones.
Evaluation
Evaluation involves presenting and defending opinions by making judgments about information, the validity of ideas, or quality of work based on a set of criteria. Its characteristics include:
Judgments in terms of internal evidence
Judgments in terms of external criteria
Example: Which kinds of apples are suitable for baking a pie, and why?
Affective domain (emotion-based)
Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel other living things' pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion, and feelings.
There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest-order processes to the highest.
Receiving
The lowest level; the student passively pays attention. Without this level, no learning can occur. Receiving is about the student's memory and recognition as well.
Responding
The student actively participates in the learning process, not only attends to a stimulus; the student also reacts in some way.
Valuing
The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon, or piece of information. The student associates a value or some values to the knowledge they acquired.
Organizing
The student can put together different values, information, and ideas, and can accommodate them within their own schema; the student is comparing, relating and elaborating on what has been learned.
Characterizing
The student at this level tries to build abstract knowledge.
Psychomotor domain (action-based)
Skills in the psychomotor domain describe the ability to physically manipulate a tool or instrument like a hand or a hammer. Psychomotor objectives usually focus on change and/or development in behavior and/or skills.
Bloom and his colleagues never created subcategories for skills in the psychomotor domain, but since then other educators have created their own psychomotor taxonomies. Simpson (1972) proposed the following levels:
Perception
The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity: This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.
Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of the stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet.
Key words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.
Set
Readiness to act: It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets). This subdivision of psychomotor is closely related with the "responding to phenomena" subdivision of the affective domain.
Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognizes his or her abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation).
Keywords: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Guided response
The early stages of learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error: Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.
Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds to hand-signals of the instructor while learning to operate a forklift.
Keywords: copies, traces, follows, reacts, reproduces, responds.
Mechanism
The intermediate stage in learning a complex skill: Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.
Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking tap. Drive a car.
Key words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
Complex overt response
The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns: Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum amount of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation and automatic performance. For example, players will often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.
Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano.
Key words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. (Note: The key words are the same as in mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.)
Adaptation
Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.
Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Performs a task with a machine that was not originally intended for that purpose (the machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task).
Key words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination
Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem: Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.
Examples: Constructs a new set or pattern of movements organized around a novel concept or theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training program. Creates a new gymnastic routine.
Key words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiates, makes, originates.
Definition of knowledge
In the appendix to Handbook I, there is a definition of knowledge which serves as the apex for an alternative, summary classification of the educational goals. This is significant as the taxonomy has been called upon significantly in other fields such as knowledge management, potentially out of context. "Knowledge, as defined here, involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting."
The taxonomy is set out as follows:
1.00 Knowledge
1.10 Knowledge of specifics
1.11 Knowledge of terminology
1.12 Knowledge of specific facts
1.20 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics
1.21 Knowledge of conventions
1.22 Knowledge of trends and sequences
1.23 Knowledge of classifications and categories
1.24 Knowledge of criteria
1.25 Knowledge of methodology
1.30 Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field
1.31 Knowledge of principles and generalizations
1.32 Knowledge of theories and structures
Criticism of the taxonomy
As pointed out on the publication of the second volume, the classification was not a properly constructed taxonomy, as it lacked a systematic rationale of construction.
This was subsequently acknowledged in the discussion of the original taxonomy in its 2001 revision, and the taxonomy was reestablished on more systematic lines.
Some critiques of the taxonomy's cognitive domain admit the existence of these six categories but question the existence of a sequential, hierarchical link. Often, educators view the taxonomy as a hierarchy and may mistakenly dismiss the lowest levels as unworthy of teaching. The learning of the lower levels enables the building of skills in the higher levels of the taxonomy, and in some fields, the most important skills are in the lower levels (such as identification of species of plants and animals in the field of natural history). Instructional scaffolding of higher-level skills from lower-level skills is an application of Vygotskian constructivism.
Some consider the three lowest levels as hierarchically ordered, but the three higher levels as parallel. Others say that it is sometimes better to move to application before introducing concepts, the goal being to create a problem-based learning environment where the real world context comes first and the theory second, to promote the student's grasp of the phenomenon, concept, or event.
The distinction between the categories can be seen as artificial since any given cognitive task may entail a number of processes. It could even be argued that any attempt to nicely categorize cognitive processes into clean, cut-and-dried classifications undermines the holistic, highly connective and interrelated nature of cognition. This is a criticism that can be directed at taxonomies of mental processes in general.
The taxonomy is widely implemented as a hierarchy of verbs, designed to be used when writing learning outcomes, but a 2020 analysis showed that these verb lists showed no consistency between educational institutions, and thus learning outcomes that were mapped to one level of the hierarchy at one educational institution could be mapped to different levels at another institution.
Implications
Bloom's taxonomy serves as the backbone of many teaching philosophies, in particular, those that lean more towards skills rather than content. These educators view content as a vessel for teaching skills. The emphasis on higher-order thinking inherent in such philosophies is based on the top levels of the taxonomy including application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Bloom's taxonomy can be used as a teaching tool to help balance evaluative and assessment-based questions in assignments, texts, and in-class engagements to ensure that all orders of thinking are exercised in students' learning, including aspects of information searching.
Connections across disciplines
Bloom's taxonomy (and the revised taxonomy) continues to be a source of inspiration for educational philosophy and for developing new teaching strategies. The skill development that takes place at higher orders of thinking interacts well with a developing global focus on multiple literacies and modalities in learning and the emerging field of integrated disciplines. The ability to interface with and create media would draw upon skills from both higher order thinking skills (analysis, creation, and evaluation) and lower order thinking skills (knowledge, comprehension, and application).
Visual interpretations
Bloom's original taxonomy may not have included verbs or visual representations, but subsequent contributions to the idea have portrayed the ideas visually for researchers, teachers and students.
See also
References
Further reading
Educational technology
Educational classification systems
Stage theories | [
-0.38301095366477966,
-0.19809392094612122,
-0.42908090353012085,
0.3164430856704712,
-0.009760791435837746,
0.3277795612812042,
0.2331472784280777,
0.06827852129936218,
-0.008912208490073681,
-0.4468225836753845,
-0.493435263633728,
0.18185275793075562,
0.06015289947390556,
0.3905569016933441,
-0.058875538408756256,
0.3642984926700592,
0.197618767619133,
0.15505757927894592,
0.143492192029953,
0.11511749029159546,
-0.5274812579154968,
0.08103984594345093,
0.08153506368398666,
-0.4849487841129303,
0.4333813190460205,
-0.1978117674589157,
-0.08423200249671936,
0.44805601239204407,
0.15358681976795197,
0.27050453424453735,
-0.23652009665966034,
0.9467753171920776,
0.10814999788999557,
-0.05398322641849518,
-0.197524294257164,
-0.22842560708522797,
-0.05504096671938896,
0.0041603706777095795,
0.00047876258031465113,
-0.7338993549346924,
0.0828375369310379,
-0.15827105939388275,
-0.4334110617637634,
-0.12448139488697052,
-0.3843000531196594,
-0.38090550899505615,
-2.186722993850708,
-0.09332107752561569,
-0.4266217052936554,
0.10970144718885422,
-1.0773252248764038,
0.1917918473482132,
0.6802935004234314,
-0.15574374794960022,
-0.3442302346229553,
0.2658546268939972,
-0.3239521384239197,
-0.01665382832288742,
0.3880717158317566,
-0.05407395586371422,
0.043809112161397934,
0.15179109573364258,
0.270173579454422,
0.2218797355890274,
-0.22842417657375336,
0.042099516838788986,
-0.16635584831237793,
0.19907498359680176,
-0.4391894042491913,
-0.6076423525810242,
0.09988176822662354,
-0.30425113439559937,
0.18410328030586243,
0.6604160666465759,
-0.9442658424377441,
-0.024517623707652092,
-0.19344010949134827,
-0.27397024631500244,
-0.10853277146816254,
-0.18626494705677032,
-0.7455172538757324,
-0.029847659170627594,
0.5307230949401855,
-0.4424873888492584,
0.4166656732559204,
0.1819741427898407,
-0.24920181930065155,
0.6224926710128784,
-0.16628038883209229,
0.36004820466041565,
-0.07638699561357498,
-0.4886065125465393,
0.9284746646881104,
0.28629812598228455,
0.2916545867919922,
-0.11714548617601395,
0.2808166444301605,
-0.22263701260089874,
-0.16060097515583038,
0.1577456146478653,
-0.34331804513931274,
0.4896451532840729,
0.06438542902469635,
-0.3633766174316406,
-0.5218727588653564,
-0.25969398021698,
0.14995427429676056,
-0.7292454242706299,
-0.5400516986846924,
-0.12909971177577972,
-0.8433758616447449,
0.08375696837902069,
-0.01592876762151718,
0.035688936710357666,
0.20322942733764648,
0.7779250144958496,
0.44795551896095276,
0.26277413964271545,
-0.3289436101913452,
0.45109689235687256,
-0.24557974934577942,
0.3282666504383087,
0.2000144124031067,
0.30014768242836,
0.2011783868074417,
0.2478085607290268,
0.45818182826042175,
0.30422675609588623,
-0.12296938896179199,
0.35454288125038147,
0.02189122885465622,
0.426507830619812,
0.3175370395183563,
-0.06301290541887283,
-0.3306311368942261,
-0.3819599449634552,
0.09864941239356995,
-0.27216166257858276,
-0.0016115396283566952,
0.42410892248153687,
-0.17639493942260742,
-0.20336095988750458,
-0.14015094935894012,
-0.22615443170070648,
0.7692124843597412,
-0.17958734929561615,
0.18055453896522522,
-0.5430688858032227,
-0.10192707926034927,
-0.4188898503780365,
0.18651267886161804,
0.3621634542942047,
-0.7479840517044067,
-0.04072517901659012,
0.2862180769443512,
0.8255526423454285,
-0.1225847378373146,
-0.09535803645849228,
-0.20532488822937012,
0.3229430615901947,
-0.15375663340091705,
0.019710887223482132,
-0.4989631175994873,
-0.2586941421031952,
-0.22002045810222626,
-0.7273279428482056,
0.40637943148612976,
0.8339872360229492,
0.10011649876832962,
-0.19463659822940826,
-0.01638604700565338,
-0.44040483236312866,
0.4744318425655365,
0.18574117124080658,
0.38071292638778687,
0.3038035035133362,
0.673146665096283,
0.15388846397399902,
0.8698853850364685,
-0.16714361310005188,
-0.5528468489646912,
-0.06636635214090347,
0.5428625345230103,
-0.07103220373392105,
0.5967171788215637,
-0.5355637669563293,
0.4941392242908478,
0.10108694434165955,
0.2888419032096863,
0.052250102162361145,
-0.5317191481590271,
-0.25460895895957947,
0.3464447259902954,
-0.4708164632320404,
0.869214653968811,
0.07708169519901276,
0.12709540128707886,
0.09047490358352661,
0.07866447418928146,
-0.010033680126070976,
0.24411383271217346,
-0.26752203702926636,
-0.21952693164348602,
-0.0024957992136478424,
-0.4356209337711334,
0.007691612001508474,
-0.24178285896778107,
-0.09015754610300064,
-0.5585065484046936,
0.06122863292694092,
-0.11375244706869125,
-0.08381091803312302,
0.40200158953666687,
-0.3650304675102234,
0.3138832747936249,
-0.01226970087736845,
-0.1888260543346405,
0.7697538733482361,
0.24143464863300323,
-0.46902284026145935,
0.6532105803489685,
-0.5391925573348999,
-0.009687988087534904,
0.12312012165784836,
-0.2559378445148468,
0.12587837874889374,
0.8820720314979553,
0.6409792304039001,
0.8860718607902527,
-0.5177605748176575,
-0.11144589632749557,
-0.4799223244190216,
0.33143165707588196,
-0.3819859027862549,
-0.07570748776197433,
0.03978729993104935,
0.09412534534931183,
-0.4405166208744049,
0.32793110609054565,
-1.082985281944275,
-0.011715080589056015,
0.3010745644569397,
-0.18448583781719208,
-0.12012263387441635,
0.25290870666503906,
-0.06600196659564972,
-0.411798894405365,
0.4643554389476776,
-0.5939624309539795,
-0.0012746655847877264,
-0.21420139074325562,
0.661842942237854,
0.19172042608261108,
-0.3052910268306732,
-0.4084906280040741,
0.356143057346344,
0.2651785612106323,
-0.3298732042312622,
0.1642046868801117,
0.5384658575057983,
0.00796718429774046,
0.1169169470667839,
-0.6069453954696655,
-0.07254461944103241,
0.2387857586145401,
-0.5903360843658447,
-0.48115092515945435,
-0.38931506872177124,
0.9170289635658264,
0.018727822229266167,
0.31060275435447693,
-0.09696865826845169,
-0.10028383880853653,
-0.2287897914648056,
-0.23502063751220703,
-1.342501163482666,
0.886102557182312,
0.3483586013317108,
-0.5281060934066772,
-0.4697542190551758,
-0.1489754021167755,
0.37958917021751404,
0.10914359986782074,
-0.0960439145565033,
-0.1643678843975067,
-0.4734448790550232,
0.34645000100135803,
-0.30669933557510376,
0.2183012217283249,
-0.19316869974136353,
-0.5195685625076294,
0.7480159997940063,
-0.5097294449806213,
-0.1927243173122406,
-0.18346859514713287,
0.41614773869514465,
-0.2327406108379364,
-0.15809530019760132,
-0.11368651688098907,
0.12074454873800278,
-0.4401455223560333,
0.16261616349220276,
0.11007694154977798,
-0.1411736011505127,
-0.0878661572933197,
0.41777873039245605,
0.008273874409496784,
0.3610438406467438,
-5.864105224609375,
-0.2033090442419052,
-0.4319303333759308,
0.15237049758434296,
-0.3966142237186432,
-0.122511126101017,
0.3289351761341095,
-0.05861220508813858,
0.0001046752295223996,
-0.3871050179004669,
-0.14879390597343445,
0.011479298584163189,
-0.13902772963047028,
0.5473724603652954,
0.46717146039009094,
0.1332351118326187,
0.3756227493286133,
-0.08974650502204895,
0.26566386222839355,
0.6256186962127686,
-0.5115351676940918,
-0.3706209361553192,
-0.12064025551080704,
0.8718815445899963,
-0.5769296884536743,
0.22833938896656036,
0.020275788381695747,
0.3584350347518921,
-0.7135929465293884,
-0.2033551037311554,
0.39196839928627014,
-0.5989609956741333,
-0.36146268248558044,
-0.0535208135843277,
-0.2973290979862213,
0.0575566366314888,
0.48874935507774353,
0.05624595284461975,
0.4043589234352112,
-0.18654103577136993,
0.16985788941383362,
0.41360729932785034,
-0.16034649312496185,
0.008556962013244629,
0.19215425848960876,
-0.0017679735319688916,
-0.2271234542131424,
0.3386717140674591,
-0.6026868224143982,
0.4560696482658386,
-0.10154235363006592,
0.348005473613739,
0.16410574316978455,
-0.31844887137413025,
-0.06401487439870834,
-0.06342481076717377,
0.5406326651573181,
0.035149574279785156,
-0.4028087258338928,
0.19146911799907684,
1.0310603380203247,
-0.3675956726074219,
-0.13558369874954224,
-0.46996352076530457,
-0.48388057947158813,
-0.16090117394924164,
-0.6550446152687073,
-0.14663878083229065,
-0.37280991673469543,
0.218171626329422,
-0.12243279814720154,
0.18424014747142792,
-0.2411910444498062,
-0.7009422779083252,
-0.07657933980226517,
-0.18636125326156616,
0.39734363555908203,
0.2992595136165619,
0.5164053440093994,
-0.03045690432190895,
-0.25345417857170105,
-0.7315484285354614,
0.24014870822429657,
0.27101847529411316,
0.07560961693525314,
-0.2709949314594269,
-0.185780331492424,
0.2410789132118225,
0.04268518090248108,
0.2004506140947342,
0.5566610097885132,
0.06314710527658463,
0.28930509090423584,
0.31017860770225525,
0.9032882452011108,
0.09410079568624496,
0.5944260358810425,
0.40006548166275024,
0.39379990100860596,
-0.2971513867378235,
0.19521920382976532,
-0.6391059756278992,
0.1958255022764206,
-0.16003449261188507,
-0.021582553163170815,
0.33339783549308777,
-0.6375598311424255,
0.28854987025260925,
1.0839687585830688,
-0.4770439565181732,
0.2142949253320694,
-0.07662836462259293,
-0.5636084079742432,
-0.06577592343091965,
0.7307815551757812,
0.09103544801473618,
-0.2727257013320923,
0.5237202048301697,
0.7753650546073914,
0.5132969617843628,
-0.49792683124542236,
0.35204675793647766,
0.19079378247261047,
0.27803564071655273,
0.12327270209789276,
-0.45391279458999634,
0.5031368136405945,
0.024563739076256752,
-0.0752323567867279,
-0.27877795696258545,
0.7986724972724915,
0.07338839024305344,
-0.22573791444301605,
-0.6108536124229431,
0.2368984967470169,
-0.3140217959880829,
-0.2875587046146393,
-0.08109348267316818,
-0.17143931984901428,
-0.36341196298599243,
0.4449779689311981,
0.17378151416778564,
0.33930128812789917,
0.04956229403614998,
0.7079338431358337,
0.08703909069299698,
-0.21379932761192322,
-0.800720751285553,
-0.19200389087200165,
0.3165324330329895,
0.10467211902141571,
-0.2935464680194855,
-0.05644280090928078,
-0.6059024930000305,
0.028754277154803276,
0.3649190366268158,
-0.26062852144241333,
-0.3227505683898926,
-0.21785634756088257,
0.2549576759338379,
0.22852572798728943,
-0.1465555727481842,
-1.027871012687683,
-0.3616160750389099,
-0.04009170085191727,
0.3286851942539215,
-0.45502594113349915,
-0.08549529314041138,
-0.31840410828590393,
0.2226511687040329,
0.15916778147220612,
-0.4969913065433502,
-0.14204563200473785,
-0.6362389326095581,
0.0832563117146492,
-0.13490749895572662,
0.2264977991580963,
0.041195861995220184,
-0.3989790380001068,
0.01373499259352684,
0.23023803532123566,
-0.8582834005355835,
-0.10816232860088348,
0.548761248588562,
0.3742760717868805,
-0.1806023269891739,
0.012350184842944145,
0.4986293911933899,
-0.4973621666431427,
-0.012639205902814865,
-0.4634462296962738,
-0.053519170731306076,
-0.16713370382785797,
0.4417063891887665,
-0.5070496797561646,
-0.761044442653656,
0.2561538815498352,
-0.15142850577831268,
0.02931549772620201,
-0.7827405333518982,
-0.39456138014793396,
0.16607928276062012,
-0.028428733348846436,
0.4651795029640198,
0.33907029032707214,
-0.941807746887207,
-0.052022892981767654,
0.08463732153177261,
-0.010932588949799538,
-0.033636003732681274,
-0.18016526103019714,
-0.7952831983566284,
-0.5979579091072083,
-0.45267772674560547,
0.054252248257398605,
-0.10690134018659592,
-0.2539013922214508,
-0.6287334561347961,
-0.1426742672920227,
0.08137456327676773,
0.40372464060783386,
-0.20028001070022583,
-0.038367144763469696,
-0.051741596311330795,
-0.2148449867963791,
-0.344429075717926,
0.3542954921722412,
-0.8726264238357544,
0.37279897928237915,
-0.0726146250963211,
0.1720561683177948,
0.13959112763404846,
-0.014772056601941586,
0.4643537402153015,
-0.12476050108671188,
-0.23409391939640045,
-0.5833725929260254,
0.8347925543785095,
0.15898966789245605,
-0.2812325954437256,
-0.18153594434261322,
0.8304866552352905,
-0.06173206865787506,
-0.19784057140350342,
0.13532790541648865,
0.21659308671951294,
0.30835485458374023,
-0.25341707468032837,
-0.14326980710029602,
-0.012475986033678055,
0.04534192010760307,
-0.4608599841594696,
-0.016138486564159393,
-0.1695045530796051,
0.8490597009658813,
0.07147727906703949,
-0.08705168962478638,
-0.5674013495445251,
0.03191787749528885,
0.462907075881958,
-0.223587304353714,
0.11112142354249954,
-0.016296105459332466,
0.02611279860138893,
0.23225216567516327,
0.21847452223300934,
0.1512606143951416,
-0.011502393521368504,
0.4422163963317871,
-1.0249148607254028,
0.14454661309719086,
-0.49807462096214294,
0.04815562441945076,
0.5143897533416748,
0.31802958250045776,
-0.33600619435310364,
0.23167921602725983,
-0.007073818705976009,
-0.13872188329696655,
-0.3165091872215271,
-0.46462199091911316,
0.2019784152507782,
0.23654690384864807,
-0.19845832884311676,
0.3796042203903198,
-0.19762086868286133,
0.044054463505744934,
-0.1330825537443161,
-0.04093609377741814,
-0.11101716756820679,
-0.5496257543563843,
0.13868820667266846,
-0.37106311321258545,
0.03522493690252304,
-0.3772183656692505,
0.258171021938324,
0.3573608100414276,
-0.10139911621809006,
-0.25714898109436035,
0.13142338395118713,
0.09669012576341629,
0.9086815118789673,
0.42160138487815857,
-0.5952467322349548,
0.35888415575027466,
0.4658696949481964,
0.17732112109661102,
-0.15039114654064178,
0.019447466358542442,
-0.29102662205696106,
0.19571922719478607,
0.41151145100593567,
0.38899871706962585,
0.4497913718223572,
-0.719311535358429,
0.4418415427207947,
-0.005805731751024723,
-0.15200740098953247,
0.946345329284668,
0.15939995646476746,
-0.31390756368637085,
0.3753892779350281,
0.4855661690235138,
-0.1768278032541275,
-0.6815516948699951,
0.26777544617652893,
-0.20624853670597076,
-0.1367161124944687,
0.3037209212779999,
0.5167514085769653,
0.4999745190143585,
0.28541138768196106,
-0.5108566284179688,
0.7581366896629333,
-0.33688536286354065,
-0.1933244913816452,
0.4269895851612091,
-0.35668620467185974,
0.08579112589359283,
0.6474537253379822,
0.900460958480835,
0.4304131865501404,
0.4009208381175995,
0.038888122886419296,
-0.27185094356536865,
-0.07238297164440155,
0.2610596716403961,
0.5575805902481079,
-0.5435910820960999,
0.5349753499031067,
-0.23131904006004333,
0.04056932032108307,
0.7939938902854919,
-0.11191658675670624,
-0.03370077162981033,
-0.45176005363464355,
0.11864972859621048,
0.1552324891090393,
-0.42353537678718567,
-0.6091799736022949,
-0.1433860957622528,
-0.062135547399520874,
-0.5015289783477783,
-0.22803911566734314,
-0.24977326393127441,
0.05303419381380081,
0.1593116670846939,
0.0674542710185051,
0.13659556210041046,
0.6502907872200012,
-0.07579189538955688,
0.3820478320121765,
0.11652807146310806,
0.20902472734451294,
-0.06463848054409027,
-0.20972992479801178,
-0.05187327414751053,
-0.020553871989250183,
0.2962266802787781,
0.3091661334037781,
0.017814084887504578,
-0.03796330466866493,
0.1057719737291336,
-0.19422131776809692,
0.03864765912294388,
-0.10732460767030716,
-0.033849019557237625,
0.390912801027298,
-0.15379855036735535,
0.44960707426071167,
0.2700394093990326,
-0.03625616431236267,
0.2102610021829605,
0.26842546463012695,
-0.46227648854255676,
0.8984014987945557,
-0.8168672323226929,
1.1102374792099,
0.3795261085033417,
0.016191784292459488,
-0.5169657468795776,
0.15191197395324707,
0.07973798364400864,
-0.2156713753938675,
-0.6688435673713684,
0.009087643586099148,
0.008050271309912205,
-0.1957482546567917,
-0.2922256588935852,
0.11268952488899231,
0.6570530533790588,
-0.3753642141819,
-0.07028944790363312,
0.12772493064403534,
-0.10676813870668411,
0.5772708058357239,
0.23568721115589142,
0.26707208156585693,
0.33453598618507385,
-0.22612473368644714,
-0.2261030375957489,
-0.0626756101846695,
0.22912634909152985,
0.4624975025653839,
-0.3444047272205353,
0.03497365862131119,
0.15855830907821655,
0.10176384449005127,
-0.25619763135910034,
0.5110695362091064,
-0.23307503759860992,
-0.24271434545516968,
-0.48519349098205566,
0.16341549158096313,
-0.5669379234313965,
-0.12563054263591766,
-0.07345898449420929,
0.523652970790863,
0.280423641204834,
-0.5332660675048828,
-0.33062562346458435,
-0.30875882506370544,
-0.030314985662698746,
0.49305474758148193,
-0.5828853845596313,
0.9310501217842102,
0.3930680453777313,
-0.0611245334148407,
-0.4056159257888794,
0.3407360911369324,
0.029065731912851334,
-0.1101430356502533,
-0.1348496377468109,
-0.34932154417037964,
-0.38709014654159546,
0.017137760296463966,
0.2634727656841278,
-0.5203157067298889,
0.18078336119651794,
0.6266422271728516
] |
261130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential%20Unit%20Citation | Presidential Unit Citation | A Presidential Unit Citation is a unit citation awarded by the president of a state.
Specific awards include:
Presidential Unit Citation (United States), awarded for actions on or after December 7, 1941, World War II
Vietnam Presidential Unit Citation, August 15, 1950, considered obsolete since South Vietnam no longer exists
Philippine Republic Presidential Unit Citation, awarded to U.S. military and Philippine military for actions during and after World War II
Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation, awarded to South Korean military and foreign military for defense of the Republic of Korea
See also
PUC (disambiguation) | [
-1.2629942893981934,
0.6342298984527588,
-0.6979007124900818,
0.10898157954216003,
-0.12290555983781815,
-0.20620284974575043,
0.6633074879646301,
0.3325326442718506,
-0.8607539534568787,
-0.35824131965637207,
-0.9357905387878418,
0.25784531235694885,
-0.313961386680603,
0.4378677308559418,
-0.34627604484558105,
0.9134277701377869,
0.5139350891113281,
0.7628456354141235,
0.18958896398544312,
-0.30424532294273376,
-0.29602622985839844,
0.32811805605888367,
0.45926913619041443,
-0.35714036226272583,
0.24533380568027496,
0.08014420419931412,
0.28166186809539795,
0.26069071888923645,
-0.10860314220190048,
0.39975711703300476,
-0.6226980090141296,
0.0802275612950325,
-0.028218135237693787,
0.0009061679593287408,
0.02096535637974739,
0.16665741801261902,
0.08144569396972656,
-0.45689746737480164,
-0.03995324298739433,
-0.6331689357757568,
0.4559001326560974,
-0.23697099089622498,
0.032197725027799606,
-0.36393967270851135,
0.010785817168653011,
-0.2648821175098419,
-1.9135065078735352,
0.2954752445220947,
-0.23361387848854065,
-0.3206264078617096,
0.07994072139263153,
0.14155931770801544,
-0.5263752937316895,
0.5401301383972168,
0.9846917986869812,
0.7623183131217957,
-0.4874635934829712,
-0.0759846419095993,
-0.15258833765983582,
-1.0205453634262085,
0.06065317615866661,
-0.29689210653305054,
-0.1937442421913147,
-0.0014087866293266416,
0.346556693315506,
0.3282652795314789,
0.406648188829422,
0.8032132387161255,
-0.10831248760223389,
-0.654748797416687,
-0.11722391843795776,
-0.08456078916788101,
0.5790275931358337,
0.07961206138134003,
-0.582975447177887,
-0.06954123824834824,
0.2916393578052521,
-0.021691495552659035,
-0.47076964378356934,
-0.04455728456377983,
0.5800861120223999,
0.1956256628036499,
0.055490270256996155,
0.3278714120388031,
-0.4350963234901428,
0.7036603689193726,
-0.576854944229126,
-0.5221385955810547,
-0.25662344694137573,
0.5719444155693054,
-0.33095285296440125,
-0.13136157393455505,
0.35705575346946716,
0.9307208061218262,
0.5822423696517944,
-0.08994616568088531,
-0.330255389213562,
0.5779668092727661,
0.23341885209083557,
-0.021005000919103622,
-0.18338629603385925,
-0.5137253403663635,
0.46656736731529236,
0.3803139925003052,
-0.9972793459892273,
-0.4663988947868347,
-0.39032965898513794,
-0.650368869304657,
0.2763863801956177,
-0.7008712887763977,
-0.3204655051231384,
-0.2944723665714264,
-0.46582213044166565,
0.4058128297328949,
0.03258519992232323,
0.04004893824458122,
0.31666070222854614,
-0.6873342394828796,
0.23492087423801422,
-0.09847068786621094,
0.12792088091373444,
1.1452537775039673,
-0.6531090140342712,
-0.1384156346321106,
0.17644095420837402,
0.24833130836486816,
0.871155858039856,
0.31049829721450806,
-0.36898118257522583,
-0.09228285402059555,
0.20542800426483154,
0.4122885465621948,
-0.29831063747406006,
0.7222403287887573,
0.024083446711301804,
-0.006542286369949579,
0.09126606583595276,
0.11317019164562225,
-0.4812408685684204,
0.19161298871040344,
-0.6217125058174133,
-0.2554590702056885,
-1.1634358167648315,
0.028017867356538773,
0.2549535930156708,
-0.05481662228703499,
0.17075413465499878,
0.5893042683601379,
-0.3267678916454315,
-0.26439255475997925,
0.9731053113937378,
-0.5008008480072021,
0.2666427791118622,
1.0543723106384277,
-0.5349850058555603,
0.2567620575428009,
0.2908192574977875,
-0.210610494017601,
0.37658601999282837,
0.8515661358833313,
0.23249386250972748,
0.028233379125595093,
-0.1090235635638237,
0.36519357562065125,
-0.32985615730285645,
0.25779518485069275,
0.38652095198631287,
0.5888647437095642,
-0.07130183279514313,
-0.14750458300113678,
0.1345391422510147,
-0.11238572746515274,
-0.1503535956144333,
-0.07220352441072464,
-0.6286458969116211,
0.020064251497387886,
0.8081933259963989,
-0.1427873820066452,
0.5852617621421814,
-0.31811749935150146,
-0.3877270221710205,
0.09684759378433228,
-0.005764390341937542,
0.1182316392660141,
0.08491574227809906,
-0.2667226195335388,
-0.14241363108158112,
-0.106248639523983,
0.37748950719833374,
-0.5206181406974792,
-0.21977859735488892,
0.25995633006095886,
-0.5193710327148438,
-0.25770536065101624,
1.1314605474472046,
-0.37289711833000183,
-0.45097172260284424,
0.5639539361000061,
0.03203398734331131,
0.4281575083732605,
0.7616803646087646,
0.2786839008331299,
0.40662962198257446,
-0.4210730791091919,
-0.22782376408576965,
0.837483823299408,
0.48105713725090027,
-0.012080445885658264,
-0.022841060534119606,
-0.007635919377207756,
1.1230354309082031,
-0.23471814393997192,
-0.7630099058151245,
0.09503233432769775,
0.6402960419654846,
0.828673779964447,
0.30588775873184204,
-0.2549244165420532,
0.02139715850353241,
-0.49823862314224243,
0.5347546339035034,
-0.01835627108812332,
0.03752226009964943,
0.49232152104377747,
0.008204782381653786,
0.4410320222377777,
-0.5415859222412109,
0.5560449361801147,
-0.5798302292823792,
-0.535603404045105,
0.0631520226597786,
-0.7294114232063293,
0.2351604700088501,
-0.05006040260195732,
-0.6833372712135315,
-0.46112847328186035,
0.35846006870269775,
-0.24525943398475647,
0.40560469031333923,
-0.2673816978931427,
-0.40568843483924866,
-0.12125247716903687,
0.027204975485801697,
0.3750741183757782,
0.42986759543418884,
0.0555914044380188,
-0.023308658972382545,
-0.3956369459629059,
0.5214443802833557,
-0.5537736415863037,
-0.11785183846950531,
0.026543118059635162,
0.8523691892623901,
-0.5401384234428406,
0.2047572135925293,
0.1244329959154129,
-0.5456097722053528,
-0.21905221045017242,
-0.5349178314208984,
-0.6108732223510742,
-0.07200859487056732,
0.11505214869976044,
0.10060927271842957,
0.31210461258888245,
-0.3101006746292114,
-0.013462331146001816,
-0.19103533029556274,
-0.12326459586620331,
-0.38077512383461,
0.7727383375167847,
-0.29306814074516296,
-0.054906636476516724,
0.35121315717697144,
-0.5388928055763245,
-0.1384298950433731,
-0.06341750919818878,
-0.2093045562505722,
0.8008052706718445,
-1.429872989654541,
-0.7449979782104492,
0.3921608328819275,
0.2687247097492218,
0.2714286148548126,
0.0505521297454834,
0.14797604084014893,
-0.7887685894966125,
0.25146543979644775,
-0.046085961163043976,
-0.5233355760574341,
0.21506419777870178,
-0.8353614807128906,
-0.553999662399292,
-0.07374358922243118,
0.4397411346435547,
0.2223331332206726,
-0.05039405822753906,
-0.26369723677635193,
0.29291653633117676,
0.4901013970375061,
-0.08727914839982986,
-0.40856629610061646,
0.14767178893089294,
-0.12724018096923828,
-0.19176878035068512,
0.5630714297294617,
0.14559705555438995,
-0.14731504023075104,
0.9574217200279236,
-5.092223167419434,
-0.34259742498397827,
0.143456369638443,
-0.2135206013917923,
-0.1095983013510704,
-0.008741325698792934,
0.6562090516090393,
-0.23853959143161774,
-0.16884686052799225,
-0.7301493287086487,
-0.14680685102939606,
0.24696758389472961,
0.3524326980113983,
0.700493574142456,
0.4392795264720917,
-0.7350550293922424,
0.6520028710365295,
0.05231526121497154,
-0.050437841564416885,
0.16690444946289062,
0.23889212310314178,
-0.30916354060173035,
0.08460191637277603,
0.35438787937164307,
0.20085914433002472,
0.3330789804458618,
-0.5791497230529785,
0.2846556007862091,
-0.5851377844810486,
0.006337304599583149,
0.09721982479095459,
-0.11810027807950974,
-0.21130910515785217,
-0.22779139876365662,
-0.1437186896800995,
-0.12805460393428802,
-0.08939308673143387,
0.15131579339504242,
0.3571058511734009,
-0.08715184032917023,
0.4817183017730713,
0.11901598423719406,
-0.7843918800354004,
0.5476812720298767,
0.5267500281333923,
-0.21381840109825134,
-0.04963725060224533,
0.029037965461611748,
-0.09149856865406036,
0.4870070517063141,
-0.41482871770858765,
0.4281509220600128,
0.5184745192527771,
0.2274206429719925,
0.052256062626838684,
0.1864262819290161,
-0.0017749349353834987,
-0.48064693808555603,
-1.1734625101089478,
-0.07608179748058319,
0.4464004635810852,
0.011974227614700794,
0.15511508285999298,
-0.638983964920044,
-0.5287732481956482,
-0.8238586783409119,
-0.7250066995620728,
0.001527518266811967,
0.030978485941886902,
0.4544445276260376,
-0.15253877639770508,
0.9987870454788208,
0.18611198663711548,
-0.6352809071540833,
0.21127444505691528,
-0.5150082111358643,
-0.19331856071949005,
-0.10066042840480804,
0.05304568633437157,
0.2714214622974396,
-0.2189808189868927,
-0.014997106045484543,
-0.8370139002799988,
0.07252440601587296,
-0.22851301729679108,
-0.19379360973834991,
0.48793965578079224,
0.5696772933006287,
0.34727296233177185,
-0.6676692962646484,
0.17479616403579712,
-0.08743801712989807,
0.08590123802423477,
0.10929235816001892,
-0.37710219621658325,
0.7913095951080322,
0.22073660790920258,
-0.12003607302904129,
0.29661765694618225,
-0.7708805799484253,
-0.12034362554550171,
-0.3143830895423889,
0.4841575026512146,
-1.0586907863616943,
-0.47206026315689087,
-0.21564145386219025,
-0.5823022723197937,
-0.16838295757770538,
0.35722875595092773,
-0.2957517206668854,
-0.04184969887137413,
-0.5251790881156921,
0.09207350015640259,
-0.27780380845069885,
0.385692834854126,
-0.09645305573940277,
0.2587242126464844,
0.8079403638839722,
0.4466937482357025,
0.05451082065701485,
0.15098854899406433,
0.5204604864120483,
-0.09351751953363419,
-0.5646417737007141,
0.19734947383403778,
-0.005915781483054161,
-0.5762880444526672,
-0.23867011070251465,
0.028992466628551483,
0.09407985210418701,
0.7507126331329346,
1.1702837944030762,
-0.032593004405498505,
0.8111297488212585,
-0.20375673472881317,
-0.45101335644721985,
-0.26202377676963806,
0.4514909088611603,
-0.05137172341346741,
-0.8521396517753601,
0.5138093829154968,
-0.25965219736099243,
-0.6893625855445862,
0.01653839461505413,
0.573908805847168,
0.13415071368217468,
-0.41644662618637085,
0.16296622157096863,
-0.36383673548698425,
0.7704890370368958,
-0.3348657786846161,
-1.0519566535949707,
-0.08149038255214691,
-0.601991593837738,
0.08505213260650635,
0.27760761976242065,
-0.12386921048164368,
0.48880285024642944,
0.09799739718437195,
-0.26634833216667175,
0.3496854305267334,
-0.23430730402469635,
-1.0456799268722534,
0.0957726240158081,
-0.02438359148800373,
-0.13396595418453217,
-0.9074552059173584,
0.6247551441192627,
0.03250661492347717,
0.7937033176422119,
-0.2497662603855133,
-0.48281407356262207,
-0.43895843625068665,
-0.7496713399887085,
-0.1491979956626892,
0.3370475172996521,
0.5275746583938599,
-0.38578155636787415,
0.0032157311215996742,
0.21233849227428436,
0.28748148679733276,
-0.6744270920753479,
-0.5866280794143677,
-0.014536152593791485,
0.0466330423951149,
-0.4600157141685486,
0.09893149137496948,
-0.31095293164253235,
-0.1213824599981308,
-0.2283618301153183,
-0.3991657495498657,
-0.32050415873527527,
0.6682630777359009,
-0.3376348614692688,
-0.6320440173149109,
-0.03486224263906479,
-0.4008629620075226,
0.13485489785671234,
-0.36187657713890076,
-0.5219616293907166,
0.6612675189971924,
0.4538513123989105,
-0.7330402135848999,
0.039344705641269684,
-0.5232710242271423,
-0.783718466758728,
0.088340625166893,
0.44574761390686035,
0.07520074397325516,
0.4106847941875458,
-0.6730279922485352,
-0.8061997294425964,
-0.6589489579200745,
0.4720361530780792,
-0.13535480201244354,
0.1042487770318985,
0.30791059136390686,
0.08735915273427963,
-0.311431884765625,
-0.15025128424167633,
-0.10246756672859192,
0.0849330723285675,
-0.2657116651535034,
-0.05772421509027481,
-0.3973439037799835,
0.2918800711631775,
-0.00750062195584178,
-0.3720253109931946,
1.046189785003662,
-0.008683347143232822,
-0.47233229875564575,
-0.36193570494651794,
-0.12344014644622803,
-0.24770662188529968,
0.18656675517559052,
-0.37862542271614075,
0.07423174381256104,
-0.3444479703903198,
-0.2934877574443817,
0.2719933092594147,
0.1549232006072998,
1.6399309635162354,
-0.0897483304142952,
-0.4889346957206726,
-0.017206044867634773,
0.003978593274950981,
0.770058274269104,
-0.022314729169011116,
-0.4771069586277008,
0.7383318543434143,
0.5972015261650085,
-0.025097891688346863,
-0.6862061023712158,
-0.0760522410273552,
0.9528084397315979,
-0.46468040347099304,
-0.4616660177707672,
0.11125332862138748,
-0.1648731678724289,
0.36245808005332947,
0.28632181882858276,
0.35001352429389954,
-1.0528579950332642,
-0.1033317819237709,
-0.0711880624294281,
-0.20552560687065125,
-0.026862455531954765,
-0.04273326322436333,
-0.10865620523691177,
-0.5481059551239014,
0.42472347617149353,
0.2992369830608368,
0.10666649043560028,
0.5052700638771057,
-0.26324591040611267,
0.3808313012123108,
-0.3164532780647278,
0.02109137363731861,
0.1245056614279747,
0.007824589498341084,
0.5846368074417114,
-0.26686960458755493,
-0.1889144331216812,
-0.2730068266391754,
0.8826798796653748,
-1.3730968236923218,
0.30338093638420105,
0.10664868354797363,
-0.0669732615351677,
-0.24249282479286194,
0.12703478336334229,
0.14326509833335876,
-0.8795263171195984,
-0.07019463181495667,
0.03921356424689293,
0.5567491054534912,
-0.19008062779903412,
0.5865464806556702,
-0.15804575383663177,
-0.16095514595508575,
-0.5412608981132507,
0.9475851655006409,
0.25078532099723816,
-0.9860091209411621,
-0.30093324184417725,
0.2793835699558258,
0.23727057874202728,
-0.38931336998939514,
0.04221342131495476,
-0.4426901936531067,
0.07222652435302734,
-0.27586081624031067,
0.40490347146987915,
0.02997860498726368,
-0.4051631689071655,
0.1258966624736786,
0.1606253832578659,
-0.4593634307384491,
-0.09968958050012589,
0.25006338953971863,
0.10006013512611389,
-0.39852821826934814,
0.8918235301971436,
0.09535487741231918,
-0.31201815605163574,
0.8093292713165283,
-0.43404054641723633,
-0.9636656641960144,
0.7632066011428833,
0.15188367664813995,
0.7624536752700806,
-0.0674968957901001,
-0.6184598207473755,
0.13811779022216797,
-0.314695805311203,
0.22988006472587585,
-0.02878536283969879,
-0.7946534752845764,
-0.6764156818389893,
0.5944951176643372,
-0.17294512689113617,
-0.2783948481082916,
0.6133293509483337,
0.5544103980064392,
0.022996099665760994,
0.3899264335632324,
-0.2619550824165344,
0.591831624507904,
0.9221826195716858,
0.01945459470152855,
0.4863351881504059,
0.4449339509010315,
-0.12285679578781128,
0.41525697708129883,
0.6413148641586304,
-0.9088318943977356,
0.6025038361549377,
-0.06046780198812485,
-0.027750510722398758,
-0.5284110903739929,
-0.1058214083313942,
0.6997062563896179,
0.4610135555267334,
0.44319504499435425,
0.11712177097797394,
-0.32460564374923706,
0.44240084290504456,
0.3163413405418396,
0.13812007009983063,
0.1834864765405655,
0.08216610550880432,
0.17015711963176727,
-0.38029205799102783,
0.02307654358446598,
0.38562309741973877,
0.2583443820476532,
-0.20046192407608032,
0.2204590141773224,
0.036120008677244186,
0.25551867485046387,
0.08076206594705582,
0.030531058087944984,
-0.4764784872531891,
-0.5375051498413086,
-0.3696238100528717,
0.2532886266708374,
-0.02613886259496212,
0.5071560740470886,
0.6982269287109375,
-0.2527405023574829,
0.8404843211174011,
-0.17362579703330994,
-0.835031270980835,
0.028587739914655685,
0.21416950225830078,
0.7499593496322632,
0.3971762955188751,
0.6248245239257812,
0.26660603284835815,
0.1476549208164215,
-0.2821950912475586,
-0.937711238861084,
-0.04999091476202011,
-0.07821644097566605,
-0.2999221682548523,
-0.3210920989513397,
0.18843874335289001,
-0.007562164682894945,
-0.41458815336227417,
0.266070157289505,
0.5141004323959351,
-0.8125163912773132,
0.02026141621172428,
0.5387917160987854,
0.18781939148902893,
0.26792216300964355,
0.9154874086380005,
-0.40070870518684387,
0.19841554760932922,
-1.5433417558670044,
0.4419896602630615,
-0.09426441043615341,
0.21195608377456665,
0.9801033735275269,
-0.15127506852149963,
-0.13222767412662506,
0.9067755937576294,
0.23218311369419098,
0.1738714873790741,
0.02551085688173771,
-0.21142064034938812,
-0.5271346569061279,
-0.4206390082836151,
-0.003882819088175893,
-0.5151935815811157,
-0.43549644947052,
0.3678416609764099,
0.8007245063781738,
-0.34466201066970825,
-0.23814329504966736,
-0.4336180090904236,
-0.29310593008995056,
0.2570047676563263,
-0.12010877579450607,
-1.3713765144348145,
-0.07179071754217148,
-0.1496136486530304,
-0.08565077185630798,
0.11220534890890121,
0.2198243886232376,
0.10512496531009674,
0.44033730030059814,
0.8007283806800842,
-0.21005240082740784,
0.3032814562320709,
0.9914536476135254,
-0.031957052648067474,
-0.2380674183368683,
-0.4664298892021179,
0.520254909992218
] |
Subsets and Splits