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261132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFA%20Sir%20Bedivere%20%28L3004%29 | RFA Sir Bedivere (L3004) | RFA Sir Bedivere (L3004) was a Landing Ship Logistic of the Round Table class. She saw service in the Falklands War, the Persian Gulf and Sierra Leone. In 2009, she was commissioned into the Brazilian Navy, and renamed NDCC Almirante Saboia (G-25).
Background
The ship was originally built for army service, and was taken over by the Royal Fleet Auxiliary in 1970. Round Table class ships were exclusively manned by Hong Kong Chinese sailors from their introduction in 1963 until 1989, when Sir Lancelot was the last RFA to be crewed in this way.
She was commissioned in 1967 and saw extensive service in many of Britain's naval operations since. Her home port was Marchwood, Hampshire, which is a major military port.
Operational history
Falklands War
Sir Bedivere first saw combat in the Falklands War of 1982, when along with all of the Royal Navy's other amphibious ships, she was sent to recapture the Falkland Islands from an Argentine occupation force. At the start of the war, the ship was at Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, but started back to Marchwood immediately. After loading at Marchwood, she left for Ascension Island where she picked up the sappers of 11 Field Squadron Royal Engineers. The ship suffered slight damage on 24 May whilst lying in San Carlos Water, when an Argentine Skyhawk dropped a bomb that glanced off the ship. The sappers disembarked for Port San Carlos on the evening of the 25th May.
On 16 November 1982, she returned from the Falklands with the bodies of 64 members of the British Forces (52 soldiers, 11 Royal Marines, and a Chinese laundryman) whose families had wanted their remains returned.
1983-2007
The ship deployed to the Persian Gulf in 1991 in support of Operation Granby.
In 1994, the ship was modernised in a service life extension programme to give it an extra 15 years. The ship was lengthened by 12 metres, had its superstructure altered to a more modern design, the engines were replaced, and the ship's bow thrusters were changed for more powerful models.
After returning to service in 1998, the ship was sent to Sierra Leone in 2000 when the U.K. intervened there. The ship operated as the command vessel for British and American mine countermeasures ships during Operation Telic in 2003.
Sir Bedivere left the U.K. in September 2002 for the Mediterranean and operation Argonaut in 2002.She was then diverted to the Persian Gulf accompanied by four British minesweepers. After minesweeping operations were complete, the vessel operated as a troop support ship for the Royal Marines. The ship returned to the U.K. on 29 May 2003, carrying the boats and men of 539 Assault Squadron Royal Marines.
In 2006, Sir Bedivere returned from Sierra Leone and its part in Operation Vela.
Decommissioning
Although originally intended to be used until 2011, Sir Bedivere was decommissioned on 18 February 2008.
Brazilian Navy
In December 2008, Sir Bedivere was sold to Brazil, joining her sister ship . Sir Bedivere was handed over to the Brazilian Navy on 21 May 2009, after a major refit by A&P Group at the Company's ship repair facility in Falmouth, Cornwall. She was commissioned into service with the Brazilian Navy, and renamed NDCC Almirante Saboia (G-25), after a late senior naval officer. Admiral Saboia's widow and other members of the family were present at the handover ceremony.
References
External links
Bedivere (L3004)
Round Table-class landing ships logistics of the Brazilian Navy
1966 ships
Amphibious warfare vessels of Brazil
Amphibious warfare vessels of the Brazilian Navy
Falklands War naval ships of the United Kingdom
Ships built on the River Tyne | [
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261135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookware%20and%20bakeware | Cookware and bakeware | Cookware and bakeware is food preparation equipment, such as cooking pots, pans, baking sheets etc. used in kitchens. Cookware is used on a stove or range cooktop, while bakeware is used in an oven. Some utensils are considered both cookware and bakeware.
There is a great variety of cookware and bakeware in shape, material, and inside surface. Some materials conduct heat well; some retain heat well. Some surfaces are non-stick; some require seasoning.
Some pots and their lids have handles or knobs made of low thermal conductance materials such as bakelite, plastic or wood, which make them easy to pick up without oven gloves.
A good cooking pot design has an "overcook edge" which is what the lid lies on. The lid has a dripping edge that prevents condensation fluid from dripping off when handling the lid (taking it off and holding it 45°) or putting it down.
History
The history of cooking vessels before the development of pottery is minimal due to the limited archaeological evidence. The earliest pottery vessels, dating from , were discovered in Xianrendong Cave, Jiangxi, China. The pottery may have been used as cookware, manufactured by hunter-gatherers. Harvard University archaeologist Ofer Bar-Yosef reported that "When you look at the pots, you can see that they were in a fire." It is also possible to extrapolate likely developments based on methods used by latter peoples. Among the first of the techniques believed to be used by Stone Age civilizations were improvements to basic roasting. In addition to exposing food to direct heat from either an open fire or hot embers, it is possible to cover the food with clay or large leaves before roasting to preserve moisture in the cooked result. Examples of similar techniques are still in use in many modern cuisines.
Of greater difficulty was finding a method to boil water. For people without access to natural heated water sources, such as hot springs, heated stones ("pot boilers") could be placed in a water-filled vessel to raise its temperature (for example, a leaf-lined pit or the stomach from animals killed by hunters). In many locations the shells of turtles or large mollusks provided a source for waterproof cooking vessels. Bamboo tubes sealed at the end with clay provided a usable container in Asia, while the inhabitants of the Tehuacan Valley began carving large stone bowls that were permanently set into a hearth as early as 7,000 BC.
According to Frank Hamilton Cushing, Native American cooking baskets used by the Zuni (Zuñi) developed from mesh casings woven to stabilize gourd water vessels. He reported witnessing cooking basket use by Havasupai in 1881. Roasting baskets covered with clay would be filled with wood coals and the product to be roasted. When the thus-fired clay separated from the basket, it would become a usable clay roasting pan in itself. This indicates a steady progression from use of woven gourd casings to waterproof cooking baskets to pottery. Other than in many other cultures, Native Americans used and still use the heat source inside the cookware. Cooking baskets are filled with hot stones and roasting pans with wood coals. Native Americans would form a basket from large leaves to boil water, according to historian and novelist Louis L'Amour. As long as the flames did not reach above the level of water in the basket, the leaves would not burn through.
The development of pottery allowed for the creation of fireproof cooking vessels in a variety of shapes and sizes. Coating the earthenware with some type of plant gum, and later glazes, converted the porous container into a waterproof vessel. The earthenware cookware could then be suspended over a fire through use of a tripod or other apparatus, or even be placed directly into a low fire or coal bed as in the case of the pipkin. Ceramics conduct heat poorly, however, so ceramic pots must cook over relatively low heats and over long periods of time. However, most ceramic pots will crack if used on the stovetop, and are only intended for the oven.
The development of bronze and iron metalworking skills allowed for cookware made from metal to be manufactured, although adoption of the new cookware was slow due to the much higher cost. After the development of metal cookware there was little new development in cookware, with the standard Medieval kitchen utilizing a cauldron and a shallow earthenware pan for most cooking tasks, with a spit employed for roasting.
By the 17th century, it was common for a Western kitchen to contain a number of skillets, baking pans, a kettle and several pots, along with a variety of pot hooks and trivets. Brass or copper vessels were common in Asia and Europe, whilst iron pots were common in the American colonies. Improvements in metallurgy during the 19th and 20th centuries allowed for pots and pans from metals such as steel, stainless steel and aluminium to be economically produced.
At the 1968 Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a "Freedom Trash Can", which included pots and pans.
Cookware materials
Metal
Metal pots are made from a narrow range of metals because pots and pans need to conduct heat well, but also need to be chemically unreactive so that they do not alter the flavor of the food. Most materials that are conductive enough to heat evenly are too reactive to use in food preparation. In some cases (copper pots, for example), a pot may be made out of a more reactive metal, and then tinned or clad with another. While metal pots take heat very well, they usually react poorly to rapid cooling, such as being plunged into water while hot, this will usually warp the piece over time.
Aluminium
Aluminium is a lightweight metal with very good thermal conductivity. It is resistant to many forms of corrosion. Aluminium is commonly available in sheet, cast, or anodized forms, and may be physically combined with other metals (see below).
Sheet aluminium is spun or stamped into form. Due to the softness of the metal, it may be alloyed with magnesium, copper, or bronze to increase its strength. Sheet aluminium is commonly used for baking sheets, pie plates, and cake or muffin pans. Deep or shallow pots may be formed from sheet aluminium.
Cast aluminium can produce a thicker product than sheet aluminium, and is appropriate for irregular shapes and thicknesses. Due to the microscopic pores caused by the casting process, cast aluminium has a lower thermal conductivity than sheet aluminium. It is also more expensive. Accordingly, cast aluminium cookware has become less common. It is used, for example, to make Dutch ovens lightweight and bundt pans heavy duty, and used in ladles and handles and woks to keep the sides at a lower temperature than the center.
Anodized aluminium has had the naturally occurring layer of aluminium oxide thickened by an electrolytic process to create a surface that is hard and non-reactive. It is used for sauté pans, stockpots, roasters, and Dutch ovens.
Uncoated and un-anodized aluminium can react with acidic foods to change the taste of the food. Sauces containing egg yolks, or vegetables such as asparagus or artichokes may cause oxidation of non-anodized aluminium.
Aluminium exposure has been suggested as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Association states that "studies have failed to confirm any role for aluminum in causing Alzheimer's." The link remains controversial.
Copper
Copper provides the highest thermal conductivity among non-noble metals and is therefore fast heating with unparalleled heat distribution (see: Copper in heat exchangers). Pots and pans are cold-formed from copper sheets of various thicknesses, with those in excess of 2.5 mm considered commercial (or extra-fort) grade. Between 1 mm and 2.5 mm wall thickness is considered utility (fort) grade, with thicknesses below 1.5 mm often requiring tube beading or edge rolling for reinforcement. Less than 1mm wall thickness is generally considered decorative, with exception made for the case of .75–1 mm planished copper, which is hardened by hammering and therefore expresses performance and strength characteristic of thicker material.
Copper thickness of less than .25 mm is, in the case of cookware, referred to as foil and must be formed to a more structurally rigid metal to produce a serviceable vessel. Such applications of copper are purely aesthetic and do not materially contribute to cookware performance.
Copper is reactive with acidic foods which can result in corrosion, the byproducts of which can foment copper toxicity. In certain circumstances, however, unlined copper is recommended and safe, for instance in the preparation of meringue, where copper ions prompt proteins to denature (unfold) and enable stronger protein bonds across the sulfur contained in egg whites. Unlined copper is also used in the making of preserves, jams and jellies. Copper does not store ("bank") heat, and so thermal flows reverse almost immediately upon removal from heat. This allows precise control of consistency and texture while cooking sugar and pectin-thickened preparations. Alone, fruit acid would be sufficient to cause leaching of copper byproducts, but naturally occurring fruit sugars and added preserving sugars buffer copper reactivity. Unlined pans have thereby been used safely in such applications for centuries.
Lining copper pots and pans prevents copper from contact with acidic foods. The most popular lining types are tin, stainless steel, nickel and silver.
The use of tin dates back many centuries and is the original lining for copper cookware. Although the patent for canning in sheet tin was secured in 1810 in England, legendary French chef Auguste Escoffier experimented with a solution for provisioning the French army while in the field by adapting the tin lining techniques used for his cookware to more robust steel containers (then only lately introduced for canning) which protected the cans from corrosion and soldiers from lead solder and botulism poisoning.
Tin linings sufficiently robust for cooking are wiped onto copper by hand, producing a .35–45-mm-thick lining.</ref> Decorative copper cookware, i.e., a pot or pan less than 1 mm thick and therefore unsuited to cooking, will often be electroplate lined with tin. Should a wiped tin lining be damaged or wear out the cookware can be re-tinned, usually for much less cost than the purchase price of the pan. Tin presents a smooth crystalline structure and is therefore relatively non-stick in cooking applications. As a relatively soft metal abrasive cleansers or cleaning techniques can accelerate wear of tin linings. Wood, silicone or plastic implements are to preferred over harder stainless steel types.
For a period following the Second World War, copper cookware was electroplated with a nickel lining. Nickel is harder and more thermally efficient than tin, with a higher melting point. Despite its hardness, it wore out as fast as tin, as the plating was 20 microns thick or less, as nickel tends to plate somewhat irregularly, and requires milling to produce an even cooking surface. Nickel is also stickier than tin or silver. Copper cookware with aged or damaged nickel linings can be retinned, or possibly replating with nickel, although this is no longer widely available. Nickel linings began to fall out of favor in the 1980s owing to the isolation of nickel as an allergen.
Silver is also applied to copper by means of electroplating, and provides an interior finish that is at once smooth, more durable than either tin or nickel, relatively non-stick and extremely thermally efficient. Copper and silver bond extremely well owing to their shared high electro-conductivity. Lining thickness varies widely by maker, but averages between 7 and 10 microns. The disadvantages of silver are expense and the tendency of sulfurous foods, especially brassicas, to discolor. Worn silver linings on copper cookware can be restored by stripping and re-electroplating.
Copper cookware lined with a thin layer of stainless steel is available from most modern European manufacturers. Stainless steel is 25 times less thermally conductive than copper, and is sometimes critiqued for compromising the efficacy of the copper with which it is bonded. Among the advantages of stainless steel are its durability and corrosion resistance, and although relatively sticky and subject to food residue adhesions, stainless steel is tolerant of most abrasive cleaning techniques and metal implements. Stainless steel forms a pan's structural element when bonded to copper and is irreparable in the event of wear or damage.
Using modern metal bonding techniques, such as cladding, copper is frequently incorporated into cookware constructed of primarily dissimilar metal, such as stainless steel, often as an enclosed diffusion layer (see coated and composite cookware below).
Cast iron
Cast-iron cookware is slow to heat, but once at temperature provides even heating. Cast iron can also withstand very high temperatures, making cast iron pans ideal for searing. Being a reactive material, cast iron can have chemical reactions with high acid foods such as wine or tomatoes. In addition, some foods (such as spinach) cooked on bare cast iron will turn black.
Cast iron is a somewhat brittle, porous material that rusts easily. As a result, it should not be dropped or heated unevenly and it typically requires seasoning before use. Seasoning creates a thin layer of oxidized fat over the iron that coats and protects the surface from corrosion, and prevents sticking.
Enameled cast-iron cookware was developed in the 1920s. In 1934, the French company Cousances designed the enameled cast iron Doufeu to reduce excessive evaporation and scorching in cast iron Dutch ovens. Modeled on old braising pans in which glowing charcoal was heaped on the lids (to mimic two-fire ovens), the Doufeu has a deep recess in its lid which instead is filled with ice cubes. This keeps the lid at a lower temperature than the pot bottom. Further, little notches on the inside of the lid allow the moisture to collect and drop back into the food during the cooking. Although the Doufeu (literally, "gentlefire") can be used in an oven (without the ice, as a casserole pan), it is chiefly designed for stove top use.
Stainless steel
Stainless steel is an iron alloy containing a minimum of 11.5% chromium. Blends containing 18% chromium with either 8% nickel, called 18/8, or with 10% nickel, called 18/10, are commonly used for kitchen cookware. Stainless steel's virtues are resistance to corrosion, non-reactivity with either alkaline or acidic foods, and resistance to scratching and denting. Stainless steel's drawbacks for cooking use are that it is a relatively poor heat conductor and its non-magnetic property, although recent developments have allowed the production of magnetic 18/10 alloys, which thereby provides compatibility with induction cooktops, which require magnetic cookware. Since the material does not adequately spread the heat itself, stainless steel cookware is generally made as a cladding of stainless steel on both sides of an aluminum or copper core to conduct the heat across all sides, thereby reducing "hot spots", or with a disk of copper or aluminum on just the base to conduct the heat across the base, with possible "hot spots" at the sides. In so-called "tri-ply" cookware, the central aluminum layer is obviously non-magnetic, and the interior 18/10 layer need not be magnetic, but the exterior layer at the base must be magnetic to be compatible with induction cooktops. Stainless steel does not require seasoning to protect the surface from rust, but may be seasoned to provide a non-stick surface.
Carbon steel
Carbon-steel cookware can be rolled or hammered into relatively thin sheets of dense material, which provides robust strength and improved heat distribution. Carbon steel accommodates high, dry heat for such operations as dry searing. Carbon steel does not conduct heat efficiently, but this may be an advantage for larger vessels, such as woks and paella pans, where one portion of the pan is intentionally kept at a different temperature than the rest. Like cast iron, carbon steel must be seasoned before use, usually by rubbing a fat or oil on the cooking surface and heating the cookware on the stovetop or in the oven. With proper use and care, seasoning oils polymerize on carbon steel to form a low-tack surface, well-suited to browning, Maillard reactions and easy release of fried foods. Carbon steel will easily rust if not seasoned and should be stored seasoned to avoid rusting. Carbon steel is traditionally used for crêpe and fry pans, as well as woks.
Clad aluminium or copper
Cladding is a technique for fabricating pans with a layer of efficient heat conducting material, such as copper or aluminum, covered on the cooking surface by a non-reactive material such as stainless steel, and often covered on the exterior aspect of the pan ("dual-clad") as well. Some pans feature a copper or aluminum interface layer that extends over the entire pan rather than just a heat-distributing disk on the base. Generally, the thicker the interface layer, especially in the base of the pan, the more improved the heat distribution. Claims of thermal efficiency improvements are, however, controversial, owing in particular to the limiting and heat-banking effect of stainless steel on thermal flows.
Aluminum is typically clad on both the inside and the exterior pan surfaces, providing both a stainless cooking surface and a stainless surface to contact the cooktop. Copper of various thicknesses is often clad on its interior surface only, leaving the more attractive copper exposed on the outside of the pan (see Copper above).
Some cookware use a dual-clad process, with a thin stainless layer on the cooking surface, a thick core of aluminum to provide structure and improved heat diffusion, and a foil layer of copper on the exterior to provide the "look" of a copper pot at a lower price.
Coating
Enamel
Enameled cast iron cooking vessels are made of cast iron covered with a porcelain surface. This creates a piece that has the heat distribution and retention properties of cast iron combined with a non-reactive, low-stick surface.
The enamel over steel technique creates a piece that has the heat distribution of carbon steel and a non-reactive, low-stick surface. Such pots are much lighter than most other pots of similar size, are cheaper to make than stainless steel pots, and do not have the rust and reactivity issues of cast iron or carbon steel. Enamel over steel is ideal for large stockpots and for other large pans used mostly for water-based cooking. Because of its light weight and easy cleanup, enamel over steel is also popular for cookware used while camping.
Seasoning
Seasoning is the process of treating the surface of a cooking vessel with a dry, hard, smooth, hydrophobic coating formed from polymerized fat or oil. When seasoned surfaces are used for cookery in conjunction with oil or fat a stick-resistant effect is produced.
Some form of post-manufacturing treatment or end-user seasoning is mandatory on cast-iron cookware, which rusts rapidly when heated in the presence of available oxygen, notably from water, even small quantities such as drippings from dry meat. Food tends to stick to unseasoned iron and carbon steel cookware, both of which are seasoned for this reason as well.
Other cookware surfaces such as stainless steel or cast aluminium do not require as much protection from corrosion but seasoning is still very often employed by professional chefs to avoid sticking.
Seasoning of other cookware surfaces is generally discouraged. Non-stick enamels often crack under heat stress, and non-stick polymers (such as Teflon) degrade at high heat so neither type of surface should be seasoned.
PTFE non-stick
Steel or aluminum cooking pans can be coated with a substance such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, often referred to with the genericized trademark Teflon) in order to minimize food sticking to the pan surface. There are advantages and disadvantages to such a coating. Coated pans are easier to clean than most non-coated pans, and require little or no additional oil or fat to prevent sticking, a property that helps to produce lower fat food. On the other hand, some sticking is required to cause sucs to form, so a non-stick pan cannot be used where a pan sauce is desired. Non-stick coatings tend to degrade over time and are susceptible to damage. Using metal implements, harsh scouring pads, or chemical abrasives can damage or destroy cooking surface.
Non-stick pans must not be overheated. The coating is stable at normal cooking temperatures, even at the smoke point of most oils. However, if a non-stick pan is heated while empty its temperature may quickly exceed , above which the non-stick coating may begin to deteriorate, changing color and losing its non-stick properties., the non-stick coating will rapidly decompose and emit toxic fumes, which are especially dangerous to birds, and may cause polymer fume fever in human beings.
Non-metallic cookware
Non-metallic cookware can be used in both conventional and microwave ovens. Non-metallic cookware typically can not be used on the stovetop, with the exception of glass-ceramic cookware. Rigid non metallic cookware tends to shatter on sudden cooling or uneven heating, although low expansion materials such as borosilicate glass and glass-ceramics have significant immunity.
Pottery
Pottery has been used to make cookware from before dated history. Pots and pans made with this material are durable (some could last a lifetime or more) and are inert and non-reactive. Heat is also conducted evenly in this material. They can be used for both cooking in a fire pit surrounded with coals and for baking in the oven.
Ceramics
Glazed ceramics, such as porcelain, provide a nonstick cooking surface. Historically some glazes used on ceramic articles contained levels of lead, which can possess health risks; although this is not a concern with the vast majority of modern ware. Some pottery can be placed on fire directly.
Glass
Borosilicate glass is safe at oven temperatures. The clear glass also allows for the food to be seen during the cooking process. However, it cannot be used on a stovetop, as it cannot cope with stovetop temperatures.
Glass-ceramic
Glass ceramic is used to make products such as Corningware and Pyroflam, which have many of the best properties of both glass and ceramic cookware. While Pyrex can shatter if taken between extremes of temperature too rapidly, glass-ceramics can be taken directly from deep freeze to the stove top. Their very low coefficient of thermal expansion makes them less prone to thermal shock.
Stone
A natural stone can be used to diffuse heat for indirect grilling or baking, as in a baking stone or pizza stone, or the French pierrade.
Silicone
Silicone bakeware is light, flexible and able to withstand sustained temperatures of 360 °C (675 °F). It melts around 500 °C (930 °F), depending upon the fillers used. Its flexibility is advantageous in removing baked goods from the pan. This rubbery material should not to be confused with the silicone resin used to make hard, shatterproof children's dishware, which is not suitable for baking.
Types of cookware and bakeware
The size and shape of a cooking vessel is typically determined by how it will be used. Intention, application, technique and configuration also have a bearing on whether a cooking vessel is referred to as a pot or a pan. Generally within the classic batterie de cuisine a vessel designated "pot" is round, has "ear" handles in diagonal opposition, with a relatively high height to cooking surface ratio, and is intended for liquid cooking such as stewing, stocking, brewing or boiling. Vessels with a long handle or ear handles, a relatively low height to cooking surface ratio, used for frying, searing, reductions, braising and oven work take the designation "pan". Additionally, while pots are round, pans may be round, oval, squared, or irregularly shaped.
Cookware
Braising pans and roasting pans (also known as "braisers", "roasters" or rondeau pans) are large, wide and shallow, to provide space to cook a roast (chicken, beef or pork). They typically have two loop or tab handles, and may have a cover. Roasters are usually made of heavy-gauge metal so that they may be used safely on a cooktop following roasting in an oven. Unlike most other cooking vessels, roasters are usually rectangular or oval. There is no sharp boundary between braisers and roasters – the same pan, with or without a cover, can be used for both functions. In Europe, clay roasters remain popular because they allows roasting without adding grease or liquids. This helps preserve flavor and nutrients. Having to soak the pot in water for 15 minutes before use is a notable drawback.
Casserole pots (for making casseroles) resemble roasters and Dutch ovens, and many recipes can be used interchangeably between them. Depending on their material, casseroles can be used in ovens or on stovetops. Casseroles are often made of metal, but are popular in glazed ceramic or other vitreous material as well.
Dilipots are long thin pots created to sanitize with boiling water.
Dutch ovens are heavy, relatively deep pots with heavy lids, designed to re-create oven conditions on stovetops or campfires. They can be used for stews, braised meats, soups and a large variety of other dishes that benefit from low-heat, slow cooking. Dutch ovens are typically made from cast iron or natural clay and are sized by volume.
A wonder pot, an Israeli invention, acts as a Dutch oven but is made of aluminium. It consists of three parts: an aluminium pot shaped like a Bundt pan, a hooded cover perforated with venting holes, and a thick, round, metal disc with a centre hole that is placed between the wonder pot and the flame to disperse heat.
Frying pans, frypans or skillets provide a large flat heating surface and shallow, sloped sides, and are best for pan frying. Frypans with shallow, rolling slopes are sometimes called omelette pans. Grill pans are frypans that are ribbed, to let fat drain away from the food being cooked. Frypans and grill pans are generally sized by diameter (20–30 cm).
Spiders are skillets with three thin legs to keep them above an open fire. Ordinary flat-bottomed skillets are also sometimes called spiders, though the term has fallen out of general use.
Griddles are flat plates of metal used for frying, grilling and making pan breads such as pancakes, injera, tortillas, chapatis and crepes. Traditional iron griddles are circular, with a semicircular hoop fixed to opposite edges of the plate and rising above it to form a central handle. Rectangular griddles that cover two stove burners are now also common, as are griddles that have a ribbed area that can be used like a grill pan. Some have multiple square metal grooves enabling the contents to have a defined pattern, similar to a waffle maker. Like frypans, round griddles are generally measured by diameter (20–30 cm).
In Scotland, griddles are referred to as girdles. In some Spanish-speaking countries, a similar pan is referred to as a comal. Crepe pans are similar to griddles, but are usually smaller, and made of a thinner metal.
Both griddles and frypans can be found in electric versions. These may be permanently attached to a heat source, similar to a hot plate.
Saucepans are round, vertical-walled vessels used for simmering or boiling. Saucepans generally have one long handle. Larger pans of similar shape with two ear handles are sometimes called "sauce-pots" or "soup pots" (3–12 litres). Saucepans and saucepots are denominated by volume (usually 1–8 L). While saucepots often resemble Dutch ovens in shape, they are generally lighter. Very small saucepans used for heating milk are referred to as "milk pans" - such saucepans usually have a lip for pouring heated milk.
A variation on the saucepan with sloping sides is called a "Windsor", "evasee" or "fait-tout", and is used for evaporative reducing. Saucepans with rounded sides are called "sauciers" which also provide more efficient evaporation and generate a return wave when shaken. Both flared saucepan variations tend to dry or cake preparations on their walls, and are less suited to starch-thickened sauces than standard saucepans.
Sauté pans, used for sautéing, have a large surface-area and relatively low sides to permit rapid evaporation and to allow the cook to toss the food. The word sauté comes from the French verb sauter, meaning "to jump". Sauté pans often have straight vertical sides, but may also have flared or rounded sides.
Stockpots are large pots with sides at least as tall as their diameters. This allows stock to simmer for extended periods of time without major reducing. Stockpots are typically measured in volume (6-36 L). Stock pots come in a large variety of sizes to meet any need from cooking for a family to preparing food for a banquet. A specific type of stockpot exists for lobsters, and Hispanic cultures use an all-metal stockpot, usually called a caldero, to cook rice.
Woks are wide, roughly bowl-shaped vessels, with one or two handles at or near the rim. This shape allows a small pool of cooking oil in the centre of the wok to be heated to a high temperature using relatively little fuel, while the outer areas of the wok are used to keep food warm after it has been fried in the oil. In the Western world, woks are typically used only for stir-frying, but they can be used for anything from steaming to deep frying.
Bakeware
Bakeware is designed for use in the oven (for baking), and encompasses a variety of different styles of baking pans as cake pans, pie pans, and bread pans.
Cake tins (or cake pans in the US) include square pans, round pans, and speciality pans such as angel food cake pans and springform pans often used for baking cheesecake. Another type of cake pan is a muffin tin, which can hold multiple smaller cakes.
Sheet pans, cookie sheets, and Swiss roll tins are bakeware with large flat bottoms.
Pie pans are flat-bottomed flare-sided tins specifically designed for baking pies.
List of cookware and bakeware
Comal (cookware)
Cookie sheet
Double boiler
Doufeu
Dutch oven
Food processor
Griddle (also called tava or tawa)
Karahi
Kazan
Kettle
Pans
Baking pan
Chip pan
Crepe pan (also called a tava)
Frying pan
Roasting pan
Saucepan (described in current article)
Sauté pan
Sheet pan
Splayed Sauté pan
Springform pan
Tube pan [types include angel food cake pan and Bundt cake (Kugelhopf) pan]
Pots
Beanpot
Cooking pot
Stockpot
Wonder Pot
Pressure cooker
Ramekin
Roasting rack
Saucier (described in current article)
Soufflé dish
Tajine
Wok
See also
Cauldron
Food storage
Gastronorm sizes (standard sizes of food containers)
Kappabashi-dori
Kitchenware
Kitchenware brands
List of cooking vessels
List of food preparation utensils
Marc Grégoire
Multicooker
Pot-holder
Stoneware
Surface chemistry of cooking
Vacuum filler
References
Works cited
Further reading | [
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261136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess%20Victoria | Princess Victoria | Princess Victoria may refer to:
Royalty
European royalty
Duchess Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria (1660-1690), later Dauphine Victoire of France as the wife of Louis, Grand Dauphin
Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain (1718-1781), Queen of Portugal as the wife of Joseph I
Princess Victoire of France (1733–1799), daughter of Louis XV of France
Victoria Hedwig Karoline von Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym, daughter of Charles Louis, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym and Marquise de Favras by marriage; often styled as Princess despite being of morganatic birth
Infanta Mariana Victoria of Portugal (1768–1788), daughter of Maria I and Peter III of Portugal
Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, (1786–1861), mother of Queen Victoria
Queen Victoria (1819–1901), princess until 1837
Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1822–1857), wife of Prince Louis of Orleans, Duke of Nemours (1814-1896)
Victoria, Princess Royal (1840–1901), eldest daughter of Queen Victoria and Empress of Germany and Queen of Prussia as the wife of Frederick III
Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein (1858-1921), Empress of Germany and Queen of Prussia as the wife of Wilhelm II
Princess Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (1860-1932) (Victoria Frederica Augusta Mary Caroline Matilda), Duchess of Schleswig-Holstein as the wife of Friedrich Ferdinand
Princess Charlotte of Prussia (1860–1919) (Victoria Elizabeth Augusta Charlotte), eldest daughter of Victoria, Princess Royal and Frederick III of Germany; Duchess of Saxe-Meiningen as the wife of Bernhard III
Princess Victoria of Baden (1862–1930), queen consort of Gustav V of Sweden
Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine (1863–1950), wife of Prince Louis of Battenberg; later Victoria Mountbatten, Marchioness of Milford Haven
Princess Viktoria of Prussia (1866–1929), second daughter of Victoria, Princess Royal and Frederick III of Germany
Mary of Teck (1867-1953) (Victoria Mary Augusta Louise Olga Pauline Claudine Agnes), wife of George V of the United Kingdom
Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom (1868–1935), daughter of Edward VII of the United Kingdom
Princess Helena Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein (1870–1948) (Victoria Louise Sophia Augusta Amelia Helena)
Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1876–1936), daughter of Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; later Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of Russia
Princess Margaret of Connaught (1882–1920) (Margaret Victoria Charlotte Augusta Norah), first wife of King Gustaf VI Adolf
Princess Alice of Battenberg (1885–1969) (Victoria Alice Elizabeth Julia Marie), daughter of Victoria of Hesse and mother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
Princess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein (1885-1970), daughter of Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig Holstein and Frederick Ferdinand, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as the wife of Charles Edward
Princess Patricia of Connaught (1886–1974) (Victoria Patricia Helena Elizabeth), daughter of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn; later Lady Patricia Ramsay
Princess Alexandra Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (1887–1957), daughter of Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig-Holstein and Frederick Ferdinand, Duke of Schleswig–Holstein
Princess Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (1894-1972) (Victoria-Irene Adelaide Augusta Alberta Feodora Caroline Matilda), daughter of Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig-Holstein and Frederick Ferdinand, Duke of Schleswig–Holstein
Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg (1887–1969), Queen of Spain as the wife of Alfonso XIII
Princess Victoria Margaret of Prussia (1890–1923), daughter of Prince Frederick Leopold of Prussia
Princess Victoria Louise of Prussia (1892–1980), daughter of Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein and Wilhelm II of Germany; married Ernst August, Duke of Brunswick and head of the House of Hanover
Princess Victoria of Leiningen (1895-1973), daughter of Emich, 5th Prince of Leiningen and wife of Count Maximilian of Solms-Rödelheim and Assenheim
Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood (1897–1965) (Victoria Alexandra Alice Mary), daughter of King George V
Princess Victoria Cäcilie of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (1914–1998), daughter of Chlodwig, Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld
Princess Ingrid of Sweden (1910-2000), wife of King Frederick IX of Denmark
Princess Victoria Marina of Prussia (1917–1981), daughter of Prince Adalbert of Prussia (1884–1948)
Princess Victoria Marina of Prussia (born 1952), daughter of Prince Frederick of Prussia (1911–1966)
Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden (born 1977)
Princess Victoria Luise of Prussia (born 1982), daughter of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia (born 1939) and wife of Ferdinand, Hereditary Prince of Leiningen (born 1982)
Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange (born 2003) (Catharina-Amalia Beatrix Carmen Victoria), daughter of King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
Princess Victoria of Hohenzollern (born 2004), daughter of Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern (born 1960)
Hawaiian royalty
Princess Victoria Kamamalu Kaahumanu IV of the Hawaiian Islands (1838–1866), heiress apparent during the reign of Kamehameha V
Princess Victoria Kaiulani of the Hawaiian Islands (1875–1899), heiress apparent during Queen Liliuokalani's reign
Other
People
Princess Victoria (wrestler) (Vickie Otis), retired wrestler
Fictional characters
Princess Victoria "Tori" of Meribella (Victoria Bethany Evangeline Renee), character from 2012 film Barbie: The Princess & The Popstar
Archduchess Victoria of Hulstria, Queen of Aloria, character from the online game Particracy
Princess Victoria of Alteon ("Robina the Hood"), character from the online game AdventureQuest Worlds
Locations
Princess Victoria (public house), a pub in Shepherd's Bush, London, England
Ships
MV Princess Victoria, a ship which was launched in 1939 commissioned as HMS Princess Victoria and sunk in 1940
MV Princess Victoria, a ferry which was launched in 1947 and sank in 1953
See also
Victoria (name) | [
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261145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasukuni%20Shrine | Yasukuni Shrine | is a Shinto shrine located in Chiyoda, Tokyo. It was founded by Emperor Meiji in June 1869 and commemorates those who died in service of Japan from the Boshin War of 1868–1869 through the First Indochina War of 1946–1954. The shrine's purpose has been expanded over the years to include those who died in the wars involving Japan spanning from the entire Meiji and Taishō periods, and the earlier part of the Shōwa period.
The shrine lists the names, origins, birthdates, and places of death of 2,466,532 men, women, children, and various pet animals. Among those are 1,068 convicted war criminals, 14 of whom are A-Class (convicted of having been involved in the planning, preparation, initiation, or waging of the war). This has led to many controversies surrounding the shrine. Another memorial at the Honden (main hall) building commemorates anyone who died on behalf of Japan, and so includes Koreans and Taiwanese who served Japan at the time. In addition, the Chinreisha ("Spirit Pacifying Shrine") building is a shrine built to inter the souls of all the people who died during WWII, regardless of their nationality. It is located directly south of the Yasukuni Honden.
Various Shinto festivals are associated with the shrine, particularly in the spring and autumn seasons when portable Mikoshi shrines are rounded about honoring the ancestral gods of Japan. A notable image of the shrine is the Japanese Imperial Chrysanthemum featured on the gate curtains leading into the shrine. The current 13th High Priest incumbent of the shrine is Tatebumi Yamaguchi, who was appointed on 1 November 2018 after Kunio Kobori.
History
Foundation for the dead in the Boshin War and Meiji Restoration
The site for the Yasukuni Shrine, originally named , was chosen by order of the Meiji Emperor. The shrine was established in 1869, in the wake of the Boshin War, in order to honor the souls of those who died fighting for the Emperor. It initially served as the "apex" of a network of similar shrines throughout Japan that had originally been established for the souls of various feudal lords' retainers, and which continued to enshrine local individuals who died in the Emperor's service. Following the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion, the Emperor had 6,959 souls of war dead enshrined at Tōkyō Shōkonsha.
In 1879, the shrine was renamed Yasukuni Jinja. The name Yasukuni, quoted from the phrase「 in the classical-era Chinese text Zuo Zhuan (Scroll 6, 23rd Year of Duke Xi), literally means "Pacifying the Nation" and was chosen by the Meiji Emperor. The name is formally written as , using the kyūjitai character forms common before the end of the Pacific War.
Among the enshrined are Yoshida Shōin, Sakamoto Ryōma, Takasugi Shinsaku, Nakaoka Shintarō, Takechi Hanpeita, Sanai Hashimoto, and Ōmura Masujirō, who contributed to the Tokugawa shogunate's overthrow and the Meiji Restoration during the Bakumatsu period in Japan. In contrast, the shrine does not enshrine the war dead of shogunate retainers such as the soldiers of the former Shogunate forces, the Ouetsu Reppan Domei, the Shinsengumi, and the Shogitai.
Although Saigō Takamori, Eto Shinpei, and Maebara Issei made a contribution to the Meiji Restoration, they were not enshrined because they revolted against the Meiji government after that.
From First Sino-Japanese War to Second Sino-Japanese War
The enshrinement of war dead at Yasukuni was transferred to military control in 1887. As the Empire of Japan expanded, Okinawans, Ainu, and Koreans were enshrined at Yasukuni alongside ethnic Japanese. Emperor Meiji refused to allow the enshrinement of Taiwanese due to the organized resistance that followed the Treaty of Shimonoseki, but Taiwanese were later admitted due to the need to conscript them during World War II.
In 1932, two Sophia University (Jochi Daigaku) Catholic students refused visit to Yasukuni Shrine on the grounds that it was contrary to their religious convictions. In 1936, the Society for the Propagation of the Faith (Propaganda Fide) of the Roman Curia issued the Instruction Pluries Instanterque, and approved visits to Yasukuni Shrine as an expression of patriotic motive. This response of the Catholic Church helped the Jesuit university avoid a fateful crisis, but it meant its bowing down to the military power and control by Emperor system.
During World War II and the GHQ occupation period
By the 1930s, the military government sought centralized state control over memorialization of the war dead, giving Yasukuni a more central role. Enshrinements at Yasukuni were originally announced in the government's Official Gazette so that the souls could be treated as national heroes, but this practice ended in April 1944, and the identities of the spirits were subsequently concealed from the general public. The shrine had a critical role in military and civilian morale during the war era as a symbol of dedication to the Emperor. Enshrinement at Yasukuni signified meaning and nobility to those who died for their country. During the final days of the war, it was common for soldiers sent on kamikaze suicide missions to say that they would "meet again at Yasukuni" following their death.
After World War II, the US-led Occupation Authorities (known as GHQ) issued the Shinto Directive, which ordered the separation of church and state and forced Yasukuni Shrine to become either a secular government institution or a religious institution independent from the Japanese government. Yasukuni Shrine has been privately funded and operated since 1946, when it was elected to become an individual religious corporation independent of the Association of Shinto Shrines. The GHQ planned to burn down the Yasukuni Shrine and build a dog race course in its place. However, Father Bruno Bitter of the Roman Curia and Father Patrick Byrne of Maryknoll insisted to GHQ that honoring their war dead is the right and duty of citizens everywhere, and GHQ decided not to destroy the Yasukuni shrine. Moreover, the Roman Curia reaffirmed the Instruction Pluries Instanterque in 1951.
Post-war issues and controversies
The shrine authorities and the Ministry of Health and Welfare established a system in 1956 for the government to share information with the shrine regarding deceased war veterans. Most of Japan's war dead who were not already enshrined at Yasukuni were enshrined in this manner by April 1959. War criminals prosecuted by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East were initially excluded from enshrinement after the war. Government authorities began considering their enshrinement, along with providing veterans' benefits to their survivors, following the signature of the Treaty of San Francisco in 1951, and in 1954 directed some local memorial shrines to accept the enshrinement of war criminals from their area. No convicted war criminals were enshrined at Yasukuni until after the parole of the last remaining incarcerated war criminals in 1958. The Health and Welfare Ministry began forwarding information on Class B and Class C war criminals (those not involved in the planning, preparation, initiation, or waging of the war) to Yasukuni Shrine in 1959, and these individuals were gradually enshrined between 1959 and 1967, often without permission from surviving family members.
Information on the fourteen most prominent Class A war criminals, which included the prime ministers and top generals from the war era, was forwarded to the shrine in 1966, and the shrine passed a resolution to enshrine these individuals in 1970. The timing for their enshrinement was left to the discretion of head priest Fujimaro Tsukuba, who delayed the enshrinement through his death in March 1978. His successor Nagayoshi Matsudaira, who rejected the Tokyo war crimes tribunal's verdicts, enshrined the Class A war criminals in a secret ceremony in 1978. Emperor Hirohito, who visited the shrine as recently as 1975, was privately displeased with the action, and subsequently refused to visit the shrine. The details of the enshrinement of war criminals eventually became public in 1979, but there was minimal controversy about the issue for several years. No Emperor of Japan has visited Yasukuni since 1975, although the Emperor and Empress still continue to attend the National Memorial Service for War Dead annually. The head-priest Junna Nakata at Honzen-ji Temple (of the Shingon sect Daigo-ha) requested the pontiff Pope Paul VI to say a Mass for the repose of the souls of all people in the Yasukuni, which would include the 1,618 men condemned as Class A, B and C war criminals, and he promised to do so. In 1980, Pope John Paul II complied, and a Mass was held in St. Peter's Basilica for all the fallen civilians and fallen dead worshiped in the shrine. The museum and website of the Yasukuni Shrine have made statements criticizing the United States for "convincing" the Empire of Japan to launch the attack on Pearl Harbor just in order to justify war with them, as well as claiming that Japan went to war with the intention of creating a "Co-Prosperity Sphere" for all Asians.
Chronology
See details on related controversy in Controversies surrounding Yasukuni Shrine.
1862
December — (Tenporeki (Tenpō calendar)): The () for the was held for the first time at the (current Kyoto Ryozen Gokoku Shrine) at Higashiyama in Kyoto. The Saijin (deities) enshrined in the Shindō Sōsaijō Reimeisha are three kami including .
1868
January — (Tenpō calendar): The Boshin War started and continued until May, 1869 (Tenpō calendar)
April 20 — (Tenpō calendar): The tasshi (proclamation) by the (Tōkaidō spearhead governor) ordered the creation of a list of the war dead.
April 28 (Tenpō calendar): The tasshi by the Tōkaidō Senpō Sōtokufu decided to hold
May 10 (Tenpō calendar): The Dajokan Fukoku (Proclamation or Decree by the Grand Council of State) ordered the enshrinement of the war dead at Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto (Current Kyoto Ryozen Gokoku Shrine).
May 28 (Tenpō calendar): The tasshi by the (Administrative officers) ordered submission of the list of the war dead to (Bureau of Rites)
June 2 (Tenpō calendar): The Shōkonsai was held at Nishi-no-maru ōhiroma of Edo Castle
July 8 (Tenpō calendar): The tasshi by the (Bureau of Rites) ordered the holding of the Shōkonsai.
July 10–11 (Tenpō calendar): The Shōkonsai was held at the in Kyoto.
1869
July 12 (Tenpō calendar): The tasshi by the Gunmukan ordered the establishment of Tōkyō Shōkonsha
July 29: The establishment of Tōkyō Shōkonsha: Meiji Emperor gave Tōkyō Shōkonsha an estate worth 5000 koku (nominally 10,000 koku) as .
July: The 1st (a festival held for enshrining the war dead together) (Number of newly enshrined: 3,588)
1870: The Shōkonsha horse trackrace was established as the first Japanese racetrack in the country along the outside of the shrine approach
1872 May 10 (Tenpo calendar): The establishment of the honden
1874
February: The Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
Emperor Meiji paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine. Since then, royal visit had been paid intermittently until 1975
August: The 2nd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 192)
November: The 3rd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 16)
1875
February 22:
February: The 4th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 12)
July: 5th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1)
1876 January: The 6th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1)
1877
January: The 7th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 131)
February: Seinan War
November 14: Rinjisai
November: The 8th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 6,505)
1878
July: The 9th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 160)
November: The 10th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 4)
1879
June 4: The shrine was registered to Bekkaku-kanpeisya and renamed Yasukuni shrine by Dajōan.
June: The 11th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 266)
1882
February: The inauguration of Yūshūkan (the oldest military museum in the world)
November: The 12th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 12)
1883 May: The 13th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 80)
1884 November: The 14th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 47)
1885 May: The 15th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 6)
1888
May: The 16th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 607)
November: The 17th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 18)
1889
May: The 18th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1,460)
November: The 19th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 61)
1891 November: The 20th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1,272)
1893 November: The 21st Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 80)
1894 August: The First Sino-Japanese War started and continued until April 1895.
1895
November 17:
November: The 22nd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1,496)
1896
May 6: Rinjitaisai
May: The 23rd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 143)
November: The 24th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 97)
1898
November 5: Rinjitaisai
November: The 25th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 11,383)
: The closure of the horse racetrack
1899
May: The 26th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 340)
November: The 27th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshineed: 83)
1900
May: The 28th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 35)
May: The Boxer Rebellion (to September)
1901
October 31: Rinjitaisai
October: The establishment of the haiden
November: 29th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1,282)
1904
February: The Russo-Japanese War (until September 1904)
May: The 30th Rinjitaisai
May: The 31st Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 30,883)
1906
May 2: Rinjitaisai
May: The 32nd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 29,960)
1907
May 3: Rinjitaisai
May: The 33rd Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 24,657)
1908
May 5: Rinjitaisai
May: The 34th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 1,943)
1909
May 5: Rinjitaisai
May: The 35th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 817)
1910
May 5: Rinjitaisai
May: The 36th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 141)
1911
May 5: Rinjitaisai
May: The 37th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 631, Total: 118,499)
1914 July: World War I (to October 1918)
1919 May: The festival marking the 50th anniversary of the foundation
1920 March: The Nikolayevsk Incident
1923 September: The Great Kanto earthquake
1928 May: The Jinan Incident
1931 March: The of the Fukuba family was transferred to inside the Yasukuni precinct as Motomiya.
1932: The incident between Sophia University (Jochi Daigaku) and the Yasukuni Shrine occurred, when a student refused visit to the Yasukuni shrine with the rest of the school on the ground that it was contrary to his religious convictions.
1936: The Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples (Propaganda Fide) of the Roman Curia issued the Instruction Pluries Instanterque, and approved visit to the Yasukuni shrine as an expression of patriotic motive
1938 April: Establishment of the new Shōkonsaitei
1937 July: The Second Sino-Japanese War
1941 December 8: Pacific War (continued to 1945)
1945
August 15: Emperor Hirohito gave a recorded radio address across the Empire on August 15. In the radio address, called the Gyokuon-hōsō, he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies.
October: The General Headquarters (GHQ) planned to burn down the Yasukuni Shrine and build a dog race course in its place. However, Father Bruno Bitter of the Roman Curia and Father Patrick Byrne of Maryknoll insisted to GHQ that honoring their war dead is the right and duty of citizens everywhere, and GHQ decided not to destroy the Yasukuni shrine.
November 19: Rinji Dai-Shōkonsai
December: The Shinto Directive
1946
May 1: The 67th Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 26,969)
September: Yasukuni Shrine was registered as a Religious Corporation of Japan.
1947
The Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 59,337)
July 13: The 1st Mitama Matsuri。
1951
April 3: The enforcement of the Religious Corporation Act
October 18: The first Reitaisai after WWII
The Roman Curia reconfirmed the Instruction Pluries Instanterque
1952 April 28: The Treaty of San Francisco came into force.
1955
August 14: A memorial service was held for 540 suicide victims after the end of the Pacific war.
October 17: Rinjitaisai
1956: Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 112,609)
1957: Gōshisai (Number of newly enshined: 470,010)
1958: Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 217,536)
1959
April 8: Rinjitaisai
April: Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 346 dead including the class B and C war criminals who died from the death sentence execution)
October 4: Gōshisai (Prince Kitashirakawa Yoshihisa and Prince Nagahisa Kitashirakawa)
October: Gōshisai (Number of newly enshrined: 479 dead including the class B and C war criminals who died from the death sentence execution)
November 5: Taisai (festival) marking the 90th anniversary of the foundation
1960 August 15: (the memorial service to honor the war dead in the Asia-Pacific War)
1964 August 15: Holding of a government-sponsored memorial ceremony for Japan's war dead (the ceremony has been held at the Budokan since 1965)
1965
July: The establishment of Chinreisha
October 19: Rinjitaisai
1969 October 19: The Taisai (annual main festival) marking the 100th anniversary of the foundation was held, and the (Collection of literary remains of the war dead in the Greater East Asia War (Pacific War) was issued as a commemorative publication in 1973.
1972 March 13: The establishment of
1975
August 15: Takeo Miki became the first prime minister to visit the shrine on August 15, the anniversary of the Japanese surrender. He visited in a solely private capacity and underscored this by not using an official vehicle, bringing other public officials or using his title as prime minister. Similar visits continued without arousing international protests even after the enshrinement of war criminals became publicly known.
November 21: Emperor Shōwa visited the Yasukuni shrine. Since then, there has not been another imperial visit to the shrine because of his displeasure over the enshrinement of convicted war criminals, according to historians.
The head-priest at the Honsenji (the Shingon sect Daigo-ha) Junna Nakata hoped that the pontiff Pope Paul VI might say a Mass for the repose of the souls of the 1,618 men condemned as Class A, B and C war criminals, and the Pope promised to say the Mass requested of him but died in 1978 without saying the Mass.
1976 June 22: The establishment of the (Society for Honoring the Glorious War Dead)
1978 October 17: Gōshisai was held to enshrine 14 dead who died from the death penalty execution of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East or died in connection with the Tribunal. Since then, the Yasukuni shrine has used the designation (Martyrs of Shōwa).
1980
May 22: Pope John Paul II kept Pope Paul VI's word, and the Mass for the fallen civilians and fallen dead worshiped in the shrine including the unofficial 1,618 war criminals of Classes A, B and C took place in St. Peter's Basilica. Nakata attended the Mass, and presented the Pope with an eight-foot high replica of the Daigoji temple's five-story pagoda; inside the replica were memorial tablets Nakata had personally made for all 1,618 war criminals. The Pope blessed the replica pagoda but took no special interest in it.
November 16: The establishment of
1985
August 15: Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone paid his respects at the Yasukuni shrine, which initiated criticism by People's Republic of China for the first time. The criticism of Nakasone's action was so intense that neither he nor his several immediate successors visited the shrine again.
September: The 80th anniversary commemorating and honoring the Russo-Japanese War dead ()
1989 January: Taisai (festival) marking the 120th anniversary of the foundation
1996 Prime minister Ryutaro Hashimoto paid his respects at the Yasukuni shrine in order to fulfill a promise to a childhood mentor.
1998 December: The disbandment of and reorganization of
2001
July 18: The Asahi Shimbun reported that the South Korean government was reclaiming spirit tablets of Korean enshrined in the Yasukuni shrine even though Yasukuni shrine houses only (Former ) and spirit tablets do not exist.
August 13: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi, who ran against Ryutaro Hashimoto for the presidency of the Liberal Democratic Party in 2001, made a campaign pledge to visit the shrine on an annual basis regardless of the criticism it would cause, which won him support among nationalists and helped him become prime minister from 2001 to 2006. He paid his respect at the Yasukuni shrine on August 13, 2001, as a Prime Minister for the first time in 5 years since the last Hashimoto's visit. This and following Koizumi's annual visits drew extensive criticism from other East-Asian countries, particularly the People's Republic of China, where the visits stoked anti-Japanese sentiment and influenced power struggles between pro-Japanese and anti-Japanese leaders within the Chinese Communist Party. The Japanese government officially viewed the visits by Koizumi as private visits in an individual capacity to express respect and gratitude to the many people who lost their lives in the war, and not for the sake of war criminals or to challenge the findings of the Tokyo war crimes tribunal.
2002
April 21: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine.
July 13: The inauguration of the current Yūshūkan
2003 January 14: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine.
2004
January 1: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine.
September: The establishment of new "Sanshūden"
2005
January 5: A Yasukuni shrine official said "the shrine has come under intense cyber attack, with its Web site barraged by e-mails believed to come from China since September 2004." The shrine also said on its official web site "These attacks on the Yasukuni Shrine can be taken as not only attacks on the 2.5 million souls who gave their lives for the sake of the country but are also a malicious challenge to Japan. We would like to let the people [of Japan] know the Yasukuni Shrine is under attack, which is a dirty act of terrorism that negates the order of Internet technology and society."
June 14: About fifty relatives of the war dead of Taiwan visited the Yasukuni shrine for the ceremony to remove spirits of Taiwanese Aboriginal soldiers, but canceled it due to sound trucks (gaisensha, ) and requests from the police.
October 12: A brief ceremony attended by priests of the Yasukuni shrine, representatives of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs and officials from the embassy of South Korea was held, and the Pukkwan Victory Monument was turned over to officials from South Korea, who returned it to its original location, which is now in North Korea.
October 17: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine.
2006
August 15: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine on August 15 (End of the Pacific War Day) for the first time in 21 years since Former Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone's visit on August 15.
October 12: The Motomiya and Chinreisha became open to the public (9 a.m. to 4 p.m.)
2007 June 7: Former leader of Taiwan Lee Teng-Hui paid respect at the Yasukuni shrine to honor his senior brother who died as a Japanese soldier.
2008 December 24: The Yasukuni official website was cracked by unknown hackers, the homepage content replaced, and the China national flag appeared once during this time.
2009 August 11: The Republic of China (Taiwan) Legislative Yuan Aboriginal Atayal member Ciwas Ali and about 50 other Taiwanese Aboriginal members protested in front of the haiden of Yasukuni Shrine in an effort to remove the enshrined spirits of Taiwanese Aboriginal soldiers who died fighting for the Japanese army during Pacific War, as well as suing Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi for visiting Yasukuni Shrine, and injured Yasukuni officers; then Japanese police officers were dispatched.
2010 August 15: Longstanding official visit to the Yasukuni shrine by the ministers of state discontinued until 2012.
2011
December 26: The was set on fire by a Chinese man, Liu Qiang.
May 14 : President of the World Uyghur Congress Rebiya Kadeer visited the Yasukuni Shrine
August 15: The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Yuichiro Hata and the National Public Safety Commission Jin Matsubara (Minister of State for Special Missions) paid respects at the Yasukuni Shrine as state ministers for the first time since the Democratic Party of Japan assumed the reins of government.
2013
April: The Minister of Finance Tarō Asō, the National Public Safety Commission Keiji Furuya, the Minister for Internal Affairs and Communications Yoshitaka Shindo, and the Minister of State for Regulatory Reform Tomomi Inada paid their respects at the Yasukuni shrine during an annual spring festival ceremony.
August 15: Three cabinet members, Keiji Furuya, Yoshitaka Shindo, and Tomomi Inada, paid their respects at the Yasukuni shrine.
September 21: A Korean resident of Japan threatened to commit arson at Yasukuni shrine, and was arrested by Police.
December 26: Prime Minister Shinzō Abe made a visit to Yasukuni Shrine and Chinreisha. The visit sparked admonition from the Chinese government, which called Abe's visits to Yasukuni "an effort to glorify the Japanese militaristic history of external invasion and colonial rule ... and to challenge the outcome of World War II," as well as regret from Russia. The US embassy in Tokyo said it was disappointed with Abe's actions and that his visit would exacerbate tensions with Japan's neighbours. The United States urged Japan to improve strained relations with neighboring countries in the aftermath of Abe's controversial visit to Yasukuni Shrine. South Korea's culture minister, Yoo Jin-ryong, criticized Abe by saying that his visit "hurts not only the ties between South Korea and Japan, but also fundamentally damages the stability and co-operation in north-east Asia." In an official statement, Abe explained that he wished to "report before the souls of the war dead how my administration has worked for one year and to renew the pledge that Japan must never wage a war again. It is not my intention at all to hurt the feelings of the Chinese and Korean people."
2014
January: A poll by the conservative-leaning Sankei Shimbun found that only 38.1% of respondents approved of the most recent visit by Abe, while 53% disapproved, a majority of whom cited harm to Japan's foreign relations as their reason. At the same time, 67.7% of respondents said they were not personally convinced by Chinese and Korean criticism of the visit. However, another poll in 2015 by Genron NPO found that 15.7% of respondents disapproved of visits in general by Prime Ministers while 66% of respondents saw no problem, particularly if they were done in private (which was a decrease from 68.2% the year before).
April: Canadian singer Justin Bieber paid a visit to the war shrine. After coming under heavy criticism from Chinese and South Korean fans, he apologized for posting a photo of his visit, claiming to have not known about the background surrounding the shrine.
August 15: Three cabinet ministers visited the shrine to mark the 69th anniversary of the surrender of Japan in World War II. Prime Minister Shinzo Abe however chose not to.
2015
November 23: An explosion at a public toilet in the war shrine caused some damage to the ceiling and wall of the bathroom near the south gate of the shrine
2018
Chinese actor Zhang Zhehan took photos of himself posing in front of cherry blossom trees back in March of 2018. He followed the Sakura route suggested by state sponsored news agencies such as People's Network. In August 2021, the background architecture of one of the photos was recognized as Saikan (office area of the Shrine). After the photos became viral and sparked outrage in China, Zhang issued an apology. However, multiple media agencies and majority of people still accused him of betrayal to the national dignity. The photos resulted in 22 brands terminating their endorsements of Zhang. His upcoming films and television shows also terminated all of their associations with him. The China Association of Performing Arts (CAPA) then called for a total entertainment ban on Zhang. Several Chinese music and streaming platforms removed his music, television and film works. Chinese social media platforms Sina Weibo and TikTok deleted his studio and personal accounts.
Annual celebrations
January 1:
0 a.m.
8 a.m.
January 2:
January 7: (Service of worshipping toward Musashi Imperial Graveyard's Musashino no Misasagi, which is the Imperial mausoleum of the Shōwa Emperor)
January 30: (Service of worshipping toward Nochi no Tsukinowa no Higashi no Misasagi, which is the mausoleum of Emperor Kōmei)
February 11: (National Foundation Day)—Anniversary of the day on which Japan's first Emperor, Emperor Jimmu, is said to have founded the Japanese nation.
February 17:
February 23: (birthday of the current emperor)
April 21–23:
April 21:
April 22:
April 19: ,
April 29: — Emperor Showa's birthday
June 29:
10 a.m. (Founding Day) Commemoration of the founding of Yasukuni Jinja
2 p.m.
June 30:
July 13–16: (Mitama Festival)— A mid-summer celebration of the spirits of the ancestors. The entry walk is decorated with 40 foot high walls of more than 30,000 lanterns, and thousands of visitors come to pay respects to their lost relatives and friends.
July 13:
July 14:
July 15:
July 16:
July 30: (Service of worshipping toward Fushimi Momoyama no Misasagi, which is the mausoleum of Emperor Meiji)
October 17: (Service of worshipping toward Ise Jingū Kannamesai)
October 17–20: (annual autumn festival)
October 17: (Purifying ceremony),
October 18:
October 19:
October 20: , (feast)
November 3: (Emperor Meiji's birthday)
November 23: (Festival of First Fruits)
December 25: (Worship of Tama-no-misasagi for Emperor Taishō), Susuharaishiki (Sweeping soot ceremony)
December 31: (Grand Purification Ceremony), (Year-End Ritual)
The first, 11th and 21st day of each month:
Every day: , , (Perpetual Kagura festival),
Enshrined deities
There are over 2,466,000 enshrined kami (deities) listed in the Yasukuni's Symbolic Registry of Divinities. This list includes soldiers, as well as women and students who were involved in relief operations in the battlefield or worked in factories for the war effort. There are neither ashes nor spirit tablets in the shrine. Enshrinement is not exclusive to people of Japanese descent. Yasukuni Shrine has enshrined 27,863 Taiwanese and 21,181 Koreans. Many more kami – those who fought in opposition to imperial Japan, as well as all war dead regardless of nationality – are enshrined at Chinreisha.
Eligible categories
As a general rule, the enshrined are limited to military personnel who were killed while serving Japan during armed conflicts. Civilians who were killed during a war are not included, apart from a handful of exceptions. A deceased must fall into one of the following categories for enshrinement in the honden:
Military personnel, and civilians serving for the military, who were:
killed in action, or died as a result of wounds or illnesses sustained while on duty outside the Home Islands (and within the Home Islands after September 1931)
missing and presumed to have died as a result of wounds or illnesses sustained while on duty
died as a result of war crime tribunals which have been ratified by the San Francisco Peace Treaty
Civilians who participated in combat under the military and died from resulting wounds or illnesses (includes residents of Okinawa)
Civilians who died, or are presumed to have died, in Soviet labor camps during and after the war
Civilians who were officially mobilized or volunteered (such as factory workers, mobilized students, Japanese Red Cross nurses and anti air-raid volunteers) who were killed while on duty
Crew who were killed aboard Merchant Navy vessels
Crew who were killed due to the sinking of exchange ships (e.g. Awa Maru)
Okinawan schoolchildren evacuees who were killed (e.g. the sinking of Tsushima Maru)
Officials of the governing bodies of Karafuto Prefecture, Kwantung Leased Territory, Governor-General of Korea and Governor-General of Taiwan
Although new names of soldiers killed during World War II are added to the shrine list every year, no one who was killed due to conflicts after Japan signed the San Francisco Peace Treaty that formally ended World War II in 1951 has been qualified for enshrinement. Therefore, the shrine does not include members of the Japanese Self-Defense Forces which was established after the peace treaty.
Enshrinement is carried out unilaterally by the shrine without consultation of surviving family members and in some cases against the stated wishes of the family members. Some families from foreign countries such as South Korea have requested that their relatives be delisted on the grounds that enshrining someone against their beliefs in life constitutes an infringement of the Constitution.
Conflicts
Japan has participated in 16 other conflicts since the Boshin War in 1869. The following table chronologically lists the number of people enshrined as kami at the honden (as of October 17, 2004) from each of these conflicts.
The Yasukuni shrine does not include the Tokugawa shogunate's forces (particularly from the Aizu domain) or rebel forces who died during the Boshin War or Satsuma Rebellion because they are considered enemies of the emperor. They are enshrined at Chinreisha.
Precinct
There are a multitude of facilities within the 6.25 hectare grounds of the shrine, as well as several structures along the 4 hectare causeway. Though other shrines in Japan also occupy large areas, Yasukuni is different because of its recent historical connections. The Yūshūkan museum is just the feature that differentiate Yasukuni from other Shinto shrines. The following lists describe many of these facilities and structures.
Shrine structures
On the shrine grounds, there are several important religious structures. The shrine's haiden, Yasukuni's main prayer hall where worshipers come to pray, was originally built in 1901 in styles of Irimoya-zukuri, Hirairi, and Doubanbuki (copper roofing) in order to allow patrons to pay their respects and make offerings. This building's roof was renovated in 1989. The white screens hanging off the ceiling are changed to purple ones on ceremonial occasions.
The honden is the main shrine where Yasukuni's enshrined deities reside. Built in 1872 and refurbished in 1989, it is where the shrine's priests perform Shinto rituals. The building is generally closed to the public.
The building located on the right side of haiden is the (Assembly Hall), which was rebuilt in 2004. Reception and waiting rooms are available for individuals and groups who wish to worship in the Main Shrine.
The building located directly behind the Sanshuden is the (Reception Hall).
The building located directly behind the honden is known as the (Repository for the Symbolic Registers of Divinities) built in styles of Kirizuma-zukuri, Hirairi, and Doubanbuki. It houses the —a handmade Japanese paper document that lists the names of all the kami enshrined and worshiped at Yasukuni Shrine. It was built of quakeproof concrete in 1972 with a private donation from Emperor Hirohito.
In addition to Yasukuni's main shrine buildings, there are also two peripheral shrines located on the precinct. is a small shrine that was first established in Kyoto by sympathizers of the imperial loyalists that were killed during the early weeks of the civil war that erupted during the Meiji Restoration. Seventy years later, in 1931, it was moved directly south of Yasukuni Shrine's honden. Its name, Motomiya ("Original Shrine"), references the fact that it was essentially a prototype for the current Yasukuni Shrine. The second peripheral shrine is the Chinreisha. This small shrine was constructed in 1965, directly south of the Motomiya. It is dedicated to those not enshrined in the honden—those killed by wars or incidents worldwide, regardless of nationality. It has a festival on July 13.
Torii and Mon (gates)
There are several different torii and gates located on both the causeway and shrine grounds. When moving through the grounds from east to west, the first torii visitors encounter is the Daiichi Torii (Ōtorii). This large steel structure was the largest torii in Japan when it was first erected in 1921 to mark the main entrance to the shrine. It stands approximately 25 meters tall and 34 meters wide and is the first torii. The current iteration of this torii was erected in 1974 after the original was removed in 1943 due to weather damage. This torii was recently repainted.
The Daini Torii (Seidō Ōtorii) is the second torii encountered on the westward walk to the shrine. It was erected in 1887 to replace a wooden one which had been erected earlier. This is the largest bronze torii in Japan. Immediately following the Daini Torii is the . A 6-meter tall hinoki cypress gate, it was first built in 1934 and restored in 1994. Each of its two doors bears a Chrysanthemum Crest measuring 1.5 meters in diameter. West of this gate is the (Third Shrine Gate), the last torii visitors must pass underneath before reaching Yasukuni's haiden. It was recently rebuilt of cypress harvested in Saitama Prefecture in 2006.
In addition to the three torii and one gate that lead to the main shrine complex, there are a few others that mark other entrances to the shrine grounds. The Ishi Torii is a large stone torii located on the south end of the main causeway. It was erected in 1932 and marks the entrance to the parking lots. The Kitamon and Minamimon are two areas that mark the north and south entrances, respectively, into the Yasukuni Shrine complex. The Minamimon is marked by a small wooden gateway.
Memorials
Irei no Izumi (Soul-Comforting Spring): This modern looking monument is a spring dedicated to those who suffered from or died of thirst in battle.
Statue of War Widow with Children: This statue honors the mothers who raised children in the absence of fathers lost at war. It was donated to the shrine in 1974 by these mothers' children.
Statue of Kamikaze Pilot: A bronze statue representing a kamikaze pilot stands to the left of the Yūshūkan's entrance. A small plaque to the left of the statue was donated by the Tokkōtai Commemoration Peace Memorial Association in 2005. It lists the 5,843 men who died while executing suicide attacks against Allied naval vessels in World War II.
Statue of Ōmura Masujirō: Created by Okuma Ujihiro in 1893, this statue is Japan's first Western-style bronze statue. It honors Ōmura Masujirō, a man who is known as the "Father of the Modern Japanese Army."
Monument of Justice Radha Binod Pal: This newer monument was erected at Yasukuni Shrine in 2005. It honours Indian Bengali judge Radha Binod Pal, the lone justice on the International Military Tribunal for the Far East's trials of Japanese war crimes committed during World War II to find all the defendants not guilty. On April 29, 2005, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh told his counterpart Koizumi Junichiro that "the dissenting judgement of Justice Radha Binod Pal is well-known to the Japanese people and will always symbolise the affection and regard our people have for your country."
Statues honoring horses, carrier pigeons and dogs killed in war service: These three life-sized bronze statues were all donated at different times during the second half of the 20th century. The first of the three that was donated, the horse statue was placed at the Yasukuni Shrine in 1958 to honor the memory of the horses that were utilized by the Japanese military. Presented in 1982, the statue depicting a pigeon atop a globe honors the homing pigeons of the military. The last statue, donated in March 1992, depicts a German shepherd and commemorates the soldiers' canine comrades. Opened, full bottles of water are often left at these statues.
(Monument for the dead in Hitachi Maru Incident)
(Monument of Tanaka squad)
(Monument of Kempeitai (Military police corps))
(Monument of Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors, which is a Shōchoku (imperial edict) and code of ethics that Emperor Meiji issued to soldiers of the army and the navy on January 4, 1882)
Other buildings and structures
(from Kudanshita Station)
(Stone pillar on which the shrine name is engraved)
– near the Daiichi Torii
Red stone – near the Daiichi Torii
(The stone of battle site)
(Tall lantern) – the largest tōrō in Japan
– Ōtemizusha, which means large temizuya (main purification font), was established in 1940.
Dovecote (shirohato kyusha): Almost 300 white doves live and are bred in a special dovecote located on the grounds of Yasukuni Shrine.
(North gate)
Nōgakudo (Noh Theater): Originally built in Shiba Park, Tokyo in 1881, and moved to Yasukuni Shrine in 1903. Noh dramas and traditional Japanese dance are performed on its stage in honor of the resident divinities.
{{nihongo|Saikan (Purification Retreat) Shamusho (Shrine Office)|斎館社務所}}
(Yasukuni Archives): Opened on October 7, 1999, archives more than 100,000 volumes including reference material that describes the circumstances under which the divinities enshrined in Yasukuni Shrine died, as well as source material for research on modern history.
Yūshūkan: Originally built in 1882, this museum is located to the north of the main hall. Its name is taken from a saying – "a virtuous man always selects to associate with virtuous people." The building was repaired and expanded in 2002. The museum is a facility to stores and exhibit relics, and it also houses the weaponry of the Imperial Japanese Navy, notably including a Zero Fighter plane and Kaiten suicide torpedo. The museum has come into great controversy owing to its revisionist depiction of Japanese history, particularly of the militarist period from 1931 to 1945, in which it is perceived as denying Japanese war crimes and glorifying Japan's militarist past.
Shinchi Teien (): This Japanese style strolling garden was created in the early Meiji Era. Its centerpiece is a small waterfall located in a serene pond. It was refurbished in 1999.
Sumo Ring (): In 1869, a sumo wrestling exhibition was held at Yasukuni Shrine in order to celebrate the shrine's establishment. Since then, exhibitions involving many professional sumo wrestlers, including several grand champions (yokozuna) take place at the Spring Festival almost every year. The matches are free of charge.
(Teahouse)
(Teahouse)
(Teahouse): The Kōuntei is used as a tea ceremony school room by the Urasenke from Monday to Saturday, and was used for manufacturing the Yasukuni (Kudan) sword before World War II.
(Yasukuni clock tower)
List of priests
Guji (Chief priests): term of office
: 16 July 1879 – 6 February 1891 (died in office)
: 17 February 1891 – 28 April 1909
: 29 March 1909 – 21 April 1939
: 21 April 1938 – 17 January 1946
: 25 January 1946 – 20 March 1978 (died in office)
: 1 July 1978 – 31 March 1992
: 1 April 1992 – 20 May 1997
: 21 May 1997 – 10 September 2004
: 11 September 2004 – 7 January 2009 (died in office)
: 15 June 2009 – 19 January 2013
: 19 January 2013 – present (a great-grandson of Yoshinobu Tokugawa, the last Tokugawa shogun)
Gon-guji (associate chief priests): term of office
: 16 April 1938 – 3 October 1945
: 16 November 1945 – 30 June 1948
: 26 April 1948 (interim)
: 31 August 1948 – 9 February 1979
: 9 February 1979 – 16 July 1982
: 16 July 1981 – 1 November 1984
: 1 November 1984 – 17 November 1989
: 1 August 1985 – 5 November 1990
: 1 November 1990 – 20 May 1997
: 21 May 1997 – 8 September 2009
: 19 January 2000 – 31 October 2003
: 1 June 2004 –
: 1 November 2009 – present
Organization
Yasukuni shrine is an individual religious corporation and does not belong to the Association of Shinto Shrines.
Yasukuni shrine has departments listed below. The controls the overall system, and the assists the Gūji.
Chōsa-ka|調査課}}
Cultural references to Yasukuni shrine
Bank notes
1942–1948: Empire of Japan 50 sen banknote
Postage stamps
Japanese 17 sen stamp (1943)
Japanese 27 sen stamp (1945)
Japanese 1 yen stamp (1946)
Scenic postmarks
Popular music
(Singers: Masaru Shio, Yuriko Futaba etc.)
(Singer: Chiyoko Shimakura)
Plays
(The cherry blossoms of a same period)
Books
1881: (The chronology of Bukō (Edo, Musashi Province), 2nd volume) (Author:)
1863–1872: (The diary of Masaomi Hirosawa) (Author: )
1868–1877: (The diary of Kido Takayoshi) (Author: Kido Takayoshi)
1905: (History of Yasukuni Shrine) (Author: )
1905–1907: (I Am a Cat) (Author: Natsume Sōseki)
1911: (History of Yasukuni Shrine) (Authors: Terauchi Masatake, , )
1917: (My thirty years in Tokyo) (Author:Katai Tayama)
Posters
1871: (Big French circus on the grounds of Shokonsha (Yasukuni) shrine)
Swords
In 1933, Minister of War Sadao Araki founded the in the grounds of the shrine to preserve old forging methods and promote Japan's samurai traditions, as well as to meet the huge demand for guntō (military swords) for officers. About 8,100 "Yasukuni swords" were manufactured in the grounds of the Yasukuni Shrine between 1933 and 1945.
See also
List of Shinto shrines
Tawau Japanese War Memorial
References
Sources
Nelson, John. "Social Memory as Ritual Practice: Commemorating Spirits of the Military Dead at Yasukuni Shinto Shrine". Journal of Asian Studies 62, 2 (May 2003): 445–467.
Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1963). Vicissitudes of Shinto. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 36655
Pye, Michael: "Religion and Conflict in Japan with Special Reference to Shinto and Yasukuni Shrine". Diogenes 50:3 (2003), S. 45–59.
Saaler, Sven: Politics, Memory and Public Opinion: The History Textbook Controversy and Japanese Society. München: Iudicium, 2005. .
Shirk, Susan L. China: Fragile Superpower: How China's Internal Politics Could Derail Its Peaceful Rise. Oxford University Press, US. 2007. .
Further reading
Breen, John. "The Dead and the Living in the Land of Peace: A Sociology of the Yasukuni Shrine". Mortality 9, 1 (February 2004): 76–93.
Breen, John. Yasukuni, the War Dead and the Struggle for Japan's Past. Columbia University Press, 2008. .
Nelson, John. "Social Memory as Ritual Practice: Commemorating Spirits of the Military Dead at Yasukuni Shinto Shrine". Journal of Asian Studies 62, 2 (May 2003): 445–467.
Regarding its controversy
Ijiri, Hidenori. "Sino-Japanese Controversies since the 1972 Diplomatic Normalization". China Quarterly 124 (Dec 1990): 639–661.
Shibuichi, Daiki. "The Yasukuni Dispute and the Politics of Identity of Japan: Why All the Fuss?" Asian Survey 45, 2 (March–April 2005): 197–215.
Tamamoto, Masaru. "A Land Without Patriots: The Yasukuni Controversy and Japanese Nationalism". World Policy Journal 18, 3 (Fall 2001): 33–40.
Yang, Daqing. "Mirror for the Future of the History Card? Understanding the 'History Problem'" in Chinese-Japanese Relations in the Twenty-first Century: Complementarity and Conflict, edited by Marie Söderberg, 10–31. New York: Routledge, 2002.
External links
Wheelchair accessibility information on Yasukuni Shrine
Monuments and memorials in Japan
Buildings and structures in Chiyoda, Tokyo
Buildings of the Meiji period
Shinto shrines in Tokyo
Empire of Japan
Religious buildings and structures completed in 1869
1869 establishments in Japan
Religious organizations established in 1869
19th century in Tokyo
Anti-Japanese sentiment in China
Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea
World War II memorials in Japan
Shinto new religious movements
Gokoku shrines
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261148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apnea | Apnea | Apnea (BrE: apnoea) is the cessation of breathing. During apnea, there is no movement of the muscles of inhalation, and the volume of the lungs initially remains unchanged. Depending on how blocked the airways are (patency), there may or may not be a flow of gas between the lungs and the environment; gas exchange within the lungs and cellular respiration is not affected. Voluntarily doing this is called holding one's breath.
Apnea may first be diagnosed in childhood, and it is recommended to consult an ENT specialist, allergist or sleep physician to discuss symptoms; malformation and/or malfunctioning of upper airways may be observed by an orthodontist.
Cause
Apnea can be involuntarily—for example, drug-induced (such as by opiate toxicity), mechanically induced (for example, by strangulation or choking), or a consequence of neurological disease or trauma. During sleep in patients who are suffering from sleep apnea, these events can occur up to more than a hundred times per hour every night.
Apnea can also be observed during periods of heightened emotion, such as during crying or accompanied by the Valsalva maneuver when a person laughs. Apnea is a common feature of sobbing while crying, characterised by slow but deep and erratic breathing followed by brief periods of breath holding.
Another example of apnea are breath-holding spells; these are sometimes emotional in cause and are observed in children as a result of frustration, emotional stress and other psychological extremes.
Voluntary apnea can be achieved by closing the vocal cords, simultaneously keeping the mouth closed and blocking the nasal vestibule, or constantly activating expiratory muscles.
Complications
Under normal conditions, humans cannot store much oxygen in the body. Prolonged apnea leads to severe lack of oxygen in the blood circulation. Permanent brain damage can occur after as little as three minutes and death will inevitably ensue after a few more minutes unless ventilation is restored. However, under special circumstances such as hypothermia, hyperbaric oxygenation, apneic oxygenation (see below), or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, much longer periods of apnea may be tolerated without severe consequences.
Untrained humans cannot sustain voluntary apnea for more than one or two minutes, since the urge to breathe becomes unbearable. The reason for the time limit of voluntary apnea is that the rate of breathing and the volume of each breath are tightly regulated to maintain constant values of CO2 tension and pH of the blood. In apnea, CO2 is not removed through the lungs and accumulates in the blood. The consequent rise in CO2 tension and drop in pH result in stimulation of the respiratory centre in the brain which eventually cannot be overcome voluntarily. The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the lungs will eventually irritate and trigger impulses from the respiratory center part of the brain and the phrenic nerve. Rising levels of carbon dioxide signal the body to breathe and resume unconscious respiration. The lungs start to feel as if they are burning, and the signals the body receives from the brain when CO2 levels are too high include strong, painful, and involuntary contractions or spasms of the diaphragm and the muscles in between the ribs. At some point, the spasms become so frequent and unbearable that continued holding of the breath is impossible.
When a person is immersed in water, physiological changes due to the mammalian diving reflex enable somewhat longer tolerance of apnea even in untrained persons. Tolerance can in addition be trained. The ancient technique of free-diving requires breath-holding, and world-class free-divers can hold their breath underwater up to depths of and for more than four minutes. Apneists, in this context, are people who can hold their breath for a long time.
Hyperventilation
Voluntary hyperventilation before beginning voluntary apnea is commonly believed to allow the person involved to safely hold their breath for a longer period. In reality, it will give the impression that one does not need to breathe, while the body is actually experiencing a blood-oxygen level that would normally, and indirectly, invoke a strong dyspnea. Some have incorrectly attributed the effect of hyperventilation to increased oxygen in the blood, not realizing that it is actually due to a decrease in in the blood and lungs. Blood leaving the lungs is normally fully saturated with oxygen, so hyperventilation of normal air cannot increase the amount of oxygen available. Lowering the concentration increases the pH of the blood, thus increasing the time before the respiratory center becomes stimulated, as described above. While hyperventilation will yield slightly longer breath-holding times, any small time increase is at the expense of possible hypoxia. One using this method can suddenly lose consciousness—a shallow water blackout—as a result, If a person loses consciousness underwater, there is considerable danger that they will drown. An alert diving partner would be in the best position to rescue such a person. Static apnea blackout occurs at the surface when a motionless diver holds their breath long enough for the circulating oxygen to fall below that required for the brain to maintain consciousness. It involves no pressure changes in the body and is usually performed to enhance breath-hold time. It should never be practiced alone, but under strict safety protocols with a safety beside the diver.
Apneic oxygenation
Because the exchange of gases between the blood and airspace of the lungs is independent of the movement of gas to and from the lungs, enough oxygen can be delivered to the circulation even if a person is apneic. With the onset of apnea, low pressure develops in the airspace of the lungs because more oxygen is absorbed than CO2 is released. With the airways closed or obstructed, this will lead to a gradual collapse of the lungs. However, if the airways are open, any gas supplied to the upper airways will follow the pressure gradient and flow into the lungs to replace the oxygen consumed. If pure oxygen is supplied, this process will serve to replenish the oxygen stored in the lungs. The uptake of oxygen into the blood will then remain at the usual level, and the normal functioning of the organs will not be affected. A detriment to this hyperoxygenation is the occurrence of nitrogen washout, which can lead to absorption atelectasis.
However, no CO2 is removed during apnea. The partial pressure of CO2 in the airspace of the lungs will quickly equilibrate with that of the blood. As the blood is loaded with CO2 from the metabolism, more and more CO2 will accumulate and eventually displace oxygen and other gases from the airspace. CO2 will also accumulate in the tissues of the body, resulting in respiratory acidosis.
Under ideal conditions (i.e., if pure oxygen is breathed before onset of apnea to remove all nitrogen from the lungs, and pure oxygen is insufflated), apneic oxygenation could theoretically be sufficient to provide enough oxygen for survival of more than one hour's duration in a healthy adult. However, accumulation of carbon dioxide (described above) would remain the limiting factor.
Apneic oxygenation is more than a physiologic curiosity. It can be employed to provide a sufficient amount of oxygen in thoracic surgery when apnea cannot be avoided, and during manipulations of the airways such as bronchoscopy, intubation, and surgery of the upper airways. However, because of the limitations described above, apneic oxygenation is inferior to extracorporal circulation using a heart-lung machine and is therefore used only in emergencies and for short procedures. Use of PEEP valves is also an accepted alternative (5 cm H2O in average weight patients and 10 cm H2O significantly improved lung and chest wall compliance in morbidly obese patients).
In 1959, Frumin described the use of apneic oxygenation during anesthesia and surgery. Of the eight test subjects in this landmark study, the highest recorded PaCO2 was 250 millimeters of mercury, and the lowest arterial pH was 6.72 after 53 minutes of apnea.
Apnea scientific studies
Studies found spleen volume is reduced during short breath-hold apnea in healthy adults.
Apnea test in determining brain death
A recommended practice for the clinical diagnosis of brain death formulated by the American Academy of Neurology hinges on the conjunction of three diagnostic criteria: coma, absence of brainstem reflexes, and apnea (defined as the inability of the patient to breathe unaided: that is, with no life support systems). The apnea test follows a delineated protocol. Apnea testing is not suitable in patients who are hemodynamically unstable with increasing vasopressor needs, metabolic acidosis, or require high levels of ventilatory support. Apnea testing carries the risk of arrhythmias, worsening hemodynamic instability, or metabolic acidosis beyond the level of recovery and can potentially make the patient unsuitable for organ donation. In this situation a confirmatory test is warranted as it is unsafe to perform the apnea test.
Etymology and pronunciation
The word apnea (or apnoea) uses combining forms of a- + -pnea, from Greek , from ἀ-, privative, πνέειν, to breathe. See pronunciation information at dyspnea.
See also
Apnea and Work
Apnea of prematurity
Expiratory apnea
Free-diving
Freediving blackout
Hypopnea
List of terms of lung size and activity
Mechanical ventilation
Respiratory arrest
Shallow water blackout
Sleep apnea
References
External links
Sleep Apnea, a resource from the Harvard Division of Sleep Medicine on Obstructive Sleep Apnea
apneacalculator.com, information about Apnea and the apnea-calculator for clinical treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Freediving Courses & Training in the UK, information about learning the sport of Freediving, the club is called Apneists UK
DiveWise.Org Non-profit scientific and educational resource for apnea divers
DAN Breath-Hold Workshop Divers Alert Network 2006 Breath-Hold Diving Workshop PDF
Breathing abnormalities
Neonatology | [
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261150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BoA | BoA | Kwon Bo-ah (; born November 5, 1986), known professionally as BoA, is a South Korean singer, songwriter, dancer, record producer and actress. One of the most successful and influential Korean entertainers, she has been dubbed the "Queen of K-pop."
Born and raised in Gyeonggi-do, South Korea, BoA was discovered by SM Entertainment talent agents when she accompanied her older brother, a music video director, to a talent search in 1998. She was trained for two years and made her debut in August 2000. BoA has released twenty studio albums, including ten in Korean, nine in Japanese, and one in English. On television, she appeared as a judge on the reality competition show K-pop Star (2011–2013), as an actress on the television drama Listen to Love (2016), as a host for the second season of Produce 101 (2017), and as a coach for the third season of The Voice of Korea (2020).
BoA's ability to sing in Japanese, English and Mandarin has helped her find commercial success beyond South Korea, in China, Japan, Taiwan, and Singapore. With the release of her debut Japanese studio album, Listen to My Heart (2002), BoA became the first South Korean pop star to break through in Japan following the fall of barriers that had restricted the import and export of entertainment between the countries since the end of World War II. She is the only foreign artist with three albums that have sold more than one million copies in Japan and one of only three female artists with six consecutive number-one studio albums on the Oricon charts since her debut, the others being Japanese singers Ayumi Hamasaki and Hikaru Utada.
Career
2000–2003: Debut and commercial success in South Korea and Japan
At age eleven, BoA accompanied her older brother to an SM Entertainment talent search. Though her brother was the one who auditioned as a break-dancer, SM talent scouts instead took notice of BoA and offered her a contract on the same night as the auditions. Her parents initially opposed the notion of BoA leaving school to enter the entertainment business but eventually consented at her older brothers' persuasion. She has said that her early influence as a singer was Seo Taiji.
BoA underwent two years of training (involving vocal, dance, English, and Japanese lessons), and at the age of thirteen she released her debut album ID; Peace B in South Korea on August 25, 2000. The album was moderately successful; it entered the Top 10 of the South Korean charts and sold around 156,000 units. Meanwhile, her Korean record label, SM Entertainment, made arrangements with Japanese label Avex Trax to launch her music career in Japan. She was forced to quit school to prepare and in early 2001, BoA released her first mini-album, Don't Start Now; it sold around 90,000 units. After its release, she took a hiatus from the Korean music industry to focus on the Japanese market at which time she worked to solidify her skills in Japanese.
BoA began her Japanese music career singing at the Avex-owned club Velfarre. Her debut Japanese album, Listen to My Heart, was released on March 13, 2002. The album was a breakthrough in BoA's career, becoming an RIAJ-certified million-seller and debuted atop the Oricon, the first album by a Korean artist to do so. It was promoted with several singles: the Top 20 hit "ID; Peace B" (originally from the eponymous album), "Amazing Kiss", "Kimochi wa Tsutawaru", the Top 5 hit "Listen to My Heart," and the Top 10 "Every Heart: Minna no Kimochi". After the September 11, 2001 attacks, BoA recorded the charity single "The Meaning of Peace" with Kumi Koda as part of Avex's Song Nation project to raise funds for charity. From 2001 to 2007, BoA hosted Beat it BoA's World, a radio program on the Japan FM Network.
After the release of Listen to My Heart, BoA released her second Korean studio album, No. 1, a month later on April 12, 2002. The album sold around 544,853 units and became the fourth-best-selling record of the year in South Korea. Jumping into the World (a Japanese re-release of the mini-album Don't Start Now) and the Japanese single "Don't Start Now" were released a month later on the same day. At the end of the year, BoA released her second Korean mini-album Miracle.
BoA's second Japanese studio album, Valenti (January 2003), became her best-selling album, with over 1,249,000 copies sold. Three singles preceded its release: "Valenti," which peaked at the number-two position on the Oricon chart, "Kiseki / No.1" and "Jewel Song / Beside You: Boku o Yobu Koe", both which also peaked at the number-three position. In support of the album, BoA launched BoA 1st Live Tour Valenti, her first Japanese concert tour. Later in the same year, BoA released her third Korean-language studio album, Atlantis Princess on May 30, 2003 and then released a mini-album Shine We Are! on December 4, 2003.The former was the fifth-best-selling South Korean record of the year with around 345,000 units sold; the latter sold around 58,000 units.
2004–2008: New image, foray into China, and creative control
Her third Japanese studio album, Love & Honesty (January 2004) was a musical "change in direction": it contained a rock-dance song ("Rock with You") and "harder" R&B. Though the album failed to match Valenti in sales, it topped the Oricon chart for two weeks and became RIAJ-certified triple-platinum. In support of the album, BoA held a tour, Live Concert Tour 2004: Love & Honesty, spanning nine performances and attracted approximately 105,000 attendants. In contrast with 1st Live Tour, which "emphasized exotic Asian design", the Love & Honesty tour had an "outer-space, sci-fi" theme; among the props were a three-storey-high space ship and the robot Asimo. Her first compilation album, Best of Soul (February 2005), however, sold over a million copies, making BoA the first non-Japanese Asian singer to have two million-selling albums in Japan.
BoA reinvented her image for her fourth and fifth Korean albums, My Name (June 2004) and Girls on Top (June 2005), shedding the "cute" and "youthful" style that had characterized previous years and adopted a more "sexy" and "sultry" look. The sales of BoA's Korean albums began to decline: My Name sold 191,000 units and became the eleventh-best-selling South Korean album in 2004 while Girls on Top ranked fourteenth in 2005 with 113,000 units sold. In September 2004, BoA instigated controversy in Japan when she donated ₩50 million to a memorial project for Korean independence activist and nationalist An Jung-geun.
Her fourth Japanese studio album, Outgrow, (February 2006) reached the number-one spot on the Oricon chart for its first week of release, making it her fourth consecutive original Japanese album to do so. With 220,000 copies sold, it became her lowest-selling first-week debut for a studio album at that point. "Do the Motion", the first single from the album, reached the top spot, making her the fourth non-Japanese Asian to have a number-one single on the Oricon charts. "Merry Christmas from BoA" (2005), the album's last single, was the singer's first digital single. That May, BoA renewed her contract with SM Entertainment until 2012. At the time it was noted that she had a shareholding in the company of 100,000 (Approximately worth $1m USD). She also voiced Heather the possum in the Korean and Japanese version of the animated film Over the Hedge. On September 21, 2006, she released her first digital single in Korea, a Korean version of "Key of Heart". In support of Outgrow, BoA launched a special Zepp tour, B0A The Live, on September 29, 2006 which lasted until October 29. She staged her first Christmas concert on December 7, 2006.
Three singles preceded BoA's fifth Japanese studio album, Made in Twenty (January 2007): the Top 3 "Nanairo no Ashita (Brand New Beat)/Your Color," the Top 10 "Key of Heart," and the No. 2 hit "Winter Love." The album, which contained R&B and dance songs as well as ballads, debuted at the top of the weekly Oricon charts, making the album her sixth in a row to do so (including one compilation). Having previously compose the song "No More Make Me Sick" for Made in Twenty, BoA assumed creative control over her sixth Japanese album, The Face (February 2008). The album debuted at the top of the weekly Oricon charts, making BoA one of only two artists in Japan to have six consecutive studio albums top the Oricon weekly charts (the other is Ayumi Hamasaki, who has eight consecutive number-one albums). On June 9, 2008, BoA and nine other artists from around the world recorded an English cover of Wei Wei's "Dedication of Love". Produced by Roald Hoffmann and Brian Alan, the single was used to raise funds for victims of the Sichuan earthquake. But due to a tight schedule, BoA was pulled back from this project. Korean jewelry brand Ramee also released, "Ramee by BoA", a line of jewelry designed by the singer herself.
2008–2012: American expansion and return to Asia
On September 2, 2008, it was announced that BoA would make her American debut under a new subsidiary label, SM Entertainment USA. Hoping to become a "world-renowned entertainer" in the vein of Janet Jackson, BoA's debut American single "Eat You Up," was produced by Thomas Troelsen, and released on October 21, 2008. It charted at No. 9 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. To promote the single, BoA performed "Eat You Up" as well as other songs at YouTube's Tokyo Live concert, and performed in New York City on December 3, 2008, as well as the Jingle Ball at the Anaheim Honda Center on December 6, 2008. The following year, she released "Eien/Universe/Believe in Love" and was also featured in Ravex's single "Believe in Love."
BoA's self-titled English album was released in the U.S. on March 17 and featured tracks by producers Bloodshy and Avant as well as a duet with Sean Garrett. Her second Japanese compilation album, Best & USA was released on March 18 tying together a compilation of recent hits in Japan with her English-language debut. Though she stated that "[i]t has always been my dream to debut in America," she found English tougher to learn than Japanese and despite living in West Beverly Hills, found it difficult to make friends. BoA later headlined the San Francisco Pride Festival on June 28, 2009 alongside Solange Knowles and The Cliks, where she also performed the song "Energetic" for the first time in public, in addition to "Eat You Up" and "I Did It for Love." On August 31, SM USA released BoA Deluxe, a repackaged version of her debut English album. The album contained two new tracks and the radio edit version of "Energetic".
With her U.S. career struggling to gain traction, BoA returned to East Asia to release her seventh Japanese album, Identity (February 2010). Promoted by the singles "Bump Bump!" featuring Verbal from M-Flo and "Mamoritai: White Wishes" (December 2009), the album only charted at No. 4, selling 37,606 copies in its first week. With little promotion from her label, it ended her run of six consecutive No. 1 albums, suggesting that it would be impossible for her to sustain her career in three territories simultaneously. Her first Korean album in five years, Hurricane Venus, was released on August 5, 2010, and sold 55,776 units making it the 22nd best selling album in South Korea for 2010. She also represented South Korea and performed at the 7th Asia Song Festival, organized by Korea Foundation for International Culture Exchange, at the Seoul Olympic Stadium.
BoA made her Hollywood movie debut in the dance film Make Your Move 3D, playing the character Aya opposite Derek Hough. Although production ended in 2011, the film was released in 2013. The movie received mixed reviews, with Inkoo Kang of the Los Angeles Times praising the choreography but stating that "[w]henever actor Derek Hough and BoA stop leaping and twirling, [it] is an underwritten mess." To celebrate the 10th anniversary of her Japanese debut, BoA released "Milestone," which ranked at No. 4 on the Oricon Weekly Music-DVD charts. She also held her 10th anniversary concert on December 10–11 at Tokyo International Forum.
Following the concert, BoA shifted her activities to her native county, joining the judging panel on SBS's audition program K-pop Star as a representative of S.M. Entertainment, alongside Yang Hyun-suk from YG Entertainment and Park Jin-young from JYP Entertainment. BoA received praise for her ability as a judge with her insightful comments and discerning eyes, and also sang the theme song "One Dream." For her seventh Korean album, Only One (July 2012), BoA wrote and composed its title track, while its dance steps choreographed by NappyTabs, who has previously worked with BoA in Cobu. Upon its release, "Only One" achieved an all-kill on several music charts. She followed this up with the second "The Shadow," was released August 18, 2012. Additionally, she recorded the song "Lookin'" featuring The Quiett for Hyundai's 'Premium Younique Lifestyle' campaign.
2013–2015: Music production, television role, and 15th anniversary
BoA launched her first Korean tour with BoA Special Live 2013: Here I Am tour at the Olympic Hall, and released the song "Disturbance," which she wrote and composed, to commemorate her first concert tour in South Korea. In September 2013, BoA starred in KBS' two-episode drama special Expect to Date alongside Choi Daniel and Im Si-wan, her full first role in a drama, following a string of cameo appearances. She received praise for her acting performance. She also participated in Infinity Challenge's bi-annual song festival and was paired with Leessang's Gil, with the two co-produced the song "G.A.B". In March 2014, BoA was appointed as a de facto creative director in S.M. Entertainment, alongside labelmate Kangta; she was placed in charge of mental care of artists who debut at a young age.
The singles for BoA's eighth Japanese album, Who's Back? (September 2014), were released over a span of four years prior to the album's release:"Woo Weekend" and "I See Me" in 2010, "Milestone" in 2011, Only One," "Tail of Hope" and "Message / Call My Name" in 2013, and "Shout It Out" and "Masayume Chasing" in 2014. To promote the album, she embarked on her BoA Live Tour 2014 Who's Back? tour in September, her first Japanese tour in four years. After the tour concluded, BoA starred in her first Korean film, Big Match alongside Lee Jung-jae and Shin Ha-kyun though a Japanese single "Fly" was released on December 3, 2014.
Her eighth Korean album Kiss My Lips (May 2015) became her first entirely self-written, self-produced album, working alongside American producers The Underdogs and Stereotypes. The single "Who Are You" (feat. Gaeko) was released prior to the album's unveiling, along with its accompanying music video, which starred EXO's Sehun as the male lead. The rest of the album was unveiled on May 12 along with an official music video of the eponymous title track. Billboard called the singer a promising songwriter despite moments of musical blandness.
In July, she performed at the BoA Special Live 2015: Nowness to commemorate her 15th anniversary. The concert took place on August 22 and 23 at the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in South Korea, making BoA the first female idol to hold a solo concert at the venue. This was followed by BoA Special Live 2015: Nowness in Japan which took place on December 11, 2015 at Tokyo International Forum Hall-A. Her 15th anniversary in Japan the following year was celebrated in a similar fashion, including the release of the song "Lookbook", and a 15th anniversary edition of BoA's Japanese Winter hit, "Meri Kuri." As part of S.M. Entertainment's special winter project, Winter Garden, BoA released a digital single entitled "Christmas Paradise."
2016–present: Musical projects, television production, and acting debut
On January 12, 2016, BoA released an English-language single "Make Me Complete", which serves as the theme song for the Fuji TV special drama Ooku, starring Sawajiri Erika and Watanabe Mayu. In June, she collaborated with Korean rapper Beenzino for S.M. Entertainment's SM Station project. The duo released the single "No Matter What," which ranked atop five domestic charts. BoA worked with BeatBurger for another SM Station single titled "Music Is Wonderful", where she participated in the composing and writing of the track. From October to November 2016, BoA starred in JTBC's romance melodrama Listen to Love, returning to the small screen after three years.
The following year, BoA became one of the producers for Mnet's boy group survival reality show, Produce 101 Season 2, which aired from April 7 to June 16. BoA later released another song for SM Station, "Spring Rain", an R&B number produced by Kenzie. In May, BoA embarked on her BoA The live in Billboard Live Tour, held in Tokyo and Osaka. She also released the single "Camo," a dance song with a heavy emphasis on bass and synthesizer sounds, which was a change in sound from her previous materials and produced by The Underdogs. In July, she released the Japanese single "Right Here, Right Everywhere" for the soundtrack of drama Yaneura no Koibito. She later starred in the film Autumn Sonata alongside Lee Hak-joo, playing a terminally ill patient.
In 2018, BoA returned to Japan and released her ninth Japanese album Watashi Konomama de Iinokana on February 14, 2018, followed by EP Unchained in March. To accompany the release of the EP, she embarked on the BoA The Live 2018: Unchained Tour from March 15 to April 4. People who attend the concerts received a copy of Unchained. On January 31, she released "Nega Dola", which served as a single for BoA's then-upcoming first extended play. The EP, One Shot, Two Shot, was released on February 20, alongside its titular lead single and the song's music video. The EP peaked at number six at the South Korean Gaon Album Chart and number seven at the Billboard World Albums Chart. On October 24, she released her ninth Korean album Woman alongside a lead single of the same name. The album peaked at number six at the Gaon Album Chart, number eleven at the Billboard World Albums Chart.
On June 4, 2019, she released the single "Feedback", which features rapper Nucksal, alongside the song's music video. BoA embarked on her #Mood Tour, which had six dates in Japan and two dates in Seoul, from September to October 2019. On October 23, she released a new Japanese single, "Wishing Well," which she earlier debuted on the tour. On December 11, 2019, she released her second extended play Starry Night.
In May 2020, BoA was featured as one of the coaches for the third season of The Voice of Korea, alongside Dynamic Duo, Sung Si-kyung, and Kim Jong-kook. On December 1, 2020, she released her tenth Korean album Better. SpoTV News shared BoA to join as a judge for Mnet Dance program "Street Woman Fighter". It is a female dance crew competition premiering in August 2021. On November 5, 2021, BoA released the Japanese single, "My Dear", to commemorate her 20th anniversary.
BoA was revealed as a member of the supergroup Got the Beat on December 27, 2021. The group debuted on January 3, 2022.
Image and artistry
BoA lists hip hop as her main musical influence, though she also enjoys R&B. Her favorite musicians are Whitney Houston, Michael Jackson, Justin Timberlake, and Ne-Yo; as a result, much of BoA's music is either dance-pop or R&B. Because she also sings ballads, she is often compared to Japanese singers Namie Amuro and Ayumi Hamasaki. Her debut album, ID; Peace B, contained urban pop, "slickly produced" ballads, and "upbeat dance tunes". As her career went on, she began experimenting with different styles: Valenti contained mostly ballads; Love and Honesty was an experiment with "harder" R&B and rock music. The Face was influenced by electropop and included "happy spring" songs ("Sweet Impact" and "Bad Drive"), a guitar-driven "groovy dance" song ("Lose Your Mind"), and ballads. Because the composition and writing of BoA's songs is handled mostly by her staff, BoA has been criticized as being a "manufactured pop star". In response to such criticism, BoA said that "if one person were to force their own will on something, then things that should have gone right could easily go wrong" and that she is "not all that unhappy with the expression that [she is] a manufactured star. In a way, that is true. Because SM Entertainment created the environment and all the surrounding conditions, [she is] able to be successful in the way [she is] now." She later assumed creative control with The Face, while Kiss My Lips became her first entirely self-written, self-produced album.
BoA has collaborated with high-profile artists. Among the Japanese artists she has performed with are the hip hop group M-Flo (for the single "The Love Bug"), pop singer Kumi Koda, and house DJ Mondo Grosso. She has performed with Western artists: the song "Flying Without Wings" from her album Next World was a collaboration with Irish band Westlife covering the original song; the Bratz single "Show Me What You Got" was performed with Howie D of the American band Backstreet Boys. She also worked with Akon, singing the song "Beautiful", which was featured on the Japanese release of his third album, Freedom. Other artists she has collaborated with are Soul'd Out, Dabo, Verbal (of M-Flo), Rah-D, Seamo, TVXQ, Yutaka Furakawa (of the band Doping Panda), and Crystal Kay (for her single After Love: First Boyfriend/Girlfriend). American rock band Weezer covered "Meri Kuri" on the Japanese version of their album Weezer.
Endorsements
Because of her wide appeal, BoA has appeared in advertisements for many brands. Among the brands she has promoted are Olympus, Lotte, Nike, L'Oréal, Japanese cosmetic company KOSÉ, Skechers, Audio-Technica, GM Daewoo and L'Occitane. Several of her songs have been used in affiliation with television shows. "Every Heart: Minna no Kimochi" was used as the ending theme for the anime InuYasha; "Beside You: Boku o Yobu Koe" was used as the opening theme for the anime Monkey Typhoon; "Key of Heart" was the theme song for the Japanese release of Over the Hedge; "Your Color" was the theme song of the video game Ninety-Nine Nights; "Mamoritai: White Wishes" was the theme song of the video game Tales of Graces,. "Tail of Hope" was used as the theme for the Japanese drama "Hakui no Namida," and "Masayume Chasing" was used as the 15th opening theme song for the anime "Fairy Tail."
In 2007, Anycall (a Samsung brand) signed BoA, Xiah (of TVXQ), Tablo (of Epik High), and jazz pianist Jin Bora onto "Anyband", a band created specifically to promote Anycall. The band released only one single, "AnyBand". In December 2010, she recorded "I See Me" for to promote Audio Technica headphones in Japan. The song "Woo Weekend" was used to promote Disney on Ice's 25th Anniversary in Japan while "Lookbook" served as the ending theme for the NTV Kei program Tokui to Goto to Uruwashi no SHELLEY ga Konya Kurabete Mimashita. In August 2017, it was announced that BoA was chosen as promotional ambassador for Jeju Biennale, an inaugural international art event on the resort island of Jeju. In Her widespread popularity has also made her a "cultural ambassador"; she has represented South Korea in inter-Asian musical events and has appeared in an Oxford University Press-published English-language textbook.
Impact
Dubbed the "Queen of K-pop", BoA is considered one of this century's top artists in East Asia; her popularity in the latter is attributed to her linguistic skills (she speaks and records in Japanese, Korean, and English) and a Japanese interest in Korean pop culture started in the early 2000s when the two countries began promoting cultural exchanges. BoA's popularity extends throughout East Asia; she has fans in China, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan. She had expressed plans to enter a global market; in June 2006, the music video of her Korean song "My Name" became the first music video ever shown on MTV K, an MTV music channel directed at Korean Americans.
Though her earlier releases were marked by a "cute" and "youthful" style, BoA began to present a more "mature" image starting from the album My Name. In a Talk Asia interview, Anjali Rao noted that some felt that My Name marked the beginning of BoA's decline in popularity and asked if the public would always see the singer as "Little Baby BoA"; BoA replied, "So while I apologize to those people who still want the baby BoA, in fact, what can I do? I just keep growing up! I can't stop that from happening."
Various artists have cited BoA as an influence and role model, such as Girls' Generation's Taeyeon, Sunny, Tiffany, Hyoyeon, Seohyun, Shinee's Key, Exo's Sehun, Red Velvet's Irene, I.O.I's Chungha, Billlie's Tsuki, and Aespa's Karina and Winter.
Discography
Korean albums
ID; Peace B (2000)
No. 1 (2002)
Atlantis Princess (2003)
My Name (2004)
Girls on Top (2005)
Hurricane Venus (2010)
Only One (2012)
Kiss My Lips (2015)
Woman (2018)
Better (2020)
Japanese albums
Listen to My Heart (2002)
Valenti (2003)
Love & Honesty (2004)
Outgrow (2006)
Made in Twenty (2007)
The Face (2008)
Identity (2010)
Who's Back? (2014)
Watashi Kono Mama de Ii no Kana (2018)
English albums
BoA (2009)
Awards
Filmography
Film
Television drama
Television shows
Tours
See also
Contemporary culture of South Korea
Korean Wave
J-pop
Footnotes
References
External links
1986 births
20th-century South Korean women singers
21st-century South Korean women singers
Avex Trax artists
English-language singers from South Korea
Grand Prize Seoul Music Award recipients
Japanese-language singers of South Korea
Mandarin-language singers of South Korea
Living people
Korean Mandopop singers
K-pop singers
Mnet Asian Music Award winners
People from Gyeonggi Province
SM Entertainment artists
SM Town
South Korean child singers
South Korean dance musicians
South Korean expatriates in Japan
South Korean expatriates in the United States
South Korean expatriates in China
South Korean female idols
South Korean women pop singers
South Korean women singer-songwriters
South Korean film actresses
South Korean J-pop singers
South Korean rhythm and blues singers
South Korean singer-songwriters
South Korean television actresses
Synth-pop singers
World Music Awards winners | [
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261151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML%20pipeline | XML pipeline | In software, an XML pipeline is formed when XML (Extensible Markup Language) processes, especially XML transformations and XML validations, are connected.
For instance, given two transformations T1 and T2, the two can be connected so that an input XML document is transformed by T1 and then the output of T1 is fed as input document to T2. Simple pipelines like the one described above are called linear; a single input document always goes through the same sequence of transformations to produce a single output document.
Linear operations
Linear operations can be divided in at least two parts
Micro-operations
They operate at the inner document level
Rename - renames elements or attributes without modifying the content
Replace - replaces elements or attributes
Insert - adds a new data element to the output stream at a specified point
Delete - removes an element or attribute (also known as pruning the input tree)
Wrap - wraps elements with additional elements
Reorder - changes the order of elements
Document operations
They take the input document as a whole
Identity transform - makes a verbatim copy of its input to the output
Compare - it takes two documents and compare them
Transform - execute a transform on the input file using a specified XSLT file. Version 1.0 or 2.0 should be specified.
Split - take a single XML document and split it into distinct documents
Sequence operations
They are mainly introduced in XProc and help to handle the sequence of document as a whole
Count - it takes a sequence of documents and counts them
Identity transform - makes a verbatim copy of its input sequence of documents to the output
split-sequence - takes a sequence of documents as input and routes them to different outputs depending on matching rules
wrap-sequence - takes a sequence of documents as input and wraps them into one or more documents
Non-linear
Non-linear operations on pipelines may include:
Conditionals — where a given transformation is executed if a condition is met while another transformation is executed otherwise
Loops — where a transformation is executed on each node of a node set selected from a document or a transformation is executed until a condition evaluates to false
Tees — where a document is fed to multiple transformations potentially happening in parallel
Aggregations — where multiple documents are aggregated into a single document
Exception Handling — where failures in processing can result in an alternate pipeline being processed
Some standards also categorize transformation as macro (changes impacting an entire file) or micro (impacting only an element or attribute)
XML pipeline languages
XML pipeline languages are used to define pipelines. A program written with an XML pipeline language is implemented by software known as an XML pipeline engine, which creates processes, connects them together and finally executes the pipeline. Existing XML pipeline languages include:
Standards
XProc: An XML Pipeline Language is a W3C Recommendation for defining linear and non-linear XML pipelines.
Product-specific
W3C XML Pipeline Definition Language is specified in a W3C Note.
W3C XML Pipeline Language (XPL) Version 1.0 (Draft) is specified in a W3C Submission and a component of Orbeon Presentation Server OPS (now called Orbeon Forms). This specification provides an implementation of an earlier version of the language. XPL allows the declaration of complex pipelines with conditionals, loops, tees, aggregations, and sub-pipelines. XProc is roughly a superset of XPL.
Cocoon sitemaps allow, among other functionality, the declaration of XML pipelines. Cocoon sitemaps are one of the earliest implementations of the concept of XML pipeline.
smallx XML Pipelines are used by the smallx project.
ServingXML defines a vocabulary for expressing flat-XML, XML-flat, flat-flat, and XML-XML transformations in pipelines.
PolarLake Circuit Markup Language used by PolarLake's runtime to define XML pipelines. Circuits are collections of paths through which fragments of XML stream (usually as SAX or DOM events). Components are placed on paths to interact with the stream (and/or the outside world) in a low latency process.
xmlsh is a scripting language based on the unix shells which natively supports xml and text pipelines
Stylus Studio XML Pipeline is a visual grammar which defines the following operations: Input, Output, XQuery, XSLT, Validate, XSL-FO to PDF, Convert To XML, Convert From XML, Choose, Warning, Stop.
Pipe granularity
Different XML Pipeline implementations support different granularity of flow.
Document: Whole documents flow through the pipe as atomic units. A document can only be in one place at a time. Though usually multiple documents may be in the pipe at once.
Event: Element/Text nodes events may flow through different paths. A document may be concurrently flowing through many components at the same time.
Standardization
Until May 2010, there was no widely used standard for XML pipeline languages. However, with the introduction of the W3C XProc standard as a W3C Recommendation as of May 2010, widespread adoption can be expected.
History
1972 Douglas McIlroy of Bell Laboratories adds the pipe operator to the UNIX command shell. This allows the output from one shell program to go directly into input of another shell program without going to disk. This allowed programs such as the UNIX awk and sed to be specialized yet work together . For more details see Pipeline (Unix).
1993 Sean McGrath developed a C++ toolkit for SGML processing.
1998 Stefano Mazzocchi releases the first version of Apache Cocoon, one of the first software programs to use XML pipelines.
1998 PolarLake build XML Operating System, which includes XML Pipelining.
2002 Notes submitted by Norman Walsh and Eve Maler from Sun Microsystems, as well as a W3C Submission submitted in 2005 by Erik Bruchez and Alessandro Vernet from Orbeon, were important steps toward spawning an actual standardization effort. While neither submission directly became a W3C recommendation, they were considered key sources of inspiration for the W3C XML Processing Working Group.
September 2005 W3C XML Processing Working Group started. The task of this working group was to create a specification for an XML pipelining language.
August 2008, xmlsh, an XML pipeline language was announced at Balisage 2008
See also
Apache Cocoon
Identity transform
NetKernel
Pipeline (Unix)
W3C recommendation
XSLT
References
External links
Standards
Recommendations
XProc: An XML Pipeline Language, W3C Recommendation 11 May 2010
Working drafts
W3C XML Processing Model Working Group
W3C XML Pipeline Definition Language Note
W3C XML Pipeline Language (XPL) Version 1.0 (Draft) Submission
Product specific
XProc tutorial and reference
Oracle's XML Pipeline Definition Language Controller Implementation Part of XML Developer's kit, no individual download
Cocoon sitemap
NetKernel XML Pipelines
Managing Complex Document Generation through Pipelining
XML Pipeline Language (XPL) Documentation
SXPipe
PolarLake Reference data management PolarLake XML circuits and reference data management
smallx
ServingXML
XML Pipeline Implementation from Stylus Studio - This program allows XML transforms to be chained together along with other operations on XML files such as validation and HTML tidy.
IVI XML Pipeline Server XML Pipeline Server is an implementation for the Stylus Studio XML Pipeline language
Norman Walsh's XProc web site - Norman Walsh is the chair of the W3C XProc standards committee.
yax - an XProc Implementation currently with commandline and Apache ant interface
Yahoo! Pipes let's users create multi-source data mashups in a web-based visual environment
xmlsh A shell for manipulating xml based on the unix shells. Supports in-process multithreaded xml and text processing pipelines.
How to implement XML Pipeline in XSLT
Calabash is an implementation of XProc
Calumet is an XProc implementation from EMC
QuiXProc is an XProc implementation of Innovimax
XML-based standards
Inter-process communication | [
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261156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20Flintstone | Fred Flintstone | Fred Flintstone is the main character of the animated sitcom The Flintstones, which aired during prime-time on ABC during the original series' run from 1960 to 1966. Fred is the husband of Wilma Flintstone and father of Pebbles Flintstone and together the family live in their homely cave in the town of Bedrock. His best friend is his next door neighbor, Barney, who has a wife named Betty and an adopted son, named Bamm-Bamm.
Fred lives in the fictional prehistoric town of Bedrock, a world where dinosaurs coexist with modernized cavepeople and the cavepeople enjoy "primitive" versions of modern conveniences such as telephones, automobiles, and washing machines. Fred's trademark catchphrase yell is "yabba dabba doo!", a phrase that was originally his club's cheer, and later adopted as part of the theme song from the third season on and used in the 1994 live-action Flintstones film.
Since the original series' run, Fred has appeared in various other cartoon spinoffs, live action adaptations, music videos, video games, and commercials.
Biography
While the mid-1980s spin-off series The Flintstone Kids depicts Fred as a child, the series may be apocryphal due to its presenting Wilma as a childhood friend of Fred and Barney; the original series asserts that they first met as young adults. Still, the series' depiction of Fred as the only child of Ed (a handyman) and Edna (homemaker) Flintstone might be canon. (Pops Flintstone was in a comic strip.)
As young adults, Fred and Barney worked as bellhops at a resort. There, they met and fell in love with Wilma and Betty, who were working there as cigarette girls. Fred met Wilma's mother, Pearl Slaghoople, and the two took an instant dislike to each other. An unspecified amount of time later, Fred married Wilma.
Fred is a typical blue-collar worker, who works as a "bronto crane operator" at Slate Rock and Gravel Company (also known as Rockhead and Quarry Cave Construction Company in earlier episodes). Fred's job title in the second-season episode "Divided We Sail" is "geological engineer".
During the original series' third season, Wilma gives birth to the couple's daughter, Pebbles. Years later, when Pebbles is a teenager, Fred and Barney join the Bedrock police force for a time as part-time police officers. Eventually, Fred becomes a grandfather to the adult Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm's twins, Chip and Roxy. Fred's family grew again in A Flintstone Family Christmas, when he and Wilma adopted an orphaned caveboy named Stony, and despite a rough start, Fred and his new son bonded well.
Relatives
The Flintstone family's paternal side originally came from the prehistoric state of Arkanstone in Camp Mastodon, where they had been engaged in a feud similar to the Hatfield–McCoy feud. The feud was originally started by an ancestor of Fred's making a joke about a Hatrock family portrait ("I don't know what the artist got for doing that painting, but he should've gotten life!"). In the fourth-season episode "Bedrock Hillbillies", the feud is ended when Fred helps rescue Pebbles and a Hatrock baby, only to start up again when Fred makes the same joke as his ancestor. The Hatrocks later appear in the follow-up fifth-season episode "The Hatrocks and the Gruesomes", where they visit Bedrock. The last of the Camp Mastodon Arkanstone Flintstones was Fred's great-great-grand-uncle Zeke Flintstone who lived to 102.
Other relatives of Fred include: Rocco Rockbottom "Rocky/Stony" Flintstone, Fred's grandfather, who was a Camp Mastodon veteran of Air Force Stone World War One; Uncle Giggles Flintstone, a rich, eccentric practical joker whose jokes drive Fred into a mad rage; James Hardrock, Edna's father; Uncle Tex Hardrock, Fred's rich Texan uncle; Tumbleweed and Mary Lou Jim, Fred's rich Texan cousins.
Personality
Fred's personality was based on those of early television's Ralph Kramden of The Honeymooners and Chester A. Riley of The Life of Riley, both roles held at various times by Jackie Gleason. (Riley was more closely associated with William Bendix, who originated the role, though Gleason replaced Bendix due to a contract dispute for The Life of Riley's first season on television.) Much like Ralph, Fred tends to be loud-mouthed, aggressive, and constantly scheming ways to improve his family's working class lot in life, often with unintended results. Also like Ralph, despite his harshness, he is friendly, and has a loving heart, who is very devoted to his family and cares a lot about his best friend and next door neighbor Barney Rubble. Fred loses his temper easily and is very impatient, but he seems free of malice and never holds a grudge. Although his loudness irritates the people around him, Fred proves friendly, often going out of his way to help others. Also, although Fred often annoys Wilma with his immaturity, he is known to go to great lengths to please his family and apologize when he goes too far. Other known characters from other programs may also be known to have personalities based on Fred Flintstone including Archie Bunker from All In The Family and Archie Bunker's Place (both played by Carroll O'Connor), George Jefferson from The Jeffersons (played by Sherman Hemsley), Mel Sharples from Alice (played by Vic Tayback) and Frank DeFazio from Laverne & Shirley (played by Phil Foster).
Fred's interests include bowling, playing pool, golf, poker and lounging around the house. Fred has won championships with his bowling skills; in one episode, he goes so far as to take ballet lessons in order to improve his game. The nickname of "Twinkletoes" stuck with him when Fred attended a local university and became eligible to play on their football team, and it became his call sign. Fred is also an excellent golfer. Fred is a member of the Loyal Order of Water Buffalos Lodge (named "the Loyal Order of Dinosaurs" in an early episode). Fred also has a serious gambling problem; the mere mention of the word "bet" causes Fred to stammer "bet" over and over again (sounding like a clucking chicken) and go on gambling binges. Fred is also an avid driver. In the fifth-season episode "Indianrockolis 500", Fred entered the famed prehistoric auto race under the pseudonym "Goggles Paisano".
Fred's catchphrase is "Yabba-Dabba-Doo!"; Alan Reed, voice actor who provided Fred's voice from 1960 to 1977, reportedly said the inspiration for the phrase came from his mother, who used to say, "A little dab'll do ya," probably borrowed from a Brylcreem commercial. When the script called for a simple yahoo, Alan either asked if he could alter the phrase or he ad-libbed. It inspired, in the 1970s a short-lived fruit drink called "Yabba Dabba Dew" and may or may not have also inspired George Jetson's similar-sounding catchphrase, "Hooba-dooba-dooba" (or "Hooba-Dooba"). It does, however, become the subject of a song by Hoagy Carmichael which the singer-songwriter performs in one episode of The Flintstones. Fred's ability to carry a tune was quite good in his younger years. One early episode sees Fred (with Barney, who is a skilled drummer) perform at a nightclub with his musician friend "Hot Lips Hannigan" where his singing caused teenage girls to swoon over him; on this occasion, he was nicknamed the "Golden Smog". In another first-season episode, "Girls' Night Out", Fred recorded a demo record at a carnival of the song "Listen to the Rocking Bird", which ended up making him a teenage singing idol named "Hi Fye". As the series progressed, however, his voice became worse and worse (even during his success as a singer, Wilma was never impressed by Fred's voice), eventually to the point that a temporary maid the Flintstones hired quit rather than having to hear Fred sing. (Alan Reed himself was not a good singer; in instances where he was expected to sing well, a stand-in—usually Henry Corden from 1965 onward—would be used.)
Due to his impulsive and short-tempered behavior and stubborn and somewhat selfish nature, Fred seems to be accident-prone. Even his most innocent and mundane actions often cause widespread confusion. At the end of the closing credits, Fred begins to knock the door of his house and starts yelling "Wilma", to open the door.
According to the original series' third-season episode "The Birthday Party" (originally aired April 5, 1963), Fred's birthday is February 2. Fred's address has varied through the series' run, with addresses given for the Flintstone residence including, 201 Cobblestone Lane (October 21, 1960 - "No Help Wanted" episode), 345 Cave Stone Road, and 1313 Cobblestone Way. Fred's address was cited as "55 Cobblestone Rd" in the 1961 episode "The X-Ray Story".
Animated media
Television shows
The Flagstones (1959)
The Flintstones (1960–1966)
The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show (1971–1972)
The Flintstone Comedy Hour (1972–1974)
Scooby's All-Star Laff-A-Lympics (1977–1978)
Fred Flintstone and Friends (1977–1978)
The New Fred and Barney Show (1979)
Fred and Barney Meet the Thing (1979)
Fred and Barney Meet the Shmoo (1979–1980)
The Flintstone Comedy Show (1980–1982)
The Flintstone Funnies (1982–1984)
The Flintstone Kids (1986–1988)
What a Cartoon!, featuring Dino: Stay Out! (1995)
The Rubbles (2002)
Yabba-Dabba Dinosaurs (2020)
Films and specials
Alice in Wonderland or What's a Nice Kid Like You Doing in a Place Like This? (1966)
The Man Called Flintstone (1966)
The Flintstones on Ice (1973)
Energy: A National Issue (1977)
A Flintstone Christmas (1977)
Hanna-Barbera's All-Star Comedy Ice Revue (1978)
The Flintstones: Little Big League (1978)
Hanna-Barbera Educational Filmstrips (1980); featuring A Weighty Problem, Fire Alarm, Fire Escape and Driving Guide
The Flintstones' New Neighbors (1980)
The Flintstones Meet Rockula and Frankenstone (1980)
The Flintstones: Fred's Final Fling (1980)
The Funtastic World of Hanna-Barbera Arena Show (1981)
The Flintstones: Wind-Up Wilma (1981)
The Flintstones: Jogging Fever (1981)
Yogi Bear's All Star Comedy Christmas Caper (1982)
The Flintstones' 25th Anniversary Celebration (1986)
The Jetsons Meet the Flintstones (1987)
The Flintstone Kids' "Just Say No" Special (1988)
A Yabba Dabba Doo Celebration: 50 Years of Hanna-Barbera (1989)
I Yabba-Dabba Do! (1993) (voiced by Henry Corden)
Hollyrock-a-Bye Baby (1993)
A Flintstone Family Christmas (1993)
The Flintstones (1994) (portrayed by John Goodman)
A Flintstones Christmas Carol (1994)
What a Cartoon!, featuring Dino: Stay Out! (1995)
The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000) (portrayed by Mark Addy)
The Flintstones: On the Rocks (2001) (voiced by Jeff Bergman)
The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown! (2015)
Space Jam: A New Legacy (2021) (briefly voiced by Jeff Bergman)
Video games
The Flintstones: The Rescue of Dino & Hoppy
The Flintstones
The Flintstones: Surprise at Dinosaur Peak
The Flintstones: The Treasure of Sierra Madrock
The Flintstones: Bedrock Bowling
The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas
Appearances
Fred Flintstone has made cameo appearances on the show Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law, voiced by Maurice LaMarche.
Fred was seen in the couch gag in the opening sequence to The Simpsons episode "Kamp Krusty". He also appeared in Movie Car Museum in the episode "Beyond Blunderdome".
Fred appears in some episodes of Family Guy, voiced by Jeff Bergman.
Fred appears in an episode of The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy, voiced by James Arnold Taylor.
Fred Flintstone made a couple cameo appearances in the 2020 Animaniacs revival segment "Suffragette City".
Fred Flintstone appears in some episodes on objects in Jellystone!
Fred Flintstone appears in Come and Learn with Pibby!
Portrayal
Alan Reed was the original voice artist of Fred (minus the original short pilot where he was voiced by Daws Butler, who also voiced him on a 1973 record) until Reed's death in 1977. Henry Corden occasionally voiced Fred on records throughout the 1960s, and also provided the singing voice for Fred in The Man Called Flintstone. Following Reed's death, Corden officially took over the role until his retirement in 2000, although he continued to voice him in Post Pebbles commercials until his death in 2005. Corden voiced Fred's father and mother in The Flintstone Kids. Australian voice actor, animation historian and impressionist Keith Scott provided Fred's voice in various commercials throughout the 1980s and 1990s and the live show Hanna-Barbera Gala Celebrity Nite at the Wonderland Sydney amusement park in Australia. Jeff Bergman voiced Fred in Flintstones/Jetsons: Timewarp and performed the character throughout the 1990s and 2000s for various Cartoon Network and Boomerang commercials and bumpers, and voiced him in The Flintstones: On the Rocks, his guest appearance in Johnny Bravo, some episodes of Family Guy, and more recently The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown!. James Arnold Taylor voiced Fred in commercials following Corden's death, up until 2011, as well as his guest appearance in The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy. Taylor returned to voice Fred in 2016 for a Columbus Zoo commercial. He has also been voiced in recent years by Scott Innes (in a Toshiba commercial), Maurice LaMarche (in Harvey Birdman: Attorney at Law), Stephen Stanton (in Robot Chicken), Dave Coulier (in Robot Chicken), Fred Tatasciore (in MAD), Seth Green (in Robot Chicken), and Rick Zieff (in Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve 2021). In various Italian dubs, Fred's voice was provided by Italian voice actor Carlo Bonomi.
In The Flintstone Kids, young Fred was voiced by both Lennie Weinrib and Scott Menville at different points.
In the first live-action film, The Flintstones, Fred was played by John Goodman, who also provided his voice for the film's pinball adaptation. In the prequel film, The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas, in which Fred is portrayed as younger than he was in the original, he was played by British actor Mark Addy.
In other media
Commercials
Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble were pitchmen for Winston cigarettes, the show's sponsor at the time. In one ad, Fred and Barney saw the men working hard at the quarry and decided to retire out of sight for a smoke break. After extolling the virtues of their favorite brand, Fred lit up and delivered the catch phrase: "Winston tastes good like a cigarette should." A similar ad featured Wilma and Betty as well. By the original series' third season, Winston had been dropped in favor of Welch's.
See also
Flintstones Chewable Vitamins
Pebbles Cereal
References
Further reading
Yabba Dabba Doo! The Alan Reed Story, by Alan Reed and Ben Ohmart. Albany, 2009.
Hanna-Barbera characters
Fictional construction workers
The Flintstones characters
Animated human characters
Television characters introduced in 1959
Animated characters introduced in 1959
Fictional gamblers
Post Foods characters
Male characters in animated series
Male characters in film
Male characters in advertising
Tobacco advertising characters | [
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261157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman%20Hall | Lyman Hall | Lyman Hall (April 12, 1724 – October 19, 1790) was a Founding Father of the United States, physician, clergyman, and statesman who signed the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Georgia. Hall County is named after him. He was one of four physicians to sign the Declaration of Independence, along with Benjamin Rush, Josiah Bartlett, and Matthew Thornton.
Early life and family
Hall was born on April 12, 1724, in Wallingford, Connecticut. He was the son of John Hall, a minister, and Mary (née Street) Hall. He studied with his uncle Samuel Hall and graduated from Yale College in 1747, a tradition in his family. In 1749, he was called to the pulpit of Stratfield Parish (now Bridgeport, Connecticut). His pastorate was a stormy one: an outspoken group of parishioners opposed his ordination; in 1751, he was dismissed after charges against his moral character which, according to one biography, "Were supported by proof and also by his own confession." He continued to preach for two more years, filling vacant pulpits, while he studied medicine and taught school.
In 1752, he married Abigail Burr of Fairfield, Connecticut; she died the following year. In 1757, he married Mary Osborne. He migrated to South Carolina and established himself as a physician at Dorchester, South Carolina, near Charleston, a community settled by Congregationalist migrants from Dorchester, Massachusetts, decades earlier. When these settlers moved to the Midway Districtnow Liberty Countyin Georgia, Hall accompanied them. Hall soon became one of the leading citizens of the newly founded town of Sunbury.
Revolutionary War
On the eve of the American Revolution, St. John's Parish, in which Sunbury was located, was a hotbed of radical sentiment in a predominantly Loyalist colony. Though Georgia was not initially represented in the First Continental Congress, through Hall's influence the parish was persuaded to send a delegate to Philadelphia to the Second Continental Congress. Hall was delegated and was admitted to a seat in the Congress in 1775. He was one of the three Georgians and one of four doctors to sign the Declaration of Independence.
In January 1779, Sunbury was burned by the British. Hall's family fled to the North, where they remained until the British evacuation in 1782. Hall then returned to Georgia, settling in Savannah. In January 1783, he was elected governor of the statea position that he held for one year. While governor, Hall advocated the chartering of a state university, believing that education, particularly religious education, would result in a more virtuous citizenry. His efforts led to the chartering of the University of Georgia in 1785. At the expiration of his term as governor, he resumed his medical practice.
Death and legacy
In 1790, Hall moved to a plantation in Burke County, Georgia, on the South Carolina border, where he died on October 19 at the age of 66. Hall's widow died in November 1793.
Lyman Hall is memorialized in Georgia where Hall County, Georgia, bears his name; and in Connecticut, his native state, where the town of Wallingford honored him by namieng a high school after its distinguished native son. Elementary schools in Liberty County, Georgia, and in Hall County, Georgia, are also named for him. Signers Monument, a granite obelisk in front of the courthouse in Augusta, Georgia, memorializes Hall along with Button Gwinnett and George Walton as Georgians who signed the Declaration of Independence. His remains were re-interred there in 1848 after being exhumed from his original grave on his plantation in Burke County.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Founding Fathers of the United States
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Lyman Hall, The Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Lyman Hall historical marker
1724 births
1790 deaths
Continental Congressmen from Georgia (U.S. state)
18th-century American politicians
Governors of Georgia (U.S. state)
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
American people of English descent
People of Georgia (U.S. state) in the American Revolution
People from Wallingford, Connecticut
Yale University alumni
University of Georgia
American Congregationalists
American slave owners
Independent state governors of the United States
Georgia (U.S. state) Independents
People from Liberty County, Georgia
Physicians from Connecticut
Physicians from Georgia (U.S. state)
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261158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hart%20%28New%20Jersey%20politician%29 | John Hart (New Jersey politician) | John Hart (born between 1706 and 1713 – May 11, 1779) was a public official and politician in colonial New Jersey who served as a delegate to the Continental Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence. He is thus considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.
Ancestry
Sources disagree as to the year and place of Hart's birth. He was perhaps born in 1706 in Stonington, Connecticut, or in 1713 in Hopewell Township, Burlington (now part of Mercer) County, New Jersey.
Hart was baptized at the Maidenhead Meetinghouse (now the Presbyterian Church of Lawrenceville) on December 31, 1713. He was the son of Captain Edward Hart, a farmer, public assessor, justice of the peace, and leader of a local militia unit during the French and Indian War. Hart was the grandson of John Hart, a carpenter who came to Hopewell from Newtown, Long Island.
Early life
In 1741, Hart married Deborah Scudder (1721–1776). The couple had thirteen children: Sarah, Jesse, Martha, Nathaniel, John, Susanna, Mary, Abigail, Edward, Scudder, an infant daughter, Daniel, and Deborah. His wife, died on October 28, 1776. In 1747, he donated a piece of land in his front meadow to local Baptists who had been seeking a place to build a church. The location was known for some time thereafter as the Old Baptist Meeting House.
Political career
Hart was elected to the Hunterdon County Board of Chosen Freeholders in 1750. He was first elected to the New Jersey Colonial Assembly in 1761 and served there until 1771. He was appointed to the local Committee of safety and the Committee of correspondence, and became a judge on the Court of Common Pleas. He was often called "Honest John."
When New Jersey formed a revolutionary assembly (or provincial congress) in 1776, he was elected to it and served as its vice president. Prior to June 1776, the New Jersey delegation in the First Continental Congress was opposed to independence. As a result, the entire delegation was replaced, and Hart was one of those selected for the Second Continental Congress. He joined in time to vote for and sign the Declaration of Independence. He served until August of that year, then was elected speaker of the newly formed New Jersey General Assembly. He later took on additional duties as Treasurer of the Council of safety (which was given "extraordinary and summary powers" to carry out affairs of the state during emergencies), president of the joint meetings of the New Jersey Congress, and commissioner of the State Loan Office.
Revolutionary War
In December 1776, the British advance into New Jersey reached Hunterdon County. A marked man because of his status as speaker of the Assembly, Hart was obliged to escape and hide for a short time in the nearby Sourland Mountains. His farm was raided by British and Hessian troops, who damaged but did not destroy the property. The Continentals' capture of Trenton on December 26 allowed Hart to return home. Prior to the Battle of Monmouth, Hart invited General George Washington and the Continental Army to make camp on his farm, and his offer was accepted. From June 22 to 24, 1778, 12,000 men occupied his fields, and on at least one occasion Washington dined with Hart.
Death and legacy
On November 7, 1778, Hart returned to Hopewell from the Assembly in Trenton. Two days later, he indicated that he was too ill with "gravel" (kidney stones) to return. He continued to suffer from the painful affliction for more than six months until his death on May 11, 1779, at age 65. He is buried at the Old Baptist Meeting House, to which he had donated land.
The following obituary for John Hart appeared on May 19, 1779:
Hart was the ancestor of Congressman John Hart Brewer. Roadways named after Hart include Hart Boulevard in Flemington, New Jersey; Hart Avenue in Hopewell, New Jersey; and Hart Lane in Ringoes, New Jersey.
See also
Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Notes
Further reading
Hammond, Cleon E. John Hart: The Biography of a Signer of the Declaration of Independence. Newfane, VT: Pioneer Press, 1977.
External links
1710s births
1779 deaths
Continental Congressmen from New Jersey
18th-century American politicians
Members of the New Jersey General Assembly
County commissioners in New Jersey
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
American Presbyterians
Speakers of the New Jersey General Assembly
People from Hopewell Township, Mercer County, New Jersey
People of colonial New Jersey
Burials in New Jersey
People from Elmhurst, Queens | [
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261160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Hewes | Joseph Hewes | Joseph Hewes (July 9, 1730– November 10, 1779) was an American Founding Father, a signer of the Continental Association and U.S. Declaration of Independence, and a native of Princeton, New Jersey, where he was born in 1730. Hewes's parents were members of the Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers. Early biographies of Hewes falsely claim that his parents came from Connecticut. His mother, Providence Worth, and her parents were born in New Jersey. His father, Aaron Hewes was a 3rd generation resident of Chester County in Pennsylvania. Hewes may have attended the College of New Jersey, known today as Princeton University but there is no record of his attendance. He did, in all probability, attend the grammar school set up by the Stonybrook Quaker Meeting near Princeton.
Mercantile Business
About 1749 or 1750 he moved to Philadelphia and joined Joseph Ogden's mercantile business at Chestnut and 2nd Street as an apprentice. Ogden was married to Hewes's first cousin Jimima Hewes. Part of his apprenticeship had him traveling by cargo ship either with Ogden or one of his assistants known as a supercargo as they visited Boston, New York, Edenton (North Carolina), Charleston and Tortola in the British Virgin Islands to buy and sell goods to other traders in those port cities. During this time in Philadelphia, Hewes attended Quaker meetings at the Arch Street meeting house.
Completing his apprenticeship he determined that opportunities in the port in North Carolina at Edenton, a prospering well protected port town on a small bay on the north side of Albemarle Sound he had visited while still apprenticed to Ogden, offered the best chance for his success. Hewes moved there in late 1754 and with Charles Blount formed "Blount, Hewes and Co." and he soon became Edenton's leading merchant. In a 1772 letter to a friend, James Iredell said of Hewes "there is a Gentleman in this Town, who is a very particular favourite of mine, as indeed he is of everybody, for he is one of the best and most agreeable Men in the World. His name is Mr. Hewes. He is a Merchant here and our Member for the Town; indeed the Patron and greatest honour of it."
In 1763, "Blount, Hewes and Co.", was dissolved. Hewes joined with a local attorney, Robert Smith, to form "Hewes and Smith." In addition to the store at the NE corner of Main and King the firm possessed "offices, three warehouses, a wharf and five ships, three sloops and two brigs." Hewes was also the personal owner of a ship repair and ship building yard at the mouth of Queen Anne's Creek.
In 1757 Hewes was appointed justice of the peace for Edenton. In 1760 he was elected to the North Carolina Assembly, where he served on important committees involving finance and treasury. He remained in the Assembly until 1775.
First Continental Congress (September 5, 1774 – October 22, 1774)
The British Parliament responded to the 1773 Boston Tea Party by passing in 1774 the Coercive Acts (known as the Intolerable Acts In the American colonies) closing the Boston harbor and restricting town meetings in Massachusetts to one per year. While the act applied only to Massachusetts, the other colonies feared their rights would soon be in jeopardy as well. Through the Committees of Correspondence a proposal was circulated for an inter-colonial congress to meet in Philadelphia in September 1774. In response to that call the North Carolina Committee of Correspondence consisting of John Harvey (the Speaker of the Assembly) Wiliam Hooper, Richard Caswell, Joseph Hewes and four others called for the Assembly to meet to select delegates to send to the Philadelphia congress. Members of the North Carolina Assembly met as an extra-legal body at New Bern on Aug 25, 1774.
The first order of business, of this First North Carolina Provincial Congress, was Joseph Hewes reading some of the letters from the Committees of Correspondence from other colonies. After this reading, it was decided to send three delegates to the Philadelphia congress. The second order of business was to pass a resolution affirming loyalty to the British crown and the British Constitution and declaring that they sought only their rights as Englishmen. The hope was that reconciliation and compromise with England would resolve all disputes. On 27 Oct William Hopper, Joseph Hewes and Richard Caswell were named to attend the Philadelphia Congress. The three delegates shared the belief that reconciliation was unlikely, but they also believed that only when the evidence was abundantly clear that reconciliation was unobtainable should independence should become an option. The Provincial Congress gave the delegates two instructions: (1) to contend for their rights as Englishmen, and (2) to agree with the colonies to prohibit all imports and exports to Great Britain. They had no authorization to advocate or even debate a call for independence.
The Congress reconvened in Philadelphia on September 5, 1774. Hewes and Hooper arrived on the 12th and presented their credentials on 14 September. Caswell arrived three days later.
On September 18 Congress passed the Suffolk Resolves calling for the termination of trade with Great Britain. On October 15 the Congress adopted a Declaration of Rights and Grievances and on 18 October the Continental Association establishing the end of all imports from England effective on December 1, 1774 and an end to all exports to England, Ireland, and the West Indies effective September 1, 1775. The North Carolina delegation voted in favor of both measures. Congress adjourned October 22, calling for a new congress to meet on May 10, 1775 if Britain did not adequately respond to redress American grievances and restore their rights. Hooper and Caswell returned to North Carolina. Hewes stayed on until 24 November 1775.
Hewes had family in the area. His mother lived about 40 miles (64.37 km) away in New Jersey. She may have come to Philadelphia to stay with her daughter Sarah, who was married to the Philadelphia merchant Joseph Ogden. Or, she may have stayed with Hewes's younger brother Josiah, also a merchant, a member of the Philadelphia committee of correspondence, a manager of the Pennsylvania Hospital and a director of the Library Company. Hewes also had relatives just a couple of miles south of Philadelphia in Chester County.
Second Continental Congress First Session (May 10, 1775 – August 1, 1775)
The 2nd North Carolina Provincial Congress convened in New Bern on April 3, 1775. Hewes, Hooper and Caswell were reappointed to served as delegates from North Carolina to the 2nd Continental Congress. Their instructions remained as they were. The delegates were not authorized to seek independence but were to seek redress of grievances. On April 29 Hewes and Caswell left together Philadelphia. As they crossed the Potomac River into Maryland, they met the Virginia delegation led by George Washington. From then on to Philadelphia they were met at each county line by various companies of troops who marched with them to the next county line. It looked to Hewes that in comparison North Carolina lacked patriotic fervor and was far behind in military readiness. On May 11 he wrote to Samuel Johnston urging him to promote the training of the militia.
Congress convened on the 10th. Hewes was appointed to three committees: the finance committee, the committee writing the rules and regulations for the army and a committee to inquire into the ore and lead resources of the colonies. For the first three months of the Congress, the focus of attention was on the prospects for reconciliation and organizing a defensive military force These were the two messages that Hewes emphasized in his letters. One June 19, Hooper, Hewes, and Caswell sent an address to the all the county committees of safety in North Carolina urging them quickly get ready to "stem Tyranny in its commencement."
On August 1, 1775, The Continental Congress adjourned, scheduling to reassemble on September 5 in a second session3rd Provincial Congress (Aug 20 – Sept 10, 1775)
3rd Provincial Congress (Aug 20, 1775 - Sept 10, 1775)
Hooper, Hewes, and Caswell were again selected to represent North Carolina. The Congress considered and rejected a Draft of Articles of Confederation proposed by several of the colonies . The North Carolina delegation wase instructed "not to consent to any plan of Confederation" in that any such "Confederacy ought only be adopted in Case of the last necessity". The creation of a confederation was considered one step too far, turning resistance into a move toward independence.
On September 8 Caswell resigned as a delegate to the Continental Congress. John Penn was named in his place.
2nd Continental Congress, 2nd Session (August 13, 1775)
Congress reconvened August 13, 1775. In November, it was learned that at the end of August, the king had officially declared the colonists rebels.
In later years, John Adams wrote of the struggles that Hewes experienced as he set about serving in the Continental Congress: "For many days the majority depended on Mr. Hewes of North Carolina. While a member one day was speaking and reading documents from all the colonies to prove that public opinion, the general sense of all, was in favor of the measure, when he came to North Carolina and produced letters and public proceedings that the majority in that colony was in favor of it, Mr. Hewes, who had hitherto constantly voted against it, started suddenly upright and lifting both hands to heaven as if he had been in a trance, cried out, "It is done and I will abide by it." I would give more for the perfect painting of the terror and horror upon the face of the old majority at that critical moment than for the best piece of Raphael. The question, however, was eluded by an immediate motion for adjournment".
Though the people of the United States wanted independence, Hewes found it much harder in Congress to convey his opinion without being laughed at or scolded. Even in the year leading up to the revolution, more than two-thirds of the Continental Congress still believed that ties between King George and the colonies could stay intact. Hewes was barely able to speak in Congress because he was usually interrupted by those who disagreed with him. Nevertheless, he was actively involved in many committees, most of which favored the revolution.
One such committee was the Committee of Correspondence, which advocated ideas that supported independence. One of the ideas that Hewes contributed to this committee was the following statement: "State the rights of the colonies in general, the several instances in which these rights are violated or infringed, and the means most proper to be pursued for obtaining a restoration of them."
Traditionally, the Quakers were pacifists. Ironically, Hewes was not only one of the few people in favor of a war against Britain, but was one of the few Quakers in Congress. The Quakers not only opposed war, but strongly opposed the committees that supported war too. Despite Joseph Hewes' obvious departure from Quaker principles, he did continue to have a relationship with his family and visited his mother, a Quaker minister, when he was able. There isn't any record of Mr. Hewes ever relinquishing his Quaker membership nor is there any evidence that he was disowned by any Friends Monthly Meeting. Upon his death, he left sizable bequests to not only his family, but also to several Quaker institutions.
Secretary of the Navy
At the beginning of the year 1776, Hewes was appointed as the new Secretary of the Naval Affairs Committee. John Adams often said that Hewes "laid the foundation, the cornerstone of the American Navy." Alongside General George Washington, Hewes became one of the greatest military achievers in American history. He was also involved with the secret committee of claims, which further promoted the independence of the colonies. Hewes was one of the primary reasons why North Carolina submitted to independence before any other colony.
Hewes was initially faced with an ill-equipped navy of which to fight the British Navy. To remedy this, he provided his own extensive fleet of ships, outfitted them, and chose the most capable of men to captain these ships. John Paul Jones was one of these captains for whom Hewes was instrumental in providing a command. Hewes served until 1779.
Retirement
After Hewes signed the Declaration of Independence, he retreated to his home in New Jersey because of his ailing health. Despite his health problems, Hewes ran for re-election to Congress, but failed to win. In 1779, he finally served his last few months as a congressman and on November 10, 1779, Joseph Hewes died just before his fiftieth birthday. All the Continental Congress came to his funeral the following day and mourned the great loss that the country had suffered.
A 1779 inventory signed by Hewes and a 1780 newspaper account of his estate sale indicate that he owned slaves.
Hewes was a member of Unanimity Lodge No. 7, visited in 1776, and was buried with Masonic funeral honors. He is buried at Christ Church Burial Ground, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Notes
References
External links
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
1730 births
1779 deaths
People from Princeton, New Jersey
American Quakers
American slave owners
Princeton University alumni
Continental Congressmen from North Carolina
18th-century American politicians
Foundrymen
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
People from Edenton, North Carolina
Members of the North Carolina House of Burgesses
Members of the North Carolina Provincial Congresses
People of colonial New Jersey
Burials at Christ Church, Philadelphia
Quaker slave owners
Signers of the Continental Association | [
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261161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic%20organizer | Graphic organizer | A graphic organizer, also known as a knowledge map, concept map, story map, cognitive organizer, advance organizer, or concept diagram is a pedagogical tool that uses visual symbols to express knowledge and concepts through relationships between them.
The main purpose of a graphic organizer is to provide a visual aid to facilitate learning and instruction.
Types of organizers
Graphic organizers take many forms:
Relational organizers
Storyboard
Fishbone - Ishikawa diagram
Cause and effect web
Chart
Category/classification organizers
Concept mapping
KWL tables
Mind mapping
Sequence organizers
Chain
Ladder
Cycle
Stairs
Compare contrast organizers''
Dashboard
Venn diagrams
Concept development organizers
Story web
Word web
Circle chart
Flow chart
Options and control device organizers
Mechanical control panel
Graphical user interface
Enhancing students' skills
A review study concluded that using graphic organizers improves student performance in the following areas:
Retention
Students remember information better and can better recall it when it is represented and learned both visually and verbally.
Reading comprehension
The use of graphic organizers helps improving the reading comprehension of students.
Student achievement
Students with and without learning disabilities improve achievement across content areas and grade levels.
Thinking and learning skills; critical thinking
When students develop and use a graphic organizer their higher order thinking and critical thinking skills are enhanced.
See also
Diagram
Four square writing method
KWL table
Thinking Maps
Visualization (graphic)
References
Infographics
Educational psychology | [
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261162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Heyward%20Jr. | Thomas Heyward Jr. | Thomas Heyward Jr. (July 28, 1746 – March 6, 1809) was a Founding Father of the United States who signed the United States Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation as a delegate of the Continental Congress from South Carolina. His loss of a considerable number of slaves led to him being widely proclaimed as a martyr of the revolution.
Life
Heyward was born in St. Luke's Parish (now known as Jasper County), South Carolina, the son of Mary (Miles) and Daniel Heyward. He was educated at home, then traveled to England to study law where he was a member of the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple. He was elected to the Continental Congress in 1775 and the following year was the last delegate to sign the Declaration of Independence.
Heyward returned to South Carolina in 1778 to serve as a judge. In 1778, he presided over a trial in which several persons were tried for treason; they were convicted and executed within view of the British lines. In command of a militia force, he was taken prisoner by the British during the siege of Charleston. On August 27, 1780, British troops took him from White Hall Plantation, his Charleston home, and detained him in the Old Exchange Building. They confiscated all of his slaves, and although he later reclaimed some of them, 130 were permanently confiscated and transported to sugar plantations in Jamaica, a loss of $50,000 in property. It was this loss of slaves that resulted him being later proclaimed by the press as a martyr of the revolution. Hours after being arrested, he and 28 other "ringleaders of the rebellion" were relocated to a guard ship in the harbor. On September 4, they were transported to St. Augustine, Florida, and remained there for about 11 months until they were freed in a prisoner exchange. While in prison, Heyward transposed a popular English song, "God Save the King" into "God Save the States".
In 1784, he was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society. He continued to serve as a judge after the war, retiring from the bench in 1798. He is buried at Old House Plantation near Ridgeland, South Carolina. The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.
In 1970, when the Supreme Court ordered that public schools must be integrated, a group associated with the White Citizen's Council opened a school named Thomas Heyward Academy in Ridgeland, South Carolina.
Marriage and family
Heyward was married twice, at age 26 and at age 40, and each wife was named Elizabeth. His first wife, born in 1753, was the daughter of Colonel John and Sarah Gibbes Mathews and the sister of South Carolina governor John Mathews. She died in childbirth in 1782 in Philadelphia, where she had gone to be with Heyward upon his release as a prisoner of war. She is buried there in St. Peter's Episcopal Church yard. They had six children, but only one son, Daniel, survived childhood.
His second wife was the daughter of Colonel Thomas and Mary Elliott Savage of Charleston. They had three children who lived to adulthood: Thomas, William and Elizabeth. Notable descendants include DuBose Heyward, whose novel and later stage play Porgy portrayed Black African-Americans and was transformed by George Gerswhin into Porgy and Bess, an American opera that achieved both credit as a musical masterpiece and criticism for pervasive racism.
In addition to his wives, he impregnated at least one of the women he enslaved, making him the grandfather of Thomas E. Miller, one of only five African Americans elected to Congress from the South in the 1890s. At one time, the Heyward family had the largest slaveholding in the United States.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
External links
Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, "Thomas Heyward Jr.", in Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence, New York: William Reed & Co., 1856, pp. 440–443
1746 births
1809 deaths
American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain
American people of English descent
Continental Congressmen from South Carolina
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the Articles of Confederation
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Members of the Middle Temple
People from Ridgeland, South Carolina
American slave owners | [
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261164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Hooper | William Hooper | William Hooper (June 28, 1742 October 14, 1790) was an American Founding Father, lawyer, politician, and a member of the Continental Congress representing North Carolina from 1774 through 1777. Hooper signed the Continental Association and the United States Declaration of Independence.
Early life
Hooper was the first child of five, born in Boston, Massachusetts, on June 28, 1742. His father, William Hooper, was a Scottish minister who studied at the University of Edinburgh prior to immigrating to Boston, and his mother, Mary Dennie, was the daughter of John Dennie, a well-respected merchant from Massachusetts. Hooper's father had hoped that Hooper would follow in his footsteps as an Episcopal priest and at the age of seven placed Hooper in Boston Latin School headed by Mr. John Lovell, a highly distinguished educator in Massachusetts. In 1757, at the age of sixteen, Hooper entered Harvard University where he was considered an industrious student and was highly regarded. In 1760, Hooper graduated from Harvard with honors, obtaining a Bachelor of Arts. However, after graduating, Hooper did not wish to pursue a career in the clergy as his father had hoped. Instead, Hooper decided on a career in law, studying under James Otis, a popular attorney in Boston who was regarded as a radical. Hooper studied under Otis until 1764 and once completing his bar exam decided to leave Massachusetts in part because of the abundance of lawyers in Boston.
Life in North Carolina
In 1764 Hooper moved temporarily to Wilmington, North Carolina, where he began to practice law and became the circuit court lawyer for Cape Fear. Hooper began to build a highly respected reputation in North Carolina among the wealthy farmers as well as fellow lawyers. Hooper increased his influence by representing the colonial government in several court cases. In 1767, Hooper married Anne Clark, the daughter of a wealthy early settler to the region and sheriff of New Hanover County. They had three children: William (b. 1768), Elizabeth (b. 1770), and Thomas (b. 1772). Hooper moved quickly up the ranks, first in 1769 when he was appointed as deputy attorney of the Salisbury District, and then in 1770 when he was appointed deputy Attorney General of North Carolina.
Initially, Hooper supported the British colonial government of North Carolina. As deputy attorney general, in 1768 Hooper worked with Colonial Governor William Tryon to suppress a rebellious group known as the Regulators who participated in the War of the Regulation. The Regulators had been operating in North Carolina for some time, and in 1770 it was reported that the group dragged Hooper through the streets in Hillsborough during a riot. Hooper advised that Governor Tryon use as much force as was necessary to stamp out the rebels and even accompanied the troops at the Battle of Alamance in 1771. He served in the Province of North Carolina House of Burgesses in 1775.
American Revolution involvement
Hooper's support of the colonial governments began to erode, causing problems for him because of his past support of Governor Tryon. Hooper had been labeled a Loyalist and therefore he was not immediately accepted by Patriots. Hooper eventually was elected to the North Carolina General Assembly in 1773, where he became an opponent to colonial attempts to pass laws that would regulate the provincial courts. This in turn helped to sour his reputation among Loyalists. Hooper recognized that independence was likely to occur and mentioned this in a letter to his friend James Iredell, saying that the colonies were "striding fast to independence, and ere long will build an empire upon the ruins of Great Britain."
During his time in the assembly Hooper slowly became a supporter of the American Revolution and independence. After the governor disbanded the assembly, Hooper helped to organize a new colonial assembly. Hooper was also appointed to the Committee of Correspondence and Inquiry. In 1774, Hooper was appointed a delegate to the First Continental Congress, where he served on numerous committees. Hooper was again elected to the Second Continental Congress, but much of his time was split between the congress and work in North Carolina, where he was assisting in forming a new government. This caused him to miss the vote approving the Declaration of Independence; however, he arrived in time to sign it on August 2, 1776.
In 1777, because of continued financial concerns, Hooper resigned from Congress and returned to North Carolina to resume his law career. Throughout the Revolution the British attempted to capture Hooper, and with his country home in Finian vulnerable to British attacks, Hooper moved his family to Wilmington. In 1781, the British captured Wilmington, to where Cornwallis and his forces fell back after the Battle of Guilford Court House, and Hooper found himself separated from his family. In addition, the British burned his estates in both Finian and Wilmington, so Hooper was forced to rely on friends for food and shelter during this time, as well as nursing him back to health when he contracted malaria. Finally, after nearly a year of separation, Hooper was reunited with his family, and they settled in Hillsborough, North Carolina, where Hooper continued to work for the North Carolina assembly until 1783.
Post-Revolution years
After the Revolution Hooper returned to his career in law, but he lost favor with the public because of his political stance. Hooper fell in line with the Federalist Party because of his influential connections, his mistrust of the lower class, and his widely criticized soft dealings with Loyalists, toward whom he was generally forgiving. This kind and fair treatment made some even label him a Loyalist. Hooper was again called to public service in 1786, when he was appointed a federal judge in a border dispute between New York and Massachusetts, though the case was settled out of court. In 1787 and 1788, Hooper campaigned heavily for North Carolina to ratify the new United States Constitution, but by this time Hooper had become quite ill, and he died on October 14, 1790, at the age of 48. He was laid to rest in the Presbyterian Churchyard in Hillsborough, North Carolina. His remains were later reinterred at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park.
His home at Hillsborough, the Nash-Hooper House, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971. It is located in the Hillsborough Historic District.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Further reading
Broadwater, Jeff and Troy L. Kickler (eds.), North Carolina's Revolutionary Founders. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2019.
Fradin, Denis Brindell. The Signers: The 56 Stories Behind the Declaration of Independence. New York: Walker and Company, 2002.
Goodwin, A.C. "Brief Biography and Genealogy of William Hooper." Ancestry.com (2 December 1998). Accessed April 13, 2008.
Lossing, B.J. Lives of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence. Aledo, Tex.: WallBuilders Press, 2007.
Lowry, Harold D. "William Hooper." Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence. 2006. Accessed April 13, 2008.
Snell, Charles W. Signers of the Declaration of Independence: Biographical Sketches. United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. 4 July 2004. Accessed April 13, 2008.
Wood, Gordon S. The American Revolution: A History. New York: Modern Library, 2002.
External links
North Carolina History Project
National Park Service Biographical Sketches
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
Society of the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence
1742 births
1790 deaths
Politicians from Boston
American Episcopalians
American people of Scottish descent
American slave owners
North Carolina Federalists
People from Hillsborough, North Carolina
Continental Congressmen from North Carolina
18th-century American politicians
Members of the North Carolina House of Representatives
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Harvard University alumni
Lawyers from Boston
New Latin-language poets
Members of the North Carolina Provincial Congresses
Members of the North Carolina House of Burgesses
Signers of the Continental Association | [
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261168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Lightfoot%20Lee | Francis Lightfoot Lee | Francis Lightfoot Lee (October 14, 1734 – January 11, 1797) was a Founding Father of the United States and a member of the House of Burgesses in the Colony of Virginia. As an active protester regarding issues such as the Stamp Act of 1765, Lee helped move the colony in the direction of independence from Britain. Lee was a delegate to the Virginia Conventions and the Continental Congress. He was a signer of the Articles of Confederation and the Declaration of Independence as a representative of Virginia. In addition to his career in politics, Lee owned a tobacco plantation as well as many slaves. He was a member of the Lee family, a prominent Virginian dynasty whose members accumulated their wealth and power through plantation slavery.
Family, education and early life
Lee was born on October 14, 1734, at a Lee family home at Machadoc, later known as Burnt House Field, in Hague, Westmoreland County, Virginia. Lee was the fourth son of Thomas Lee and Hannah Harrison Ludwell (of the nearby Green Spring Plantation). His middle name "Lightfoot" came from Francis Lightfoot, the best man at his father's wedding. He was of English descent and was born into one of the First Families of Virginia. He grew up at Stratford Hall, a large tobacco plantation, which his father completed in 1738. He was educated at home, where Lee pursued classical studies under Dr. Craig.
In 1772, Lee married his cousin, Rebecca Plater Tayloe. They were 2nd cousins, once removed. they had no children. Lee lived his entire life in the region of Virginia between the Rappahannock River and the Chesapeake Bay (known as the Northern Neck).
Lee was the grandson of Col. Richard Lee II and a great-grandson of Col. Richard Lee I. Senator Richard Henry Lee and diplomats William Lee and Dr. Arthur Lee were his brothers. Another brother, Thomas Ludwell Lee, was appointed to a committee, along with Thomas Jefferson, to re-write the laws of Virginia. His namesake Francis Lightfoot Lee II was the son of his brother Richard Henry Lee, and men of the same name descend from him.
Political career
In 1774, Lee was among those who called for a general congress and the first of the Virginia Conventions, which he attended. He served in the Virginia State Senate from 1778 to 1782 and was a delegate to the First Continental Congress held in Philadelphia, serving until 1779. As a congressional representative of Virginia, he signed both the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1768 as a member.
Death and legacy
Lee died of pleurisy at his residence (named "Menokin") in Richmond County, Virginia, on January 11, 1797, following his wife's death four days prior. He is buried in the Tayloe family burial ground at Mount Airy Plantation, near Warsaw, Virginia.
The World War II Liberty Ship was named in his honor.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Further reading
Dill, Alonzo Thomas. Francis Lightfoot Lee, The Incomparable Signer. Edited by Edward M. Riley. Williamsburg: Virginia Independence Bicentennial Commission, 1977.
Twain, Mark. "Francis Lightfoot Lee". Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, I, no. 3 (1877). Reprinted in Charles Neider, ed., Mark Twain: Life as I Find It (New York, 1961).
External links
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
Francis Lightfoot Lee Bio
This article on his brother also contains a paragraph on Francis Lightfoot Lee.
1734 births
1797 deaths
Continental Congressmen from Virginia
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the Articles of Confederation
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
House of Burgesses members
Virginia state senators
Lee family of Virginia
American people of English descent
American slave owners
People from Westmoreland County, Virginia
American planters
Burials in Virginia
Virginia colonial people
Tayloe family of Virginia
People from Richmond County, Virginia | [
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261169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20Br%C3%A9tigny | Treaty of Brétigny | The Treaty of Brétigny was a treaty, drafted on 8 May 1360 and ratified on 24 October 1360, between King Edward III of England and King John II of France. In retrospect, it is seen as having marked the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) as well as the height of English power on the European continent.
It was signed at Brétigny, a village near Chartres, and was later ratified as the Treaty of Calais on 24 October 1360.
Background
John II of France taken as a prisoner of war at the Battle of Poitiers (19 September 1356), worked with Edward III to write out the Treaty of London. The treaty was condemned by the French Estates-General, who advised the Dauphin Charles to reject it.
In response, Edward, who wished to yield few of the advantages claimed in the abortive Treaty of London the year before, besieged Rheims. The siege lasted until January and with supplies running low, Edward withdrew to Burgundy. After the English army attempted a futile siege of Paris, Edward marched to Chartres, and discussion of terms began in early April.
Terms
The Treaty of Brétigny was ratified on 10 May 1360, by Dauphin Charles and six English knights at the Hôtel de Sens. On 14 June 1360, John II, a prisoner in England, ratified the treaty at a banquet attend by Edward III, Prince of Wales, and the other French prisoners from the battle of Poitiers. The finalization of the treaty would occur in Calais on 24 October 1360.
By virtue of this treaty, Edward III obtained, besides Guyenne and Gascony, Poitou, Saintonge and Aunis, Agenais, Périgord, Limousin, Quercy, Bigorre, the countship of Gauré, Angoumois, Rouergue, Montreuil-sur-Mer, Ponthieu, Calais, Sangatte, Ham and the countship of Guînes. The king of England was to hold these free and clear, without doing homage for them. Furthermore, the treaty established that title to 'all the islands that the King of England now holds' would no longer be under the suzerainty of the King of France. The title Duke of Aquitaine was abandoned in favour of Lord of Aquitaine.
On his side, the King of England renounced all claims to the French throne. The terms of Brétigny were meant to untangle the feudal responsibilities that had caused so much conflict, and, as far as the English were concerned, would concentrate English territories in an expanded version of Aquitaine. England also restored the rights of the Bishop of Coutances to Alderney, which had been stripped from them by the King of England in 1228.
John II had to pay three million écus for his ransom, and would be released after he paid one million. The occasion was the first minting of the franc, equivalent to one livre tournois (twenty sous). As a guarantee for the payment of his ransom, John gave as hostages two of his sons, Louis I, Duke of Anjou and John, Duke of Berry, several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteen principal towns of France.
Breakdown
While the hostages were held, John returned to France to try to raise funds to pay the ransom. In 1362, John's son, Louis of Anjou, a hostage in English-held Calais, escaped captivity. Thus, with his stand-in hostage gone, John felt honour-bound to return to captivity in England. He died in captivity in 1364 and his son, Dauphin Charles, succeeded him as Charles V, king of France. In 1369, on the pretext that Edward III had failed to observe the terms of the treaty, the king of France declared war once again.
By the time of the 1377 death of Edward III, English forces had been pushed back into their territories in the southwest, around Bordeaux.
Legacy
The treaty did not lead to lasting peace, but procured nine years' respite from the Hundred Years' War. In the following years, French forces were involved in battles against the Anglo-Navarrese (Bertrand du Guesclin's victory at Cocherel on 16 May 1364) and the Bretons.
See also
List of treaties
Treaty of Troyes
Notes
References
Sources
Bretigny, Treaty of
Eure-et-Loir
1360s in France
Bretigny
Treaties of medieval England
Treaties of the Kingdom of France
1360 in England
History of Centre-Val de Loire
Edward III of England | [
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261170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Lewis | Francis Lewis | Francis Lewis (March 21, 1713 – December 31, 1802) was an American merchant and a Founding Father of the United States. He was a signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence and Articles of Confederation as a representative of New York to the Continental Congress.
Early life
Lewis was born in Llandaff, Wales, on March 21, 1713. He was the only child of Morgan Lewis and Anne Lewis (née Pettingale) of Newport. Lewis was educated at Westminster School in London.
Career
Lewis entered a mercantile house in London until he turned 21 and inherited some properties left by his father. Lewis sold the properties and used the proceeds to acquire merchandise, set sail for New York City, arriving there in 1734 or 1735. He left some of the goods in New York to be sold by Edward Annesley, his business partner, and brought the rest to Philadelphia. After two years in Philadelphia, he returned to New York.
Lewis made several trans-Atlantic trips, visiting several northern European ports, Saint Petersburg, northern Scotland, and Africa. He was taken prisoner while he served as a British mercantile agent in 1756 and sent to France for imprisonment. On his release and his return home, he became active in politics.
Lewis was a member of the Committee of Sixty, a member of the New York Provincial Congress, and a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1775 to 1779. In 1776 he signed the United States Declaration of Independence, and in 1778 he signed the United States Articles of Confederation. In 1779, he served as the chairman of the Continental Board of Admiralty.
He helped his son Francis Lewis Jr. open a dry goods business named Francis Lewis and Son. Morgan served in the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War and later held many offices in New York State, including governor.
Personal life
In 1745, Lewis married to Elizabeth Annesley (died 1779), a sister of his business partner. Together, they were the parents of seven children, three of whom survived to adulthood:
Ann Lewis (1748–1802), who married Captain George Robertson (1742–1791) of the British Royal Navy.
Francis Lewis Jr. (1749–1814), who served as churchwarden of St George's Parish in Flushing, New York, from 1791 to 1794. He married Elizabeth Ludlow (d. 1831), daughter of Gabriel Ludlow, Esq.
Morgan Lewis (1754–1844), who married Gertrude Livingston, the daughter of Judge Robert Livingston of Clermont. He was a governor and attorney general of New York.
In 1775, Lewis acquired and relocated his family to an estate located in Whitestone, in present-day Queens. The home was later destroyed in the American Revolutionary War by British soldiers, who also arrested his wife, Elizabeth, and denied her a change of clothing or adequate food for weeks while in captivity. Her hardships in captivity ruined her health and led to her death in 1778 after being released in a prisoner exchange.
Through his eldest surviving daughter Ann, he was a grandfather to Marianne Robertson (1779–1829), who married John Bird Sumner, the Archbishop of Canterbury and brother of Charles Richard Sumner, bishop of Winchester. Through his son Morgan, he was a grandfather of Margret Lewis (1780–1860), who married New York lawyer and politician Maturin Livingston and became parents to twelve children. Through his son Francis Jr., he was a grandfather of Gabriel Ludlow Lewis.
Death and legacy
Lewis died on December 31, 1802, although his memorial in Trinity Church Cemetery gives his year of death as 1803.
In Queens, New York, Francis Lewis High School and P.S. 79 "The Francis Lewis School" are named after Lewis. Francis Lewis Boulevard, which locals sometimes refer to as "Franny Lew" or "Franny Lewie," stretches almost the entire north/south length of the borough. Francis Lewis Park is located under the Queens approach of the Bronx-Whitestone Bridge. A masonic lodge, Francis Lewis #273, is located in Whitestone.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
External links
1713 births
1802 deaths
People from Llandaff
Continental Congressmen from New York (state)
18th-century American politicians
Members of the New York Provincial Congress
Signers of the Articles of Confederation
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
People educated at Westminster School, London
People of colonial New York
Welsh emigrants to the United States
Welsh politicians
Burials at Trinity Church Cemetery
People from Whitestone, Queens
19th-century American Episcopalians | [
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261172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Lynch%20Jr. | Thomas Lynch Jr. | Thomas Lynch Jr. (August 5, 1749 – 1779) was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of South Carolina and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. His father was a member of the Continental Congress but stepped down because of illness, and Lynch Jr. stepped into his father's post.
Early life
Lynch Jr. was born at Hopsewee Plantation in Prince George Parish, Winyah, in what is now Georgetown, South Carolina, the son of Thomas Lynch and his wife, Beverly Allston Lynch. Before Thomas Lynch Jr. was born, his parents had two daughters named Sabina and Esther who were born in 1747 and 1748.
His mother was the daughter of Gilliém Marshall Dé'Illiard of Iberville Parish, Louisiana, whose brother George William Dilliard of Virginia is credited with changing the Dilliard name to its current spelling, made introductions during a ball held at the childhood home of John Drayton Sr., Magnolia Plantation and Gardens. Also in attendance were prominent families such as the Middleton's, Randolph's, and Rutledge. In this marriage, they gave birth to a daughter named Aimeé Constance in 1755, who later married John Drayton.
Lynch's grandfather was Jonas Lynch from County Galway ancestral line; the Lynch family were expelled from Ireland following their defeat in the Irish wars of William of Orange. Lynch Sr. had emigrated from Kent, England, to South Carolina. Lynch Sr. was a prominent figure in South Carolina politics which contributed to access of opportunity in high education and wealth.
Lynch Jr. was schooled at the Indigo Society School in Georgetown before his parents sent him to England, where he received honors at Eton College and at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. He studied law and political philosophy at the Middle Temple in London. His father admired his English education and encouraged him to remain in Great Britain to study law and the principles of the British constitution. After eight years away from America, he returned to South Carolina in 1772. Although it was his father's dream, Thomas Lynch Jr. decided to end his pursuit of a profession in law.
Lynch Jr. married Paige Shubrick on May 14, 1772. Following their marriage, the couple lived at Peach Tree Plantation which was located in close proximity to his homeland plantation. He enjoyed cultivating the land and remained active in political dialogue in his community.
After his father's death from a stroke, his widowed mother married another influential political figure, South Carolina Governor William Moultrie. His sister Sabina Hope Lynch married James Hamilton; one of their sons was James Hamilton Jr., who became governor in the state in 1830.
Career
Lynch was elected a member of the Provincial Congress on February 11, 1775. This committee was formed to prepare a plan of government and represent the people of South Carolina. Lynch served alongside Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, John Rutledge, Charles Pinckney, Henry Laurens, Christopher Gadsden, Rawlins Lowndes, Arthur Middleton, Henry Middleton, Thomas Bee, and Thomas Heyward Jr. in the Provincial Congress. This group formed the South Carolina constitution. Many people objected to this document including the Continental Congress. It stood as a temporary constitution as many believed there would be reconciliation with Great Britain.
Lynch became a company commander in the First South Carolina regiment on June 12, 1775. He was commissioned by the Provincial Congress. After being appointed, he gathered men and led a march into Charlestown, South Carolina. Amid the march, he became very sick with a bilious fever which prevented him from continuing. When he recovered, he was unable to fulfill his position. During his recovery, he received news about his father's declining health. In hope that he could manage his father's illness, Lynch asked his commanding officer, Colonel Christopher Gadsden, if he could travel to Philadelphia. His request was denied originally, but after receiving news of his election to the Continental Congress, he was allowed to travel to his father.
On March 23, 1776, the General Assembly of South Carolina named Lynch to the Continental Congress as a sixth delegate. Although he was ill, Lynch Jr. traveled to Philadelphia to sign the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Lynch Sr. and Thomas Lynch Jr. were the only father and son to serve in the Continental Congress. He was the second youngest delegate in the Continental Congress and filled in his father's place due to illness. The youngest signer, South Carolinian Edward Rutledge, was younger by three months.
Less than a month after signing the Declaration of Independence, Lynch threatened that South Carolina would secede from the United States in a threat representing the interests his constituents. "If it is debated, whether their Slaves are their Property, there is an End of the Confederation."
After signing the Declaration of Independence, an ill Thomas Lynch Jr. set out for home with his ailing father. On the way to South Carolina, his father suffered a second stroke and died in Annapolis, Maryland, in December 1776. Thomas Lynch Jr. retired in early 1777.
Death
After two more years of illness in South Carolina, where he resided with his wife at Peachtree Plantation on the South Santee River, many suggested that he travel to Europe in search for a different atmosphere. He and his wife sailed for respite on a vessel to St. Eustatius in the West Indies in late 1779. The ship is known to have disappeared shortly after, standing as the last record of his life, and he and his wife were lost at sea in 1779. At age 30, he was the youngest signer of the Declaration of Independence to die.
Before dying at sea, he made a will requiring that the heirs of his female relatives change their last name to Lynch in order to inherit his family estate. His sister, Sabina responded by changing her name. She and her husband owned and managed the Peachtree Plantation until their son was of age. Their son, John Bowman Lynch and his wife had three male children. Henry C. Lynch died in 1843 (1828-1843). Thomas B. Lynch died in the American Civil War.(1821-1864). James (N.M.) Lynch died in 1887 (1822-1887). Upon the death of Sabina, the estate passed to Lynch's youngest sister Aimeé Constance Dé'Illiard Drayton in accordance with his will that the estate remain in the family.
Legacy
Lynch's birthplace was the Hopsewee Plantation. It is on the National Register of Historic Places and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971.
In his 1856 book, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence" Rev. Charles A Goodrich lauds Lynch "as a man of exalted views and exalted moral worth". Goodrich continues to describe him "In all the relations of life, whether as a husband, a friend, a patriot, or the master of the slave, he appeared conscious of his obligations, and found his pleasure in discharging them."
Autographs by Thomas Lynch Jr. are among the rarest by signers of the Declaration of Independence. His time in Congress lasted less than a year, and much of this time was spent in poor health. Only a single letter has survived, along with a few signatures on historical documents. Many of his autographs have scattered, and others were lost in a fire. Today, Lynch's autograph sells for as much as $250,000.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
External links
Hopsewee Plantation
1749 births
1779 deaths
18th-century American politicians
American revolutionaries
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
American slave owners
People lost at sea
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Members of the Middle Temple
People educated at Eton College
People from Georgetown, South Carolina
Continental Congressmen from South Carolina | [
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261175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Nelson%20Jr. | Thomas Nelson Jr. | Thomas Nelson Jr. (December 26, 1738 – January 4, 1789) was an American soldier and statesman from Yorktown, Virginia, and is considered one of the U.S. Founding Fathers. In addition to serving in the Virginia General Assembly for many terms, he twice represented Virginia in the Continental Congress. Fellow Virginia legislators elected him to serve as the commonwealth's governor in 1781.
He signed the Declaration of Independence as a member of the Virginia delegation and fought in the militia during the siege of Yorktown.
Early and family life
Nelson was the grandson of Thomas "Scotch Tom" Nelson, an immigrant from Cumberland, England, who was an early pioneer at Yorktown. Nelson Jr. was born in 1738 at Yorktown; his parents were Elizabeth Carter Burwell (daughter of Robert "King" Carter and widow of Nathaniel Burwell) and William Nelson, who was a leader of the colony and briefly served as governor.
Like many Virginians of the planter class, Nelson was sent to England for his education. He attended Newcome's School before entering Christ's College at Cambridge University in 1758. He graduated in 1760 and returned to Virginia the following year. Nelson was an ancestor of Thomas Nelson Page and William Nelson Page.
Planter
Upon returning to Virginia, Nelson assisted his father in the operation of his several plantations, which depended on the labor of enslaved African Americans. Following his marriage to young widow Lucy Grymes Burwell, he also managed the estates left to her sons from her first marriage. These included Carter's Grove left to her son Nathaniel Burwell.
During the American Revolutionary War, Nelson bought 5,400 acres of land and an unspecified number of slaves in Prince William County from financially strapped Lewis Burwell (who died in 1779).
Political career
York County voters elected Nelson to the Virginia House of Burgesses as a young man in 1761; he succeeded Robert Carter Nicholas in this part-time position. He served his first six terms alongside veteran delegate Dudley Digges.
As Virginians became dissatisfied with colonial governance, Digges and Nelson were elected to represent York County during the five Virginia conventions that preceded statehood: the First Virginia Convention (which met in Williamsburg in 1774), the Second Virginia Convention (which met at St. John's Church in Richmond in March 1775), the Third Virginia Convention (which met in Richmond in the summer of 1775), the Fourth Virginia Convention (which met in the winter of 1775–1776 in Richmond and Williamsburg, which Nelson was unable to attend), and the Fifth Virginia Convention, which met in Williamsburg in the summer of 1776 (Nelson left this convention in May to attend the Continental Congress).
Digges represented York County alongside Corbin Griffin at the first non-colonial session of the Virginia House of Delegates in the fall of 1776. But Nelson won the 1777 and 1778 elections to represent York County in the House of Delegates, where he served alongside Joseph Prentis. Prentis relinquished his seat in 1778 to serve on the Council of State and was replaced by Nelson on September 21, 1778. In 1779, 1780 and 1781, Nelson served alongside William Reynolds and relinquished his legislative seat upon being elected governor of Virginia in June 1781.
Nelson's first term in the Congress continued until 1776, when a bout of illness forced his resignation for the 1778–1779 term. After his recovery, he was again elected and served another year. During his first stint as a member of Congress, Nelson also returned to Virginia to play a key role in its Constitutional Convention in the spring of 1776. He returned to Congress in time to sign the Declaration of Independence that summer.
Thomas Nelson was one of the thirteen committee members appointed in the Continental Congress on June 12, 1776, to "prepare and digest the form of confederation", they drafted the Articles of Confederation.
He was a brigadier general of the Lower Virginia Militia and succeeded Thomas Jefferson as governor of Virginia (after William Fleming's nine days as acting governor). Nelson was engaged in the final Siege of Yorktown.
According to legend, he urged General George Washington (or, in some versions, Marquis de Lafayette) to fire on his own home, the Nelson House, where General Cornwallis had his headquarters, offering five guineas to the first man to hit his house.
Following his term as Virginia's governor, Nelson again won election to the Virginia House of Delegates. He represented York County alongside Joseph Prentis in the assemblies of 1782 and 1783, but was replaced by Nathaniel Nelson in the assembly of 1784–1785. He and Prentis won the next election and again served in the sessions of 1786–1787 and 1787–1788. They were replaced by Robert Shield and William Nelson in the assembly of 1788.
Death and remembrance
He died at his son's home in Hanover County, Virginia, and is buried in the Grace Churchyard at Yorktown. Nelson was a member of Grace Church.
Colonel Innes made this tribute:
The illustrious General Thomas Nelson is no more! He paid the last great debt to nature, on Sunday, the fourth of the present month, at his estate in Hanover. He who undertakes barely to recite the exalted virtues which adorned the life of this great and good man, will unavoidably pronounce a panegyric on human nature. As a man, a citizen, a legislator, and a patriot, he exhibited a conduct untarnished and undebased by sordid or selfish interest, and strongly marked with the genuine characteristics of true religion, sound benevolence, and liberal policy. Entertaining the most ardent love for civil and religious liberty, he was among the first of that glorious band of patriots whose exertions dashed and defeated the machinations of British tyranny, and gave United America freedom and independent empire. At a most important crisis, during the late struggle for American liberty, when this state appeared to be designated as the theatre of action for the contending armies, he was selected by the unanimous suffrage of the legislature to command the virtuous yeomanry of his country; in this honourable employment he remained until the end of the war; as a soldier, he was indefatigably active and coolly intrepid; resolute and undejected in misfortunes, he towered above distress, and struggled with the manifold difficulties to which his situation exposed him, with constancy and courage. In the memorable year 1781, when the whole force of the southern British army was directed to the immediate subjugation of this state, he was called to the helm of government; this was a juncture which indeed 'tried men's souls.' He did not avail himself of this opportunity to retire in the rear of danger; but on the contrary, took the field at the head of his countrymen; and at the hazard of his life, his fame, and individual fortune, by his decision and magnanimity, he saved not only his country, but all America, from disgrace, if not from total ruin. Of this truly patriotic and heroic conduct, the renowned commander in chief, with all the gallant officers of the combined armies employed at the siege of York, will bear ample testimony; this part of his conduct even contemporary jealousy, envy, and malignity were forced to approve, and this, more impartial posterity, if it can believe, will almost adore. If, after contemplating the splendid and heroic parts of his character, we shall inquire for the milder virtues of humanity, and seek for the man, we shall find the refined, beneficent, and social qualities of private life, through all its forms and combinations, so happily modified and united in him, that in the words of the darling poet of nature, it may be said: His life was gentle: and the elements so mixed in him, that nature might stand up And say to all the world—this was a man.
Legacy and honors
Nelson County, Virginia, and Nelson County, Kentucky, were named in his honor.
The Virginia State Council for Higher Education named Thomas Nelson Community College in Thomas Nelson Jr's honor in 1967.
The Thomas Nelson High School was opened in 2012 in Nelson County, Kentucky.
The circa 1730 Nelson House built by "Scotch Tom" Nelson in Yorktown, Virginia, was occupied by Thomas Nelson Jr. during the Revolutionary War. It was designated as a National Historical Landmark. It is maintained as part of the Colonial National Historical Park by the U.S. National Park Service.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Notes
References
Leonard, Cynthia Miller, Virginia General Assembly 1619-1978 (Richmond: Virginia State Library 1978).
Walsh, Lorena S., From Calabar to Carter's Grove: the History of a Virginia Slave Community (University Press of Virginia, 1997).
Further reading
Evans, Emory, Thomas Nelson of Yorktown: Revolutionary Virginian; 1975, University of Virginia; .
External links
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
Archival Records
A Guide to the Executive Papers of Governor Thomas Nelson Jr., 1781 June 12 – November 22 at The Library of Virginia
1738 births
1789 deaths
People from Yorktown, Virginia
American Episcopalians
American people of English descent
American slave owners
Continental Congressmen from Virginia
18th-century American politicians
Deaths from asthma
Governors of Virginia
House of Burgesses members
Militia generals in the American Revolution
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
Nelson family of Virginia
Virginia colonial people
American planters | [
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261177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craft | Craft | A craft or trade is a pastime or an occupation that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work. In a historical sense, particularly the Middle Ages and earlier, the term is usually applied to people occupied in small scale production of goods, or their maintenance, for example by tinkers. The traditional term craftsman is nowadays often replaced by artisan and by craftsperson (craftspeople).
Historically, the more specialized crafts with high-value products tended to concentrate in urban centers and formed guilds. The skill required by their professions and the need to be permanently involved in the exchange of goods often demanded a generally higher level of education, and craftsmen were usually in a more privileged position than the peasantry in societal hierarchy. The households of craftsmen were not as self-sufficient as those of people engaged in agricultural work and therefore had to rely on the exchange of goods. Some crafts, especially in areas such as pottery, woodworking, and various stages of textile production, could be practiced on a part-time basis by those also working in agriculture, and often formed part of village life.
When an apprentice finished his apprenticeship, he became a journeyman searching for a place to set up his own shop and make a living. After he set up his own shop, he could then call himself a master of his craft.
This stepwise approach to mastery of a craft, which includes the attainment of some education and skill, has survived in some countries until today. But crafts have undergone deep structural changes since and during the era of the Industrial Revolution. The mass production of goods by large-scale industry has limited crafts to market segments in which industry's modes of functioning or its mass-produced goods do not satisfy the preferences of potential buyers. As an outcome of these changes, craftspeople today increasingly make use of semi-finished components or materials and adapt these to their customers' requirements or demands. Thus, they participate in a certain division of labour between industry and craft.
Classification
There are three aspects to human creativity - Art, Crafts, and Science. Roughly determined, art relies upon intuitive sensing, vision and expression, crafts upon sophisticated technique and science upon knowledge.
Handicraft
Handicraft is the "traditional" main sector of the crafts, it is a type of work where useful and decorative devices are made completely by hand or by using only simple tools. Usually the term is applied to traditional means of making goods. The individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion, such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicraft goods. Handicraft goods are made with craft production processes.
The beginning of crafts in areas like the Ottoman Empire involved the governing bodies requiring members of the city who were skilled at creating goods to open shops in the center of town. These people slowly stopped acting as subsistence farmers (who created goods in their own homes to trade with neighbors) and began to represent what we think of a "craftsman" today.
In recent years, crafts and craftspeople have slowly been gaining momentum as a subject of academic study. Stephanie Bunn was an artist before she became an anthropologist, and she went on to develop an academic interest on the process of craft - arguing that what happens to an object before it becomes a 'product' is an area worthy of study.
The Arts and Crafts Movement
The term crafts is often used to describe the family of artistic practices within the family decorative arts that traditionally are defined by their relationship to functional or utilitarian products (such as sculptural forms in the vessel tradition) or by their use of such natural media as wood, clay, ceramics, glass, textiles, and metal.
The Arts and Crafts Movement originated in Britain during the late 19th century and was characterized by a style of decoration reminiscent of medieval times. The primary artist associated with the movement is William Morris, whose work was reinforced with writings from John Ruskin. The movement placed a high importance on the quality of craftsmanship while emphasizing the importance for the arts to contribute to economic reform.
Studio crafts
Crafts practiced by independent artists working alone or in small groups are often referred to as studio craft. Studio craft includes studio pottery, metal work, weaving, wood turning, paper and other forms of wood working, glass blowing, and glass art.
Craft fairs
A craft fair is an organized event to display and sell crafts. There are craft stores where such goods are sold and craft communities, such as Craftster, where expertise is shared.
Tradesperson
A tradesperson is a skilled manual worker in a particular trade or craft. Economically and socially, a tradesperson's status is considered between a laborer and a professional, with a high degree of both practical and theoretical knowledge of their trade. In cultures where professional careers are highly prized, there can be a shortage of skilled manual workers, leading to lucrative niche markets in the trades.
See also
Apprentice
Apprenticeship
Artisan
Arts and crafts
Arts and Crafts movement
Bagh prints
Bagru Print
Craft production
Decorative art
Fully feathered basket
Guild
Japanese craft
Journeyman
Master craftsman
Otium
Profession
Semiprofession
Vocation
Weaving
Communities
American Craft Council
Chamber of Commerce
Craft Northern Ireland
Crafts Association of British Columbia
Etsy
General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen of the City of New York
Japan Kōgei Association
Pike Place Market
Street Artists Program of San Francisco
References
External links
Skills
Medieval economics | [
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261178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Treat%20Paine | Robert Treat Paine | Robert Treat Paine (March 11, 1731 – May 11, 1814) was an American lawyer, politician, and Founding Father of the United States who signed the Continental Association and the Declaration of Independence as a representative of Massachusetts. He served as the state's first attorney general and served as an associate justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, the state's highest court. Paine was also a founding member of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society and had always opposed slavery.
Early life and ancestors
Robert Treat Paine was born in Boston, Massachusetts, British America on March 11, 1731. He was one of five children of the Rev. Thomas Paine and Eunice (Treat) Paine. His father was pastor of Franklin Road Baptist Church in Weymouth but moved his family to Boston in 1730 and subsequently became a merchant there. His mother was the daughter of Rev. Samuel Treat, whose father Maj. Robert Treat was one of the principal founders of Newark, New Jersey, and later a governor of Connecticut. Robert Treat Paine's Treat family had a long history in the British colonies and his Paine family, in particular, can trace a lineage back to the Mayflower.
Education
Paine attended the Boston Latin School and at the age of fourteen entered Harvard College, from which institution he graduated in 1749 at age 18. He then was engaged in teaching school for several years back at the Boston Latin and at Lunenburg, Massachusetts. He also attempted a merchant career with journeys to the Carolinas, the Azores, and to Spain, as well as a whaling voyage to Greenland. He began the study of law in 1755 with his mother's cousin in Lancaster, Massachusetts.
Paine served as a chaplain in the Crown Point Expedition. Upon returning to civilian life, he did some occasional preaching and returned to his legal studies. In 1756 he returned to Boston to continue his legal preparations with Samuel Prat, and he was admitted to the bar in 1757. He first considered establishing his law practice at Portland (then part of Massachusetts but now in Maine), but instead in 1761 moved to Taunton, Massachusetts, then back to Boston in 1780.
Legal career
In 1768 he was a delegate to the provincial convention which was called to meet in Boston. Paine, along with Samuel Quincy, conducted the prosecution of Captain Thomas Preston and his British soldiers following the Boston Massacre of March 5, 1770. John Adams was opposing counsel, and Adams' arguments won the jury's sway, and most of the troops were let off.
Paine served in the Massachusetts General Court from 1773 to 1774, in the Provincial Congress from 1774 to 1775, and represented Massachusetts at the Continental Congress from 1774 through 1776. In Congress, he signed the final appeal to the king (the Olive Branch Petition of 1775), and helped frame the rules of debate and acquire gunpowder for the coming war, and in 1776 was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence.
He returned to Massachusetts at the end of December 1776 and was speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1777, a member of the executive council in 1779, a member of the committee that drafted the state constitution in 1780. He was Massachusetts Attorney General from 1777 to 1790 and prosecuted the treason trials following Shays' Rebellion. (From 1777 to 1785, his acting Attorney General was Benjamin Kent.) In 1780, he was a charter member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He later served as a justice of the state supreme court from 1790 to 1804 when he retired.
Death and legacy
Paine died at age 83 in 1814 and was buried in Boston's Granary Burying Ground. Many of his papers, including correspondence and legal notes, are now held by the Massachusetts Historical Society. Paine was a Congregationalist and a devout Christian. When his church, the First Church in Boston, moved into Unitarianism, Paine followed that path. A statue of Paine by Richard E. Brooks was erected at Taunton's Church Green in 1904. Paine is an honoree of the Washington, D.C. Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence.
Paine married Sally Cobb, the daughter of Thomas and Lydia (née Leonard) Cobb and a sister of General David Cobb, on March 15, 1770. She was born May 15, 1744, and died June 6, 1816. They were the parents of eight children:
Robert Paine (May 14, 1770-July 28, 1798), died unmarried, graduate of Harvard College.
Sally Paine (March 7, 1772-January 26, 1823), died unmarried.
Robert Treat Paine Jr. (December 9, 1773-November 13, 1811), graduate of Harvard College.
Charles Paine (August 30, 1775-February 15, 1810), graduate of Harvard College, married Sarah Sumner Cushing (niece of both U.S. Supreme Court associate Justice William Cushing and Massachusetts Governor Increase Sumner).
Henry Paine (October 20, 1777-June 8, 1814), married Olive Lyman, daughter of Theodore Lyman.
Mary Paine (February 9, 1780-February 27, 1842), married Rev. Elisha Clap, graduate of Harvard College.
Maria Antoinetta Paine (December 2, 1782-March 26, 1842), married Deacon Samuel Greele.
Lucretia Paine (April 30, 1785-August 27, 1823), died unmarried.
Some of his notable descendants include:
Charles Jackson Paine
John Paine
Robert Treat Paine Storer
Robert Treat Paine, owner of The Robert Treat Paine Estate, known as Stonehurst
Lyman Paine. He married, in 1926, Ruth Forbes of the distinguished Forbes family and a great-granddaughter of Ralph Waldo Emerson
Sumner Paine
Michael Paine, husband of Ruth Paine
Robert "Bob" Treat Paine III, zoologist
References
Bibliography
Robert Treat Paine Papers Digital Edition.
The Papers of Robert Treat Paine, ed. Stephen T. Riley and Edward W. Hanson, vol. 1, 1746–1756, Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society 87 (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1992).
The Papers of Robert Treat Paine, ed. Stephen T. Riley and Edward W. Hanson, vol. 2, 1757–1774, Collections 88, (1992).
The Papers of Robert Treat Paine, ed. Edward W. Hanson, vol. 3, 1774–1777, Collections 89, (2005).
The Papers of Robert Treat Paine, ed. Edward W. Hanson, vol. 4, 1778–1786, Collections 92, (2018).
External links
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
1731 births
1814 deaths
18th-century American lawyers
18th-century American politicians
19th-century American lawyers
American abolitionists
American Congregationalists
American people of English descent
Boston Latin School alumni
Burials at Granary Burying Ground
Congregationalist abolitionists
Continental Congressmen from Massachusetts
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Harvard College alumni
Justices of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
Massachusetts Attorneys General
Massachusetts lawyers
Members of the colonial Massachusetts House of Representatives
People of colonial Massachusetts
Politicians from Taunton, Massachusetts
Signers of the Continental Association
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence | [
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261179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Penn%20%28North%20Carolina%20politician%29 | John Penn (North Carolina politician) | John Penn (May 17, 1741 September 14, 1788) was a Founding Father of the United States who signed both the United States Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation as a delegate of North Carolina.
Biography
Penn was born near Port Royal in Caroline County, Virginia, the only son of Moses Penn and Catherine (Taylor) Penn. He attended at common school for two years as his father did not consider education to be important. At age 18, after his father's death, Penn privately read law with his uncle, Edmund Pendleton. He became a lawyer in Virginia in 1762.
On July 28, 1763, Penn married Susannah Lyne. The couple had three children. Their daughter, Lucy, married John Taylor of Caroline, a political leader from Virginia.
In 1774, Penn moved to the Stovall, North Carolina. There, he was a representative at the colony's Third Provincial Congress in August 1775. He was elected to the Continental Congress from 1775 to 1780 as a delegate of North Carolina. During his tenure, he signed the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation.
Following his appointment to the Congress, he practiced law until his death in 1788.
Legacy
The naval ship USS John Penn was named in his honor. A historical highway marker honoring Penn was erected in near his home in Stovall in 1936; it was the first such marker erected by the state of North Carolina.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
External links
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
Biography and portrait at USHistory.org
1741 births
1788 deaths
Continental Congressmen from North Carolina
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Signers of the Articles of Confederation
People from Port Royal, Virginia
People from Granville County, North Carolina
American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law
American slave owners
Members of the North Carolina Provincial Congresses | [
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261180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Read%20%28American%20politician%2C%20born%201733%29 | George Read (American politician, born 1733) | George Read (September 18, 1733 – September 21, 1798) was a politician from New Castle in New Castle County, Delaware. He was a Continental Congressman from Delaware, a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention of 1787, president of Delaware, and a member of the Federalist Party, who served as U.S. Senator from Delaware and Chief Justice of Delaware.
Read was a Founding Father of the United States, one of only two statesmen who signed four of the great state papers on which the country's history is based: the original Petition to the King of the Congress of 1774, the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, and the Constitution of the United States.
Father
Read was the son of John and Mary (Howell) Read. John Read was born in Dublin, Ireland, the son of an Englishman of large fortune belonging to the family of Read of Berkshire, Hertfordshire, and Oxfordshire. The death of his beloved having left him bereft, John Read came to the American colonies and, with a view of diverting his mind, entered into extensive enterprises in Maryland and Delaware.
Soon after his arrival in America, John Read purchased a large estate in Cecil County, Maryland, and founded with six associates the city of Charlestown on the headwaters of Chesapeake Bay, with the intention of creating a new market for the northern trade. They developed northern Maryland and built up the neighboring iron works of the Principio Company, in which the older generations of the Washington family, and at a later period General George Washington, were also largely interested.
As an original proprietor of Charlestown, John Read was appointed by the colonial legislature of Maryland one of the commissioners to lay it out and govern it. He held various military offices during his life, and in his later years resided on his plantation in New Castle County.
Early life
George Read was born in Cecil County, Maryland, on September 18, 1733. When he was an infant, the family moved to New Castle County, Delaware, settling near the village of Christiana. As he grew up, Read joined Thomas McKean at the Rev. Francis Allison's Academy at New London, Pennsylvania, and then studied law in Philadelphia with John Moland. He was admitted to the Pennsylvania Bar in 1753, and a year later he returned home to establish a practice at New Castle.
In 1763 he married Gertrude Ross Till, daughter of the Rev. George Ross, the Anglican rector of Immanuel Church in New Castle and widowed sister of George Ross, also a future signer of the Declaration of Independence. They had four children, John, George Jr., William, and Mary, who married Matthew Pearce (she is often confused with her paternal aunt, Mary Read, who in 1769 married Gunning Bedford, Sr., a future Governor of Delaware). They lived on The Strand in New Castle, and their house was in what is now the garden of the present Read House and Gardens, owned by the Delaware Historical Society. They were members of Immanuel Episcopal Church.
In 1763 John Penn, the proprietary governor, appointed Read crown attorney general for the three Delaware counties, and he served in that position until leaving for the Continental Congress in 1774. He also served in the Colonial Assembly of the lower Delaware counties for twelve sessions, from 1764/65 through 1775/76.
American Revolution
Eighteenth-century Delaware was politically divided into loose factions known as the "Court Party" and the "Country Party." The majority Court Party was generally Anglican, strongest in Kent and Sussex Counties, worked well with the colonial proprietary government and was in favor of reconciliation with the British government. The minority Country Party was largely Ulster-Scot, centered in New Castle County, and quickly advocated independence from the British. Read was often the leader of the Court party faction, and as such he generally worked in opposition to Caesar Rodney and his friend and neighbor Thomas McKean.
Read, like most other people in Delaware, was in favor of trying to reconcile differences with Great Britain. He opposed the Stamp Act and similar measures of Parliament but supported anti-importation measures and dignified protests. He was quite reluctant to pursue the option of outright independence. Nevertheless, from 1764 he led the Delaware Committee of Correspondence and was elected to serve along with the more radical McKean and Rodney in the First and Second Continental Congress from 1774 to 1777. He was frequently absent, and when the Congress voted on American Independence on July 2, 1776, Read surprised many by voting against it. That meant that Rodney had to ride overnight to Philadelphia to break the deadlock in Delaware's delegation for independence. However, when the Declaration of Independence was finally adopted, Read signed it despite his caution.
Government of Delaware
Anticipating the Declaration of Independence, the General Assembly of the lower counties declared its separation from the British government on June 15, 1776, in the New Castle Court House. Once the Declaration of Independence was actually adopted, the General Assembly called for elections to a Delaware constitutional convention to draft a constitution for the new state. Read was elected to this convention, became its president, and guided the passage of the McKean-drafted document, which became the Delaware Constitution of 1776.
Read was elected to the first Legislative Council of the Delaware General Assembly and was selected as the speaker in both the 1776/77 and 1777/78 sessions. At the time of the capture of President John McKinly, Read was in Philadelphia attending Congress; after narrowly escaping capture himself while he was returning home, he became president on October 20, 1777, serving until March 31, 1778. The British occupied Philadelphia and were in control of the Delaware River. Read tried, mostly in vain, to recruit additional soldiers and to protect the state from raiders from Philadelphia and off ships in the Delaware River. The Delaware General Assembly session of 1777/78 had to be moved to Dover, Delaware, for safety, and the Sussex County General Assembly delegation was never seated because disruptions at the polls had negated the election results.
After Rodney was elected to replace him as president, Read continued to serve in the Legislative Council until the 1778–79 session. After a one-year rest nursing ill health, he was elected to the House of Assembly for the 1780/81 and 1781/82 sessions. He returned to the Legislative Council in the 1782/83 session and served two terms until the 1787/88 session. On December 5, 1782, he was elected judge of the Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture.
Federalist
Read was again called to national service in 1786 when he represented Delaware at the Annapolis Convention. Because so few states were represented, this meeting produced only a report calling for a broader convention to be held in Philadelphia the next year. At what became the Constitutional Convention, Read again represented Delaware. Quoting from Wright & Morris in their Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution,
Read immediately argued for a new national government under a new Constitution, saying 'to amend the Articles was simply putting old cloth on a new garment.' He was a leader in the fight for a strong central government, advocating, at one time, the abolition of the states altogether and the consolidation of the country under one powerful national government. 'Let no one fear the states, the people are with us;' he declared to a Convention shocked by this radical proposal. With no one to support his motion, he settled for protecting the rights of the small states against the infringements of their larger, more populous neighbors who, he feared, would 'probably combine to swallow up the smaller ones by addition, division or impoverishment.' He warned that Delaware 'would become at once a cipher in the union' if the principle of equal representation embodied in the New Jersey (small-state) Plan was not adopted and if the method of amendment in the Articles was not retained. He favored giving Congress the power to veto state laws, making the federal legislature immune to popular whims by having senators hold office for nine years or during good behavior, and granting the U.S. President broad appointive powers. Outspoken, he threatened to lead the Delaware delegation out of the Convention if the rights of the small states were not specifically guaranteed in the new Constitution.
Once the rights were assured, he led the ratification movement in Delaware, which, partly as a result of his efforts, became the first state to ratify and did so unanimously.
Senator
Following the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, the Delaware General Assembly elected Read as one of its two U.S. Senators. His term began on March 4, 1789, and he was reelected in 1791 but resigned on September 18, 1793. Read served with the Pro-Administration Party majority in the First and Second Congress, under President Washington. He supported the assumption of state debts, establishment of a national bank, and the imposition of excise taxes. He resigned to accept an appointment as chief justice of the Delaware Supreme Court and served in that capacity until his death.
Read's resignation from the Senate was before the first session of the Third Congress assembled, but it was not until February 7, 1795, four weeks before it adjourned, that Henry Latimer was elected to replace him. One of Delaware's Senate seats was, therefore, vacant from September 18, 1793, until February 7, 1795.
Death and legacy
Read died at New Castle on September 21, 1798, from heart problems and is buried there in the Immanuel Episcopal Church Cemetery.
William T. Read in his Life and Correspondence describes Read as "tall, slightly and gracefully formed, with pleasing features and lustrous brown eyes. His manners were dignified, bordering upon austerity, but courteous, and at times captivating. He commanded entire confidence, not only from his profound legal knowledge, sound judgment, and impartial decisions but from his severe integrity and the purity of his private character." However, a fellow delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 noted that "his legal abilities are said to be very great, but his powers of oratory are fatiguing and tiresome to the last degree; his voice is feeble and his articulation so bad that few can have patience to attend him." Historians like John Monroe have generally recognized that all in all, Read was the dominating figure in Delaware politics during his career, directly or indirectly providing consistent and reliable leadership to the new state.
His home, Stonum, is a historic landmark. There is a school in New Castle and a dorm at the University of Delaware named for Read.
In popular culture
In the Broadway musical 1776, Read is portrayed in a minor role as a proper, conservative, somewhat effete, and wealthy planter who has difficulty getting along with the other two members of the Delaware contingent who are for Independence. Duane Bodin played the character in the original Broadway cast and Leo Leyden appeared in the film version.
Family
Read's brother Thomas was an officer in the Continental Navy during the war. Another brother, James, was an officer in the Continental Army and was later active in managing the navy under the Articles of Confederation. Read's son George Read Jr. served as the first U.S. Attorney for Delaware, and his grandson George Read III served as the second. Another son, John, was a noted lawyer and banker of Philadelphia. Read's great-granddaughter, Louisa, married Major Benjamin Kendrick Pierce, the brother of future President Franklin Pierce.
Positions held
Elections for the Delaware General Assembly were held on October 1, and members took office on October 20 or the following weekday. The colonial attorney general was appointed by the Crown. The Legislative Council was created in 1776, and its councilmen had a three-year term. State assemblymen had a one-year term. The whole General Assembly chose the Continental Congressmen for a one-year term and the state president for a three-year term. Read served as interim state president, filling the vacancy created by the resignation of McKean. The chief justice of the state Supreme Court was also selected by the General Assembly for the life of the person appointed. The General Assembly chose the U.S. Senators, who took office March 4 for a six-year term. However, Read's first term was only two years to establish a rotation.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Notes
References
External links
Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Biography by Russell Pickett
Delaware's Governors
The Political Graveyard
Hall of Governors Portrait Gallery; Portrait courtesy of Historical and Cultural Affairs, Dover.
Delaware Historical Society; website
University of Delaware; Library website
Read House and Gardens
Immanuel Episcopal Church
1733 births
1798 deaths
People from Cecil County, Maryland
People of colonial Maryland
People of colonial Delaware
American people of English descent
American Episcopalians
Continental Congressmen from Delaware
Signers of the Continental Association
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Signers of the United States Constitution
Pro-Administration Party United States senators from Delaware
Delaware Federalists
Delaware Independents
Governors of Delaware
Independent state governors of the United States
Members of the Delaware House of Representatives
Delaware state senators
Chief Justices of Delaware
American slave owners
People from New Castle, Delaware
Delaware lawyers
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261181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar%20Rodney | Caesar Rodney | Caesar Rodney (October 7, 1728 – June 26, 1784) was an American Founding Father, lawyer, and politician from St. Jones Neck in Dover Hundred, Kent County, Delaware. He was an officer of the Delaware militia during the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War, a Continental Congressman from Delaware, a signer of the Continental Association and Declaration of Independence, and president of Delaware during most of the American Revolution.
Rodney family and early years
Rodney was born on October 7, 1728, on his family's farm, "Byfield", on St. Jones Neck in East Dover Hundred, Kent County, Delaware. Caesar was the eldest son of eight children of Caesar and Elizabeth Crawford Rodney and grandson of William Rodney. William Rodney emigrated to the American colonies in 1681–82, along with William Penn, and was speaker of the Colonial Assembly of the Delaware Counties in 1704. Rodney's mother was the daughter of the Rev. Thomas Crawford, Anglican rector of Christ Church at Dover. Among the Rodney family ancestors were the prominent Adelmare family in Treviso, Italy, as attested by genealogy studies.
Byfield was an 849-acre farm worked by slaves. The Rodneys were, by the standards of the day, prosperous members of the local gentry. At Rodney's death, he owned 15 slaves, which he freed on varying schedules due to age; it earned sufficient income from the sale of wheat and barley to the Philadelphia and West Indies markets to provide enough cash and leisure to allow members of the family to participate in the social and political life of Kent County.
Caesar was educated when he was 13 or 14 years old. He attended The Latin School, part of the academy and the College of Philadelphia (now known as University of Pennsylvania) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania until his father's death. Caesar was the only one of the Rodney children to receive anything approaching a formal education.Caesar Rodney's father died in 1746, and Caesar's guardianship was entrusted to Delaware Supreme Court Justice Nicholas Ridgely by the Delaware Orphan's Court.
Professional and political career
Thomas Rodney described his brother at this time as having a "great fund of wit and humor of the pleasing kind, so that his conversation was always bright and strong and conducted by wisdom..." He lived as a bachelor, was generally esteemed and was indeed very popular. He had professed his love and affection for several Delaware ladies at various times but was never a successful suitor. Accordingly, he easily moved into the political world formerly occupied by his father and guardian.
At age twenty-seven in 1755, he was elected sheriff of Kent County and served the maximum three years allowed. This was a powerful and financially rewarding position, in that it supervised elections and chose the grand jurors who set the county tax rate. After serving his three years, he was appointed to a series of positions including Register of Wills, Recorder of Deeds, Clerk of the Orphan's Court, Justice of the Peace, and judge in the lower courts. During the French and Indian War, he was commissioned captain of the Dover Hundred company in Col. John Vining's regiment of the Delaware militia. They never saw active service. From 1769 through 1777, he was an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the Lower Counties.
Eighteenth-century Delaware was politically divided into loose factions known as the "Court Party" and the "Country Party." The majority Court Party was generally Anglican, strongest in Kent and Sussex Counties, worked well with the colonial proprietary government, and was in favor of reconciliation with the British government. The minority Country Party was largely Ulster-Scot, centered in New Castle County, and quickly advocated independence from the British. In spite of being members of the Anglican Kent County gentry, Rodney and his brother Thomas increasingly aligned themselves with the Country Party, a distinct minority in Kent County. As such, he generally worked in partnership with Thomas McKean from New Castle County and in opposition to George Read.
American Revolution
Rodney joined McKean as a delegate to the Stamp Act Congress in 1765 and was a leader of the Delaware Committee of Correspondence. He began his service in the Assembly of Delaware in the 1761/62 session and continued in office through the 1775/76 session. Several times he served as speaker, including the momentous day of June 15, 1776, when "with Rodney in the chair and Thomas McKean leading the debate on the floor," the Assembly of Delaware voted to sever all ties with the British Parliament and King.
Rodney served in the Continental Congress along with McKean and Read from 1774 through 1776. Rodney was in Dover tending to Loyalist activity in Sussex County when he received word from McKean that he and Read were deadlocked on the vote for independence. To break the deadlock, Rodney rode 70 miles through a thunderstorm on the night of July 1, 1776, arriving in Philadelphia "in his boots and spurs" on July 2, just as the voting had begun. He voted with McKean and thereby allowed Delaware to join eleven other states in voting in favor of the resolution of independence. The wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved two days later; Rodney signed it on August 2. Backlash in Delaware led to Rodney's electoral defeat in Kent County for a seat in the upcoming Delaware Constitutional Convention and the new Delaware General Assembly.
Upon learning of the death of his friend John Haslet at the Battle of Princeton, Rodney rushed to the Continental Army to try to fill his place. Haslet was succeeded as colonel by David Hall as General George Washington returned Rodney home to be Delaware's wartime governor and major-general of Delaware militia. The regiment Haslet had built was virtually destroyed at the Battle of Camden in 1780. Rodney, as major-general of the Delaware militia, protected the state from British military intrusions and controlled continued Loyalist activity, particularly in Sussex County, site of the 1780 Black Camp Rebellion.
Amidst the catastrophic events following the Battle of Brandywine and the British occupation of Wilmington and Philadelphia, a new General Assembly was elected in October 1777. First, it promptly put Rodney and McKean back into the Continental Congress. Then, with state President John McKinly in captivity and President George Read completely exhausted, they elected Rodney as President of Delaware on March 31, 1778. The office did not have the authority of a modern governor in the United States, so Rodney's success came from his popularity with the General Assembly, where the real authority lay, and from the loyalty of the Delaware militia, which was the only means of enforcing that authority.
Meanwhile, Rodney scoured the state for money, supplies and soldiers to support the national war effort. Delaware Continentals had fought well in many battles from the Battle of Long Island to the Battle of Monmouth, but in 1780 the army suffered its worst defeat at the Battle of Camden in South Carolina. The regiment was nearly destroyed and the remnant was so reduced it could only fight with a Maryland regiment for the remainder of the war. Rodney had done much to stabilize the situation, but his health was worsening, and he resigned his office on November 6, 1781, just after the conclusive Battle of Yorktown.
Rodney was elected by the Delaware General Assembly to the United States Congress under the Articles of Confederation in 1782 and 1783 but was unable to attend because of ill health. However, two years after leaving the state presidency he was elected to the 1783/84 session of the Legislative Council and, as a final gesture of respect, the council selected him to be their speaker. His health was now in rapid decline and even though the Legislative Council met at his home for a short time, he died before the session ended.
Death and legacy
Rodney was tormented throughout his life by asthma, and his adult years were plagued by a facial cancer. He experienced expensive, painful, and futile medical treatments on the cancer. Caesar wore a green scarf to hide his disfigured face. He died from the disease after eight years. His body is buried at an unmarked grave on his beloved farm, "Poplar Grove" (known as "Byfield" today). While there is a marker that appears to be a gravestone for Caesar Rodney at Christ Episcopal Church, this is merely a monument. Many sources cite that he is buried there, however, most Delaware historians believe that the remains of one of Rodney's unidentified relatives is buried there instead. Rodney actually is buried in an unmarked grave in his family's unmarked plot on their former 800-acre farm east of Dover Air Force Base.
The Caesar Rodney School District in Delaware is named after him.
Positions held
Elections were held October 1 and members of the General Assembly took office on October 20 or the following weekday. The State Legislative Council was created in 1776 and its Legislative Councilmen had a three-year term. State Assemblymen had a one-year term. The whole General Assembly chose the Continental Congressmen for a one-year term and the State President for a three-year term. The county sheriff also had a three-year term. Associate Justices of the state Supreme Court were also selected by the General Assembly for the life of the person appointed.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Notes
Further reading
External links
Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Rodney at the Historical Society of Delaware
Biographical sketch at the National Park Service
1728 births
1784 deaths
American people of English descent
American politicians of Italian descent
American slave owners
18th-century American Episcopalians
People from Kent County, Delaware
Delaware militiamen in the American Revolution
Militia generals in the American Revolution
Delaware lawyers
Delaware Federalists
Delaware state senators
Governors of Delaware
Continental Congressmen from Delaware
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Burials in Dover, Delaware
Independent state governors of the United States
Delaware Independents
County sheriffs in the United States
People of colonial Delaware
Rodney family of Delaware
Signers of the Continental Association | [
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261182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Ross%20%28American%20politician%29 | George Ross (American politician) | George Ross Jr (May 10, 1730 – July 14, 1779) was a Founding Father of the United States who signed the Continental Association and the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Pennsylvania. He was also the uncle of the man who married Betsy Griscom in 1773, giving her her famous married name: Betsy Ross. In 1952, he, George Washington, and Robert Morris appeared on a three-cent stamp commemorating Betsy Ross.
Early life and family
Ross was born on May 10, 1730, in New Castle, Delaware. He was educated at home and later studied law at his brother John's law office, the common practice in those days, before being admitted to the bar in Philadelphia.
His father was Rev. George Aeneas, the 5th Laird Balblair Ross (1679-1754), who had 2 wives and 16 children, and was an Anglican clergyman who had emigrated from Scotland. Their paternal line goes back to Farquhar Ó Beólláin (1173-1251) whom King Alexander II of Scotland named 1st Earl of Ross in 1226 after great wins in battle.
George's sister Gertrude married Thomas Till, the son of William Till, a prominent Sussex County judge and politician; after his death, she married George Read, another signer of the Declaration of Independence.
Career
Ross was a member of the committee of safety and was elected to the Continental Congress. He was a colonel in the Pennsylvania militia (1775–1776) and vice-president of the first constitutional convention for Pennsylvania. Ross was the last of the Pennsylvania delegation to affix his signature to the Declaration of Independence. He had been loyal to the king, but he became disgusted with Tory politics and began to support the cause of the Patriots.
In 1750, he was admitted to the Pennsylvania Bar (member of Pennsylvania) when he was 20 years old, and he established his own practice in Lancaster, where he married Ann Lawler in 1751. Together they had two sons and a daughter.
Initially a Tory, he served as Crown prosecutor for 12 years from 1768 to 1776. His sympathies began to change, and he became a strong supporter of the colonial assemblies in their disputes with Parliament. In 1778 he was elected to the provincial legislature of Pennsylvania. He was elected to Continental Congress in 1774, 1776, and 1777. He was a colonel in the Continental Army in 1776. In 1776, he undertook negotiations with the northwestern Indians on behalf of his colony, and that year he acted as vice president of the state constitutional convention, so then that led to helping draft a declaration of rights. He was re-elected to the Continental Congress in January 1777 but resigned that same year because of poor health. He was vice president of the Pennsylvania constitutional convention and was the Judge of the Admiralty Court of Pennsylvania in 1779. In 1778, while he was acting as admiralty judge, a congressional court of appeals overruled his decision in a case involving a dispute between a citizen of Connecticut and the state of Pennsylvania. He refused to acknowledge the authority of the higher court to counter state decisions, which initiated a dispute between manifestation of the states' rights controversy and did not subside until 1809.
He resigned from the Continental Congress in 1777 because of poor health and was appointed to the Pennsylvania Court of Admiralty where he died in 1779 at age 49. He was buried at Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
National Park Service: Signers of the Declaration
https://www.mysticstamp.com/Products/United-States/1004/USA/#
http://www.ushistory.org/betsy/more/weisgerber.htm
External links
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
1730 births
1779 deaths
Continental Congressmen from Pennsylvania
18th-century American politicians
Foundrymen
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Burials at Christ Church, Philadelphia
People from New Castle, Delaware
People of colonial Pennsylvania
People of colonial Delaware
Signers of the Continental Association | [
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261183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Smith | James Smith | James Smith may refer to:
People
Sports figures
James Smith (Australian rules footballer) (1899–1974), Australian rules footballer for Richmond Football Club
James Smith (boxer) (born 1953), American boxer, nicknamed "Bonecrusher"
James Smith (footballer, born 1844) (1844–1876), Scottish footballer, played in the first official international football match
James Smith (footballer, born 1873) (1873–?), footballer
James Smith (footballer, born 1908) (1908–1956), English left back who played for Doncaster Rovers, Lincoln City and Bradford City
James Smith (footballer, born 1930) (1930–2022), English footballer for Chelsea and Leyton Orient
James Smith (footballer, born 1985), English football player (Southport)
James Smith (Scottish footballer) (fl. 1922), Scottish football player (Port Vale)
James Smith (sports media figure) (born 1959), American boxer and host of In This Corner
James Crosbie Smith (1894–1980), English cricketer
James R. Smith (born 1959), American water polo player and coach
James Stephen Smith (born 1963), Scottish-born Canadian ice hockey player
James W. Smith, horse trainer
James Smith (Leicestershire cricketer) (born 1977), English cricketer
James Smith (New South Wales cricketer) (1880–1958), Australian cricketer
James Smith (South Australia cricketer) (born 1988), Australian cricketer
James Smith (Kent cricketer) (fl. 1792–1796), English cricketer
James Smith (New Zealand cricketer) (1891–1971), New Zealand cricketer
James Smith (sport shooter) (1931–2021), American Olympic shooter
Jimmy Snuka (James Wiley Smith, 1943–2017), Fijian wrestler
Military personnel
James Smith (Medal of Honor, 1864) (1826–1881), Medal of Honor recipient in the American Civil War
James Smith (Medal of Honor, 1872) (1838–?), Medal of Honor recipient for peacetime actions
James A. Smith (Medal of Honor) (1880–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in the Boxer Rebellion
James Smith (VC) (1871–1946), English recipient of the Victoria Cross
James Argyle Smith (1831–1901), Confederate general in the American Civil War
James Alexander Smith (1881–1968), English recipient of the Victoria Cross
James C. Smith (general) (1923–2016), U.S. Army general
James Dunlop Smith (1858–1921), British official in the Indian Army
James E. Smith (general), U.S. Space Force general
James Floyd Smith (1884–1956), American test pilot and instructor for Glenn Martin
James Robert Smith (RAF officer) (1891–?), World War I flying ace
James Thomas Smith (1908–1990), U.S. Navy admiral
James Smith (Texas General) (1792–1855), general in the Revolutionary Army of Texas
James Smith (frontiersman) (1737–1813), American leader of the Black Boys Rebellion against British rule in colonial America
James Webber Smith (1778–1853), British Royal Artillery officer
James Webster Smith (1850–1876), first black cadet at West Point
Entertainers
James Smith, British singer and member of Hadouken!
James Marcus Smith, singer, better known as P. J. Proby
James Prince (James Andre Smith, born 1964), American founder of Texas-based Rap-A-Lot Records
LL Cool J (James Todd Smith, born 1968), American rapper
James Smith (actor) (born 1948), English actor
James Smith, American guitarist for the band Underoath
James Smith (born 1999), finalist in Britain's Got Talent
James Thomas Smith, British musician and member of The xx, better known as Jamie xx
Scientists and academics
James Smith (anaesthetist) (1917–1986), Scottish anaesthetist
James Smith (Scottish botanist) (1763–1848), Scottish botanist
James Smith (educator), Scottish principal of the University of Edinburgh, 1732–1736
James Ernest Smith (1881–1973), founder and first president of the National Radio Institute in Washington, D.C.
James Smith of Jordanhill (1782–1867), Scottish merchant, antiquarian, architect, geologist and biblical critic
James Cuthbert Smith (born 1954), Director of Research at the Francis Crick Institute in London
James Edward Smith (1759–1828), English botanist and founder of the Linnean Society of London
James Eric Smith (1909–1990), British zoologist
James George Smith (1819–1849), American founder of Beta Theta Pi, a prominent college fraternity
James Greig Smith (1854–1897), Scottish surgeon and medical author
James K. A. Smith (born 1970), Canadian-born philosopher
J. L. B. Smith (James Leonard Brierley Smith, 1897–1968), South African ichthyologist
James Lorrain Smith (1862–1931), Scottish pathologist
James Perrin Smith (1864–1931), American geologist and paleontologist
Politicians, judges, and civil servants
United States
James Smith (Pennsylvania politician) (1720–1806), Pennsylvania delegate who signed the United States Declaration of Independence
James Strudwick Smith (1790–1859), U.S. Representative from North Carolina
James Smith, 19th-century Canadian Cree Chief, founder of the James Smith First Nation in Saskatchewan
James W. Smith Jr., American, Chief of the Supreme Court of Mississippi
James Y. Smith (1809–1876), American, former Governor of Rhode Island
James Monroe Smith (Georgia planter) (1839–1915), planter and state legislator in Georgia, U.S.
James M. Smith (died 1898), New York City politician and judge
James Smith Jr. (1851–1927), U.S. Senator from New Jersey
James A. Smith (mayor), first mayor of the city of Ridgefield, Washington
James Smith (Kansas politician), Kansas Secretary of State
James H. Smith Jr. (1909–1982), U.S. Assistant Secretary of the Navy (AIR), 1953–1956, sailor and Olympic champion
James Horace Smith (1852–1931), mayor of Orlando
James Peyton Smith (1925–2006), Louisiana politician
James Vernon Smith (1926–1973), U.S. Representative from Oklahoma
James C. Smith (politician) (born 1941), former Florida Attorney General
James T. Smith Jr. (born 1942), American, County Executive of Baltimore County, Maryland
James E. Smith (politician, born 1930) (1930–2020), Comptroller of the Currency of the United States, 1973–1976
James E. Smith (Montana politician) (born 1948)
James E. Smith Jr. (born 1967), member of the South Carolina House of Representatives
James Smith (New Mexico politician), member of the New Mexico House of Representatives
James F. Smith (Michigan politician) (1923–2007), member of the Michigan House of Representatives
Canada
James Smith (1806–1868), lawyer, judge and political figure in Quebec
James Smith (Canada West politician) (1811–1874), lawyer, judge and politician in Canada West
James Sinclair Smith (1816–1897), Scottish-born Canadian politician
James Edward Smith (politician) (1831–1892), mayor of Toronto
James A. Smith (politician) (1911–1993), Canadian Member of Parliament
James Smith (Canadian politician) (1919–2017), former commissioner of the Yukon Territory, 1966–1976
Australia
James Smith (New South Wales politician) (1887–1962), former member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
James Thorneloe Smith (1825–1902), engineer and politician in Queensland, Australia
James Francis Smith (politician) (1844–1908), New South Wales politician
James Joynton Smith (1858–1943), Australian politician
James MacCallum Smith (1868–1939), Australian politician, newspaper proprietor and stock breeder
James Vinton Smith (1897–1952), Australian politician
United Kingdom
James Smith (1587–1667), alderman of the City of London
James Masterton-Smith (1878–1938), British civil servant
James Parker Smith (1854–1929), British Member of Parliament for Glasgow Partick, 1890–1906
Other countries
James Francis Smith (1859–1928), U.S. administrator, governor of the Philippines, 1906–1909
James Skivring Smith (1825–?), U.S.-born Vice President, 1870–1872, and interim President, 1871–1872, of Liberia
James Skivring Smith Jr. (1891–?), Liberian politician
James Alfred Smith, Chief Justice of the Bahamas
Religious scholars and leaders
James Smith (priest) (died 1667), Archdeacon of Barnstaple
James Smith (Vicar Apostolic of the Northern District) (1645–1711), English Roman Catholic vicar-apostolic
James Elishama Smith (1801–1857), British journalist and religious writer
James Allwood Smith (1806–1882), American minister and state legislator
James Smith (archbishop of St Andrews and Edinburgh) (1841–1928), Roman Catholic archbishop in Scotland
James E. Smith (biblical scholar) (born 1939), American biblical scholar
James K. A. Smith (born 1970), Canadian-American proponent of Radical Orthodoxy
James Tuttle Smith (1870–1910), rector of the Church of the Resurrection in Manhattan
Other
James Smith, a character in the film 8 Mile
James Smith (writer) (1775–1839), British humorist
James Smith (gardener) (died 1789), gardener who journeyed to New Holland (Australia) in 1789
James Smith (architect) (c. 1645–1731), Scottish architect
James Smith (Glasgow architect) (1808-1863) Scottish architect and father of Madeleine Smith
James Smith (inventor) (1789–1850), British
James Smith (journalist) (1820–1910), Australian journalist
James Smith (miner) (1827–1897), Australian miner
James Smith (draper) (1765-1823), Close friend of Robert Burns
James Smith (murderer) (1936–1962), English murderer
James Smith (sculptor) (1775-1815), English sculptor
James Allan Smith (1841–1918), fifth Dean of St David's
James B. Smith (born 1952), Dean of Engineering, Technology, and Aeronautics at Southern New Hampshire University; former US Ambassador to Saudi Arabia
James Cooray Smith (born 1978), British writer, critic and columnist
James E. Smith (engineer), computer engineer and professor at the University of Wisconsin–Madison
James Edward Smith (murderer) (1952–1990), American murderer executed in Texas
James J. Smith, American law enforcement officer
James Kellum Smith (1893–1961), American architect
James Lawrence Smith (died 1950), co-owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers baseball team
James Lindsay Smith (ca. 1816 – ca. 1883), American slave narrative author and minister
James Martin Smith (1892–1970), American civic, business, and religious leader in Arizona
James McCune Smith (1813–1865), American physician & activist
James Milton Smith (1823–1890), American soldier & politician
James Robert Smith (author) (born 1957), American author
James Thorne Smith (1892–1934), American author
James John Smith, Irish applied mathematician and electrical engineer
James Charles Smith, engineer
James Cowan Smith (1843–1919), British civil engineer and philanthropist
Places
James Smith Cree Nation, Saskatchewan, Canada
See also
Epitaph for James Smith, a 1785 satirical Scots epitaph written by poet Robert Burns
Jim Smith (disambiguation)
Jimmy Smith (disambiguation)
Jamie Smith (disambiguation)
James Smyth (disambiguation) | [
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261184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Stone | Thomas Stone | Thomas Stone (1743 – October 5, 1787) was an American Founding Father, planter, politician, and lawyer who signed the United States Declaration of Independence as a delegate for Maryland. He later worked on the committee that formed the Articles of Confederation in 1777. He acted as president of Congress for a short time in 1784. Stone was a member of the Maryland Senate from 1777 to 1780 and again from 1781 to 1787.
Early life and education
Stone was born into a prominent family at Poynton Manor in Charles County, Maryland. He was the second son in the large family of David (1709–1773) and Elizabeth Jenifer Stone. His brothers, Michael Jenifer Stone and John Hoskins Stone, were also prominent in politics. His uncle was Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer. Thomas read law at the office of Thomas Johnson in Annapolis, was admitted to the bar in 1764, and opened a practice in Frederick, Maryland.
Career
As the American Revolution neared, Stone joined the committee of correspondence for Charles County. From 1774 to 1776, he was a member of Maryland's Annapolis Convention. In 1775, the convention sent Stone as a delegate to the Continental Congress. He was re-elected and attended regularly for several years. On May 15, 1776, he voted in favor of drafting a declaration of independence, in spite of restrictions from the Maryland convention that prevented their delegates from supporting it. In June the restriction was lifted, so Maryland's delegates were free to vote for Independence. Previously, Stone had been in favor of opening diplomatic relations with Great Britain and not going to war, as he was not only a pacifist but a conservative reluctant to start a gruesome war.
That same year Stone was assigned to the committee that drafted the Articles of Confederation, and he was struck with a personal tragedy. His wife Margaret visited him in Philadelphia, which was in the midst of a smallpox epidemic. She was inoculated for the disease, but an adverse reaction to the treatment made her ill. Her health continued to decline for the rest of her life. After Stone signed the Declaration of Independence, he took his wife home and declined future appointment to the Congress, except for part of 1784, when the meetings were at Annapolis.
Stone accepted election to the Maryland Senate from 1779 until 1785, at first in order to promote the Articles of Confederation, which Maryland was the last state to approve. But he gave up the practice of law to care for his wife and children. As her health continued to decline, he gradually withdrew from public life. When Margaret died in 1787, he became depressed and died less than four months later in Alexandria, Virginia, reportedly of a "broken heart".
Stone was buried at his plantation home, which still stands. After his death, the plantation remained in the family for five generations until 1936 when it sold privately. In 1977 the main structure was severely damaged by fire. The National Park Service purchased the property and restored it to its original plans. Habredeventure today is the centerpiece of the Thomas Stone National Historic Site and is operated as a museum by the National Park Service.
Personal life
In 1768, Stone married Margaret Brown (1751–1787), the younger sister of Gustavus R. Brown (see Rose Hill), thought to be the richest man in the county. Soon after, Stone purchased his first 400 acres (1.6 km2) and began the construction of his estate named Habre de Venture. The family made their home there, and they had three children: Margaret (1771–1809), Mildred (1773–1837) and Fredrik (1774–1793). Stone's law practice kept him away from home, so he brought in his younger brother Michael to manage development of the plantation, which utilized slaves for generations.
Legacy and honors
The World War II Liberty Ship was named in his honor.
Thomas Stone High School – Charles County, Maryland public high school
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
See also
William Stone – relative and governor of the Maryland colony
John Hoskins Stone – brother and governor of Maryland
Peggy Stewart House – National Historic Landmark in Annapolis, Maryland, at one time owned by Thomas Stone
Barton W. Stone – cousin and prominent early leader of the Restoration Movement
Notes
External links
Thomas Stone National Historic Site website
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
1743 births
1787 deaths
Continental Congressmen from Maryland
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Politicians from Frederick, Maryland
American planters
American slave owners
Burials in Maryland
Maryland state senators
People from Charles County, Maryland
People from Port Tobacco Village, Maryland
Stone family
American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law
Jenifer family | [
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261185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Taylor%20%28Pennsylvania%20politician%29 | George Taylor (Pennsylvania politician) | George Taylor (c. 1716 – February 23, 1781) was an American iron master and politician who was a Founding Father of the United States and a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Pennsylvania. Today, his former home, the George Taylor House in Catasauqua, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, is a National Historic Landmark owned by the Borough of Catasauqua.
Early years in the Pennsylvania colony
Born in Ireland, Taylor emigrated to the American colonies at age 20, landing in Philadelphia in 1736. According to early 18th century biographies of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, he was the son of a Protestant clergyman. To pay for his passage, Taylor was indentured to Samuel Savage, Jr., who was ironmaster at Coventry Forge in Chester County northwest of Philadelphia. Taylor started as a laborer at the ironworks, but when it was discovered he had a certain degree of education, he was promoted to a position in the offices as a clerk.
Meanwhile, in 1738, Savage and his mother Anna Savage Nutt built a second mill in Chester County, Warwick Furnace. Three years later, Savage died, and the following year, Taylor married Savage's widow, Ann, whose maiden name was also Taylor. Having learned the iron-making operations, Taylor became ironmaster, managing the two ironworks for the next 10 years. When Ann's son Samuel III reached legal age in 1752, the son assumed ownership of the mills in accordance with the terms of his father's will.
The Taylors continued to live at Warwick Furnace until 1755 when Taylor formed a partnership to lease the Durham Furnace in Upper Bucks County north of Philadelphia. The ironworks, built in 1727, was started by a group of investors who were among Pennsylvania's wealthiest and most influential men, including James Logan, proprietor of the Pennsylvania colony for the Penn family, and William Allen, later the colony's Chief Justice and founder of Allentown (then Northampton Town).
Public life as a revolution approaches
Shortly after becoming ironmaster at Durham, Taylor entered public life for the first time, serving as a justice of the peace in Bucks County from 1757–63. When the lease for the Durham mill expired, the Taylors relocated to Easton, the county seat of Northampton County where they purchased a stone house near the center of town and built a stable nearby. Continuing his interest in public affairs, Taylor was commissioned as a justice of the peace in Northampton County, was elected to the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly and also helped build a new county courthouse in Easton's center square.
In 1767, Taylor purchased near Allentown at Biery's Port (now part of the borough of Catasauqua). The house was completed in 1768, but shortly after the Taylors moved in, Ann died. Taylor continued living here for the next several years, and for a time, leased half of the property for farming. In 1776, two years after moving back to Durham, he sold the estate. Two centuries later, on July 17, 1971, the George Taylor House was designated as a National Historical Landmark.
While still at Biery's Port, Taylor arranged another lease to operate the Durham ironworks in 1774. The ironworks had just been acquired by Joseph Galloway, a Philadelphia attorney and speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly (1766–74). After failing to gain support in the First Continental Congress for his plan to avert a break with England, Galloway resigned as speaker and refused to attend the Second Continental Congress in 1775. Taylor, meanwhile, was re-elected to the Assembly in 1775 and attended the Provincial Convention on January 23. In July, as colonial forces prepared for war, he was commissioned as a colonel in the Third Battalion of the Pennsylvania Militia.
Two weeks later, on August 2, Taylor secured a contract with Pennsylvania's Committee of Safety for cannon shot. On August 25, with a shipment of 258 round balls weighing from 18 to 32 pounds each, Durham Furnace became the first ironworks in Pennsylvania to supply munitions to the Continental Army.
Signer of the Declaration of Independence
In 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence on July 2 and adopted the Declaration of Independence two days later, July 4. Before the vote for independence, five of Pennsylvania's delegates, all loyalists, were forced to resign. On July 20, Taylor was among the replacements appointed by the Assembly.
One of his first duties as a member of Congress was to affix his signature to the Declaration of Independence, which he did on August 2, along with most delegates. Of the 56 signers, he was one of only eight who were foreign born, the only one to have been indentured and the only one to hold the position of ironmaster.
Final years
Taylor's service in the Congress was brief, just under seven months. On February 17, 1777, when the Assembly appointed a new Pennsylvania delegation, Taylor was one of seven signers from Pennsylvania who were not among those re-nominated. Instead, in March, he was appointed to Pennsylvania's Supreme Executive Council, which was formed to govern the province under its new constitution. Taylor attended all of the council's daily meetings from March 4 through April 5, but fell ill and was bedridden for more than a month. He subsequently retired from the council, calling an end to his public career.
Taylor continued to oversee production of cannon shot and shells at Durham Furnace for the Continental Army and Navy. Not long after independence was declared, however, Joseph Galloway fled Philadelphia, first seeking refuge with British Gen. William Howe and later escaping to England. Galloway was subsequently convicted by the Assembly as a traitor, and his properties, including the Durham mill, were seized.
Taylor filed an appeal with the Supreme Executive Council that enabled him to finish out the first five years of his lease, but in 1779, the Commissioner of Forfeited Estates sold Durham Furnace to a new owner. Forming yet another partnership, Taylor leased the Greenwich Forge in what is now Warren County, New Jersey. In failing health, however, he moved back to Easton in April 1780 and died there on February 23, 1781, at the age of 65.
The Taylors' personal lives
Almost nothing is known of George Taylor's life before his arrival in Philadelphia in 1736, although there is general agreement regarding northern Ireland (possibly Ulster) as his birthplace. Ann Taylor's lineage, however, is well documented. Her grandfather, John Taylor, came to Pennsylvania from Wiltshire, England, in 1684 and became Surveyor General of Chester County, which then accounted for about one-third of the colony. Later, her father, Isaac Taylor, served as Chester's Deputy Surveyor General. Ann's family belonged to the Society of Friends, but she was disowned as a Quaker in 1733 for her marriage "outside the circle" to Samuel Savage, Jr.
George and Ann Taylor had two children: a daughter Ann, who was called Nancy and died sometime during childhood, and a son James, who was born at Warwick Furnace in 1746. James studied law after his parents moved to Easton in 1763. In 1767, he married Elizabeth Gordon, the 17-year-old daughter of Lewis Gordon, Easton's first resident attorney. The couple initially lived in Easton but moved to Allentown, where James practiced law until his death in 1775. James and his wife had five children: George, Thomas, James, Jr., Ann and Mary.
Taylor’s will and final resting place
George Taylor's will was filed in January 1781, the month before his death, and was entered into probate in Northampton County on March 10. Taylor bequeathed £500 to George, his eldest grandchild, and another £500 to Naomi Smith, his housekeeper, "in Consideration of her great Care & Attendance on me for a Number of Years."
The remainder of Taylor's estate was to be divided equally between the grandchildren and five children he fathered with Naomi Smith: Sarah, Rebecca, Naomi, Elizabeth and Edward. Apparently, none of these bequests were ever fulfilled. Taylor had been experiencing financial difficulties in the last few years of his life, and legal entanglements over the Durham and Greenwich forges dragged on until 1799, at which point his estate was judged insolvent.
George Taylor was buried in St. John's Lutheran Church cemetery across from his residence at Fourth and Ferry Streets in Easton. The house he leased in his final days is now known as the Parsons-Taylor House. It was built by Easton founder William Parsons in 1753 and is today the city's oldest house. When the church property was sold in 1870 for construction of a public school, Taylor was re-interred at Easton Cemetery. Local residents dedicated a monument there in Taylor's honor in 1855, and his body now rests in front of the memorial.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
External links
The George Taylor House- Catasauqua
Durham Historical Society Official Web Site
National Historic Landmarks Program, National Park Service
Historic Catasauqua Preservation Society
Historical Marker database-HMdb George Taylor Marker
1716 births
1781 deaths
American Presbyterians
Continental Congressmen from Pennsylvania
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Members of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly
Foundrymen
People from Lehigh County, Pennsylvania
Kingdom of Ireland emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
People of colonial Pennsylvania
Presbyterians from Pennsylvania
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261186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%20Thornton | Matthew Thornton | Matthew Thornton (March 3, 1714 – June 24, 1803) was an Irish-born Founding Father of the United States who signed the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of New Hampshire.
Background and early life
Thornton was born in Ireland in 1714 to James and Elizabeth (née Jenkins) Thornton, who were Scots-Irish. At the time of the Siege of Derry in 1689, James Thornton lived on a farm within a mile of Derry and this is where Matthew was probably born, although Lisburn and Limerick have also been suggested as birthplaces.
In 1716, Thornton's family immigrated to North America when he was three years old, settling first in Wiscasset, Maine. On July 11, 1722, the community was attacked by Native Americans. James and Elizabeth Thornton fled from their burning home with Matthew, moving shortly thereafter to Worcester, Massachusetts. Thornton completed studies in medicine at Leicester. He became a physician and established a medical practice in Londonderry, New Hampshire. He was appointed as a surgeon for the New Hampshire Militia troops in an expedition against Fortress Louisbourg in 1745. He served in the New Hampshire Provincial Assembly from 1758-1762, had royal commissions as justice of the peace, and served as colonel in the militia from 1775 until his resignation in 1779.
In 1760 Thornton married Hannah Jack, and the couple had five children. Thornton became a Londonderry selectman, a representative to and President of the Provincial Assembly, and a member of the Committee of Safety, drafting New Hampshire's plan of government after dissolution of the royal government, which was the first state constitution adopted after the start of hostilities with England.
Continental Congress
He served as the President of the New Hampshire Provincial Congress in 1775, and from January to September 1776, as Speaker of the New Hampshire House of Representatives. He was elected to the Continental Congress after the debates on independence had occurred, but as he did not arrive in Philadelphia until November 1776, he was granted permission to actually sign the Declaration of Independence four months after the formal signing in July.
Later life
He became a political essayist. He retired from his medical practice and in 1780 moved to Merrimack, New Hampshire, where he farmed and operated Thornton's ferry with his family. Although he did not attend law school, he served as a judge on the New Hampshire Superior Court from 1776-1782.
In 1783, Thornton represented the towns of Merrimack and Bedford in the New Hampshire House of Representatives, and then Hillsborough County in the New Hampshire Senate from 1784-1787, while simultaneously serving as a State Councillor from 1785–86, and as a state representative again for Merrimack in 1786. His wife Hannah (Jack) Thornton died in 1786.
Thornton died in Newburyport, Massachusetts, while visiting his daughter. He was 90 years old. Matthew Thornton is buried in Thornton Cemetery in Merrimack, and his cenotaph reads "The Honest Man."
Legacy and family
The town of Thornton, New Hampshire, is named in his honor, as is a Londonderry elementary school, and Thorntons Ferry School in Merrimack. Thornton's residence in Derry, which was part of Londonderry at the time, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. He is featured on a New Hampshire historical marker (number 79) along U.S. Route 3 in Merrimack.
Thornton was the uncle of Capt. Matthew Thornton, a suspected Loyalist who was charged with treason related to actions just before the Battle of Bennington in 1777. Ebenezer Webster, father of Daniel Webster, was enlisted to investigate the allegation. At his trial Capt. Thornton pleaded not guilty. Evidence was presented both for and against and the jury found him not guilty, whereupon he was discharged.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Further reading
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
External links
1714 births
Date of birth unknown
1803 deaths
Place of death missing
Continental Congressmen from New Hampshire
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
People of colonial New Hampshire
People of New Hampshire in the American Revolution
Politicians from Newburyport, Massachusetts
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
Members of the New Hampshire House of Representatives
New Hampshire state court judges
People from Derry, New Hampshire
People from Merrimack, New Hampshire
19th-century American Episcopalians | [
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261187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Walton | George Walton | George Walton (c. 1749 – February 2, 1804), a Founding Father of the United States, signed the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Georgia and also served as the second Chief Executive of Georgia.
Life and work
George Walton was born in Cumberland County, Virginia. The exact year of Walton's birth is unknown; it is believed that he was born in 1749. Research has placed it as early as 1740, others as late as 1749 and 1750. The biographer of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Della Gray Bartholomew, uses the date of 1741. His parents died when he was an infant, resulting in his adoption by an uncle with whom he entered apprenticeship as a carpenter. Walton was a studious young man, but his uncle actively discouraged all study, believing a studious boy to be an idle one. Walton continued studying and once his apprenticeship ended, he moved to Savannah, Georgia, in 1769 to study law under a Mr. Young, and was admitted to the bar in 1774. His brother was John Walton.
By the eve of the American Revolution, he was one of the most successful lawyers in Georgia. He became an advocate of the patriot cause and was elected Secretary of the Georgia Provincial Congress and became president of the Council of Safety. In 1776 he served as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, a position he held until the end of 1778. On July 2, 1776, he voted in favor of the Declaration of Independence for Georgia along with Button Gwinnett and Lyman Hall.
During the American Revolutionary War, he was in the battalion of General Robert Howe. On January 9, 1778, Walton received a commission as colonel of the First Georgia Regiment of Militia. During the Battle of Savannah in 1778 led by Archibald Campbell, Walton was injured in the battle and taken prisoner. He was hit in the thigh by a ball that threw him from his horse. He was subsequently captured by the British, who allowed his wound to heal before sending him to Sunbury Prison, where other colonial prisoners were held. Walton was eventually exchanged in October 1779.
Walton's brother, John, signed the Articles of Confederation for Georgia in 1778, along with Edward Telfair and Edward Langworthy.
In October 1779, Walton was elected Governor of Georgia for the first time, a position he held for only two months. In November 1795, he was appointed to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of James Jackson. Walton served in that position from November 16, 1795, to February 20, 1796, until a successor, Josiah Tattnall, was officially elected.
He was a political ally of the Scottish General Lachlan McIntosh and a foe of Button Gwinnett. He and Gwinnett's political battles resulted in his expulsion from office and indictment for various criminal activities. He was later censured for his support of a duel that resulted in Button Gwinnett's death by Lachlan McIntosh.
Walton was in favor of the Yazoo land sales, the massive real estate fraud perpetrated in the mid-1790s by Georgia governor George Mathews and the Georgia General Assembly. The scandal brought James Jackson home from the U.S. Senate to lead a reform movement. Appointed to fill the vacant seat, a feud erupted between Jackson and Walton over the sale of land to speculators. Jackson won, and Walton, who supported the sales, left the office.
In 1788, Alexander McGillivray and other Creek Indian leaders met with Georgia leaders at Rock Landing, but the meeting failed to result in a peace treaty. This led Governor Walton to worry that "our prospects of peace have been obliged to yield to the impressions of war." Walton wrote to Colonel Jared Irwin, expressing both his concern and his surprise at the recent Indian depredations near the Oconee River. Although a treaty was not signed at Rock Landing, eventually the Treaty of New York (1790) ceded Creek lands to the state of Georgia.
During the 1780s, Walton devoted himself almost exclusively to Georgia state politics. He served not only as chief justice but also as a commissioner to negotiate a treaty with the Cherokee Indians (1783), a member of the Augusta Board of Commissioners (1784 and 1785), and a commissioner to settle the border dispute between South Carolina and Georgia (1786). He was elected as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in 1787 but declined, as his commitments at the state level occupied his time to the exclusion of all else. In 1789 he was a presidential elector and served at the state convention to adopt a new constitution. Walton was elected to a second term as governor in 1789 and served for one year. During his term, Georgians adopted the new state constitution, moved the capital to Augusta (where Walton himself had moved in the 1780s), and concentrated on settling the western frontier. After completing his tenure as governor, Walton served as a judge of the superior court from 1790 until his death. He also filled the unexpired term of James Jackson in the U.S. Senate in 1795–1796. He was a founder and trustee of the Academy of Richmond County in Augusta and of Franklin College (now the University of Georgia) in Athens.
Offices held
The offices he held were:
Continental Congress (1776–1778)
Colonel of the First Georgia Militia (1778)
Governor of Georgia (1779–1780)
U.S. Congress (1780–1781)
Chief Justice of Georgia (1783–1789)
Governor of Georgia (1789–1790)
U.S. Senator (1795–1796)
Death
During his second term as governor, he built Meadow Garden, a cottage constructed on confiscated Tory land outside of Augusta, where he died. He was survived by his wife Dorothy, née Camber, whom he had married in 1775, and one of his two sons. He was initially buried at Rosney, home of his nephew Robert Watkins; however, he was re-interred in 1848 beneath the Signers Monument in front of the courthouse on Greene Street in Augusta.
Legacy
Walton County, which is about 30 miles east of the city of Atlanta, is named for him. There are also at least two schools that bear his name: George Walton Comprehensive High School in Marietta, Georgia and George Walton Academy, a private school in Monroe, Georgia.
His son George Walton, Jr., was the first Secretary of the Territory of Florida. He was also the first civilian to serve in the role of governor of the territory, being named as Acting Governor until the arrival of William Duval. Walton County, Florida is named for him.
His granddaughter, Octavia Walton Le Vert, was a noted socialite and author.
His great nephew Thomas George Walton built Creekside near Morganton, North Carolina.
Even though George Walton was from Georgia and Virginia, he is one of the few signers of the Declaration of Independence who did not own slaves.
See also
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
Deaton, Stan. "George Walton (ca. 1749-1804)." New Georgia Encyclopedia. 6 January 2016. Web. 17 May 2016.
Notes
1749 births
1804 deaths
18th-century American politicians
19th-century American politicians
Continental Congressmen from Georgia (U.S. state)
Governors of Georgia (U.S. state)
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
United States senators from Georgia (U.S. state)
Members of the Georgia House of Representatives
Georgia (U.S. state) militiamen in the American Revolution
Georgia (U.S. state) lawyers
University of Georgia people
People of Georgia (U.S. state) in the American Revolution
Burials in Georgia (U.S. state)
People from Cumberland County, Virginia
Politicians from Augusta, Georgia
American people of Welsh descent
Georgia (U.S. state) Democratic-Republicans
Georgia (U.S. state) Federalists
Georgia (U.S. state) Independents
Federalist Party United States senators
Independent state governors of the United States
Democratic-Republican Party state governors of the United States | [
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261188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Whipple | William Whipple | William Whipple Jr. (January 25, 1731 NS [January 14, 1730 OS] – November 28, 1785) was an American Founding Father and signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence. He represented New Hampshire as a member of the Continental Congress from 1776 through 1779. He worked as both a ship's captain and a merchant, and he studied in college to become a judge. He died of heart complications in 1785, aged 55.
Early life and education
Whipple was born in Kittery, Massachusetts Bay (that portion which is now in Maine) in the William Whipple House to Captain William Whipple Sr. and his wife Mary (née Cutt), and educated at a common school until he went off to sea, and he became a Ship's Master at age 21. He married his first cousin Catherine Moffat in 1767, and they moved into the Moffatt-Ladd House on Market Street in Portsmouth in 1769. Their son William Whipple III died in infancy. Whipple was a descendant of Samuel Appleton, early settler in Ipswich, Massachusetts.
Whipple earned his fortune participating in the Triangle trade of the West Indies and Africa, with cargo such as wood, rum, and enslaved humans. He established himself as a merchant in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1759, in partnership with his brother Joseph (1738–1816).
Political career
In 1775, New Hampshire dissolved the British Royal government and organized a House of Representatives and an Executive Council known collectively as a Provincial Congress, and Whipple was elected to represent Portsmouth, New Hampshire. He became a member of the Committee of Safety. He was then elected to the Continental Congress, and he signed the United States Declaration of Independence. He was also the second cousin of fellow signatory Stephen Hopkins. In January 1776, Whipple wrote to fellow signatory Josiah Bartlett of the approaching convention:
This year, my Friend, is big with mighty events. Nothing less than the fate of America depends on the virtue of her sons, and if they do not have virtue enough to support the most Glorious Cause ever human beings were engaged in, they don't deserve the blessings of freedom.
Whipple freed his enslaved servant, Prince Whipple, believing that no man could fight for freedom and hold another in bondage. He wrote:
A recommendation is gone thither for raising some regiments of Blacks. This, I suppose will lay a foundation for the emancipation of those wretches in that country. I hope it will be the means of dispensing the blessings of Freedom to all the human race in America.
Military career
Whipple was given his first commission by the New Hampshire Provincial Congress in 1777. At Saratoga, Whipple was placed in command of a brigade, consisting of four regiments of militia. Whipple commanded Bellow's regiment, Chase's regiment, Moore's regiment, and Welch's regiment. As a result of their meritorious conduct at the Battle of Saratoga, Whipple and Colonel James Wilkinson were then chosen by Major General Horatio Gates to determine terms of capitulation with two representatives of General John Burgoyne. Whipple then signed the Convention of Saratoga, the effective surrender of General Burgoyne and his troops. Whipple was then appointed along with several other officers to escort Burgoyne and his army back to Winter Hill, Somerville, Massachusetts. Whipple passed the news of the victory at Saratoga to Captain John Paul Jones, who informed Benjamin Franklin, who was in Paris at the time. News of the victory proved valuable to Franklin throughout alliance negotiations with the French. In 1778, Whipple followed his commanding officer, General John Sullivan to the Battle of Rhode Island, where he commanded Evans' regiment, Peabody's regiment, and Langdon's light horse regiment. After General Sullivan ordered retreat, Whipple and other officers resided in a house near the battlefield. The approaching enemy fired a field piece from a range of three-quarters of a mile. The shot first tore through a horse lashed outside the house before severely wounding the leg of one of Whipple's brigade majors, which later required amputation.
Death
After the war, Whipple became an Associate Justice of the Superior Court of New Hampshire. He suffered from a heart ailment, and died after fainting from atop his horse while traveling his court circuit. He was buried in what is now the North Cemetery in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. His headstone was replaced with a new memorial in 1976 in conjunction with the United States Bicentennial.
See also
New Hampshire Historical Marker No. 114: North Cemetery
William Whipple House, his birthplace in Kittery
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
References
Further reading
State Builders: An Illustrated Historical and Biographical Record of the State of New Hampshire. State Builders Publishing Manchester, NH 1903
Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence. By Rev. Charles A. goodrich, published by William Reed & Co. New York 1829
External links
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
Burial site of William Whipple
Genealogical Reference
Colonial Hall
William Whipple and the Declaration of Independence.
1730 births
1785 deaths
Continental Congressmen from New Hampshire
18th-century American politicians
Militia generals in the American Revolution
New Hampshire militiamen in the American Revolution
Politicians from Portsmouth, New Hampshire
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
People of colonial New Hampshire
People of New Hampshire in the American Revolution
People of colonial Maine
Appleton family
American people of English descent
American Congregationalists
American slave owners
People from Kittery, Maine
People of pre-statehood Maine
Burials in New Hampshire | [
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261191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Wythe | George Wythe | George Wythe (; December 3, 1726 – June 8, 1806) was the first American law professor, a noted classics scholar, a Founding Father of the United States and a Virginia judge. The first of the seven Virginia signatories of the United States Declaration of Independence, Wythe served as one of Virginia's representatives to the Continental Congress and the Philadelphia Convention. Wythe taught and was a mentor to Thomas Jefferson, John Marshall, Henry Clay and other men who became American leaders.
Born into a wealthy Virginia planter family, Wythe established a legal career in Williamsburg, Virginia after studying under his uncle. He became a member of the House of Burgesses in 1754 and helped oversee defense expenditures during the French and Indian War. He opposed the Stamp Act of 1765 and other British taxes imposed on the Thirteen Colonies. He became increasingly alienated from British rule, and represented Virginia in the Second Continental Congress, where he signed the Declaration of Independence. He was also a delegate to Virginia's 1776 constitutional convention and helped design the Seal of Virginia. Wythe was a delegate to the 1787 Philadelphia Convention and served on a committee that established the convention's rules and procedures. He left the convention before signing the United States Constitution to tend to his dying wife. He was elected to the Virginia Ratifying Convention and helped ensure that his home state ratified the Constitution.
Wythe served as a judge for much of his life, first as a justice of the peace and then on the Virginia Court of Chancery. He was also a prominent law professor at the College of William & Mary and took on several notable apprentices. He remained particularly close to Jefferson and left Jefferson his substantial book collection in his will. Wythe became increasingly troubled by slavery in his later years and emancipated 4 of his slaves before his death. After Wythe's death in 1806, his grand-nephew was tried and acquitted for Wythe's murder.
Early life and education
Wythe was born on December 3, 1726, at Chesterville, the plantation operated by three generations of the Wythe family in what was then Elizabeth City County but is now Hampton, Virginia. His maternal great-grandfather was George Keith, a Quaker minister and early opponent of African slavery, who returned to the Church of England but was sent back as a missionary to the East Coast before ultimately returning to England. His mother, Margaret Walker of Kecoughtan, a learned woman probably raised as a Quaker, instilled a love of learning in her son. In his later years, Wythe became known for his outdated Quaker dress, as well as his gentle manner, which could cause even a surly dog to "unbend and wag his tail." After the early death of his father, Wythe probably attended grammar school in Williamsburg before beginning legal training in the office of his uncle, Stephen Dewey, in Prince George County.
Career
Wythe was admitted to the bar in Elizabeth City County in 1746, the same year in which his mother died. He then moved to Spotsylvania County to begin legal practice in several Piedmont counties. He soon married the daughter of his mentor, Zachary Lewis. However, Ann Wythe died on August 10, 1748, about eight months after their Christmas season marriage. The childless and bereaved widower soon returned to Williamsburg. There, Wythe made law and scholarship his life, as he began what would become a distinguished career in public service. His motto was "Secundis dubiisque rectus", translated as "Upright in prosperity and perils."
Colonial politician, lawyer and mentor
In October 1748, family connections (Benjamin Waller was related to Zachary Lewis) probably helped Wythe secure his first government job, as clerk to two powerful committees of the House of Burgesses, Privileges and Elections and Propositions and Grievances. Wythe also continued to practice law before those committees and the General Court in Williamsburg, as was permitted at the time. In 1750, Wythe was first elected as one of Williamsburg's aldermen. Wythe also briefly served as the king's attorney general in 1754–1755, appointed by lieutenant governor Robert Dinwiddie while Peyton Randolph traveled to London on the burgesses' behalf to appeal Dinwiddie's charging a one pistole fee to affix an official seal to land patents. Wythe resigned when Randolph returned from his unsuccessful mission. Lieutenant governor Robert Dinwiddie returned to England less than three years after Peyton Randolph's return.
Meanwhile, Wythe began his legislative career, while still maintaining a private law practice. In the session of August 22, 1754, Wythe replaced the deceased Armistead Burwell as the burgess representing Williamsburg. In 1755, Wythe's elder brother, Thomas, died, childless. Wythe inherited the family's Chesterville plantation and was soon appointed to his brother's (and formerly his father's) place on the Elizabeth City County court.
However, Wythe probably continued to live in Williamsburg, for his legislative work continued, and he married Elizabeth Taliaferro. Her father, planter Richard Taliaferro, built a house for them in Williamsburg, which is still called the George Wythe House even though Wythe only had a life estate in the property after Taliaferro's death. Wythe served as Williamsburg's delegate through the sessions of 1754 and 1755 (but not in the sessions of the Assembly of 1756–1758). During that gap, Wythe was reappointed clerk to the committees on Privileges and Elections and Propositions and Grievances, as well as to the Committee for Courts of Justice, and in 1759 to the Committee of Correspondence (with the colony's agent in England). In 1759, The College of William and Mary elected Wythe as its burgess to replace Peyton Randolph, and reelected Wythe in 1760 and 1761. Wythe helped oversee defense expenditures related to the French and Indian War, and later with Richard Henry Lee retirement of the paper money issued to fund the war, which became a scandal in 1766, as discussed below. For the Assemblies of 1761, 1765 and 1767, Wythe was one of the two burgesses representing Elizabeth City County.
Although known for his modesty and quiet dignity, Wythe eventually gained a radical reputation for his opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765 and later attempts by the British government to regulate the overseas colony. Meanwhile, Wythe maintained close friendships with successive Governors, Francis Fauquier and Norborne Berkeley, 4th Baron Botetourt. Wythe also earned a reputation for personal integrity, which years later led Rev. Lee Massey to call Wythe "the only honest lawyer I ever knew." Fauquier, Wythe and college professor William Small often socialized together—conversing about philosophy, natural history, languages, history and other matters. In 1762, Small suggested Wythe supervise the legal training of a star student, Thomas Jefferson, which had profound impact that went beyond their lives.
In the summer of 1766, three events occurred which profoundly influenced Wythe, Jefferson and several other Virginians who became Founding Fathers and insisted upon the separation of powers between three branches of the new government. When John Robinson, the powerful speaker of the House of Burgesses, died, his estate was nearly insolvent (with many debts, as well as outstanding loans), and the accounts Robinson kept as Treasurer were also irregular. Instead of destroying redeemed paper currency after the French and Indian War, Robinson had lent it to his political supporters (fellow southern Virginia planters). Keeping the money in circulation helped these allies pay their own debts, but also tended to devalue the currency, as well as defied the redemption laws the legislature had passed. Robinson's executors kept the names of the politically powerful loan beneficiaries secret for decades, but did not manage to end the John Robinson estate scandal before the century itself ended. Moreover, on June 20, 1766, Colonel John Chiswell, father of Robinson's widow and business partner of Robinson, governor Fauquier and William Byrd III, killed merchant Robert Routledge (to whom he owed money) at the Cumberland Court House. Indicted for murder, Chiswell was brought under armed guard to Williamsburg for trial in the next session of the General Court (which included many men from distant counties who also served as Burgesses and was thus usually held at the same time). Before the group reached the Williamsburg jail, three judges (John Blair, Presley Thornton and Byrd) stopped them on the street and allowed Chiswell to post bail until September, since the next court session began in October.
Meanwhile, the publisher of the Virginia Gazette had died. When it became clear in the spring of 1766 that the Stamp Act was not going to be enforced, two printers set up shops in Williamsburg. Both papers thrived in the ensuing controversies. On July 4, Judge Blair explained in a published letter that the judges had relied upon assurances of "three eminent Lawyers" that they could grant Chiswell bail, as well as two depositions that Routledge had run himself on Chiswell's sword, while stressing that the high bail of 6,000 pounds sterling could be recovered should Chiswell fail to show for trial. In response, 'Dikephilos' wrote that his own investigation agreed that Routledge had been drunk, but Chiswell was not, and further that neither deponent favoring Chiswell had witnessed the brawl. He predicted popular violence if the trial unfairly favored the aristocratic defendant. More published letters followed. On August 1, Wythe identified himself in print as one of the consulted lawyers and said his opinion had been limited to the legal bail issue. After Chiswell returned to Williamsburg in September, his attorney John Wayles published the two depositions given to the judges, which proved to be from Wayles himself and the Cumberland undersheriff. Judge Blair was furious when Wayles added a detail to the published copy of his own deposition (which he had gotten from the court records), apparently in order to track the undersheriff's deposition. Judge Byrd, on the other hand, joined with Wayles to demand a libel indictment against Col. Robert Bolling, Jr., claiming Bolling wrote the anonymous criticism of the bailment published on July 11. The grand jury refused, issuing a no-bill instead. However, Wythe's sterling reputation may have been tarnished. When the assembly reconvened, Robert Carter Nicholas was appointed treasurer, Peyton Randolph became speaker, and his brother John Randolph became king's attorney general, a post to which Wythe had aspired. Chiswell died unexpectedly in his Williamsburg home on October 15, before his trial could begin. Jefferson decades later in his Kentucky Resolution echoed the anonymous 'Virginia Gazette' writer of September 12, 1766, who stated, "Distrust, the parent of security, is a political virtue of unspeakable utility."
Wythe continued his thriving legal practice with Jefferson's assistance. In 1767, Wythe introduced Jefferson to the bar of the General Court, and was himself appointed clerk to the House of Burgesses. The following year, Wythe wrote the colony's London agent to secure copies of the burgesses' complete journals from the colony's founding until 1752, which were supposed to be transmitted annually to the king, secretary of state and Lords of Trade, stressing "it be not made public nor attended with great expense." The secrecy may have related to continuing unrest in Massachusetts against the Townshend Acts or the administrative interregnum between Fauquier's death in March and Botetourt's arrival in October. Wythe also ordered printed journals of the House of Commons and case law books from London. Wythe's social standing remained high, for fellow aldermen elected him Williamsburg's mayor for the 1768 to 1769 term. Fellow parishioners also elected Wythe to the vestry of Bruton Parish Church in 1769.
Botetourt arrived on October 26, 1768, as Virginia's first governor to rule the colony in person in sixty years. Although Botetourt dissolved the House of Burgesses the following spring, following a royal order to all colonial governors after protests in Massachusetts against the Townshend Acts, Wythe managed to stave off the governor's clerk so the delegates could publish a resolution of protest before receiving the dissolution order. The burgesses then repaired to the Raleigh Tavern, where they passed the Virginia Nonimportation Resolutions on May 18, 1769. Some speculate that Wythe's own status as clerk kept his name off that document. In any event, the burgesses gave a spectacular party for Botetourt that Christmas, and his funeral ceremonies the following fall were the most elaborate in Virginia history. They also voted for a marble statue of the governor to be erected at public expense.
Revolution
The next royal governor, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, brought Wythe and Virginia to and past the brink of revolution. Dunmore arrived in Williamsburg from New York on September 26, 1771. Rumors of his year as the other colony's governor, which included accusations of graft and companions roughing up local judges, soon followed. Although some cheered his military offensive against the Indians (later known as Lord Dunmore's War) as strengthening Virginia's land claims, Wythe, Jefferson and many others soon took offense at Dunmore's haughty personality. Dunmore attempted to govern without the burgesses, but counterfeiting and other money troubles forced him to convene the Assembly in early 1773. Delegates began by voicing concerns that suspects in the burning of the revenue vessel 'Gaspee' in Rhode Island could be tried in England. When on March 3, 1773, they resolved to establish a Committee of Correspondence, Dunmore prorogued (postponed) the assembly. Moreover, Parliament passed the Tea Act in May, 1773 and on December 16, the Sons of Liberty had the Boston Tea Party. Dunmore tried to reconvene the delegates the following May. On May 24, 1774, the House of Burgesses passed a resolution declaring June 1 as a day of fasting and prayer, which resolution Wythe signed and posted. Enraged, Dunmore dissolved the assembly. The delegates moved to conduct their business at the Raleigh Tavern, and meet again mid-March in Richmond.
Wythe attended the Second Virginia Convention as Williamsburg's representative. The meeting was held in St. John's Episcopal Church, in whose graveyard Wythe would be buried about three decades later. Patrick Henry stirred the delegates with his "Give me liberty or give me death" speech. The delegates agreed to convene militia, and the prospect of armed resistance caused Dunmore to try to remove military supplies from Williamsburg to the British naval ships offshore. Wythe enlisted in the militia immediately upon returning home. In the Gunpowder Incident of April 20, 1775, Peyton Randolph, Robert Carter Nicholas and Carter Braxton helped defuse Henry's attempt to force return of the gunpowder by negotiating payment from Dunmore.
On May 10, 1775, the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia. When war seemed inevitable, Wythe was elected as Virginia's delegate to replace George Washington, who took command of the continental forces. George and Elizabeth Wythe moved to Philadelphia by September, and were inoculated against smallpox, as were fellow delegate Francis Lightfoot Lee and his lady and others. By October, Thomas Jefferson had rejoined the Congress to work with his former teacher and the other delegates although personal tragedy forced him to leave for five months in the winter and spring. Wythe accepted many assignments relating to military, currency and other matters. He, John Dickinson and John Jay also went to New Jersey that winter and convinced that colony's assembly to maintain a united front. When petitions and other attempts failed to resolve the crisis by the following summer while Dunmore's raiders harassed Virginia settlements from its waterways, Wythe moved and then voted in favor of the resolution for independence that Jefferson had drafted upon his return. His fellow Virginia delegates in Philadelphia held Wythe in such esteem that they left the first space open for him when they signed the Declaration of Independence. Moreover, John Adams, who did not like many Virginians, thought so highly of Wythe that he wrote "Thoughts on Government" concerning the establishment of postwar constitutions for state governments. Earlier in the session, Wythe had also exchanged humorous verses with his friend and delegate William Ellery of Rhode Island despite their political differences. Wythe thus signed the Declaration of Independence upon his (and his wife's) return to Philadelphia in September. The signers' names were not made public until the following January, for all knew the declaration was an act of treason, punishable by death should their rebellion fail.
As did many of the founding fathers, Wythe paid dearly for supporting independence. The farmer to whom he had leased Chesterville, Hamilton Usher St. George, proved to be a British spy, although acquitted of those charges on April 23, 1776. As documented in British archives, St. George invited British raiding parties that not only damaged neighboring plantations, but also Williamsburg and other settlements along the James River. British troops encamped at Portsmouth went on raids such as the skirmish at Waters Creek. In January 1781, Benedict Arnold led British raiders that forced Governor Thomas Jefferson to flee Richmond, and fires were set that burned the fledgling state capital and destroyed many colonial records. Just weeks earlier, on New Year's Eve, Wythe had reportedly helped scare another raiding party back to their British ship. Finally, four boatloads of neighbors attacked Hamilton St. George at his house on Hog Island on September 21, 1781, forcing him to flee to Chesterville and ultimately New York and England. Chesterville sustained damage before Wythe evicted Mrs. St. George in order to move into the house with Elizabeth while French allies used their Williamsburg home. During the Yorktown campaign which led to General Cornwallis' surrender, American and French troops camped at Williamsburg, and Count Rochambeau occupied the George Wythe house. On December 21, 1781, fire burned down the Governor's Palace and also destroyed a wing of the college which included Wythe's beloved library and physics instruments.
Founding Father
Hurrying back to Virginia from Philadelphia, on June 23, 1776, Wythe began helping Virginia establish its new state government. Virginia's constitutional convention had begun months earlier (and had voted on May 15 to instruct its federal delegates to move toward a declaration of independence). Despite his late arrival, Wythe served on a committee with George Mason which jointly designed the Seal of Virginia, inscribed with the motto Sic Semper Tyrannis, which remains in use today. The reverse side shows three Roman goddesses, Libertas surrounded by Ceres and Aeternitas. Wythe's most noteworthy contributions in establishing the new state government began when he again returned from Philadelphia that winter. Wythe served on a committee with Thomas Jefferson and Edmund Pendleton to revise and codify its laws, and also helped establish the new state court system. Although few of their 100+ separate proposed bills were ever passed, some concepts such as religious freedom, public records access, and education became important concepts in the new republic, as did the concept of intermediate appellate courts. When a fall incapacitated Pendleton, Jefferson and Wythe redrafted his portion (much to Pendleton's dismay). Wythe also replaced Pendleton as Speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates the following term (1777–1778).
Wythe also continued working to establish the new nation. In 1787, Wythe became one of Virginia's delegates to the Constitutional Convention. Fellow delegate William Pierce considered Wythe "one of the most learned legal Characters of the present age" and known for his "exemplary life," but "no great politician" because he had "too favorable opinion of Men." In any event, Wythe, Alexander Hamilton and Charles Pinckney, served on the committee which established the convention's rules and procedures. However, Wythe left Philadelphia in early June to tend to Elizabeth, who was dying. The following year, York County neighbors elected Wythe and John Blair to represent them at the Virginia Ratifying Convention. As Chairman of the Committee of the Whole, Wythe presided over oft-heated exchanges until the final day. Stepping down from the chair, Wythe spoke to urge ratification. Pendleton later wrote Wythe's "adherence to the Constitution" gave the margin for ratification, when otherwise would have proven "grave for the Union."
Teacher
Wythe's teaching career began with his appointment in 1761 to the Board of Visitors of the College of William and Mary, and often both overlapped and drew upon his legal and judicial careers. During more than twenty years, Wythe taught many legal apprentices, as well as students at the college. Among the most famous were future presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe; future senators Henry Clay, Littleton Waller Tazewell and John Breckinridge; future Virginia judges St. George Tucker and Spencer Roane; future Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall; and future Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, Bushrod Washington. Proficient in Latin and Greek, as well as known for his devotion to books and learning, Wythe initially taught students on a near-individual apprenticeship basis. Especially after Elizabeth's death in 1787, some private pupils boarded at Wythe's home and received daily instruction in classical languages, as well as political philosophy and law. Of all these men, Wythe remained closest to Jefferson, with whom he worked and corresponded many times in the ensuing decades. In their friendship, together the two men read all sorts of other material, from English literary works, to political philosophy, to the ancient sages.
In 1779, Governor Jefferson appointed Wythe to the newly created Chair of Law and Police, making Wythe the first law professor in the United States. As a law professor, Wythe introduced a lecture system based on the Commentaries published by William Blackstone, as well as Matthew Bacon's New Abridgement of the Law, and Acts of Virginia's Assembly. Wythe also developed experiential tools, including moot courts and mock legislative sessions, tools that are still used today. However, apprenticeship remained the main mode of learning law in that era, followed by examination before several practicing lawyers. Thus, not only did Marshall and Monroe attend Wythe's lectures for a time, they also affiliated themselves with more experienced lawyers before being admitted to the bar. The college suspended classes during the later days of the revolutionary war, after which Wythe both taught in Williamsburg and performed his duties as judge (mostly in Richmond as the new capital) until the 1788–1789 term. Wythe then resigned from the college and announced that he planned to move to Richmond to concentrate on his judicial duties. Travel to the new capital for the four judicial sessions each year may have become onerous, many of Wythe's friends and colleagues had died or moved, and Williamsburg's intellectual and cultural life had also declined after the state capital moved upriver. Litigation involving professor Rev. John Bracken also distressed Wythe.
In Richmond, Wythe continued his pursuit of knowledge, and even began learning Hebrew from Rabbi Seixas. One of Wythe's last pupils, William Munford, called Wythe "one of the most remarkable men I ever knew" and particularly remembered Wythe's scholarly philosophy, "Don't skim it; read deeply, and ponder what you read; they begin to make lawyers now without the 'biginti annorum lucubrationes' (twenty years of reflection) of Lord Coke; they are mere skimmers of the law, and know little else." St. George Tucker, his one time student and fellow judge, succeeded Wythe as the college's law professor, and published an annotated edition of Blackstone's work before also resigning in 1804 to succeed Edmund Pendleton on Virginia's Supreme Court of Appeals. In 1920, the college (now a university) established a law school, which it named after Wythe and Marshall.
Virginia judge
Although Wythe served as what would now be called a justice of the peace in Elizabeth City County during colonial times, his reputation as the "American Aristides" derived from Wythe's judicial service performed after Virginia became a state, as well as from his scholarship discussed above. The oath Wythe drafted for its admiralty judges indicates his judicial philosophy, "You shall swear that ... you will do equal right to all manner of people, great and small, high and low, rich and poor, according to equity and good conscience, and the laws and usages of Virginia, without respect to persons. ... And, finally, in all things belonging to your said office, during your continuance therein you shall faithfully, justly and truly, according to the best of your skill and judgment, do equal and impartial justice, without fraud, favor or affection, or partiality." Wythe also designed the Chancery Court seal to illustrate the punishment of the Persian judge Sisamnes, killed and skinned after taking a bribe.
In 1777, Wythe became one of the three judges on the new High Court of Chancery. Administering equity and developing that branch of the law became his mission for the rest of his life. Wythe was elected to serve as a federal judge on the Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture in 1780, but declined to serve. Wythe particularly despised lawyers who protracted litigation at great cost to the parties, though to their own benefit, and even in his last days regretted the burden delays placed upon those seeking justice from his court. In the judicial reorganization of 1788, Wythe became sole Judge of the Chancery Court of Virginia, refusing to be promoted with Edmund Pendleton to the Supreme Court of Appeals (now known as the Virginia Supreme Court). Both men refused offers from President George Washington of judgships on the new federal courts, although their colleague John Blair accepted an appointment to the United States Supreme Court. In 1802, the legislature created two more territorial Chancery Courts, but Wythe remained in Richmond.
In the 1782 Commonwealth v. Caton opinion, Wythe upheld judicial review of legislative actions, in what became a predecessor to Justice Marshall's decision in Marbury v. Madison. After Virginia courts had convicted Caton and two other men of treason, they appealed to the legislature for pardons. The House of Delegates approved their pardon request, but the state Senate refused. Wythe decided that not only did the court have the right to review that pardon, the judiciary was obliged to "say to them, here is the limit of your authority; and hither, shall you go, but no further." Pendleton and Blair agreed with this principle of judicial review, although on slightly different grounds. Nonetheless, after the decision, both legislative houses pardoned the men, sparing them execution.
However, Chancellor Wythe's decisions were modified or overruled many times, particularly by the appeals court that his former student Spencer Roane joined in 1794. In 1795, Wythe published analyses of some of his cases and subsequent appellate decisions, and added a few more pamphlets later. Although this publication offended Pendleton, he decided against replying in kind. One of Wythe's most famous decisions (unpopular at the time), Page v. Pendleton, upheld the authority of the 1783 federal peace treaty with Great Britain which required debts to British merchants be paid under the contract terms, although Virginia had passed a law (used by Edmund Pendleton and other executors of the will of Speaker John Robinson discussed above) that allowed payment in depreciated paper currency. In Roane v. Innes, Wythe upheld revolutionary war soldiers's pension claims, but was reversed. Pendleton died in 1803, just before he could deliver an opinion attempting to reverse Wythe in Turpin v. Lockett, which dealt with the sale of the disestablished church's glebe lands, nominally at least to support the poor.
Slavery
One scholar states, without extensive documentation, that the problem of slavery preoccupied Wythe in his last years. In 1785, Jefferson assured English abolitionist Richard Price that Wythe's sentiments against slavery were unequivocal. During the first two decades after the war, so many Virginians freed slaves that free blacks in the state had risen from less than 1 percent of the population to nearly 10 percent by 1810. However, the era also saw the development of increasingly-harsh slave laws, particularly as slaveholders feared rebellions similar to the Haitian Revolution, which began in 1791. Tensions increased in 1793, when 137 vessels bearing French refugees from Haiti and their slaves arrived in Richmond. John Marshall and other prominent citizens wrote to Governor Henry Lee III about slave rebellion rumors, and the white militia armed. Also, the invention of the cotton gin in 1794 made cotton production using slave labor particularly profitable in the lower south, and those planters imported slaves from Maryland and Virginia, especially when importing slaves from Africa and Britain's Caribbean colonies became illegal and difficult. In 1798, Virginian legislators forbade members of slave emancipation societies from serving on juries involving slave freedom suits, which probably affected Wythe as a judge in such cases and led the Virginia Abolition Society to all but disappear that year. In 1800 Governor James Monroe called out troops that crushed the rebellion led by Gabriel Prosser near Richmond, and 35 slaves were executed. Further rumors of slave insurrections led to alarms and executions, sometimes without judicial process, in 1802 and 1803. Also, in the legislative session that began in the spring of 1806, the year of Wythe's death, a law passed requiring freed slaves to leave the state within 12 months, although a later modification allowed local courts to allow certain manumitted slaves to remain.
Move to Richmond and manumissions
When Elizabeth died on August 18, 1787, Wythe returned some slaves whom her father had bequeathed to Elizabeth to her remaining relatives. Wythe filed manumission papers for his long-time housemaid and cook Lydia Broadnax on August 20, 1787, two days after Elizabeth's death. Four years later, Lydia accompanied Wythe as he moved to Richmond, where he had previously commuted four times yearly to handle Chancery Court business. In addition, a young mixed-race youth, Michael Brown, born free in 1790, lived in Wythe's household. By 1797 Broadnax owned her own home, where she and Brown lived, and took in boarders. Wythe had taken an interest in Brown, taught him Greek and shared his library with him. On January 29, 1797, Wythe also freed Benjamin, another adult slave who continued to work as his servant in Richmond; Wythe also named Benjamin a beneficiary in his 1803 will, which also included money for Brown's continued education.
Fawn M. Brodie, who linked Jefferson and Sally Hemings, suggested that Broadnax was Wythe's concubine and Brown was their son. Wythe's biographer Imogene Brown noted both Brown's last name and Broadnax's age made such unlikely. Philip D. Morgan notes that there had been no documented gossip about Wythe and Broadnax at the time, unlike the case of Jefferson and Hemings, covered by newspapers and in individuals' letters and diaries.
Judicial decisions
Wythe for years followed Virginia precedent (including the 1768 case Blackwell v. Wilkinson) as he adjudicated chancery cases treating slaves as property. Slavery matters often went to chancery, because there were no remedies at law. Virginia slave laws also became more severe as Richmond's importance as a slave trading center for points further south continued to increase, and French planters from what became Haiti came to Virginia with thousands of slaves. Wythe authored two legal opinions that attempted to steer Virginia away from the slave-based legal and economic system that entrenched in the early 19th century.
Wythe and Pendleton both sat on the Chancery court bench which granted freedom to slaves in Pleasants v. Pleasants However, that decision was appealed, and in 1799, after Virginia passed a law forbidding abolitionists from serving on juries in freedom suits, Wythe's decision was modified by the appellate court led by Pendleton and Roane. This case concerned a Quaker's 1771 will, which purported to free slaves before Wythe and Jefferson drafted the 1782 law which legalized manumission in Virginia. Robert Pleasants and some of his siblings had freed about 100 slaves as his late father had requested, after that became legal and they became 30 years old, as the will specified. Robert Pleasants also lobbied extensively for manumission laws and founded the Virginia Abolition Society in 1790. John Marshall and John Warden represented the slaves seeking their freedom, and Pleasants as executor of his father's will, as they jointly sued the siblings who failed to obey the testamentary instruction. Each justice on the Court of Appeals in Pleasants v. Pleasants, 2 Call 338–339 (1799) agreed with Wythe that the will could be enforced and called the slaves free. However, none of the justices (all slaveholders) thought Wythe's grant of backpay proper, and they all also agreed that children borne to slave parents would not actually gain their freedom until they repaid their owners' expenses in raising them, which in the intervening decades became quite large. Thus, although John Pleasants died holding over 530 slaves, fewer than a quarter received their freedom.
In one of Wythe's last cases, Hudgins v. Wright (1806), Wythe "singlehandedly tried to abolish slavery by judicial interpretation," according to Paul Finkelman. Jackey Wright, a slave, sued Houlder Hudgins (who, incidentally, had purchased Chesterville from Wythe) for freedom for herself and her two children. Jackey based her claim on her descent from American Indians, including a woman named Butterwood Nan. Indians were considered free in Virginia by this time. Wythe ruled in favor of Wright on two grounds. He examined the women and noted that all three generations of the family showed only Indian and white ancestry, and no evidence of African ancestry. Because Hudgins did not provide definite proof of Wright's descent from a slave mother (though he argued Wright's grandmother was Betty Mingo not Hannah), Wythe considered Wright and her children "presumptively free". Alternatively, Wythe held that "all men were presumptively free in Virginia in consequence of the 1776 Declaration of Rights." This was similar to a contemporary ruling in Brom and Bett vs. Ashley, which held that Massachusetts' constitution upheld freedom for all men.
When Hudgins appealed to the Virginia Supreme Court after Wythe's murder, all judges unanimously affirmed Wythe's decision allowing Wright freedom, but only on limited grounds. Wythe's former student St. George Tucker affirmed Wythe's ruling only on the particular and limited nature of Indian enslavement in the state. The other extensive opinion in the case was by Judge Spencer Roane, who contrasted the presumption of freedom for Indians, as well as condemned Hudgins for failing to introduce evidence of any black ancestry of those seeking their freedom. Thus, all the appellate judges held that the two-decades old Declaration of Rights did not apply to blacks. Although Tucker (a slaveholder) rejected this judicial route to freedom, he had written in favor of [emancipation] and continued to fight for emancipation in other political venues.
Death scandal
By 1805, Wythe's sister's grandson, 17-year-old George Wythe Sweeney, had come to live with his elderly namesake. The following spring, Wythe realized Sweeney had stolen some of his books, probably to repay gambling debts and support a dissolute lifestyle. Wythe also revised his will in early 1806 because Thomas Jefferson had agreed to educate the young mulatto Brown, although those new provisions would have no effect if Brown died before Sweeney, as happened.
On Pentecost Sunday, May 25, Wythe, Broadnax and Brown all became violently ill. Richmond's leading doctors, Wythe's old friend James McClurg, James McCaw and his personal physician William Foushee at first suspected cholera, dismissing Wythe's claims of being poisoned. Two days later, Sweeney tried to cash a $100 check drawn on Wythe's account, which the bank found suspicious because Wythe's illness had become news throughout the city. The bank retrieved several earlier checks, which Wythe had previously denied signing. Gravely ill but still trying to work on legal matters, Wythe refused to post bail for Sweeney, who was jailed. Upon hearing that Brown had died on June 1, Wythe signed a codicil to his will drafted by Edmund Randolph that disinherited George Sweeney in favor of Charles, Jane and Ann Sweeney. Wythe also told the doctors "cut me." Although McClurg often used bloodletting, the doctors agreed that Wythe actually called for an autopsy after his death, which happened on June 8, 1806. Oddly, Houlder Hudgins served as administrator for at least two of the siblings, who soon became Wythe's heirs.
Broadnax recovered (although she ultimately suffered the effects for the rest of her life, and received some support from Jefferson). Broadnax told many people that she had seen Sweeney put a powder in their morning coffee. Other black witnesses saw Sweeney drop paper from the jail, which appeared to contain rat poison. However, both trial judges agreed that Virginia race laws prohibited blacks from testifying at the trial.
After Wythe died, Sweeney was charged with poisoning Wythe and Brown with arsenic. Prominent attorneys William Wirt and Edmund Randolph defended Sweeney. The prosecutor was Philip Norborne Nicholas, Randolph's son-in-law. Early on, the judges quashed the murder charge relating to Brown, because of his race. A jury acquitted Sweeney of Wythe's murder. Some attributed the verdict to the botched autopsy (which failed to use well-known tests for arsenic), and equivocal testimony by the physicians. Others blamed Virginia law, which since 1732 forbade testimony by black witnesses, whether free or enslaved. In a separate trial for check forgery, Sweeney was convicted. However, that conviction was overruled on appeal based on a technicality in the forgery law that Wythe and Jefferson had drafted years earlier (recognizing the crime only against individual victims, not against corporations such as the bank). Sweeney left for Tennessee. There, he reportedly was later convicted and jailed for stealing a horse. Afterward he disappeared in history.
Legacy and honors
In 1790 Wythe received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the College of William & Mary.
In his will, Wythe left his large book collection to Thomas Jefferson. This was part of the collection which Jefferson later sold to create the Library of Congress. Jefferson praised Wythe as "my ancient master, my earliest and best friend, and to him I am indebted for first impressions which have [been] the most salutary on the course of my life." However, Jefferson later refused an offer of Wythe's lecture notes and other legal papers, believing they should go instead to what became the Library of Virginia. Last reported either in the possession of Spencer Roane (who burned many papers before his own death) or his ally Thomas Ritchie (publisher of the Richmond Enquirer), they were reported lost by the 1830s.
Places associated with Wythe remain preserved today, and over the centuries other places have been named in his honor:
Wythe's home in Williamsburg, Virginia stands next to Bruton Parish Church, of which Wythe was a vestryman. His house was acquired by the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation in 1938. Today it is operated as a museum, the Wythe House.
Several places in Virginia were named for him: Wythe County, Virginia, its county seat Wytheville; high schools in Wytheville and Richmond; an elementary school in Hampton; a section of US-301 named Wythe Street in Petersburg; and the Olde Wythe Neighborhood in Hampton.
The Marshall-Wythe School of Law at the College of William and Mary in Virginia.
George Wythe University in Salt Lake City, Utah.
George Wythe Hotel in Wytheville.
George Wythe Randolph, Jefferson's grandson who became the Secretary of War of the Confederate States of America.
Wythe Avenue, a main east–west residential street in the city of Richmond, was named for him.
The World War II Liberty Ship was named in his honor.
The actor William Bakewell played Wythe in the 1965 episode entitled "George Mason" of the NBC documentary series, Profiles in Courage, based on writings of John F. Kennedy. Laurence Naismith portrayed Mason, and Arthur Franz played James Madison.
See also
George Wythe House
Founding Fathers of the United States
List of members of the Virginia House of Burgesses
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Robert Carter III, another Virginian slave-owner who manumitted his slaves
U.S. Constitution, nationalist organizer in Convention
Notes
External links
Philosophy and Biography on Wythe, George Wythe College, website
"Hudgins v. Wright Case Material", Digital Archive: Tucker-Coleman Papers, Swem Library, William and Mary, available online
Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, "Biography of George Wythe", 1856, Colonial Hall Website
Wythepedia: The George Wythe Encyclopedia, Wolf Law Library, College of William & Mary
1726 births
1806 deaths
18th-century American politicians
American abolitionists
American legal scholars
American slave owners
College of William & Mary alumni
College of William & Mary faculty
Continental Congressmen from Virginia
Deaths by poisoning
Delegates to the Virginia Ratifying Convention
House of Burgesses members
People from Elizabeth City County, Virginia
People murdered in Virginia
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Speakers of the Virginia House of Delegates
Taliaferro family of Virginia
Virginia colonial people | [
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261193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20information%20retrieval | Music information retrieval | Music information retrieval (MIR) is the interdisciplinary science of retrieving information from music. MIR is a small but growing field of research with many real-world applications. Those involved in MIR may have a background in musicology, psychoacoustics, psychology, academic music study, signal processing, informatics, machine learning, optical music recognition, computational intelligence or some combination of these.
Applications
MIR is being used by businesses and academics to categorize, manipulate and even create music.
Music classification
One of the classical MIR research topic is genre classification, which is categorizing music items into one of pre-defined genres such as classical, jazz, rock, etc. Mood classification, artist classification, instrument identification, and music tagging are also popular topics.
Recommender systems
Several recommender systems for music already exist, but surprisingly few are based upon MIR techniques, instead making use of similarity between users or laborious data compilation. Pandora, for example, uses experts to tag the music with particular qualities such as "female singer" or "strong bassline". Many other systems find users whose listening history is similar and suggests unheard music to the users from their respective collections. MIR techniques for similarity in music are now beginning to form part of such systems.
Music source separation and instrument recognition
Music source separation is about separating original signals from a mixture audio signal. Instrument recognition is about identifying the instruments involved in music. Various MIR systems have been developed that can separate music into its component tracks without access to the master copy. In this way e.g. karaoke tracks can be created from normal music tracks, though the process is not yet perfect owing to vocals occupying some of the same frequency space as the other instruments.
Automatic music transcription
Automatic music transcription is the process of converting an audio recording into symbolic notation, such as a score or a MIDI file. This process involves several audio analysis tasks, which may include multi-pitch detection, onset detection, duration estimation, instrument identification, and the extraction of harmonic, rhythmic or melodic information. This task becomes more difficult with greater numbers of instruments and a greater polyphony level.
Music generation
The automatic generation of music is a goal held by many MIR researchers. Attempts have been made with limited success in terms of human appreciation of the results.
Methods used
Data source
Scores give a clear and logical description of music from which to work, but access to sheet music, whether digital or otherwise, is often impractical. MIDI music has also been used for similar reasons, but some data is lost in the conversion to MIDI from any other format, unless the music was written with the MIDI standards in mind, which is rare. Digital audio formats such as WAV, mp3, and ogg are used when the audio itself is part of the analysis. Lossy formats such as mp3 and ogg work well with the human ear but may be missing crucial data for study. Additionally some encodings create artifacts which could be misleading to any automatic analyser. Despite this the ubiquity of the mp3 has meant much research in the field involves these as the source material. Increasingly, metadata mined from the web is incorporated in MIR for a more rounded understanding of the music within its cultural context, and this recently consists of analysis of social tags for music.
Feature representation
Analysis can often require some summarising, and for music (as with many other forms of data) this is achieved by feature extraction, especially when the audio content itself is analysed and machine learning is to be applied. The purpose is to reduce the sheer quantity of data down to a manageable set of values so that learning can be performed within a reasonable time-frame. One common feature extracted is the Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficient (MFCC) which is a measure of the timbre of a piece of music. Other features may be employed to represent the key, chords, harmonies, melody, main pitch, beats per minute or rhythm in the piece. There are a number of available audio feature extraction tools Available here
Statistics and machine learning
Computational methods for classification, clustering, and modelling — musical feature extraction for mono- and polyphonic music, similarity and pattern matching, retrieval
Formal methods and databases — applications of automated music identification and recognition, such as score following, automatic accompaniment, routing and filtering for music and music queries, query languages, standards and other metadata or protocols for music information handling and retrieval, multi-agent systems, distributed search)
Software for music information retrieval — Semantic Web and musical digital objects, intelligent agents, collaborative software, web-based search and semantic retrieval, query by humming / Search by sound, acoustic fingerprinting
Music analysis and knowledge representation — automatic summarization, citing, excerpting, downgrading, transformation, formal models of music, digital scores and representations, music indexing and metadata.
Other issues
Human-computer interaction and interfaces — multi-modal interfaces, user interfaces and usability, mobile applications, user behavior
Music perception, cognition, affect, and emotions — music similarity metrics, syntactical parameters, semantic parameters, musical forms, structures, styles and music annotation methodologies
Music archives, libraries, and digital collections — music digital libraries, public access to musical archives, benchmarks and research databases
Intellectual property rights and music — national and international copyright issues, digital rights management, identification and traceability
Sociology and Economy of music — music industry and use of MIR in the production, distribution, consumption chain, user profiling, validation, user needs and expectations, evaluation of music IR systems, building test collections, experimental design and metrics
Academic activity
International Society for Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR) conference is the top-tier venue for music information retrieval research.
International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP) is also a highly relevant venue.
See also
Audio search engine
Audio mining
Digital rights management
Digital signal processing
Ethnomusicology
List of music software
Multimedia information retrieval
Automatic content recognition
Music notation
Musicology
Optical music recognition
Parsons code
Sound and music computing
References
Michael Fingerhut (2004). "Music Information Retrieval, or how to search for (and maybe find) music and do away with incipits", IAML-IASA Congress, Oslo (Norway), August 8–13, 2004.
External links
International Society for Music Information Retrieval
Music Information Retrieval research
J. Stephen Downie: Music information retrieval
M. Schedl, E. Gómez and J. Urbano: Music Information Retrieval: Recent Developments and Applications
Nicola Orio: Music Retrieval: A Tutorial and Review
Intelligent Audio Systems: Foundations and Applications of Music Information Retrieval, introductory course at Stanford University's Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics
Micheline Lesaffre: Music Information Retrieval: Conceptual Framework, Annotation and User behavior.
The Echo Nest: a company specialising in MIR research and applications.
Imagine Research : develops platform and software for MIR applications
AudioContentAnalysis.org: MIR resources and matlab code
Minz Won, Janne Spijkervet, and Keunwoo Choi: Tutorial - Music classification: Beyond Supervised Learning, Towards Real-world Applications
Example MIR applications
Musipedia — A melody search engine that offers several modes of searching, including whistling, tapping, piano keyboard, and Parsons code.
Peachnote — A melody search engine and n-gram viewer that searches through digitized music scores
Music software | [
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] |
70193871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell%20Boast | Russell Boast | Russell Boast is a South African and American casting director for film and television.
Life and career
Russell was born in Durban, South Africa. He graduated from the University of South Africa and Durban University of Technology (DUT) in 1994. He started his career as a casting assistant on the film, Beyond Borders. Russell moved to Los Angeles in 2004. He is the former president of Casting Society of America. He is also a professor and the head of casting at Chapman University.
Filmography
Oliver Outloud (2023)
Student Body (2022)
Nash Bridges (2021)
The Little Drummer Boy (2021)
Kill the Butterfly (2021)
I'm Not Him (2021)
Pooling to Paradise (2021)
Forever Alone (2020)
The Penitent Thief (2020)
Juliet (2020)
No Ordinary Man (2020)
Gossamer Folds (2020)
Household Demons (2020)
Algorithm: BLISS (2020)
Palomino & Swissy (2019)
The Hypnotist's Love Story (2019)
Extra Innings (2019)
Dark/Web (2019)
The Fix (2019)
Proven Innocent (2019)
Miller & Son (2019)
Killing Karen Soloway (2018)
Insatiable (2018)
The Desecrated (2018)
The Plural of Blood (2017)
Chance (2017)
Crowning Jules (2017)
Your Own Road (2017)
Mars Project (2016)
Paradise Club (2016)
The Tribe (2016)
Wicked City (2015)
Damsel (2015)
Home Run Showdown (2015)
Just Brett and Lilly (2015)
The Time We're In (2015)
Oishi High School Battle (2012)
To the Moon (2012)
From the Head (2011)
Serving Up Richard (2011)
White Irish Drinkers (2010)
A Little Help (2010)
The Whole Truth (2009)
Spoken Word (2009)
Hansie (2008)
The Trail (2006)
Awards and nominations
References
External links
American casting directors
Living people | [
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261210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petunia | Petunia | Petunia is genus of 20 species of flowering plants of South American origin. The popular flower of the same name derived its epithet from the French, which took the word petun, meaning "tobacco," from a Tupi–Guarani language. A tender perrennial, most of the varieties seen in gardens are hybrids (Petunia × atkinsiana, also known as Petunia × hybrida).
Taxonomy
Petunia is a genus in the family Solanaceae, subfamily Petunioideae. Well known members of Solanaceae in other subfamilies include tobacco (subfamily Nicotianoideae), and the cape gooseberry, tomato, potato, deadly nightshade and chili pepper (subfamily Solanoideae). Some botanists place the plants of the genus Calibrachoa in the genus Petunia, but this is not accepted by others. Petchoa is a hybrid genus derived from crossing Calibrachoa and Petunia.
Species
Species include:
Ecology
Petunias are generally insect pollinated, with the exception of P. exserta, which is a rare, red-flowered, hummingbird-pollinated species. Most petunias are diploid with 14 chromosomes and are interfertile with other petunia species, as well as with Calibrachoa.
The tubular flowers are favoured by some Lepidoptera species, including the Hummingbird hawk moth.
Cultivation
Petunias can tolerate relatively harsh conditions and hot climates, but not frost. They need at least five hours of sunlight every day and flourish in moist soil and conditions of low atmospheric humidity. They are best grown from seed. Watering once a week should be sufficient in most regions. Hanging baskets and other containers need more frequent watering. Maximum growth occurs in late spring. Applying fertilizer monthly or weekly, depending on the variety, will help the plant grow quickly.
In horticulture many terms are used to denote different types of cultivated petunia. These include Grandiflora, Multiflora, Wave (Spreading), Supertunia, Cascadia and Surfinia.
AGM cultivars
The following is a selection of cultivars which have received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
='Conblue'
='Conglow'
='Constraw'
='Kleph15313'
'Storm Lavender'
'Storm Pink'
'Storm Salmon'
='Suntosol'
='Sunpurple'
='Kerpril'
Uses
Many species other than Petunia × atkinsiana are also gaining popularity in the home garden. A wide range of flower colours, sizes, and plant architectures are available in both Petunia × atkinsiana and other species, listed below:
Symbolism and folklore
The Maya and Inca believed that the scent of petunias had the power to ward off underworld monsters and spirits. Their flower-buds were bunched together for magical drinks. According to New Age folklore, Petunias will only thrive where there is "positive energy" and will not grow in places where there is "negativity".
When given as a gift, Petunias have (in the language of flowers) two mutually exclusive meanings, symbolising on the one hand being comfortable with someone, and on the other anger and resentment.
Gallery
References
External links
Solanaceae genera
Flora of Pakistan
Garden plants | [
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261212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibnitz | Leibnitz | Leibnitz (Slovenian: Lipnica) is a city in the Austrian state of Styria and on 1 Jan. 2017 had a population of 12,176. It is located to the south of the city of Graz, between the Mur and Sulm rivers.
The town is the capital of the Leibnitz political district, which covers about 727 km2, within which more than 80,000 people live. Leibnitz acts as a cultural, educational, judicial and economic focus for the surrounding district.
History
Although the center of the current town is only about 3 km away from the archaeological site of Flavia Solva, Leibnitz cannot claim direct successorship to this Roman municipium founded in the 1st century, and finally destroyed in the early 5th century. When Bavarian settlers moved into the area during the 9th century, superseding and gradually absorbing the Slavic population that had established itself during the previous half-millennium, all recollection of the Roman city had long since faded.
The first documented version of the name Leibnitz reads Lipnizza and can be found in a scroll issued by emperor Otto the Great dated 7 March 970. However, a different settlement – the civitas Zuib (or Sulb; both names recall the Roman Solva) – was actually closer to the site of the present town than the civitas Lipnizza which was located on the nearby Frauenberg hill, where human occupation had persisted since the Neolithic age. Later, when the civilian settlement moved back and down to the Mur valley while the dwelling on the hill remained a fortified place, the name was transformed to Libniz and Libenizze (12th century), Leibentz and Leybencz (13th and 14th century), and finally Leybnitz (14th and 15th century).
During the 12th century the settlement and its surrounding area, including the Sulm valley to the west, became territories of the Archbishopric of Salzburg and remained so for more than 400 years. The relocation of the civilian settlement was initiated (or at least heavily supported) by Archbishop Konradin of Salzburg, probably by 1130. In March 1170, Emperor Barbarossa discussed matters associated with Salzburg's authority in Leibnitz, and an imperial document dated 14 June 1178 granted full jurisdiction to Salzburg.
The transition decades from the Middle Ages proved extremely turbulent and destructive to the area around Leibnitz, as it was to all the south-east parts of modern Austria. The fact that Leibnitz was not fortified certainly contributed to the decision of Archbishop Bernhard von Rorer in 1479 to hand the township over to the invading Hungarians; their occupation collapsed in 1490 and Austria quickly reclaimed Leibnitz, severely punishing those leading citizens who had collaborated with the Hungarians.
In the 18th and early 19th century, when Leibnitz had about 1,000 occupants, the town burned to the ground twice, on 29 May 1709 and again on 8–9 September 1829. By 1883 the population had risen to 2,471 and on 27 April 1913 Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz Josef I of Austria formally elevated Leibnitz to city rank.
By 1 January 1968 the population of Leibnitz had reached 6,641 but its relative importance and vitality had severely declined since Lower Styria had fallen to Yugoslavia in 1919 as a consequence of World War I, severing the city's vital connections to the south and effectively making it all but a "dead-border township." From the 1970s onward, when it became easier for Yugoslav citizens to travel to Austria, Leibnitz started to experience a marked economic reinvigoration which gained momentum with the establishment of Slovenia as an independent state in 1991, and its entry into the European Union in 2004.
Local council
The elections in 2015 showed the following results:
16 seats SPÖ
8 seats ÖVP
4 seats FPÖ
2 seats The Greens - The Green Alternative
1 seat Bürgerforum Leibnitz
Main sights
The ruins of the Roman settlement of Flavia Solva near the village Wagna
Schloss Seggau, a castle situated above the town on the Seggauberg. Founded in the 12th century by Archbishop Konrad I of Salzburg, it now accommodates a conference center
The church on the Frauenberg on the hill (381 m) of the same name
Leibnitz Abbey
Culture and recreation
Leibnitz has a cinema, an ice rink located in the center, and an open-air swimming pool with campsite and tennis courts. These facilities are enjoyed both by locals and passing tourist traffic on its way to the Adriatic.
Interesting annual events include a fall festival with harvest thanksgiving procession, Leibnitz "wine week" and a "Perchtenlauf".
The vineyard-rich hilly countryside is home to many traditional wine-drinking establishments known as "Buschenschenke", where the local produce can be readily tasted.
The area is also crisscrossed by cycle trails, which are particularly popular in summer and fall. Leibnitz is situated on a branch of the cycle track which runs alongside the Mur river from Graz to the Slovenian border. Another cycle track alongside the river Sulm leads to Gleinstätten.
Gallery
Economy
The area surrounding Leibnitz (known as the "Leibnitzer Feld") is extensively cultivated, the main crops being maize and pumpkin. The latter is used in the production of the black-green colored pumpkin seed oil, a Styrian speciality. Several small to medium-sized industrial companies and also some smaller hotels and boarding houses are located within the town.
The areas of hilly countryside around the town support many vineyards, which itself is a renowned center of wine production.
Transportation
Leibnitz lies on the main southern railway line, connecting Vienna to Slovenia and the Balkans via Graz. The journey from Graz main station to Leibnitz takes approximately 30 minutes using trains travelling to Spielfeld-Straß, Maribor or even Ljubljana or Zagreb. There are also several taxi firms based in Leibnitz.
Leibnitz is also served by the A9 motorway, the main route to Slovenia via Spielfeld.
Famous people
Leibnitz is the birthplace of champion tennis player Thomas Muster.
Anton Elschnig (1863–1939), a pioneer of eye surgery in the early 1900s, was born in Leibnitz.
International relations
Twin towns — sister cities
Leibnitz is twinned with:
Pedra Badejo, Cape Verde
References
External links
Frauenberg Temple Museum
From Flavia Solva to Wagna
Cities and towns in Leibnitz District | [
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261220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed%20Best | Ahmed Best | Ahmed Best (born August 19, 1973) is an American actor, comedian, and musician known for providing motion capture and the voice of the character of Jar Jar Binks in the Star Wars franchise.
Best likewise collaborated with director George Lucas in three films and seven episodes of the cartoon show, Star Wars: The Clone Wars. He won the Annie Award for Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production for lampooning Jar Jar Binks in Robot Chicken: Star Wars Episode II.
Early life
Ahmed Best lived the majority of his formative years in the Soundview section of the Bronx. He moved to Maplewood, New Jersey, in 1984. He attended Columbia High School and graduated from there in 1991. He then studied percussion at the Manhattan School of Music.
He is the younger brother of Dunia Best Sinnreich, lead singer and co-founder of Brave New Girl, Dubistry and Agent 99 and formerly with The Slackers.
Career
In 1994, Best joined the acid jazz group The Jazzhole. He contributed to the success of the group for two years. He co-wrote and co-produced three albums for the group including The Jazzhole, And the Feeling Goes Around, and The Beat is the Bomb. In 1995, he co-wrote and co-produced Escape by Bill Evans.
In 1995, he joined the Obie Award winning cast of Stomp. He toured with the cast of Stomp throughout the US and Europe.
In 1997, after casting director Robin Gurland had observed his flexible, athletic movements in Stomp, Ahmed was cast as Jar Jar Binks in the Star Wars prequel trilogy (1999–2005). He reprised the role on the Star Wars–themed episode of Robot Chicken (as well as its sequel), Star Wars: The Clone Wars, and on an episode of Stephen Colbert's The Colbert Report. Best said he put a lot of himself into the character, so when Jar Jar drew hostility from audiences, it sometimes extended toward the actor or he otherwise interpreted it personally. The character of Jar Jar Binks was so disliked that Best contemplated suicide. Best later appeared with fellow Star Wars alumni Dee Bradley Baker, James Arnold Taylor, and Daran Norris on the TV show Big Time Rush.
In 2008, he also wrote, directed, and produced the pilot for a television show called This Can't Be My Life.
In late May 2020, Lucasfilm announced that Best would be starring as Jedi Master Kelleran Beq in a game-show called Star Wars: Jedi Temple Challenge, with a scheduled release date of June 3, 2020. It was later reported that Jedi Temple Challenge release date had been delayed until June 10 as a result of the unrest surrounding George Floyd's murder.
Filmography
Film
Television
Short films
Documentary
Music
Composer
Director
Video games
Producer
Writer
Theatre
Discography
References
External links
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
African-American male actors
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male video game actors
American male voice actors
Annie Award winners
Living people
Manhattan School of Music alumni
Male actors from New York City
People from Maplewood, New Jersey
Columbia High School (New Jersey) alumni
Jazzhole members
Male motion capture actors
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American people
1973 births | [
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261221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20the%20Strong | Robert the Strong | Robert the Strong ( – 866) was the father of two kings of West Francia: Odo (or Eudes) and Robert I of France. His family is named after him and called the Robertians. In 853, he was named missus dominicus by Charles the Bald, King of West Francia. Robert the Strong was the great-grandfather of Hugh Capet and thus the ancestor of all the Capetians.
Origins and rise to power
The parentage of Robert "le Fort" is obscure. While very little is known about the beginnings of the Robertian family, speculative proposals have been made. According to one proposal, Robert was a son of Robert III of Worms. Far more speculatively, mainly based on the use of the name Robert, or similar names, it has been proposed for example that his family had its origins in the Hesbaye region in present-day eastern Belgium, or perhaps descended from the family of Chrodegang of Metz. However, these proposals are unproven.
According to the Worms proposal, during the reign of Louis the German in East Francia, the Robertian family emigrated from East Francia to West Francia. After their arrival in his realm Charles the Bald rewarded the family defecting from his enemy by assigning to Robert the lay abbacy of Marmoutier in 852. And in 853 he granted the position of missus dominicus in the provinces of Maine, Anjou, and Touraine to Robert, giving him de facto control of the ancient ducatus Cenomannicus, a large duchy centred on Le Mans and corresponding to the ancient realm of regnum Neustriae. Robert's rise came at the expense of the established family of the Rorigonids and was designed to curb their regional power and to defend Neustria from Viking and Breton raids.
Revolt
In 858 Robert joined a rebellion against Charles the Bald. With the Bretons under Salomon he led the Frankish nobles of Neustria and invited Louis the German to invade West Francia and receive their homage. The revolt had been sparked by a marriage alliance between Charles and Erispoe, King of Brittany, and by the investment of Charles' son, Louis the Stammerer, with the regnum Neustriae, all which significantly curtailed the powers of both Salomon and Robert. Charles had given Robert the counties of Autun and Nevers in Burgundy; and in 856 Robert had defended Autun from Louis the German. But following Erispoe's assassination in November 857, he and Salomon rebelled against Charles.
Robert's Neustrians chased Louis the Stammerer from Le Mans in 858. Later that year, Louis the German reached Orléans and received delegations from the Breton and Neustrian leaders, as well as from Pepin II of Aquitaine. In 861, Charles made peace with Robert and appointed him Count of Anjou. Thereafter, Robert successfully defended the northern coast against a Viking invasion.
In 862 Charles granted Louis the Stammerer, his son, the lay abbacy of Saint Martin of Tours—a worthy benefice but small in comparison with the kingdom he had received in 856, and lost in 858. The young Louis rebelled and, befriended by Salomon who supplied him with troops, mounted war against Robert.
In 862 two Viking fleets converged on Brittany; one had recently been forced out of the Seine by Charles the Bald, the other was returning from a Mediterranean expedition. Salomon hired the Mediterranean fleet to ravage the Loire valley in Nuestria. Robert captured twelve of their ships, killing all on board save a few who fled. He then hired the former Seine Vikings to attack Salomon's realm for 6,000 pounds silver.
Robert's apparent purpose was to prevent the Vikings from serving Salomon. He presumably collected a large amount in taxes for a (non-tributary) Danegeld to pay for keeping the Vikings out of Neustria. But peace between the Franks and the Vikings did not last long: in 863 Salomon made his peace, but the Vikings, now deprived of enemy lands to loot, proceeded to ravage Neustria. Charles now made Robert Lay abbot of the influential abbey St. Martin at Tours.
Robert warred with Pepin II in his later years. In 863 he again defended Autun from Louis the German; he campaigned in Neustria in 865 and again in 866, shortly before his death, dealing with Bretons and Vikings ravaging the environs of Le Mans.
Death and legacy
On 2 July 866, Robert was killed at the Battle of Brissarthe while defending Francia against a joint Breton-Viking raiding party led by Salomon, King of Brittany and the Viking chieftain Hastein. During the battle the Viking commander was entrapped in a nearby church. Robert removed his armour to start to besiege the church; the Vikings then launched a surprise attack and Robert died in the subsequent melee. He left behind a nine-year-old son, Odo (who would later be King of France), as his heir. His heroic successes against the Vikings led to his characterization as "a second Maccabaeus" in the Annales Fuldenses.
Family
Robert married Adelaide of Tours, daughter of Hugh of Tours. They had:
Odo of France (c.857–898), King of West Francia
Robert I of France (c.866–923), King of West Francia.
Notes
References
Inline citations
General references
Smith, Julia M. H. Province and Empire: Brittany and the Carolingians. Cambridge University Press: 1992.
Hummer, Hans J. Politics and Power in Early Medieval Europe: Alsace and the Frankish Realm 600 – 1000. Cambridge University Press: 2005.
External links
Baldwin, Stewart (26 July 2008). "Robert 'le Fort' (Rotbertus Fortis, Robert 'the Strong')". Henry Project.
830s births
866 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Robertians
Counts of Orléans
Counts of Anjou
Dukes of Maine
Nobility of the Carolingian Empire | [
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261222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukidnon | Bukidnon | Bukidnon(), officially the Province of Bukidnon (; ; Binukid and Higaonon: Probinsya ta Bukidnon) is a landlocked province in the Philippines located in the Northern Mindanao region. Its capital is the city of Malaybalay. The province borders, clockwise from the north, Misamis Oriental, Agusan del Sur, Davao del Norte, Cotabato, Lanao del Sur, and Lanao del Norte. According to the , the province is inhabited by residents.
The province is composed of 2 component cities and 20 municipalities. It is the third largest province in the country in terms of total area of jurisdiction behind Palawan and Isabela respectively.
The name "Bukidnon" means "highlander" or "mountain dweller." Occupying a wide plateau in the north central part of the island of Mindanao, the province is considered to be the food basket of the region, being the major producer of rice and corn. Products from plantations in the province also include pineapples, bananas and sugarcane.
Situated within Bukidnon is Mount Dulang-dulang, the 2nd highest mountain in the country, with an elevation of located in the Kitanglad Mountain Range. Mount Kitanglad (2,899 m), Mount Kalatungan (2,860 m), Mount Maagnaw (2,742 m), Mount Lumuluyaw (2,612 m), and Mount Tuminungan (2,400 m), the 4th, 5th, 8th, 17th, and 30th highest mountains in the country respectively, are also found in the province.
Bukidnon was consecutively ranked 5th in the list of richest provinces in the Philippines according to the Commission on Audit's 2018, 2019 and 2020 Annual Financial Reports which were posted in 2019 and in early and late 2021 respectively.
History
Political history
Bukidnon became a part of Misamis in the latter part of 1850. The whole area was then called "Malaybalay" and the people were known as Bukidnons (highlanders or mountain dwellers). The Philippine Commission, then headed by Commissioner Dean C. Worcester, Secretary of Interior, proposed the separation of Bukidnon from Misamis Province. On August 20, 1907, the Philippine Commission Act No. 1693 was enacted the Province of Agusan and sub-province of Bukidnon. Bukidnon became a regular province on March 10, 1917, by virtue of the creation of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu under Act 2711.
In 1942, invading Japanese troops entered Bukidnon. Mount Capistrano was a civilian evacuation area in the World War II. In 1945, the province was liberated from Japanese occupation by Filipino and American troops with the aid of Bukidnon-based Filipino guerrillas during the Second World War.
Cultural history
According to oral history of the indigenous people of Bukidnon, there were four main tribes in Central Mindanao: the Maranaos who dwell in Lanao del Sur, and the Maguindanao, Manobo and Talaandig tribes who respectively inhabit the eastern, southern, and north-central portions of the original province of Cotabato. When the civil government divided central Mindanao into provinces at the turn of the 20th century, the groups included in the province of Bukidnon are the Talaandig and the Manobo, as well as other smaller Lumad tribes. The Visayans, particularly the Cebuanos and the Hiligaynons from the Northern Mindanao coastline and the southern Visayas, migrated into the province. The Visayans are still referred to by the Lumad as the dumagat ("sea people") to distinguish them from the original mountain tribes. This was followed by various groups from Luzon, namely, the Ilocanos, the Igorots and the Ivatans, many of whom were merchants and wealthy entrepreneurs. All contributed massive acculturation among the indigenous tribes. Most of those who moved to the mountains and forest continued to hold on their ancestors' cultural heritage. The wide variety of Filipino groups now thrives in the province and contributed immensely in the socioeconomic development.
Geography
Bukidnon is a landlocked plateau in North Central Mindanao. It is bounded on the north by Misamis Oriental and Cagayan de Oro; on the south by North Cotabato and Davao City; on the east by Agusan del Sur and Davao del Norte; and west by Lanao del Sur. It lies between parallels 7°25' and 8°38' north latitude and meridians 124°03' and 125°16' east longitude. Malaybalay, the capital town, is about by air from Manila and by road from Cagayan de Oro.
It has two important landmarks, Mount Kitanglad and Pulangi River. Mount Kitanglad has a peak of above sea level. Pulangi River, on the other hand, traverses through the northeastern and southern part of the province towards the Rio Grande de Mindanao.
Land area
The province's total land area is , making it the largest in Mindanao in terms of land area. It accounts for 59 percent (59%) of Northern Mindanao. Thirty-eight percent (38%) is alienable and disposable. The rest is classified timberland.
It also accounts for 80 percent (80%) or 34 million metric tons of the region's nonmetallic mineral deposits, which include high grade white and red clay, gold, chromite, copper, serpentine, manganese, quartz and limestone deposits can also be found in the province.
Topography
Bukidnon is generally characterised as an extensive plateau but the southern and eastern boundaries are mountainous area. The province's average elevation is above sea level. The slope gradient peaks at of Mount Kitanglad, an extinct volcano occupying the central portion. Two other mountain bodies are found in its southern portion, Mount Kalatungan and Mount Tangkulan, which rise to and , respectively. Gently rolling grassland plateau cut deep and wide canyons of the Cagayan, Pulangi, and Tagoloan Rivers and their tributaries, which cover a greater part of the province. The whole eastern and southern border adjoining the provinces of Agusan, Davao del Norte, and Cotabato are covered by lofty and densely forested mountains of the Pantaron Mountain Range (Central Cordillera). The Bukidnon plateau is mainly of volcanic zone consisting of pyroclastic, basaltic and andesitic cones.
The Central Cordillera is a mountain range of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks. About 49% of the land resource of the province is of rugged hills and mountains and 33% of undulating to rolling terrain. The rest of the province is composed of nearly level terraces, alluvial lowland, canyons and gorges. The volcanic terraces and volcanic foot slopes that are ≥500 m above sea level are estimated to be about .
At Mailag, south of Malaybalay, the plateau begins to descend and gradually merges into the lowlands of Cotabato province.
Climate
Two types of climate prevail between the northern and southern sections of Bukidnon, The northern part is classified as belonging to Type III, that is, there is no pronounced rain period but relatively dry during the months of November to May. In the southern portion of the province, the climate is classified as Type IV with no dry season. The driest area is Baungon, while the wettest is the Calabugao plain. The climate is relatively cool and humid throughout the year.
The average annual rainfall is . Just like in other parts of the country, rainfall is more pronounced from June to October compared to other months of the year. February to April are the drier months.
Temperature ranges vary with elevation. In areas lower than above sea level (m.a.s.l.), the recorded temperature range is between . Areas with elevations greater than above sea level would have temperatures ranging from .
Relative humidity also varies with elevation, with those above 500 m having relative humidity of about 80%, while areas lying below , 65-7 percent. Thus, the Malaybalay-Impasug-ong area and those around the volcanic cones approximate semi-temperate conditions and can support the cultivation of highland tropical crops.
Based on the records of climatological stations within and near the province, lithology and land form, three agro-ecological zones are identified. One covers the mountainous eastern side (Central Cordillera), which is generally wet, with rainfall of about per annum. Another covers the high altitude volcanic plains, the Malaybalay-Impasug-ong area, and the foot slopes of Mount Kitanglad, and Mount Kalatungan. These areas have an annual rainfall in the range of . The third zone covers the south-central and the north-western parts of the province, with elevations of less than 500 meters, relatively dry with mean annual rainfall in the range of .
Bodies of water
Bukidnon is known as the watershed of Mindanao. It is endowed with six major river systems namely: Pulangi, Tagoloan, Cagayan, Manupali, Muleta, and Bobonawan Rivers. These rivers carved the landscape of the province creating numerous canyons.
The Pulangi River, considered the longest river in the province, is a tributary of the Rio Grande de Mindanao. Its headwaters are found in the mountains of Kalabugao, Impasugong. It is the largest as well as the longest river found in the province. It covers the following cities and municipalities of the province: Impasugong, Malaybalay, Cabanglasan, San Fernando, Valencia, Maramag, Quezon, Don Carlos, Kitaotao, Dangcagan, Kibawe and Damulog.
The Tagoloan River has its headwaters in the mountains of Can-ayan, Malaybalay. It traverses the province northwestward passing through Malaybalay, Impasugong, Sumilao, Manolo Fortich, Malitbog and finally empties into the sea at Tagoloan, Misamis Oriental.
The Cagayan River watershed is found mostly in the municipality of Talakag. Its headwaters are found in the Kitanglad Mountain Range in central Bukidnon. The river flows northward through the municipalities of Talakag and Baungon. Its mouth lies at Cagayan de Oro in Misamis Oriental, where it is the main source of potable water.
The Manupali River, a major tributary of the Pulangi River, start in the mountains of Lantapan, Bukidnon, picking up tributaries along the way from the Kalatungan and Kitanglad Mountain Ranges. It forms part of the natural boundary of the Valencia and Lantapan. It flows eastward towards Malaybalay, eventually joining the Pulangi River in Valencia.
The Muleta River is found in the southern portion of the province covering the municipalities of Pangantucan, Don Carlos, Kitaotao, Dangcagan, Kibawe, Kadingilan and Damulog. It is another important tributary of the Pulangi River and flows southward. It will join the Pulangi River in the boundary of Bukidnon and Cotabato province.
The Bobonawan River, found in the municipality of Cabanglasan, is another tributary of the Pulangi River. It covers most of the parts of the municipality, flowing southward towards Pulangi River.
Aside from the relatively important river systems, various lakes also dot the landscape of the province. Pinamaloy Lake, in Don Carlos, Bukidnon, is the biggest in the province covering about 50 hectares. It was named after Barangay Pinamaloy, the place where the lake is located. Another lake is found in Pigtauranan, Pangantucan called the Napalit Lake. The lake covers an area of 36 hectares and is one of the tourist spots in Pangantucan, Bukidnon. There are 24 floating islets in the lake. The third significant inland body of water in the province is Apo Lake at Guinoyoran, Valencia. It occupies an approximate area of 25 hectares. A man-made lake called Maramag Basin is found in Maramag, Bukidnon, which was the result of the construction of the Pulangi IV Hydroelectric Dam of the National Power Corporation (NPC) in the course of the Pulangi River.
There are also numerous springs and waterfalls located in the province. Some of the waterfalls include the Alalum Falls, Dimadungawan Falls, Dila Falls, Gantungan Falls, Natigbasan Falls, Sagumata Falls, Magubo Falls, and Balisbisan Falls.
Transportation
The province is very well accessible by road primarily from the cities of Cagayan de Oro and Davao with alternate road networks as well from the cities of Butuan (via Agusan del Sur), Iligan (via Talakag), Marawi (via Talakag), Tagum (via San Fernando), and the province of Cotabato.
The entire province is bisected from north to south by the four-lane Sayre Highway from Cagayan de Oro to Kabacan, North Cotabato via Maramag (Bukidnon–Cotabato Road); and by the two-to-four lane Bukidnon–Davao Road (colloquially known as "BuDa") from Quezon to Davao City. Both are components of the National Route 10 (N10) of the Philippine highway network, and a spur of the Asian Highway 26 (AH26) of the Asian highway network. The Sayre Highway intersects with the BuDa Road in the barrio of Dologon in Maramag, where it changes to route N943 and continues on to Dangcagan, Damulog, and Kabacan.
The Sayre Highway (formerly "Route 3") was renamed in honor of Francis Bowes Sayre, Sr., the U.S. Philippine High Commissioner who spearheaded its construction during the American occupation of the Philippines.
There are several airstrips in the province being used by private firms. Commercial flights used to be flown from the Malaybalay Airstrip, but it was closed down by the provincial government in the late 1990s. The airport where it used to be located was converted into a low-cost housing project. A proposed domestic airport site in the municipality of Don Carlos has already been on the talks since 2008 and in 2013, the Bukidnon Airport Development Project proposal was finalized. Budget allocation was done in 2017 and construction started in 2018. There are no seaports in Bukidnon because the province is landlocked. The nearest passenger seaport is in Cagayan de Oro City.
Politics and administration
Administrative divisions
Bukidnon is subdivided into 20 municipalities and 2 cities.
Barangays
The province has 464 barangays under its jurisdiction. The table below shows the Top 20 Largest Barangays according to population.
Legislative districts
Bukidnon has four legislative districts namely the first, second, third and fourth districts.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; background-color:#FDFDFD;font-size:95%;"
|-
!
!
!
!
!
|-
! scope="row" | 1st District
|
| 2,229.17 km2
| 302,272
| 125.14 person/km2
|-
! scope="row" | 2nd District
|
| 3,144.44 km2
| 374,395
| 106.60 person/km2
|-
! scope="row" | 3rd District
|
| 1,816.11 km2
| 450,839
| 228.08 person/km2
|-
! scope="row" | 4th District
| {{plainlist|
City: Valencia Municipalities': Kalilangan and Pangantucan
}}
| 1,104.06 km2
| 287,720
| 244.71 person/km2
|}
Demographics
Based on the , Bukidnon has a total population of residents.
In the 2000 census, males slightly edge the females with 546,234, accounting for about 52% of the province's total population while females, with 514,181, account about 48%. Based on age distribution, Bukidnon has a fairly young population, with ages 14 and below accounting 42.15% or 446, 952. The 15-34 age bracket account for 33.68% of the province's population or 357,112. Ages 55 and above barely accounts 6.5% of the total. The average population growth rate of the province is 2.05% (2.03% if exponential) from 2000 to 2010. Male-to-female ratio in the province stood at 1.06.
Population density
The average population density for the province is 128 persons per square km. The cities/municipalities with the highest population densities are the following: Don Carlos (353/km2), Kitaotao (250/km2), Valencia (244/km2), Maramag (213/km2) and Quezon (202/km2). The cities/municipalities with the lowest densities, on the other hand are: Impasugong (29/km2), Talakag (58/km2), San Fernando (63/km2), Malitbog (75/km2) and Damulog (83/km2).
Population by congressional districts
District III has the highest population among the four provincial congressional districts, with 31.86% of the total population of the province. It is followed by District II with 26.45% of the total population and District I with a population share of 21.36%. The least populated district is District IV with population percentage share of 20.33%.
Valencia has the highest population among the cities/municipalities of the province with 192,993 inhabitants, accounting 13.64% of the province's total. It is closely followed by Malaybalay with 174,625 inhabitants or 12.34% of the provincial population. Quezon is at third with 104,116 inhabitants or 7.36% of the total, with Maramag and Manolo Fortich rounding out the fourth and fifth with 102,089 and 100,210 inhabitants, respectively.
The four largest local government units of Bukidnon (Valencia, Malaybalay, Quezon, and Maramag) are clustered together in the central part of the province. It is also in the national roads of these cities/municipalities that daily road use volume are high.
Languages
The lingua franca of the region is Cebuano. Minority languages include Higaonon, Bukid, Ilianen, Matigsalug, Hiligaynon, Maranao, Iranun, Ilocano, and Waray. Tagalog and English are generally understood and widely used in schools, business, and government offices.
Religion
The majority of the population are Christians (predominantly Roman Catholic, 80.7% with significant other Christian denomination minority, 15%), followed by Islam (4%) while other religious groups are adhered by 0.3%.
Ethnicity
According to ethnicity, majority of the people in Bukidnon are Cebuano accounting for approximately 41% of the total population. The Bukidnon lumads (Bukidnon, Higaonon, Manobo, Talaandig, etc.) account for about 24% of the total population of the province. The Maranaos form about 8% of the total population followed by the Hiligaynon/Ilonggo and Boholano groups with 12.7% and 7.37%, respectively, of the province's total population.
Indigenous inhabitants of Bukidnon are the Lumad peoples, including the Bukidnon, Higaonon, Manobo, and Talaandig. Their cultures and traditions are embodied in oral folk literature of the province, which are classified into; Antoka (riddles), Basahan (proverbs or wise sayings), Kaliga (ceremonial songs), Limbay (lyric poem), Sala (love song), Idangdang (ballad), Ulaging (epic), and Nanangon (folktales). Religion is monotheistic. They believe in one God. Magbabaya (the ruler of all) has minor gods and goddesses under his command (Example: Bulalakaw watches rivers and lakes, Tumpas Nanapiyaw or Itumbangol watches the bases of the earth, night, and day).
Many of the province's inhabitants, however, are descendants of immigrants from Cebu or elsewhere in Central Visayas.
Economy
Bukidnon is an agricultural economy. It is a major producer of rice, maize, sugar, coffee, rubber, pineapple, banana, tomato, flowers, cassava, and other fruits and vegetables. Almost all large firms operating in the province are into production or processing of these agricultural products. Recognized by the Food and Agriculture Organization as a foot-and-mouth disease-free province, it is also a major producer of poultry, hogs, goats, and cattle.
The Philippine Carabao Center's outlet in Central Mindanao University makes dairy products from water buffalos. Due to being landlocked, Bukidnon relies on the nearby cities of Cagayan de Oro and Davao for the supply of marine products. However, the province has its own supply of freshwater products such as tilapia, carp, catfish, mudfish, gourami, barb, goby, climbing perch, freshwater eels, giant freshwater prawn or shrimps, native freshwater snails or freshwater clams, and freshwater crabs, either via inland fishing or fry production aquaculture in inland fish farms and fish hatcheries.
Del Monte Philippines, Inc. (DMPI), Lapanday Diversified Products Corp. and Mt. Kitanglad Agri-Development Corporation are engaged in pineapple production. Dole Philippines (Skyland) and Mt. Kitanglad Agri-Ventures, Inc. are into banana production. DMPI is also engaged in cattle fattening. Bukidnon Sugar Milling Corporation (BUSCO) and Crystal Sugar Milling are into sugar milling and refining.
Phil-Agro Industrial Corporation is in starch production. Menzi Agricultural Development is in cacao production. Agaropyta Phils. Inc., Bukidnon Greens Inc., FP Obrero Farms and ARDEM, Inc. are in cutflower production.
Food manufacturing giants, San Miguel Foods Corp. (SMPFCI), Monterey Farms Corp., Swift Foods, Inc. have intensified their contract breeding and growing operations in the province. Valencia Rubbertex, Inc., an 80-20 Japanese-Filipino joint venture produces rubber boots and rubber shoes for Japan.
As one of the major anchors in crop production, Bukidnon is moving forward towards establishing its position as a principal trader of rice, corn, sugar, potato, tomato and many other commercial and industrial crops. As the second largest producer of corn in the country, it reached a total production of 481,370 metric tons. In year 2000, vast tracts of cornfields, rice paddles, and sugar plantations are distributed all over the province.
Bukidnon has already assumed its role as producer and supplier of fresh fruits and vegetables. These produce are either sold in domestic markets or exported to Japan and other neighboring countries. Fresh pineapples, banana, sugarcane and cutflower grown over the years are among its exports. New agri-business industries are still growing such as strawberry farming. Even export of rubber boots and shoes, an infant industry in the province is increasing tremendously.
A wide variety of resource-based handicrafts is extensively produced from rattan, bamboo, and wood. San Fernando is known for its rattan furniture. Bamboo baskets, wood wares and carvings, mats, and other handmade products are ideal souvenir items.
Bukidnon Investment Grid
During the mid-1990s, the provincial government of Bukidnon, after careful studies and consultation, has adopted a strategic program called the Bukidnon Investment Grid or BIG. This program is aimed to confine all its investment promotion activities and projects to the strip of land three kilometers from both sides of the Sayre Highway from Damulog to Manolo Fortich, and along the national/provincial road from Kibawe to Kadingilan; Don Carlos to Kadingilan; Maramag to Quezon; Maramag to Kadingilan; Kadingilan to Pangantucan; Valencia City to San Fernando; Malaybalay City to Cabanglasan; Malaybalay to Lantapan; Manolo Fortich to Libona; Libona to Cagayan de Oro; Talakag to Pangantucan; and Malitbog to Tagoloan in Misamis Oriental.
Education
Universities and colleges
The following universities and colleges of Bukidnon are the tertiary schools.
Festivals
The province celebrates the Kaamulan Festival, an ethnic cultural festival held annually in Malaybalay, Bukidnon from the mid-February up to March 10, the founding date of the Bukidnon as a province in 1917. It is held to celebrate the culture and tradition of the seven ethnic tribal groups—Bukidnon, Higaonon, Talaandig, Manobo, Matigsalug, Tigwahanon, and Umayamnon—that originally inhabit the province. Kaamulan comes from the indigenous Binukid word amul'' meaning "to gather". Kaamulan is gathering for a purpose—a datuship ritual, a wedding ceremony, a thanksgiving festival during harvest time, a peace pact, or all of these together. The festival started in 1974 and is celebrated until now. It is the only authentic ethnic festival in the Philippines.
Bukidnon Hymn: Bukidnon My Home
The Provincial Hymn was composed by Filomeno Bautista between 1925 and 1932. Nimecio Jun Beltran authored a provincial resolution requiring the singing of the provincial hymn in all and every events in the Province of Bukidnon where the Philippine National Anthem is also sung.
Notable people
Gerald Tabios - elite endurance athlete
Arcelle Tadena - scaled crossfit athlete
Alfredo Lagamon - Associate Justice, Court of Appeals
Caesar Fortich - Secretary of Agriculture
Clare Cabiguin – Pinoy Big Brother: Teen Edition 1 - 4th Placer
Elenito Galido - Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Iligan
Joey Ayala - singer-songwriter and composer
Juan Miguel Zubiri - politician
Lorenzo S. Dinlayan - USEC, Office of Cultural Communities
Oona Barretto - scholar of Pinoy Dream Academy (season 1)
Nelbert Omolon - PBA Player
Nereus Acosta - politician
Reynan Dal-Anay - 1st Runner-up of The Voice Kids (Philippines season 2)
Roel Manlangit - Grand Champion of Pilipinas Got Talent (season 4)
Romeo M. Recina - Brig. Gen., PC-INP Recom 11 Commander
Sheree (real name Sweet Faye V. Bautista) - Singer / dancer / model & actress (former Viva Hot Babe)
Virgilio Garcillano - former government official
Ivy Grace Paredes – The X Factor UK 2016 contender
Rowell "Roy" Ucat – internet celebrity, songwriter, popularly known as "Medyo Maldito"
Mario Fernandez – a multi-medalist national boxer
Teofisto Guingona III – politician/former senator
Archie Gamboa - 21st Chief of the Philippine National Police
Samuel Duran (real name Samuel Quilab) – professional boxer; former WBC International Bantamweight Champion and former OPBF Featherweight Champion
Leonil B. Lazarito – international boxing promoter/matchmaker, professional boxing manager
Mark Anthony N. Geraldo – professional boxer; former WBO Asia-Pacific youth super flyweight champion and PBF bantamweight champion
See also
Kitanglad Mountain Range
References
External links
Provincial Government of Bukidnon
Philippine Standard Geographic Code listing for Bukidnon
Provinces of the Philippines
Northern Mindanao
States and territories established in 1914
1914 establishments in the Philippines
Former sub-provinces of the Philippines | [
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261226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome%20Bruner | Jerome Bruner | Jerome Seymour Bruner (October 1, 1915 – June 5, 2016) was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology. Bruner was a senior research fellow at the New York University School of Law. He received a B.A. in 1937 from Duke University and a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1941. He taught and did research at Harvard University, the University of Oxford, and New York University. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Bruner as the 28th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.
Education and early life
Bruner was born blind (due to cataracts) on October 1, 1915, in New York City, to Herman and Rose Bruner, who were Polish Jewish immigrants. An operation at age 2 restored his vision. He received a bachelor's of arts degree in Psychology, in 1937 from Duke University, and went on to earn a master's degree in Psychology in 1939 and then a doctorate in Psychology in 1941 from Harvard University. In 1939, Bruner published his first psychological article on the effect of thymus extract on the sexual behavior of the female rat. During World War II, Bruner served on the Psychological Warfare Division of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force committee under General Dwight D. Eisenhower, researching social psychological phenomena.
Career and research
In 1945, Bruner returned to Harvard as a psychology professor and was heavily involved in research relating to cognitive psychology and educational psychology. In 1972, Bruner left Harvard to teach at the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom. He returned to the United States in 1980, to continue his research in developmental psychology. In 1991, Bruner joined the faculty at New York University (NYU), where he taught primarily in the School of Law.
As an adjunct professor at NYU School of Law, Bruner studied how psychology affects legal practice. During his career, Bruner was awarded honorary doctorates from Yale University, Columbia University, The New School, the Sorbonne, the ISPA Instituto Universitário, as well as colleges and universities in such locations as Berlin and Rome, and was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Bruner is a distinguished member of Psi Chi. He turned 100 in October 2015 and died on June 5, 2016.
Cognitive psychology
Bruner is one of the pioneers of cognitive psychology in the United States, which began through his own early research on sensation and perception as being active, rather than passive processes.
In 1947, Bruner published his study Value and Need as Organizing Factors in Perception, in which children from advantaged and disadvantaged backgrounds were asked to estimate the size of coins or wooden disks the size of American pennies, nickels, dimes, quarters and half-dollars. The results showed that the value and need the poor and rich children associated with coins caused them to significantly overestimate the size of the coins, especially when compared to their more accurate estimations of the same size disks.
Similarly, another study conducted by Bruner and Leo Postman showed slower reaction times and less accurate answers when a deck of playing cards reversed the color of the suit symbol for some cards (e.g. red spades and black hearts). These series of experiments issued in what some called the 'New Look' psychology, which challenged psychologists to study not just an organism's response to a stimulus, but also its internal interpretation. After these experiments on perception, Bruner turned his attention to the actual cognitions that he had indirectly studied in his perception studies.
In 1956, Bruner published the book A Study of Thinking, which formally initiated the study of cognitive psychology. Soon afterward Bruner helped found the Harvard Center of Cognitive Studies. After a time, Bruner began to research other topics in psychology, but in 1990 he returned to the subject and gave a series of lectures, later compiled into the book Acts of Meaning. In these lectures, Bruner contested the computer model of the mind, advocating a more holistic understanding of cognitive processes.
Developmental psychology
Beginning around 1967, Bruner turned his attention to the subject of developmental psychology and studied the way children learn. He coined the term "scaffolding" to describe an instructional process in which the instructor provides carefully programmed guidance, reducing the amount of assistance as the student progresses through task learning. Bruner suggested that students may experience, or "represent" tasks in three ways: enactive representation (action-based), iconic representation (image-based), and symbolic representation (language-based). Rather than neatly delineated stages, the modes of representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other. Symbolic representation remains the ultimate mode, and it "is clearly the most mysterious of the three."
Bruner's learning theory suggests that it is efficacious, when faced with new material, to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner (even of a very young age) is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists. Like Bloom's Taxonomy, Bruner suggests a system of coding in which people form a hierarchical arrangement of related categories. Each successively higher level of categories becomes more specific, echoing Benjamin Bloom's understanding of knowledge acquisition as well as the related idea of instructional scaffolding.
In accordance with this understanding of learning, Bruner proposed the spiral curriculum, a teaching approach in which each subject or skill area is revisited at intervals, at a more sophisticated level each time. First there is basic knowledge of a subject, then more sophistication is added, reinforcing principles that were first discussed. This system is used in China and India. Bruner's spiral curriculum, however, draws heavily from evolution to explain how to learn better and thus it drew criticism from conservatives. In the United States classes are split by grade—life sciences in 9th grade, chemistry in 10th, physics in 11th. The spiral teaches life sciences, chemistry, physics all in one year, then two subjects, then one, then all three again to understand how they mold together. Bruner also believes learning should be spurred by interest in the material rather than tests or punishment, since one learns best when one finds the acquired knowledge appealing.
Educational psychology
While Bruner was at Harvard he published a series of works about his assessment of current educational systems and ways that education could be improved. In 1961, he published the book Process of Education. Bruner also served as a member of the Educational Panel of the President's Science Advisory Committee during the presidencies of John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson. Referencing his overall view that education should not focus merely on memorizing facts, Bruner wrote in Process of Education that "knowing how something is put together is worth a thousand facts about it." From 1964 to 1996 Bruner sought to develop a complete curriculum for the educational system that would meet the needs of students in three main areas which he called Man: A Course of Study. Bruner wanted to create an educational environment that would focus on (1) what was uniquely human about human beings, (2) how humans got that way and (3) how humans could become more so. In 1966, Bruner published another book relevant to education, Towards a Theory of Instruction, and then in 1973, another book, The Relevance of Education. Finally, in 1996, in The Culture of Education, Bruner reassessed the state of educational practices three decades after he had begun his educational research. Bruner was also credited with helping found the Head Start early childcare program. Bruner was deeply impressed by his 1995 visit to the preschools of Reggio Emilia and has established a collaborative relationship with them to improve educational systems internationally. Equally important was the relationship with the Italian Ministry of Education which officially recognized the value of this innovative experience.
Language development
In 1972, Bruner was appointed Watts Professor of Experimental Psychology at the University of Oxford, where he remained until 1980. In his Oxford years, Bruner focused on early language development. Rejecting the nativist account of language acquisition proposed by Noam Chomsky, Bruner offered an alternative in the form of an interactionist or social interactionist theory of language development. In this approach, the social and interpersonal nature of language was emphasized, appealing to the work of philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein, John L. Austin and John Searle for theoretical grounding. Following Lev Vygotsky the Russian theoretician of socio-cultural development, Bruner proposed that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition in general and of language in particular. He emphasized that children learn language in order to communicate, and, at the same time, they also learn the linguistic code. Meaningful language is acquired in the context of meaningful parent-infant interaction, learning "scaffolded" or supported by the child's language acquisition support system (LASS).
At Oxford Bruner worked with a large group of graduate students and post-doctoral fellows to understand how young children manage to crack the linguistic code, among them Alison Garton, Alison Gopnik, Magda Kalmar (Kalmár Magda), Alan Leslie, Andrew Meltzoff, Anat Ninio, Roy Pea, Susan Sugarman, Michael Scaife, Marian Sigman, Kathy Sylva and many others. Much emphasis was placed on employing the then-revolutionary method of videotaped home-observations, Bruner showing the way to a new wave of researchers to get out of the laboratory and take on the complexities of naturally occurring events in a child's life. This work was published in a large number of journal articles, and in 1983 Bruner published a summary in the book Child's talk: Learning to Use Language.
This decade of research established Bruner at the helm of the interactionist approach to language development, exploring such themes as the acquisition of communicative intents and the development of their linguistic expression, the interactive context of language use in early childhood, and the role of parental input and scaffolding behavior in the acquisition of linguistic forms. This work rests on the assumptions of a social constructivist theory of meaning according to which meaningful participation in the social life of a group as well as meaningful use of language involve an interpersonal, intersubjective, collaborative process of creating shared meaning. The elucidation of this process became the focus of Bruner's next period of work.
Narrative construction of reality
In 1980, Bruner returned to the United States, taking up the position of professor at the New School for Social Research in New York City in 1981. For the next decade, he worked on the development of a theory of the narrative construction of reality, culminating in several seminal publications which contributed to the development of narrative psychology. His book Acts of Meaning has been cited over 20,000 times followed by Actual Minds, Possible Worlds which has been cited by over 18,000 scholarly publications, making them two of the most influential works of the 20th century. In these books, Bruner argued that there are two forms of thinking: the paradigmatic and the narrative. The former is the method of science and is based upon classification and categorisation. The alternative narrative approach organises everyday interpretations of the world in storied form. The challenge of contemporary psychology is to understand this everyday form of thinking.
Legal psychology
In 1991, Bruner arrived at NYU as a visiting professor to do research and to found the Colloquium on the Theory of Legal Practice.
Publications
Books
Selected articles
Bruner, J. S. & Goodman, C. C. (1947). "Value and need as organizing factors in perception". Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 42, 33–44.
Bruner, J. S. & Postman, L. (1947). "Tension and tension-release as organizing factors in perception". Journal of Personality, 15, 300–308.
Bruner, J. S. & Postman, L. (1949). "On the perception of incongruity: A paradigm. Journal of Personality, 18, 206–223.
Bruner, J. S. (1975). "The ontogenesis of speech acts". Journal of Child Language, 2, 1–19. (The most cited article in the Journal of Child Language)
Scaife, M., Bruner, J. S. (1975). "Capacity for joint visual attention in the infant". Nature, 253, 265–266.
Bruner, J. S. (1975/76). "From communication to language: A psychological perspective". Cognition, 3, 255–287.
Bruner, J. S. (1976). "Prelinguistic prerequisites of speech". In R. Campbell and P. Smith (Eds.), Recent Advances in the Psychology of Language, 4a, 199–214. New York: Plenum Press.
Bruner, J. S., and Sherwood, V. (1976). "Early rule structure: The case of peekaboo". In J. S. Bruner, A. Jolly, and K. Sylva (Eds.), Play: Its Role in Evolution and Development. London: Penguin Books.
Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). "The role of tutoring in problem solving". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 17, 89–100.
Bruner, J. S. (1977). "Early social interaction and language acquisition". In H. R. Schaffer (Ed.), Studies in Mother-infant Interaction (pp. 271–289). London: Academic Press.
Bruner, J. S., Caudill, E. and Ninio, A. (1977). "Language and experience". In R. S. Peters (Ed.), John Dewey Reconsidered. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Ninio, A. and Bruner, J. S. (1978). "The achievement and antecedents of labelling". Journal of Child Language, 5, 1–15. Reprinted in M. B. Franklin and S. S. Barten (eds.), "Child Language: A Reader" (pp. 36–49). New York: Oxford University Press (1988).
Ratner, N. and Bruner, J. S. (1978). "Games, social exchange and the acquisition of language". Journal of Child Language, 5, 391–401.
Bruner, J. S. (1978). "On prelinguistic prerequisites of speech". In R. N. Campbell and P. T. Smith, (eds.), Recent Advances in the Psychology of Language (Vol. 4a. pp. 194–214). New York: Plenum Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1978). "Learning how to do things with words". In J. S. Bruner and R. A. Garton, (eds), Human Growth and Development (pp. 62–84). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1978). "The role of dialogue in language acquisition". In A. Sinclair, R. J. Jarvella, and W. J. M. Levelt (Eds.), The Child's Conception of Language (pp. 241–256). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Bruner, J. S., Roy, C., and Ratner, N. (1982). "The beginnings of request". In K. E. Nelson, (Ed.), Children's Language (Vol. 3. pp. 91–138). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bruner, J. S. (1983). "The acquisition of pragmatic commitments". In R. Golinkoff, (Ed.), The Transition from Prelinguistic to Linguistic Communication (pp. 27 42). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bruner, J. S. (1985). "Models of the Learner". Educational Researcher, June/July, 5–8.
Bruner, J. (1995). "From joint attention to the meeting of minds". In C. Moore & P. Dunham (eds.), Joint Attention: Its Origins And Role In Development. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
"The Narrative Construction of Reality" (1991). Critical Inquiry, 18:1, 1–21.
"The Autobiographical Process" (1995). Current Sociology. 43.2, 161–177.
See also
Bradd Shore
Constructionism
Constructivism
Cognitivism
Cognitivism (learning theory)
Cognitive linguistics
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive revolution
Narrative psychology
Narrative therapy
References
External links
Video interview
50th anniversary event of Bruner's The Process of Education. April 27, 2011.
Biographical Memoir by Howard Gardner for Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
American developmental psychologists
Educational psychologists
American cognitive scientists
20th-century psychologists
21st-century psychologists
Enactive cognition
Cognitive development researchers
Consciousness researchers and theorists
Jewish American social scientists
Presidents of the American Psychological Association
Harvard University faculty
New York University School of Law faculty
Fellows of Wolfson College, Oxford
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences alumni
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Writers from New York City
United States Army personnel of World War II
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American centenarians
Men centenarians
1915 births
2016 deaths
Scientists from New York City
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
21st-century American Jews | [
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261228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritual%20de%20lo%20Habitual | Ritual de lo Habitual | Ritual de lo Habitual is the second studio album by Jane's Addiction, released on August 21, 1990, by Warner Brothers. Co-produced by Dave Jerden, it was the band's final studio album before their initial break-up in 1991. Singles from Ritual de lo Habitual include "Been Caught Stealing" and "Stop!". Ritual de lo habitual is certified 2× Platinum in the U.S.
In 1990, one month after its release, the album had sold 500,000 units.
Music
The album is divided into halves. Tracks 1 through 5 are hard rock songs unrelated to each other.
Tracks 6 through 9 are in memoriam of singer Perry Farrell's deceased girlfriend Xiola Blue, who died of a heroin overdose in 1987 at the age of 19. "Three Days" and "Then She Did" bear a progressive rock influence, while "Of Course" carries a klezmer influence, with a prominent violin throughout. Eric Avery refused to play bass on "Of Course" out of resentment from being told what to play on other songs. Recording engineer and guitar tech Ronnie S. Champagne, who would later confess that Farrell had a tendency to dictate the other members' parts during the recording of this album, ended up playing bass on the song instead. For his part, Avery would later admit regret at not playing on the track.
"Then She Did" also chronicles Farrell's mother's suicide when he was four years old. "It's probably one of the reasons we were brought together…" remarked guitarist Dave Navarro, whose mother was murdered when he was a teenager. "I have memories of us being onstage together and, before we played 'Then She Did', Perry would grab me and say, 'Let's do this for our moms.' I still get chills when I think about it." "When you have something like that happen…" noted Farrell, "the better thing to do is to try to make some flowers grow out of it."
"Ain't No Right" begins with Farrell singing excerpts from "Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll" by Ian Dury and the Blockheads against a dub reggae backdrop of a drum machine and synthesized bass, which he eventually slurs into a profanity-laced rant. The intro ends and "Ain't No Right" begins.
Packaging
Two versions of the disc packaging were created: one album featured cover artwork by singer Perry Farrell, related to the song "Three Days" and including male and female nudity; the other cover has been called the "clean cover", and features only black text on a white background, listing the band name, album name, and the text of the First Amendment (the "freedom of speech" amendment, erroneously referred to as "Article 1", which in reality establishes the legislative branch of government) of the U.S. Constitution. The back cover of the "clean cover" also contains the text: Hitler's syphilis-ridden dreams almost came true. How could it happen? By taking control of the media. An entire country was led by a lunatic… We must protect our First Amendment, before sick dreams become law. Nobody made fun of Hitler??! The "clean cover" was created so the CD could be distributed in stores which refused to stock items with represented nudity.
Critical reception
Ritual de lo habitual was acclaimed by music critics, similar to the band's previous album. "The gigantic swerve and swagger of 'Stop', the Chili Pepperish taunts of 'Ain't No Right', 'Of Course's raga rocking and, above all, the epic 'Three Days', where guitarist David Navarro gets to pile the layers shoulder high, prove to be the stuff of true compulsion," wrote Peter Kane in Q. "Enigmatic, audacious and unpredictable to the last."
"It all makes you realise how few bands actually bother to try and be any good, to play stuff that's inspirational," enthused Andrew Perry in a retrospective review for Select. The same magazine later listed Ritual as the fifth best album of the '90s: "Nevermind would never have been possible without it. And, along the way, they ushered in the Led Zep revival."
The album was voted the 24th best of 1990 in The Village Voices Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics nationwide. Robert Christgau, the poll's supervisor, remained unimpressed by the album, dismissing it as "junk syncretism (kitchen-sink eclecticism? styleless mish-mash?)".
Other musicians have spoken highly of the album. "I can spot traces of other people on this album, us included," remarked hard rock vocalist Alice Cooper in 1994, "but that's all they are: traces. They were a really original band. This is their peak album, where they really went out on a limb. Sometimes I get so caught up in these songs, I can actually feel the band pushing themselves to their limits. Sometimes I can't believe how strong it is. I wonder if this will have the same effect on some kid as Chuck Berry had on me ..."
In 2003, the album was ranked number 453 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
In 2019, a book about the album, "El Ritual de Jane's Addiction", was released by Argentinian journalist Fabrizio Pedrotti. It tells the story with collaborations from the band, producers and other artists from that era. Farrell and Portnoy wrote the foreword.
Track listing
Personnel
Jane's Addiction
Perry Farrell – lead vocals, piano ("Of Course"), guitar ("Three Days")
Dave Navarro – guitar
Eric Avery – bass guitar
Stephen Perkins – drums
Additional musicians
Charlie Bisharat – violin ("Of Course"), electric violin ("Then She Did ...")
Ronnie S. Champagne – bass ("Of Course")
John Philip Shenale – strings ("Then She Did ...")
Geoff Stradling – piano ("Obvious", "Then She Did ...")
Cindy Lair – spoken word ("Stop!")
Other personnel
Herman Agopain – assistant
Victor Bracke – photography
Kim Champagne – advisor
Ronnie S. Champagne – engineering, guitar technician
Chris Edwards – assistant
Perry Farrell – artwork, production
Ross Garfield – drum technician
Dave Jerden – production
Bob Lacivita – engineering
Tom Recchion – advisor
Eddy Schreyer – mastering
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
External links
Ritual de lo Habitual at Discogs
Album Review at Cokemachineglow
Album Review at Music Emissions
1990 albums
Jane's Addiction albums
Albums produced by Dave Jerden
Warner Records albums
Obscenity controversies in music | [
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261229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacilli | Bacilli | Bacilli is a taxonomic class of bacteria that includes two orders, Bacillales and Lactobacillales, which contain several well-known pathogens such as Bacillus anthracis (the cause of anthrax). Bacilli are almost exclusively gram-positive bacteria.
The name Bacillus, capitalized and italicized, refers to a specific genus of bacteria. The name Bacilli, capitalized but not italicized, can also refer to a less specific taxonomic group of bacteria that includes two orders, one of which contains the genus Bacillus. When the word is formatted with lowercase and not italicized, 'bacillus', it will most likely be referring to shape and not to the genus at all.
Ambiguity
Several related concepts make use of similar words, and the ambiguity can create considerable confusion. The term "Bacillus" (capitalized and italicized) is also the name of a genus (Bacillus anthracis) that, among many other genera, falls within the class Bacilli.
The word "bacillus" (or its plural "bacilli", with a small b) is also a generic term to describe the morphology of any rod-shaped bacterium. This general term does not mean that the subject is a member of class Bacilli or genus Bacillus. Thus, it does not necessarily imply a similar group of characteristics. Not all members of class Bacilli are rod-shaped (Staphylococcus is spherical), and many other rod-shaped bacteria that do not fall within that class exist (e.g., Clostridium is rod-shaped but very different taxonomically). Moreover, the general term "bacillus" does not necessarily indicate the Gram-positive staining common to class Bacilli. For example, E. coli is a rod-shaped bacterium that can be described as "a bacillus", but it stains Gram-negative and does not belong to the genus Bacillus or the class Bacilli. Some microbiologists have forsaken the general "bacillus" term because of the confusion it can create.
Phylogeny
The phylogeny is based on 16S rRNA-based LTP release 132 by The All-Species Living Tree Project, with the currently accepted taxonomy based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN), National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
and some non validated clade names from Genome Taxonomy Database.
Bacilli part 2 (continued)
Unclassified Bacilli
"Candidatus Izimaplasma" ♠ {"Izimaplasmatales" ♥: "Izimaplasmataceae" ♥}
"Candidatus Lumbricoplasma" ♠ {Lumbricoplasmataceae ♠}
"Rubeoparvulaceae" ♥ {"Rubeoparvulales" ♥}
Notes:
♥ Clade names not lodged at National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) or listed in the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN)
References
Bacteria classes | [
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261236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Woman%20in%20Flames | A Woman in Flames | A Woman in Flames (Die flambierte Frau, literally "The Flambéed Woman") is a German drama film from 1983, directed by Robert van Ackeren, starring Gudrun Landgrebe, Mathieu Carrière, and Hanns Zischler. The film was selected as the West German entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 56th Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee.
Plot
Eva, an upper class housewife, becomes frustrated and leaves her arrogant husband. She is drawn to the idea of becoming a call girl. With the aid of a prostitute named Yvonne, Eva learns the basics and then they both set out looking for janes and johns together. She meets a charming man who she falls in love with and comes to his house late at night for a romantic tryst. He turns out to be a gigolo. Consequently, they move into his penthouse, which is large enough for both of them to offer their services separately.
Then slowly Eva enters the world of sado-masochism. She finds being a dominatrix extremely satisfying, and begins to take pleasure in controlling others and causing them intense pain. She discovers this in a scene in which a man is hiding under a table. Eva can see that his hands are sticking out from under the table and are clearly visible. Coldly, and with intense inner satisfaction, Eva proceeds to crush the man's hands by slowly walking over them with her stiletto-heeled boots.
Chris, the gigolo, becomes jealous of her and wants to know what's going on upstairs and how she is making so much money. She tells him it is from hurting men, and that the more she hurts them, the more money she gets. This upsets him greatly. She also becomes jealous of his boyfriend/client, a man who has been coming to him for many years. The scenes in the upstairs room intensify. One day he sneaks up and observes her in a scene dominating a man tied to a chair. He has a look on his face like "see, this is what you truly are," and the look on her face says proudly "yes, this is what I truly am." He tries to whisk her away from all of it, buying her furs, talking about marriage. She tells him that she's been dreaming about hitting him, and in the dream he likes it.
The setting is all there for a romantic ending, and yet, he panics, he takes all their money and invests it in a restaurant that she doesn't want to be part of. She tries to walk out on him, and he gets angry, throws her against the wall, hits her, pours alcohol on her, and lights her on fire.
But the last scene shows her unscathed, happy with her friend the sex worker/madame, and they're getting thrown out of a bar that Chris owns.
See also
Sadism and masochism in fiction
List of submissions to the 56th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of German submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
References
External links
1983 films
1983 drama films
German drama films
West German films
1980s German-language films
Films directed by Robert van Ackeren
BDSM in films
Films set in Berlin
Films about prostitution in Germany | [
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261237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Gods%20Must%20Be%20Crazy | The Gods Must Be Crazy | The Gods Must Be Crazy is a 1980 comedy film written, produced, edited and directed by Jamie Uys. An international co-production of South Africa and Botswana, it is the first film in The Gods Must Be Crazy series.
Set in Southern Africa, the film stars Namibian San farmer Nǃxau ǂToma as Xi, a hunter-gatherer of the Kalahari Desert whose tribe discovers a glass bottle dropped from an airplane, and believe it to be a gift from their gods. When Xi sets out to return the bottle to the gods, his journey becomes intertwined with that of a biologist (played by Marius Weyers), a newly hired village school teacher (Sandra Prinsloo), and a band of guerrilla terrorists.
The Gods Must Be Crazy was released by Ster-Kinekor in South Africa, where it broke box-office records, becoming the most financially successful release in the history of South Africa's film industry. The film was a commercial and critical success in other countries, including the United States, where it was distributed by 20th Century Fox, with the film's original Afrikaans dialogue being dubbed in English. Despite its success, the film attracted criticism for its depiction of race and perceived ignorance of discrimination and apartheid in South Africa.
The film was followed by one official sequel, The Gods Must Be Crazy II, released by Columbia Pictures in 1989.
Plot
Xi and his San tribe are living happily in the Kalahari Desert, away from industrial civilization. One day, a glass Coca-Cola bottle is thrown out of an airplane by a pilot and falls to the ground unbroken. Initially, Xi's people assume the bottle to be a gift from their gods, just as they believe plants and animals are, and find many uses for it. Unlike other bounties, however, there is only one glass bottle, which causes unforeseen conflict within the tribe. As a result, Xi, wearing only a loincloth, decides to make a pilgrimage to the edge of the world and dispose of the divisive object.
Along the way, Xi encounters biologist Andrew Steyn, who is studying the manure of wildlife; Steyn's assistant and mechanic, M'pudi; Kate Thompson, a woman who quit her job as a journalist in Johannesburg to become a village school teacher; and eventually a band of guerrillas led by Sam Boga, who are being pursued by government troops after a failed assassination attempt.
Steyn is tasked with bringing Kate to the village where she will teach, but he is awkward and clumsy around her. Their Land Rover stalls while trying to ford a deep river; he hoists it out with a winch, but it continues lifting the vehicle to a very high treetop level while a forgetful Steyn is distracted extricating Kate from a briar bush. She more than once mistakes his attempts to evade wild animals, and putting out an evening campfire, as advances towards her. Eventually, a snobbish safari tour guide named Jack Hind arrives, and takes Kate the rest of the way to the village.
One day, Xi happens upon a herd of goats, and shoots one with a tranquilizer arrow, planning to eat it. He is arrested and sentenced to jail. M'pudi, who once lived with the San and can speak the San language, is discontent with the verdict. He and Steyn arrange to hire Xi as a tracker for the remainder of his sentence in lieu of prison time, and teach Xi how to drive Steyn's Land Rover. Meanwhile, the guerrillas invade Kate's school, taking her and the students as hostages as they make their escape to a neighbouring country.
Steyn, M'pudi and Xi, immersed in their fieldwork, find that they are along the terrorists' and childrens' path, and observe their movements with a telescope. They manage to immobilize six of the eight guerrillas using makeshift tranquilizer darts launched by Xi with a miniature bow, allowing Kate and the children to confiscate the guerillas' firearms. Steyn and M'pudi apprehend the remaining two guerrillas by frightening one with a snake and by shooting at a tree above the other, causing latex to drip from the tree and irritate his skin. Jack Hind arrives and takes away Kate, taking credit for the rescue that Steyn, M'pudi and Xi had actually planned and executed.
Later, with Xi's term over, Steyn pays his wages and sends him on his way. Xi has never seen paper money (banknotes) before, and throws them on the ground. Steyn and M'pudi then drive from their camp to visit Kate. Steyn attempts to explain to Kate his tendency to be uncoordinated in her presence, but accidentally and repeatedly knocks over a number of objects in the process. Kate finds his efforts endearing, and kisses Steyn.
Xi eventually arrives at God's Window, the top of a cliff with a solid layer of low-lying clouds obscuring the landscape below. Convinced that he has reached the edge of the world, he throws the bottle off the cliff, and returns to his family.
Cast
Director Jamie Uys appears in an uncredited role as the Reverend.
Production
Development and casting
Jamie Uys conceived the premise of The Gods Must Be Crazy while making the 1974 documentary film Animals Are Beautiful People. The documentary was filmed partially on the Kalahari Desert, where Uys first encountered the San people and "fell in love with them." Uys chose a Coca-Cola bottle as the object that the San people would discover and covet in The Gods Must Be Crazy because he felt that the bottle was representative of "our plastic society", and because it "is a beautiful thing, if you've never seen glass before."
Uys noted that he modelled the character of Andrew Steyn after himself, saying, "I used to be awkward like that, especially with women. But then, I think most young guys knock things over with their first girl." A scene in which a rhinoceros stomps out a fire is based in a Burmese legend about fire-eating rhinos, which is not widely known in Africa and appears not to be based in fact.
After writing the script for The Gods Must Be Crazy, Uys reportedly spent three months traversing the Kalahari Desert with an interpreter, searching for a San person to play the role of Xi in the film. Visiting areas of the desert inhabited by the San, Uys took photographs of individuals he felt he might cast, and then "marked the longitude and latitude, so we could find them again."
Uys decided to cast Namibian San farmer Nǃxau ǂToma as Xi, and later recalled that "At first [Nǃxau] didn't understand, because they have no word for work. Then the interpreter asked, 'Would you like to come with us for some days?" N!xau agreed and flew with Uys by airplane to Windhoek, Namibia, which served as a base for the film's production. Uys stated that "The airplane didn't impress him at all. He thinks we are magicians, so he believes we can do anything. Nothing impressed him." In his hotel room, N!xau agreed to use the toilet, but slept on the floor rather than on the provided bed.
However, according to author Josef Gugler, Uys "[fictionalized] the production of the film. The stories he told reviewers varied." Unlike what was presented in The Gods Must Be Crazy, N!xau did not lead a hunter-gatherer lifestyle; he grew up as a herder on a farm in Botswana, before moving to Namibia to work as a cook. In the 1980 documentary film Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman, directed by John Marshall, footage of the filming of The Gods Must Be Crazy is used. The documentary shows San restricted to living in a reservation established by South African authorities in Tsumkwe, Namibia. The San there are shown to not be hunter-gatherers; they are instead dependent on the government for food and other aid, with some suffering from tuberculosis.
Filming
The Gods Must Be Crazy was shot in Tsumkwe, Namibia, as well as in Botswana.
According to Uys, N!xau would be flown back to his home in the Kalahari Desert every three or four weeks to prevent him from suffering from culture shock. During his time in urban areas, N!xau learned to smoke and acquired an affinity for liquor and sake. Uys said that he paid N!xau $300 for his first 10 days of work, but that the money was reportedly blown away by wind. N!xau was then compensated with 12 head of cattle. In 1985, Uys stated that he had sent N!xau $100 a month since filming, which N!xau used at a trading store 60 miles from his hunting ground; Uys also stated that a $20,000 trust account in N!xau's name had been established.
Release
The Gods Must Be Crazy was released in South Africa in September 1980 by Ster-Kinekor Pictures. Within four days, the film broke box-office records in every city in South Africa. Executive producer Boet Troskie sold the distribution rights to the film to 45 countries before selling its United States distribution rights to 20th Century Fox. It became the highest-grossing film of 1982 in Japan, where it was released under the title Bushman.
For its release in the U.S., the original Afrikaans dialogue was dubbed into English, and voiceover work was provided for !Kung and Tswana lines. The English-dubbed version of the film was released in the U.S. in 1984, where it received generally positive reviews and commercial success, becoming the highest-grossing non-American-produced film in the U.S. at that time. It played at the Music Hall Theater in Beverly Hills, California for at least eight months.
Critical reception
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, The Gods Must Be Crazy has an approval rating of 85% based on 26 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the film has a score of 73 out of 100 based on six reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four, concluding that "It might be easy to make a farce about screwball happenings in the desert, but it's a lot harder to create a funny interaction between nature and human nature. This movie's a nice little treasure." Variety stated that the film's "main virtues are its striking, widescreen visuals of unusual locations, and the sheer educational value of its narration."
In his review of the film for The New York Times, critic Vincent Canby wrote that, "Watching Jamie Uys's Gods Must Be Crazy, [...] one might suspect that there were no such things as apartheid or the Immorality Act or even South Africa." Though he called the film "often genuinely, nonpolitically funny", he noted that "there's also something disturbing about the film," in that "we tend to feel that any South African work that doesn't actively condemn apartheid has the secondary effect of condoning it, if only through silence."
Home media
In mid-November 1986, The Gods Must Be Crazy was released on VHS in the U.S. by CBS/Fox on its Playhouse Video label.
In 2004, The Gods Must Be Crazy was released on DVD by Sony Pictures Entertainment. It was also released on DVD as a double feature with The Gods Must Be Crazy II.
Controversies
The Gods Must Be Crazy attracted criticism for its perceived perpetuation of racial stereotypes and ignorance of discrimination and apartheid in South Africa. In the U.S., the film was reportedly picketed by the National Conference of Black Lawyers and other anti-apartheid groups when it screened at the 68th Street Playhouse in New York City.
Accusations of patronization
Both New York Times critic Vincent Canby and author Josef Gugler called the film "patronizing" towards the San people. Canby wrote that the San in the film "are seen to be frightfully quaint if not downright cute", and compared the film's narrator's statement that the San "must be the most contented people in the world" to "exactly the sort of thing that Mussolini might have said when he got those trains running on time." Gugler considered both the film's narrator and the character of Mpudi condescending, writing that "even if Mpudi feels for the San people, he is just as patronizing as the narrator: 'They are the sweetest little buggers. In response to accusations of patronization, Uys said that "I don't think the film is patronizing. When the Bushman is with us in the city, I do patronize him, because he's stupid. But in the desert, he patronizes me, because I'm stupid and he's brilliant."
Criticisms related to apartheid
In 1985, cultural anthropologist Toby Alice Volkman wrote that money was "a pressing concern" for the San when The Gods Must Be Crazy was filmed, with many of them dependent on government aid and purchased food; she noted that many San enlisted in the South African Army due to the high wages it paid. She wrote: "Because the myth of Bushman innocence and bliss underlies the popularity of The Gods Must Be Crazy, it is no surprise that Mr. Uys would like us to believe in it. There is, however, little to laugh about in Bushmanland: 1,000 demoralized, formerly independent foragers crowd into a squalid, tubercular homeland, getting by on handouts of cornmeal and sugar, drinking Johnny Walker or home brew, fighting with one another and joining the South African Army."
The following year, Canadian anthropologist Richard Borshay Lee called the film "an amusing but thinly disguised piece of South African propaganda in which a peculiar element of South African white mythology receives prominent attention." Lee wrote that "The notion that some San in the 1980s remain untouched by 'civilization' is a cruel joke. The San have been the subject of a century of rapid social change and especially in the last twenty years have been forced to endure all the 'benefits' of South Africa's apartheid policies in Namibia."
Gugler wrote that the guerrillas in the film are depicted as "bad Africans [...] dangerous and destructive all right, but they are also indolent and inept. In the end, even Kate Thompson gets to disarm one of them. Their leader, Sam Boga, articulates what the film is showing us about African guerrillas: 'Why do I have to work with amateurs?' He, in turn, serves to confirm the apartheid credo that Africans would be happy with the White dispensation were it not for foreigners fomenting discontent and making trouble." Gugler goes on to state that Uys "[perpetuates] the myths of apartheid: an ordered world with Whites on top, a world where Africans are content but for the interference of outsiders."
When asked about his thoughts on apartheid, Uys stated that "I think it's a mess. We've done some silly, naughty things that we're ashamed of. We're trying to dismantle it, but it's a very complicated thing. If you go too slow, it's bad, and if you go too fast, it will ruin the economy and everyone will starve. I hope I'm not a racist, but everybody likes to think of himself as not racist, and I don't think that any of us can swear we're not racist. If it means you hate the coloured man, I'm not racist. If it means you choose to marry a girl of your own colour, is that racist, too? If the two are in love, it doesn't matter. But I chose a white girl as my wife."
Sequel and related films
The Gods Must Be Crazy was followed by one official sequel, The Gods Must Be Crazy II, released by Columbia Pictures in 1989. The Gods Must Be Crazy II was also written and directed and Uys, and again stars N!xau. This was followed by an unofficial sequel, Crazy Safari (also titled The Gods Must Be Crazy III), a Hong Kong film starring N!xau. Other unofficial sequels include Crazy Hong Kong (The Gods Must Be Crazy IV) and The Gods Must Be Funny in China (The Gods Must Be Crazy V). Two other unrelated films, Jewel of the Gods and There's a Zulu On My Stoep, were marketed in some territories as sequels to The Gods Must Be Crazy.
Legacy
Irish Spring soap had a 1989 commercial parodying the film.
The video for the song "Take Me to Your Leader" by American rock band Incubus pays homage to the film.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Further reading
1980 films
1980 comedy films
1980s adventure comedy films
20th Century Fox films
Botswana films
Coca-Cola in popular culture
English-language films
English-language South African films
Afrikaans-language films
Films about hunter-gatherers
Films about terrorism in Africa
Films directed by Jamie Uys
Films set in Botswana
Films set in South Africa
Films shot in Botswana
Films shot in South Africa
Kalahari Desert
South African comedy films
South African adventure comedy films
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] |
261239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20military%20decorations | List of military decorations | This list of military decorations is an index to articles about notable military decorations. It is organized by country in alphabetical order and in order of precedence.
Note that there are many pages which overlap the domain of this page, including military awards and decorations and campaign medal, and pages mentioned within :category:Military awards and decorations, :category:Battle honours, :category:Orders, decorations, and medals and other categories.
By country
Afghanistan
Orders, decorations, and medals of Afghanistan
Albania
Civil awards and decorations of Albania
Algeria
Honorary Spahi
National Order of Merit
Ancient Rome
Military awards and decorations of ancient Rome
Andorra
Orders, decorations, and medals of Andorra
Antigua and Barbuda
Orders, decorations, and medals of Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Orders, decorations, and medals of Argentina
Armenia
Awards and decorations of Armenia
Australia
Australian honours system
Austria
Austria (Republic)
Orders, decorations, and medals of Austria
Austria-Hungary (Monarchy)
Military awards and decorations of Austria-Hungary
Azerbaijan
Orders, decorations, and medals of Azerbaijan
Baden
Orders, decorations, and medals of Baden
Bahamas
Orders, decorations, and medals of the Bahamas
Bahrain
Orders, decorations, and medals of Bahrain
Bangladesh
Orders, decorations, and medals of Bangladesh
Medals of the Bangladesh Armed Forces
Barbados
Orders, decorations, and medals of Barbados
Belarus
Orders, decorations, and medals of Belarus
Belgium
Orders, decorations, and medals of Belgium
Belize
Orders, decorations, and medals of Belize
Benin
Orders, decorations, and medals of Benin
Bhutan
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Bhutan
Bolivia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Bolivia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Orders, decorations, and medals of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
Orders, decorations and medals of Botswana
Brazil
Orders, decorations, and medals of Brazil
British Empire
Orders, decorations, and medals of the British Empire
Brunei
Orders, decorations, and medals of Brunei
Bulgaria
Orders, decorations, and medals of Bulgaria
Burma
Orders, decorations, and medals of Burma
Cambodia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Cambodia
Cameroon
Orders, decorations, and medals of Cameroon
Canada
Orders, decorations, and medals of Canada
Orders, decorations, and medals of the Canadian provinces
Chile
Orders, decorations, and medals of Chile
China
Orders, decorations, and medals of China
Colombia
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Colombia
Comoros
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of the Comoros
Confederate States
Davis Guards Medal
(Democratic Republic of the) Congo
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Croatia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Croatia
Orders, decorations, and medals of the Independent State of Croatia
Cuba
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Cuba
Cyprus
Order of Makarios III
Czech Republic
State decorations of the Czech Republic
Czechoslovakia
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Czechoslovakia
:Category:Military awards and decorations of Czechoslovakia
Order of the Falcon (Czechoslovakia)
Order of the White Lion
Military Cross (Czechoslovakia)
Legion of Merit (Czechoslovakia)
Czechoslovak War Cross
Czechoslovak War Cross 1918
Czechoslovak War Cross 1939–1945
Medal of Merit (Czechoslovakia)
Denmark
Orders, decorations, and medals of Denmark
Dominica
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Dominica
Dominican Republic
Orders, decorations, and medals of the Dominican Republic
East Timor
Orders, decorations, and medals of East Timor
Ecuador
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Ecuador
Egypt
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Egypt
Order of the Nile
Order of Ismail
Order of Ramesseses The Great
Order of Nasser
Medal of Narmer
Medal of The Golden Eagle
Order of the Bronze Eagle
El Salvador
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of El Salvador
Estonia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Estonia
Ethiopia
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia
Order of Menelik II
Fiji
Fijian honours system
Finland
Orders, decorations, and medals of Finland
List of honours of Finland awarded to heads of state and royalty
France
Orders, decorations, and medals of France
Historical orders, decorations, and medals of France
French overseas orders
Gabon
National Order of Merit
Order of the Equatorial Star
Georgia (country)
Orders, decorations, and medals of Georgia
Germany
Orders, decorations, and medals of Germany
Germany (Federal Republic)
German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
Germany (Third Reich)
Germany (Empire)
Ghana
Orders, decorations, and medals of Ghana
Greece
Orders, decorations, and medals of Greece
Greenland
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Greenland
Guatemala
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Guatemala
Guinea
National Order of Merit
Equatorial Guinea
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Equatorial Guinea
Guyana
Orders, decorations, and medals of Guyana
Haiti
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Haiti
Hanover
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Hanover
Holy See
Hong Kong
Orders, decorations, and medals of Hong Kong
Hungary
Orders, decorations, and medals of Hungary
1848–1849-es szabadságharc érdemjel (Military award of Hungarian Revolution of 1848)
vitéz plaqueKnightly Order of Bravery|Vitèzi Rend (Order of Vitéz)
Magyar Szent Korona Rend (Order of the Hungarian Holy Crown)
Magyar Vitézségi Érem (Medal for Bravery)
Magyar Érdemrend és Érdemérem (Order of Merit, Military Class)
Délvidéki Emlékérem (Commemorative Medal for the Return of South Hungary)
Erdélyi Emlékérem (Commemorative Medal for the Liberation of North Transylvania)
Felvidéki Emlékérem (Commemorative Medal for the Liberation of Upper Hungary)
Tűzkereszt (Fire Cross)
Iceland
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Iceland
India
Wartime awards
Param Vir Chakra
Maha Vir Chakra
Vir Chakra
Peacetime awards
Ashoka Chakra
Kirti Chakra
Shaurya Chakra
Distinguished Service and Gallantry
Sena Medal (Army) Nao Sena Medal (Navy) Vayusena Medal (Air Force)
Sarvottam Yudh Seva Medal
Uttam Yudh Seva Medal
Yudh Seva Medal
Param Vishisht Seva Medal
Ati Vishisht Seva Medal
Vishisht Seva Medal
Indonesia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Indonesia
Iran
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Iran
Awards and decorations of the Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces
Iraq
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Iraq
Order of the Date Palm
Order of the Two Rivers
Ireland
Military awards and decorations of Ireland
Israel
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Israel
:Category:Military awards and decorations of Israel
Italy
Orders, decorations, and medals of Italy
Ivory Coast
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Ivory Coast
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Orders, decorations, and medals of Kazakhstan
Kenya
Orders, decorations, and medals of Kenya
Kiribati
Orders, decorations, and medals of Kiribati
Korea
North Korea
Orders and medals of North Korea
South Korea
Orders, decorations, and medals of South Korea
Kosovo
Orders, decorations, and medals of Kosovo
Kuwait
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Kuwait
Wisam al-Tahir (or Kuwait Liberation Medal)
Kyrgyzstan
Orders, decorations, and medals of Kyrgyzstan
Latvia
Lebanon
Orders, decorations, and medals of Lebanon
Liberia
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Liberia
Libya
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Libya
Liechtenstein
Orders, decorations, and medals of Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Orders, decorations, and medals of Lithuania
Luxembourg (Monarchy)
Orders, decorations, and medals of Luxembourg
Macau
Orders, decorations, and medals of Macau
Madagascar
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Madagascar
Malawi
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Malawi
(Federation of) Malaya
Johan Mangku Negara
Panglima Mangku Negara
Malaysia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Malaysia
Mali
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Mali
Malta
Orders, decorations, and medals of Malta
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Order pro merito Melitensi
Mauritius
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Mauritius
Mexico
Orders, decorations, and medals of Mexico
Mexican Imperial Orders
Military decorations of Mexico
Moldova
Orders, decorations, and medals of Moldova
Monaco
Orders, decorations, and medals of Monaco
Mongolia
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Mongolia
Montenegro
Orders, decorations, and medals of Montenegro
Morocco
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Morocco
Order of Ouissam Alaouite
Order of the Military (Morocco)
Sharifian Order of Military Merit
Order of Military Merit (Morocco)
Mozambique
Orders, decorations, and medals of Mozambique
Myanmar
Orders, decorations, and medals of Myanmar
Namibia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Namibia
Decorations
Namibian Cross for Bravery in Gold
Order of Mukorob
Namibian Cross for Bravery in Silver
Namibian Cross for Bravery in Bronze
Campaign Medal(s)
Campaign Medal
Long Service Medals
Service Medal: 30 Years
Service Medal: 20 Years
Service Medal: 10 Years
Shooting Medal(s)
Namibian Champion Shot Medal
Nepal
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Nepal
Netherlands
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of the Netherlands
:Category:Military awards and decorations of the Netherlands
Knightly military Orders
Military Order of William
Order of Orange-Nassau (Military division)
Decorations
Cross for Courage and Fidelity (Not awarded anymore)
Honorary Sabre (Not currently awarded)
Honorable Mention (Obsolete)
Bronze Lion
Bronze Cross
Cross of Merit
Airman's Cross
Decoration of Merit
Decoration for Important Military Acts (Not currently awarded)
Lombok Cross (Not awarded anymore)
War Remembrance Cross (Not awarded anymore)
Decoration for Order and Peace (Not awarded anymore)
New Guinea Remembrance Cross (Not awarded anymore)
Mobilisation War Cross (Not awarded anymore)
Cross for Justice and Freedom
Remembrance Medal UN Peace Operations (Not awarded anymore)
Remembrance Medal Multinational Operations (Not awarded anymore)
Remembrance Medal Peace Operations
Kosovo Medal
Decoration for Long-term Service as an Officer
Decoration for Long-term and Loyal Service at the Military Coastguard
Decoration Master-Marksman
Skills Medal KNIL (of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army - Not awarded anymore)
Shooting Price Star (of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army - Not awarded anymore)
Army Medal
Cross for the Four Day Marches
New Zealand
New Zealand royal honours system
Nigeria
Orders, decorations, and medals of Nigeria
North Macedonia
Orders, decorations, and medals of North Macedonia
Norway
Orders, decorations, and medals of Norway
Oman
Orders, decorations, and medals of Oman
Ottoman Empire
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of the Ottoman Empire
Palestine
Decorations, medals and badges of Palestine
Orders, decorations, and medals of the State of Palestine
Pakistan
Awards and decorations of the Pakistan Armed Forces
Civil decorations of Pakistan
Panama
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Panama
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea honours system
Peru
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Peru
Philippines
Awards and decorations of the Armed Forces of the Philippines
Poland
Orders, decorations, and medals of Poland
Portugal
Orders, decorations, and medals of Portugal
Puerto Rico
Qatar
:Category:Orders, decorations and medals of Qatar
Rhodesia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Rhodesia
Military decorations and medals awarded during the UDI (Unilateral Declaration of Independence) period from 1965 to 1979. See also Zimbabwe.
Decorations
Grand Cross of Valour (GCV) (1970–1981)
Order of the Legion of Merit: Military Division (1970–1981)
Silver Cross of Rhodesia (SCR) (1970–1981)
Bronze Cross of Rhodesia (BCR) (1970–1981)
Defence Cross for Distinguished Service (DCD) (1976–1981)
Meritorious Conduct Medal (MCM) (1970–1981)
Medal for Meritorious Service (MSM) (1973–1981)
Defence Forces' Medal for Meritorious Service (DMM) (1971–1981)
Campaign Medals
Rhodesia General Service Medal (1969)
Long Service Medals
Exemplary Service Medal (1970–1981)
Medal for Territorial and Reserve Service (1970–1981)
Shooting Medals
President's Medal for Shooting (1970–1981)
Other Awards
Military Forces Commendation (emblem) (1970–1981)
Romania
Orders, decorations, and medals of Romania
Russian Federation
Orders, decorations, and medals of Russia
Honorary titles
Hero of the Russian Federation
Orders
Order of St. Andrew (highest civil and military award)
Order of Saint George (highest military award)
Order of Merit for the Motherland
Order of Courage
Order of Zhukov
Order of Suvorov
Order of Ushakov
Order of Kutuzov
Order of Alexander Nevsky
Order of Nakhimov
Order of Naval Merit
Order of Military Merit
Medals
Medal of the Gold Star (for the title "Hero of the Russian Federation")
Medal of the Order of Merit for the Motherland
Medal "For Courage"
Medal of Suvorov
Medal of Nesterov
Medal of Ushakov
Medal of Zhukov
Medal "For Distinction in the Protection of the State Borders"
Medal "For Distinction in the Protection of Public Order"
Rwanda
Orders, decorations, and medals of Rwanda
Saint Lucia
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Saint Lucia
Samoa
Orders, decorations, and medals of Samoa
San Marino
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of San Marino
Saudi Arabia
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Saudi Arabia
Nuth al-Tahrir al-Kuwait (or Medal for the Liberation of Kuwait)
Senegal
Orders, decorations, and medals of Senegal
Serbia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Serbia
Sierra Leone
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Sierra Leone
Singapore
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Singapore
:Category:Military awards and decorations of Singapore
Slovakia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Slovakia
Slovenia
Orders, decorations, and medals of Slovenia
Solomon Islands
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of the Solomon Islands
Somalia
Category:Military awards and decorations of Somalia
South Africa
Orders, decorations, and medals of South Africa
South African military decorations order of wear
South African military decorations
Soviet Union
Orders, decorations, and medals of the Soviet Union
Spain
Orders, decorations, and medals of Spain
Kingdom of Spain
Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand
Medalla Militar (Military Medal)
Cruz de Guerra (War Cross)
Medalla del Ejército (Army Medal)
Medalla Naval (Navy Medal)
Medalla Aérea (Air Force Medal)
Orden del Mérito Militar (Order of Military Merit)
Orden del Mérito Naval (Order of Naval Merit)
Orden del Mérito Policial (Order of Policial Merit)
Orden del Mérito Aeronáutico (Order of Air Force Merit)
Real y Militar Orden de San Hermenegildo (Royal & Military Order of Saint Hermenegildo)
Cruz a la Constancia en el Servicio (Long Military Service Cross)
Medalla de Campaña (Campaign Medal)
Second Spanish Republic
Laureate Plate of Madrid
Madrid Distinction
Order of the Spanish Republic
Medal of the International Brigades
Medalla al Valor (Medal of Valor)
Medalla de la Libertad (Medal of Freedom)
Medalla de Sufrimientos por la Patria (Medal of the Suffering for the Fatherland)
Medalla de la Segunda Guerra de la Independencia (Medal of the Second War of Independence)
Reference: Segunda República (1931-1939)
Sri Lanka
Orders, decorations, and medals of Sri Lanka
Military awards and decorations of Sri Lanka
Suriname
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Suriname
Swaziland
Decorations
Umbutfo Swaziland Defence Force Medal for Distinguished Service (1980–present)
Umbutfo Swaziland Defence Force Medal for Meritorious Service (1980–present)
Long Service Medals
Umbutfo Swaziland Defence Force Long Service Medal (1980–present)
Sweden
Orders, decorations, and medals of Sweden
Syria
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Syria
Taiwan (Republic of China)
Orders, decorations, and medals of the Republic of China
Tanzania
Orders, decorations, and medals of Tanzania
Thailand
Orders, decorations, and medals of Thailand
Togo
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Togo
Tonga
Orders, decorations, and medals of Tonga
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Tunisia
Turkey
Orders, decorations, and medals of Turkey
Turkmenistan
Orders, decorations, and medals of Turkmenistan
Tuscany
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Tuscany
Two Sicilies
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of the Two Sicilies
Uganda
Orders, decorations, and medals of Uganda
Ukraine
Orders, decorations, and medals of Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom
Military awards and decorations of the United Kingdom
United States
Awards and decorations of the United States military
Awards and decorations of the United States government
Uruguay
Orders, decorations, and medals of Uruguay
Vanuatu
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Vanuatu
Venezuela
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Venezuela
Vietnam
Vietnam awards and decorations
South Vietnam (former)
Orders, decorations, and medals of South Vietnam
Yugoslavia
Zambia
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Zambia
Zanzibar
:Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of the Sultanate of Zanzibar
Zimbabwe
Orders, decorations, and medals of Zimbabwe
See also
Lists of awards
List of highest military decorations
List of military awards and decorations of World War II
List of military awards and decorations of the Gulf War
List of wound decorations
List of international military decorations
United Nations Medal
External links
Medals of the World
military decorations | [
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261240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa%20%281926%E2%80%931989%29 | Shōwa (1926–1989) | The refers to the period of Japanese history corresponding to the reign of Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito) from December 25, 1926 until his death on January 7, 1989. It was preceded by the Taishō period.
The pre-1945 and post-war Shōwa periods are almost-completely different states: the pre-1945 Shōwa era (1926–1945) concerns the Empire of Japan, and post-1945 Shōwa era (1945–1989) is the State of Japan.
Before 1945, Japan moved into political totalitarianism, ultranationalism and statism culminating in Japan's invasion of China in 1937, part of a global period of social upheavals and conflicts such as the Great Depression and World War II.
Defeat in the Second World War brought about radical change in Japan. For the first and only time in its history, Japan was occupied by foreign powers, an American-led occupation which lasted for seven years. Allied occupation brought forth sweeping democratic reforms. It led to the formal end of the emperor's status as a demigod and the transformation of Japan from a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy with a liberal democracy. In 1952, with the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan became a sovereign state again. The postwar Shōwa period was characterized by the Japanese economic miracle.
The Shōwa era was longer than the reign of any previous Japanese emperor. Emperor Shōwa was both the longest-lived and longest-reigning historical Japanese emperor as well as the longest-reigning monarch in the world at the time. On 7 January 1989, Crown Prince Akihito succeeded to the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the death of his father Emperor Shōwa, which marked the start of the Heisei period.
Etymology
The two kanji characters in Shōwa () were from a passage of the Chinese Book of Documents: (Translated: "[T]he people (of his domain), ... all became brightly intelligent. (Finally), he united and harmonized the myriad states.") From this same quotation, Japan also adopted the era name Meiwa () during the Edo period in the late-18th century. There were two other candidates at the time – Dōwa () and Genka ().
The term could be roughly understood as meaning "enlightened peace" or in some interpretations "radiant Japan".
In his enthronement address which was read to the people, the Emperor referenced this era name:
I have visited the battlefields of the Great War in France. In the presence of such devastation, I understand the blessing of peace and the necessity of concord among nations.
End of "Taishō Democracy"
The election of Katō Takaaki as Prime Minister of Japan continued democratic reforms that had been advocated by influential individuals on the left. This culminated in the passage of universal manhood suffrage in May 1925. This bill gave all male subjects over the age of 25 the right to vote, provided they had lived in their electoral districts for at least one year and were not homeless. The electorate thereby nearly quadrupled in size, from 3.3 million to 12.5 million.
However the forces of reaction grew more powerful and steadily; after 1925 there was a retreat from reform, liberal policies and democracy. Pressure from the conservative right forced the passage of the Peace Preservation Law of 1925 along with other anti-leftist legislation, only ten days before the passage of universal manhood suffrage. The Peace Preservation Act curtailed activism on the left--which was not extensive--and the screws were steadily tightened. It outlawed groups that sought to alter the system of government or to abolish private ownership. The small leftist movements that had been galvanized by the Russian Revolution were subsequently crushed and scattered. This was in part due to the Peace Preservation Act, but also due to the general fragmentation of the left. Conservatives forced the passage of the Peace Preservation Law because the party leaders and politicians of the Taishō era had felt that, after World War I, the state was in danger from revolutionary movements. The Japanese state never clearly defined a boundary between private and public matters and, thus, demanded loyalty in all spheres of society. Subsequently, any ideological attack, such as a proposal for socialist reforms, was seen as an attack on the very existence of the state. The meaning of the law was gradually stretched to academic spheres. After the passage of the Peace Preservation Law and related legislation, kokutai emerged as the symbol of the state. Kokutai was seen as the barrier against communist and socialist movements in Japan. With the challenge of the Great Depression on the horizon, this would be the death knell for parliamentary democracy in Japan.
Washington Conference to Mukden Incident
After World War I, the Western Powers, influenced by Wilsonian ideology, attempted an effort at general disarmament. At the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–1922, the Great Powers met to set limits on naval armament. The Five Power Naval Limitation Agreement worked out in Washington limited competition in battleships and aircraft carriers to a ratio of 5:5:3 for the United Kingdom, the United States, and Japan respectively. Japanese ultra-nationalists viewed this as an attempt by Western powers to curb Japanese expansionism in an area of the globe over which they had no interest. However, those in power in Japan readily agreed to the disarmament, realizing that the global taste for war had been soured after the First World War and knowing that, the ratio was sufficient to maintain hegemony in the Pacific.
In 1924, however, friendly U.S.-Japanese relations were torpedoed by the Japanese Exclusion Act. The act closed off Japanese immigration to the United States and dropped Japanese immigrants to the level of other Asians (who were already excluded). The overwhelming reaction in Japan, both at the highest levels and in mass rallies that reflected angry public opinion, was hostile and sustained. Commentators suggested the opening guns of a race war and called for a new buildup of the Japanese armed forces.
The Shōwa financial crisis was a financial panic in 1927, during the first year of the reign of Emperor Hirohito. It was a precursor of the Great Depression. It brought down the government of Prime Minister Wakatsuki Reijirō and led to the domination of the zaibatsu over the Japanese banking industry.
From 1928 to 1932, domestic crisis could no longer be avoided. As the left was vigorously put down by the state, the economic collapse brought a new hardship to the people of Japan. Silk and rice prices plummeted and exports decreased 50%. Unemployment in both the cities and the countryside skyrocketed and social agitation came to a head.
Meanwhile, the London Naval Treaty was ratified in 1930. Its purpose was to extend the Washington Treaty System. The Japanese government had desired to raise their ratio to 10:10:7, but this proposal was swiftly countered by the United States. Thanks to back-room dealing and other intrigues, though, Japan walked away with a 5:4 advantage in heavy cruisers, but this small gesture would not satisfy the populace of Japan which was gradually falling under the spell of the various ultra-nationalist groups spawning throughout the country. As a result of his failings regarding the London Naval Treaty, Prime Minister Hamaguchi Osachi was shot on November 14, 1930, by an ultranationalist and died in 1931.
By this time, the civilian government had lost control of the populace. A New York Times correspondent called Japan a country ruled by "government by assassination." The army, moving independently of the proper government of Japan, took the opportunity to invade Manchuria in the Summer of 1931.
Since the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, Japan had maintained a military presence in Manchuria. In 18 September 1931, the Mukden Incident occurred. There was a small explosion on the tracks of a Japanese railway, north of Mukden. Japan invaded Manchuria in the aftermath. The Japanese army mobilized the Kwantung Army and attacked Chinese troops. The Minseito government, headed by Hamaguchi's successor Wakatsuki Reijirō, was unable to curb the army's offensive. The Kwantung Army conquered all of Manchuria and set up the puppet state of Manchukuo on 1 March 1932. The last Emperor of China, Puyi, was installed as the puppet ruler of Manchukuo. The Diet, now dominated by army officials, voted to withdraw from the League of Nations. The first seeds of the coming conflict had been sown.
Rise of nationalism
Prior to 1868, most Japanese more readily identified with their feudal domain rather than the idea of "Japan" as a whole. When the Tokugawa bakufu was overthrown, the leaders of the revolt, Satsuma and Chōshū, were ideologically opposed to the house of Tokugawa since the Battle of Sekigahara. The Meiji era changed all of that. With the introduction of mass education, conscription, industrialization, centralization, and successful foreign wars, Japanese nationalism began to foment as a powerful force in society. Mass education and conscription served as a means to indoctrinate the coming generation with "the idea of Japan" as a nation state instead of a series of daimyōs. In this way, loyalty to feudal domains was supplanted with loyalty to the central government. Industrialization and centralization gave Japanese a strong sense that their country could once more rival and dominate Western powers technologically and socially. Moreover, successful foreign wars gave the populace a sense of martial pride in their country.
The rise of Japanese nationalism paralleled the growth of nationalism within the West. Certain conservatives such as Gondō Seikei and Asahi Heigo saw the rapid industrialization of Japan as something that had to be tempered. During the Meiji era, such nationalists railed against the unequal treaties, but in the years following the First World War, Western criticism of Japanese imperial ambitions and restrictions on Japanese immigration changed the focus of the nationalist movement in Japan.
Japanese nationalism was buoyed by a romantic concept of Bushidō and driven by a modern concern for rapid industrial development and strategic dominance in East Asia. It saw the Triple Intervention of 1895 as a threat to Japanese success in East Asia and warned that the "ABCD Powers" (America, Britain, China, and the Dutch), along with the USSR and Germany, were threatening the Empire of Japan. One solution was war.
During the first part of the Shōwa era, racial discrimination against other Asians was habitual in Imperial Japan, having begun with the start of Japanese colonialism. The Shōwa regime thus preached racial superiority and racialist theories, based on sacred nature of the Yamato-damashii. One of Emperor Shōwa's teachers, historian Kurakichi Shiratori, remarked, "Therefore nothing in the world compares to the divine nature (shinsei) of the imperial house and likewise the majesty of our national polity (kokutai). Here is one great reason for Japan's superiority."
The Anti-Comintern Pact brought Nazi ideologues to Japan who attempted but ultimately failed to inject Nazi-style anti-Semitic arguments into mainstream public discussion. Where the government presented the popular image of Jews, it was not so much to persecute but to strengthen domestic ideological uniformity.
The anti-Semitic policies of Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany were refused when foreign minister of Japan Yōsuke Matsuoka stated that: "Nowhere have I promised that we would carry out his anti-Semitic policies in Japan. This is not simply my personal opinion, it is the opinion of Japan, and I have no compunction about announcing it to the world."
Imperial Japanese Army General Kiichiro Higuchi and Colonel Norihiro Yasue allowed 20,000 Jews to enter Manchukuo in 1938. Higuchi and Yasue were well regarded for their actions and were subsequently invited to the independence ceremonies of the State of Israel. Diplomat Chiune Sugihara wrote travel visas for over 6,000 Lithuanian Jews to flee the German occupation and travel to Japan. In 1985, Israel honored him as Righteous Among the Nations for his actions.
Military state
The withdrawal from the League of Nations meant that Japan was politically isolated. Japan had no strong allies and its actions had been internationally condemned, whilst internally popular nationalism was booming. Local leaders, such as mayors, teachers, and Shinto priests were recruited by the various movements to indoctrinate the populace with ultra-nationalist ideals. They had little time for the pragmatic ideas of the business elite and party politicians. Their loyalty lay to the Emperor and the military. In March 1932 the "League of Blood" assassination plot and the chaos surrounding the trial of its conspirators further eroded the rule of democratic law in Shōwa Japan. In May of the same year a group of right-wing Army and Navy officers succeeded in assassinating the Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi. The plot fell short of staging a complete coup d'état, but it effectively ended rule by political parties in Japan.
From 1932 to 1936, the country was governed by admirals. Mounting nationalist sympathies led to chronic instability in government. Moderate policies were difficult to enforce. The crisis culminated on February 26, 1936. In what became known as the February 26 Incident, about 1,500 ultranationalist army troops marched on central Tokyo. Their mission was to assassinate the government and promote a "Shōwa Restoration". Prime Minister Okada survived the attempted coup by hiding in a storage shed in his house, but the coup only ended when the Emperor personally ordered an end to the bloodshed.
Within the state, the idea of a Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere began to foment. The nationalists believed that the "ABCD powers" (Americans, British, Chinese, Dutch) were a threat to all Asians and that Asia could only survive by following the Japanese example. Japan had been the only Asian and non-Western power to industrialize itself successfully and rival great Western empires. While largely described by contemporary Western observers as a front for the expansion of the Japanese army, the idea behind the Co-Prosperity Sphere was that Asia would be united against the Western powers under the auspices of the Japanese. The idea drew influence in the paternalistic aspects of Confucianism and Koshitsu Shinto. Thus, the main goal of the Sphere was the hakkō ichiu, the unification of the eight corners of the world under the rule (kōdō) of the Emperor.
The reality during this period differed from the propaganda. Some nationalities and ethnic groups were marginalized, and during rapid military expansion into foreign countries, the Imperial General Headquarters tolerated many atrocities against local populations, such as the experimentations of Unit 731, the sankō sakusen, the use of chemical and biological weapons and civilian massacres such as those in Nanjing, Singapore and Manila.
Some of the atrocities were motivated by racism. For instance, Japanese soldiers were taught to think of captured Chinese as not worthy of mercy.
Second Sino-Japanese War
On July 7, 1937, at the Marco Polo Bridge, the Japanese Kwantung army stationed there used explosions heard on the Chinese side of Manchuria as a pretext for invasion. The invasion led to a large-scale war known as the Second Sino-Japanese War approved by the Emperor that was called a "holy war" (Seisen) in Imperial propaganda.
At the time, China was divided internally between the Communist Party of China (CPC), which was under the leadership of Mao Zedong, and the Nationalist government of China, the Kuomintang (KMT), which was under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek.
The years of 1937–38 were a time of rapid and remarkable success by the Japanese, who had a number of advantages over the Chinese army. While the Japanese army possessed a smaller force of armour and artillery than many Western powers, it was far ahead of China in this respect, and was also in command of the world's third largest navy with 2,700 watercraft at its disposal.
By the end of July 1937, the Japanese had slaughtered the elite 29th Army at Kupeikou and soon captured Beijing. From there, the Japanese advanced down south through the major railway lines (Peiping-Suiyan, Peiping-Hankow, and Tientsin-Pukow). These were easily conquered by the superior Japanese army.
By October, Chiang Kai-shek's best armies had been defeated at Shanghai. By the end of the year, the Chinese capital at Nanjing had also been seized. The use of brutal scorched earth tactics by both sides, the Chinese as in 1938 Yellow River flood and later by the Japanese with the Three Alls Policy, "kill all, burn all, loot all", initiated in 1940, claimed millions of lives. The Chinese nationalists resorted to massive civilian guerrilla tactics, which fatigued and frustrated Japanese forces. Countless Chinese civilians were executed on the suspicion of being resistance fighters. Japanese war crimes at Nanking and other sites in China and Manchukuo have been well documented.
On December 13, 1937, the Imperial Japanese Army, following the capture of Nanjing, began the Nanjing Massacre (sometimes called the "Rape of Nanking"), which resulted in a massive number of civilian deaths including infants and elderly, and the large-scale rape of Chinese women. The exact number of casualties is an issue of fierce debate between Chinese and Japanese historians.
By 1939, the Japanese war effort had become a stalemate. The Japanese army had seized most of the vital cities in China, including Shanghai, Nanjing, Beijing, and Wuhan. The Nationalists and the Communists, however, fought on from Chongqing and Yenan, respectively.
Second World War
Negotiations for a German-Japanese alliance began in 1937 with the onset of hostilities between Japan and China. On September 27, 1940, the Tripartite Pact was signed, creating the Rome-Tokyo-Berlin Axis. The alliance was shallow, with very little coordination or mutual help until the last two years of the war, when it was too late to make much difference.
By 1938, the United States increasingly was committed to supporting China and, with the cooperation of Britain and the Netherlands, threatening to restrict the supply of vital materials to the Japanese war machine, especially oil, steel and money. The Japanese army, after sharp defeats by the Russians in Mongolia, wanted to avoid war with the Soviet Union, even though it would have aided the German war against the USSR. The Emperor became fatalistic about going to war, as the military assumed more and more control. Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe was replaced by the war cabinet of General Hideki Tojo (1884-1948), who demanded war. Tōjō had his way and the attack was made on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, as well as British and Dutch strong points. The main American battle fleet was disabled, and in the next 90 days Japan made remarkable advances including the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines, Malaya and Singapore.
The quagmire in China did not stall imperial ambitions for the creation of a Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere. Indeed, the Second Sino-Japanese War fueled the need for oil that could be found in the Dutch East Indies. After the Imperial General Headquarters refused to remove its troops from China (excluding Manchukuo) and French Indochina, Franklin Delano Roosevelt announced in July 1941 an oil embargo on Japan. The Navy, increasingly threatened by the loss of its oil supplies, insisted on a decision, warning the alternatives were a high risk war, that Japan might lose, or a certain descent into third class status and a loss of China and Manchuria. Officially the Emperor made the decision, but he was told by a key civilian official on 5 November 1941:
it is impossible, from the standpoint of our domestic political situation and of our self-preservation, to accept all of the American demands. ...we cannot let the present situation continue. If we miss the present opportunity to go to war, we will have to submit to American dictation. Therefore, I recognize that it is inevitable that we must decide to start a war against the United States. I will put my trust in what it have been told: namely, that things will go well in the early part of the war; and that although we will experience increasing difficulties as the war progresses, there is some prospect of success.
With the Emperor's approval, Imperial General Headquarters launched the Greater East Asia War. It began with a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base in Hawaii at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Japan declared war to the US, Dutch and British. This marked the start of the Pacific War theatre of World War II. For the next six months, the Japanese had the initiative and went on the offensive. Hong Kong was overrun on December 8, 1941. By the summer of 1942, the Japanese had conquered Burma, Siam, the Dutch East Indies, and the Philippines. The Empire of Japan was one of the largest in history. In 1942 the Empire of Japan was at its greatest extent with colonies in Manchuria, China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Indochina, Burma and many Pacific islands.
The decisive naval/aerial Battle of Midway took place in early June 1942. That changed the momentum of the war. Japan was put on the defensive as the Americans pursued their policy of island hopping. Tokyo was repeatedly firebombed in 1945 and in the early spring and summer of 1945, Iwo Jima and Okinawa were seized by the Americans. Finally, the death agony of the Empire of Japan came in August 1945. On August 6, an atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, instantly killing approximately 70,000 people when the attack took place (plus another estimated 130,000 by 1960 due to after-effects). On August 8, the Soviet invasion of Manchuria began. The following day, a second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, killing approximately 40,000 people. These attacks with the new atomic weapons were a surprise. Japan lacked any atomic bomb technology and couldn't counter it. The government of the Empire of Japan surrendered on August 14. The official surrender ceremony was held on September 2.
Total Japanese military fatalities between 1937 and 1945 were 2.1 million; most came in the last year of the war. Starvation or malnutrition-related illness accounted for roughly 80 percent of Japanese military deaths in the Philippines, and 50 percent of military fatalities in China. The aerial bombing of a total of 69 Japanese cities appears to have taken a minimum of 400,000 and possibly closer to 600,000 civilian lives (over 100,000 in Tokyo alone, over 200,000 in Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined, and 80,000–150,000 civilian deaths in the battle of Okinawa). Civilian death among settlers who died attempting to return to Japan from Manchuria in the winter of 1945 were probably around 100,000.
Imperial rule
Japan launched multiple attacks in East Asia. In 1937, the Japanese Army invaded and captured most of the coastal Chinese cities such as Shanghai. On 22 September 1940, the Japanese invasion of French Indochina began. Japan took over French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia), British Malaya (Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore) as well as the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). Thailand managed to stay independent by becoming a satellite state of Japan. On 13 April 1941, the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact was signed. In December 1941 to May 1942, Japan sank major elements of the American, British and Dutch fleets, captured Hong Kong, Singapore, the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies, and reached the borders of India and Australia. Japan suddenly had achieved its goal of ruling the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
The ideology of Japan's colonial empire, as it expanded dramatically during the war, contained two somewhat contradictory impulses. On the one hand, it preached the unity of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, a coalition of Asian nations, directed by Japan, against Western imperialism. This approach celebrated the spiritual values of the East in opposition to the "crass" materialism of the West. In practice, however, the Japanese installed organizationally-minded bureaucrats and engineers to run their annexed territories, and they believed in ideals of efficiency, modernization, and engineering solutions to social problems. It was fascism based on technology and rejected Western norms of democracy. After 1945, the engineers and bureaucrats took over and turned the wartime techno-fascism into entrepreneurial management skills.
The Japanese government established puppet regimes in Manchuria and China; they were dismantled at the end of the war. The Army operated ruthless governments in most of the conquered areas but paid more favorable attention to the Dutch East Indies. The main goal was to obtain oil. The Dutch sabotaged their oil wells but the Japanese were able to reopen them. However most of the tankers taking oil to Japan were sunk by American submarines, so Japan's oil shortage became increasingly acute. Japan sponsored an Indonesian nationalist movement under Sukarno. Sukarno finally came to power in the late 1940s after several years of battling the Dutch.
Defeat and Allied occupation
With the defeat of the Empire of Japan, the Allied Powers dissolved the Empire of Japan. The Soviet Union was made responsible for North Korea, and annexed the Kuril Islands and the southern portion of the island of Sakhalin. The United States took responsibility for the rest of Japan's possessions in Oceania. China, meanwhile, plunged back into its civil war, with the Communists in control by 1949. General Douglas MacArthur, from the USA, was put in charge of the Allied Occupation of Japan as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers; he and his staff exerted wide but indirect power, for the decisions were carried out by Japanese officials.
A War Crimes Tribunal, similar to that at Nuremberg, was set up in Tokyo. On 3 May 1946, the prosecution began of Japanese military leaders for war crimes. Several prominent members of the Japanese cabinet were executed, most notably former Prime Minister Tojo Hideki. But the Emperor was neither tried at the Tokyo trials nor dethroned, nor any members of the imperial family. Instead, under the Post-war Constitution, the Japanese Emperor was reduced to a figurehead nominal monarch without divine characteristics and is forbidden to play a role in politics.
Douglas MacArthur sought to break the power of the zaibatsu; Japan was democratized and liberalized along American "New Deal" liberal lines. Parliamentary party politics was restored. Old left-wing organizations such as the Social Democratic Party and the Japanese Communist Party reasserted themselves. The first post-war elections were held in 1946, and for the first time, women were allowed to vote.
On 3 May 1947, the Constitution of Japan went into effect. This changed the Empire of Japan into the State of Japan (Nihon Koku, 日本国) with a liberal democracy. Japan's military was disarmed completely and the absoluteness of the emperor was repealed by the Post-war Constitution. Article 9 turned Japan into a pacifist country without a military.
In July 1947, the Japanese government, with the encouragement of the U.S. occupation forces, established a National Police Reserve (警察予備隊 Keisatsu-yobitai). This consisted of 75,000 men equipped with light infantry weapons. This was the first step of its post-war rearmament.
Shigeru Yoshida was elected as Prime Minister of Japan from 1946 to 1947 and from 1948 to 1954. His policy, known as the "Yoshida Doctrine", emphasized military reliance on the United States and promoted unrestrained economic growth. On 8 September 1951, the US-led Allied Occupation of Japan ended after the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco, which became effective on April 28, 1952. It restored the sovereignty of Japan. On the same day, the Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan was signed as Cold War tensions rose; it was later replaced by the 1960 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Between the United States and Japan. The 1960 treaty requires the U.S. to protect Japan from external aggression. It allows United States forces to be stationed in Japan. Meanwhile, Japanese ground and maritime forces deal with internal threats and natural disasters. This established the U.S.–Japan alliance.
In mid-1952, The Coastal Safety Force (海上警備隊 Kaijō Keibitai) was founded. It was the waterborne counterpart of National Police Reserve.
By the late 1940s, there were two conservative parties (Japan Democratic Party and Liberal Party); they merged in 1955 as the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). By 1955, the political system stabilized in what was called the 1955 System. The two chief parties were the conservative LDP and the leftist Social Democratic Party. Throughout the period 1955 to 2007, the LDP was dominant (with a brief interlude in 1993–94). The LDP was pro-business, pro-American, and had a strong rural base.
The "Japanese Miracle"
Japan's remarkable economic growth in the decades following 1950 has been called the "Japanese Miracle", as the economy grew three times faster than other major nations. It was achieved almost without foreign capital. The miracle slackened off in 1973 in the face of an upsurge in oil prices and the destabilization of international trade. By the mid-1990s the economy entered an era of stagnation and low growth that still persists.
Saburō Ōkita (1914–93), an economist, realized by 1942 that the war was lost; economic recovery that was published in 1945 as "The Fundamental Directions for the Reconstruction of the Japanese Economy". He became foreign minister in 1979 and endeavored to integrate Japan economically and politically with the world economy.
From 1950 onward, Japan rebuilt itself politically and economically. Sugita finds that "the 1950s was a decade during which Japan formulated a unique corporate capitalist system in which government, business, and labor implemented close and intricate cooperation".
Japan's newfound economic power soon gave it dominant economic influence in the world. The Yoshida Doctrine and the Japanese government's economic intervention spurred on an economic miracle on par with the record of West Germany. The Japanese government strove to spur industrial development through a mix of protectionism and trade expansion. The establishment of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) was instrumental in the Japanese post-war economic recovery. By 1954, the MITI system was in full effect. It coordinated industry and government action and fostered cooperative arrangements, and sponsored research to develop promising exports as well as imports for which substitutes would be sought (especially dyestuffs, iron and steel, and soda ash). Yoshida's successor, Hayato Ikeda, began implementing economic policies which removed much of Japan's anti-monopoly laws. Foreign companies were locked out of the Japanese market and strict protectionist laws were enacted.
Meanwhile, the United States under President Eisenhower saw Japan as the economic anchor for Western Cold War policy in Asia. Japan was completely demilitarized and did not contribute to military power, but did provide the economic power. The US and UN forces used Japan as their forward logistics base during the Korean War (1950–53), and orders for supplies flooded Japan. The close economic relationship strengthened the political and diplomatic ties, so that the two nations survived a major political crisis in 1960 involving left-wing opposition to the revision of the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty. The left failed to force the removal of large American military bases in Japan, especially on Okinawa. Shimizu argues that the American policy of creating "people of plenty" was a success in Japan and reached its goal of defusing anti-capitalist protest on the left.
On 1 July 1954, the Self-Defense Forces Act (Act No. 165 of 1954) reorganized the National Security Board as the Defense Agency on July 1, 1954. Afterward, the National Security Force was reorganized as the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (GSDF). The Coastal Safety Force was reorganized as the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) was established as a new branch of the JSDF. These are the de facto postwar Japanese army, navy and air force.
On 12 December 1956, Japan joined the United Nations.
In 1957, Japan was the first country to build dedicated railway lines for high-speed travel. In 1957, Odakyu Electric Railway introduced its 3000 series SE Romancecar train, setting a world speed record of 145 km/h (90 mph) for a narrow gauge train. This would lead to the design of the first Shinkansen, This record gave impetus for the design of the first 0 Series Shinkansen.
In 1960, Japan was wracked by the massive Anpo Protests against the revision of the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty.
On 1 October 1964, the largest Japanese land reclamation project thus far was completed in Lake Hachirōgata. The village of Ōgata was established. Land reclamation work began at Lake Hachirōgata in April 1957.
On 1 October 1964, Tokaido Shinkansen was the first high-speed rail line in Japan and the oldest high-speed rail system in the world.
On 10 October 1964, Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics. This marked the first time that the Olympic Games were held in Asia.
In 1968, Japan surpassed West Germany to become the second largest economic power in the world. In the same year, The Ogasawara Islands were returned from US occupation to Japanese sovereignty. Japanese citizens were allowed to return.
By the 1970s Japan ascended to great power status again. It had the world's second largest economy after the United States. However, its military power was very limited due to pacifist policies and article 9 of the 1947 constitution. This made Japan an abnormal great power.
On 11 February 1970, The first successful launch of the Lambda 4S rocket placed the Japanese Ohsumi satellite on orbit.
On 20 December 1970, The Koza riot was a violent and spontaneous protest against the US military presence in Okinawa.
On 30 September 1971, the Zengakuren demonstrate and riot in Tokyo against terms for the return of Okinawa from the US to Japanese control. They wanted to remove all American military presence.
On 24 November 1971, The 1971 Okinawa Reversion Agreement is ratified and returned the Okinawa Prefecture to Japanese sovereignty.
In 1974, Prime Minister Eisaku Satō was the first Asian to accepted the Nobel Peace Prize.
In 1980, Japan became the biggest motor vehicle producing country in the world with 11,042,884 motor vehicles compared to the USA's 8,009,841.
The beginning of 1980s saw the introduction of Japanese anime into the American and western culture. In the 1990s, Japanese animation slowly gained popularity in the United States.
In 1985, the home video game industry was revitalized by the widespread success of the Nintendo Entertainment System. The success of the NES marked a shift in the dominance of the video game industry from the United States to Japan during the third generation of consoles.
Organisms named after Shōwa era
A new genus, Showajidaia, and new family, Showajidaiidae, of nudibranch mollusks were named in 2020.
Conversion table
To convert any Gregorian calendar year between 1926 and 1989 to Japanese calendar year in Shōwa era, 1925 needs to be subtracted from the year in question.
See also
Japanese resistance during the Shōwa period
List of Japanese political figures in early Shōwa period
Shōwa financial crisis
Shōwa Modan (昭和モダン), referring to the modernization of Japan during the Shōwa era.
References
Further reading
Allinson, Gary D. The Columbia Guide to Modern Japanese History (1999). 259 pp. excerpt and text search
Allinson, Gary D. Japan's Postwar History (2nd ed 2004). 208 pp. excerpt and text search
Bix, Herbert. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (2001), the standard scholarly biography
Brinckmann, Hans, and Ysbrand Rogge. Showa Japan: The Post-War Golden Age and Its Troubled Legacy (2008) excerpt and text search
Dower, John. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (2000), 680pp excerpt
Dower, John W. Empire and aftermath: Yoshida Shigeru and the Japanese experience, 1878–1954 (1979) for 1945–54.
Dunn, Frederick Sherwood. Peace-making and the Settlement with Japan (1963) excerpt
Drea, Edward J. "The 1942 Japanese General Election: Political Mobilization in Wartime Japan." (U of Kansas, 1979). online
Duus, Peter, ed. The Cambridge History of Japan: Vol. 6: The Twentieth Century (1989). 866 pp.
Finn, Richard B. Winners in Peace: MacArthur, Yoshida, and Postwar Japan (1992). online free
Gluck, Carol, and Stephen R. Graubard, eds. Showa: The Japan of Hirohito (1993) essays by scholars excerpt and text search
Hanneman, Mary L. "The Old Generation in (Mid) Showa Japan: Hasegawa Nyozekan, Maruyama Masao, and Postwar Thought", The Historian 69.3 (Fall, 2007): 479–510.
Hane, Mikiso. Eastern Phoenix: Japan since 1945 (5th ed. 2012)
Havens, Thomas R. H. "Women and War in Japan, 1937–45". American Historical Review (1975): 913–934. in JSTOR
Havens, Thomas R. H. Valley of Darkness: The Japanese People and World War Two (W. W. Norton, 1978).
Hunter-Chester, David. Creating Japan's Ground Self-Defense Force, 1945–2015: A Sword Well Made (Lexington Books, 2016).
Huffman, James L., ed. Modern Japan: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism (1998). 316 pp.
LaFeber, Walter. The Clash: A History of U.S.-Japan Relations (1997). 544 pp. detailed history
Lowe, Peter. "An Embarrassing Necessity: The Tokyo Trial of Japanese Leaders, 1946–48". In R. A. Melikan ed., Domestic and international trials, 1700–2000 (Manchester UP, 2018). online
Mauch, Peter. "Prime Minister Tōjō Hideki on the Eve of Pearl Harbor: New Evidence from Japan". Global War Studies 15.1 (2018): 35-46. online
Nish, Ian (1990). "An Overview of Relations Between China and Japan, 1895–1945". China Quarterly (1990) 124 (1990): 601–623. online
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; .
Rice, Richard. "Japanese Labor in World War II". International Labor and Working-Class History 38 (1990): 29–45.
Robins-Mowry, Dorothy. The Hidden Sun: Women of Modern Japan (Routledge, 2019).
Saaler, Sven, and Christopher W. A. Szpilman, eds. Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese History (Routledge, 2018) excerpt.
Sims, Richard. Japanese Political History Since the Meiji Renovation, 1868–2000 (2001). 395 pp.
Yamashita, Samuel Hideo. Daily Life in Wartime Japan, 1940–1945 (2015). 238pp.
Primary sources
Cook, Haruko Taya and Cook, Theodore F. eds. Japan at War: An Oral History (1992). 504 pp., interviews about the World War II homefront excerpt and text search
Yoshida, Shigeru. The Yoshida Memoirs: The Story of Japan in Crisis (1961), on Occupation, 1945–51 online
1920s neologisms
1926 establishments in Japan
1926 in Japan
1926 introductions
1989 disestablishments in Japan
20th century in Japan
Empire of Japan
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261243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C7%83xau%20%C7%82Toma | Nǃxau ǂToma | Nǃxau ǂToma (short: Nǃxau, alternative spelling Gcao Tekene Çoma or Coma; 1944 – 5 July 2003) was a Namibian bush farmer and actor who starred in the 1980 film The Gods Must Be Crazy and its sequels, in which he played the Kalahari Bushman Xixo. The Namibian called him "Namibia's most famous actor".
Biography
Nǃxau was a member of the San, also known as Bushmen. He spoke Juǀʼhoan, Otjiherero and Tswana fluently, as well as some Afrikaans. He did not know his own exact age, and before his appearance in the films he had little experience beyond his home. He had only ever seen three white people before being cast, and when director Jamie Uys gave him his first cash payment of $300 for The Gods Must Be Crazy, he allegedly let it blow away in the wind because he did not understand its value. (This was despite money already being a serious matter for other San, since many of them depended on purchased food and government aid and/or had enlisted in the South African Army due to the high wages it paid.) He was, however, able to negotiate for near $500,000 for his appearance in the sequel. He came from a culture that did not value the material things that money could buy and consequently had not learned money management skills, although he used some of his income to build a brick house with running water and electricity for his family. He also bought a used car and subsequently hired a chauffeur, as he had no desire in learning to drive.
In addition to The Gods Must Be Crazy, Nǃxau starred in a series of sequels: The Gods Must Be Crazy II, Crazy Safari, Crazy Hong Kong and The Gods Must Be Funny in China. After his film career ended, he returned to Namibia, where he farmed maize, pumpkins and beans and kept several head of cattle (but no more than 20 at a time because, according to The Independent, without the complex farming systems of the "modern world", he had trouble keeping track of more). The Namibian local daily New Era stated that he simply could not count further than 20.
Nǃxau converted to Christianity and in July 2000, he was baptized as a Seventh-day Adventist.
On 5 July 2003, he died from multiple-drug-resistant tuberculosis while he was out on an excursion for hunting guineafowl. According to official estimates he was about 58 or 59 years old at the time. He was buried on 12 July in a semi-traditional ceremony at Tsumkwe, next to the grave of his second wife. He had six surviving children.
Filmography
Notes
References
External links
1944 births
2003 deaths
People from Otjozondjupa Region
Namibian actors
21st-century deaths from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis deaths in Namibia
San people
Converts to Adventism
Namibian Seventh-day Adventists
20th-century Namibian people
21st-century Namibian people | [
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261247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense%20Superior%20Service%20Medal | Defense Superior Service Medal | The Defense Superior Service Medal (DSSM) is a military decoration of the United States Department of Defense, which is presented to United States Armed Forces service members who perform superior meritorious service in a position of significant responsibility.
The decoration is most often presented to general and flag officers, followed by a lesser number of Army, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Space Force colonels and Navy and Coast Guard captains. The medal is presented in the name of the United States Secretary of Defense and was established by President Gerald R. Ford on February 6, 1976, in . It is analogous and senior to the Legion of Merit, albeit awarded for service in a joint duty capacity.
Criteria
The Defense Superior Service Medal is the United States Department of Defense's second-highest non-combat related military award and it is the second-highest joint service decoration. The Defense Superior Service Medal is awarded by the Secretary of Defense to members of the United States Armed Forces who have rendered superior meritorious service while serving in a position of great responsibility. This service must be as part of a joint activity. The award is generally for a period of time exceeding 12 months and encompassing an entire joint assignment. Service members assigned to or attached to a Joint Task Force as individuals, not members of a specific military service's unit, can be eligible for the DSSM. The DSSM has also been awarded to a small cohort of U.S. military officers serving as astronauts for service leading up to and during space shuttle missions carrying classified and unclassified Department of Defense payloads. In these cases, the 12 month time period was considered to include the training period prior to that actual space flight, said training which typically exceeded a year in duration.
Members of service-specific units are eligible for awards of personal decorations from their parent service. The Defense Superior Service Medal is specifically intended to recognize exceptionally superior service, and to honor an individual's accomplishments over a sustained period. Joint or Department of Defense awards, including the Defense Superior Service Medal, may be awarded posthumously.
Appearance
At the time of creation of the Defense Superior Service Medal it was decided that it would be obtained at the lowest possible cost and with as little involvement as possible. For these reasons, and because it would rank just below the Defense Distinguished Service Medal for similar service, it was decided to use the same design as the Defense Distinguished Service Medal. The difference is that it is finished in silver rather than gold and the inscriptions on the reverse of the medal are appropriately modified.
The medal is made of a silver-colored metal with blue enamel, 1 7/8 inches (4.76 cm) in height overall. The obverse depicts a silver American eagle superimposed over a medium blue pentagon. The eagle has outstretched wings, charged on its breast is the shield of the United States. In its talons are three crossed arrows in silver. The tips of the wings cover a surrounding arc of silver five-pointed stars encircling the top and sides of the pentagon, while the bottom is surrounded by a silver wreath encircling the base composed of a laurel branch on the left and an olive branch on the right.
The reverse is plain except for the inscription at the top, For Superior Service. Below in the pentagon is the inscription From The Secretary of Defense To.
The medal is suspended from a ribbon 1 3/8 inch (3.49 cm) in width composed of the following vertical stripes: Golden Yellow 3/16 inch (.48 cm), Bluebird 1/4 inch (.64 cm), White 3/16 inch (.48 cm), Scarlet 1/8 inch (.32 cm), White 3/16 inch (.48 cm), Bluebird 1/4 inch (.64 cm) Golden Yellow 3/16 inch (.48 cm).
Subsequent awards of the Defense Superior Service Medal are denoted by oak leaf clusters worn on the suspension and service ribbons of the medal.
Notable recipients
References
Awards and decorations of the United States Department of Defense
Awards established in 1976
1976 establishments in the United States | [
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261248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-occupation%20Japan | Post-occupation Japan | Post-occupation Japan is the period in postwar Japanese history which started when the Allied occupation of Japan ended in 1952 and lasted to the end of the Showa era in 1989. Despite the massive devastation it suffered in the Second World War, Japan established itself as a rich global economic power at peace with the world. In terms of political power it was more reluctant, especially in the nonuse of military force. The post-war constitution of 1946 included Article 9 clause, which restricted Japan from having a military force and engaging in war. However, it has operated military forces in the form of the Japanese Self-Defense Forces since 1954. Over the years, the meaning of article 9 has been interpreted differently, because the United States now encourages Japan to control its own security and to join their military strategy more. The Liberal Democratic Party would like to see the Constitution and Article 9 amended.
Politics
The Allied occupation ended on April 28, 1952, when the terms of the Treaty of San Francisco went into effect. By the terms of the treaty, Japan regained its sovereignty, but lost many of its possessions from before World War II, including Korea, Taiwan and Sakhalin. It also lost control over a number of small islands in the Pacific which is administered as League of Nations Mandates, such as the Marianas and the Marshalls. The new treaty also gave Japan the freedom to engage in international defence blocs. Japan did this on the same day it signed the San Francisco Treaty: The U.S. insisted, and Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida agreed, to a treaty that allowed the American military to continue their use of bases in Japan.
Even before Japan regained full sovereignty, the government had rehabilitated nearly 80,000 people who had been purged, many of whom returned to their former political and government positions. A debate over limitations on military spending and the sovereignty of the emperor ensued, contributing to the great reduction in the Liberal Party's majority in the first post-occupation elections (October 1952). After several reorganizations of the armed forces, in 1954 the Self-Defense Forces were established under a civilian director. Cold War realities and the hot war in nearby Korea also contributed significantly to the United States-influenced economic redevelopment, the containment of the Soviet Union and Communist China, and the support for organized labor in Japan.
Continual fragmentation of parties and a succession of minority governments led conservative forces to merge the Liberal Party (Jiyuto) with the Japan Democratic Party (Nihon Minshuto), an offshoot of the earlier Democratic Party, to form the Liberal Democratic Party (Jiyu-Minshuto; LDP) in November 1955. This party continuously held power from 1955 through 1993, when it was replaced by a new minority government. LDP leadership was drawn from the elite who had seen Japan through the defeat and occupation; it attracted former bureaucrats, local politicians, businessmen, journalists, other professionals, farmers, and university graduates. In October 1955, socialist groups reunited under the Japan Socialist Party, which emerged as the second most powerful political force. It was followed closely in popularity by the Kōmeitō, founded in 1964 as the political arm of the Soka Gakkai (Value Creation Society), a lay former organization of the Buddhist sect Nichiren Shoshu. The Komeito emphasized traditional Japanese beliefs and attracted urban laborers, former rural residents, and many women. Like the Japan Socialist Party, it favoured the gradual modification and dissolution of the Japan-United States Mutual Security Assistance Pact.
By the late 1970s, the Komeito and the Democratic Socialist Party had come to accept the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security, and the Democratic Socialist Party even came to support a small defense buildup. The Japan Socialist Party, too, was forced to abandon its once strict antimilitary stance. The United States kept up pressure on Japan to increase its defense spending above 1% of its GNP, engendering much debate in the Diet, with most opposition coming not from minority parties or public opinion but from budget-conscious officials in the Ministry of Finance.
Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka was forced to resign in 1974 because of his alleged connection to financial scandals and, in the face of charges of involvement in the Lockheed bribery scandal, he was arrested and jailed briefly in 1976.
The fractious politics of the LDP hindered consensus in the Diet in the late 1970s. The sudden death of Prime Minister Masayoshi Ohira just before the June 1980 elections, however, brought out a sympathy vote for the party and gave the new prime minister, Zenko Suzuki, a working majority. Suzuki was soon swept up in a controversy over the publication of a textbook that appeared to many as a whitewash of Japanese aggression in World War II. This incident, and serious fiscal problems, caused the Suzuki cabinet, composed of numerous LDP factions, to fall.
Yasuhiro Nakasone, a conservative backed by the still-powerful Tanaka and Suzuki factions who once served as director general of the Defense Agency, became prime minister in November 1982. In November 1984, Nakasone was chosen for a second term as LDP president. His cabinet received an unusually high rating, a 50% favorable response in polling during his first term, while opposition parties reached a new low in popular support. As he moved into his second term, Nakasone thus held a strong position in the Diet and the nation.
Despite being found guilty of bribery in 1983, Tanaka in the early-to-mid-1980s remained a power behind the scenes through his control of the party's informal apparatus, and he continued as an influential adviser to the more internationally minded Nakasone. The end of Nakasone's tenure as prime minister in October 1987 (his second two-year term had been extended for one year) was a momentous point in modern Japanese history. Just fifteen months
before Nakasone's retirement, the LDP unexpectedly had won its largest majority ever in the House of Representatives by securing 304 out of the 512 seats. The government was faced with growing crises. Land prices were rapidly increasing due to the Japanese asset price bubble, inflation increased at the highest rate since 1975, unemployment reached a record high at 3.2%, bankruptcies were rife, and there was political rancor over LDP-proposed tax reform. In the summer of 1987, economic indicators showed signs of recovery, but on October 20, 1987, the same day Nakasone officially named his successor, Noboru Takeshita, the Tokyo Stock Market crashed. Japan's economy and its political system had reached a watershed in their postwar development that would continue to play out into the 1990s.
Economy
The early post-war years were devoted to rebuilding lost industrial capacity: major investments were made in electric power, coal, steel, and chemicals. By the mid-1950s, production matched prewar levels. Released from the demands of military-dominated government, the economy not only recovered its lost momentum but also surpassed the growth rates of earlier periods. Between 1953 and 1965, GDP expanded by more than 9% per year, manufacturing and mining by 13%, construction by 11%, and infrastructure by 12%. In 1965 these sectors employed more than 41% of the labor force, whereas only 26% remained in agriculture.
Japan's highly acclaimed post-war education system contributed strongly to the modernizing process. The world's highest literacy rate and high education standards were major reasons for Japan's success in achieving a technologically advanced economy. Japanese schools also encouraged discipline, another benefit in forming an effective work force.
The mid-1960s ushered in a new type of industrial development as the economy opened itself to international competition in some industries and developed heavy and chemical manufactures. Whereas textiles and light manufactures maintained their profitability internationally, other products, such as automobiles, electronics, ships, and machine tools assumed new importance. The value added to manufacturing and mining grew at the rate of 17% per year between 1965 and 1970. Growth rates moderated to about 8% and evened out between the industrial and service sectors between 1970 and 1973, as retail trade, finance, real estate, information technology, and other service industries streamlined their operations.
The LDP government, through institutions such as Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), encouraged Japanese industrial development overseas while restricting foreign companies' business within the country. These practices, coupled with a reliance on the United States for defense, allowed Japan's economy to increase exponentially during the Cold War. By 1980, many Japanese products, particularly automobiles and electronics, were being exported around the world, and Japan's industrial sector was the second-largest in the world after the U.S. This growth pattern stagnated after 1991.
The 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo marked the re-emergence of Japan in the international arena: Japan's postwar development was showcased through innovations such as the Shinkansen high-speed rail network. In 1968, the first modern office skyscraper called the Kasumigaseki Building was built in Japan. It has 36 floors and is 156 meters high.
The high economic growth and political tranquillity of the mid-to-late 1960s were tempered by the quadrupling of oil prices by the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1973. Almost completely dependent on imports for petroleum, Japan experienced its first recession since World War II.
Labor unions had been destroyed by the government by 1940. The American occupation forces, reflecting their New Deal American values, supported a revival. Communist unions were included, although a proposed nationwide general strike was forbidden in 1947. After 1970, union membership declined in both Japan and the United States. According to Wythe Holt, in both countries workers have adopted consumer lifestyle and have gained the education needed to move out of blue collar jobs. Furthermore there has been frustration with the top-down, bureaucratic management by union leaders who seem to show little interest in the aspirations of the workers.
Foreign relations
Despite its central position in the world economy, Japan has played a modest role in global politics for much of the postwar period.
The 1950s were largely marked by Japan re-establishing relations to numerous nations and redefining its international role, e.g., by joining the United Nations in 1956. One such total redefinition were Japan's relations to its former World War II-ally Germany, which were put on a new basis in 1955 focused on trade.
Japan's biggest postwar political crisis took place in 1960 over the revision of the Japan-United States Mutual Security Assistance Pact. As the new Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security was concluded, which renewed the United States role as military protector of Japan, massive street protests and political upheaval occurred, and the cabinet resigned a month after the Diet's ratification of the treaty. Thereafter, political turmoil subsided. Japanese views of the United States, after years of mass protests over nuclear armaments and the mutual defense pact, improved by 1968 and 1972 respectively, with the reversion of United States-occupied Nanpō and Ryukyu Islands to Japanese sovereignty and the winding down of the Vietnam War.
Japan had reestablished relations with the Republic of China after World War II, and cordial relations were maintained with the nationalist government when it was exiled to Taiwan, a policy that won Japan the enmity of the People's Republic of China, which was established in 1949. After the general warming of relations between China and Western countries, especially the United States, which shocked Japan with its sudden rapprochement with Beijing in 1971 (the Ping Pong Diplomacy), Tokyo established relations with Beijing in 1972. Close cooperation in the economic sphere followed.
Japan's relations with the Soviet Union continued to be problematic after the war, but a Joint Declaration between Japan and the USSR, ending the war and reestablishing diplomatic relations was signed October 19, 1956. The main object of dispute was the Soviet occupation of what Japan calls its Northern Territories, the two most southerly islands in the Kurils (Iturup and Kunashiri) and Shikotan and the Habomai Islands (northeast of Hokkaido), which were seized by the Soviet Union shortly after Japan's World War II surrender.
Under the prime ministership of Kakuei Tanaka (1972–74), Japan took a stronger but still low-key stance by steadily increasing its defense spending and easing trade frictions with the United States. Tanaka's administration was also characterized by high-level talks with United States, Soviet, and Chinese leaders, if with mixed results. His visits to Indonesia and Thailand prompted riots, a manifestation of long-standing anti-Japanese sentiments.
Several cordial visits between Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone and United States president Ronald Reagan were aimed at improving relations between their countries. Nakasone's more strident position on Japanese defense issues made him popular with some United States officials but not, generally, in Japan or among Asian neighbors. Although his characterization of Japan as an "unsinkable aircraft carrier", his noting the "common destiny" of Japan and the United States, and his calling for revisions to Article 9 the Constitution (which renounced war as the sovereign right of the nation), among other prorearmament statements, produced negative reactions at home and abroad, a gradual acceptance emerged of the Self-Defense Forces and the mutual security treaty with the United States in the mid-1980s.
Another issue in Japanese-American relations was Japan's growing trade surplus, which reached record heights during Nakasone's first term. The United States pressured Japan to remedy the imbalance, demanding that Tokyo raise the value of the yen and open its markets further to facilitate more imports from the United States. Because the Japanese government aids and protects its key industries, it was accused of creating an unfair competitive advantage. Tokyo agreed to try to resolve these problems but generally defended its industrial policies and made concessions on its trade restrictions very reluctantly, only making very few deals with the U.S.
Culture
Japan continued to experience Westernization in the postwar era, much of which came about during the occupation, when American soldiers were a common sight in many parts of the country. American music and movies became popular, spurring a generation of Japanese artists who built on both Western and Japanese influences.
During this period, Japan also began to emerge as an exporter of culture. Young people across the world began consuming kaiju (monster) movies, anime (animation), manga (comic books), and other modern Japanese culture. Japanese authors such as Yasunari Kawabata and Yukio Mishima became popular literary figures in America and Europe. American soldiers returning from the occupation brought with them stories and artifacts, and the following generations of U.S. troops in Japan contributed to a steady trickle of martial arts and other culture from the country.
Timeline to 1989
1952: Allied occupation ends (April 28).
1954: the Japan Self-Defense Forces established.
1955: the Liberal Democratic Party formed.
1956: Japan joins the United Nations.
1960: Labor strikes and protest marches across the country as part of the massive Anpo protests to oppose the adoption of a revised Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan
1964: Olympic Games held in Tokyo. Shinkansen trains begin service.
1965: Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea signed. Shin'ichiro Tomonaga awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.
1968: the nuclear aircraft carrier Enterprise arrives in Sasebo amid controversy. Itai-itai disease is formally recognized as a public hazard disease. Nanpō Islands revert to Japanese control. Yasunari Kawabata receives the Nobel Prize in Literature. A man, disguised as a police officer, steals ¥300 million (still at large as of 2011).
1969: Student protests erupt at several Japanese universities in opposition to campus policies and the Vietnam War. The occupation of Tokyo University forces the administration to cancel the entrance exams. Prime Minister Eisaku Satō and U.S. President Richard Nixon meet. The date for the return of Ryukyu Islands to Japanese sovereignty set for sometime in 1972.
1970: a World Exposition (Expo '70) held in Osaka.
1971: the yen moves to a floating exchange rate, contributing to a short slump in Japan's economic boom.
1972: control of Ryukyu Islands reverts to Japan. Official end of occupation (1945-1972).
1980: annual car production tops 10 million units, making Japan the world's largest car producer after the USA. Yomiuri Giants' Sadaharu Oh ends his career.
1981: Kenichi Fukui awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
1982: the Tohoku Shinkansen extended to Morioka from Omiya.
1983: Mt. Oyama volcano on Miyakejima, one of the Izu Islands, erupts. A color wall painting of Genbu is discovered in the Kitora Kofun at Asuka-mura. Kakuei Tanaka sentenced to four years in jail.
1984: the president of Ezaki Glico Co., Ltd., a manufacturer of sweets, is abducted and held for ¥10 billion and 100 kg gold ransom, but he escapes. Later, an extortionist threatens to poison the company's products unless paid ¥60 million (later raised to ¥120 million). The culprit is never captured. New banknotes issued with the likeness of Fukuzawa Yukichi on the ¥10,000 bill, Inazo Nitobe on the ¥5,000 bill, and Natsume Sōseki on the ¥1,000 bill.
1985: the first AIDS patient is officially recognized. Japan Airlines Flight 123 crashes into Mount Takamagahara, breaking the record for aircraft-crash casualties with 520 dead and only four survivors.
1986: Mount Mihara (Miharayama) on Izu Ohshima erupts, but the island's population is evacuated beforehand.
1987: Japanese National Railways is privatized and split into seven JR (Japan Railways) companies, six regional companies and one freight. Actor Yujiro Ishihara dies.
1988: the Seikan Tunnel connecting Hokkaido and Honshū completed. The Nadashio, a Maritime Self Defense Force submarine, collides with the Dai Ichi Fujimaru, a fishing vessel.
1989: The Shōwa Emperor dies on January 7. Akihito ascends to the throne the next day and a new reign name, Heisei, is declared.
See also
1980s in Japan
1990s in Japan
References
Further reading
Cooney, Kevin J. Japan's Foreign Policy Since 1945 (2006)
Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (W. W. Norton & Company. 1999).
Duus, Peter, ed. The Cambridge history of Japan: The Twentieth Century (1989) pp. 154–216 on political history and 494–540 on economic history.
Edström, Bert. Japan’s evolving foreign policy doctrine: from Yoshida to Miyazawa (Springer, 2016).
Garon, Sheldon. The state and labor in modern Japan (Univ of California Press, 1987).
George, Timothy S., and Christopher Gerteis. Japan since 1945 : from postwar to post-bubble (Bloomsbury Academic, 2013)
Gordon, Andrew, ed. Postwar Japan as history. (Univ of California Press, 1993) online, a major overview of leading topics
Hane, Mikiso. Eastern phoenix: Japan since 1945 (Routledge, 2018) excerpt.
Hane, Mikiso, and Louis G. Perez. Modern Japan (5th ed. 2013) pp 364–526.
Hoover, William D. Historical Dictionary of Postwar Japan (Scarecrow Press, 2018).
Hyoe, Murakami, ed. Politics and economics in contemporary Japan (1979) online
Kerbo, Harold R., John A. McKinstry, and John McKinstry. Who rules Japan?: the inner circles of economic and political power (Greenwood, 1995).
Makoto Iokibe, Caroline Rose, et al. eds. Japanese diplomacy in the 1950s: from isolation to integration (2008) online
McCarthy, Mary M. ed. Routledge Handbook of Japanese Foreign Policy (2018).
Millward, Hugh, and James Morrison, eds. Japan at Century's End: Changes, Challenges and Choices (1997) online
Nester, William R. The foundation of Japanese power: continuities, changes, challenges (Springer, 1990). online
Van Sant, John, Peter Mauch, and Yoneyuki Sugita. Historical Dictionary of United States-Japan Relations (Scarecrow Press, 2007).
Historiography and memory
Allinson, Gary D. "Politics in Contemporary Japan: Pluralist Scholarship in the Conservative Era—A Review Article". Journal of Asian Studies (1989): 324-332. .
Campbell, John Creighton, and Ethan Scheiner. "Fragmentation and power: Reconceptualizing policy making under Japan's 1955 system". Japanese Journal of Political Science 9.1 (2008): 89–113.
Fukui, Haruhiro. "Studies in Policymaking: A Review of the Literature", in T. J. Pempel (ed.), Policymaking in Contemporary Japan (Cornell UP, 1977), pp. 22–59.
Hashimoto, Akiko. The Long Defeat: Cultural Trauma, Memory, and Identity in Japan (Oxford University Press, 2015).
External links
Hirata Tetsuo and John W. Dower, "Japan's Red Purge: Lessons from a Saga of Suppression of Free Speech and Thought" | [
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261250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outdoor%20cooking | Outdoor cooking | Outdoor cooking differs substantially from kitchen-based cooking, the most obvious difference being lack of an easily defined kitchen area. As a result, campers and backpackers have developed a significant body of techniques and specialized equipment for preparing food in outdoors environments. Such techniques have traditionally been associated with nomadic cultures such as the Berbers of North Africa, the Arab Bedouins, the Plains Indians, pioneers in North America, and indigenous tribes in South America. These methods have been refined in modern times for use during recreational outdoors pursuits.
Currently, much of the work of maintaining and developing outdoor cooking traditions in Westernized countries is done by the Scouting movement and by wilderness educators such as the National Outdoor Leadership School and Outward Bound, as well as by writers and cooks closely associated with the outdoors community.
Food and recipes
The type of food common in outdoors settings is somewhat different compared to household foods, and also differs depending on the type of cooking activity. While someone at a public campground may have easy access to a grocery store and be able to prepare plenty of recipes with fresh meat and vegetables, someone on an extended trip into the backcountry will not be able to carry large amounts of fresh food, due to the extra weight from high water content, and will have to rely heavily on food with a low water content, such as dried meats and vegetables, packaged dehydrated camping foods, and starches such as ramen, polenta, and dried potato flakes. Wilderness experts in both categories sometimes make use of locally available wild foods as well, particularly wild vegetables and fruit but also occasionally fresh fish and wild game; however, it is not unusual for camping food, especially backcountry food, to be partially or totally vegetarian.
Camping food is often very high in fat and carbohydrates to provide energy for long hikes, and hikers (much like soldiers) must rely heavily on energy-packed snacks such as trail mix, chocolate, energy bars, and sports drinks. Water can also be at a premium, so important parts of a camper's pantry include chlorine or iodine-based water disinfectants as well as drink mixes to mask the flavor of the chemical treatment.
Recipes are often designed with significant planning and home preparation in mind, with certain ingredients mixed at home and then cooked on the trail; to that end, there are a number of providers of freeze-dried food, both ingredients and full meals, to the outdoors market, and just-add-water instant meals (including hot cereals, pasta or rice in sauce, and instant soup) from the supermarket are popular as well. Alternatively, some wilderness experts advocate bulk rationing, in which each hiker is given a selection of raw ingredients and prepares a meal from scratch on the trail.
Methods
Most outdoor cooking is dictated by the foods themselves which are to be cooked. The first five discussions below, of direct heat, boiling, frying, grilling, and roasting, will, perhaps, describe the cooking methods employed most often in outdoor cooking. These techniques will require only rudimentary, commonsensical tools. Additional methods described farther below may be of interest only to those "foodies" who carry their interests into the outdoors for gourmet meals. These advanced methods may require additional equipment or techniques.
Direct heat
The most traditional method for outdoor cooking (and indeed the oldest form of cooking known to humanity) is by means of a campfire. Campfires can be used for cooking food by a number of techniques. The techniques for cooking on a campfire are no different from those used for everyday cooking before the invention of stoves or where stoves are still not available. Individuals who are backpacking in an area that allows the gathering of firewood may decide to cook on a campfire to avoid the need to carry extra equipment; however, most campfire cooking is done in outside of wilderness areas. Cooking food using a campfire can be tricky for those not accustomed to it; also, due to risk of fire damage, campfires are illegal in many areas, so many campers prefer to use a portable stove instead.
Boiling
In backpacking particularly, boiling water is the most common kitchen operation undertaken on the trail, used for cooking or reconstituting food, making hot beverages, cleaning up, and even sanitizing drinking water. Portable stoves are therefore generally rated in terms of how quickly they can boil a liter (or other appropriate size) of water; indeed, some commercial stove models are specifically optimized for fast boiling, with other operations such as frying or baking being an afterthought.
Like camp frying pans, camp pots are generally made of very lightweight material (often aluminum or, at a considerable price premium, titanium). Though less of a worry given the thermal mass of water, the camp cook must still take care not to allow food to burn, since the pot itself has very little mass to spread the heat out.
Alternatively, a fireproof container (e.g. mess can, bamboo segment or improvised tree bark pot) is placed (or hung) above the fire.
Roasting
Possibly the simplest method of cooking over a campfire and one of the most common is to roast food on long skewers that can be held above the flames. This is popular for cooking hot dogs or toasting marshmallows for making s'mores. Hungarians often roast slab bacon (Szalonna) over a campfire. Besides skewers and fireplace popcorn popper, pie irons too may be used (small iron molds with long handles), into which can be placed slices of bread with some form of filling — which are placed over hot coals to cook. When using meat, roasting can have the advantage over grilling in that the grease that drips from the food can be reused. This can be done by placing a fireproof container under the food.
Grilling
Grills are simple to use and food being grilled tends to pick up some flavor from the smoke, although that is not by design as in a Barbecue where the meat is cooked slowly over a period of hours at a significantly lower temperature. Grills over a campfire are used in the same way as an ordinary backyard charcoal grill. If the food is simply placed on the grill, it may catch fire so it requires constant attention. Hand-held grills, aka broiler that clamp over the food may be used for various tasks like warming food, grilling burgers or sausages or making toast. In cases where open fires are not allowed, lightweight charcoal grills (sometimes considered a type of hibachi) are sometimes used for direct grilling of food.
Frying
Frying is not always necessary, but is often used for fish or wild game caught while on the trip, as well as pancakes and certain kinds of bread and desserts made on the trail. As a general rule, the frying medium used in camp cooking is usually either vegetable oil or margarine. Normal (salted) butter may also be appropriate for camp use, but unsalted butter or lard may not be, due to their shorter shelf life.
Camp frying pans often lack handles for easy packing, with the camp cook using a clamp-like device to pick up and move the pan. Camp frying pans are generally made out of very thin metal (though some campers do use cast iron pans for this purpose as well), so extra care must be taken to evenly cook the food, especially over the small-diameter flame of a portable stove. A "round the clock" technique, where the frying pan is moved repeatedly to expose different parts of its base to the flame, is the most commonly recommended solution to the problem, though it is also possible to use a flame diffuser to achieve the same effect. For campfire use, on the other hand, some camp cooks prefer a legged cast-iron pan called a "spider", which is elevated to allow a small fire directly beneath it.
Camp cooks making pancakes in a moderate-size pan often simplify their work and speed up their service by pouring enough batter to make one large, moderate-thickness pancake that takes up the entire pan and then cutting the final product with the spatula to serve individual portions. Also, camp cooks often replicate toast using a fry pan: a bread slice (or more, or a combination of whole and cut portions) are placed in a well greased pan, pressed down with spatula, flipped, and pressed down again.
An improvised griddle can be made by putting a flat stone directly on the fire (or above it, on top of other stones). Food is then placed on the stone.
Baking
Putting a baking sheet pan over a furnace can allow for baking, which is in turn derived from the concept of the masonry oven. This was common for centuries, used to make breads, pies, and other items, and is still popular today, particularly among campers who enjoy stuffing their meats. Ovens can be made from cast iron, sheet metal or aluminum foil covered cardboard box. Reflector ovens are metal containers designed to surround an article of food being baked over an open flame and reflect the heat back towards the food.
Dutch ovens and other pots
Closely associated with the American Old West, the Dutch oven of tradition is a heavy cast iron pot, traditionally made with three short legs and a concave cover for holding hot coals on top. While such pots are generally considered too heavy for backpackers, Dutch ovens are often used in group camp-outs and cookouts.
Dutch ovens were traditionally specially designed for camping, and such pots (often with legs and a handle, both for suspending the pot over a fire) are still widely available, though sometimes at a premium over flat-bottomed stove-top models. The oven is placed in a bed of hot coals, often from a keyhole fire with additional coals placed on top of the lid, which in camp ovens usually has a raised rim to keep the coals from falling off. Dutch ovens are made of cast iron or aluminium, and are generally not considered suitable for backpacking due to the heavy weight of the pot. Dutch ovens are convenient for cooking dishes that take a long time such as stews, joints of meat and baked goods. They are not the only option for baking on a campout as devices for baking on portable stoves exist and clay ovens can be constructed at longer encampments.
A pot hanging over the fire, although picturesque, may spill, and the rigging may be difficult to construct from found wood. Generally this is done with metal rigging, much of it identical to that historically used in home fireplaces before the invention of stoves. Two vertical iron bars with an iron cross-piece allow pots to be hung at various heights or over different temperatures of fire. Griddles, grills and skewers can also be hung over the fire. When working with wood, one may use two tripods, lashed with tripod lashings, but the rope will be liable to melt or burn. Dovetail joints are more secure, but difficult to carve.
A good alternative to cooking with a tripod is to cook directly upon the fire itself. To do this properly the fire needs to have a reasonable bed of coals and to have burned down to the point where it is not a roaring fire. While the pot may be set directly upon the coals, this is not preferable since that will tend to extinguish the coals. To lift the pot up off the fire, often two small logs of similar size may be used on either side of the pot; camp-style Dutch ovens have three legs built into the pot to perform this function. An alternative is the use of a metal thread or mesh fire basket. This allows continued airflow through the fire while providing optimal heat. The one down side to this form of cooking is that the pots will become blackened with soot and ash, which can be difficult to scrub off. The ash and soot build up can be easily avoided by applying a thin layer of dish soap (preferably biodegradable) to the outside of the pot before cooking. The ash and soot will stick to the soap which is then easily rinsed off later.
Steaming
Steaming is possible with plants such as bamboo. In this method, a piece of bamboo is set diagonally above a fire. The bamboo is perforated from within (between the joints) and water is placed in the lowest bamboo segment. Food (e.g. rice) is then placed in the top segment which is steamed due to the water evaporating from the heat in the lowest segment.
Other covered techniques
The original form of covered cooking is the earth oven, simply a covered pit with a fire built in it, demonstrated in techniques such as the Polynesian umu/hāngi, the Indian tandoori, and the Native American clambake.
Another commonly used technique is the baking of food in aluminum foil packets. Food is wrapped inside a durable packet of tin or aluminum foil, crimped to seal, and placed on or under hot coals. Baked potatoes are commonly cooked this way but entire meals can be cooked in one packet. Besides aluminum or tin, organic material such as leaves (of tree, "Nelumbo nucifera" lotus, "Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro" bamboo aka Bambusa oldhamii (麻竹葉), phragmites, plantain, taro, etc.), husks (of corn, "Phyllostachys makinoi" bamboo (桂竹籜), etc.), and skins of fruit (citrus, etc.) are also frequently employed. Tree leaves such as those from the banana tree do not burn/ignite as they contain enough oil to resist the heat from the flames (at least until the frying is complete). The way to adapt recipes where food is wrapped in foil is to use a barrier such as baking or silicone paper between the food and the foil; the overall technique is similar to the en papillote technique developed in French cuisine, but uses a more robust container.
Other simple methods include clay wrapping food (such as in the kleftiko method used in Greek cuisine), leaf wrapping, and plank grilling, where food is cooked on a wooden plank set above the fire. Hot-stone cooking, where food is placed on a heated stone next to or even in the fire or where fire-heated stones are dropped into a pot are other methods.
Long-distance truckers, automotive travelers and rally racers have occasionally resorted to cooking on accessible sections of the vehicle engine; the book Manifold Destiny, though written to a certain extent as a humor book, is considered the authoritative reference on the subject. The food is usually wrapped in several layers of aluminum foil and secured onto the engine block or other hot parts of the engine.
In some areas where there is a significant amount of steady, less-hazardous volcanic activity, lava cooking (invented in Hawaii) is sometimes practiced as a novelty. The food does not come in direct contact with the molten rock, instead being wrapped in a moist barrier (usually wet tropical leaves such as banana foliage or ti leaves). The wrapper is sacrificial, and is chipped or otherwise cleaned off along with the cooled lava before serving.
Backwoods cooking, without utensils
Backwoods cooking is a method of cooking without the use of kitchen implements. It commonly takes place in the backwoods, often in combination with wild or conventional camping. Some variants of backwoods cooking allow the use of items of cookware such as a cooking pot; however there are many recipes without any. Some backwoods alternatives to cookware include: aluminium foil, fruit skins and heated stones. Traditionally backwoods cooking takes place over a wood-burning fire because wood is the most available fuel source in the backwoods. As a result, some recipes include information about the intensity of the fire to be used.
Backwoods cooking is widely practiced within the Scouting movement. While it is most associated with scouting today, the term "backwoods cooking" pre-dates Scouting by at least 25 years. Within scouting it may also be known as "lightweight cooking," which may also have a focus on using aluminium foil for cookware for much lighter weight cooking.
Scouts around the world take part in different backwoods cooking competitions. These competitions are often local in scope, group or district competitions, but some are held by national scout associations; such as that held by the Scout Association of Malta.
Specialist equipment
Portable stoves are widely used in areas where fuel such as wood is scarce or there is a significant fire or environmental hazard to building a campfire. Such devices usually use a liquid fuel (usually a petroleum derivative or some kind of alcohol), but gaseous fuels like propane, butane and solid fuels such as wood shavings and hexamine are also used depending on the stove design; while two-burner models are commonly used for front-country campstoves and function much like residential gas stoves, backpacking stoves generally put out a much more concentrated and less powerful flame and require lightweight cooking equipment ("billycans") made of aluminum or titanium rather than more typical kitchen-type utensils.
In addition, there are often special techniques for baked goods made on the trail in the absence of specialized camp oven equipment, including flipping over the (lidded) pan while on the heat and the "twiggy fire", which mimics the use of charcoal on the lid of a Dutch oven using a small campfire on the lid of the pan.
Reflector ovens are placed on the ground next to the fire, and gather thermal radiation from it.
Solar cookers are a type of equipment that are powered by the sun, and no other fuel is required, creating a positive environmental impact. There are large variations of design and functionality, where the parabolic solar cookers offer the highest temperature, often more than 750 degrees F. SolSource solar stove is an example of a high-temperature solar stove.
Ceramic grills come in many guises and have been around in simple format since ancient times. Many modern cookers sport ornate designs that can be quite beautiful. These grills cook well and efficiently because they retain heat and seal in moisture. Most quality grills are weatherproof and can be used year-round to grill, BBQ, smoke and bake. Other benefits include fast heating time and a lack of hot-spots. They are fuel-efficient, using a minimum of charcoal, and may be safer for children due to the lack of hot-spots.
Cooking rigs
Dangers
Outdoor cooking elements can be of danger due to their high flammability and proximity to occupants. Use of highly flammable alcohols to refuel portable cookers, gas cookers need to be checked for leaks and kept well away from heat and tents in a sheltered and stable setting. Most modern tents are made of lightweight synthetic materials that are not fire retardant. Fires and flames must properly extinguished and not left unattended. Wind can carry hot embers, possibly igniting wildfires. In rare occasions portable camping canisters have been known to explode. These can be caused by leaks or overheating around the compressed canister. Adequate air ventilation can prevent overheating during use. It is recommended to operate such portable cooking instruments in the open, despite the pull of luxury in having them operate inside a tent. A number of incidents involving camping and cooking fires have resulted in fatalities and severe injuries.
Special precautions are required for camping in bear country because cooking activities and food storage attract these potentially dangerous animals. Food preparation and storage must be located a safe distance from sleeping areas, so a fire near camp cannot be used for cooking. Food may need to be stored in bear cans or bear bags hung from a tree or post. Other animals may be attracted to food too; most notably raccoons, squirrels, skunks, and mice.
See also
Beverage-can stove
Barbecue
Curanto
Damper (food)
Dutch oven
Grilling
Hāngi
Kalua
List of cooking techniques
Masonry oven
New England clam bake
Pachamanca
References
Camping
Procedural knowledge
Garden features
Survival skills
Cooking techniques
Scoutcraft
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261251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiki | Hawaiki | In Polynesian mythology, (also rendered as in Cook Islands Māori, in Samoan, in Tahitian, in Hawaiian) is the original home of the Polynesians, before dispersal across Polynesia. It also features as the underworld in many Māori stories.
Anne Salmond states Havaii is the old name for Raiatea, the homeland of the Māori. When British explorer James Cook first sighted New Zealand in 1769, he had Tupaia on board, a Raiatean navigator and linguist. Cook's arrival seemed to be a confirmation of a prophecy by Toiroa, a priest from Māhia. At Tolaga Bay, Tupaia conversed with the tohunga associated with the school of learning located there, called Te Rawheoro. The priest asked about the Maori homelands, 'Rangiatea' (Ra'iatea), 'Hawaiki' (Havai'i, the ancient name for Ra'iatea), and 'Tawhiti' (Tahiti).
Etymology
Linguists have reconstructed the term to Proto-Nuclear Polynesian *sawaiki.
The Māori word figures in legends about the arrival of the Māori in Aotearoa (New Zealand). The same concept appears in other Polynesian cultures, the name appearing variously as Havaiki, Havaii, or Avaiki in other Polynesian languages. Hawaiki or the misspelling "Hawaiiki" appear to have become the most common variants used in English. Although the Sāmoans have preserved no traditions of having originated elsewhere, the name of the largest Sāmoan island preserves a cognate with the word Hawaiki, as does the name of the Polynesian islands of (the denoting a glottal stop that replaces the "k" in some Polynesian languages).
On several island groups, including New Zealand and the Marquesas, the term has been recorded as associated with the mythical underworld and death. William Wyatt Gill wrote at length in the nineteenth century recounting the legends about Avaiki as the underworld or Hades of Mangaia in the Cook Islands. Gill (1876:155) records a proverb: Ua po Avaiki, ua ao nunga nei – 'Tis night now in spirit-land, for 'tis light in this upper world." Tregear (1891:392) also records the term Avaiki as meaning "underworld" at Mangaia, probably sourced from Gill. There is no real contradiction in Hawaiki being both the ancestral homeland (that is, the dwelling place of the ancestors) and the underworld, which is also the dwelling place of ancestors and the spirits.
Other possible cognates of the word Hawaiki include ("spirits" in Sāmoan) and ("chiefs" in Tongan). This has led some scholars to hypothesize that the word Hawaiki, and, by extension, and , may not, in fact, have originally referred to a geographical place, but rather to chiefly ancestors and the chief-based social structure that pre-colonial Polynesia typically exhibited.
On Easter Island, the name of the mythical home country appears as . According to Thor Heyerdahl, was said to lie east of the island. Sebastian Englert records:
Translation: "The island towards the sun, above! Go, see the island where King Hotu Matua will go and live!"
Englert puts forward the claim that lies to the West of the island. The name is found in the Marquesas Islands, in the names of several islands: , and (although in the element may be a different word, ). It is also notable that in the Hawaiian Islands, the ancestral homeland is called (a cognate of Tahiti, where at least part of the Hawaiian population came from).
Legends
According to various oral traditions, the Polynesians migrated from Hawaiki to the islands of the Pacific Ocean in open canoes, little different from the traditional craft found in Polynesia today.
The Māori people of New Zealand trace their ancestry to groups of people who reportedly travelled from Hawaiki in about 40 named waka (compare the discredited Great Fleet theory of the Polynesian settlement of New Zealand).
Polynesian oral traditions say that the spirits of Polynesian people return to Hawaiki after death. In the New Zealand context, such return-journeys take place via Spirits Bay, Cape Reinga and the Three Kings Islands at the extreme north of the North Island of New Zealand. This may indicate the direction in which Hawaiki may lie.
Modern science and practical testing of theories
Until the early 21st century, many anthropologists had doubts that the canoe-legends described a deliberate migration. They tended to believe that the migration occurred accidentally when seafarers became lost and drifted to uninhabited shores. In 1947 Thor Heyerdahl sailed the Kon-Tiki, a balsa-wood raft, from South America into the Pacific in an attempt to show that humans could have settled Polynesia from the eastern shores of the Pacific Ocean, with sailors using the prevailing winds and simple construction techniques.
But DNA, linguistic, botanical, and archaeological evidence all indicate that the Austronesian-speaking peoples (including the Polynesians) probably originated from islands in eastern Asia, possibly from present-day Taiwan. From there they gradually migrated southwards and eastwards through the South Pacific Ocean. The common ancestry of all the Austronesian languages, of which the Polynesian languages form a major subgroup, as well as all Austronesian language families but Malayo-Polynesian, exist only in Taiwan, and thus support this theory.
The sweet potato, which is of South American origin, is widely cultivated in Polynesia. This suggests that some interaction between the Polynesians and the Amerindians of South America may have taken place. No Polynesian crops were introduced into the Americas, and there is evidence of Polynesian settlement only in Chile. Austronesian and Polynesian navigators may have deduced the existence of uninhabited islands by observing migratory patterns of birds.
In recent decades, boatbuilders (see Polynesian Voyaging Society) have constructed ocean-going craft using traditional materials and techniques. They have sailed them over presumed traditional routes using ancient navigation methods, showing the feasibility of such deliberate migration that make use of prevailing winds.
See also
Hawaiʻiloa
Hōkūleʻa
Kupe
Percy Smith
Urheimat
Polynesian navigation
Footnotes
References
Buse, J., Taringa, R., Cook Islands Maori Dictionary With English Finderlist, edited by Biggs, B. and Moeka'a R. (1996), 90. Canberra: The Australian National University.
M. Taumoefolau, "From *Sau 'Ariki to Hawaiki". The Journal of the Polynesian Society, 105(4), (1996), 385–410.
E. R. Tregear, Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary (Lyon and Blair: Lambton Quay), 1891.
External links
Hawaiki in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
Mythological islands
Polynesian mythology
Māori underworld | [
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261257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical%20imperative | Hypothetical imperative | A hypothetical imperative (German: hypothetischer Imperativ) is originally introduced in the philosophical writings of Immanuel Kant. This sort of imperative is contrasted with a categorical imperative.
Overview
It is first mentioned in Section II of Groundworks of the Metaphysics of Morals. Kant defined it as the formula of the command of reason that represents an objective principle "in so far as it is necessitating for a will", in other words, imperatives act as the empirical formulas for knowing and enacting with reason. Hypothetical imperatives tell us how to act in order to achieve a specific goal and the commandment of reason applies only conditionally, e.g. "I must study to get a degree."
These sort of actions are capable of producing good, but they are primarily motivated by a desire to meet specific purposes. Actions done via Hypothetical Imperatives are done very often; whenever one commits to perform an action in order to achieve something they desire, they have used this imperative to act with reason.
In Groundworks of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant divides hypothetical imperatives into two subcategories: the rules of skill and the counsels of prudence.
Rules of skill
The rules of skill are conditional and are specific to each and every person to which the skill is mandated by. These are particular ends that we assign ourselves, and they provide a framework to understand how our ends can be achieved. Kant summarizes it as, "Whoever wills the end also wills (in so far as reason has decisive influence on his actions) the indispensably necessary means to it that is in his control." Kant's definition provides that there are a countless number of personal ends that can exist, because each human being has their unique perspectives, desires, personal circumstances, and intended methods to reach their ends.
Counsels of prudence
The counsels of prudence (or rules of prudence) are attained a priori (unlike the rules of skill which are attained via experience, or a posteriori) and have universal goals such as happiness. Counsels of prudence are actions committed for the overall sake of good will for the individual, and with the best intentions. This assumes, then, that actions done with the best intentions are using the hypothetical imperative to discern and make decisions that are "most moral good". Thus, almost any moral "rule" about how to act is hypothetical, because it assumes that your goal is to be moral, or to be happy, or to please God, etc.
Limitations
The general limitation of the hypothetical imperative is its potential ambiguity in its means, and its susceptibility to be misused for corrupted ends instead. Hypothetical imperatives also can only be acted upon if there is a personal investment in the action done and the ends produced. If one does not find personal benefit or incentive to conduct an action off a certain mean, then they are not obligated to do so. In other words, hypothetical imperatives invoke commands through "ought to do's", and their emphasis is more on individual personal desires. The only non-hypothetical imperatives are ones which tell you to do something no matter who you are or what you want, because the thing is good in itself. These types of imperatives belong to the category of categorical imperative.
See also
Akrasia
Notes
References
Immanuel Kant (1785), Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, 4:413, 4:416. 4:417.
Immanuel Kant (1788), Critique of Practical Reason, Part 1, Book 1, Chapter 1, Section 1: Definition.
External links
Hypothetical Imperatives
Kantianism
Ethical principles
Deontological ethics | [
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261259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim%20Novak | Kim Novak | Marilyn Pauline "Kim" Novak (born February 13, 1933) is a retired American film and television actress and painter.
Novak began her film career in 1954 after signing with Columbia Pictures and subsequently became one of Hollywood's top box office stars, starring in many films, including Picnic (1955), The Man with the Golden Arm (1955) and Pal Joey (1957). She is widely known for her performance as Madeleine Elster/Judy Barton in Alfred Hitchcock's thriller Vertigo (1958) with James Stewart. The film was ignored by critics upon release, but is now recognized as one of the greatest films ever made. Other notable films include Bell, Book and Candle (1958), Strangers When We Meet (1960) and Kiss Me, Stupid (1964).
Although still only in her mid-30s, Novak withdrew from acting in 1966 and has only sporadically worked in films since. She appeared in The Mirror Crack'd (1980), and had a regular role on the primetime series Falcon Crest (1986–1987). After a disappointing experience during the filming of Liebestraum (1991), she permanently retired from acting, saying she had no desire to return. Her contributions to cinema have been honored with two Golden Globe Awards, an Honorary Golden Bear Award, and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Novak is a painter and visual artist.
Early life
Marilyn Paul Novak was born in Chicago, Illinois on February 13, 1933. She is the second daughter of Joseph and Blanche (née Kral) Novak (who both appeared with her in The Notorious Landlady (1962)). Both of her parents were born in Chicago to people of Czech descent. Joseph (1897-1987) was a history teacher who took a job as a freight dispatcher on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad during the Depression.
She attended William Penn Elementary, Farragut High School, and Wright Junior College. She won two scholarships to the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, and during the summer break in her last semester of junior college, Novak went on a cross-country tour modelling for a refrigerator company at trade shows.
Acting career
Early films and breakthrough (1953–1958)
While stopping by Los Angeles, Novak was crowned "Miss Deepfreeze" by the refrigerator company. While there, she and two other models stood in line to be extras in two RKO films: The French Line (1954), starring Jane Russell and Son of Sinbad (filmed in 1953, not released until 1955). There she was discovered by an agent, who signed her to a long-term contract with Columbia Pictures. From the beginning of her career, she wanted to be an original and not another stereotype. Therefore, she fought with Columbia's chief, Harry Cohn, over the changing of her name. He suggested the name "Kit Marlowe", arguing, "Nobody's gonna go see a girl with a Polack name!", but she insisted on keeping her name, saying, "I'm Czech, but Polish, Czech, no matter, it's my name!" The two sides eventually settled on the name "Kim Novak" as a compromise.
Columbia intended for Novak to be their successor to Rita Hayworth, their biggest star of the 1940s, whose career had declined; also, the studio was hopeful that Novak would bring them the same box-office success Marilyn Monroe brought 20th Century-Fox. Novak's first role for the studio was in the film noir Pushover (1954), in which she received third billing below Fred MacMurray and Philip Carey. She then co-starred in the romantic comedy Phffft (1954) as Janis, a character who finds Robert Tracey (Jack Lemmon) "real cute". Both films were reasonably successful at the box office, and Novak received favorable reviews for her performances. In her third feature film, 5 Against the House (1955), a gritty crime drama, she received equal billing with Guy Madison. It was only a minor critical and box-office success.
She then played Madge Owens in the film version of Picnic (1955), from the William Inge play, co-starring William Holden and Rosalind Russell. Its director, Joshua Logan, felt that it would be more in character for Novak to have red hair; she agreed to wear a red wig during filming. Picnic was a resounding critical and box-office triumph, and Novak won a Golden Globe Award for Most Promising Newcomer. She was also nominated for BAFTA Film Award for Best Foreign Actress, but did not win. She appeared as a mystery guest on the game show What's My Line? on February 5, 1956, to promote the film's opening at the Radio City Music Hall. Director Otto Preminger then cast her in The Man with the Golden Arm (1955), in which she played Frank Sinatra's sultry ex-girlfriend. In a cast which included Eleanor Parker, Novak received praise for being one of the film's bright spots, and the film was a box-office hit yet again.
Novak's next project, The Eddy Duchin Story (1956), cast her as Marjorie Oelrichs, the wife of pianist Eddy Duchin, played by Tyrone Power. Because the two leads did not get along during filming, Novak nearly considered backing out of the production, but decided against it. At the time of its release, the film was a critical and box-office hit, with many suggesting that Novak's advertisements for No-Cal diet soda contributed positively to the film's success. Offered a choice for her next project, she selected the biopic Jeanne Eagels (1957), in which she portrayed the stage and silent-screen actress who was addicted to heroin. Co-starring Jeff Chandler, the film was a largely fictional account of Eagels' life. The film drew negative reviews, but turned a profit at the box office. Eagels' family sued Columbia over the way Eagels had been depicted in the movie.
After appearing in a series of successful movies, Novak became one of the biggest box-office draws of 1957 and 1958. Columbia then placed her in a film adaptation of Pal Joey (also 1957), based on the 1940 novel and Broadway play, both written by John O'Hara. Playing Linda English, a naive showgirl, she again co-starred opposite Frank Sinatra and Rita Hayworth. Released in October, the film received favorable reviews; Variety called the film "strong, funny entertainment," although Novak's performance has generated a mixed reaction, partly because of noticeable lack of on-screen charisma. The movie was a box-office hit and has been considered one of Novak's better performances.
Vertigo
Director Alfred Hitchcock was working on his next film, Vertigo (1958), when his leading actress, Vera Miles, became pregnant and had to withdraw from the complex role of Judy Barton. Hitchcock approached Harry Cohn to offer Novak the female lead without even requesting a screen test. Though Cohn hated the script, he allowed Novak to read it because he considered Hitchcock to be a great director. Novak loved it, as she could identify with the character and agreed to take part in the film without meeting Hitchcock. At the same time, she was striking for more money from Columbia, and refused to show up for work on the Vertigo set to protest against her salary of $1,250 a week. Novak hired new agents to represent her and demanded an adjustment in her contract. Cohn, who was paid $250,000 for Novak to do Vertigo, suspended her, but after a few weeks of negotiations, he relented and offered her a new contract worthy of a major star. She was now receiving $3,000 a week and explained to the press, "I don't like to have anyone take advantage of me."
Novak finally reported for work, and according to Hitchcock, she had "all sorts of preconceived notions" about her character, including what she would and would not wear. Before shooting began, she told the director she did not like the grey suit and black shoes she was slated to wear, thinking them too heavy and stiff for her character. Novak later recalled, "I didn’t think it would matter to him what kind of shoes I wore. I had never had a director who was particular about the costumes, the way they were designed, the specific colors. The two things he wanted the most were those shoes and that gray suit." Indeed, Hitchcock explained to Novak that the visual aspect of the film was even more important to him than the story, and insisted on her wearing the suit and the shoes that he had been planning for several months. Novak learned to make it work for her, as she saw it as a symbol of her character. Nonetheless, Hitchcock allowed Novak the freedom to develop the character herself. As she later recalled: "It excites me to work on dual personalities because I think I have many myself. And I think that I was able to use so much of me in that movie. At first I was feeling insecure because I kept saying, "Is this right? How do you want me to play this character?" Hitchcock said: "I hired you and that's who I want, what you bring to this role. But what I do expect from you is to stand where I want you to, wear what I want you to and speak in the rhythm that I want you to." And he worked a long time with me to try to get the right rhythm." The role took on a personal significance for her, as she felt she went through the same thing as her character when she arrived in Hollywood: From my point of view, when I first read those lines where she says, "I want you to love me for me," and all the talking in that scene, I just identified with it so much because going to Hollywood as a young girl and suddenly finding they want to make you over totally, it's such a total change and it was like I was always fighting to show some of myself, feeling that I wanted to be there as well. It was like they'd do my hair and go and redo a bunch of things. So I really identified with the fact of someone that was being made over with the resentment, with wanting to. Needing approval and wanting to be loved and willing, eventually, to go to any lengths to get that by changing her hair and all of these different things. And then when Judy appears, it's another story and then when she has to go through that change. I really identified with the movie because it was saying, "Please, see who I am. Fall in love with me."
Novak described Hitchcock as a gentleman, but found the experience of working with him to be strange. "I don't know if he ever liked me. I never sat down with him for dinner or tea or anything, except one cast dinner, and I was late to that. It wasn't my fault, but I think he thought I had delayed to make a star entrance, and he held that against me. During the shooting, he never really told me what he was thinking." The director was actually frustrated to have her instead of Vera Miles, as Novak learned later. "Hitchcock didn’t like having me in his picture and he felt I was ruining it. It was only after the film was finished that I heard how much he thought I’d wrecked his picture. I felt I did a lot of good work in that movie, and I got some of the best notices of my career. But Hitchcock couldn’t blame himself, so he blamed me." Novak got along well with her co-star, James Stewart, who supported her during the filming of the movie. "He treated me so well. I learned a lot about acting from him. When we had emotional scenes, he had to prepare himself first by somehow going deep inside of himself, and you knew to leave him alone when he was like that. And when it was over, he wouldn't just walk away. He allowed himself to slowly come out of it. He'd hold my hand and I would squeeze his hand so that we both had time to come down from the emotion."
The film had mixed reviews at the time of its release in 1958, and broke even at the box office, but has since been re-evaluated and is widely considered one of the director's best works. In the 2012 British Film Institute's Sight & Sound critics' poll, Vertigo was voted as the best film of all time, displacing Orson Welles' Citizen Kane from the position it had occupied since 1962. Novak received mixed reviews for her performance, but she managed to surprise film critics. While Bosley Crowther, writing for The New York Times, described her as "really quite amazing," the Variety review noted that she was "interesting under Hitchcock’s direction" and "nearer an actress than she was in either Pal Joey or Jeanne Eagles." The consensus regarding her performance also changed with time. Film critic David Thomson thought it was "one of the major female performances in the cinema" and film director Martin Scorsese called it "extraordinary," adding that Novak's work was "so brave and emotionally immediate." However, Novak was disappointed by her performance when she watched the film in 2013. "I was really disappointed. Both characters were exaggerated. They'll always remember me in Vertigo, and I'm not that good in it, but I don't blame me because there are a couple of scenes where I was wonderful."
Career slowdown and other early ventures (1958–1965)
Novak again worked with Stewart in Richard Quine's Bell, Book and Candle (also 1958), a comedy tale of modern-day witchcraft, that proved to be a box-office success. She then starred opposite Fredric March in the acclaimed romantic drama Middle of the Night (1959), which she has described as not only her favorite of her films, but also cites her performance in Middle of the Night as her best.
Novak starred opposite Kirk Douglas in the romantic drama Strangers When We Meet (1960), which drew mixed reviews but was a success financially. Richard Quine was the director, as well as her fiancé at the time. The studio planned to give them the house that was built as part of the story line during the filming as a wedding gift, but their wedding never occurred. Instead, during the last film that Quine and she made together, the British mystery/comedy The Notorious Landlady (1962) with Jack Lemmon, she discovered and purchased her future home by the sea near Big Sur in central California. It became her retreat and emotional salvation after leaving Hollywood.
She made an independent five-picture deal, with producer Martin Ransohoff and Filmways Pictures to co-produce, but it proved to be a bad choice due to clashes with personalities over scripts. Their first endeavor, the comedy Boys' Night Out (1962), was unsuccessful. After her Hollywood house survived the big Bel Air Fire of 1961, it was finally lost a few years later when it was swept away with most of her belongings in a mudslide in 1966. During the interim, she made W. Somerset Maugham's drama Of Human Bondage (1964) with Laurence Harvey in Ireland. This third film adaptation of the famous story went over schedule and budget, and it also failed.
The sex comedy Kiss Me, Stupid (1964) followed for director Billy Wilder. Actor Peter Sellers had originally been selected, but he had suffered a heart attack, so Ray Walston substituted. Also co-starring was Dean Martin. The film had problems getting released because of conflicts with the Legion of Decency. The film opened to scathing reviews and while it made money, it did not help Novak's career. Years later it was rediscovered and acclaimed for its forward thinking and got rave reviews, particularly for Novak's performance as "Polly the Pistol". Novak starred in the historical comedy The Amorous Adventures of Moll Flanders (1965) in England with British actor Richard Johnson. Inspired by the similar movie Tom Jones, it drew negative reviews but was a moderate success at the box office. Novak married Johnson in 1965 and divorced him in the spring of 1966. The divorce was amicable and they remained friendly. In 1966, Novak was cast as the female lead in the occult themed mystery Eye of the Devil, co-starring David Niven. The film's premise intrigued Novak, but she found the filming difficult and unpleasant. Novak was forced to leave the film after she fell off a horse, resulting in serious injuries which took time to recover from and she was replaced by Deborah Kerr.
Acting sporadically (1966–1991)
By the end of 1966, she was emotionally drained and no longer wanted to live the life of a Hollywood movie star, in the glare of the spotlight with the press scrutinizing her every move. When the mudslide took her Bel Air home and cost her entire life's savings in bulldozer fees, she moved away from Hollywood to discover herself anew.
From then on, acting became a job and was no longer a career of choice. Novak preferred to concentrate on her first love, the visual arts, often writing poetry to accompany her paintings, and even writing some song lyrics. Harry Belafonte and the Kingston Trio recorded some of her folk songs in the 1960s.
Novak returned to the screen for The Legend of Lylah Clare (1968), starring Peter Finch and Ernest Borgnine, and directed by Robert Aldrich. She played a dual role, portraying a person who becomes possessed by a look-alike film actress who gets made over by her obsessive-compulsive director lover. Robert Aldrich asked Novak to do a German accent for that role, but she felt it was unbelievable and over the top, so she did not want to do it, and he never insisted. At the premiere, Novak was shocked to hear her voice had been dubbed by a German actress in many scenes. Aldrich had never told her, nor had he given her the opportunity to dub it herself. The film was aggressively scorned by critics and Novak drew some of the worst reviews of her career. It was also a box office disaster. She was extremely upset and regretted having starred in the film. The last film Novak made in the '60s was the Western comedy The Great Bank Robbery (1969), opposite Zero Mostel, Clint Walker, and Claude Akins.
After nearly four years that she described as a "self-imposed vacation", Novak agreed to take part in two projects. She returned to the screen with a role in the horror anthology film Tales That Witness Madness (1973). Novak also starred as Las Vegas chorus girl Gloria Joyce, a character with whom she could identify, in the made-for-TV movie, The Third Girl From the Left (1973), with her real-life boyfriend at the time, Michael Brandon. Novak admitted a preference for TV films as she thought they were faster to shoot than features. She described movie scripts of that time as offensive, saying she disliked the unnecessary sex she found in most of them. In 1975, Novak took part in the ABC movie Satan's Triangle because she was intrigued by the story, which dealt in the supernatural. Novak had a small role in The White Buffalo (1977), a Western starring Charles Bronson, and she ended the decade by playing Helga in Just a Gigolo (1979), opposite David Bowie. Both films were flops, but Novak was not blamed due to her minor roles in them.
In 1980, Novak played fictional actress Lola Brewster in the British mystery-thriller The Mirror Crack'd, based on the story by Agatha Christie. She co-starred alongside Angela Lansbury, Tony Curtis, Rock Hudson, and Elizabeth Taylor. She enjoyed making the film and got along with her co-stars and the film was moderately successful. Novak did not appear in any feature films during the remainder of the 1980s. Her acting credits during the decade included the ensemble television movie Malibu (1983) and the pilot episode of The New Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1985).
Producers of the successful primetime soap opera Falcon Crest offered Novak a role in their series similar to her character in Vertigo. She appeared as the secretive "Kit Marlowe" in 19 episodes from 1986 to 1987. It was Novak's idea to name her character Kit Marlowe, as it was the stage name that Columbia had wanted her to use when she started in the business. The former Marilyn Pauline Novak wryly described this turn of events as effectively being Cohn's revenge on her from beyond the grave.
In 1989, Novak appeared along with James Stewart as a presenter at the 61st Academy Awards. Asked in the press room about a possible comeback, Novak said that if someone sent her a script she really wanted to do, with a part she felt she could not turn down, she would be happy to go back to work on the big or little screen. At the same time, Novak turned down plenty of offers for movies, as well as an opportunity to appear in a second season of Falcon Crest, to write her autobiography, tentatively titled Through My Eyes. Novak decided to re-establish contact with her agent and seek challenging roles after she realized she was not satisfied artistically. She said at the time, "I feel that I didn't live up to what I should have done with it. In other words, I'm glad I made the move away from Hollywood: I don't regret that. I know that was a major thing and a good thing. But by the same token, it was like unfinished business." She returned to film with the leading role of Rose Sellers in The Children (1990) opposite Ben Kingsley. A British-German coproduction, the film premiered at the London Film Festival and received good reviews. Leonard Maltin praised the acting and felt Novak's performance was "excellent". However, following disputes between the director Tony Palmer and the distributor over editing and music, the film was pulled from release and never distributed.
Director Mike Figgis offered Novak the role of a terminally ill writer with a mysterious past in his thriller Liebestraum (1991) opposite Kevin Anderson and Bill Pullman. Novak loved the script and thought it was going to be an important picture. However, her collaboration with Figgis was tense and the two had conflicts from the beginning. Novak agreed to do the film under the impression she was going to play the whole character, but Figgis felt she was unable to play the flashback role the way he wanted, and hired actress Sarah Fearon for those scenes. The two clashed on the set, as their visions of the script differed and were in many ways diametrically opposed. Although she considered him to be a brilliant director, she felt the story was too personal for him, as it was about his own life, and Novak was playing his mother. She was also unhappy, as she felt he wanted her to act like a puppet. "He wanted what he thought Hitchcock had made over. But Hitchcock didn’t do that. Figgis didn’t know Hitchcock. So he treated me the way he thought Hitchcock must have, tried to manipulate me into doing exactly... I went crazy." Novak later said she was hurt and distraught, as "It was such a painful thing for me because it took me right back to Harry Cohn and all that time. And back into saying, Look, for God’s sake, haven’t you heard it enough? We don’t want you to do anything. Just be 'Kim Novak.' That movie pained me more than any movie in the world could do." Novak later told Movieline in 2005 she felt she had been "unprofessional" not to obey her director. "I know he thinks I'm a total bitch. That role was fabulous, full of depth. When I interpreted it the way I thought was evident in the incredible script, he said, 'We're not making a Kim Novak movie, just say the lines. If you continue to play the role this way, I'm going to cut you out of the movie,' and he pretty much did that."
Novak was supposed to do a comedy with the French director Claude Berri, also starring Peter Falk, and a remake of Bell, Book and Candle with Sharon Stone. Neither film was made, and following the difficult experience with Liebestraum, she has usually cited that experience as the reason for her decision to retire from the film industry. In 2004, she told the Associated Press:I got so burned out on that picture that I wanted to leave the business, but then if you wait long enough you think, "Oh, I miss certain things." The making of a movie is wonderful. What's difficult is afterward when you have to go around and try to sell it. The actual filming, when you have a good script—which isn't often—nothing beats it.
Retirement (since 1992)
After her retirement from acting, Novak made only rare public appearances and turned down most offers she received. In 1996, Vertigo was given a restoration by Robert A. Harris and James C. Katz and re-released to theaters. Novak enjoyed their work so much, she agreed to make appearances at screenings of the film, something she had refused when Universal asked her in 1984. She also took part in Obsessed with Vertigo, a documentary retracing the making and restoration of the film. In 1997, Novak received an Honorary Golden Bear Award for lifetime achievement at the 47th Berlin International Film Festival.
In 2003, Novak was presented with the Eastman Kodak Archives Award for her major contribution to film. Prior honorees include Greta Garbo, Audrey Hepburn, James Stewart, Martin Scorsese, and Meryl Streep. During that time, Novak received several offers to do some major films and to appear on high-profile television shows. She made an appearance on Larry King Live in 2004, where she stated she would consider returning to the screen "if it was the right role." In 2010, Novak was the recipient of a special tribute from the American Cinematheque in Hollywood, where her films were shown at Grauman's Egyptian Theatre. She made a rare personal appearance with a Q&A onstage between showing of Pal Joey and Bell, Book and Candle, earning a two-minute-long standing ovation upon her entrance.
In April 2012, Novak was honored at the TCM Classic Film Festival, where she introduced a screening of Vertigo. She joined in conversation with Robert Osborne for a Q&A session in which she discussed her career and personal life. The hour-long interview aired on TCM as Kim Novak: Live from the TCM Classic Film Festival on March 6, 2013. Novak broke down in tears while discussing Liebestraum. As she nearly sobbed in front of the audience, Novak said, "I couldn't do a movie after that. I've never done a movie after that. I just couldn't do a movie after that." The interview was an eye-opener for many fans who had wondered why Novak made so few films. Acknowledging that she never reached her potential as an actress, Novak revealed to the audience that she was bipolar and explained, "I was not diagnosed until much later. I go through more of the depression than the mania part." "I don't think I was ever cut out to have a Hollywood life," Novak also commented. "Did I do the right thing, leaving? Did I walk out when I shouldn't have? That's when I get sad." On the possibility of acting again, Novak said in another interview, with the fashion website LifeGoesStrong, "Who knows what the future holds? It would take an awful lot to lure me out there, but I would never say never." Also during the TCM Festival, Novak was honored in a handprint and footprint ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre. That same year, Novak received the San Francisco Cinematic Icon Award from the San Francisco Museum and Historical Society.
After years of seclusion, Novak started to make public appearances more frequently as she felt her body of work was being more appreciated.
In 2013, she was recognized as the guest of honor by the Cannes Film Festival and attended the 2013 Festival, where she introduced a new restored version of Vertigo. She also took part in the festival's closing ceremony as a presenter, earning a standing ovation upon her entrance.
In 2014, she was a presenter at the 86th Academy Awards. That same year, she appeared at the TCM Classic Film Festival, where she unveiled her painting Vertigo / Vortex of Delusion commissioned by the TCM network as part of their 20th anniversary. Novak also introduced a screening of her 1958 movie, Bell Book and Candle, during the Festival. Also in 2014, Novak was invited by Cunard Line to be a speaker on board during a New York-to-London cruise on RMS Queen Mary 2. She introduced screenings of Vertigo and Bell, Book and Candle, and did a Q&A session with Hollywood expert Sue Cameron, who is also her manager. That same year, Novak appeared with both of her art mentors, Harley Brown and Richard McKinley, for a solo show of her paintings at the Butler Institute of American Art.
In 2015, Novak attended the 22nd Febiofest international film festival, where she received the Kristián Award for her contribution to world cinema and also had an exhibition of her paintings at the Strahov Monastery. She hosted special screenings of Vertigo featuring live performances of Bernard Herrmann's score by members of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival and by members of the San Francisco Symphony at the Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall in 2016. Also in 2016, Novak was invited by Turner Classic Movies to be a guest on their Caribbean Cruise where she sold five of her paintings and was able to raise nearly $7,000 for the prevention of teenage suicide with the auction of a framed giclée of her.
In 2018, Novak joined in conversation with Larry King for a Q&A session at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre, in celebration of Vertigo'''s 60th Anniversary. That same year, she was the recipient of a special sold-out tribute from the Castro Theatre.
Honors
In 1955, Novak won the Golden Globe Award for Most Promising Newcomer – Female. Two years later she won another Golden Globe for World Favorite Female Actress. On February 8, 1960, Novak was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, at 6332 Hollywood Boulevard. In 1995, Novak was ranked 92nd by Empire Magazine on a list of the 100 sexiest stars in film history. Novak was honored with a Golden Bear for Lifetime Achievement at the 47th Berlin International Film Festival in 1997 and was presented with the Eastman Kodak Archives Award for her major contribution to film in 2003. In 2012, Novak was honored in a handprint and footprint ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre. That same year, she received the S.F. Cinematic Icon Award from the San Francisco Museum and Historical Society for her screen contributions in San Francisco with Pal Joey and Vertigo. Her contribution to world cinema was also rewarded with the Kristián Award she was given at the 22nd Febiofest international film festival in 2015.
Novak influenced many actors, as well as fashion designers with the roles she played. Naomi Watts stated that her character interpretation in Mulholland Drive (2001) was influenced by the look and performances of Novak in Vertigo. Renée Zellweger said that Novak was "pure magic" and dressed up as her character from Vertigo for a photo shoot for March 2008 issue of Vanity Fair. Nicole Kidman wrote Novak a letter saying she was "an inspiration to me and to women everywhere. Your cinematic body of work speaks for yourself, but so does the other side of Kim Novak – the free spirit who left Hollywood to live atop the hills of Big Sur. Kim Novak the painter and llama farmer. You are an icon whose screen presence is unmatched, and yet you’ve lived your life with dignity and authenticity, and the courage to follow your heart wherever it takes you." In 2005, British fashion designer Alexander McQueen named his first It Bag The Novak, saying, "I'm drawn to Kim Novak in the same way that Hitchcock was. She had an air of uptightness you wouldn't want to cross."
Personal life
In the mid-1950s, she had relationships with Ramfis Trujillo, the son of the Dominican dictator Rafael Leónidas Trujillo, and with Sammy Davis, Jr. A BBC documentary claimed that to end her relationship with a Black man, Columbia Pictures chief Harry Cohn had mobsters threaten Sammy Davis, Jr., with blinding or having his legs broken if he did not marry a Black woman within 48 hours. Novak also dated Michael Brandon, Wilt Chamberlain, David Hemmings, and Porfirio Rubirosa. She was engaged to director Richard Quine in 1959.
Novak's first marriage was to English actor Richard Johnson from March 15, 1965, to May 26, 1966. The two remained friends afterwards.
In 1966, Novak left Hollywood for Big Sur, where she raised horses and painted, making an occasional film. In 1974, she met her second husband, equine veterinarian Robert Malloy, when he made a house call after one of her Arabian mares suffered colic. They married on March 12, 1976. As a result of her marriage, she has two adult stepchildren.
The couple built a log home along the Williamson River near Chiloquin, Oregon. Malloy died on November 27, 2020.
In 1997, Novak bought a 43-acre ranch in Sams Valley, Oregon, which the couple made into their home. Novak took classes in painting with pastels from artists Harley Brown and Richard McKinley. In July 2000, their home burned to the ground, and she lost all her art and the only draft of the autobiography she had been working on for 10 years.
In 2006, Novak was injured in a horse-riding accident. She suffered a punctured lung, broken ribs, and nerve damage, but made a full recovery within a year.
In October 2010, her manager, Sue Cameron, reported that Novak had been diagnosed with breast cancer. Cameron also noted that Novak was "undergoing treatment" and "her doctors say she is in fantastic physical shape and should recover very well." She did recover well.
In 2014, after Novak's rare public appearance at the 86th Academy Awards, the media and social commentary indicated she was hardly recognized, which resulted in speculation that she had undertaken substantial cosmetic surgery; Donald Trump tweeted "Kim should sue her plastic surgeon!" Novak was devastated by the criticism—"It really did throw me into a tailspin and it hit me hard," and wrote an open letter in which she stood up to all of her Oscar-night "bullies." Novak admitted that she "had fat injections in my face" as she felt "they seemed far less invasive than a face-lift," but later regretted it, "So why did I do it? I trusted somebody doing what I thought they knew how to do best. I should have known better, but what do you do? We do some stupid things in our lives."
Novak continued her creative endeavors as a photographer, poet, and visual artist painting in watercolor, oil, and pastel. Her paintings are impressionistic and surrealistic. The Butler Institute of American Art in Youngstown, Ohio hosted a retrospective of her work from June till October 2019. Novak was present at the opening on June 16. In 2021 The Butler Institute also published a book with a selection of her paintings titled Kim Novak: Her Art and Life.
She is a Catholic.
Filmography
Awards and nominations
See also
Controversy about Novak's The Artist ad in Variety
References
Further reading
I Was In Life: Kim Novak Remembers (photo feature) LIFE''
Kim Novak: Her Art and Life, 2021 - publisher, The Butler Institute of American Art, Youngstown OH
External links
Kim Novak at the AFI Catalog of Feature Films
Kim Novak Official Artist Website
Photographs and literature
1933 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
American film actresses
American television actresses
Honorary Golden Bear recipients
New Star of the Year (Actress) Golden Globe winners
American female models
Actresses from Chicago
American painters
People from Jackson County, Oregon
American people of Czech descent
School of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni
Wilbur Wright College alumni
People with bipolar disorder
Catholics from Illinois
Catholics from Oregon
People from Eagle Point, Oregon
Farragut Career Academy alumni
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261265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle%20Metro%20Zoo | Triangle Metro Zoo | Triangle Metro Zoo (originally Zoo Fauna) was a privately owned and operated zoo that was open from 1998 until 2006. It was located in Wake Forest, North Carolina, United States.
History
The zoo originated from Larry Seibel's long experience in breeding exotic animals, and was opened in 1998. It was situated in a heavily forested area astride a small stream. Its name derives from the area of North Carolina in which the zoo was located, which is called "the Triangle" because it comprises the three larger cities of Raleigh, Durham, and Chapel Hill.
Shortly after the zoo opened in 1998, the barn containing the gift shop and restrooms burned down, and was never rebuilt. The owner cited lack of facilities at the zoo due to this fire, which prevented him from putting up a permanent sign on Capital Boulevard, as one of many factors that led to the lack of funds for the zoo and its eventual closure.
Seibel closed the zoo in February 2006, citing money and personal problems, as well as encroaching development that would require him to fence the entire property. After the zoo closed, the Bengal tiger Raja, who Seibel and staff had rescued from neglectful owners, was moved to the Carnivore Preservation Trust in Pittsboro, North Carolina after having first been quarantined at the North Carolina Zoo. Other animals were transferred to various private collections and zoos.
Animals
The zoo was home to some 500 animals representing 85 species. Mammals at the zoo included a Bengal tiger, blackbuck, Himalayan moon bears, camels, capybara, caracals, coati, donkeys, fallow deer, red kangaroos, lemurs, lions, llama, scimitar oryx, muntjac, sloths, servals, and zebras. Birds at the zoo included chickens, sarus cranes, red-crowned cranes, blue-and-gold macaws, scarlet macaws, military macaws, doves, emu, ostriches, pheasants, pigeons, toucans. Reptiles at the zoo included leopard geckos, bearded dragons, and various species of skinks and snakes.
Notes
External links
Archived website
Zoos in North Carolina
Buildings and structures in Wake County, North Carolina
Former zoos
Zoos established in 1998
Zoos disestablished in 2006 | [
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261266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorglub | Zorglub | Zorglub is a fictional character in the Belgian comic strip Spirou et Fantasio, created by Greg and André Franquin, and first appeared in the serialised story Z comme Zorglub in Spirou magazine in 1959, later published in the diptych albums "Z comme Zorglub" (1961) and "L'ombre du Z" (1962). Zorglub's character was initially that of a sinister megalomaniac, mad scientist, but also a clumsy and bungling one who later reformed and became a friend and ally to the protagonists.
Character
Prior History
He was a student in Brussels during his youth and became friends with the Count of Champignac and Miss Flanner. After a failed experiment to attract the moon maxed out all the university's money, he not only became the laughing stock of the campus but was expelled as well.
First Meeting and Evolution
He reappears with the intent of starting an experiment on the moon, but he wants the association of his friend the Count, willingly or not. He has reformed entire villages into bases for his army made from hypnotized policemen, the zorglhommes. With them he manages to steal several military secrets and technology, including the zorglumobile. As the album progresses, he repents and starts dismantling his bases.
After dismantling all but one of his bases he is again sent on the evil path by Zantafio. When Zantafio betrays him by showing that all that he desires is power, Zorglub is shot and becomes catatonic. After the ordeal he reverts to the mental state of a child but with the help of the Count, Spirou and Fantasio he is cured and rehabilitated.
Overall
An impressive arch-villain, his initial appearance is that of a visionary evil genius, but the comical aspects of the character soon come through. Although possessing a great deal of advanced machinery, his only true invention (as he admits) is the "zorglonde" (zorglwave, a mind-control radio wave).
He boasts that he could, if he wanted to, take over the world, but considers it too petty for a man of his genius. His real aim is to be recognized as the greatest scientist of all time, but being eccentric, schizophrenic and with a big ego, he has a tendency to make foolish mistakes which lead to his downfall. He later rehabilitates, but his ego is never "shot down" which makes him an easy target to manipulate as evidenced in the album Tora Torapa.
In the latest album La Face cachée du Z, Zorglub has built a space base on the other side of the Moon... but that forced him to bow before investors and build them a lunapark. That makes him so mad he finally decides to be a villain again, this time in space, and (supposedly) far from humans.
Zorglub also had his own series of spinoff albums with his daughter, written and drawn by José Luis Munuera.
Machinery and Man Power
His only invention is the "Zorglonde" which he uses to bring others under his spell. Depending on the wave level, the zorglonde can be used to temporarily hypnotise whole populations, prevent outsiders from approaching Zorglub's bases or having an entire army under his control.
Zorglub uses the zorglonde to steal inventions developed by others which he then claims as his own. He also turns police officers from all over the world into his soldiers, known as Zorglhommes (Zorgl-men), who operate his worldwide secret bases. Zorglub designed a special language to talk with his zorglhommes in order to maintain the secrecy of his plans. It's just normal speech spelled backwards: "Gnol evil Bulgroz!" translates as "Long live Zorglub!"
In Le réveil du Z (1986), Spirou and Fantasio travel through time and meet Zorglub's son, who has followed into his father's footsteps and conquered the world of the future. Zorglub junior looks exactly like his father, but he suffers from dwarfism. This however adds some irony, as he still refers to himself as The Great Zorglub.
Appearances
15. Z comme Zorglub (Franquin)
16. L'ombre du Z (Franquin)
19. Panade à Champignac (Franquin)
20. Le faiseur d'or (Fournier)
23. Tora Torapa (Fournier)
37. Le réveil du Z (Tome & Janry)
50. Aux sources du Z (Jean-David Yann Morvan and José-Luis Munuera)
See also
List of characters in Spirou et Fantasio
Sources
Spirou et Fantasio Les Personnages: Zorglub spirou.com
Spirou et Fantasio Personnages > Zorglub franquin.com
Footnotes
Fictional scientists
Fictional thieves
Fictional dictators
Male characters in comics
Spirou et Fantasio
Comic strip villains
Fictional Belgian people
Comics characters introduced in 1959 | [
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261268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufus%20King | Rufus King | Rufus King (March 24, 1755April 29, 1827) was an American Founding Father, lawyer, politician, and diplomat. He was a delegate for Massachusetts to the Continental Congress and the Philadelphia Convention and was one of the signers of the United States Constitution in 1787. After formation of the new Congress he represented New York in the United States Senate. He emerged as a leading member of the Federalist Party, serving as the party's last presidential nominee in the 1816 presidential election.
The son of a prosperous Massachusetts merchant, King studied law before volunteering for the militia in the American Revolutionary War. He won election to the Massachusetts General Court in 1783 and to the Congress of the Confederation the following year. At the 1787 Philadelphia Convention, he emerged as a leading nationalist, calling for increased powers for the federal government. After the convention, King returned to Massachusetts, where he used his influence to help ratify the Constitution. At the urging of Alexander Hamilton, he then abandoned his law practice and moved to New York City.
He won election to represent New York in the United States Senate in 1789, remaining in office until 1796. That year, he accepted President George Washington's appointment to the position of Minister to Britain. Though King aligned with Hamilton's Federalists, Democratic-Republican President Thomas Jefferson retained his services after Jefferson's victory in the 1800 presidential election. King served as the Federalist vice presidential candidate in the 1804 and 1808 elections, running on an unsuccessful ticket with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina. Though most Federalists supported Democratic-Republican DeWitt Clinton in the 1812 presidential election, King, without the support of his party, won the few votes of those Federalists who were unwilling to support Clinton's candidacy. In 1813, he returned to the Senate and remained in office until 1825.
King was the informal de facto Federalist nominee for president in 1816, losing in a landslide to James Monroe. The Federalist Party became defunct at the national level after 1816, and King was the last presidential nominee the party fielded. Nonetheless, King was able to remain in the Senate until 1825, making him the last Federalist senator, due to a split in the New York Democratic-Republican Party. After that King accepted John Quincy Adams's appointment to serve another term as ambassador to Britain, but ill health forced King to retire from public life, and he died in 1827. King had five children who lived to adulthood, and he has numerous notable descendants.
Early life
King was born on March 24, 1755, in Scarborough, which was then a part of Massachusetts but is now in the state of Maine. He was a son of Isabella (Bragdon) and Richard King, a prosperous farmer-merchant, "lumberman, and sea captain" who had settled at Dunstan Landing in Scarborough, near Portland, Maine, and had made a modest fortune by 1755, the year Rufus was born. His financial success aroused the jealousy of his neighbors, and when the Stamp Act 1765 was imposed and rioting became almost respectable, a mob ransacked his house and destroyed most of the furniture. Nobody was punished, and the next year the mob burned down his barn. This statement proves true as John Adams once referenced this moment discussing limitations of the "mob" for the Constitutional Convention writing a letter to his wife Abigail and describing the scene as:
I am engaged in a famous Cause: The Cause of King, of Scarborough vs. a Mob, that broke into his House, and rifled his Papers, and terrifyed him, his Wife, Children and Servants in the Night. The Terror, and Distress, the Distraction and Horror of this Family cannot be described by Words or painted upon Canvass. It is enough to move a Statue, to melt an Heart of Stone, to read the Story.... It was not surprising that Richard King became a Loyalist. All of his sons, however, became patriots in the American War of Independence.
Education and early career
King attended Dummer Academy (now The Governor's Academy) at the age of twelve, located in South Byfield, Massachusetts. Later on he attended Harvard College, where he graduated in 1777. He began to read law under Theophilus Parsons, but his studies were interrupted in 1778 when King volunteered for militia duty in the American Revolutionary War. Appointed a major, he served as an aide to General John Sullivan in the Battle of Rhode Island. After the campaign, King returned to his apprenticeship under Parsons. He was admitted to the bar in 1780 and began a legal practice in Newburyport, Massachusetts.
Political career
Constitutional Convention
King was first elected to the Massachusetts General Court in 1783 and returned there each year until 1785. Massachusetts sent him to the Confederation Congress from 1784 to 1787. He was one of the youngest at the conference.
In 1787, King was sent to the Constitutional Convention, which was held at Philadelphia. King held a significant position at the convention despite his youthful stature, as "he numbered among the most capable orators." Along with James Madison, "he became a leading figure in the nationalist causus." Furthermore, he attended every session. King's major involvements included serving on the Committee on Postponed Matters and the Committee of Style and Arrangement. Although when he came to the convention, he was unconvinced that major changes should be made in the Articles of Confederation, his views underwent a startling transformation during the debates. He worked with Chairman William Samuel Johnson, James Madison, Gouverneur Morris, and Alexander Hamilton on the Committee of Style and Arrangement to prepare a final draft of the U.S. Constitution. King is one of the more prominent delegates namely because of playing "a major role in the laborious crafting of the fundamental governing character" The constitution was signed on September 17 but needed to be ratified by the states. After signing the Constitution, he returned home and went to work to get the Constitution ratified and unsuccessfully position himself to be named to the U.S. Senate. The ratification passed by the narrow margin of 187–168 votes. With the ratification passed, Massachusetts became the sixth state to ratify the constitution in early February 1788. Rufus is indirectly responsible for the passing of this ratification seeing that his "learned, informative, and persuasive speeches" were able to convince a "popular, vain merchant and prince-turned-politicians to abandon his anti-federalism and approve the new organic law."
After Constitutional Convention
After his early political experiences during the Constitutional Convention, King decided to switch his vocational calling by "[abandoning] his law practice [in 1788], [and] moved from the Bay State to Gotham, and entered the New York political forum." At Hamilton's urging, he moved to New York City and was elected to the New York State Assembly in 1789. Shortly afterwards he was elected as Senator from New York and re-elected in 1795. King declined an appointment as secretary of state to succeed Edmund Randolph. In 1795, King helped Hamilton defend the controversial Jay Treaty by writing pieces for New York newspapers under the pseudonym "Camillus." Of the 38 installments in the series, King wrote 8, numbers 23–30, 34, and 35, discussing the treaty's maritime and commercial aspects. He was re-elected in 1795 but resigned on May 23, 1796, having been appointed U. S. Minister by George Washington to Great Britain. "Even though King was an outspoken Federalist politically, Republican President Thomas Jefferson, upon his elevation to the presidency, refused to recall him. In 1803, King voluntarily relinquished his position.
King then returned to elected politics, for a long time with little success, but later he returned to the Senate. In April 1804, King ran unsuccessfully for the Senate from New York. Later that year and again in 1808, King and fellow-signer Charles Cotesworth Pinckney were the candidates for vice president and president of the declining Federalist Party, respectively, but had no realistic chance against Democratic Republican Thomas Jefferson with only 27.2% of the popular vote, losing by 45.6%, marking the highest recess in presidential election history. In 1808, both candidates were nominated and lost against James Madison, gaining 32.4% of the popular vote.
In September 1812, when the unpopular War of 1812 against Great Britain helped the opposing Federalists to regain reputation, King led an effort at the Federalist Party caucus to nominate a Federalist ticket for the presidential election that year, but the effort failed, as Democratic Republican DeWitt Clinton had the best chances to defeat his fellow party member Madison, which made the Federalists field no candidate. However, some sought to make King the nominee, in order to have a candidate under the Federalist banner on the ballot, and though little came of it, he did finish third in the popular vote with approximately 2% of the total. Shortly thereafter, King celebrated his first success after 10 years, when he was elected to his "second tenure on Senate" in 1813.
In April 1816, he ran for Governor of New York and lost to Daniel D. Tompkins. In the fall of that year, he became the informal presidential nominee for the Federalist Party, as they did not meet for any convention. He only received 30.9% and lost again, this time to James Monroe, whose running mate, coincidentally, was Tompkins. King was the last presidential candidate by the Federalists before their collapse. When he ran for re-election to the Senate in 1819, he ran as a Federalist even though the party was already disbanding and had only a small minority in the New York State Legislature. But because of the split of the Democratic-Republicans, no successor was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1819, and the seat remained vacant until January 1820. Trying to attract the former Federalist voters to their side at the next gubernatorial election in April 1820, both factions of the Democratic-Republican Party supported King, who served another term in the U.S. Senate until March 3, 1825. At the time the Federalist Party had already ceased to exist on the federal stage. During his second tenure in the Senate, he continued his career as an opponent of slavery, which he denounced as anathema to the principles underlying the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. In what is considered the greatest speech of his career, he spoke against admitting Missouri as a slave state in 1820.
Soon after his second term in the Senate ended, King was appointed minister to Great Britain again, this time by President John Quincy Adams. However, he was forced to return home a few months later due to failing health. He subsequently retired from public life.
Diplomat
King played a major diplomatic role as minister to the Court of St James's from 1796 to 1803, and again from 1825 to 1826. Although he was a leading Federalist, Thomas Jefferson kept him in office until King asked to be relieved. Some prominent accomplishments that King had from his time as a national diplomat include a term of friendly relations with Britain and the United States (at least until it became hostile in 1805). With that in mind, he was able to successfully reach a compromise on the passing of the Jay Treaty, being an avid supporter of it. King was outspoken against potential Irish immigration to the United States in wake of the Irish Rebellion of 1798. In a September 13, 1798 letter to the Duke of Portland, King said of potential Irish refugees, "I certainly do not think they will be a desirable acquisition to any Nation, but in none would they be likely to prove more mischievous than in mine, where from the sameness of language and similarity of Laws and Institutions they have greater opportunities of propagating their principles than in any other Country." Also, while in Britain, he was in close personal contact with the South American revolutionary Francisco de Miranda and facilitated Miranda's trip to the United States in search of support for his failed 1806 expedition to Venezuela.
Anti-slavery activity
Though he was a slaveholder as a young man, he became a prominent opponent of slavery.
King had a long history of opposition to the expansion of slavery and the slave trade. This stand was a product of moral conviction which coincided with the political realities of New England federalism. While in Congress, he successfully added provisions to the 1787 Northwest Ordinance which barred the extension of slavery into the Northwest Territory. But he also said he was willing "to suffer the continuance of slaves until they can be gradually emancipated in states already overrun with them." He referred to slavery as a "nefarious institution." In 1817, he supported Senate action to abolish the domestic slave trade and, in 1819, spoke strongly for the antislavery amendment to the Missouri statehood bill. In 1819, his arguments were political, economic, and humanitarian; the extension of slavery would adversely affect the security of the principles of freedom and liberty. After the Missouri Compromise, he continued to support gradual emancipation in various ways.
Library
At the time of his death in 1827, King had a library of roughly 2,200 titles in 3,500 volumes. In addition, King had roughly 200 bound volumes containing thousands of pamphlets. King's son John Alsop King inherited the library and kept them in Jamaica, Queens, until his death in 1867. The books then went to John's son Dr. Charles Ray King of Bucks County, Pennsylvania. They remained in Pennsylvania until donated to the New-York Historical Society in 1906, where most of them currently reside. Some books have extensive marginalia. In addition, six commonplace books survive in his papers at the New-York Historical Society.
Other accomplishments
In his lifetime, King had been an avid supporter of Alexander Hamilton and his fiscal programs and became a director of the Hamilton-sponsored First Bank of the United States. Among other prominent things that occurred in King's life, he was first elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1805 and was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814. Contrary to his previous position on the national bank of the United States, King found himself denying the reopening of a Second National Bank in 1816. In 1822, he was admitted as an honorary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati.
Family
Many of King's family were also involved in politics, and he had numerous prominent descendants. His brother William King was the first governor of Maine and a prominent merchant, and his other brother, Cyrus King, was a U.S. Representative from Massachusetts.
His wife Mary Alsop was born in New York on October 17, 1769, and died in Jamaica, New York, on June 5, 1819. She was the only daughter of John Alsop, a wealthy merchant and a delegate for New York to the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776. She was a great niece of Governor John Winthrop of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. She married King in New York City on March 30, 1786.
Mary King was a lady of remarkable beauty, gentle and gracious manners, and well cultivated mind, and adorned the high station, both in England and at home, that her husband's official positions and their own social relations entitled them to occupy. A King family member once wrote to their wife of her beauty and personality as, "'Tell Betsy King [Rufus's half-sister] her sister is a beauty. She is vastly the best looking woman I have seen since I have been in this city. ... She is a good hearted woman, and, I think, possesses all that Benevolence and kind, friendly disposition, that never fail to find respectable admirers'." Her "remarkable beauty" and "well cultivated manner" seems to help the Kings in the type of lifestyle they lives, one where the Kings found themselves in "fashionable circles and entertained frequently"... (potentially helped by how "[Mrs. King] was widely admired in New York society; her retiring nature set her apart."). The Kings had 7 children (of which 5 managed to live to adulthood). On June 5, 1819, Mrs. King died. "She was buried in the old churchyard of Grace Church." Rufus King remarked on her death regarding his wife, "The example of her life is worthy of the imitation of us all."
Rufus King died on April 29, 1827, and his funeral was held at his New York home in Jamaica, Queens. He is buried in the Grace Church Cemetery in Jamaica, Queens. The home that King purchased in 1805 and expanded thereafter and some of his farm make up King Park in Queens. The home, called King Manor, is now a museum and is open to the public. The Rufus King School, also known as P.S. 26, in Fresh Meadows, New York, was named after King, as was the Rufus King Hall on the City University of New Yok Queens College campus and King Street in Madison, Wisconsin.
Descendants and relatives
Rufus King's descendants and relatives number in the thousands today. Some of his notable descendants include:
Dr. C. Loring Brace IV was a noted biological anthropologist.
Gerald Warner Brace (1901–1978) was an American writer, educator, sailor and boat builder.
Charles Loring Brace (1826–1890) was a philanthropist and was most renowned for founding The Children's Aid Society.
Wolcott Gibbs was an American editor, humorist, theater critic, playwright and author of short stories.
Archibald Gracie III was a career United States Army officer, businessman, and a graduate of West Point. He is well known for being a Confederate brigadier general during the American Civil War and for his death during the Siege of Petersburg.
Archibald Gracie IV was an American writer, amateur historian, real estate investor, and survivor of the sinking of the RMS Titanic.
Fleet Admiral William Frederick Halsey Jr., United States Navy
Isabella Beecher Hooker (1822–1907) was a leader in the women's suffrage movement and an author.
Charles King (academic) was an American academic, politician, newspaper editor and the ninth president of Columbia College (now Columbia University).
Charles King was a United States soldier and a distinguished writer.
James G. King was an American businessman and Whig Party politician who represented New Jersey's 5th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives. His daughter, Frederika Gore King, married Bancroft Davis.
John Alsop King was an American politician who served as governor (1857–1859) of New York.
Rufus King was a newspaper editor, educator, U.S. diplomat, and a Union brigadier general in the American Civil War.
Rufus King Jr. was an artillery officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War, and a Medal of Honor recipient.
Rufus Gunn King III was the chief judge of the Superior Court of the District of Columbia.
Alice Duer Miller was an American writer and poet.
Halsey Minor is a technology entrepreneur who founded CNET in 1993.
Mary Alsop King Waddington was an American author.
See also
List of United States political appointments that crossed party lines
References
Bibliography
Brush, Edward Hale. Rufus King and His Times. New York: Nicholas L. Brown, 1926.
King, Charles R. The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, 4 vol. 1893–1897.
Perkins, Bradford. The First Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1795–1805. University of California Press, 1967.
External links
The King Family Papers at the New York Historical Society
The Rufus King Papers at the New York Historical Society
King Manor Museum
Historic House Trust of New York, King Manor Museum
A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825
The members of the 1st United States Congress (took seat on July 25, 1789)
The members of the 4th United States Congress (resigned on May 23, 1796)
1755 births
1827 deaths
People from Scarborough, Maine
Gracie-King family
American people of English descent
American Episcopalians
Continental Congressmen from Massachusetts
Signers of the United States Constitution
Pro-Administration Party United States senators from New York (state)
Federalist Party United States senators from New York (state)
Chairmen of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations
New York (state) Federalists
New York (state) National Republicans
1804 United States vice-presidential candidates
1808 United States vice-presidential candidates
Candidates in the 1812 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1816 United States presidential election
Members of the New York State Assembly
18th-century American politicians
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Ambassadors of the United States to Great Britain
Ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom
18th-century American diplomats
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American abolitionists
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Harvard University alumni
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Alsop family | [
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261269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekserve | Tekserve | Tekserve was an American consumer electronics and information technology consulting business based in the Flatiron District of Manhattan, New York City. Founded in 1987 as a side business by Macintosh-using engineers designing computer-controlled institutional electronics, Tekserve grew from a small back-office Macintosh repair shop to become the largest single-location Apple Specialist and Premium Service Provider in the United States.
The store announced its closure on August 15, 2016 and the location subsequently became home to the Poster House museum.
History
Tekserve founders David Lerner and Dick Demenus met at the New York City public FM radio station WBAI in 1970, and with engineer Mike Edl set up shop together late in the decade under the name Current Designs Corporation. Their business was electronic engineering and industrial design. They manufactured the indestructible music listening stations to be found at the Lincoln Center branch of the New York Public Library, and early models of the audio listening tours now found in many art museums.
Tekserve was formed as a "sister company under the same roof" dedicated to servicing Macintosh computers and became Apple-authorized for repair in 1993. Tekserve occupied four locations on the same side of the same block in Chelsea: a loft at 115 West 23rd Street; another loft at 163 West 23rd Street (the "Traffic Building"); a larger space on the fourth floor of 155 West 23rd Street, and later expansions to the third floor. In June 2002, the company moved to a storefront location at 119 West 23rd Street, occupying the entire first floor of the Printing Arts Building (which extends through to 24th street). The first three locations were notable for their eccentric decor, including an antique ten-cent Coke machine, and a porch swing.
In 2014, Tekserve birthed a business-to-business enterprise, T2 Computing, based on core competencies and experiences, which continues to operate. T2 became part of Axispoint in 2017, the latter acquiring the right the Tekserve brand name.
On June 29, 2016, the New York Times reported the retail store and service center would close, while certain elements of the business remained open. It ultimately closed a few weeks before the end of its lease due to changes in shopping habits, the presence of multiple Apple stores and increased rent.
In popular culture
Several television series, including Law & Order and Sex and the City, have utilized Tekserve's facilities as a shooting location. In Sex and the City episode 408, "My Motherboard, Myself," Aasif Mandvi was featured as a Tekserve employee attempting to recover data from Carrie Bradshaw's portable computer at the smaller 155 West 23rd Street location.
LaserWriter II, a novel by Tamara Shopsin, is about a 19-year-old girl who gets a job at Tekserve. The book introduces many different employees and offers a semi-fictional peek into the daily life of a printer technician at Tekserve.
American Pickers visited the store shortly before closing and purchased some items from the owner's personal collection.
Other pieces from the store's Mac Museum ultimately ended up in a museum in Kiev, Ukraine operated by MacPaw.
References
External links
Apple Specialists
Companies established in 1987
Companies based in New York City
Consumer electronics retailers in the United States
Privately held companies based in New York (state) | [
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261272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Method%20of%20Mechanical%20Theorems | The Method of Mechanical Theorems | The Method of Mechanical Theorems (), also referred to as The Method, is considered one of the major surviving works of the ancient Greek polymath Archimedes. The Method takes the form of a letter from Archimedes to Eratosthenes, the chief librarian at the Library of Alexandria, and contains the first attested explicit use of indivisibles (sometimes erroneously referred to as infinitesimals). The work was originally thought to be lost, but in 1906 was rediscovered in the celebrated Archimedes Palimpsest. The palimpsest includes Archimedes' account of the "mechanical method", so called because it relies on the center of weights of figures (centroid) and the law of the lever, which were first demonstrated by Archimedes in On the Equilibrium of Planes.
Archimedes did not admit the method of indivisibles as part of rigorous mathematics, and therefore did not publish his method in the formal treatises that contain the results. In these treatises, he proves the same theorems by exhaustion, finding rigorous upper and lower bounds which both converge to the answer required. Nevertheless, the mechanical method was what he used to discover the relations for which he later gave rigorous proofs.
Area of a parabola
To explain Archimedes' method today, it is convenient to make use of a little bit of Cartesian geometry, although this of course was unavailable at the time. His idea is to use the law of the lever to determine the areas of figures from the known center of mass of other figures. The simplest example in modern language is the area of the parabola. Archimedes uses a more elegant method, but in Cartesian language, his method is calculating the integral
which can easily be checked nowadays using elementary integral calculus.
The idea is to mechanically balance the parabola (the curved region being integrated above) with a certain triangle that is made of the same material. The parabola is the region in the plane between the -axis and the curve as varies from 0 to 1. The triangle is the region in the same plane between the -axis and the line , also as varies from 0 to 1.
Slice the parabola and triangle into vertical slices, one for each value of . Imagine that the -axis is a lever, with a fulcrum at . The law of the lever states that two objects on opposite sides of the fulcrum will balance if each has the same torque, where an object's torque equals its weight times its distance to the fulcrum. For each value of , the slice of the triangle at position has a mass equal to its height , and is at a distance from the fulcrum; so it would balance the corresponding slice of the parabola, of height , if the latter were moved to , at a distance of 1 on the other side of the fulcrum.
Since each pair of slices balances, moving the whole parabola to would balance the whole triangle. This means that if the original uncut parabola is hung by a hook from the point (so that the whole mass of the parabola is attached to that point), it will balance the triangle sitting between and .
The center of mass of a triangle can be easily found by the following method, also due to Archimedes. If a median line is drawn from any one of the vertices of a triangle to the opposite edge , the triangle will balance on the median, considered as a fulcrum. The reason is that if the triangle is divided into infinitesimal line segments parallel to , each segment has equal length on opposite sides of the median, so balance follows by symmetry. This argument can be easily made rigorous by exhaustion by using little rectangles instead of infinitesimal lines, and this is what Archimedes does in On the Equilibrium of Planes.
So the center of mass of a triangle must be at the intersection point of the medians. For the triangle in question, one median is the line , while a second median is the line . Solving these equations, we see that the intersection of these two medians is above the point , so that the total effect of the triangle on the lever is as if the total mass of the triangle were pushing down on (or hanging from) this point. The total torque exerted by the triangle is its area, 1/2, times the distance 2/3 of its center of mass from the fulcrum at . This torque of 1/3 balances the parabola, which is at a distance 1 from the fulcrum. Hence, the area of the parabola must be 1/3 to give it the opposite torque.
This type of method can be used to find the area of an arbitrary section of a parabola, and similar arguments can be used to find the integral of any power of , although higher powers become complicated without algebra. Archimedes only went as far as the integral of , which he used to find the center of mass of a hemisphere, and in other work, the center of mass of a parabola.
First proposition in the palimpsest
Consider the parabola in the figure to the right. Pick two points on the parabola and call them A and B.
Suppose the line segment AC is parallel to the axis of symmetry of the parabola. Further suppose that the line segment BC lies on a line that is tangent to the parabola at B.
The first proposition states:
The area of the triangle ABC is exactly three times the area bounded by the parabola and the secant line AB.
Proof:
Let D be the midpoint of AC. Construct a line segment JB through D, where the distance from J to D is equal to the distance from B to D. We will think of the segment JB as a "lever" with D as its fulcrum. As Archimedes had previously shown, the center of mass of the triangle is at the point I on the "lever" where DI :DB = 1:3. Therefore, it suffices to show that if the whole weight of the interior of the triangle rests at I, and the whole weight of the section of the parabola at J, the lever is in equilibrium.
Consider an infinitely small cross-section of the triangle given by the segment HE, where the point H lies on BC, the point E lies on AB, and HE is parallel to the axis of symmetry of the parabola. Call the intersection of HE and the parabola F and the intersection of HE and the lever G. If the weight of all such segments HE rest at the points G where they intersect the lever, then they exert the same torque on the lever as does the whole weight of the triangle resting at I. Thus, we wish to show that if the weight of the cross-section HE rests at G and the weight of the cross-section EF of the section of the parabola rests at J, then the lever is in equilibrium. In other words, it suffices to show that EF :GD = EH :JD. But that is a routine consequence of the equation of the parabola. Q.E.D.
Volume of a sphere
Again, to illuminate the mechanical method, it is convenient to use a little bit of coordinate geometry. If a sphere of radius 1 is placed with its center at x = 1, the vertical cross sectional radius at any x between 0 and 2 is given by the following formula:
The mass of this cross section, for purposes of balancing on a lever, is proportional to the area:
Archimedes then considered rotating the triangular region between y = 0 and y = x and x = 2 on the x-y plane around the x-axis, to form a cone. The cross section of this cone is a circle of radius
and the area of this cross section is
So if slices of the cone and the sphere both are to be weighed together, the combined cross-sectional area is:
If the two slices are placed together at distance 1 from the fulcrum, their total weight would be exactly balanced by a circle of area at a distance x from the fulcrum on the other side. This means that the cone and the sphere together, if all their material were moved to x = 1, would balance a cylinder of base radius 1 and length 2 on the other side.
As x ranges from 0 to 2, the cylinder will have a center of gravity a distance 1 from the fulcrum, so all the weight of the cylinder can be considered to be at position 1. The condition of balance ensures that the volume of the cone plus the volume of the sphere is equal to the volume of the cylinder.
The volume of the cylinder is the cross section area, times the height, which is 2, or . Archimedes could also find the volume of the cone using the mechanical method, since, in modern terms, the integral involved is exactly the same as the one for area of the parabola. The volume of the cone is 1/3 its base area times the height. The base of the cone is a circle of radius 2, with area , while the height is 2, so the area is . Subtracting the volume of the cone from the volume of the cylinder gives the volume of the sphere:
The dependence of the volume of the sphere on the radius is obvious from scaling, although that also was not trivial to make rigorous back then. The method then gives the familiar formula for the volume of a sphere. By scaling the dimensions linearly Archimedes easily extended the volume result to spheroids.
Archimedes argument is nearly identical to the argument above, but his cylinder had a bigger radius, so that the cone and the cylinder hung at a greater distance from the fulcrum. He considered this argument to be his greatest achievement, requesting that the accompanying figure of the balanced sphere, cone, and cylinder be engraved upon his tombstone.
Surface area of a sphere
To find the surface area of the sphere, Archimedes argued that just as the area of the circle could be thought of as infinitely many infinitesimal right triangles going around the circumference (see Measurement of the Circle), the volume of the sphere could be thought of as divided into many cones with height equal to the radius and base on the surface. The cones all have the same height, so their volume is 1/3 the base area times the height.
Archimedes states that the total volume of the sphere is equal to the volume of a cone whose base has the same surface area as the sphere and whose height is the radius. There are no details given for the argument, but the obvious reason is that the cone can be divided into infinitesimal cones by splitting the base area up, and the each cone makes a contribution according to its base area, just the same as in the sphere.
Let the surface of the sphere be S. The volume of the cone with base area S and height r is , which must equal the volume of the sphere: . Therefore, the surface area of the sphere must be , or "four times its largest circle". Archimedes proves this rigorously in On the Sphere and Cylinder.
Curvilinear shapes with rational volumes
One of the remarkable things about the Method is that Archimedes finds two shapes defined by sections of cylinders, whose volume does not involve , despite the shapes having curvilinear boundaries. This is a central point of the investigation—certain curvilinear shapes could be rectified by ruler and compass, so that there are nontrivial rational relations between the volumes defined by the intersections of geometrical solids.
Archimedes emphasizes this in the beginning of the treatise, and invites the reader to try to reproduce the results by some other method. Unlike the other examples, the volume of these shapes is not rigorously computed in any of his other works. From fragments in the palimpsest, it appears that Archimedes did inscribe and circumscribe shapes to prove rigorous bounds for the volume, although the details have not been preserved.
The two shapes he considers are the intersection of two cylinders at right angles (the bicylinder), which is the region of (x, y, z) obeying:
and the circular prism, which is the region obeying:
Both problems have a slicing which produces an easy integral for the mechanical method. For the circular prism, cut up the x-axis into slices. The region in the y-z plane at any x is the interior of a right triangle of side length whose area is , so that the total volume is:
which can be easily rectified using the mechanical method. Adding to each triangular section a section of a triangular pyramid with area balances a prism whose cross section is constant.
For the intersection of two cylinders, the slicing is lost in the manuscript, but it can be reconstructed in an obvious way in parallel to the rest of the document: if the x-z plane is the slice direction, the equations for the cylinder give that while , which defines a region which is a square in the x-z plane of side length , so that the total volume is:
And this is the same integral as for the previous example. Jan Hogendijk argues that, besides the volume of the bicylinder, Archimedes knew its surface area, which is also rational.
Other propositions in the palimpsest
A series of propositions of geometry are proved in the palimpsest by similar arguments. One theorem is that the location of a center of mass of a hemisphere is located 5/8 of the way from the pole to the center of the sphere. This problem is notable, because it is evaluating a cubic integral.
See also
Archimedes Palimpsest
Method of indivisibles
Method of exhaustion
References
History of calculus
Archimedes
Works by Archimedes | [
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261273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern%20Hemisphere | Southern Hemisphere | The Southern Hemisphere is the half (hemisphere) of Earth that is south of the Equator. It contains all or parts of five continents (Antarctica, Australia, about 90% of South America, approx. one third of Africa, and some islands off the continental mainland of Asia) and four oceans (Indian Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, and South Pacific Ocean), as well as New Zealand and most of the Pacific Islands in Oceania. Its surface is 80.9% water, compared with 60.7% water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains 32.7% of Earth's land.
Owing to the tilt of Earth's rotation relative to the Sun and the ecliptic plane, summer is from December to February (inclusive) and winter is from June to August (inclusive). September 22 or 23 is the vernal equinox and March 20 or 21 is the autumnal equinox. The South Pole is in the center of the southern hemispherical region.
Characteristics
Southern Hemisphere climates tend to be slightly milder than those at similar latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, except in the Antarctic which is colder than the Arctic. This is because the Southern Hemisphere has significantly more ocean and much less land; water heats up and cools down more slowly than land. The differences are also attributed to oceanic heat transfer and differing extents of greenhouse trapping.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the sun passes from east to west through the north, although north of the Tropic of Capricorn the mean sun can be directly overhead or due north at midday. The Sun follows a right-to-left trajectory through the northern sky unlike the left-to-right motion of the Sun when seen from the Northern Hemisphere as it passes through the southern sky. Sun-cast shadows turn anticlockwise throughout the day and sundials have the hours increasing in the anticlockwise direction. During solar eclipses viewed from a point to the south of the Tropic of Capricorn, the Moon moves from left to right on the disc of the Sun (see, for example, photos with timings of the solar eclipse of November 13, 2012), while viewed from a point to the north of the Tropic of Cancer (i.e., in the Northern Hemisphere), the Moon moves from right to left during solar eclipses.
The Coriolis effect causes cyclones and tropical storms to spin clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere (as opposed to anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere).
The southern temperate zone, a subsection of the Southern Hemisphere, is nearly all oceanic.
The Sagittarius constellation that includes the galactic centre is a southern constellation as well as both Magellanic Clouds. This, combined with clearer skies, makes for excellent viewing of the night sky from the Southern Hemisphere with brighter and more numerous stars.
Forests in the Southern Hemisphere have special features which set them apart from those in the Northern Hemisphere. Both Chile and Australia share, for example, unique beech species or Nothofagus, and New Zealand has members of the closely related genera Lophozonia and Fuscospora. The eucalyptus is native to Australia but is now also planted in Southern Africa and Latin America for pulp production, and increasingly, biofuel uses.
Demographics and human geography
More than 800 million people live in the Southern Hemisphere, representing around 10–12% of the total global human population. Of those 800 million people, more than 200 million live in Brazil, the largest country by land area in the Southern Hemisphere, while 145 million live on the island of Java, the most populous one in the world. The most populous country in the Southern Hemisphere is Indonesia, with 267 million people (roughly 30 million of whom live north of the Equator on the northern portions of the islands of Sumatra, Borneo, and Sulawesi, as well as the most of North Maluku, while the rest of the population lives in the Southern Hemisphere). Portuguese is the most spoken language in the Southern Hemisphere, with over 230 million speakers in eight countries – mostly in Brazil.
The largest metropolitan areas in the Southern Hemisphere are Jakarta (33 million people), São Paulo (22 million), Kinshasa-Brazzaville (17 million), Buenos Aires (16 million), Rio de Janeiro, Surabaya (12 million each), Johannesburg (11 million), Nairobi, Lima (10 million each), Bandung (9 million), Luanda (8 million), Dar es Salaam (7 million), Santiago, Semarang (6 million each), Sydney, Belo Horizonte and Melbourne (5 million each). Important financial and commercial centers in the Southern Hemisphere include São Paulo, where the B3 (stock exchange) is headquartered, along with Sydney, home to the Australian Securities Exchange, Jakarta, seat of the Indonesia Stock Exchange, Johannesburg, home to the Johannesburg Stock Exchange, and Buenos Aires, headquarters of the Buenos Aires Stock Exchange, the oldest stock market in the Southern Hemisphere.
Among the most developed nations in the Southern Hemisphere is Australia, with a nominal GDP per capita of US$51,885 and a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.944, the eighth-highest in the world as of the 2020 report. New Zealand is also well developed, with a nominal GDP per capita of US$38,675 and an HDI of 0.931, putting it at number 14 in the world in 2020. The least developed nations in the Southern Hemisphere cluster in Africa and Oceania, with Mozambique and Burundi at the lowest ends of the HDI, at 0.456 (number 181 in the world) and 0.433 (number 185 in the world), respectively. The nominal GDPs per capita of these two countries do not go above US$550, a tiny fraction of the incomes enjoyed by Australians and New Zealanders.
The Southern Hemisphere has long been secondary in the global distribution of demographic, economic and political power, as it has less land than the Northern Hemisphere. In recent times however, countries such as Australia have made greater efforts to economically engage with those from their own hemisphere. Prior to the Age of Discovery, the Southern Hemisphere was largely cut off from cultural constructs of the Eastern world and Western world. Some view both the East and the West as being Northern Hemisphere-centric concepts.
The most widespread religions in the modern Southern Hemisphere are Christianity in South America, Southern Africa, Australia and Oceania, followed by Islam in most of the islands of Indonesia and in parts of southeastern Africa, and Hinduism, which is mostly concentrated on and around the islands of Bali, Mauritius, Fiji and Lombok.
The oldest continuously inhabited city in the Southern Hemisphere is Bogor, in western Java, which was founded in 669 CE. Ancient texts from the Hindu kingdoms prevalent in the area definitively record 669 CE as the year when Bogor was founded. However, some evidence shows that Zanzibar, an ancient port with around 200,000 inhabitants off the coast of Tanzania, may be older than Bogor. A Greco-Roman text written between 1 and 100 CE, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, mentioned the island of Menuthias (Ancient Greek: Μενουθιάς) as a trading port on the east African coast, which is probably the small Tanzanian island of Unguja on which Zanzibar is located. The oldest monumental civilizations in the Southern Hemisphere are the Norte Chico civilization and Casma–Sechin culture from the northern coast of Peru. These civilizations built cities, pyramids, and plazas in the coastal river valleys of northern Peru with some ruins dated back to 3600 BCE. Easter Island, located about 3,000 kilometers from Chile and 4,000 kilometers from Tahiti, is considered to be the remote place on earth to have been permanently inhabited by humans before the Age of Discovery. It was settled by a Polynesian group known as the Rapa Nui.
List of continents and countries or territories
Continents and submerged continent
Africa – about one-third, from south of Mogadishu in Somalia in the east to south of Libreville in Gabon in the west. From the Equator (Latitude: 0°) to Cape Agulhas (Latitude: 34°50′S).
Antarctica – the entire continent and its associated islands are wholly within the Southern Hemisphere. From Prime Head, at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula (Latitude: 63°12′48″S) to the South Pole (Latitude: 90° S).
Asia – only the southern portion of Maritime Southeast Asia, including East Timor and most of Indonesia, plus the British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of Maldives in the Indian Ocean. The entire continental mainland is wholly within the Northern Hemisphere. From the Equator (Latitude: 0°) to Pamana Island, Indonesia (Latitude: 11°00'S) or when Cocos Islands included as part of Southeast Asia, then South Island (Latitude: 12°04'S).
Americas – mostly South America, from south of the Amazon River mouth in Brazil in the east to north of Quito in Ecuador in the west. From the Equator (Latitude: 0°) to Águila Islet, Diego Ramírez Islands, Chile (Latitude: 56°32′16″S), or, if the South Sandwich Islands are included as part of South America, Cook Island, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (Latitude: 59°29′20″S)
Australia – the entire continent and its associated islands such as Tasmania and New Guinea are wholly within the Southern Hemisphere. From the Equator (Latitude: 0°) to Bishop and Clerk Islets, Tasmania, Australia (Latitude: 55°03′ S)
Zealandia – the entire submerged continent, including New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and other associated low-lying islands above sea level, is wholly within the Southern Hemisphere. From Belep, New Caledonia, France (Latitude: 19°45′00″S) to Jacquemart Island (Latitude: 52°37′S)
Countries and territories
See also
Land and water hemispheres
Northern Hemisphere
South Pole
Notes
References
External links
Southern Hemisphere Countries 2021
Hemispheres of Earth | [
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261279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Radcliffe | Charles Radcliffe | Charles Radcliffe (Belfast, 7 December 1941- Bournemouth, 10 July 2021) was an English cultural critic, political activist and theorist known for his association with the Situationist movement.
A member of the direct-action wing of the peace movement of the early 1960s, he became a regular contributor to the anarchist press in Britain and in 1966 launched Heatwave, a radical magazine produced in London. It lasted for just two issues, but was cited in the Situationist tract On the Poverty of Student Life as an example of one of the "profoundly revolutionary tendencies in the critique of all aspects of the prevailing way of life." Its treatment of popular culture has since been hailed as path-breaking: the critic Jon Savage has said that one piece by Radcliffe "laid the foundation for the next 20 years of sub-cultural theory."
Heatwave was closely associated with Rebel Worker, a short-lived but influential magazine published in Chicago by Franklin Rosemont, Penelope Rosemont, and Bernard Marszalek, to which Radcliffe was a contributor. They were members of the Industrial Workers of the World with links to the Surrealist movement in France, the British libertarian socialist group Solidarity and the Situationist International.
Radcliffe became a member of the English section of the S.I. in December 1966, alongside Chris Gray (situationist), Donald Nicholson-Smith and T. J. Clark. He resigned in November 1967, and Gray, Nicholson-Smith and Clark were expelled shortly thereafter.
Between early 1970 and summer 1972 Radcliffe was involved with the magazine Friends, sharing a flat with its editor, Alan Marcuson.
Radcliffe is a descendant of Moll Davis.
See also
Chicago Surrealist Group
Further reading
Rosemont, Franklin and Radcliffe, Charles. Dancin' in the Streets: Anarchists, IWWs, Surrealists, Situationists and Provos in the 1960s as Recorded in the Pages of Rebel Worker and Heatwave. Charles H Kerr. 2005.
References
External links
Articles on and by Charles Radcliffe and comrades
1941 births
Living people
Industrial Workers of the World members
Situationists | [
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261280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Newton%20Jr. | Thomas Newton Jr. | Thomas Newton Jr. (November 21, 1768August 5, 1847) was an American politician. He was born in Norfolk, Virginia.
Biography
Newton was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from 1796 to 1799. He served as a Democratic-Republican in the United States House of Representatives from March 4, 1801, to March 9, 1830, losing his seat when George Loyall contested his election. He regained his seat at the next election and served a final term from March 4, 1831, to March 3, 1833. In the bitterly contested 1824 presidential election, Newton was the only Virginia representative to support the Adams-Clay coalition.
His son John was a Union general during the Civil War and chief engineer of the US Army in the 1880s.
Electoral history
1823; Newton was re-elected unopposed.
1825; Newton was re-elected unopposed.
1827; Newton was re-elected with 64.28% of the vote, defeating Independent George Loyall.
1829; Newton was re-elected with 50.35% of the vote, but the election was invalidated and Loyall was seated.
1831; Newton was re-elected with 51.01% of the vote, defeating Jacksonian Loyall.
External links
biographic sketch at U.S. Congress
1768 births
1847 deaths
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia
Virginia Democratic-Republicans
Virginia National Republicans
19th-century American politicians
Democratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
National Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Politicians from Norfolk, Virginia
Deans of the United States House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives removed by contest | [
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261281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Franklin%20Institute%20of%20Technology | Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology | Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology (BFIT) is a private college of engineering and industrial technologies in Boston, Massachusetts. It was established in 1908 with funds bequeathed in Benjamin Franklin's will.
History
Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology owes its existence to the vision of Benjamin Franklin. In a codicil to his will, dated 1789, Franklin established a 200-year plan for a sum totaling £1,000 (about $4,400 at the time, or about $112,000 in 2010 dollars) that he gave to the city of Boston, where he was born. For the first hundred years, the money was to serve as principal for loans to young workmen; at the end of that period, the fund's managers would divide the money, using approximately three-fourths for public works and maintaining the rest as a loan fund.
When the hundred-year interval had passed, Boston decided to use the money to establish a technical school. Aided by an additional gift from industrialist Andrew Carnegie and land donated by the City, BFIT opened its doors in 1908. A series of murals on campus were painted by Charles Mills.
In 2019, the Institute announced plans to sell its 3-building 1908 campus and look for a 30% larger facility. In September 2019, the Institute announced they will be moving to a new campus located on seven-tenths of an acre in the Dudley Square section of Roxbury (now renamed Nubian Square) to be closer to the neighborhoods where current students live. The new building is expected to open in the autumn of 2022.
In September 2020, the Boston Globe leaked that the Institute was planning for a possible merger with the Wentworth Institute of Technology. The merger deal faced opposition among community members and city officials based on how the merger would affect Benjamin Franklin's ability to continue to serve low-income minority students, as well as the secretive nature of the merger negotiations themselves. In November 2020, the college's board of trustees voted to keep Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology independent and to discontinue any merger talks, according to a report in the Boston Globe.
Academics
, the school has approximately 525 students, with a 13:1 student-to-faculty ratio, and offers programs of study awarding certificates, associate degrees, and bachelor's degrees.
Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology offers programs in Automotive Technology, Automotive Management, CAD/SolidWorks, CNC Machining, Computer Information Technology (with tracks for Web Development, Networking Systems, and Software Development), Construction Management, Electrical Engineering, Electronics Technology, Health Information Technology, HVAC&R Technology, Opticianry, and Practical Electricity. The college's graduation rate is twice the national average.
The college is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE), formerly called the New England Association of Schools and Colleges.
References
External links
Official website
Universities and colleges in Boston
Educational institutions established in 1908
1908 establishments in Massachusetts
NJCAA athletics
Private universities and colleges in Massachusetts | [
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261283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi | Shi | Shi or SHI may refer to:
Language
Shi, a Japanese title commonly used as a pronoun
Shi, proposed gender-neutral pronoun
Shi (kana), a kana in Japanese syllabaries
Shi language
Shī, transliteration of Chinese Radical 44
Tachelhit or the Shilha language (ISO 639 code)
Art
Shi, a piece in Chinese chess
Shi (comics), a comic book series created by William Tucci
Shi (poetry), the Chinese conception of poetry
Poetry (film) or Shi, a 2010 South Korean film directed by Lee Chang-dong
People
Shi (class) (), the low aristocratic class of Shang/Zhou China, later the scholar-gentry class of imperial China
Shi (rank) (), rank group for non-commissioned officers
Shi (personator) (), a ceremonial "corpse" involved in early forms of ancestor worship in China
Names
Shi (氏), a Chinese clan name previously distinguished from ancestral or family names; see Origin of Chinese surnames
Shi (surname), the romanization of several Chinese surnames
Shi (Korean given name), Korean given name
Posthumous name (諡), a traditional East Asian honorary name
Acronym
Samsung Heavy Industries, a Korean shipbuilding and offshore EPC company
Sumitomo Heavy Industries, a Japanese integrated manufacturer of industrial machinery, automatic weaponry, ships, bridges and steel structure, equipment for environmental protection company
Statutory health insurance, or national health insurance
Stolen Horse International, a non-profit organization founded to assist horse owners with recovering horses lost during theft
Mathematics
Shi, hyperbolic sine integral
Units
Shí or shichen, a traditional Chinese unit of time equal to two hours
Shì (市), various administrative divisions generally translated "city" in mainland China, on Taiwan, and in Japan
Other
Shchi or "schi", a classic traditional Russian soup
SHI International Corp, an American information technology company
Shi Islet (獅嶼), Lieyu Township, Kinmen County, Fujian, Republic of China (Taiwan)
SHI, the IATA code for Shimojishima Airport in the Okinawa Prefecture, Japan
SHI, the National Rail code for Shiplake railway station in the county of Oxfordshire, UK
See also
Shíshī, stone Chinese guardian lions
"Shī Shì shí shī shǐ", the "Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den", a tongue twister
Xi (disambiguation)
Shishi (disambiguation)
She (disambiguation) | [
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261285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Hastings | Arthur Hastings | Captain Arthur J. M. Hastings, OBE, is a fictional character created by Agatha Christie as the companion-chronicler and best friend of the Belgian detective, Hercule Poirot. He is first introduced in Christie's 1920 novel The Mysterious Affair at Styles (originally written in 1916) and appears as a character in seven other Poirot novels, including the final one Curtain: Poirot's Last Case (1975), along with a play and many short stories. He is also the narrator of several of them.
Literary function
Hastings is today strongly associated with Poirot, due more to the television adaptations than to the novels. Many of the early TV episodes of Agatha Christie's Poirot were adaptations of short stories, in most of which he appeared in print. A few were stories into which he had been adapted (for example, Murder in the Mews). In Christie's original writings, however, Hastings is not in every short story or novel. He is not a character in either Death on the Nile or Murder on the Orient Express, the two best-known Poirot novels. Of the twenty-two Poirot novels published between 1920 and 1937, he appears in seven. Moreover, when Christie expanded The Submarine Plans (1923) as The Incredible Theft (1937), she removed Hastings.
Hastings appears to have been introduced by Christie in accordance with the model of Sherlock Holmes's associate, Doctor Watson, to whom he bears a marked resemblance. Both narrate in the first person, both are slow to see the significance of clues, and both stand as a form of surrogate for the reader. There are even similarities of role: Hastings is Poirot's only close friend and the two share a flat briefly when Poirot sets up his detective agency. Similarly to Watson, Hastings also has a penchant for speculation and gambling, as well as a military background in the colonial Middle East. The presence of Chief Inspector Japp, a close "literary descendant" of Holmes's Inspector Lestrade, fleshed out Christie's adoption of the Holmes paradigm.
In the novels, Hastings's literary function changes with Poirot's method. In the earlier phase of his career, Hastings is valued for his imaginative approach to cases, inevitably giving rise to fanciful hypotheses that Poirot gently mocks. Poirot himself characterised Hastings thus in "The Mystery of the Spanish Chest" (1932): How my dear friend, Hastings, would have enjoyed this! What romantic flights of imagination he would have had. What ineptitudes he would have uttered! Ah ce cher Hastings, at this moment, today, I miss him... Later in her career, Christie's apparatus is less fanciful and the opportunity for wild speculation much diminished. When the need for a sidekick arises in the later novels and stories it is either as:
a suspect;
Miss Lemon, who, in direct contrast with Hastings, is completely unimaginative;
Mr Satterthwaite: a great observer of human nature who avoids passing judgments;
Ariadne Oliver: a crime novelist who opened to Christie the opportunity for self-satire.
Although Hastings remains the most popular of Poirot's sidekicks, his appearance in only eight of the thirty-three Poirot novels indicates that the character's service to Christie's literary purpose was somewhat limited.
Career
Similarly to his friend Poirot, details of Hastings's life before 1916 are not revealed, though the reader is able to pinpoint Hastings's approximate birth year as 1886 from the first chapter of The Mysterious Affair at Styles, as he mentions that John Cavendish was 'a good fifteen years [his] senior' though hardly looking 'his forty-five years'. This makes Hastings thirty years old at the start of the novel. It is also mentioned later on that he was employed at Lloyd's prior to the war. Neither his first name nor his rank is mentioned in this novel. Elsewhere he states that he attended Eton College.
Hastings meets Poirot in Belgium several years before their meeting on 16 July 1916, at Styles Court, Essex, which is their first encounter in literature. The two remain friends right up to Poirot's death. Although there is little evidence regarding their possible subsequent meetings, Hastings saw Poirot a year before the latter's death.
Hastings, while being no great detective himself, serves Poirot in many ways. A former British Army officer in World War I, he is brave. He has courage and is often used by Poirot for physical duties such as catching and subduing a criminal. Poirot likes to tease Hastings about being dim-witted at times, but he clearly enjoys the Captain's company. In The Mysterious Affair at Styles and The A.B.C. Murders, Hastings plays a prominent role in the resolution of the mystery, with a casual observation that leads Poirot to the guilty party: In case of the former, by mentioning that Poirot had to straighten some spill holders and ornaments in Styles, he prompts Poirot to realise that someone had moved them, causing Poirot to discover a crucial piece of evidence. In the case of the latter, he suggests that the error in recipient address of a letter by the murderer was deliberate, thus causing Poirot to realise the murderer had attached greater importance to that particular murder.
Hastings represents the traditional English gentleman—not too bright but absolutely scrupulous, a throwback to the Victorian-era gentleman who is always concerned about "fair play". Hastings himself notes that he is somewhat old-fashioned. While Poirot, who is not above lying, surreptitiously reads other people's letters or eavesdrops, Hastings is horrified of such acts and usually refuses to perform them to help Poirot in one of his cases. Although he lacks Poirot's intellect, Poirot often compliments Hastings' ability to remember facts and details about their cases even if he deplores the manner in which Hastings tells the story at times. Hastings' physical appearance is rarely described in the novels because he is often the narrator. However, it is mentioned that he, like Poirot, has a moustache which becomes a target of the detective's criticism in Peril at End House: 'And your moustache. If you must have a moustache, let it be a real moustache, a thing of beauty such as mine.' Although he has served in the army, Hastings is not a ruthless man by nature, with Poirot noting during his final letter to Hastings in Curtain that he knows that Hastings is not a murderer.
Relationship with women
Hastings has a soft spot for auburn-haired women. Back in The Mysterious Affair at Styles, Hastings was charmed with auburn-haired Cynthia Murdoch and proposed to her. This would become a running gag in the series, with Poirot often teasing Hastings. Whenever Hastings suggests the innocence of a young, beautiful, female murder suspect, Poirot slyly asks "Does she have auburn hair?" This pronounced weakness for pretty women with auburn hair gets Hastings and Poirot into trouble more than once: in The Big Four, while posing as secretary for millionaire Abe Ryland, Hastings trusts false information from a woman with auburn hair, while in the short story Double Sin, Hastings believes auburn-haired Mary Durant.
Despite his preference for auburn hair and his Victorian ideas about not marrying outside one's class, he eventually falls in love with a dark-haired music-hall actress, singer and acrobat, Dulcie Duveen, the self-styled 'Cinderella'. They meet in the story Murder on the Links, the second full-length Poirot novel. Poirot plays a rather significant part in uniting the couple. Hastings then acquires a ranch in Argentina and settles down to a life as a ranchholder.
Later appearances
Hastings's appearances in Poirot's later novels are restricted to a few cases in which he participates on his periodic returns to England from Argentina. Poirot comments in The ABC Murders that he enjoys Hastings's visits because he always has his most interesting cases when Hastings is with him. In the course of The Big Four, Dulcie's life is threatened by members of an international conspiracy. Hastings is forced to risk Poirot's life in return for her promised safety. In other respects there is very little personal detail regarding Hastings in these novels, until Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, which takes place after World War II: with his wife now dead, Hastings rejoins Poirot at Styles to help tackle one last case. The novel culminates with Poirot dying of a heart attack, leaving Hastings a confession explaining his role in events as he tracked a criminal who manipulated others to commit murder for him. Poirot's friendship with Hastings is further referenced when the murderer's attempt to manipulate Hastings in such a manner leaves Poirot resolved to kill his adversary, despite his disapproval of murder, as he knew that his friend would normally never do such a thing.
Final appearance
Curtain provides additional details on Hastings's family: He and Dulcie have two sons and two daughters. One son joins the Royal Navy, while the other and his wife manage the ranch after Dulcie's death. Hastings's daughter Grace is married to a British officer stationed in India. His other daughter, Judith, appears as a character in Curtain. Judith is Hastings's youngest child and his favourite, albeit the child whom he understands the least. She marries Dr John Franklin, a medical researcher, and moves to Africa with him. In the postscript of Curtain, Poirot suggests that Hastings should consider a second marriage with Elizabeth Litchfield, the younger sister of a woman who was manipulated into killing her abusive father by the novel's antagonist. Poirot notes that Elizabeth must be reassured that she is not tainted by her sister's actions and that Hastings is still not unattractive to women. Age is not specifically discussed for Hastings after the first book; he is said to be 30 in The Mysterious Affair at Styles, which would leave him at least 60 years old in the earliest setting for Curtain. That novel was published in 1975, though written during the Second World War. No specific time is made clear in Curtain, unlike most of the Poirot stories, however when Poirot says “the food, it is disgusting”, Hastings says “rationing, I suppose”. Food rationing was in place in Britain until midnight on 4 July 1954, nine years after the end of the Second World War. In addition, it is clear that the story is set when capital punishment by hanging was still occurring in the UK; the last woman hanged in the UK was in 1955. These two facts place the events of Curtain in time no later than 1954, and Hastings is therefore, as he says himself, “I’m pushing it a bit”; with four adult children and having done service in the First World War, he must be in his 60s.
Portrayals
Hastings has been portrayed on film and television by several actors, Richard Cooper in Black Coffee (1931) and Lord Edgware Dies (1934); Robert Morley in The Alphabet Murders (1965); Jonathan Cecil in three TV films – Thirteen at Dinner (1985), Dead Man's Folly (1986) and Murder in Three Acts (1986); Dmitry Krylov in the Soviet film Mystery Endhauz (1989, directed by Vadim Derbenyov); and Hugh Fraser, who portrayed Hastings alongside David Suchet's Poirot in 43 of the 70 episodes of Agatha Christie's Poirot. He is also a main character in the anime Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple.
In the BBC Radio 4 dramatisations starring John Moffatt as Hercule Poirot, Captain Hastings was played by Jeremy Clyde in Murder on the Links (1990), and by Simon Williams in Lord Edgware Dies (1992), The ABC Murders (2000), Peril at End House (2000), The Mysterious Affair at Styles (2005), and Dumb Witness (2006).
The Hastings novels
Hastings narrates the majority of the short stories featuring Poirot, but appears in only eight of the novels, seven of which were written before 1940:
The Mysterious Affair at Styles (1916 but published in 1920)
The Murder on the Links (1923)
The Big Four (1927)
Peril at End House (1932)
Lord Edgware Dies (1933) – published in the U.S. as Thirteen at Dinner
The A.B.C. Murders (1936)
Dumb Witness (1937)
Curtain: Poirot's Last Case (1975)
Hastings is the narrator of all stories in Poirot Investigates (1924), a collection of short stories. Hastings is also present in Christie's play Black Coffee (1930) and its novelisation alongside Poirot.
References
External links
Hastings at the official Agatha Christie website
Hastings and Poirot at the new home of Agatha Christie website
Biography of Captain Hastings
Characters in British novels of the 20th century
Fictional British Army officers
Literary characters introduced in 1920
Fictional farmers
Fictional military captains
Fictional people educated at Eton College
Fictional World War I veterans
Hercule Poirot characters
Sidekicks in literature
Fictional British people
Fictional English people
Male characters in literature | [
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] |
261287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeni | Zeni | Zeni may refer to:
Zeni (letter), a letter of the Georgian alphabet
Zeni, Iran, a village in South Khorasan Province, Iran
Zeni Husmani (born 1990), Macedonian footballer
Alberto Zeni (born 1980), Mexican actor
Luisa Zeni (1896–1940), Italian secret agent and writer
Marco Zeni, Italian journalist
See also
Zenigata Heiji, a fictional policeman | [
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261288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Ryder | Red Ryder | Red Ryder was a Western comic strip created by Stephen Slesinger and artist Fred Harman which served as the basis for a wide array of character merchandising. Syndicated by Newspaper Enterprise Association, the strip ran from Sunday, November 6, 1938, through 1965.
Red Ryder
In 1938, Harman met publisher, writer and comic syndicator Stephen Slesinger. At the time, Slesinger had scripted a new comic strip called Red Ryder and was seeking an outstanding Western artist with knowledge of the authentic period details and who had a natural gift for drawing scenes from dramatic perspectives. Harman fit the description and was a genuine cowboy who was the ideal spokesperson for the Red Ryder Character franchise.
Slesinger brought Harman to New York and worked with him for a year before Red Ryder was ready to be launched through a carefully planned rollout from comic pages, to movies and radio shows, contests, merchandising tie-ins and personal appearances by Fred Harman at charity benefits, schools, and civic and Red Ryder youth enrichment events.
Slesinger pioneered the concept of synergy between radio, films, Big Little Books, novels, serial chapters, radio programs, events, rodeos, powwows, commercial tie-ins, and licensed products such as the Daisy Red Ryder BB Gun in order to build brand equity and create lasting and consistent impressions. By the time he launched Red Ryder he had already proven his formula for creating evergreen character franchises with characters such as Tarzan, Winnie the Pooh, and many other golden age newspaper comic characters.
Red Ryder became the longest running and most popular comic character of the Western genre in movies, radio, comic strips, comic books, mass market retailing and the collectors' market. Today Red Ryder has some of the longest business relationships in the history of the licensing industry.
Toppers
Red Ryder had two topper strips on the Sunday page: Little Beaver (Nov 6, 1938 - Aug 25, 1946) and Red Ryder's Corral of Western Lingo (Sept 8, 1946 - Oct 10, 1948).
Characters and story
Astride his mighty steed Thunder, Red was a tough cowpoke who lived on Painted Valley Ranch during the 1890s in the Blanco Basin of the San Juan Mountain Range, with his aunt, the Duchess, and his juvenile Native-American sidekick, Little Beaver, who rode his horse, Papoose, when they took off to deal with the bad guys. Little Beaver spoke in the pidgin English now considered an offensive caricature. (His most famous catchphrase was "You betchum, Red Ryder!") Other notable characters were Red's girlfriend Beth Wilder, arch enemy Ace Hanlon, and ranch hand Buckskin Blodgett.
Harman was eventually acclaimed as one of the finest Western pen-and-ink artists, known for his dramatic sense of perspective and authentic action. Contributing artists and writers worked in Stephen Slesinger, Inc's New York studio and contributed to Red Ryder over the years, including Jim Gary, Edmund Good, John Wade ("Johnnie") Hampton, Robert MacLeod, and Bill Lignanti (of The Palm restaurant fame), Gaylord Du Bois (wrote scripts, circa 1939-1940), and Stephen Slesinger who drew detailed story boards and scripted and approved all of the stories until his death in 1953, when Shirley Slesinger stepped into her husband's shoes, working closely with Bill Lignanti and Jay Rowland.
Charlie Dye, Johnnie Hampton, Joe Beeler, and George Phippen were co-founders of the Cowboy Artists of America, of which Harman was also a charter member. When Harman left Red Ryder in 1963 to concentrate on his paintings, MacLeod continued writing the story continuity for the strip, with staff artists of Red Ryder Entp., Inc.
Gaylord Du Bois, a prolific comic book writer associated with Slesinger, scripted Red Ryder and Little Beaver for a short period in 1938 and again in the early 1940s.
Comic books
The first Red Ryder comic book was published by Slesinger's Hawley Publications, Inc. in September 1940, followed by Hi-Spot comics for one issue.
Dell Comics launched its Red Ryder in August 1941, changing its title to Red Ryder Ranch Magazine with #145, and then to Red Ryder Ranch Comics with #149. Red Ryder Comics consisted of reprints of the newspaper strip until issue #47 (June 1947), when it began producing original material. Altogether, Red Ryder Comics enjoyed a first run, for a total of 151 issues, ending in 1957, one of the longest continuous newsstand runs in the U.S., for any Western comic. Over the next four decades, under license from Red Ryder, Enterprises, Inc. King Features Syndicate distributed comic reprints translated into eleven languages, while unauthorized translations have been printed in 30 languages. However, by far, the largest circulation for Red Ryder Comics are those produced in Spanish and distributed throughout the Spanish-speaking world. From 1954 to 1984 under an exclusive licensing agreement with Red Ryder Enterprises, Inc. Novaro distributed 474 regular editions plus extras and specials in 21 countries and territories.
In other media
Radio
The Red Ryder radio series began February 3, 1942, on the Blue Network. broadcast three times a week at 7:30pm Pacific time. When the Blue also acquired The Lone Ranger from the Mutual Broadcasting System, Mutual decided to compete by airing Red Ryder in the same time period. Thus, Red Ryder aired on the East Coast that year from May 20 to September 9 on Mutual. The series beat The Lone Ranger in the Hooper ratings, but the success was short-lived. Red Ryder was sold to a regional sponsor, Langendorf Bread, and after four months was no longer heard in the East.
Mutual and Langendorf continued the series on the West Coast Don Lee Network through the 1940s at 7:30pm on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, always with the familiar organ theme, "The Dying Cowboy" ("Bury Me Not on the Lone Prairie"). Announcers on the show included Ben Alexander and Art Gilmore.
The continuing characters of the comic strip were also found in the radio series, produced by Brad Brown with writer-director Paul Franklin and writer Albert Van Antwerp. Reed Hadley portrayed Red Ryder on radio from 1942 to 1944, followed by Carlton KaDell (1945), and Brooke Temple (1946–51). Arthur Q. Bryan had the role of Roland "Rawhide" Rolinson, and Red's sidekick Buckskin was played by Horace Murphy. Jim Mather provided Indian voices.
Numerous actors played Little Beaver, including members of the Hopi, Jicarilla Apache, Southern Ute and Navajo Nations. One of the most notable was Robert Blake (on credits as Bobby Blake), Tommy Cook (1942 on), Frank Bresee (1942–46, alternating with Cook), Henry Blair (1944–47), Johnny McGovern (1947–50), and Sammy Ogg (1950–51). During the same mid-1940s time frame, Henry Blair also portrayed Ricky Nelson on The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet.
Billed as "America's famous fighting cowboy," Red Ryder was notable because he did not kill his enemies but instead aimed for their gun to disarm them. Such sound effects were handled by James Dick, Monty Fraser, and Bob Turnbull.
Films and television
Red Ryder appeared in a 1940 12-chapter serial, followed by a series of 27 movies (the last four of which were in color). It began in 1940 with the 12-chapter Republic movie serial The Adventures of Red Ryder, played by Don "Red" Barry, who got his nickname "Red" from the role and Tommy Cook as Red Ryder's young Indian sidekick Little Beaver. Subsequently, Wild Bill Elliott and Allan "Rocky" Lane portrayed Red Ryder in a number of films, both working with Robert Blake as Little Beaver. The last four Red Ryder movies starred Jim Bannon as Red Ryder and Don Kay ("Little Brown Jug") Reynolds as Little Beaver. Both Bannon and Lane filmed pilots for a Red Ryder television series, created by Stephen Slesinger, but neither version was picked up. Both pilots survive and appear on various western DVD collections. An episode of Gunsmoke entitled "I Call Him Wonder" was produced in 1963 as a backdoor pilot for a new Red Ryder and Little Beaver TV Show.
Republic Pictures
The Adventures of Red Ryder (1940) (film serial)
Tucson Raiders (1944)
Marshal of Reno (1944)
The San Antonio Kid (1944)
Cheyenne Wildcat (1944)
Vigilantes of Dodge City (1944)
Sheriff of Las Vegas (1944)
Great Stagecoach Robbery (1945)
Lone Texas Ranger (1945)
Phantom of the Plains (1945)
Marshal of Laredo (1945)
Colorado Pioneers (1945)
Wagon Wheels Westward (1945)
California Gold Rush (1946)
Sheriff of Redwood Valley (1946)
Sun Valley Cyclone (1946)
Conquest of Cheyenne (1946)
Santa Fe Uprising (1946)
Stagecoach to Denver (1946)
Vigilantes of Boomtown (1947)
Homesteaders of Paradise Valley (1947)
Oregon Trail Scouts (1947)
Rustlers of Devil's Canyon (1947)
Marshal of Cripple Creek (1947)
Eagle-Lion Films
Ride, Ryder, Ride! (1949)
Roll, Thunder, Roll! (1949)
The Fighting Redhead (1950)
The Cowboy and the Prizefighter (1950)
Telecomics Films
Stephen Slesinger's Telecomics Presents
produced three television pilots from 1949-1952.
The pilots were filmed on The Little Beaver and Red
Ryder Ranches, in Colorado's Blanco Basin, near
Pagosa Springs. The Little Beaver Ranch was
built, by Slesinger, to resemble a Western
Town. Guests stayed in cabins with facades such
as The Court House, Saloon and Jail.
In order to film a cut-away Cattle Stampede,
Slesinger paid local ranchers fifty cents,
for each pound their stock lost, as a result of
running in the stampede.
In summers Fred Harman's Red Ryder Ranch and
Stephen Slesinger's Little Beaver Ranch hosted
settlement house boys and other youth.
In July 2020 The Red Ryder Cowboy Honor Club celebrates
the 80th Anniversary of these outdoor youth programs.
2020 is also the 70th Anniversary year, of the Red Ryder
Roundup Rodeo and July Fourth Celebration, in Pagosa Springs.
Gunsmoke episode
Gunsmoke'''s 1963 TV Episode
"I Call Him Wonder" was an authorized
test for a New Red Ryder TV series that
was not picked up. It features Little Beaver
as Wonder, and is adapted from the original
story of how Red Ryder and Little Beaver
first met.
Red Ryder Enterprises, Inc., retains the
copyright and trademark rights to the Red Ryder characters, names, art and stories.
Products
Slesinger's marketing synergy for Red Ryder and Little Beaver products was trail-blazing. Red Ryder toys; novelties; gifts; accessories; sporting goods; and rugged outdoor, work, and play clothing were sold nationwide and exported by leading North American manufacturers to Europe, Latin America, and as far as Egypt, India, and Japan.
At JC Penney stores across the country, Slesinger created Red Ryder "outposts for dependable American quality and value." These stores within the store were called "Red Ryder Corrals." In addition to educational and sportsmanship contests, special events and personal appearances, they supplied Red Ryder brand rugged clothing for men and boys. In addition to Red Ryder and Little Beaver outdoor products, licensing included school supplies, lunch kits, and other Red Ryder character hardware and sporting goods.
The outposts also included the legendary Daisy Red Ryder Carbine, which became a father-to-son Christmas gift tradition as memorialized in the 1983 Jean Shepherd film A Christmas Story. The story revolves around the author's childhood memories and a boy trying to get a "Red Ryder Carbine-Action Two-Hundred-Shot Range Model Air Rifle BB gun with a compass in the stock and a thing which tells time" for Christmas. The film was adapted from the autobiographical fiction of Jean Shepherd, by permission of Red Ryder Enterprises, Inc., which owns the Red Ryder trademarks and copyrights.
ParodyBuckaroo Bugs'' (1944) features Bugs Bunny in the Wild West with "Red Hot Ryder" as his nemesis.
See also
List of film serials
References
External links
Fred Harman Western Art Museum
Grand Comics Database: Red Ryder covers
Bronc Peeler The Lone Cowboy (full text)
Videos: museum and Harman's studio
Listen at OTR.Network Library
Dennis Humphrey's Radio Memories: The Adventures of Red Ryder (March, 1942)
American comic strips
1938 comics debuts
1965 comics endings
Comics characters introduced in 1938
Western (genre) comics characters
Western (genre) comics
American comics characters
Comics adapted into radio series
Comics set in the 19th century
American comics adapted into films
Film serial characters
Male characters in comics
Fictional cowboys and cowgirls
Western (genre) heroes and heroines | [
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261290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative%20consent%20motion | Legislative consent motion | A legislative consent motion (also known as a Sewel motion in Scotland) is a motion passed by either the Scottish Parliament, Senedd, or Northern Ireland Assembly, in which it consents that the Parliament of the United Kingdom may (or may not) pass legislation on a devolved issue over which the devolved government has regular legislative authority. Such consent is given by the devolved parliaments or Assembly through Legislative Consent Motions (LCMs).
Up to October 2020, the three devolved governments had refused legislative consent motions on 10 occasions.
If consent is refused, the Parliament of the United Kingdom may still pass legislation on the devolved issue in question since the United Kingdom is a unitary state.
Background
The Scotland Act 1998 devolved many issues relating to legislation for Scotland to the Scottish Parliament. The UK Parliament maintains parliamentary sovereignty and may legislate on any issue, with or without the permission of the devolved assemblies and parliaments.
The motions were named after Lord Sewel, then Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Scotland who announced the policy in the House of Lords during the passage of the Scotland Act 1998. Noting that the Act recognised the Parliamentary sovereignty of the British Parliament, he said that HM Government "would expect a convention to be established that Westminster would not normally legislate with regard to devolved matters in Scotland without the consent of the Scottish Parliament".
The devolved governments have no formal say in how the British Parliament legislates on reserved matters.
Use and application
There are two uses for a legislative consent motion:
When the UK Parliament is considering legislation extending only (or having provisions extending only) to England and Wales, and the Scottish Parliament, being in agreement with those provisions, wishes for the UK Parliament to extend them to Scotland. This saves the need for separate, similar legislation to be passed by the Scottish Parliament.
When Westminster is considering legislation applying to Scotland but which relates to both devolved and reserved matters, where it would otherwise be necessary for the Scottish Parliament to legislate to complete the jigsaw.
As well as legislation about devolved matters, the convention extends to cases where UK bills give executive powers to Scottish Ministers, including in reserved areas, or which seek to change the boundary between reserved and devolved matters.
Guidance on the use of legislative consent motions for Whitehall departments is set out in Devolution Guidance Note 10.
Chapter 9B of the Scottish Parliament's Standing Orders specify the procedure for considering Sewel motions.
Legal status
The convention under which the UK government uses legislative consent motions is not legally binding. It was originally contained in a "memorandum of understanding" between the UK government and the devolved administrations. That document states in an explanatory note that it is not intended to be legally binding, and the paragraph dealing with the convention makes clear that the UK Parliament retains authority to legislate on any issue, whether devolved or not.
Since then, however, the convention has been incorporated into law in both Scotland and Wales. However, despite this inclusion, the statements are not legally binding on the UK Parliament.
Scotland Act 2016
In 2016 the UK Parliament passed the Scotland Act 2016 which amended the Scotland Act 1998 to contain an explicit and specific legal reference to the so-called Sewel convention. Section 2 of the 2016 Act reads as follows:
Wales Act 2017
In 2017 the UK Parliament passed the Wales Act 2017 which amended the Government of Wales Act 2006 to contain an explicit and specific legal reference to Westminster legislation on matters that are devolved to the Welsh Assembly. Section 2 of the 2017 Act reads as follows:
Current situation and review
In 2005 the Procedures Committee undertook an inquiry into the use of Sewel motions, and heard evidence from Lord Sewel, Henry McLeish (the former First Minister of Scotland), and Anne McGuire, MP (the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Scotland). Following the review, the motions were retitled legislative consent motions and the procedures enshrined in the parliament's standing orders.
, 131 legislative consent motions had been passed by the Scottish Parliament, 39 in the first session (1999–2003), 38 in the second (2003–2007), 30 in the third (2007–11) and 24 so far in the fourth (2011–16).
List of refused legislative consent motions
See also
Neil MacCormick, who has argued that parliamentary sovereignty is an "exclusively English doctrine".
United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020
References
External links
Devolution Guidance Note 10 (pdf).
Chapter 9b of the Scottish Parliament's standing orders
Scottish Government information on Sewel convention.
Scottish Parliament information on Legislative Consent Motions
BBC Open Secrets blog – Devolution tensions exposed
Cowie, Graham. 2018. Brexit: Devolution and legislative consent. House of Commons Library.
Government of Scotland
Scottish Parliament
Constitutional conventions of the United Kingdom | [
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261292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspector%20Japp | Inspector Japp | Inspector James Japp (later Chief Inspector Japp) is a fictional character who appears in several of Agatha Christie's novels featuring Hercule Poirot.
Creation
Inspector Japp was inspired by the fictional police detective Inspector Lestrade from the Sherlock Holmes stories by Arthur Conan Doyle. Christie even modelled Japp after the "ferret-like" qualities of Lestrade. In the first novel in which Japp appears, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, he is described as a "ferret-faced man", which is similar to the description of Lestrade as a "ferret-like man" in Doyle's 1891 short story "The Boscombe Valley Mystery".
Appearances
Japp has been depicted in seven novels written by Christie, all featuring Hercule Poirot:
The Mysterious Affair at Styles (1920)
The Big Four (1927)
Peril at End House (1932)
Lord Edgware Dies (1933), also known as Thirteen at Dinner
Death in the Clouds (1935), also known as Death in the Air
The A.B.C. Murders (1936), also known as The Alphabet Murders
One, Two, Buckle My Shoe (1940), also known as An Overdose of Death and The Patriotic Murders. This is his last appearance in any work by Christie.
In most of these appearances, Japp is a minor character with minimal interactions with Poirot or involvement in the plot. However, Japp emerges as a major character and partner to Poirot in Lord Edgware Dies. He returns in this capacity in Death in the Clouds and One, Two, Buckle My Shoe, before being written out of the series. In number of appearances, Japp is comparable to Arthur Hastings who was featured in eight of the Poirot novels.
Inspector Japp is also briefly mentioned in the Tommy and Tuppence book The Secret Adversary (1922); his card is brought to Julius Hersheimmer at the end of chapter five. In chapter seventeen of The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926), Japp is mentioned by a police superintendent to Poirot as having asked after him. Japp is mentioned by Colonel Weston in Evil Under the Sun (1941), the next book in the Poirot series after his final appearance. Japp is also mentioned in the novel Taken at the Flood (1948) by Superintendent Spence during a conversation with Hercule Poirot.
Japp's career in the Poirot novels extends into the 1930s but, like Hastings, he disappeared from Christie's writing thereafter. A police officer somewhat similar in character (Superintendent Spence) was introduced as a significant recurring character in the later Poirot novels.
Japp appears in Christie's stage play Black Coffee, written in 1929. He remarks to Poirot that it has been a "long time" since they last met, in connection with "that Welsh case", which is not otherwise identified. Japp also appears in Charles Osborne's novelisation of Black Coffee.
Like those of Miss Lemon and Arthur Hastings, the role of Inspector Japp in Poirot's career has been exaggerated by adaptations of Christie's original novels, specifically by the TV series Agatha Christie's Poirot, where these characters are often introduced into stories that did not originally feature them.
Characteristics
Inspector Japp has a tendency to jump to conclusions, and to accept simple solutions to cases. However, he becomes a more competent and respected police detective over time, eventually becoming a capable Chief Inspector. He respects Poirot's abilities but is sometimes rude to him, though over the years, he becomes more of a friend to Poirot and works more closely with him. Japp sometimes accuses Poirot of "making things difficult" when Poirot contradicts a solution which Japp believes is correct; however, when Japp is proved wrong, he acknowledges his mistake and makes remarks such as "you're the goods!" to Poirot. In One, Two, Buckle My Shoe, the last novel in which he appears, Japp visits Poirot at his flat to apologise after doubting him and to tell Poirot he was right.
When off duty, Japp is an "ardent botanist", according to Hastings in the 1923 short story "The Market Basing Mystery". Japp is described as "little, sharp, dark and ferret-faced" in the 1920 novel The Mysterious Affair at Styles, and as a "little ferret-faced fellow" in the 1923 short story "The Kidnapped Prime Minister".
Portrayals
The role of Japp is played by Philip Jackson in the British TV series Agatha Christie's Poirot, where Hercule Poirot's character is played by David Suchet. Before Suchet took on the role of Poirot, he had previously played Japp himself in the 1985 film Thirteen at Dinner, where Peter Ustinov played Poirot. Philip Jackson portrays Japp as working-class and 'thoroughly British', not very intelligent but an extremely diligent, canny and active police officer with a good but rather dry sense of humour, characteristics which often serve as a perfect foil to Poirot's personality, who is intelligent, elegant, upper-class but rather slow in movements and of a very serious nature.
In the same television series, Japp is already a Chief Inspector in the first episode, his full name is James Harold Japp according to the episode "The Chocolate Box", and he has been promoted to Assistant Commissioner by the time he appears in the episode "The Big Four".
Philip Jackson is also one of the actors who played Japp in the BBC Radio adaptations of Poirot stories, produced contemporaneously with the Suchet TV series and starring John Moffatt as Poirot. In the radio dramatisations, Inspector Japp was played by Norman Jones in Lord Edgware Dies (1992), by Philip Jackson in The ABC Murders (2000), Death In The Clouds (2003), One, Two, Buckle My Shoe (2004), and The Mysterious Affair at Styles (2005), and by Bryan Pringle in Peril at End House (2000).
Japp is played by Melville Cooper in the 1931 film adaptation of Christie's stage play Black Coffee.
As the inspector's name is spelled similarly and pronounced in the same way as the ethnic slur Jap, he was renamed in the Japanese anime series Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple (NHK, 2004).
In the Professor Layton series of puzzle video games for the Nintendo DS and Nintendo 3DS, the fictional Scotland Yard chief inspector Chelmey appears visually and contextually as a comically incompetent caricature of Inspector Japp as played by Philip Jackson.
A retired Japp is played by Kevin McNally in The ABC Murders (2018); the series starts with Japp dying of a heart attack, and a recurring sub-plot is Inspector Crome, Japp's protege, expressing distrust of Poirot as he feels that working with Poirot ruined Japp's career.
References
External links
Inspector Japp at the official Agatha Christie website
Japp, CI
Japp, CI
Japp, CI
Japp, CI
Characters in British novels of the 20th century
Fictional British people
Fictional English people
Male characters in literature | [
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261293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea%20monster | Sea monster | Sea monsters are beings from folklore believed to dwell in the sea and often imagined to be of immense size. Marine monsters can take many forms, including sea dragons, sea serpents, or tentacled beasts. They can be slimy and scaly and are often pictured threatening ships or spouting jets of water. The definition of a "monster" is subjective; further, some sea monsters may have been based on scientifically accepted creatures, such as whales and types of giant and colossal squid.
Sightings and legends
Sea monster accounts are found in virtually all cultures that have contact with the sea. For example, Avienius relates of Carthaginian explorer Himilco's voyage "...there monsters of the deep, and beasts swim amid the slow and sluggishly crawling ships." (lines 117-29 of Ora Maritima). Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed to have encountered a lion-like monster with "glaring eyes" on his return voyage after formally claiming St. John's, Newfoundland (1583) for England. Another account of an encounter with a sea monster comes from July 1734. Hans Egede, a Dano-Norwegian missionary, reported that on a voyage to Godthåb on the western coast of Greenland he observed:
a most terrible creature, resembling nothing they saw before. The monster lifted its head so high that it seemed to be higher than the crow's nest on the mainmast. The head was small and the body short and wrinkled. The unknown creature was using giant fins which propelled it through the water. Later the sailors saw its tail as well. The monster was longer than our whole ship.
Ellis (1999) suggested the Egede monster might have been a giant squid.
There is a Tlingit legend about a sea monster named Gunakadeit (Goo-na'-ka-date) who brought prosperity and good luck to a village in crisis, people starving in the home they made for themselves on the southeastern coast of Alaska.
Other reports are known from the Pacific, Indian and Southern Oceans (e.g. see Heuvelmans 1968). Cryptozoologists suggest that modern-day monsters are surviving specimens of giant marine reptiles, such as an ichthyosaur or plesiosaur, from the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods, or extinct whales like Basilosaurus. Ship damage from Tropical cyclones such as hurricanes or typhoons may also be another possible origin of sea monsters.
In 1892, Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans, then director of the Royal Zoological Gardens at The Hague, saw the publication of his The Great Sea Serpent, which suggested that many sea serpent reports were best accounted for as a previously unknown giant, long-necked pinniped.
It is likely that many other reports of sea monsters are misinterpreted sightings of shark and whale carcasses (see below), floating kelp, logs or other flotsam such as abandoned rafts, canoes and fishing nets.
Alleged carcasses
Sea monster corpses have been reported since recent antiquity (Heuvelmans 1968). Unidentified carcasses are often called globsters. The alleged plesiosaur netted by the Japanese trawler Zuiyō Maru off New Zealand caused a sensation in 1977 and was immortalized on a Brazilian postage stamp before it was suggested by the FBI to be the decomposing carcass of a basking shark. Likewise, DNA testing confirmed that an alleged sea monster washed up on Newfoundland in August 2001, was a sperm whale.
Another modern example of a "sea monster" was the strange creature washed up in Los Muermos on the Chilean sea shore in July 2003. It was first described as a "mammoth jellyfish as long as a bus" but was later determined to be another corpse of a sperm whale. Cases of boneless, amorphic globsters are sometimes believed to be gigantic octopuses, but it has now been determined that sperm whales dying at sea decompose in such a way that the blubber detaches from the body, forming featureless whitish masses that sometimes exhibit a hairy texture due to exposed strands of collagen fibers. The analysis of the Zuiyō Maru carcass revealed a comparable phenomenon in decomposing basking shark carcasses, which lose most of the lower head area and the dorsal and caudal fins first, making them resemble a plesiosaur.
In May 2017, The Guardian published an article claiming a gaint sea monster's corpse is found in Indonesia, and also published an alleged photograph of "it".
Examples
*
Aspidochelone, a giant turtle or whale that appeared to be an island and lured sailors to their doom
Bakunawa
Capricorn, Babylonian Water-Goat featured in the Zodiac
Cai Cai-Vilu
Cetus, a monster sent by Poseidon to devour Andromeda, only to be destroyed by Perseus
Charybdis of Homer, a monster whose mouth formed a whirlpool that sucked any ship nearby beneath the ocean
Cirein-cròin
Curruid, from whose bone the Gae Bulg is made in Celtic mythology
Devil Whale, a demonic whale the size of an island
Hafgufa, a whale of fabulous size, described as a sjóskrímsli 'sea monster' together with the lyngbakr
Hydra, Greek multi-headed dragon-like beast
Iku-Turso, reputedly a type of colossal octopus or walrus
Jörmungandr, the Midgard Serpent and nemesis of Thor in Norse mythology
Kraken, a gigantic octopus, squid, or crab-like creature
Lacovie
Leviathan
Nessie, also known as the Loch Ness Monster
Lusca
Makara
Proteus
Scylla of Homer, a six-headed, twelve-legged serpentine monster that devoured six men from each ship that passed by
Sirens
'Super stinger', the Arctic lion's mane jellyfish
Taniwha
Tiamat
Timingila
Umibōzu
Yacumama
Older reports
Sea monsters reported first or second hand include
A giant octopus by Pliny (not to be confused with the documented Giant Pacific octopus)
Cecaelias or Octopus people
Sea monk
Various sea serpents
Tritons by Pliny
Cormac Ua Liatháin in the 6th century supposedly saw a horde of tiny creatures the size of frogs that had spines, which attacked his boat in the North Atlantic according to an account written by Adomnan of Iona
Newer reports
Cadborosaurus of the Pacific Northwest
Champ of Lake Champlain
Chessie of the Chesapeake Bay
Nessie of Loch Ness
Issie of Lake Ikeda, Kyushu
Ogopogo of Okanagan Lake
Lusca
Morgawr
Ningen, a humanoid creature sighted in the seas north of Japan
Fjörulalli, also called Shore Laddie, Arnarfjörður, Westfjords, Iceland
Sea Horse Arnarfjörður, Westfjords, Iceland
The Shell monster Arnarfjörður, Westfjords, Iceland
Hafmaður Arnarfjörður, Westfjords, Iceland
In fiction
Creatures of H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos, including Cthulhu itself.
Creatures in such sci-fi/horror films as Deepstar Six, The Rift, Deep Rising and Deep Shock.
Clover
Cyrus from Cyrus the Unsinkable Sea Serpent by Bill Peet
Fictional portrayals of the Giant Squid, like in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.
Giant octopus in It Came from Beneath the Sea.
Iku-Turso in Lönnrot's Kalevala
Giganto
Godzilla
Mothra (Aqua Form)
Gorgo
Manda
Kraken as depicted in Clash of the Titans (both the 1981 and 2010 versions).
Kraken as depicted in Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest.
Ebirah
Titanosaurus
Zigra
Moby Dick
Rhedosaurus
The Terrible Dogfish
Jaws
Sigmund and the Sea Monsters
Sea Serpent as depicted in C.S. Lewis' novel, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, and its 2010 film adaptation, The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader.
The Meg, the giant moray eel Great Abaia, and the giant squid Lusca. The Great are 3 sea monsters featured as bosses in the survival video game Stranded Deep
In Ninjago: Seabound, Wojira is a Giant Sea Serpent that can controls water and wind using the storm and wave amulets.
In the 2021 film: Luca, Luca Paguro and his friend, Alberto Scorfano are 12-13 year old sea monsters that assume the form of Humans when they are dry on land.
See also
Here be dragons
References
Monster
Maritime folklore | [
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261297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301%20California%20electricity%20crisis | 2000–01 California electricity crisis | The 2000–01 California electricity crisis, also known as the Western U.S. energy crisis of 2000 and 2001, was a situation in which the U.S. state of California had a shortage of electricity supply caused by market manipulations and capped retail electricity prices. The state suffered from multiple large-scale blackouts, one of the state's largest energy companies collapsed, and the economic fall-out greatly harmed Governor Gray Davis's standing.
Drought, delays in approval of new power plants, and market manipulation decreased supply. This caused an 800% increase in wholesale prices from April 2000 to December 2000. In addition, rolling blackouts adversely affected many businesses dependent upon a reliable supply of electricity, and inconvenienced many retail consumers.
California had an installed generating capacity of 45 GW. At the time of the blackouts, demand was 28 GW. A demand-supply gap was created by energy companies, mainly Enron, to create an artificial shortage. Energy traders took power plants offline for maintenance in days of peak demand to increase the price. Traders were thus able to sell power at premium prices, sometimes up to a factor of 20 times its normal value. Because the state government had a cap on retail electricity charges, this market manipulation squeezed the industry's revenue margins, causing the bankruptcy of Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) and near bankruptcy of Southern California Edison in early 2001.
According to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, the crisis was possible because of legislation instituted in 1996 by the California Legislature (AB 1890) and Governor Pete Wilson that deregulated some aspects of the energy industry. Enron took advantage of this partial deregulation and was involved in economic withholding and inflated price bidding in California's spot markets.
The crisis cost between US$40 and $45 billion.
Causes
Market manipulation
As the FERC report concluded, market manipulation was only possible as a result of the complex market design produced by the process of partial deregulation. Manipulation strategies were known to energy traders under names such as "Fat Boy", "Death Star", "Forney Perpetual Loop", "Ricochet", "Ping Pong", "Black Widow", "Big Foot", "Red Congo", "Cong Catcher" and "Get Shorty". Some of these have been extensively investigated and described in reports.
Megawatt laundering is the term, analogous to money laundering, coined to describe the process of obscuring the true origins of specific quantities of electricity being sold on the energy market. The California energy market allowed for energy companies to charge higher prices for electricity produced out-of-state. It was therefore advantageous to make it appear that electricity was being generated somewhere other than California.
Overscheduling is a term used in describing the manipulation of capacity available for the transportation of electricity along power lines. Power lines have a defined maximum load. Lines must be booked (or scheduled) in advance for transporting bought-and-sold quantities of electricity. "Overscheduling" means a deliberate reservation of more line usage than is actually required and can create the appearance that the power lines are congested. Overscheduling was one of the building blocks of a number of scams. For example, the Death Star group of scams played on the market rules which required the state to pay "congestion fees" to alleviate congestion on major power lines. "Congestion fees" were a variety of financial incentives aimed at ensuring power providers solved the congestion problem. But in the Death Star scenario, the congestion was entirely illusory and the congestion fees would therefore simply increase profits.
In a letter sent from David Fabian to Senator Boxer in 2002, it was alleged that:
"There is a single connection between northern and southern California's power grids. I heard that Enron traders purposely overbooked that line, then caused others to need it. Next, by California's free-market rules, Enron was allowed to price-gouge at will."
Effects of partial deregulation
On a federal level, the Energy Policy Act of 1992, for which Enron had lobbied, opened electrical transmission grids to competition, unbundling generation and transmission of electricity.
On the state level, part of California's deregulation process, which was promoted as a means of increasing competition, was also influenced by lobbying from Enron, and began in 1996 when California became the first state to deregulate its electricity market. Eventually a total of 40% of installed capacity – 20 gigawatts – was sold to what were called "independent power producers." These included Mirant, Reliant, Williams, Dynegy, and AES. The utilities were then required to buy their electricity from the newly created day-ahead only market, the California Power Exchange (PX). Utilities were precluded from entering into longer-term agreements that would have allowed them to hedge their energy purchases and mitigate day-to-day swings in prices due to transient supply disruptions and demand spikes from hot weather.
Then, in 2000, wholesale prices were deregulated, but retail prices were regulated for the incumbents as part of a deal with the regulator, allowing the incumbent utilities to recover the cost of assets that would be stranded as a result of greater competition, based on the expectation that "frozen" rates would remain higher than wholesale prices. This assumption remained true from April 1998 through May 2000.
Energy deregulation put the three companies that distribute electricity into a tough situation. Energy deregulation policy froze or capped the existing price of energy that the three energy distributors could charge. Deregulating the producers of energy did not lower the cost of energy. Deregulation did not encourage new producers to create more power and drive down prices. Instead, with increasing demand for electricity, the producers of energy charged more for electricity. The producers used moments of spike energy production to inflate the price of energy. In January 2001, energy producers began shutting down plants to increase prices.
When electricity wholesale prices exceeded retail prices, end user demand was unaffected, but the incumbent utility companies still had to purchase power, albeit at a loss. This allowed independent producers to manipulate prices in the electricity market by withholding electricity generation, arbitraging the price between internal generation and imported (interstate) power, and causing artificial transmission constraints. This was a procedure referred to as "gaming the market." In economic terms, the incumbents who were still subject to retail price caps were faced with inelastic demand (see also: Demand response). They were unable to pass the higher prices on to consumers without approval from the public utilities commission. The affected incumbents were Southern California Edison (SCE) and Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E). Pro-privatization advocates insist the cause of the problem was that the regulator still held too much control over the market, and true market processes were stymied, whereas opponents of deregulation assert that the fully regulated system had worked for 40 years without blackouts.
Government price caps
By keeping the consumer price of electricity artificially low, the California government discouraged citizens from practicing conservation. In February 2001, California governor Gray Davis stated, "Believe me, if I wanted to raise rates I could have solved this problem in 20 minutes."
Energy price regulation incentivized suppliers to ration their electricity supply rather than expand production. The resulting scarcity created opportunities for market manipulation by energy speculators.
State lawmakers expected the price of electricity to decrease due to the resulting competition; hence they capped the price of electricity at the pre-deregulation level. Since they also saw it as imperative that the supply of electricity remain uninterrupted, utility companies were required by law to buy electricity from spot markets at uncapped prices when faced with imminent power shortages.
When the electricity demand in California rose, utilities had no financial incentive to expand production, as long term prices were capped. Instead, wholesalers such as Enron manipulated the market to force utility companies into daily spot markets for short term gain. For example, in a market technique known as megawatt laundering, wholesalers bought up electricity in California at below cap price to sell out of state, creating shortages. In some instances, wholesalers scheduled power transmission to create congestion and drive up prices.
After extensive investigation, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) substantially agreed in 2003:
"...supply-demand imbalance, flawed market design and inconsistent rules made possible significant market manipulation as delineated in final investigation report. Without underlying market dysfunction, attempts to manipulate the market would not be successful."
"...many trading strategies employed by Enron and other companies violated the anti-gaming provisions..."
"Electricity prices in California’s spot markets were affected by economic withholding and inflated price bidding, in violation of tariff anti-gaming provisions."
The major flaw of the deregulation scheme was that it was an incomplete deregulation – that is, "middleman" utility distributors continued to be regulated and forced to charge fixed prices, and continued to have limited choice in terms of electricity providers. Other, less catastrophic energy deregulation schemes, such as Pennsylvania's, have generally deregulated utilities but kept the providers regulated, or deregulated both.
New regulations
In the mid-1990s, under Republican Governor Pete Wilson, California began changing the electricity industry. Democratic State Senator Steve Peace was the Chairman of the Senate Committee on Energy at the time and is often credited as "the father of deregulation". The author of the bill was Senator Jim Brulte, a Republican from Rancho Cucamonga. Wilson admitted publicly that defects in the deregulation system would need fixing by "the next governor".
The new rules called for the Investor Owned Utilities, or IOUs, (primarily Pacific Gas and Electric, Southern California Edison, and San Diego Gas and Electric) to sell off a significant part of their electricity generation to wholly private, unregulated companies such as AES, Reliant, and Enron. The buyers of those power plants then became the wholesalers from which the IOUs needed to buy the electricity that they used to own themselves.
While the selling of power plants to private companies was labeled "deregulation", in fact Steve Peace and the California legislature expected that there would be regulation by FERC which would prevent manipulation. FERC's job, in theory, is to regulate and enforce federal law, preventing market manipulation and price manipulation of energy markets. When called upon to regulate the out-of-state privateers which were clearly manipulating the California energy market, FERC hardly reacted at all and did not take serious action against Enron, Reliant, or any other privateers. FERC's resources are in fact quite sparse in comparison to their entrusted task of policing the energy market. Lobbying by private companies may also have slowed down regulation and enforcement.
Supply and demand
California's population increased by 13% during the 1990s. The State did not build any new major power plants during that time, and California's generation capability decreased 2 percent from 1990 through 1999, while retail sales increased by 11 percent.
California's utilities came to depend in part on the import of excess hydroelectricity from the Pacific Northwest states of Oregon and Washington. During that time, California relied upon out-of-state generators to supply 7 to 11 gigawatts of power. California's clean air standards favored in-state electricity generation which burned natural gas because of its lower emissions, as opposed to coal whose emissions are more toxic and contain more pollutants.
In the summer of 2001 a drought in the northwest states reduced the amount of hydroelectric power available to California. Moreover, wholesale prices of natural gas spiked nationwide, rising from around $2 per mmBtu at the beginning of 1999 to over $10 mmBtu in the winter of 2000-2001.
In addition, the energy companies took advantage of California's electrical infrastructure weakness. The main line which allowed electricity to travel from the north to the south, Path 15, had not been improved for many years and became a major bottleneck point which limited the amount of power that could be sent south to 3,900 MW.
The International Energy Agency estimates that a 5% lowering of demand would result in a 50% price reduction during the peak hours of the California electricity crisis in 2000/2001. With better demand response the market also becomes more resilient to intentional withdrawal of offers from the supply side.
Some key events
Rolling blackouts affecting 97,000 customers hit the San Francisco Bay area on June 14, 2000, and San Diego Gas & Electric Company filed a complaint alleging market manipulation by some energy producers in August 2000. On December 7, 2000, suffering from low supply and idled power plants, the California Independent System Operator (ISO), which manages the California power grid, declared the first statewide Stage 3 power alert, meaning power reserves were below 3 percent. Rolling blackouts were avoided when the state halted two large state and federal water pumps to conserve electricity.
Most notably, the city of Los Angeles was unaffected by the crisis because government-owned public utilities in California (including the Los Angeles Department of Water & Power) were exempt from the deregulation legislation and sold their excess power to private utilities in the state (mostly to Southern California Edison) during the crises. That enabled much of the greater Los Angeles area to suffer only rolling brown-outs rather than long term black outs suffered in other parts of the state.
On December 15, 2000, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) rejected California's request for a wholesale rate cap for California, instead approving a "flexible cap" plan of $150 per megawatt-hour. That day, California was paying wholesale prices of over $1400 per megawatt-hour, compared to $45 per megawatt-hour average one year earlier.
On January 17, 2001, the electricity crisis caused Governor Gray Davis to declare a state of emergency. Speculators, led by Enron Corporation, were collectively making large profits while the state teetered on the edge for weeks, and finally suffered rolling blackouts on January 17 & 18. Davis was forced to step in to buy power at highly unfavorable terms on the open market, since the California power companies were technically bankrupt and had no buying power. The resulting massive long term debt obligations added to the state budget crisis and led to widespread grumbling about Davis's administration.
Consequences of wholesale price rises on the retail market
As a result of the actions of electricity wholesalers, Southern California Edison (SCE) and Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) were buying from a spot market at very high prices but were unable to raise retail rates. For a product that the IOU's used to produce for about three cents per kilowatt hour of electricity, they were paying eleven to fifty cents, or occasionally even more, but they were capped at 6.7 cents per kilowatt hour when charging their retail customers. As a result, PG&E filed bankruptcy, and Southern California Edison worked diligently on a workout plan with the State of California to save their company from the same fate.
PG&E and SCE had racked up $20 billion in debt by Spring of 2001 and their credit ratings were reduced to junk status. The crisis meant that PG&E and SCE were unable to purchase power on behalf of their customers. The state stepped in on January 17, 2001, having the California Department of Water Resources buy power. By February 1, 2001 this stop-gap measure had been extended and would also include SDG&E. It would not be until January 1, 2003 that the utilities would resume procuring power for their customers.
Between 2000 and 2001, the combined California utilities laid off 1,300 workers, from 56,000 to 54,700, in an effort to remain solvent. SDG&E had worked through the stranded asset provision and was in a position to increase prices to reflect the spot market. Small businesses were badly affected.
According to a 2007 study of Department of Energy data by Power in the Public Interest, retail electricity prices rose much more from 1999 to 2007 in states that adopted deregulation than in those that did not.
Involvement of Enron
One of the energy wholesalers that became notorious for "gaming the market" and reaping huge speculative profits was Enron Corporation. Enron CEO Kenneth Lay mocked the efforts by the California state government to thwart the practices of the energy wholesalers, saying, "In the final analysis, it doesn't matter what you crazy people in California do, because I got smart guys who can always figure out how to make money." The original statement was made in a phone conversation between S. David Freeman (Chairman of the California Power Authority) and Kenneth Lay in 2000, according to the statements made by Freeman to the Senate Subcommittee on Consumer Affairs, Foreign Commerce and Tourism in April and May 2002.
S. David Freeman, who was appointed Chair of the California Power Authority in the midst of the crisis, made the following statements about Enron's involvement in testimony submitted before the Subcommittee on Consumer Affairs, Foreign Commerce and Tourism of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation on May 15, 2002:
"There is one fundamental lesson we must learn from this experience: electricity is really different from everything else. It cannot be stored, it cannot be seen, and we cannot do without it, which makes opportunities to take advantage of a deregulated market endless. It is a public good that must be protected from private abuse. If Murphy's Law were written for a market approach to electricity, then the law would state 'any system that can be gamed, will be gamed, and at the worst possible time.' And a market approach for electricity is inherently gameable. Never again can we allow private interests to create artificial or even real shortages and to be in control.
"Enron stood for secrecy and a lack of responsibility. In electric power, we must have openness and companies that are responsible for keeping the lights on. We need to go back to companies that own power plants with clear responsibilities for selling real power under long-term contracts. There is no place for companies like Enron that own the equivalent of an electronic telephone book and game the system to extract an unnecessary middleman’s profits. Companies with power plants can compete for contracts to provide the bulk of our power at reasonable prices that reflect costs. People say that Governor Davis has been vindicated by the Enron confession."
Enron eventually went bankrupt, and signed a US$1.52 billion settlement with a group of California agencies and private utilities on July 16, 2005. However, due to its other bankruptcy obligations, only US$202 million of this was expected to be paid. Ken Lay was convicted of multiple criminal charges related to the California energy crisis on May 25, 2006, but he died on July 5 of that year before he could be sentenced. Because Lay died while his case was on federal appeal, his conviction was vacated and his family was allowed to retain all his property.
Enron traded in energy derivatives specifically exempted from regulation by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission. At a Senate hearing in January 2002, Vincent Viola, chairman of the New York Mercantile Exchange – the largest forum for energy contract trading and clearing – urged that Enron-like companies, which don't operate in trading "pits" and don't have the same government regulations, be given the same requirements for "compliance, disclosure, and oversight." He asked the committee to enforce "greater transparency" for the records of companies like Enron. In any case, the U.S. Supreme Court had ruled "that FERC has had the authority to negate bilateral contracts if it finds that the prices, terms or conditions of those contracts are unjust or unreasonable." Nevada was the first state to attempt recovery of such contract losses.
Handling of the crisis
Governor Gray Davis
Perhaps the heaviest point of controversy is the question of blame for the California electricity crisis. Former Governor Gray Davis's critics often charge that he did not respond properly to the crisis, while his defenders attribute the crisis to the power trading fraud and corporate accounting scandals and say that Davis did all he could considering the fact that the federal government, not states, regulate interstate power commerce.
In a speech at UCLA on August 19, 2003, Davis apologized for being slow to act during the energy crisis, but then forcefully attacked the Houston-based energy suppliers: "I inherited the energy deregulation scheme which put us all at the mercy of the big energy producers. We got no help from the Federal government. In fact, when I was fighting Enron and the other energy companies, these same companies were sitting down with Vice President Cheney to draft a national energy strategy."
Signs of trouble first cropped up in the spring of 2000 when electricity bills skyrocketed for customers in San Diego, the first area of the state to deregulate. Experts warned of an impending energy crisis, but Governor Davis did little to respond until the crisis became statewide that summer. Davis began asking the federal regulator FERC to probe possible price manipulation by power suppliers as early as August 2000. Davis would issue a state of emergency on January 17, 2001, when wholesale electricity prices hit new highs and the state began issuing rolling blackouts.
Some critics, such as Arianna Huffington, alleged that Davis was lulled to inaction by campaign contributions from energy producers. In addition, the California State Legislature would sometimes push Davis to act decisively by taking over power plants which were known to have been gamed and place them back under control of the utilities, ensuring a more steady supply and punished the worst manipulators . Meanwhile, conservatives argued that Davis signed overpriced energy contracts, employed incompetent negotiators, and refused to allow prices to rise for residences statewide much like they did in San Diego, which they argue could have given Davis more leverage against the energy traders and encouraged more conservation. More criticism is given in the book Conspiracy of Fools, which gives the details of a meeting between the governor and his officials; Clinton Administration Treasury officials; and energy executives, including market manipulators such as Enron, where Gray Davis disagreed with the treasury officials and energy executives. They advised suspending environmental studies to build power plants and a small rate hike to prepare for long-term power contracts (Davis eventually signed overpriced ones, as noted above), while Davis supported price caps, denounced the other solutions as too politically risky, and allegedly acted rudely. The contracts Davis signed locked Californians into high electric costs for the next decade. As of October 2011 electric rates in California had yet to return to pre-contract levels.
The crisis, and the subsequent government intervention, have had political ramifications, and is regarded as one of the major contributing factors to the 2003 recall election of Governor Davis.
On November 13, 2003, shortly before leaving office, Davis officially brought the energy crisis to an end by issuing a proclamation ending the state of emergency he declared on January 17, 2001. The state of emergency allowed the state to buy electricity for the financially strapped utility companies. The emergency authority allowed Davis to order the California Energy Commission to streamline the application process for new power plants. During that time, California issued licenses to 38 new power plants, amounting to 14 gigawatts of electricity production when completed.
Arnold Schwarzenegger
On May 17, 2001, future Republican governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and former Los Angeles Mayor Republican Richard Riordan met with Enron CEO Kenneth Lay at the Peninsula Beverly Hills Hotel in Beverly Hills. The meeting was convened for Enron to present its "Comprehensive Solution for California," which called for an end to federal and state investigations into Enron's role in the California energy crisis.
On October 7, 2003, Schwarzenegger was elected Governor of California to replace Davis.
Over a year later, he attended the commissioning ceremony of a new Western Area Power Administration (WAPA) 500 kV line remedying the aforementioned power bottleneck on Path 15.
National Energy Development Task Force
Vice President Dick Cheney was appointed in January 2001 to head the National Energy Development Task Force. In the spring of that year, officials of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power met with the Task Force, asking for price controls to protect consumers. The Task Force refused, and insisted that deregulation must remain in place.
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) was intimately involved with the handling of the crisis from the summer of 2000. There were in fact at least four separate FERC investigations.
The Gaming Case, investigating general allegations of manipulation of the Western energy markets.
The Enron Western Markets Investigation, FERC Docket Number PA02-2, specifically investigating the involvement of Enron and other companies in manipulating the energy markets.
The Refund Case, involving wide-ranging recovery of illegal profits made by some companies during the crisis.
The Economic Withholding and Anomalous Bidding Case.
In December 2005, the Commission filed a report to the U. S. Congress
on its response to the California Electricity Crisis,
which states that "To date, the Commission staff has facilitated settlements resulting in over $6.3
billion."
On August 17, 2013, the British Columbia company Powerex agreed to a $750 million refund as a settlement over charges of manipulating electricity prices during 2000.
See also
Energy crisis
List of power outages
References
External links
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Final Report on Price Manipulation in Western Markets (March 23, 2003)
Findings at a glance
Chronology in detail
Further documents, including detailed report
Reports on Enron and the California Energy Crisis by McCullough Research – page includes many downloadable reports, some of which were presented as evidence during investigations into the causes of the crisis.
Susan L. Pope, "California Electricity Price Spikes: An Update on the Facts" (December 9, 2002) (Opposes the McCullough research and supports the view that the crisis was an outcome of genuine problems with supply and demand)
Enron Traders Caught On Tape – Gloating about manipulating California's energy market. (CBS Evening News)
Enron Tapes Hint Chiefs Knew About Power Ploys – (Los Angeles Times)
Papers Show That Enron Manipulated Calif. Crisis – (The Washington Post)
"Defying Corporations, Defining Democracy": As Internal Memos Reveal That Enron Drove Up Power Prices in California – A talk to Author Richard Grossman (Democracy Now!)
Schwarzenegger Accused of Involvement in $9B California Swindle with Enron’s Ken Lay – (Democracy Now!)
2000s energy crisis
Electric power in the United States
Power outages in the United States
Electricity economics
Enron
Market failure
Scandals in California
Sempra Energy
George W. Bush administration controversies
Electricity crisis
2000 disasters in the United States
2001 disasters in the United States
2000 in California
2001 in California | [
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261298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclomedusa | Cyclomedusa | Cyclomedusa is a circular fossil of the Ediacaran biota; it has a circular bump in the middle and as many as five circular growth ridges around it. Many specimens are small, but specimens in excess of 20 cm are known. The concentric disks are not necessarily circular, especially when adjacent individuals interfere with each other's growth. Many radial segment lines — somewhat pineapple-like — extend across the outer disks. A few specimens show what might be a stem extending from the center in some direction or other.
Cyclomedusa is widely distributed in Ediacaran strata, with a number of species described. It has also been found in sediments dating to the Mayanian (~). Cyclomedusa was originally thought to be a jellyfish but some specimens seem to be distorted to accommodate adjacent specimens on the substrate, apparently indicating a benthic (bottom-dwelling) creature. The markings do not match the musculature pattern of modern jellyfish. The fossils have been conjectured to represent a holdfast for some stalked form — possibly an octacorallian, or something else entirely. Alternatively, it was thought that the described species actually represent different modes of preservation for one organism or that several different organisms have been grouped together under one name as a form taxon.
It is now suggested that Cyclomedusa was a microbial colony; D. Grazhdankin reinterprets the concentric rings and radial structures as comparable to those seen in modern-day microbial colonies exposed to homogeneously distributed environmental conditions.
Cyclomedusa is known from Neoproterozoic beds in Ediacara (Australia), Finnmark (Norway), Charnwood Forest (England), Olenek (Russia), North China, Newfoundland, Northwest Canada, Podolia (Ukraine), the Ural Mountains (Russia), the White Sea (Russia), and Sonora (Mexico). It is regarded as a member of the Ediacaran biota— a group of somewhat obscure organisms that thrived just before most of the modern multicellular animal phyla appeared. Cyclomedusa has no known relatives.
See also
List of Ediacaran genera
References
External links
(University of California at Berkeley) Cyclomedusa
Enigmatic prehistoric animal genera
White Sea fossils
Fossil taxa described in 1947
Medusoids
Ediacaran life | [
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261300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn%20Crespo | Joaquín Crespo | Joaquín Sinforiano de Jesús Crespo Torres (; 22 August 1841 – 16 April 1898) was a soldier and politician. A member of the Great Liberal Party of Venezuela, he served as the president of Venezuela from 1884 to 1886 and again from 1892 to 1898.
He began his career as a soldier during the Federal War.
Presidency
Joaquín Crespo became president for the first time in 1884. In 1886 Guzmán Blanco returned as president. Crespo went into exile during the presidency of Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl which marked a break with Guzmán Blanco's policies.
During the second Joaquín Crespo regime, which began in 1892, a new constitution increased the presidential term.
The Venezuelan crisis of 1895 saw Venezuela's longstanding dispute with Great Britain about the territory of Guayana Esequiba come to a head with the USA giving diplomatic support to Venezuela. Britain claimed the territory as part of British Guiana while Venezuela saw it as Venezuelan. The disputed border was submitted to international arbitration. The arbitral panel awarded most of the territory to Britain in 1899 after Crespo's death.
Subsequent career
In 1897, Crespo did not campaign for a third presidential term but supported Ignacio Andrade against key opponent Jose Manuel Hernandez. Andrade won the election and inaugurated his term on February 28, 1898 . Hernandez decried the results as fraudulent and took up arms. Hernandez was quickly defeated, with resultant political turmoil.
Death
Crespo, who remained a military mainstay of the government, was killed in battle on April 16, 1898 in the Combat of Mata Carmelera while defending the government of Andrade.
He was buried in the Southern General Cemetery.
During the crisis in Bolivarian Venezuela, the tomb of Crespo and his wife Jacinta was looted and vandalized, leaving their bodies exposed to the elements.
Personal life
Crespo was married to Jacinta Parejo, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1884 to 1886, and 1892–1898.
See also
Presidents of Venezuela
List of presidents of Venezuela
References
External links
People from Aragua
Presidents of Venezuela
Venezuelan soldiers
1841 births
1898 deaths
Burials in Venezuela
Great Liberal Party of Venezuela politicians
Venezuelan people of Spanish descent | [
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261307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillip%20E.%20Johnson | Phillip E. Johnson | Phillip E. Johnson (June 18, 1940 – November 2, 2019) was a UC Berkeley law professor, opponent of evolutionary science, co-founder of the pseudoscientific intelligent design movement, author of the "Wedge strategy" and co-founder of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture (CSC) . He described himself as "in a sense the father of the intelligent design movement". He was a critic of Darwinism, which he described as "fully naturalistic evolution, involving chance mechanisms and natural selection". The wedge strategy aims to change public opinion and scientific consensus, and seeks to convince the scientific community to allow a role for theism, or causes beyond naturalistic explanation, in scientific discourse. Johnson argued that scientists accepted the theory of evolution "before it was rigorously tested, and thereafter used all their authority to convince the public that naturalistic processes are sufficient to produce a human from a bacterium, and a bacterium from a mix of chemicals."
The scientific community considers Johnson's defense of intelligent design to be pseudoscientific.
Biography
Johnson was born in Aurora, Illinois, in 1940. He received a BA degree in English literature, from Harvard University in 1961. He studied law at the University of Chicago, graduating top of his class, and received a Juris Doctor in 1965. He served as a law clerk for the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Earl Warren and Chief Justice of the California Supreme Court Roger J. Traynor. Johnson became a member of the California Bar in January 1966. From 1967 to 2000, Johnson was an active professor of law at the U.C. Berkeley School of Law and retained the title professor emeritus at the time of his death. Johnson served as deputy district attorney and held visiting professorships at Emory University and at University College London.
At the age of 38, Johnson became a born again Christian following a divorce, and later became an elder in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). Johnson recounted that on sabbatical in England he sought, through prayer, inspiration for what he should do with the rest of his life, and then received an epiphany after he read Richard Dawkins' The Blind Watchmaker (1986) and Michael Denton's Evolution: A Theory in Crisis (1985). Johnson later said, "Something about the Darwinists' rhetorical style made me think they had something to hide." Despite having no formal background in biology, he felt that he could add insight into the premises and arguments. Johnson stated that he approached the creation evolution dispute not as a scientist but as an academic lawyer by profession, with a specialty in analyzing the logic of arguments and identifying the assumptions that lie behind those arguments. He noted that what people think about evolutionism depends very heavily on the kind of logic they employ and the kind of assumptions they make. Further, he pointed out that four of the eleven members of the special committee appointed by the National Academy of Sciences to prepare its official booklet titled Science and Creationism were lawyers. (That first edition of the publication, which was finished in 1984, was prepared as an amicus brief in the Edwards v. Aguillard case that went before the U.S. Supreme Court.) In 1989 Of Pandas and People by Percival Davis and Dean H. Kenyon was published as the first book to promote intelligent design.
The first edition of Darwin on Trial was published in 1991. In notes listing his sources, Johnson said about Of Pandas and People that "This book is 'creationist' only in the sense that it juxtaposes a paradigm of 'intelligent design' with the dominant paradigm of (naturalistic) evolution, and makes the case for the former. It does not rely on the authority of the Bible." Following that, Johnson sought supporters for his "Wedge Strategy".
In the ID blog Evolution News, Casey Luskin described him as Godfather of the intelligent design movement, PBS said he was "known as the father of intelligent design". He is a critic of methodological naturalism (the basic principle that science can only investigate natural causes for observable phenomena), and espouses a philosophy he has coined "theistic realism." He is the author of several books on intelligent design, science, philosophy, and religion, as well as textbooks on criminal law. He has appeared on various programs such as PBS's Firing Line and a Nova episode, "Judgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial."
Since 2001, Johnson had suffered a series of minor right brain strokes. His rehabilitations limited his public activities and participation in the debate on intelligent design, because of both their physical effects and Johnson's belief that they were signs from God urging him to spend more time with his faith and family and less in prideful debate. In 2004, he was awarded the inaugural "Phillip E. Johnson Award for Liberty and Truth" by Biola University, a private evangelical Christian college noted for its promotion of intelligent design. Johnson had two children and lived with his wife in Berkeley, California.
Johnson stated in an interview that he believed "the strength of America is not in its towers or in its battleships, it's in its faith. Of course, I said that, but I wasn't sure it was really true anymore. This isn't the same country we were in the previous decades." Johnson said the U.S. was "cringing in fear" of Muslim terrorists after September 11 attacks and that professors were afraid to discuss it "because they're afraid of what the Muslim students will do. They're afraid it won't keep the peace on campus. I never thought our country would descend to this level. We are afraid to search the truth and to proclaim it. We once knew who the true God was and were able to proclaim it frankly. But since about 1960 we've been hiding from that. We've been trying to pretend that all religions are the same."
Death
He died in early November 2019 at his home.
Intelligent design
Johnson is best known as one of the founders of the intelligent design movement, principal architect of the wedge strategy, author of the Santorum Amendment, and one of the ID movement's most prolific authors. Johnson is co-founder and program advisor of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture. Johnson has advocated strongly in the public and political spheres for the teaching of intelligent design as preferable to the teaching of evolution, which Johnson characterizes as "atheistic" and "falsified by all of the evidence" and whose "logic is terrible." In portraying the philosophy of science, and by extension its theories such as evolution as atheistic, Johnson argues that a more valid alternative is "theistic realism." Theistic realism asserts that science, by relying upon methodological naturalism, demands an a priori adoption of a naturalistic philosophy that wrongly dismisses out of hand any explanation that contains a supernatural cause.
Johnson rejects common descent and does not take a position on the age of the Earth. These concepts are a common theme in his books, including Darwin on Trial, Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education (1995), Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds (1997), and The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism (2000). Eugenie Scott wrote that Darwin on Trial "teaches little that is accurate about either the nature of science, or the topic of evolution. It is recommended neither by scientists nor educators." Working through the Center for Science and Culture Johnson wrote the early draft language of the Santorum Amendment, which encouraged a "Teach the Controversy" approach to evolution in public school education.
Nancy Pearcey, a Center for Science and Culture fellow and Johnson associate, credits Johnson's leadership of the intelligent design movement in two of her most recent publications. In an interview with Johnson for World magazine, Pearcey says, "It is not only in politics that leaders forge movements. Phillip Johnson has developed what is called the 'Intelligent Design' movement ..." In Christianity Today, she reveals Johnson's religious beliefs and his criticism of evolution and affirms Johnson as "The unofficial spokesman for ID" The scientific community views intelligent design as unscientific, pseudoscience and junk science.
Darwin on Trial
In the book Darwin on Trial, 1991, Johnson disputed the tenets of evolution and promoted Intelligent design. He wrote the book with the thesis that evolution could be "tried" like a defendant in court. Darwin on Trial became a central text of the intelligent design movement.
Wedge strategy
In its earliest days the intelligent design movement was called the 'wedge movement'. The wedge metaphor, attributed to Johnson, is that of a metal wedge splitting a log and represents using an aggressive public relations program to create an opening for the supernatural in the public's understanding of science. Johnson acknowledges that the goal of the intelligent design movement is to promote a theistic agenda as a scientific concept.
According to Johnson, the wedge movement, if not the term, began in 1992:
Johnson describes the wedge movement as devoted to a "program of questioning the materialistic basis of science" and reclaiming the "intellectual world" from the "atheists and agnostics" that Johnson believes are synonymous with this "scientific materialist culture." He describes the "logic of our movement" as:
"The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence, and the logic is terrible."
"...the next question that occurs to you is, 'Well, where might you get truth?' ... I start with John 1:1, 'In the beginning was the Word.' In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right and the materialist scientists are deluding themselves."
"The next question is: Why do so many brilliant, well-informed, intelligent people fool themselves for so long with such bad thinking and bad evidence?" Johnson sees this as an issue of "turning away from" self-evident truth, the "sin question" and the need to prepare the way for acceptance of a Creator.
Johnson has been explicit about the Christian principles underlying his philosophy and agenda and that of the intelligent design movement. In speaking at the 1999 "Reclaiming America for Christ Conference," Johnson has described the movement thus:
Rob Boston of Americans United for Separation of Church and State described this vision as:
Johnson is one of the authors of the Discovery Institute's Wedge Document and its "Teach the Controversy" campaign, which attempts to cast doubt on the validity of the theory of evolution, its acceptance within the scientific community, and reduce its role in public school science curricula while promoting intelligent design. The "Teach the Controversy" campaign portrays evolution as "a theory in crisis."
In his 1997 book Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds Johnson summed up the underlying philosophy of his advocacy for intelligent design and against methodological and philosophical naturalism:
Johnson has described the wedge strategy as:
"We are taking an intuition most people have [the belief in God] and making it a scientific and academic enterprise. We are removing the most important cultural roadblock to accepting the role of God as creator."
"Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit, so that we can get the issue of intelligent design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools."
"This isn't really, and never has been, a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy."
"So the question is: 'How to win?' That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the 'wedge' strategy: 'Stick with the most important thing' —the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, 'Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?' and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do."
When asked how best to raise doubts and question evolution with non-believers, Johnson responded:
Wedge of Truth
The book Wedge of Truth, published by Johnson in 2000, is an expansion of the Wedge Document. He states that truth has the ability to speak for itself.
Criticism
Johnson has been accused of being intellectually dishonest in his arguments advancing intelligent design and attacking the scientific community. Johnson has employed numerous equivocations regarding the term "naturalism," failing to distinguish between methodological naturalism (in which science is used to study the natural world and says nothing about the supernatural) versus philosophical naturalism (the philosophical belief that nothing exists but the natural world, and adopts as a premise the idea that there is no supernatural world or deities). In fact-checking Johnson's books Darwin on Trial and Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds, Brian Spitzer, an associate professor of biology at the University of Redlands, argued that almost every scientific source Johnson cited had been misused or distorted, from simple misinterpretations and innuendos to outright fabrications. Spitzer described Darwin on Trial as the most deceptive book he had ever read.
In 1993 the ASA's Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith published a review of Darwin on Trial by Nancey Murphy, an associate professor of Christian philosophy at Fuller Theological Seminary, who described Johnson's arguments as "dogmatic and unconvincing", primarily because "he does not adequately understand scientific reasoning."
In a later interview she said she faced a campaign to get her fired after she expressed her view that intelligent design was not only poor theology, but "so stupid, I don't want to give them my time." Murphy, who accepts the validity of evolution, said that Johnson called a trustee in an attempt to get her fired and stated "His tactic has always been to fight dirty when anyone attacks his ideas." Johnson admits he had spoken with a former trustee of the seminary who was himself upset with Murphy, but denies any responsibility for action taken against her. He said: "It's the Darwinists who hold the power in academia and who threaten the professional status and livelihoods of anyone who disagrees ... They feel to teach anything but their orthodoxy is an act of professional treason."
Since Johnson is considered by those both inside and outside the movement to be the father and architect of the intelligent design movement and its strategies, his statements are often used to validate the criticisms leveled by those who allege that the Discovery Institute and its allied organizations are merely stripping the obvious religious content from their anti-evolution assertions as a means of avoiding the legal restrictions of the Establishment Clause, a view reinforced by the December 2005 ruling in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial which found that intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature. They argue that ID is an attempt to put a patina of secularity on top of what is a fundamentally religious belief and thus that the "Teach the Controversy" exhortation is disingenuous, particularly when contrasted to his statements in The Wall Street Journal and other secular media. Critics point out that contrary to the Discovery Institute's and Johnson's claims, the theory of evolution is well-supported and accepted within the scientific community, with debates regarding how evolution occurred, not if it occurred. Popular disagreement with evolutionary theory should not be considered as a reason for challenging it as a scientifically valid subject to be taught, they contend.
Critics of Johnson point to his central role in the Discovery Institute's carefully orchestrated campaign known as the wedge strategy. The wedge strategy, as envisioned by the Discovery Institute, is designed to leave the science establishment looking close-minded in the short term with a long-term goal being a redefinition of science that centers on the removal of methodological naturalism from the philosophy of science and the scientific method, thereby allowing for supernatural explanations to be introduced as science. Critics note that Johnson, as a principal officer of the Discovery Institute, often cites an overall plan to put the United States on a course toward the theocracy envisioned in the wedge strategy, and that the Discovery Institute as a matter of policy intentionally obfuscates its agenda. According to Johnson, "The movement we now call the wedge made its public debut at a conference of scientists and philosophers held at Southern Methodist University in March 1992."
During the 1990s, Johnson and several others challenged the scientific consensus by claiming that HIV tests do not detect HIV, AIDS statistics are grossly exaggerated, and that HIV is not the cause of AIDS. As a member of The Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV/AIDS Hypothesis, a prominent AIDS denialist group, Johnson questioned if HIV caused AIDS. He wrote several articles about the subject, including a piece in Reason magazine. He was one of the 12 founding members of The Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV/AIDS Hypothesis and signatory to the group's letter to the editor of Science asserting that HIV is only tautologically associated with AIDS and that HIV tests are inaccurate.
Admission that there is no theory of intelligent design
In his later years Johnson retreated from his contention that intelligent design was a scientific theory. In an interview in 2006 he described it as follows:I also don’t think that there is really a theory of intelligent design at the present time to propose as a comparable alternative to the Darwinian theory, which is, whatever errors it might contain, a fully worked out scheme. There is no intelligent design theory that’s comparable. Working out a positive theory is the job of the scientific people that we have affiliated with the movement. Some of them are quite convinced that it’s doable, but that’s for them to prove…No product is ready for competition in the educational world.
Bibliography
Criminal law
Darwinism
Notes
References
External links
Articles by Phillip E. Johnson in Touchstone Magazine: A Journal of Mere Christianity, a bimonthly Christian publication
The Religion of the Blind Watchmaker
"Origin of the Specious" – an article by Ronald Bailey, published in the July 1997 issued of Reason magazine, concerns the development of intelligent design
Johnson's writings on HIV and AIDS at the VirusMyth website
"Phillip Johnson: From Crackpot to Dangerously Insane Crackpot" by Kevin T. Keith at the Lean Left blog
Critiques of Phillip Johnson by Jim Lippard and Bill Hamilton at the TalkOrigins Archive
"The Terrible Strength and Weakness of Naturalism" – an interview of Phillip E. Johnson with Tal Brooke. SCP Journal. Vol. 21:4–22:1. Spring 1998.
1940 births
2019 deaths
People from Aurora, Illinois
Writers from Berkeley, California
Writers from Illinois
California lawyers
Law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States
Discovery Institute fellows and advisors
Intelligent design advocates
HIV/AIDS denialists
American non-fiction writers
Theocrats
UC Berkeley School of Law faculty
University of Chicago Law School alumni
Harvard University alumni
20th-century American lawyers | [
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261310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economies%20of%20agglomeration | Economies of agglomeration | Economies of agglomeration or agglomeration effects are cost savings arising from urban agglomeration, a major topic of urban economics. One aspect of agglomeration is that firms are often located near to each other. This concept relates to the idea of economies of scale and network effects.
As more firms in related fields of business cluster together, their costs of production may decline significantly (firms have competing multiple suppliers; greater specialization and division of labor result). Even when competing firms in the same sector cluster, there may be advantages because the cluster attracts more suppliers and customers than a single firm could achieve alone. Cities form and grow to exploit economies of agglomeration.
Diseconomies of agglomeration are the opposite. For example, spatially concentrated growth in automobile-oriented fields may create problems of crowding and traffic congestion. It is the tension between economies and diseconomies that allows cities to grow but keeps them from becoming too large.
The basic concept of agglomeration economies is that production is facilitated when there is a clustering of economic activity. The existence of agglomeration economies is central to the explanation of how cities increase in size and population, which places the phenomenon on a larger scale. The concentration of economic activity in cities is one reason for their development and growth.
Advantages of agglomeration
When firms form clusters of economic activity, there are particular development strategies that flow in and throughout this area of economic activity. This helps to accumulate information and the flow of new and innovative ideas among firms for the achievement of what economists call increasing returns to scale.
Increasing returns to scale, and economies of scale, are internal to a firm and may allow for the establishment of more of the same firm outside the area or region. Economies of scale external to a firm are the result of spatial proximity and are referred to as agglomeration economies of scale. Agglomeration economies may be external to a firm but internal to a region. It is important to note that these increasing returns to scale are a major contributing factor to the growth of cities. Agglomeration economies exist when production is cheaper because of this clustering of economic activity. As a result of this clustering it becomes possible to establish other businesses that may take advantage of these economies without joining any big organization.
This process may help to urbanize areas as well.
Benefits arise from the spatial agglomeration of physical capital, companies, consumers and workers:
Low transport costs
A great (local) market
A large supply of labor and thus the increased chance of supply and demand for labor, particularly for specialists to compensate for fast matching, lower search costs
The accumulation of knowledge and human capital leads to knowledge spillovers between firms.
Disadvantages of agglomeration
While the existence of cities can only persist if the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, agglomeration may also lead to traffic congestion, pollution and other negative externalities caused by the clustering of a population of firms and people and that this may lead to diseconomies of scale. Another source of agglomeration diseconomies—higher crowding and increased waiting time—can be observed in disciplines or industries that are characterized by constrained access to relevant production facilities or resources. As stated above, these factors are what decrease the pricing power of firms because of the many competitors in the area as well as a shortage of labor and lack of flexibility among firms to the laborers abound. Large cities experience these problems, and it is this tension between agglomeration economies and agglomeration dis-economies that may contribute to the growth of the area, control the growth of the area, or cause the area to experience a lack of growth.
The economies of agglomeration has also been shown to increase inequality both within urban areas, and between urban and rural areas. The Oxford development economist Paul Collier has proposed that the gains of agglomeration should be taxed as rents which lead to behaviour-distorting rent-seeking (Henry George theorem). This would be both ethical and efficient, in that gains would be better aligned with deserts and rent-seeking would be curbed. Collier recommends a tax calculated by combining high income and metropolitan location, which can then be redistributed to other cities that have been hard hit by agglomeration.
The disadvantages of agglomerations are to be mentioned:
Strong environmental pressures
High land prices
Bottlenecks in public goods (e.g. poor/overburdened infrastructure)
Corruption
High competitive pressure
Lack of reserve areas
Economic inequality
Types of economies
There are two types of economies that are considered large-scale and have external economies of scale; localization and urbanization economies. Localization economies arise from many firms in the same industry locate close to each other. There are three sources of localization economies: The first is the benefits of labor pooling which is the accessibility that firms have to a variety of skilled laborers, which in turn provides employment opportunity for the laborers. The second benefit is the development of industries due to the increasing returns to scale in intermediate inputs for a product; and the third source is the relative ease of communication and exchange of supplies, laborers and innovative ideas due to the proximity among firms.
Core-periphery model
Whilst localization and urbanization economies as well as their sources are crucial to sustaining agglomeration economies and cities, it is important to understand the long-term result of the function of agglomeration economies which relates to the core-periphery model. The core-periphery model basically features an amount of economic activity in one main area surrounded by a remote area of less dense activity. The concentration of this economic activity in one area (usually a city center) allows for the growth and expansion of activity into other and surrounding areas because of the cost-minimizing location decisions of firms within these agglomeration economies sustaining high productivity and advantages which therefore allow them to grow outside of the city (core) and into the periphery. A small decrease in the fixed cost of production can increase the range of locations for further establishment of firms leading to loss of concentration in the city and possibly the development of a new city outside the original city where agglomeration and increasing returns to scale existed.
If localization economies were the main factor contributing to why cities exist with the exclusion of urbanization economies, then it would make sense for each firm in the same industry to form their own city. However, in a more realistic sense cities are more complex than that, which is the reason for the combination of localization and urbanization economies to form large cities.
Source of economies
From the localization of firms emerges labor market pooling. Large populations of skilled laborers enter the area and are able to exchange knowledge, ideas, and information. The more firms there are in this area, the greater the competition is to obtain workers and therefore results in higher wages for the workers. However, the fewer firms there are and the more workers there are at a location the lower the wage becomes for those workers.
The second contribution towards localization economies is the access to specialized goods and services provided for the clustering firms. This access to specialized goods and services are known as intermediate inputs and provides increasing returns to scale for each of the firms located within that area because of the proximity to available sources needed for production. If intermediate inputs are tradable, there forms a core-periphery notion that will have many firms locate near each other to be closer to their needed sources. If there are tradable resources and services nearby but no related industries in the same area, there are no networking linkages and therefore makes it difficult for all firms in the area to obtain resources and increase production. The decreased transportation costs associated with clustering of firms leads to the increase in likelihood to a core-periphery pattern; where the result of this will be more intermediate inputs will be focused at the core and therefore will attract more firms in related industries.
The third source relating to localization economies is technological spillovers. One final advantage of this source is that clustering in specific fields leads to quicker diffusion of ideas or adoption of ideas. In order for production to be at its maximum and sell their products, firms require some sort of feasible access to capital markets. New forms of technology can create problems and involve risk; the clustering of firms creates an advantage to reduce the amount of uncertainty and complications involved with the use of new technology through information flow. The industry of capital flow and technology are concentrated within specific areas and therefore it is to the advantage of the firm to locate near these areas. This technological impact specifically in the communications field will provide and dismiss the barrier between firms in the same industry located further away as well as nearby which would lead to a greater concentration of information flow and economic production and activity. Furthermore, technological spillovers may be more beneficial to smaller cities in their growth than larger cities because of the existing informational networks in larger cities that already helped them to form and grow.
See also
Cluster effect
Cluster initiative
Business cluster
Hotelling's law
Economies of density
Gains from trade
Returns to scale
Sources
Brueckner, Jan. "Lectures in Urban Economics." 2011. The MIT Press
O'Flaherty, Brendan. City Economics. Cambridge, Massachusetts. London, England. 2005. Harvard University Press
Coe, Neil M., Kelly, Philip F., Yeung, Henry W.C. Economic Geography: A Contemporary Introduction.''' Malden, Massachusetts. Oxford, United Kingdom. Victoria, Australia. 2007. Blackwell Publishing
Bogart, William Thomas. The Economics of Cities and Suburbs. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 1998. Prentice Hall
Strange, William C., 2008, "urban agglomeration," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
Venables, Anthony, 2008. "new economic geography," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract.
Further reading
Rosenthal, Stuart S., and William C. Strange. 2020. "How Close Is Close? The Spatial Reach of Agglomeration Economies." Journal of Economic Perspectives,'' 34 (3): 27-49.
References
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261311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Vicente%20G%C3%B3mez | Juan Vicente Gómez | Juan Vicente Gómez Chacón (24 July 1857 – 17 December 1935) was a Venezuelan military general and ruler of Venezuela from 1908 until his death in 1935. He was president on three occasions during this time, ruling through puppet governments in between.
Early years
Gómez was born into a prominent family of Andean landowners who lived in the La Mulera. He was the firstborn son of Pedro Cornelio Gomez and Hermenegilda Chacon Alarcon. In 1899, he joined the private army of Cipriano Castro, with whom he had been friends since Castro's exile in Colombia. This army swept down on Caracas in 1899 and seized control of the country. He became Castro's vice president and, in 1902, head of the military, responsible for suppressing several major revolts against the government in the battle of Ciudad Bolivar on 21 July 1903. Gómez seized power from Castro on 19 December 1908, while Castro was in Europe for medical treatment.
Presidency
As president, Gómez managed to deflate Venezuela's staggering debt by granting concessions to foreign oil companies after the discovery of petroleum in Lake Maracaibo in 1918. This, in turn, won him the support of the United States and Europe and economic stability. Though he used the money to launch an extensive public works program, he also received generous kickbacks, increasing his personal fortune enormously. Because of his contributions to the country's development, the Congress bestowed the title of El Benemérito ("the Meritorious One") on him. In contrast, his opponents, who disdained his brutal tactics at home, referred to him as El Bagre ("the Catfish"), a snide reference to his bushy mustache and outward appearance. They also called him "the Tyrant of the Andes" - a reference to his roots in the mountain state of Táchira.
On 19 April 1914, Gómez ostensibly stepped down from office in favor of provisional president Victorino Márquez, though he continued to rule the country from his home in Maracay. He returned to office in 1922, ruling until 22 April 1929. Though he was re-elected to a new term of office by the Congress, he declined to return to the capital, and Juan Bautista Pérez assumed the presidency, though Gómez remained the final authority in the country. On 13 June 1931, Congress forced Pérez to resign, and elected Gómez president again. This time, he resumed office, ruling the country until his death.
Opposition
The Generation of 1928 was a group of students who led protests in 1928 against Gómez in the capital city of Caracas. Members included Rómulo Betancourt, Jóvito Villalba, Joaquin Gabaldon Marquez, Juan Oropeza, Raúl Leoni, Andrés Eloy Blanco, Miguel Otero Silva, Pedro Sotillo, Isaac J Pardo, Juan Bautista Fuenmayor, Germán Suárez Flamerich, and Gustavo Machado.
Family
Gómez was never married; however, he had two mistresses. The first one was Dionisia Gómez Bello, with whom he had seven children: José Vicente, Josefa, Alí, Flor de María, Graciela, Servilia, and Gonzalo. The second one was Dolores Amelia Nunez Linares' de Cáceres, with whom he had nine children: Juan Vicente, Florencio, Rosa Amelia, Hermenegilda, Cristina, Belén, Berta, Manuel Antonio and Juan Crisóstomo Gómez. Gómez also fathered many other children in brief relationships: at least 64 and possibly as many as 99. He appointed many of his children to public office, sparking charges of nepotism.
Legacy
Gómez's rule of Venezuela is a controversial period in the country's history. His leadership brought enrichment to the country, particularly after the discovery of oil, which enabled the development of a modern infrastructure. His insistence on road construction and the creation of jobs in the then-new oil industry promoted population mobility and more frequent social contact among Venezuelans of different regions – previously a rare occurrence – which permanently rooted a sense of national unity in the country. He brought about the end of civil wars and political insurrections by exerting power over regional caudillos and, as a result, Venezuela became a peaceful country and would remain so for decades. Ironically, the elimination of the caudillo problem and the choosing of Eleazar López Contreras as his last minister of war and marine paved the way to the emergence of modern democracy; see Generation of 1928. He repaid all foreign and internal debt using excess reserves; his fiscal conservatism helped the country get through the Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression, and led to an increase in the value of the bolívar to the point of becoming hard currency.
On the debit side, he is considered by some as one of the prominent examples of alleged U.S. domination in Latin America. During his rule, most of the country's wealth ended up in the hands of Gómez and his henchmen, and, according to Woddis, Wall Street. Indeed, at the time of his death, he was by far the richest man in the country. The relative peace and prosperity of his tenure came at the expense of democracy; he held basic civil liberties in disdain, and his secret police were ubiquitous. He also did little for public education (believing that "an ignorant people is a docile people"). Although cordial and simple in manner, his ruthless crushing of opponents through his secret police earned him the reputation of a tyrant. He was also accused of trying to make the country a personal fief.
John Gunther described Gómez as follows: "The Catfish was—let us not gloss over the fact—a murderous blackguard. He made use of tortures of inconceivable brutality; political prisoners, of which there were thousands, dragged out their lives bearing leg irons (grillos) that made them permanent cripples, if they were not hung upside down—by the testicles—until they died. Others became human slime, literally. Gómez was quite capable of choosing one out of every ten by lot, and hanging them—by meathooks through their throats!" (Emphasis in the original.)
Former Venezuelan President Rómulo Betancourt said in his book Venezuela: Oil and Politics that "(...) Gomez was something more than a local despot, he was the instrument of foreign control of the Venezuelan economy, the ally and servant of powerful outside interests." This is in reference to Royal Dutch Shell and Standard Oil's appeasement of the dictator in return for exploration rights to the country's oil fields.
In Venezuelan politics, Juan Vicente Gómez has come to symbolize political endurance and a caudillo mentality. He was quoted as saying he needed a lifetime to fulfill his political work.
Juan Vicente Gómez International Airport was named for him in 1993.
See also
Presidents of Venezuela
List of Venezuelans
References
External links
Biography at infoplease.com
Venezuela – A Century of Caudillismo – A recount of the historical context, Gomez's career and influence.
|-
|-
Presidents of Venezuela
Vice presidents of Venezuela
Venezuelan generals
People from Táchira
1857 births
1935 deaths
Venezuelan people of Spanish descent | [
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261313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maso%20Yamazaki | Maso Yamazaki | , better known by his stage name Masonna, is a Japanese noise musician. He was born on November 16, 1966, in Miyazu, Kyoto, Japan.
was started in 1987 in Osaka as Maso Yamazaki's noise project. The name is a combination of the Japanese words and . It is also a pun on the name of the pop singer Madonna. The name is sometimes rendered as an acronym for or Mystic Another Selection Of Nurses Naked Anthology.
Maso also performs as Space Machine using vintage analog synthesizers. He has performed with the psychedelic rock group Christine 23 Onna (with Fusao Toda of Angel'in Heavy Syrup), which then became Acid Eater with the addition of two members, as well as the noise supergroup Bustmonster and the noise trio Flying Testicle.
In 2018, Maso began performing and releasing under the name Controlled Death.
History
Maso has said that he became interested in making noise music when he heard the sounds of destruction on television as a child, but that his first exposure to the Japanese noise genre was Hanatarash's debut LP, which at the time did not impress Maso. It was however later, upon happening on an LP entitled LSD by a Tokyo noise band named Nord, and mistakenly thinking it was an album by the band LSD, that these experiences had possibly kindled his future interest. A year thereafter Maso sought many different types of noise releases in the underground music stores in and around Osaka Japan. Two years would pass until Maso would start to develop his own style of noise and begin producing, at which time he quit listening to the noise albums of others and focused in on his own unique style. Previous to his interest in noise Maso played guitar in several bands, one of which he states in interviews was a Led Zeppelin cover band, playing the occasional Deep Purple song.
All of Maso's projects draw heavily from the psychedelic music scene in outward style, but sonically most of them resemble very few of the traits of late 1960s and 1970s psychedelic music. Maso has an interest in avant-garde films, having stated in interviews that his two favorite movies are the Alexandro Jodorowsky films The Holy Mountain and El Topo. He also claims to admire and had the wish to have worked with American musician Captain Beefheart.
The Masonna project has been the opening act for several well-known artists on their Japanese concert dates, including Sonic Youth, Beck and Slipknot. Masonna also caught the attention of John Peel and was featured on his program, having even done a limited Masonna John Peel Sessions CD.
Masonna is most known for Yamazaki's wild live performances which usually consist of damaging his equipment, jumping around madly, and at times getting injured. He has given entire concerts which last only a few seconds. In 1996 Masonna toured the United States on the "American Mystique Tour" named after his album Inner Mind Mystique.
Maso was also the manager of Jojo Hiroshige's Alchemy Music Store until its closure.
Discography
As Masonna
Shinsen Na Clitoris (1990), Vanilla Records
Mademoiselle Anne Sanglante Ou Notre Nymphomanie Aureole (1993), Alchemy
Noskl in Ana (1994), Alchemy
Super Compact Disc (1995), Alchemy
Noisextra (1995), RRR
Ejaculation Generater (1996), Alchemy
Inner Mind Mystique (1996), Relapse
Hyper Chaotic (1996), V
Freak-Out Electrolyze (1997), Nanophonica
Spectrum Ripper (1998), Cold Spring
Frequency L.S.D. (1998), Alien8
Vestal Spacy Ritual (1999), Alchemy
Beauty Beast (1999), Blast First
Shock Rock (2002), MIDI Creative
As Flying Testicle
with Merzbow and Zev Asher.
Lamerican Sextom (1992), ZSF Produkt, Japan, 7"
Space Desia (1993), Charnel Music, USA, CD
As Space Machine
Cosmos From Diode Ladder Filter (2001), Alchemy
2 (2002), Midi Creative / Noble
3 (2003), Tiliqua (LP), (2004), Important (CD)
References
Further reading
External links
Yamazaki Maso a.k.a. Masonna official website
South Saturn Delta official site
South Saturn Delta at Cold Spring
1966 births
Living people
Japanese experimental musicians
Noise musicians
Alien8 Recordings artists
Musicians from Kyoto
Musicians from Kyoto Prefecture | [
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261316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20crisis | Energy crisis | An energy crisis is any significant bottleneck in the supply of energy resources to an economy. In literature, it often refers to one of the energy sources used at a certain time and place, in particular, those that supply national electricity grids or those used as fuel in industrial development and population growth have led to a surge in the global demand for energy in recent years. In the 2000s, this new demand — together with Middle East tension, the falling value of the US dollar, dwindling oil reserves, concerns over peak oil, and oil price speculation — triggered the 2000s energy crisis, which saw the price of oil reach an all-time high of in 2008
Causes
Most energy crises have been caused by localized shortages, wars and market manipulation. Some have argued that government actions like tax hikes, nationalisation of energy companies, and regulation of the energy sector, shift supply and demand of energy away from its economic equilibrium. However, the recent historical energy crisis listed below were not caused by such factors. Market failure is possible when monopoly manipulation of markets occurs. A crisis can develop due to industrial actions like union organized strikes and government embargoes. The cause may be over-consumption, aging infrastructure, choke point disruption or bottlenecks at oil refineries and port facilities that restrict fuel supply. An emergency may emerge during very cold winters due to increased consumption of energy.
Large fluctuations and manipulations in future derivatives can have a substantial impact on price. Large investment banks control 80% of oil derivatives as of May 2012, compared to 30% only a decade ago. This increase contributed to an improvement of global energy output from 117 687 TWh in 2000 to 143 851TWh in 2008. Limitations on free trade for derivatives could reverse this trend of growth in energy production. Kuwaiti Oil Minister Hani Hussein stated that "Under the supply and demand theory, oil prices today are not justified," in an interview with Upstream.
Pipeline failures and other accidents may cause minor interruptions to energy supplies. A crisis could possibly emerge after infrastructure damage from severe weather. Attacks by terrorists or militia on important infrastructure are a possible problem for energy consumers, with a successful strike on a Middle East facility potentially causing global shortages. Political events, for example, when governments change due to regime change, monarchy collapse, military occupation, and coup may disrupt oil and gas production and create shortages. Fuel shortage can also be due to the excess and useless use of the fuels.
Historical crises
North Korea has had energy shortages for many years.
Zimbabwe has experienced a shortage of energy supplies for many years due to financial mismanagement.
20th century
1970s energy crisis – caused by the peaking of oil production in major industrial nations (Germany, United States, Canada, etc.) and embargoes from other producers
1973 oil crisis – caused by an OAPEC oil export embargo by many of the major Arab oil-producing states, in response to Western support of Israel during the Yom Kippur War
1979 oil crisis – caused by the Iranian Revolution
1990 oil price shock – caused by the Gulf War
2000s
2000 fuel protests in the United Kingdom in 2000 were caused by a rise in the price of crude oil combined with already relatively high taxation on road fuel in the UK.
2000s energy crisis – Since 2003, a rise in prices caused by continued global increases in petroleum demand coupled with production stagnation, the falling value of the US dollar, and a myriad of other secondary causes.
2000–2001 California electricity crisis – Caused by market manipulation by Enron and failed deregulation; resulted in multiple large-scale power outages
2000–2008 North American natural gas crisis
2004 energy crisis in Argentina
2005, 2008 China experienced severe energy shortages towards the end of 2005 and again in early 2008. During the latter crisis they suffered severe damage to power networks along with diesel and coal shortages. Supplies of electricity in Guangdong province, the manufacturing hub of China, are predicted to fall short by an estimated 10 GW. In 2011 China was forecast to have a second quarter electrical power deficit of 44.85 – 49.85 GW.
2007 Political riots occurring during the 2007 Burmese anti-government protests were sparked by rising energy prices.
2008 energy crisis in Central Asia, caused by abnormally cold temperatures and low water levels in an area dependent on hydroelectric power. At the same time the South African President was appeasing fears of a prolonged electricity crisis in South Africa.
2008. In February, the President of Pakistan announced plans to tackle energy shortages that were reaching crisis stage, despite having significant hydrocarbon reserves,. In April 2010, the Pakistani government announced the Pakistan national energy policy, which extended the official weekend and banned neon lights in response to a growing electricity shortage.
2008 South African electrical crisis. The South African crisis led to large price rises for platinum in February 2008 and reduced gold production.
2010s
2012 United Kingdom fuel crisis
2015 – Nepal experienced a major energy crisis in 2015 when India imposed an economic blockade on Nepal. Nepal faced shortages of various kinds of petroleum products and food materials which severely affected Nepal's economy.
2017 – The Gaza electricity crisis is a result of the tensions between Hamas, which rules the Gaza Strip, and the Palestinian Authority/Fatah, which rules the West Bank over custom tax revenue, funding of the Gaza Strip, and political authority. Residents receive electricity for a few hours a day on a rolling blackout schedule.
2019 California energy crisis
2020s
2021 Texas power crisis
2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis and 2021 United Kingdom fuel supply crisis
2021 global energy crisis. The record-high energy prices were driven by a global surge in demand as the world quit the economic recession caused by COVID-19 pandemic, particularly due to strong energy demand in Asia.
The Lebanese liquidity crisis lead to shortages of fuel for electricity plants, resulting in the 2021 Lebanese blackout and public utilities being able to offer power for only a few hours a day.
Emerging oil shortage
"Peak oil" is the period when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached, after which the rate of production enters terminal decline. It relates to a long-term decline in the available supply of petroleum. This, combined with increasing demand, significantly increases the worldwide prices of petroleum-derived products. Most significant is the availability and price of liquid fuel for transportation.
The US Department of Energy in the Hirsch report indicates that "The problems associated with world oil production peaking will not be temporary, and past 'energy crisis' experience will provide relatively little guidance."
Mitigation efforts
To avoid the serious social and economic implications a global decline in oil production could entail, the 2005 Hirsch report emphasized the need to find alternatives, at least ten to twenty years before the peak, and to phase out the use of petroleum over that time. Such mitigation could include energy conservation, fuel substitution, and the use of unconventional oil. Because mitigation can reduce the use of traditional petroleum sources, it can also affect the timing of peak oil and the shape of the Hubbert curve.
Energy policy may be reformed leading to greater energy intensity, for example in Iran with the 2007 Gas Rationing Plan in Iran, Canada and the National Energy Program and in the US with the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 also called the Clean Energy Act of 2007. Another mitigation measure is the setup of a cache of secure fuel reserves like the United States Strategic Petroleum Reserve, in case of national emergency. Chinese energy policy includes specific targets within their 5-year plans.
Andrew McKillop has been a proponent of a contract and converge model or capping scheme, to mitigate both emissions of greenhouse gases and a peak oil crisis. The imposition of a carbon tax would have mitigating effects on an oil crisis. The Oil Depletion Protocol has been developed by Richard Heinberg to implement a powerdown during a peak oil crisis. While many sustainable development and energy policy organisations have advocated reforms to energy development from the 1970s, some cater to a specific crisis in energy supply including Energy-Quest and the International Association for Energy Economics. The Oil Depletion Analysis Centre and the Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas examine the timing and likely effects of peak oil.
Ecologist William Rees believes that
Due to a lack of political viability on the issue, government-mandated fuel prices hikes are unlikely and the unresolved dilemma of fossil fuel dependence is becoming a wicked problem. A global soft energy path seems improbable, due to the rebound effect. Conclusions that the world is heading towards an unprecedented large and potentially devastating global energy crisis due to a decline in the availability of cheap oil lead to calls for a decreasing dependency on fossil fuel.
Other ideas concentrate on design and development of improved, energy-efficient urban infrastructure in developing nations. Government funding for alternative energy is more likely to increase during an energy crisis, so too are incentives for oil exploration. For example, funding for research into inertial confinement fusion technology increased during the 1970s.
Kirk Sorensen and others have suggested that additional nuclear power plants, particularly liquid fluoride thorium reactors have the energy density to mitigate global warming and replace the energy from peak oil, peak coal and peak gas. The reactors produce electricity and heat so much of the transportation infrastructure should move over to electric vehicles. However, the high process heat of the molten salt reactors could be used to make liquid fuels from any carbon source.
2010s oil glut
Rather counterintuitively, the world economy has had to deal with the unforeseen consequences of the 2015–2016 oil glut also known as 2010s oil glut, a major energy crisis that took many experts by surprise. This oversupply crisis started with a considerable time-lag, more than six years after the beginning of the Great Recession: "the price of oil [had] stabilized at a relatively high level (around $100 a barrel) unlike all previous recessionary cycles since 1980 (start of First Persian Gulf War). But nothing guarantee[d] such price levels in perpetuity".
Social and economic effects
The macroeconomic implications of a supply shock-induced energy crisis are large, because energy is the resource used to exploit all other resources. Oil price shocks can affect the rest of the economy through delayed business investment, sectoral shifts in the labor market, or monetary policy responses. When energy markets fail, an energy shortage develops. Electricity consumers may experience intentionally engineered rolling blackouts during periods of insufficient supply or unexpected power outages, regardless of the cause.
Industrialized nations are dependent on oil, and efforts to restrict the supply of oil would have an adverse effect on the economies of oil producers. For the consumer, the price of natural gas, gasoline (petrol) and diesel for cars and other vehicles rises. An early response from stakeholders is the call for reports, investigations and commissions into the price of fuels. There are also movements towards the development of more sustainable urban infrastructure.
In the market, new technology and energy efficiency measures become desirable for consumers seeking to decrease transport costs. Examples include:
In 1980 Briggs & Stratton developed the first gasoline hybrid electric automobile; also appearing are plug-in hybrids.
the growth of advanced biofuels.
innovations like the Dahon, a folding bicycle
modernized and electrifying passenger transport
Railway electrification systems and new engines such as the Ganz-Mavag locomotive
variable compression ratio for vehicles
Other responses include the development of unconventional oil sources such as synthetic fuel from places like the Athabasca Oil Sands, more renewable energy commercialization and use of alternative propulsion. There may be a relocation trend towards local foods and possibly microgeneration, solar thermal collectors and other green energy sources.
Tourism trends and gas-guzzler ownership varies with fuel costs. Energy shortages can influence public opinion on subjects from nuclear power plants to electric blankets. Building construction techniques—improved insulation, reflective roofs, thermally efficient windows, etc.—change to reduce heating costs.
Crisis management
An electricity shortage is felt most acutely in heating, cooking, and water supply. Therefore, a sustained energy crisis may become a humanitarian crisis.
If an energy shortage is prolonged a crisis management phase is enforced by authorities. Energy audits may be conducted to monitor usage. Various curfews with the intention of increasing energy conservation may be initiated to reduce consumption. For example, to conserve power during the Central Asia energy crisis, authorities in Tajikistan ordered bars and cafes to operate by candlelight.
In the worst kind of energy crisis energy rationing and fuel rationing may be incurred. Panic buying may beset outlets as awareness of shortages spread. Facilities close down to save on heating oil; and factories cut production and lay off workers. The risk of stagflation increases.
See also
Commodity market
Embodied energy
Energy industry
Gasoline usage and pricing
Peak coal
Petroleum politics
Resource-based view
Social metabolism
References
Further reading
The Power of Community: How Cuba Survived Peak Oil – examines the effect of cold war oil shortages during the Special Period.
Resource Wars: The New Landscape of Global Conflict by Michael Klare
Half Gone: Oil, Gas, Hot Air and the Global Energy Crisis by Jeremy Leggett
The Long Emergency by James Howard Kunstler, explores a psychology of previous investment
Eating Fossil Fuels by Dale Allen Pfeiffer
The Coming Oil Crisis by Colin Campbell
Energy and American Society: Thirteen Myths – disputes an energy crisis exists in 2007
The Final Energy Crisis (2nd edition) ed by Sheila Newman (Pluto Press, London, 2008); a study of energy trends, prospects, assets and liabilities in different political systems and regions
The End of Oil by Paul Roberts
Sustainable energy - Without the Hot Air, David J.C. MacKay, 384 pages, UIT Cambridge (2009)
2081: A Hopeful View of the Human Future, Gerard K. O'Neill, 284 pages, Simon & Schuster (1981)
The Nuclear Imperative: A Critical Look at the Approaching Energy Crisis (More Physics for Presidents), Jeff Eerkens, 212 pages, Springer (2010)
External links
Worldwide energy shortages
Peak oil
Natural resource conflicts
Waste of resources | [
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261319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport%20finance | Transport finance | Transport finance is the subject that explores how transport networks are paid for.
The timing of the money required to finance transport is a principal issue. Many projects are "pay-as-you-go", that is infrastructure, which lasts many years, is expected to be paid out of ongoing cash flow. Other projects are financed with bonds raised in capital markets. Bonds must be secured with an expected future cash flow.
The cash flow, required for either pay-as-you-go or for bonds, must be raised. Common sources are user fees, such as gas taxes, and tolls. Other sources are general revenue. This issue is related to who bears the burden: users or the general public. Even if users bear the burden, that class must be subdivided, e.g. users during peak times or off-peak, freight or passenger traffic, urban or rural users, residents or non-residents (many toll plazas are located on the state line to maximize revenue from non-residents).
A third issue concerns the full costs of transportation. There are monetary costs, which are financed with money, as considered above, but there are also non-monetary costs (sometimes called hidden costs), which are paid for by people's time, by clean air, by peace and quiet, etc. See the discussion of externalities for a fuller explication of non-monetary costs.
See also
Transport economics
References
Fields of finance
Transport economics | [
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261320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initialized%20fractional%20calculus | Initialized fractional calculus | In mathematical analysis, initialization of the differintegrals is a topic in fractional calculus.
Composition rule of differintegral
A certain counterintuitive property of the differintegral operator should be pointed out, namely the composition law. Although
wherein D−q is the left inverse of Dq, the converse is not necessarily true:
Example
It is instructive to consider elementary integer-order calculus to see what's happening. First, integrate then differentiate, using the example function 3x2 + 1:
on exchanging the order of composition:
in which the constant of integration is c. Even if it wasn't obvious, the initialization terms ƒ'(0) = c, ƒ''(0) = d, etc. could be used. If we neglected those initialization terms, the last equation would show the composition of integration then differentiation (and vice versa) would not hold.
Description of initialization
This is the problem that with the differintegral. If the differintegral is initialized properly, then the hoped-for composition law holds. The problem is that in differentiation, we lose information, as we lost the c in the first equation.
In fractional calculus, however, since the operator has been fractionalized and is thus continuous, an entire complementary function is needed, not just a constant or set of constants. We call this complementary function .
Working with a properly initialized differintegral is the subject of initialized fractional calculus.
See also
Initial conditions
Dynamical systems
References
(technical report).
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261323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankset | Crankset | The crankset (in the US) or chainset (in the UK), is the component of a bicycle drivetrain that converts the reciprocating motion of the rider's legs into rotational motion used to drive the chain or belt, which in turn drives the rear wheel. It consists of one or more sprockets, also called chainrings
or chainwheels attached to the cranks, arms, or crankarms to which the pedals attach. It is connected to the rider by the pedals, to the bicycle frame by the bottom bracket, and to the rear sprocket, cassette or freewheel via the chain.
Parts
Cranks
The two cranks, one on each side and usually mounted 180° apart, connect the bottom bracket axle to the pedals.
Lengths
Bicycle cranks can vary in length to accommodate different sized riders and different types of cycling. Crank length is measured from the center of the pedal spindle to the center of the bottom bracket spindle or axle. The larger bicycle component manufacturers typically offer crank lengths for adult riders from 165 mm to 180 mm long in 2.5 mm increments, with 170 mm cranks being the most common size. A few small specialty manufacturers make bicycle cranks in a number of sizes smaller than 165 mm and longer than 180 mm. Some manufacturers also make bicycle cranks that can be adjusted to different lengths. While logic would suggest that, all other things being equal, riders with shorter legs should use proportionally shorter cranks and those with longer legs should use proportionally longer cranks, this is not universally accepted. However, very few scientific studies have definitively examined the effect of crank length on sustained cycling performance and the studies' results have been mixed. Bicycle crank length has not been easy to study scientifically for a number of reasons, chief among them being that cyclists are able to physiologically adapt to different crank lengths. Cyclists are typically more efficient pedalling cranks with which they have had an adaptation period. Several different formulas exist to calculate appropriate crank length for various riders. In addition to the rider's size, another factor affecting the selection of crank length is the rider's cycling specialty and the type of cycling event. Historically, bicycle riders have typically chosen proportionally shorter cranks for higher cadence cycling such as criterium and track racing, while riders have chosen proportionally longer cranks for lower cadence cycling such as time trial racing and mountain biking. However, the evolution of very low rider torso positions to reduce aerodynamic drag for time trial racing and triathlon cycling can also affect crank selection for such events. Some have suggested that proportionally shorter cranks may have a slight advantage for a rider with a very low torso position and an acute hip angle, especially as the rider pedals near the top-dead-center position of the pedal stroke. Cranks can be shortened for medical reasons using shorteners such as Ortho Pedal.
Unicycle cranks vary in length to accommodate different unicycle wheel sizes, and different unicycling disciplines. As almost all unicycles are ungeared, crank length is a major factor in determining how much force is transmitted to the wheel. Larger wheel diameters (26" to 36") require longer cranks, as do disciplines such as Mountain Unicycling, Trials, Street, and Flatland. These unicycles and disciplines commonly use cranks lengths greater than 125mm. For indoor unicycling such as freestyle or hockey, shorter cranks give a smoother pedaling motion and enable tighter turns without the pedal hitting the floor. Crank lengths of 100mm are common, although some riders use cranks as short as 79mm.
As there is no chainwheel on a unicycle, right and left cranks are identical, except for the pedal attachment thread in the left-hand crank, which is reverse threaded.
Materials
Cranks are constructed of either an aluminum alloy, titanium, carbon fiber, chromoly steel, or some less expensive steel. Tubular steel cranks (such as Tioga's Revolver) can be light and very strong, are usually found on BMX bikes, and are slowly finding their way to mountain bikes (dirt jumping and urban assault). Aluminum cranks may be cast, hot forged or cold forged ("cold" in this context means the billet from which the crank is to be made is heated to a specified temperature well below the melting point, not room temperature). Cold forging gives the metal additional strength, and the cranks can therefore be made lighter without increasing the risk of breakage. Shimano "Hollowtech" aluminum cranks are made by forging the main arms around a hard steel insert which is then withdrawn, leaving an internal void to save weight. They are then welded up before final machining.
Attachments
To the bottom bracket
There are a variety of methods used to attach the cranks to the bottom bracket spindle (or axle).
Older cranks use a wedge-shaped pin, called a cotter, for attachment to the bottom bracket spindle.
Newer cranks slide onto
a square tapered spindle. The taper is 2 degrees with respect to the centerline. There are at least two non-interchangeable dimensions (e.g. Shimano and Campagnolo use competing standards in square taper, viz. JIS and ISO respectively, where the ISO spindle is longer and its taper end is slightly smaller. Most parts made by European manufacturers are to the ISO standard, and most Asian manufacturers use the JIS (Shimano) standard), and two orientations: diamond and horizontal square. The hole in the crank in which one screws a crank puller almost always has a diameter of 22 mm, though some old French cranks (Stonglight and T.A.) require a different puller.
a hexagonal tapered spindle (Tune components cranks are an example)
a splined bottom bracket spindle with two prominent specifications, and numerous uncommon ones. The ISIS spline may be the most common splined standard as it was decided on and supported by several companies. Shimano's Octalink is a common proprietary standard that comes in two forms: version one for XTR, 105, Ultegra and Dura Ace; and version two for every other groupset such as XT, LX and Deore. Truvativ and DMR also have their own proprietary spline interface standards. A 48 splined spindle, such as from Profile Racing, Demolition, and Eighth Inch, is mostly used for BMX, unicycles, and fixed-gear Freestyle.
The cranks are pressed into place and prevented from squirming off via fretting by a bolt or nut installed into or onto the bottom bracket spindle. The head of the bolt or the nut sits inside a counterbore that is also threaded to accept a crank puller tool. The counterbore is often covered with a dust cover.
One solution to the issue of fretting is to use a metal based anti-seize lubricant between the mating parts. Composed of assorted mixtures of aluminum, copper, graphite and nickel powders in a grease base, such lubrication allows repeated assembly and disassembly without wear and the elimination of fretting corrosion during use.
Even newer designs have the bottom bracket spindle, usually hollow and larger diameter than is possible for bottom brackets with bearings held inside the bottom bracket shell of a bike frame, for reduced weight and increased stiffness, permanently attached to the right crank (Shimano and others) or the left crank (Race Face). The left crank slides onto a spline and is tightened with one or more pinch bolts (Shimano) or is pressed onto a spline by a bolt on the bottom bracket spindle (Race Face).
The latest from Campagnolo, called Ultra-Torque, has each crank permanently attached to one half of the spindle (called semi-axles) which then join in the middle of the bottom bracket with a Hirth joint and a bolt.
Certain companies such as Cannondale (BB30 open standard, introduced in 2000) have made their own unique bottom bracket standards requiring changes in the bottom bracket shell of the bicycle frame in order to accommodate the bottom bracket/crank design. The open BB30 standard is gaining popularity on high end bicycle and component manufacturers (Zipp, Specialized, FSA).
Finally, many children's bikes and older, or less-expensive bikes have one-piece ("Ashtabula") cranks where the two cranks and bottom bracket spindle are forged as one piece of steel (see photograph above).
See the bottom bracket article for more details.
To the pedals
Crank arms have a threaded hole (or "eye") at their outboard end to accommodate the pedal spindle. Adult or multi-piece cranks have a 9/16 inch hole with 20 TPI (a combination that appears to be unique to this application). One-piece or children's cranks use a 1/2 inch hole. Some cranks on children's bikes have more than one pedal hole so that the pedal can be moved to accommodate growth.
The right-side (usually the chain side) hole is right-hand threaded, and the left-side hole is left-hand (reverse) threaded to help prevent it from becoming unthreaded by an effect called precession.
Pedal spindles are hard steel, and gradually fret and erode the crankarm where the two meet. This can eventually be a cause of crank breakage, which commonly occurs at the pedal eye. Some manufacturers advise the use of a thin steel washer between the pedal and crank, but this is ineffective because the hard washer frets against the crank instead. A solution, suggested by Jobst Brandt, is to use a 45 degree taper at the surface where crank and pedal meet, as this would eliminate precession-induced fretting and loosening (it is already done for most automobile lug nuts for the latter reason). However, this would require manufacturers to change a well-established standard which currently allows most pedals to be fitted to most cranks.
The solution to the issue of fretting is to use a metal based anti-seize lubricant; being composed of assorted mixtures of aluminium, copper, graphite and nickel powders in a grease base – that allows repeated assembly and disassembly without wear and the elimination of fretting corrosion during use.
Spider
On older styles, the spider—the multi-armed piece that connects the chainring to the bottom bracket axle—was a separate piece from the crank arm. The most common modern cranks have an integrated spider on the drive-side crank arm. However, Middleburn, TA, and Surly currently produce cranks with separate detachable spiders, enabling a wide variety of chainring patterns to be used with the same cranks.
Spiders usually have 4 or 5 arms, although some models have had as few as 3 and many as 10 arms with 6 having been popular in the past.
Bolt circle diameter (BCD)
Many modern bicycles have removable chainrings, to allow for replacement when worn, or to change the gear ratio provided (although the change is limited).
The holes on the spider arms used for attaching a chainring can have a variety of dimensions, referred to as the bolt circle diameter, commonly abbreviated as BCD. This measurement is sometimes referred to as pitch-circle diameter (PCD). Cranks designed to mount one or two chainrings will almost always use a single bolt circle diameter. Cranks designed to mount three chainrings will almost always use two different bolt circle diameters; the larger to mount the two outer rings and the smaller to mount the inner ring. Most modern two-chainring cranks use either a 110 mm or 130 mm bolt circle diameter.
Bolt circle diameters of common cranks:
vintage single 151 BCD
vintage double 144 BCD
Single 130, 135, or 144 BCD
Road double 130 BCD (Shimano and others), 135 (Campagnolo), or 122 (others)
Road triple 130/74 BCD (Shimano and others), or 135/74 BCD (Campagnolo)
Cyclocross/compact/touring double 110 BCD or (Campagnolo carbon 4×110/1×113 BCD)
Mountain bike(5 arm)/compact/touring triple 110/74 BCD
Mountain bike (4 arm) 104/64 BCD
Mountain bike (5 arm compact) 94/58 BCD
Single, double or triple (3 arm) 70 BCD (René Herse/Compass Bicycles)
Chainrings (also called "chain rings", "chainwheels" or "sprockets", although sprocket is used this way mostly in the BMX community) engage the chain to transfer power to the (usually rear) wheel. They usually have teeth spaced to engage every link of the chain as it passes over; however, in the past, some designs (called skip-tooth or inch-pitch) have had one tooth for every other link of the chain.
Sizes
By convention, the largest chainring is outboard and the smallest is inboard. Chainrings vary in size from as few as 20 teeth to as many as 60 and potentially more.
Chainrings also come in several nominal widths:
3/16" (4.76 mm) for old-time bikes (especially skip-tooth or inch-pitch), heavy duty BMX, Worksman, and exercise bikes
1/8" (3.18 mm) for track, BMX, cruiser bikes, one-speed, three-speeds, and the rare older 3 or 4 speed derailleur bike.
3/32" (2.38 mm) for road, hybrid, mountain bikes, single-speed and 5-, 6-, 7- and 8 speed freewheels or cassettes.
5/64" (1.98 mm) for any bike with 9- or 10-speed cassettes
Materials
Chainrings are constructed of either an aluminum alloy, titanium, steel, or carbon fiber.
Construction
Cheaper cranksets may have the chainrings welded or riveted directly to the crank arm or spider. More expensive sets have the chainrings bolted on so that they can be replaced if worn or damaged, or to provide different gearing.
Replacement chainrings must be chosen with a bolt-hole count and spacing that matches the spider.
Chainrings designed for use with multi-chainring crank arms may have ramps or pins to aid in shifting. The middle chainring, in the case of a triple crankset, usually has the most shaping to aid in shifting up and down. The smallest chainring usually has the least, if any shaping.
Variations
Tandem cranksets
On tandem bicycles the pedalling contribution of both riders is often combined and coordinated by the crank arms. There may be a second set of chainrings, often on the opposite side from the regular drive train, one on each crank set and connected by a separate chain. The most common implementation has both cyclists pedaling at exactly the same pace and usually in phase, although it is possible to configure the system for out-of-phase pedaling.
The most common tandem crankset is a set of four cranks. Both left cranks have spiders and chainrings to be connected by a timing chain, and only one of the right cranks has a spider for the drive chain.
There are tandem cranksets available called independent pedaling system cranksets, which allow each cyclist to pedal, or not, at their own pace.
Chain guards
Some chainrings can be outfitted with a chain guard — a plastic or metal ring slightly larger in diameter than the chainring. Its purpose is mostly to help prevent the chain from touching or catching clothing. Chain guard is usually mounted on the outboard side of the chainring or, in case of multi-sprocket chainring, on the outboard side of the largest chainring. Single-sprocket chainrings may have chain guards on both inboard and outboard sides, helping keeping the chain on the chainring; this is common on multi-speed juvenile bicycles.
Bicycles that are going to be used in abusive applications, such as freeride and BMX, will often incorporate a very heavy-duty chain guard that is designed to protect the chainrings from physical damage caused by impact with fixed objects; also called 'bashguards', these commonly replace a third (large) chainring.
Chainguides
Some cranksets used for freeride and downhill mountain biking have a chainguide installed. A chainguide is a metal or plastic housing that keeps the chain on the chainrings over rough terrain and during technical riding. Most chainguides are designed for only one front chainring, but there are a few dual-ring chainguides available such as the E13 DRS and MRP LRP. Chainguides include a channel on the top of the chainring to keep the chain in line (for models designed for one front chainring) and a roller or sprocket on the bottom to help keep the chain engaged with the chainring. These are almost always used in conjunction with bashguards. Exceptions including the E.thirteen LG-1 and the MRP G2 (and now the G2 SL) do exist which use integrated skid plates, removing impact forces from the crank's spider and transferring them to the frame.
Freewheeling cranksets
Some cranksets have been produced that incorporate a ratcheting mechanism to accommodate coasting. In this case, the chain continues to rotate with the rear wheel when the rider stops pedaling. The ultimate goal of freewheeling cranks is to allow the rider to shift the chain while coasting. Shimano's discontinued FF system (Front Freewheeling) is one of the more commonly seen examples.
Left-side-drive
This configuration consists of a left crank arm with a spider and chainring, and a right crank arm without a spider, the opposite of a normal configuration. If used with a screw-on freewheel, a special hub with a left hand thread for a special freewheel must be used, which is also threaded left hand and ratchets the opposite direction of a normal freewheel. If the freewheel and hub were threaded with right hand threads, the torque applied by pedaling would loosen and unthread the freewheel from the hub.
Left-side-drive is sometimes done with a fixed gear drivetrain. Because the lock ring prevents the sprocket from unscrewing, it can be used for left-side drive without requiring special left hand threaded parts.
Note that if a normal right-side-drive crankset is installed backwards to create a left-side-drive bicycle, the threaded pedal holes at the end of the crank arms would be reversed. In this configuration, precession may loosen the pedals over time, causing the pedals to become detached and/or damaging the pedal threading in the crank arms. A front crankset designed for tandem use is a commercially available option, since this has a chainring for the timing chain on the left side, though choice of chainring sizes may be limited.
Independent crank arms
At least one manufacturer offers a crankset in which the crank arms may rotate independently. This is supposed to aid in training by requiring each leg to move its own pedal in a full circle. One independent study has demonstrated training with these cranks can improve cycling efficiency. The manufacturer also claims that this change can also be useful to aid in running improvement, help prevent injuries in runners, improve core strength development, and are useful for the rehabilitation of lower extremity injuries, especially in the athlete. The manufacturer claims these cranks have been used as a training tool by several World and Olympic Champions in both cycling and triathlon and several professional sports teams including MLB and NFL teams, and other uses.
Non-round chainrings
After a first product commercialized in the late 1970s by Edmond Polchlopek, several manufacturers have tried non-round chainrings, such as Shimano's Biopace, Rotor's Q-Rings, Ridea's PowerRing and Osymetric's Harmonic ring. These are designed to provide varying mechanical advantage at different points in the pedal stroke, effectively changing the gear ratio at different angles of rotation with the intention to be more ergonomic. Non-round chainrings can sometimes cause problems in front shifting. Though the benefits of oval chainrings are still disputed in the press and among manufacturers, one study claimed significant benefits, namely that the rider would gain an additional 8 watts of power.
Their popularity in the late eighties to early nineties is best reflected in their widespread use by professional cyclists of that time. However, one hold-out has been Team CSC Saxo Bank veteran Bobby Julich, and there are still a couple of pro riders using them as late as 2011. Notably Bradley Wiggins of Team Sky, David Millar of Team Garmin Transitions and Agritubel's Geoffrey Lequatreall riding the Osymetric brand and Team CSC Saxo Bank's Carlos Sastre with Rotor's Q-Rings from his native Spain. Sastre won the 2008 Tour de France with Q-rings. Bradley Wiggins has used an elliptical chainring from Osymetric since at least 2009,
including in his victory of the 2012 Tour de France.
In the 2010 Giro d'Italia, and David Millar used them in his 2011 victory in the final TT of the 2011 Giro. Several Pro-Tour teams were using Osymetric and Q-Rings elliptical chainrings for road racing and time trialing. In the 2013 Tour, Chris Froome drew attention with his oval chainring, manufactured by Osymetric.
Compact crankset
In the context of mountain biking the term compact crankset, or micro drive, refers to smaller triple cranksets, giving a small benefit in weight at the expense of increased wear and also giving the bike better clearance over obstacles. Typical ratios would be 22/32/44 teeth as opposed to 28/38/48 or 24/36/46 teeth. These would be used with smaller cassettes (Generally cassettes are available with 11 tooth minimum gear sizes for compact chainsets while standard chainsets were designed for cassettes with a 13 or 14 tooth top gear), giving the same overall ratio. Compact chainrings have been the dominant standard for mountain bike cranks since the mid nineties.
In the context of road cycling, compact drivetrain typically refers to double cranksets with a smaller (usually 110 mm) bolt circle diameter than the standard 130 mm or Campagnolo's 135 mm. As of 2006, all of the major component manufacturers such as Shimano and Campagnolo offer compact cranks in their midrange and high-end product lines. The compact crankset provides a compromise between the standard road double crankset (with 39/52 or 39/53 tooth chainrings) and the road triple (with 30/42/52 or 30/39/53 tooth chainrings). The compact crankset has two chainrings and typical ratios are 34/48, 34/50 and 36/50. This provides nearly the same lower gear ratios as a triple but without the need for a third chainring, a triple front derailleur and a long cage rear derailleur. Both Shimano and Campagnolo recommend and sell front derailleurs specifically designed for compact cranksets, claiming better shifting.
Compact gearing is not necessarily lower than standard gearing if cassettes with smaller sprockets (such as 11–23) are used. A high gear of 50×11 on a compact drivechain is actually slightly higher than the 53×12 of a standard set.
Compact gearing usually has a large percentage jump between the two chainrings. In balance, it may also allow small jumps in the rear by allowing a closer ratio cassette to be used, except for the 9% jump at the high end between the 11 and 12 tooth sprockets.
Bent crankarms
Marketed and known by a variety of names (Z-cranks, P.M.P cranks, etc.) non-straight crank arms have been introduced several times. However, "as long as the distance from crank axle to pedal is fixed, there is no pedaling advantage in using bent crank arms". Possible disadvantages from comparable straight crank arms include more weight and more flex.
Rotor Box System
Rotor is a trade name of a type of crank used in the transmission system of a bicycle. The Rotor crank was developed by Aeronautic Engineering School students in Madrid, Spain in 1995 and was later commercialised. While Rotor Box found success with recreational road and mountain cyclists, many competitive cyclists continue to use the traditional fixed system as offered by major manufacturers Campagnolo and Shimano, amongst others. One major factor is weight— the Rotor Box System is 50%–75% heavier than most competitive cranks. Other negative factors include higher purchase cost than other fine cranksets, and increased maintenance due to the complexity of the system. These cranksets are no longer in production, and availability of some parts is problematic. However the bearings are standard parts. A few parts, like links, are still distributed.
This system originated as a cog-driven internal mechanism inside a purpose built bicycle's bottom bracket. In this first "ROTOR Box" design, the drive-side crank had an offset chainring spider with round rings. The drive side crank's gear ratio varied during the pedalling cycle by moving the round chainring upward and downward in regards to the crank's axle. The non-drive side crank was accelerated and decelerated by a gearing mechanism inside the bottom bracket to mimic the gear ratio variation the drive side crank went through, at an exact 180 degree phase-offset. While highly effective mechanically, these bicycles were costly and the significant movement of the chainring made shifting quality problematic.Later generation ROTOR System cranks moved the mechanism into an orbital chainring spider with a fixed rotational axis. These "ROTOR System" cranksets fit into classic BSA and ITA bicycle frames. Unlike a standard pair of cranks that always remain at 180 degrees relative to each other, the ROTOR system varies this angle through the circle of motion. The left and right crank arms speed up and slow down independently, relative to the chainrings during the pedalling cycle. The mechanism causing this is designed by ofsetting the axis of rotation of the crank spindle and spider, then connecting the spider to the individual crank arms via two independent links.
As the crank rotates, the distance between the axle and spider varies. By placing a pivot point on the crank arm and the spider and connecting these via linkages, the varying axle to spider distance pivots the linkages up and down, pushing the cranks forward and pulling them backward relative to the chainrings during the rotation. This increases and decreases the effective gear the cyclists' two legs push as the crankset rotates. The effect of these movements eliminates the dead spot (where little power is produced) at the top and bottom of the pedaling cycle, and reduces knee strain. The manufacturer claims that power output relative to heart rate is increased, amongst other claimed benefits.
It takes a couple of weeks of regular use to become accustomed to the unusual feel of the Rotor linkage cranksets. After becoming accustomed to it, most riders prefer it. However, there is no difficulty in switching between ordinary cranksets and Rotor linkage cranksets. Once a rider has learned to use Rotor linkage cranksets the adaption when switching back and forth between crankset types only takes a minute or two.
Many competitive cyclists, including the Cervélo TestTeam, use Rotor's Q-rings which mimic the fluctuation in gear size without the added weight. However Rotor Q-rings and other non-round rings cannot duplicate the crank arm movements that allow application of power through the dead spots of the pedaling cycle. Non-round rings also increase the difficulty of setting up the front derailleur, while Rotor linkage cranksets present no extra difficulty in that regard.
Planetary-drive
A planetary-gear crankset offers two different gear ratios with just one chainring. This can have at least two advantages: shifting while not pedaling and fewer chances for the chain to come off the chainring. The Mountain Drive & Speed-Drive by Schlumpf Innovations and the Hammerschmidt are examples.
See also
Bicycle gearing
Bicycle pedal
Biopace
Bottom bracket
Gearbox bicycle
References
External links
Bicycle drivetrains | [
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261326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubangi%20River | Ubangi River | The Ubangi River (), also spelled Oubangui, is the largest right-bank tributary of the Congo River in the region of Central Africa. It begins at the confluence of the Mbomou (mean annual discharge 1,350 m3/s) and Uele Rivers (mean annual discharge 1,550 m3/s) and flows west, forming the border between Central African Republic (CAR) and Democratic Republic of the Congo. Subsequently, the Ubangi bends to the southwest and passes through Bangui, the capital of the CAR, after which it flows southforming the border between Democratic Republic of the Congo and Republic of Congo. The Ubangi finally joins the Congo River at Liranga.
The Ubangi's length is about . Its total length with the Uele, its longest tributary, is . The Ubangi's drainage basin is about . Mean annual discharge at mouth 5,936 m3/s. Its discharge at Bangui ranges from about to , with an average flow of about . It is believed that the Ubangi's upper reaches originally flowed into the Chari River and Lake Chad before being captured by the Congo in the early Pleistocene.
Together with the Congo River, it provides an important transport artery for river boats between Bangui and Brazzaville.
From its source to below Bangui, the Ubangi defines the boundary between the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Thereafter, it forms the boundary between the DRC and the Republic of Congo until it empties into the Congo River.
In the 1960s, a plan was proposed to divert waters from the Ubangi to the Chari River. According to the plan, the water from the Ubangi would revitalize Lake Chad and provide a livelihood in fishing and enhanced agriculture to tens of millions of central Africans and Sahelians. Inter-basin water transfer schemes were proposed in the 1980s and 1990s by Nigerian engineer J.Umolu (ZCN) and the Italian firm Bonifica (Transaqua). In 1994, the Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC) proposed a similar project, and at a March 2008 summit the heads of state of the LCBC member countries committed to the diversion project. In April 2008, the LCBC advertised a request for proposals for a feasibility study.
See also
Ubangi-Shari
Lake Chad replenishment project
Waterway
References
External links
Map showing the Ubangi Subbasin at World Resources Institute
International Commission of the Congo-Oubangui-Sangha Bassin
Central African Republic–Democratic Republic of the Congo border
Democratic Republic of the Congo–Republic of the Congo border
International rivers of Africa
Border rivers
Rivers of the Central African Republic
Rivers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Rivers of the Republic of the Congo
Tributaries of the Congo River | [
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261328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma%20Peel | Emma Peel | Emma Peel is a fictional spy played by Diana Rigg in the British 1960s adventure television series The Avengers, and by Uma Thurman in the 1998 film version. She was born Emma Knight, the daughter of an industrialist, Sir John Knight. She is the crime-fighting partner of John Steed.
As a lady spy adventurer and expert in martial arts, she became a feminist role model around the world and is considered an icon of British popular culture. Regarded as a 1960s fashion icon and sex symbol, the character is often remembered for the leather catsuit sometimes worn by Rigg in the first series.
Casting
Mrs. Peel was introduced as a replacement for the popular character Cathy Gale, played by actress Honor Blackman. Blackman left the programme at the end of the third season to co-star in the James Bond film Goldfinger.
Elizabeth Shepherd was initially cast as Emma Peel and production on the fourth series began. After filming all of one episode and part of a second, the producers decided that Shepherd was not suitable for the part, and she was dismissed. No footage of Shepherd as Peel is known to have survived.
The producers had to quickly replace her and gave the job to Diana Rigg; the episodes with Shepherd were then subsequently re-filmed.
Character
The character was particularly notable for a number of characteristics. Peel is a strong heroine; she is rarely defeated in fights and is capable of rescuing Steed if he is in trouble. She is a master of martial arts and a formidable fencer. A certified genius, she specialises in chemistry and other sciences. She is often seen in episodes engaging in artistic hobbies and had success in industry at the helm of the company of her late father, Sir John Knight. Her husband, Peter Peel, was a pilot whose plane had disappeared over the Amazonian forest. He was presumed dead for many years, and Peel went on to work with Steed. She drove a convertible Lotus Elan at high speeds, and convincingly portrayed any series of undercover roles, from nurse to nanny. Her favourite guise was that of a women's magazine reporter, trying to interview big business tycoons and rich playboys. The name "Emma Peel" is a play on the phrase "Man Appeal" or "M. Appeal", which the production team stated was one of the required elements of the character. (Diana Rigg was never comfortable in her position as a world-famous sex-symbol.)
Peel's verbal interactions with Steed range from witty banter to thinly disguised innuendo. Regarding the constant question of whether they had a sexual relationship at any time, Patrick Macnee thought the characters went to bed on a very regular basis (just not in view of the camera). However, Rigg thought they were most likely engaging in an enjoyable extended flirtation that ultimately went nowhere. Writer/producer Brian Clemens said he wrote them with the idea that they had an affair before Emma's first appearance in the series, and they certainly appear to already know each other very well when Emma is first introduced to the series.
Her style of dress typified the period, and the character is still a fashion icon. John Bates was brought in as the costume designer for Emma Peel in the second half of the fourth series. He created a wardrobe of black and white op-art mod clothing and miniskirts. Before this, people had believed that lines, circles and other bold patterns would not work on the television cameras of the day. Episodes were filmed before the miniskirt had even become a mainstream fashion statement. Bates had to stop leaving hems on the mini skirts because the production team kept lowering them again. He also licensed his designs to several manufacturers under the Avengerswear label and these pieces were sold in various shops throughout the country. Diana Rigg is often remembered for the leather catsuit she wore early on in her first season. Rigg disliked wearing the leather outfit, so Bates designed softer stretch jersey and PVC catsuits for her instead.
When the show transitioned from black and white to colour, the designer was Alun Hughes, who used bold colours and lurid, psychedelic patterns. Hughes also created the Emmapeeler catsuit, which was made of stretch jersey in bright block colours. The Emmapeelers and several other pieces from this season's wardrobe were licensed and sold in women's fashion shops as well.
Departure
When her husband, Peter Peel, surprisingly reappears at the end of "The Forget-Me-Knot", Emma decides to leave Steed and her spy career behind. In the distant shot in which he appears, Peter Peel looks suspiciously like Steed (and was in fact played by Patrick Macnee's stunt double, Peter Weston), and like Steed, he drives a two-door convertible Bentley, albeit a contemporary model. Emma meets her replacement, Tara King (played by Linda Thorson), who enters the building as she herself is leaving and tells her that Steed likes his tea stirred "anti-clockwise". Peel would be the last of the "talented amateurs" with whom John Steed was teamed, as her successor is a neophyte professional agent.
In real life, Diana Rigg had chosen to leave the series for a number of reasons, one of which was to accept a role in the James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service (similarly, her predecessor Honor Blackman departed to appear in the Bond film Goldfinger).
During her first series, Rigg eventually discovered that she was being paid less than the cameramen: afterwards her salary was tripled and combined with her loyalty to Macnee, she was persuaded to come back for 25 additional episodes (including her farewell episode, which was actually shot well into the Tara King season). Eventually the arduous shooting schedules, various conflicts with the producers, the lure of film and stage roles, and a desire to challenge herself as an actress all combined in her decision to leave the show for good.
After leaving the series, Rigg played a variation of the Emma Peel character in two German short films produced for the 8mm market: The Diadem and The Mini-Killers. Little behind the scenes information has surfaced, though the films themselves have survived.
The New Avengers
Emma Peel re-appeared on The New Avengers using archive clips from the original series, featured in the episode entitled "K is for Kill". She briefly speaks with Steed over the phone and mentions that her last name isn't Peel anymore; Steed replies, "You'll always be Mrs. Peel to me." Sue Lloyd provided her voice for the new dialogue.
The Avengers (1998)
The character was revived and reworked for the 1998 film version of the show, [[The Avengers (1998 film)|The Avengers]]. Uma Thurman was cast in the role of Peel opposite Ralph Fiennes as Steed. In the film, Mrs. Peel is a scientist working as part of a weather project. When the project is sabotaged by someone who appears to be her double, she is investigated by Ministry agent John Steed. Ultimately, they team up to find out the truth. The film was a critical and box office failure with the new incarnation of the characters being panned. In 2003, Total Film magazine voted Fiennes and Thurman as "The Worst Movie Double Act of All Time" for their performances as Steed and Peel.
References in popular culture
Comics
In 1991’s Doctor Who Monthly #173, Gary Russell and artists Mike Collins and Steve Pini show Captain Britain about to hit John Steed when Emma Peel shows up behind him.
Emma Peel and John Steed were spotted in the crowd in Kingdom Come #2 (1996) by Mark Waid and Alex Ross, where they are both in a bar scene.
A thinly veiled version of Emma Peel appears in Alan Moore's comic The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Black Dossier, as the young "Emma Night", daughter of industrialist Sir John Night, where she shares a mutual attraction with "Jimmy", of whom her paternal "Uncle Hugo" disapproves.
She returns in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century 2009 (Chapter 3. Let It Come Down) as the new "M", head of MI5. She is drawn to resemble Judi Dench's M from the James Bond films.
The late 1960s revamping of Wonder Woman by Mike Sekowsky as a mod-dressing, karate-chopping but non-superpowered feminist icon was directly modeled on Mrs. Peel.
Music
The music video for the Pretenders' 1986 single "Don't Get Me Wrong" is a tribute to The Avengers and inserts lead singer Chrissie Hynde into the role of Emma Peel. Other tracks related to Emma Peel include:Emma Peel Sessions (1993) is Purple Avengers' second LP release.Thin Red Line (1980), the debut album of The Cretones, includes a song titled "Mrs. Peel".
The clip for "Emma Peel" from The Allies' debut album, Allies (1982), gave the band fleeting national recognition.Pet Your Friends (1995), Dishwalla's debut, includes a song titled "Miss Emma Peel".
The French rock band Matmatah, in its debut album La Ouache, included a whole song called Emma dedicated to Emma Peel. She also appears at the end of the official clip for another song, Lambé an Dro.
The Ann Arbor band Slot released a 7" single called "Emma Peel" in the 1990s.
The 4th track from Shark Inferno's album Puncture (2015) is titled, and about, "Emma Peel".
Pussy Galore has one CD track titled "Play Emma For Me", on Sympathy For The Record Industry (1996).
Babette Novak of Babette's Feast and Femme de Champagne wrote a song titled "A-Peel", in 1984.
TV
In the Good Eats episode, "Flat is Beautiful" (Episode: EA1C11), Alton Brown states the name of his pizza peel is "Emma".
In Married... with Children season 9, episode 3, Al tries to buy her VHS tapes.
The character Anita Knight, from BBC's cartoon The Secret Show is slightly similar to Emma.
References and sources
References
Sources
Alvarez, Maria (1998), "Feminist icon in a catsuit (female lead character Emma Peel in defunct 1960s UK TV series 'The Avengers')", New Statesman, Aug 14.
Cornell, Paul; Day, Martin; & Topping, Keith (1998). The Avengers Dossier. London: Virgin Books. .
Lars Baumgart (2002): DAS KONZEPT EMMA PEEL – Der unerwartete Charme der Emanzipation: THE AVENGERS und ihr Publikum''. Kiel: Verlag Ludwig –
!colspan="3" style="background:#C1D8FF;"| Status
Female characters in television
America's Best Comics characters
Fictional British people
Fictional English people
Fictional women soldiers and warriors
Fictional British secret agents
The Avengers (TV programme) characters
Martial artist characters in television | [
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261329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Santos%20Zelaya | José Santos Zelaya | José Santos Zelaya López (1 November 1853 in Managua – 17 May 1919 in New York City) was the President of Nicaragua from 25 July 1893 to 21 December 1909.
Early life
He was a son of José María Zelaya Irigoyen, who was originally from Olancho, Honduras, and his mistress Juana López Ramírez. His father José María was married to Rosario Fernández.
Politics
Zelaya was of Nicaragua's Liberal party and enacted a number of progressive programs, including improved public education, railroads, and established steam ship lines. He also enacted constitutional rights that provided for equal rights, property guarantees, habeas corpus, compulsory vote, compulsory education, the protection of arts and industry, minority representation, and the separation of state powers. However, his desire for national sovereignty often led him to policies contrary to foreign investors.
In 1894, he took control of the Mosquito Coast by military force; it had long been the subject of dispute, and was home to a native settlement claimed as a protectorate by the British Empire. Indeed, Nicaragua (and before that Spain) had always claimed the Caribbean Coast, but "Zambos" pirates (former African runaway slaves mixed with local Indians) and part of the Misquito Indians (probably with the Sumos and Ramas as well), together with the military support of the British Marines, tried to create a free, English-speaking settlement under British protection. (Greytown, nowadays Puerto Zelaya). This is similar to the cases of Belize and Guatemala, except that Belize has been an independent nation since 1981. Zelaya's aggressive attitude paid off, and the United Kingdom, which probably did not wish to go to war over this distant land, recognized Nicaraguan seizure of the area. The strategic value of this land led to the name "Vía del Tránsito" ("Route of Traffic"). Both the United Kingdom and the USA wanted the control of this route, which connected the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Coast across the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua. At this point, the Panama Canal did not exist, and the USA was rising as a new continental power.
Reelection, possibility of a canal, and response from the US
José Santos Zelaya was reelected president in 1902 and again in 1906.
The possibility of building a canal across the isthmus of Central America had been the topic of serious discussion since the 1820s, and Nicaragua was long a favored location. When the United States shifted its interests to Panama, Zelaya negotiated with Germany (who happened to be in the middle of a cold war with the U.S over Caribbean ports) and Japan in an unsuccessful effort to have a canal constructed in his state. Fearful that president Zelaya might generate an alternative foreign alignment in the region, and because of his heavy-handed repression of his opposition and his land seizures, he was opposed by the U.S.
José Zelaya had the project of reuniting the Federal Republic of Central America, with, he hoped, himself as national president. With this aim in mind, he gave aid to factions favouring this project in other Central American nations. This threatened to blow up into a full scale Central American war which would endanger the United States Panamanian canal and give European nations, such as Germany, an excuse to intervene to protect the collection of their bank's payments in the region or if failing that then demand a land concession.
The Zelaya administration had growing friction with the United States government, for example while the French government had inquired to the U.S. whether a loan to Nicaragua would be deemed unfriendly, the U.S. Secretary of State required the loan to be conditional on U.S. relations. After the loan was pending on the Paris stock exchange, the U.S. further isolated Nicaragua by pointing out any money Zelaya would receive "would be without doubt spent to purchase munitions to oppress his neighbors" and in "hostility to peace and progress in Central America." The US State Department also demanded that all investments in Central America would also need be approved by the U.S. as a means to protect U.S. interests, peace and liberal institutions. According to a French minister, there was also a desire to overthrow Zelaya.
The U.S. started giving financing aid to his Conservative and Liberal opponents in Nicaragua who broke out in open rebellion in October 1909, led by Liberal General Juan J. Estrada. Nicaragua sent its forces into Costa Rica to suppress Estrada's pro U.S. rebel forces, but U.S. officials deemed the incursion as an affront to Estrada's aims and attempted to persuade Costa Rica into acting first against Nicaragua, but Foreign Minister Ricardo Fernández Guardia assured Calvo that Costa Rica was determined "not to enter such dangerous actions as those proposed by Washington." It "considered the joint action proposed contrary to the Washington treaty and desired to maintain a neutral attitude." Costa Rican officials considered the United States a more serious threat to Central American peace and harmony than attacks from Zelaya's Nicaragua. Costa Rica Foreign Minister Fernández Guardia insisted, "We do not understand here what interests can the Washington government have that Costa Rica assumes a resolutely aggressive position against Nicaragua, with the danger of compromising the observation of the...conventions of December 20, 1907.... It is in Central America's interest that U.S. action with respect to Nicaragua should assume the character of an international conflict and in no sense the character of an intervention tolerated and even less solicited or supported by the other signatory republics of the Washington Treaty. So Costa Rica's uneasiness meant that it never was a help to USA Policy against Nicaragua's aggressive policy towards it in those times. On the contrary, some Liberals from Costa Rica exiled in Nicaragua during Zelaya's regime. Liberals returned to the Government in Costa Rica with the polemic President Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra (1902-1906), who was born in Nicaragua and later with the first Government of President Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno (1910-1914). Liberal returned in Civil and a Democratic way to Costa Rica with the popular and progressive Government of Alfredo González Flores (1914-1917), overthrow by the short Dictatorship (1917 -1919) of Federico Tinoco Granados, during World War I.
US sets up base of operations in Nicaragua
Officers of Zelaya's government executed some captured rebels; two United States volunteers were among them, and the U.S. government declared their execution grounds for a diplomatic break between the countries which later led to formal intervention. At the start of December, United States Marines landed in Nicaragua's Bluefields port, to create a neutral zone to protect foreign lives and property but which also acted as a base of operations for the anti-Zelayan rebels. On 17 December 1909, Zelaya turned over power to José Madriz and fled to Spain. Madriz called for continued suppression of the uprising, but in August 1910 diplomat Thomas Dawson obtained the capitulation of the government and the withdrawal of Madriz. Thereafter the U.S. called for a popular voice in the government and a constituent assembly was called to write a constitution for Nicaragua. The vacant presidency was filled by a series of Conservative politicians including Adolfo Diaz. During this time, through free trade and loans, the U.S. influenced the expanding prosperity and development of the country.
Family
His son, named after the King of Spain, was pianist Don Alfonso Zelaya. He was educated in Europe before his father sent him to America to pursue a military career. He was a graduate of West Point, 1910, and served four years in the U.S. Army, including the World War I years. In 1911 he married his first wife, American-born Marguerite Lee, grandniece of General Robert E. Lee. They had a son they named José Santos.
As a pianist he played with the San Francisco and Minneapolis symphony orchestras. With a repertoire of 300 classical pieces, his performances were not limited to the concert stage, for he also enjoyed bringing classical music to the vaudeville (Keith-Orpheum Circuit) stage. According to the Spokane (Washington) Spokesman-Review (Mar. 4, 1932):
"...what is unique about this most affable and rotund Castilian is that he plays classical music and makes vaudeville audiences like it. He has a certain humor, a philosophical way of presenting his music that makes his audiences clamor for more and more."
Beginning in 1933 he made sporadic film appearances playing bit parts. He is best known today as the Mexican who gives involved and incomprehensible Spanish-language directions to the Three Stooges in their 1942 short, “What’s the Matador?” His last role was as "Gimpy," the piano player in Macao (1952). He died in North Hollywood on December 14, 1951.
Notes
1853 births
1919 deaths
People from Managua
Nicaraguan people of Basque descent
Liberal Party (Nicaragua) politicians
Presidents of Nicaragua
People of the Banana Wars
19th-century Nicaraguan people
National Heroines and Heroes of Nicaragua
Nicaraguan people of Honduran descent | [
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261331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familiar | Familiar | In European folklore of the medieval and early modern periods, familiars (sometimes referred to as familiar spirits) were believed to be supernatural entities that would assist witches and cunning folk in their practice of magic. According to records of the time, those alleging to have had contact with familiar spirits reported that they could manifest as numerous forms, usually as an animal, but sometimes as a human or humanoid figure, and were described as "clearly defined, three-dimensional... forms, vivid with colour and animated with movement and sound", as opposed to descriptions of ghosts with their "smoky, undefined form[s]".
When they served witches, they were often thought to be malevolent, but when working for cunning folk they were often considered benevolent (although there was some ambiguity in both cases). The former were often categorized as demons, while the latter were more commonly thought of and described as fairies. The main purpose of familiars was to serve the witch or young witch, providing protection for them as they came into their new powers.
Since the 20th century some magical practitioners, including adherents of the Neopagan religion of Wicca, use the concept of familiars, due to their association with older forms of magic. These contemporary practitioners use pets or wildlife, or believe that invisible versions of familiars act as magical aids.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chauran|first=Alexandra |title=Animal Familiars for Beginners|publisher=Jupiter Gardens Press|year=2013|isbn =978-1938257667 }}</ref>
Definitions
Pierre A. Riffard proposed this definition and quotations
The French poet Charles Baudelaire, a cat fancier, believed in familiar spirits.
A. P. Elkin studied the belief in familiar spirits among the Australian Aborigines:
Mircea Eliade:
Descriptions
Among those accused witches and cunning-folk who described their familiar spirits, there were commonly certain unifying features. The historian Emma Wilby noted how the accounts of such familiars were striking for their "ordinariness" and "naturalism", despite the fact that they were dealing with supernatural entities.
Familiar spirits were most commonly small animals, such as cats, rats, dogs, ferrets, birds, frogs, toads and hares. There were also cases of wasps and butterflies, as well as pigs, sheep and horses. Familiar spirits were usually kept in pots or baskets lined with sheep's wool and fed a variety of things including, milk, bread, meat and blood.
Familiar spirits usually had names and "were often given down-to-earth, and frequently affectionate, nicknames." One example of this was Tom Reid, who was the familiar of the cunning-woman and accused witch Bessie Dunlop, while other examples included Grizell and Gridigut, who were the familiars of 17th-century Huntingdonshire witch Jane Wallis.
An Agathion is a familiar spirit which appears in the shape of a human or an animal, or even within a talisman, bottle or magic ring. It is strongest at midday.
Relationship with sorcerers
Using her studies into the role of witchcraft and magic in Britain during the Early Modern period as a starting point, the historian Emma Wilby examined the relationship that familiar spirits allegedly had with the witches and cunning-folk in this period.
Meeting
In the British accounts from the early modern period at least, there were three main types of encounter narrative related to how a witch or cunning person first met their familiar. The first of these was that the spirit spontaneously appeared in front of the individual while they were going about their daily activities, either in their home or outdoors somewhere. Various examples for this are attested in the sources of the time, for instance, Joan Prentice from Essex, England, gave an account when she was interrogated for witchcraft in 1589 claiming that she was "alone in her chamber, and sitting upon a low stool preparing herself to bedward" when her familiar first appeared to her, while the Cornish cunning-woman Anne Jeffries related in 1645 that hers first appeared to her when she was "knitting in an arbour in our garden".
The second manner in which the familiar spirit commonly appeared to magical practitioners in Britain was that they would be given to a person by a pre-existing individual, who was sometimes a family member and at other times a more powerful spirit. For instance, the alleged witch Margaret Ley from Liverpool claimed, in 1667, that she had been given her familiar spirit by her mother when she died, while the Leicestershire cunning-woman Joan Willimot related, in 1618, that a mysterious figure whom she only referred to as her "master", "willed her to open her mouth and he would blow into her a fairy which should do her good. And that she open her mouth, and that presently after blowing, there came out of her mouth a spirit which stood upon the ground in the shape and form of a woman."
In a number of accounts, the cunning person or witch was experiencing difficulty prior to the appearance of the familiar, who offered to aid them. As historian Emma Wilby noted, "their problems... were primarily rooted in the struggle for physical survival—the lack of food or money, bereavement, sickness, loss of livelihood and so on", and the familiar offered them a way out of this by giving them magical powers.
Working
In some cases, the magical practitioner then made an agreement or entered a pact with their familiar spirit. The length of time that the witch or cunning person worked with their familiar spirit varied between a few weeks through to a number of decades. In most cases, the magical practitioner would conjure their familiar spirit when they needed their assistance, although there are many different ways that they did this: the Essex witch Joan Cunny claimed, in 1589, that she had to kneel down within a circle and pray to Satan for her familiar to appear while the Wiltshire cunning woman Anne Bodenham described, in 1653, that she conjured her familiars by methods learned from books. In some rarer cases there were accounts where the familiars would appear at times when they were unwanted and not called upon, for instance the Huntingdonshire witch Elizabeth Chandler noted, in 1646, that she could not control when her two familiars, named Beelzebub and Trullibub, appeared to her, and had prayed for a god to "deliver her therefrom". It was also believed that familiars “helped diagnose illnesses and the sources of bewitchment and were used for divining and finding lost objects and treasures. Magicians conjured them in rituals, then locked them in bottles, rings and stones. They sometimes sold them as charms, claiming the spirits would ensure success in gambling, love, business or whatever the customer wanted. This sort of familiar was technically not illegal; England’s Witchcraft Act of 1604 prohibited only evil and wicked spirits.”
Types
Familiars are most common in western European mythology, with some scholars arguing that familiars are only present in the traditions of Great Britain and France. In these areas, three categories of familiars are believed to exist:
familiar spirits manifesting as humans and humanoids, throughout Western Europe
divinatory spirits manifesting as animals, Great Britain and France
malevolent spirits manifesting as animals, only in Greece
Prince Rupert's dog
During the English Civil War, the Royalist general Prince Rupert was in the habit of taking his large poodle dog named Boy into battle with him. Throughout the war the dog was greatly feared among the Parliamentarian forces and credited with supernatural powers. As noted by Morgan, the dog was apparently considered a kind of familiar. At the end of the war the dog was shot, allegedly with a silver bullet.
Witch trials
Most data regarding familiars comes from the transcripts of English and Scottish witch trials held during the 16th–17th centuries. The court system that labeled and tried witches was known as the Essex. The Essex trial of Agnes Sampson of Nether Keith, East Lothian in Scotland in 1590, presents prosecution testimony regarding a divinatory familiar. This case is fundamentally political, trying Sampson for high treason, and accusing Sampson for employing witchcraft against King James VI. The prosecution asserts Sampson called familiar spirits and resolved her doubtful matter. Another Essex trial is that of Hellen Clark, tried in 1645, in which Clark was compelled to state that the Devil appeared as a "familiar" in the form of a dog.
The English court cases reflect a strong relationship between State's accusations of witchcraft against those who practiced ancient indigenous traditions, including the familiar animal or spirit.
In some cases familiars replace children in the favour of their mothers. (See witchcraft and children.)
In colonial America animal familiars can be seen in the witch hunts that took place in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692. Familiar spirits often appear in the visions of the afflicted girls. Although the 1648 law that defined a witch as one who "hath or consulteth with a familiar spirit" had been suspended ten years earlier, association with a familiar spirit was used in the Salem trials as evidence to convict suspected witches. Sarah Good was said to have a yellow bird who sucked between her fingers. Ann Putnam in particular was supposed to have frequently seen the yellow bird in her afflictions. Tituba was said to have seen strange animals that urged her to hurt children, which included a hog, a black dog, a red cat and a black cat. “During the Salem witch trials, there is little account of the practice of animal familiars, although one man was charged with encouraging a dog to attack by way of magical means. The dog, interestingly enough, was tried, convicted, and hanged.”
The witch's mark added a sexual component to the familiar spirit and is often found in trial records as a way to convict a suspected witch. The mark was most commonly an extra teat found somewhere on the body and was suspected to be used to suckle the familiar spirits. An example of this can be seen in the Salem witch trials of 1692. For example, Ann Putnam told Martha Corey that, "There is a yellow burd a sucking between your fore finger and midel finger I see it."
Legacy
Folk tales
Historian Emma Wilby identified recurring motifs in various European folk tales and fairy tales that she believed displayed a belief in familiar spirits. She noted that in such tales as Rumpelstiltskin, Puss-in-Boots and the Frog Prince, the protagonist is approached by a supernatural being when they are in need of aid, something that she connected to the appearance of familiar spirits in the Early Modern accounts of them. She believed there to be a direct connection between the belief in and accounts of familiar spirits with these folk tales because "These fairy stories and myths originate from the same reservoir of folk belief as the descriptions of familiar-encounters given by cunning-folk and witches".
Historiography
Recent scholarship on familiars exhibits the depth and respectability absent from earlier demonological approaches. The study of familiars has grown from an academic topic in folkloric journals to a general topic in popular books and journals incorporating anthropology, history and other disciplines. James Sharpe, in The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft: the Western Tradition, states: "Folklorists began their investigations in the 19th Century [and] found that familiars figured prominently in ideas about witchcraft."
In the 19th century, folklorists fired the imagination of scholars who would, in decades to come, write descriptive volumes on witches and familiars. Examples of the growth and development of familiar scholarship are found in Folklore, which consistently contributes articles on traditional beliefs in England and early modern Europe.
In the first decades of the 20th century, familiars are identified as "niggets", which are "creepy-crawly things that witches kept all over them".
Margaret Murray delves into variations of the familiar found in witchcraft practices. Many of the sources she employs are trial records and demonological texts from early to modern England. These include the 1556 Essex Witchcraft Trials of the Witches of Hatfield Perevil, the 1582 Trial of the Witches of St. Osyth, and the 1645 Essex Trials with Matthew Hopkins acting as a witch-finder. In 1921, Murray published The Witch Cult in Western Europe. Her information concerning familiars comes from witchcraft trials in Essex in the 16th and 17th centuries. Within this book Murray dedicates an entire chapter to the familiar spirit. Her detailed contribution to the topic included several court cases and accounts from Europe in which she finds mention of familiars.
Mary Beth Norton's In the Devils Snare'' published in 2002, discusses the Salem witchcraft crisis of 1692. She frequently references familiar spirits as she explores the trials of the Salem witches.
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
European witchcraft
Fantasy tropes
English legendary creatures
Supernatural legends
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] |
261334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bune | Bune | Bune is a demon listed in demonological grimoires such the Lesser Key of Solomon (including Thomas Rudd's version, as Bime) Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, Jacques Collin de Plancy's Dictionnaire Infernal, and the Livre des Esperitz.
All of these texts describe Bune as a duke who is able to move the dead, make one rich, and answer a variety of questions. The Livre des Esperitz claims that Bune rules 35 legions of spirits, while the other texts only give him 30 legions to command. The other texts further describe Bune's appearance as a three headed dragon (with one head being human) and give him the additional powers of making devils gather around graves and making one wise and charismatic.
Practicing occultist Carroll "Poke" Runyon suggests that the name ultimately derives from Buto (a title for Isis), as part of an overall claim that the Lesser Key of Solomon was by Solomon and rooted in Mesopotamian mythology.
According to Rudd, Bune is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Haaiah.
Notes
References
Goetic demons
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261336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag%20strip | Drag strip | Drag strip (or Dragstrip) may refer to:
Dragstrip, track used for drag racing
Drag Strip (Transformers), Transformer character who is one of the Stunticons
Videocart-9: Drag Strip, drag racing videogame released in 1976
See also
Dover Drag Strip
Lions Drag Strip
Hilo Dragstrip | [
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] |
261337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragstrip | Dragstrip | A dragstrip is a facility for conducting automobile and motorcycle acceleration events such as drag racing. Although a quarter mile (1320 feet, 402 m) is the best known measure for a drag track, many tracks are eighth mile (201 m) tracks, and the premiere classes will run 1,000 foot (304.8 m) races. The race is begun from a standing start which allows three factors to affect the outcome of the race: reaction time, power/weight ratio, and traction.
Features
A dragstrip is a straight, purpose-built racetrack, typically an eighth, ten feet longer than three-sixteenths, or a quarter of a mile long (660/1,000/1320 feet, 201/304.8/402 m), with an additional shutdown area to allow vehicles room to stop after crossing the finish line. Common features also include a 'water box' where vehicles and motorcycles start their burnouts for tire clean-up and also to heat up their tires to improve traction. There is a set of lights known as a 'Christmas Tree' that counts down to the start. There are also return lanes for the vehicles to return from the end of the track to the pit area.
Vehicle equipment requirements
Like all other motorsports, drag racing has many safety requirements for the vehicles that compete. These can be found in the applicable governing body's rule book. Most rules do not apply until the vehicle exceeds a specified time, such as 10.99 seconds. This allows anyone with a regular production vehicle to take part for very little cost, and encourages participation of many people who cannot afford a proper racing vehicle. The grassroots efforts are primarily bracket racing cars. Many classes allow drivers to drive their street cars and participate in an event.
Dragstrip locations
Quarter mile times
Acceleration times differ even between identical vehicles due to widely varying factors - vehicle tune, elevation, driver/rider differences, payload, track surface conditions, weather conditions.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:97%;" width=75%
|+Racing vehicles
! width=20%|Vehicle
! width=30%|Elapsed time
! width=30%|Notes
|-
| Rocket dragster
| 3.2 sec @ ~
| Kitty O'Neil, 1977 in the Mojave Desert
|-
| rowspan=2|Top Fuel Dragster || ET: 4.443 sec @ ~ || Damien Harris, 9 June 2017, Willowbank Raceway Absolute record. Last quarter-mile championship Top Fuel meet.
|-
|Speed: 4.485 sec@ ~ || Dom Lagana, 9 September 2017, US 131 Motorsports Park, Martin, MI. Run at IHRA US exhibition event. Certified speed by IHRA.
|-
|rowspan="2"| Top Fuel Dragster (1000 foot) || ET: 3.701 sec @ ~ || Antron Brown, 8 October 2012, Maple Grove Raceway, Mohnton, PA
|-
| Speed: 3.802 sec @ ~ || Spencer Massey, 15 April 2012, Concord, NC
|-
| Top Fuel Funny Car (1000 foot)
| 3.901 sec @ ~
| Jack Beckman, 22 August 2015, Brainerd International Raceway
|-
|rowspan="2"| Top Alcohol Dragster || ET: 5.103 @ ~ || Bill Reichert, 1 April 2007, Houston Raceway Park
|-
| Speed: 5.200 @ ~ || Donald St. Arnaud, 10 November 2016, Auto Club Raceway (Pomona)
|-
| Pro ModifiedTop Doorslammer in Australia
| 5.745 sec @ ~
| John Zappia, 8 June 2013, Willowbank Raceway
|-
| Pro Stock
| 6.455 sec @ ~
| Jason Line, 29 March 2015, at zMax Dragway
|-
| Top Fuel Bike
| 5.799 sec @
| Larry McBride, March 2006, Valdosta, Georgia
|-
| Pro Stock Motorcycle
| 6.750 sec @ ~
| Eddie Krawiec, 10 March 2012, at Gainesville Raceway
|-
| Electric Motorcycle
| 6.94 sec @ ~
| Larry McBride, 4 May 2012, at Virginia Motorsports Park
|-
| Production car, electric car
| 8.582 sec @ ~
| Rimac Nevera, 13 Aug 2021, at Famoso Raceway
|}NOTE: Nitro Funny Car records set at , which since 2008 in the US by NHRA, 2012 internationally by FIA, and 2017 in Australia by IHRA is the official distance for both Top Fuel and Funny Car in the respective sanctioning bodies.
All official records must be backed up within one percent during the same race meet in order to be claimed. The official records for terminal velocity and elapsed time are different in the professional car categories, and only the elapsed time run (and respective speed of that run) is listed. There have been some cases where a car has run faster than the official record, but because they were not backed up within one percent during the same meet, they are not recognised by the NHRA, IHRA, or FIA. The Top Fuel record listed as the final quarter-mile record in IHRA prior to off-season rule change at the end of 2016-17 season that shortened Top Fuel to 1,000 feet.
See also
List of fastest production cars by acceleration
References
External links
International Hot Rod Association (IHRA)
National Hot Rod Association (NHRA, US)
New Zealand Drag Racing Association (NZDRA)
Online Database of 1/4 mile times (US) | [
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261339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamigin | Gamigin | Gamigin is a demon described in demonological grimoires such as The Lesser Key of Solomon (the fourth Goetic demon; referred to in the Crowley/Mathers edition as Samigina) and Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (the forty-sixth; referred to as Gamygyn).
Both works describe him as a marquis who initially takes the form of a small horse before transforming into a hoarse-voiced human. The Lesser Key of Solomon merely leaves his duties at teaching liberal arts and giving accounts of souls that died in sin.
According to Rudd, Gamigin is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Ieuiah. The Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, Thomas Rudd's variant of the Ars Goetia, and the Dictionnaire Infernal go into more detail than the Lesser Key, with Gamigin forcing the souls of those who drowned into "airy bodies" to answer questions in either, with Weyer and de Plancy further claiming that Gamigan can do likewise for souls "which dwell in purgatorie (which is called Cartagra, that is, affliction of soules)".
References
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261341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravediggaz | Gravediggaz | Gravediggaz was an American hip hop group from New York, known for its dark sense of humor and abrasive, menacing soundscapes. Gravediggaz blended hardcore hip hop, gangsta rap and heavy metal with horror elements to pioneer the hip-hop subgenre of horrorcore.
The group was formed in 1994, which brought together Prince Paul (The Undertaker), Frukwan (The Gatekeeper), Too Poetic (The Grym Reaper) and RZA (The RZArector). It came about largely due to the efforts of Prince Paul. Frukwan and Prince Paul were previously together in the group Stetsasonic.
Biography
The group's first album was originally titled Niggamortis; however, this potentially risqué title was changed to 6 Feet Deep for the American market (European versions of the album retained the original title, and also included the bonus track "Pass the Shovel"); it was released on August 9, 1994. The four members adopted Gravedigga alter egos for their work with the group: RZA became The RZArector; Poetic became The Grym Reaper; Prince Paul became The Undertaker; and Frukwan became The Gatekeeper. In 1995, the three rhyming members (without Prince Paul) released a collaborative EP titled The Hell E.P. with English trip hop artist Tricky.
The second full-length Gravediggaz album The Pick, the Sickle and the Shovel was less humorous, dealing more with social and political issues; it also used calmer and more conventional production. Prince Paul played a considerably smaller role in the making of this album, with many of the production duties eventually taken care of by RZA and his Wu-Tang affiliates (including True Master and 4th Disciple).
A bootleg Gravediggaz album, named Scenes From The Graveyard, surfaced in 1998. It featured seven unreleased tracks plus some remixes from the first two albums.
Gravediggaz recruited DJ Diamond J. Poetic died of colon cancer in July 2001. Frukwan stated in an interview not long after Poetic's death that a new album using leftover Poetic material would be released. Nightmare in A-Minor, the third official album, came out in 2001; it featured two of the original members, Poetic and Frukwan. The album is considered to be the group’s darkest work yet, including many references to Poetic's struggle with cancer, as well as apocalyptic themes to do with the teachings of the Five-Percent Nation. Although RZA did not take part in the album, some Wu-Tang Clan affiliates such as 4th Disciple, True Master, Prodigal Sunn, Beretta 9, and Shogun Assason were involved. The album was mostly produced by Poetic and Frukwan. A different version of the album (minus the song "Better Wake Up") was released in 2002, for which some of the tracks created by Poetic were replaced or altered.
In 2003, Frukwan released his debut solo album, Life. Gravediggaz’ fourth album, 6 Feet Under, was released in 2004 by X-Ray/Cleopatra Records and featured songs from Nightmare in A-Minor and Life. According to Frukwan, he had nothing to do with the release and claimed that song titles were changed without permission, making it an unauthorized release.
In 2010, Gravediggaz recorded a new song, "2 More Cups of Blood". In 2011, it was announced that the group had been recording new tracks involving Shabazz the Disciple & Killah Priest.
In 2018, the Gatekeeper released "1 Cup of Blood" under the Gravediggaz name.
Style and influence
According to Frukwan, the group's name means "digging graves of the mentally dead, and it stood for resurrecting the mentally dead from their state of unawareness and ignorance." The group's lyrics mix black humor (regarding topics such as suicide, death, killing, psychopathy, hell, etc.), criticism regarding the music industry, cartoonish violence reminiscent of the Geto Boys, Insane Poetry, or early Three 6 Mafia, and esoteric references to the Nation of Gods and Earths. The group pioneered the horrorcore genre.
Gravediggaz' irony influenced hardcore techno through Mark Newland's sampling of the group's prose in Nasenbluten.
Discography
Studio albums
6 Feet Deep (1994)
The Pick, the Sickle and the Shovel (1997)
Nightmare in A-Minor (2001)
Compilation albums
6 Feet Under (2004)
References
External links
Gravediggaz at discogs
Frukwan website
1993 establishments in New York City
African-American musical groups
Five percenters
Hip hop groups from New York City
Horrorcore groups
Gee Street Records artists
Musical groups established in 1993
Musical groups disestablished in 2002
Musical groups reestablished in 2010
Musical quartets
Hip hop supergroups
Underground hip hop groups
Wu-Tang Clan affiliates | [
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261343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox%20Mulder | Fox Mulder | FBI agent Fox William Mulder () is a protagonist in the Fox science fiction-supernatural television series The X-Files, played by David Duchovny. Mulder's peers consider his (often correct) theories on extraterrestrials activity as spooky and far-fetched. With his FBI partner Dana Scully, he works in the X-Files office, which is concerned with cases with particularly mysterious or possibly paranormal circumstances that were left unsolved and shelved by the FBI. Mulder was a main character for the first seven seasons, but was limited to a recurring character for the following two seasons. He returns as a main character for the tenth and eleventh seasons.
Mulder made his first appearance in the first season pilot episode, broadcast in 1993. Mulder believes in extraterrestrial unidentified flying objects (UFOs) and a government conspiracy to hide or deny the truth of their existence. Mulder considers the X-Files and the truth behind the supposed conspiracy so important that he has made them the main focus of his life.
Character arc
Mulder was born on October 13, 1961 on the island of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts. The mysterious disappearance of Mulder's sister and his ensuing search for her became the consuming drive of his life. In 1983, Mulder graduated with first class honours from University of Oxford with a Bachelor of Arts degree in psychology. He then graduated with honors from the Quantico FBI Training Academy in 1986. Mulder joined the FBI on October 24, 1984. On graduating from the Academy, Mulder began his work in the Behavioral Science Unit (psychological profiling) under Agent Bill Patterson, with whom he had a testy relationship.
In 1988, the FBI assigned Mulder to the Violent Crimes Unit. Around this time, Mulder first came across the X-Files, an obscure FBI section dealing with cases relating to the paranormal; he pored over these cases in his spare time, becoming obsessed with them. In 1991, Mulder re-opened the X-Files with Special agent Diana Fowley, but Fowley left shortly thereafter. Mulder investigated the X-Files by himself until March 1992, when Dana Scully, an instructor at the FBI Academy's Forensic Science Research and Training Center, was partnered with him for the purpose of applying scientific reasoning to Mulder's work and theories.
Mulder's ultimate goal was to uncover what he believed to be a government conspiracy to hide the truth about alien life, and to find out what had happened to his sister. His quest and belief in the existence of aliens was, for most of the series, the driving force of the plot, or mytharc. However, during a period of time after Scully's cancer went into remission (season 5), Mulder was convinced by Michael Kritschgau that aliens did not in fact exist, and that the government conspirators had merely concocted that threat as a smokescreen, to justify military activities and toy with him.
During the seventh season, Mulder eventually discovers the truth about his sister. Samantha was abducted (either by the alien colonists or the government conspirators), and various tests were performed on her. She was then returned to The Smoking Man to live out her life under his supervision, all the while undergoing additional tests. She was unable to bear the testing any longer so she ran away from her home and was eventually admitted to a nearby hospital, where she disappeared from her locked room. It is revealed that Samantha was taken by "spiritual intervention", with the help of beings called "Walk-ins". Mulder is briefly reunited with Samantha's spirit.
Mulder was also abducted by the aliens himself in 2000, and returned to Earth, almost dead, a few months later. He had been infected by an alien virus (for the second time), but Scully found a way to rescue him. After Mulder returned home to his apartment, an application was submitted to the FBI for his reinstatement to the X-Files but this was declined by Deputy Director Alvin Kersh, who had been promoted in charge of the X-Files shortly after Mulder had been abducted. He returned to work for a brief period of time, but was eventually fired for failure to follow orders not to investigate any X-Files. After Scully gave birth to William, Mulder went into hiding in New Mexico after Kersh said his life was in danger.
After about a year in hiding, Mulder obtains crucial information from a secret facility about the date of the planned alien colonization effort, but is caught and put on trial for the murder of Knowle Rohrer. Despite a defense organized by Walter Skinner with numerous witnesses, the judges sentence Mulder to death. With help from several people, including a reformed Kersh and the ghost of Alex Krycek, Mulder breaks out of prison and escapes with Scully. As of the series finale, Mulder and Scully were on the run. Six years after the events of the ninth season, Fox Mulder's fugitive status is clear. Scully mentions that he is wanted by the FBI and dialogue also shows that the FBI does not really want to find him and is simply happy to have him "out of their hair". He is called to assist with the investigation of a missing FBI agent. In exchange for his help, all charges against him are dropped.
Seven years later, Mulder returns to the FBI when the X-Files is re-opened, in order to look into a government conspiracy, when it transpires they have been using alien technology. Along with Scully, they investigate several cases together like they had done originally. Six weeks after their return to the X-Files, Mulder confronts an alive Smoking Man to try and prevent him carrying out a plan to depopulate the United States using a virus applied to smallpox vaccines. In a vision of Scully's, Mulder falls sick to the disease, but refuses the Smoking Man's help and his proposal to join his elite. Mulder is saved by Agent Miller and they regroup with Scully, however, she says Mulder needs a blood transfusion and only their son can give it to them. At that moment, an unidentified flying object hovers over the trio, which is where season ten ends. The beginning of season eleven reveals this vision came from Scully's son, William. Over the course of season eleven, Scully and Mulder search for William. Skinner learns from the Smoking Man, that the Smoking Man, who is Mulder's father, also artificially impregnated Scully, and thus is William's father as well. In the third episode of the eleventh season, "Plus One", Scully and Mulder are intimate again. In the season 11 finale, "My Struggle IV", she reveals to Mulder that she is pregnant with his child.
Characterization
Despite his aloofness and cynical sense of humor, Mulder displays unbridled enthusiasm and interest when it comes to the paranormal, especially because of his personal involvement after his sister's abduction. Walter Skinner and other FBI officials have become concerned by his unprofessional behavior. This only proves true as Mulder makes a habit of letting his personal feelings cloud his judgment; his emotional attachment to UFO cases becomes more severe throughout the series, because of Dana Scully's eventual abduction and resultant cancer as well as his sister's abduction. Mulder can lose his temper when Scully is involved; on multiple occasions, he has become violent in his grief and unreserved in threatening physical force. Mulder's overprotectiveness of Scully stems not only from his obvious devotion and love for her, but also a long-harbored guilt; Mulder has admitted feeling indirectly responsible for the ordeals and tragedies Scully had gone through because of their investigations.
In the episode "Drive", Mulder facetiously apologizes on behalf of the "international Jewish conspiracy" in response to the abusive and anti-Semitic tirades of a suspect, to which Mulder appears to take offense; the suspect also guesses Mulder's ethnicity is Jewish based on his last name. Despite this, in the episode "Kaddish", Mulder is unable to identify a Talmudic book, states that he does not know Hebrew, and quips that Jesus returned from the dead. Also, Mulder, as his father before him, had a Christian burial presided over by a Protestant minister following his apparent "death" in the episode "Deadalive". This suggests he hails from a Protestant background, as Scully hails from a Catholic background. Mulder also seeks comfort in a Christian church following the events of the episode "Conduit". Of course Mulder could conceivably be of a Jewish ethnic descent but a Christian background, perhaps through ancestral marriage or conversion. David Duchovny suggested Mulder is Jewish when interviewed during production of the second season. In the episode "The Field Where I Died", Mulder went into a hypnotic trance and recalls a past life, where he is in a concentration camp during the Holocaust, and another where he was a Confederate soldier killed in the Battle of Chattanooga.
Mulder is almost never seen sleeping in a bed. The bedroom in his apartment (which appeared as late as the sixth season of the show's run) is apparently used for storage and is filled floor to ceiling with junk, including a couple of boxes of pornographic magazines. Instead, Mulder sleeps on his couch, often falling asleep to a blaring television. Mulder can seem to go through manic periods when worried or working on a case, contributing to or exacerbating his insomniac tendencies. Since "Dreamland II" where a "man in black" body-swaps with Mulder and takes over his life, Mulder gets his bedroom renovated and equipped with a waterbed. In "Monday" he finds himself soaked through when his waterbed (which he can't remember getting because Morris Fletcher got it in Dreamland) is leaking.
Relationships
Mulder had a rather strained relationship with his parents Bill and Teena Mulder, not least thanks to the X-Files. Initially, he had no idea his father was involved in the conspiracy and Samantha's disappearance. Bill, who became disenchanted with the shadow government and his own role in the conspiracy, eventually approached Fox about his past deeds, but was shot and killed by Alex Krycek – working as an assassin for the Syndicate – before he could reveal any great amount of information. Over the next few years, Mulder got into several conflicts with his mother while trying to discover the extent of her own knowledge of his father's precise involvement. Teena dies of an apparent suicide, when the stress of Samantha's abduction finally becomes too painful.
During the last years of his work on the X-Files, Mulder was even forced to doubt that Bill was his true father. He is led to consider the possibility that his mother had had an affair with the Smoking Man, a connection which may have resulted in the birth of either Samantha or Mulder himself. The possibility was hinted at later in the series, and Jeffrey Spender, who certainly was the Smoking Man's son, said that Mulder was his half-brother. In the ninth season, "William" explains that Spender and Mulder have very similar DNA, providing strong evidence that they do have the same father.
During his studies at Oxford, around the year of 1983, he was dating Phoebe Green; future investigator of Metropolitan Police Service (season 1, episode 11, Fire). When he started his work on The X-Files, around 1991, he was close with his current partner; Diana Fowley (season 5, episode 20, The End). None of those remained longterm and stable.
Mulder's closest friend was FBI partner Dana Scully, who was assigned to "debunk [his] work" by the conspirators and the FBI brass. But against their intentions, her loyalties quickly became affixed to Mulder's quest and Mulder himself, a connection which seemed to pull Mulder's work out of obscurity, as Scully's scientific bent afforded them a certain amount of credibility. Their intense professional and personal relationship continued to strengthen through the years. While the relationship was platonic for the greater part of the series, there are clues that it developed into a romantic one by the last few seasons. Mulder and Scully almost always called each other by their surnames – Mulder purportedly hated his first name, but Scully had no such aversion. At the fourth episode of season seven the romantic undertones were confirmed when the two shared a kiss. In the series finale, the final scene depicted Mulder and Scully after running away together, in bed together, contemplating what the future held. In the season 11 finale Scully revealed to be pregnant with his unborn child.
Mulder's greatest nemesis was The Smoking Man, who, despite his obvious ill-intent, seemed to hold Mulder in special regard. Though he mocked Mulder to his face for his foolishness and the futility of his quest, in "Two Fathers", he told his son Jeffrey Spender, "You pale to Fox Mulder." Mulder also developed an intense enmity for Alex Krycek, a double agent who briefly worked with Mulder in the FBI as an infiltrator, and who continued to serve as a recurring adversary, acting as an assassin for the Syndicate in the murders of Bill Mulder and Melissa Scully.
Appearance
Duchovny portrays Mulder as a series regular for the first seven seasons of the show. Duchovny left the show following the seventh-season finale "Requiem", wherein he was abducted by aliens. Although he makes a handful of cameos in the first part of season eight—most notably in the episodes "Within", "Without", "The Gift", and "Per Manum"—Mulder is returned by the aliens and the latter part of the season deals with his death, subsequent resurrection, and his departure from the FBI. After the conclusion of the eighth season, Duchovny left the show, and only appeared in four ninth-season episodes: "Trust No 1", "Jump the Shark", "William", and "The Truth". Duchovny's appearances in "Trust No 1" and "Jump the Shark" were via archival footage, and he only made a small cameo in the third. However, his appearance in "The Truth", the program's series finale, was substantial, and Duchovny was once again listed in the credits as starring.
Conceptual history
David Duchovny had worked in Los Angeles three years prior to The X-Files. At first he wanted to base his acting career around films, but in 1993 his manager Melanie Green gave him a script of the pilot episode of The X-Files. Green and Duchovny were both convinced it was a good script, so Duchovny auditioned for the lead. When Duchovny was auditioning for the part of Fox Mulder, he made a terrific audition, but talked rather slowly. Chris Carter thought that he was a good judge of character, and thought that Duchovny wasn't too bright. So he talked to Duchovny and asked him if he could please imagine himself as an FBI agent for the future weeks. The casting director of the show was very positive about him, while according to Carter, Duchovny turned out to be one of the best-read people he knew. After getting the role, Duchovny thought the show wouldn't last for long or that it wouldn't make as much impact as it did.
Carter has said that he named Mulder after his mother's maiden name. His first name, Fox, was actually not a tribute to the Fox network which aired The X-Files, as often assumed – Carter said he had a childhood friend named Fox. When Duchovny got the script many of his characteristics were fully formed. Executive producer Frank Spotnitz called portraying actor Duchovny amazingly smart. He further stated that Duchovny was behind some of the main characteristic ideas behind Mulder.
At the end of the seventh season Duchovny was in negotiations with the Fox network, saying he wanted more money (while not saying how much) and an improved work schedule, among other issues. After settling his contract dispute, Duchovny quit full-time participation in the show after the seventh season. This contributed to uncertainties over the likelihood of an eighth season. Carter and most fans felt the show was at its natural endpoint with Duchovny's departure, but it was decided Mulder would be abducted at the end of the seventh season, leaving things open for the actor's return in 12 episodes the following year. Duchovny's character Mulder was replaced by John Jay Doggett (portrayed by Robert Patrick). In season nine, Duchovny wasn't available for shooting, so he only appeared in three episodes with small cameos, the first being an archive footage only in Trust No 1, a brief cameo in William, which he also directed and appeared full-time in the series finale, The Truth.
After the show ended, Carter and Frank Spotnitz started to talk about a movie sequel. Duchovny stated in an interview that very same year that it always had been a desire to come back to the franchise, saying it was a natural stage of development for the franchise to go to the cinema. When talking about Mulder in The X-Files: I Want to Believe, Duchovny said that he wanted to play him a "little different". He continued saying that Mulder had "lost every battle" and was "beaten down by life [...]. He's the same guy, but he is older Mulder".
Mulder had a brief cameo on The Lone Gunmen, an X-Files spin-off featuring the characters of the same name. He appeared on the episode "All About Yves". In the Millennium episode "Lamentation", the main character, Frank Black, visits the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia, and Mulder and Dana Scully are briefly seen descending a stairway. In fact, they are Duchovny and Anderson's stand-ins.
Reception
Duchovny was nominated for two Emmy Awards in 1997 and 1998 in the category "Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series", but lost. He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 1995 in the category "Best Actor – Drama Series". Two years later he was again nominated for a Golden Globe in the same category and won, in 1997 and 1998 he was nominated in the same category but didn't win. Duchovny has been nominated five times in the category "Outstanding Actor – Drama Series" by the Screen Actors Guild awards but didn't win once. Duchovny won a Satellite Award in the category "Best Actor – Drama Series" in 1997, and was nominated once again 1998.
Animated versions of Mulder appeared on The Simpsons and Eek! the Cat (both series which have been featured in episodes of The X-Files), in the episodes "The Springfield Files" and "Eek Space-9", respectively. Both featured the voice acting of Duchovny. Duchovny appeared as Mulder on the sketch show Saturday Night Live with Molly Shannon as Scully, when he hosted an episode. Joining him was co-star Nicholas Lea, who would appear as Alex Krycek in a sketch that spoofed The X-Files.
The New York Times writer Joyce Millman said that Twin Peaks character Special agent Dale Cooper could have been Mulder's "quirky [...] spiritual twin" if David Duchovny hadn't appeared in the show earlier. When reviewing The X-Files: I Want to Believe, reviewer Moira Macdonald said it was a "kick" watching Duchovny and Gillian Anderson (portrayed Dana Scully). Jesse Hassenger from PopMatters when reviewing season eight, was throughout negative to the new season, claiming that Patrick was miscast and calling David Duchovny's appearances as Mulder shallow. Critics and fans alike have praised Duchovny and Anderson's "on-screen chemistry" for years. Richard Corliss from Time magazine praised Duchovny for settling in his role so "quickly" and calling the character "an obsessive plodder". Robert Patrick, the actor who replaced Duchovny as the male lead after the seventh season, commented that the chemistry Duchovny and Gillian Anderson had, could only happen "once in a lifetime".
TV Guide ranked Fox Mulder #7 in its "50 Greatest Sci-Fi Legends" list.
References
External links
Adoptee characters in television
Atheism in television
Fictional characters from Massachusetts
Television characters introduced in 1993
Fictional special agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Fictional paranormal investigators
Fictional characters with eidetic memory
Fictional prison escapees
Fictional psychologists
The X-Files characters
Fictional University of Oxford people
American male characters in television
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261345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paimon | Paimon | Paimon is a spirit named in The Lesser Key of Solomon (in the Ars Goetia), Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, Collin de Plancy's Dictionnaire Infernal, the Livre des Esperitz (as "Poymon"), the Liber Officiorum Spirituum (as Paymon), The Book of Abramelin, and certain French editions of The Grimoire of Pope Honorius (as Bayemon); as well as British Library, Sloane MS 3824.
Rank and relation to other spirits
The Goetia and Weyer begin entries on King Paimon noting that he is quite obedient to Lucifer.
King Paimo(n) appears as the ninth spirit in the Goetia, the twenty-second spirit in the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, and in the Dictionnaire Infernal. In the Liber Officiorum Spirituum, he is first listed as the sixth spirit and later as the third king.
The Goetia, Weyer, de Plancy, Livre des Esperitz, Liber Officiorum Spirituum, and Sloane MS 3824 all rank Paimon as a king. The Livre des Espiritz, Sloane MS 3824, and the Grimoire of Pope Honorius specify that King Paimon is king of the west. In the Book of Abramelin (where his appearance is given no description), he is instead one of the eight dukes.
The Goetia, Weyer, and de Plancy warn that if King Paimon appears alone, a sacrifice must be made to summon Lebal, the most devoted to Lucifer, and Abalam, two kings who serve under him but do not always accompany him. These three sources state that he rules 200 legions of spirits, some of which are of the order of Angels and the rest Powers. The Livre des Esperitz, on the other hand, credits him with just 25 legions of spirits. Sloane MS 3824 mentions him as employing a "bishop" named Sperion, among other spirits.
Critical editions of the Lesser Key of Solomon list him as a former Dominion. Weyer notes a confusion over whether he was a former Dominion or Cherub. According to Thomas Rudd, King Paimon is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Haziel.
Appearance
In the Goetia, Weyer, de Plancy, Livre des Esperitz, Liber Officiorum Spirituum, and Sloane MS 3824, he is described as a man riding a Dromedary camel, preceded by men playing loud music (particularly trumpets). Sloane MS 3824 describes the camel as crowned, while the rest describe King Paimon himself as crowned. The Goetia itself makes no mention of King Paimon's face, while the rest describe him as having a beautiful face but still refer to him using masculine pronouns.
Possession
Sloane MS 3824 and the Liber Officiorum Spirituum describe him as having a "Hoarse Voice", and those works, Weyer, and the Goetia note that he must be commanded to speak plainly, with the Liber Officiorum Spirituum specifying that King Paimon will speak in his native language until commanded to converse in the summoner's own language.
Powers
The Goetia, Weyer, Livre des Esperitz, and the Liber Officiorum Spirituum all describe him as teaching science and answering other questions. The Goetia and Weyer specify that his knowledge includes all arts and "secret Things" , such as knowledge regarding the Earth, its waters, and the winds. The Livre des Esperitz and the Liber Officiorum Spirituum broaden this to truthfully answering all questions asked of him, with the former source also claiming that he can reveal hidden treasures and the latter highlighting that he knows all the affairs of the world. The Goetia, Weyer, and the Livre des Esperitz also claim he has the ability to bestow dignities and lordships. The Goetia and Weyer credited him with granting familiars (who are likewise good at teaching). The Liber Officiorum Spirituum uniquely gives him command over fish. Sloane MS 3824 mentions Paimon in "An Experiment to Cause a Thief to Return".
In Abramelin, King Paimo(n)'s powers include knowledge of past and future events, clearing up doubts, making spirits appear, creating visions, acquiring and dismissing servant spirits, reanimating the dead for several years, flight, remaining underwater indefinitely, and general abilities to "make all kinds of things" (and) "all sorts of people and armor appear" at the behest of the magician.
See also
Ghoulies, a 1984 horror film
Magi: The labyrinth of magic, a 2009 fantasy adventure manga series
The Last Exorcism, a 2010 horror film
Last Shift, a 2014 horror film
Hereditary, a 2018 horror film
Genshin Impact, a 2020 action role-playing game with a character named Paimon
References
Bibliography
Goetic demons
Male horror film villains | [
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261349 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buer%20%28demon%29 | Buer (demon) | Buer is a spirit that appears in the 16th-century grimoire Pseudomonarchia Daemonum and its derivatives, where he is described as a Great President of Hell, having fifty legions of demons under his command. He appears when the Sun is in Sagittarius. Like Chiron, the chief centaur of Greek mythology, he teaches natural and moral philosophy, logic, and the qualities and uses of all herbs and plants, and is also capable of healing all infirmities (especially of humans) and bestows good familiars.
He has been described as being in the shape of Sagittarius, which is as a centaur with a bow and arrows. Additionally, Louis Le Breton created an illustration of Buer, later engraved by M. Jarrault, depicting the demon as having the head of a lion and five goat legs surrounding his body to walk in every direction.
See also
The Lesser Key of Solomon
Ixion, from Greek mythology, the father of the Centaurs who is bound to a winged fiery wheel by Zeus
Wanyūdō, a similar creature from Japanese mythology
References
Sources
S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: .
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261352 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint%20European%20Torus | Joint European Torus | The Joint European Torus, or JET, is an operational magnetically confined plasma physics experiment, located at Culham Centre for Fusion Energy in Oxfordshire, UK. Based on a tokamak design, the fusion research facility is a joint European project with a main purpose of opening the way to future nuclear fusion grid energy. At the design stage JET was larger than any such machine then in production.
JET was built with the hope of reaching scientific breakeven where the fusion energy gain factor Q =1.0. It began operation in 1983 and spent most of the next decade increasing its performance in a lengthy series of experiments and upgrades. In 1991 the first experiments including tritium were made, making JET the first reactor in the world to run on the production fuel of a 50–50 mix of tritium and deuterium. It was also decided to add a diverter design to JET, which occurred between 1991 and 1993. Performance was significantly improved, and in 1997 JET set the record for the closest approach to scientific breakeven, reaching Q = 0.67 in 1997, producing 16 MW of fusion power while injecting 24 MW of thermal power to heat the fuel.
Between 2009 and 2011, JET was shut down to rebuild many of its parts, to adopt concepts being used in the development of the ITER project in Saint-Paul-lès-Durance, in Provence, southern France. In December 2020, a JET upgrade commenced using tritium, as part of its contribution to ITER. On 21 December 2021, using deuterium-tritium fuel, JET produced 59 megajoules during a five second pulse, beating its previous 1997 record of 21.7 megajoules, with Q = 0.33.
History
Background
By the early 1960s, the fusion research community was in the "doldrums". Many initially promising experimental paths had all failed to produce useful results, and the latest experiments suggested performance was stalled out at the Bohm diffusion limit, far below what would be needed for a practical fusion generator.
In 1968, the Soviets held the periodic meeting of fusion researchers in Novosibirsk, where they introduced data from their T-3 tokamak. This represented a dramatic leap in fusion performance, at least 10 times what the best machines in the world had produced to that point. The results were so good that some dismissed them as faulty measurements. To counter this, the Soviets invited a team from the UK to independently test their machine. Their 1969 report confirmed the Soviet results, resulting in a "veritable stampede" of tokamak construction around the world.
A key issue in tokamak designs was that they did not generate enough of an electrical current in their plasma to provide enough heating to bring the fuel to fusion conditions. Some sort of external heating would be required. There was no shortage of ideas for this, and in the mid-1970s a series of machines were built around the world to explore these concepts. One of these, the Princeton Large Torus (PLT) demonstrated that neutral beam injection was a workable concept, using it to reach record temperatures well over the 50 million K that is the minimum needed for a practical reactor.
With the PLT's success, the path to scientific breakeven finally appeared possible after decades of effort. Scientific breakeven is the point where the power produced by the fusion reactions is equal to the amount of power injected to heat the plasma. Once breakeven is achieved, even small improvements from that point begin to rapidly increase the amount of net energy being released. Teams around the world began planning for a new generation of machines combining PLT's injectors with superconducting magnets and vacuum vessels that could hold deuterium-tritium fuel instead of the test fuels containing pure deuterium or hydrogen that had been used up to that point.
European design
In 1971, the member states of the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) decided in favour of a robust fusion programme and provided the necessary legal framework for a European fusion device to be developed. In 1975, the first proposals for the JET machine were completed. Detailed design took three years. At the end of 1977, after a long debate, Culham was chosen as the host site for the new design. Funding was approved on 1 April 1978 as the "JET Joint Undertaking" legal entity.
The reactor was built at a new site next to the Culham Centre for Fusion Energy, the UK's fusion research laboratory which opened in 1965. The construction of the buildings was undertaken by Tarmac Construction, starting in 1978 with the Torus Hall. The Hall was completed in January 1982 and construction of the JET machine itself began immediately after the completion of the Torus Hall. The cost was 198.8 Million European Units of Account (predecessor to the Euro) or 438 million in 2014 US dollars.
JET was one of only two tokamak models designed to work with a real deuterium-tritium fuel mix, the other being the US-built TFTR. Both were built with the hope of reaching scientific breakeven where the "fusion energy gain factor" or Q = 1.0.
JET achieved its first plasma on 25 June 1983. It was officially opened on 9 April 1984 by Queen Elizabeth II. On 9 November 1991, JET performed the world's first deuterium-tritium experiment. This beat the US's machine, TFTR, by a full two years.
Upgrades
Although very successful, JET and its counterpart TFTR failed to reach scientific breakeven. This was due to a variety of effects that had not been seen in previous machines operating at lower densities and pressures. Based on these results, and a number of advances in plasma shaping and diverter design, a new tokamak layout emerged, sometimes known as an "advanced tokamak". An advanced tokamak capable of reaching scientific breakeven would have to be very large and very expensive, which led to the international effort ITER.
In 1991, the first experiments including tritium were made, allowing JET to run on the production fuel of a 50–50 mix of tritium and deuterium. It was also decided at this time to add a diverter, allowing removal of waste material from the plasma. Performance was significantly improved, allowing JET to set many records in terms of confinement time, temperature and fusion triple product. In 1997, JET set the record for the closest approach to scientific breakeven. It attained Q = 0.67, producing 16 MW of fusion energy while injecting 24 MW of thermal power to heat the fuel, a record that endured until 2021. This was also the record for greatest fusion power produced.
In 1998, JET's engineers developed a remote handling system with which, for the first time, it was possible to exchange certain components using artificial hands only. A "Remote Handling" system is, in general, an essential tool for any subsequent fusion power plant and especially for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) being developed at Saint-Paul-lès-Durance, in Provence, southern France. This Remote Handling system was later to lead on to become RACE (Remote Applications in Challenging Environments).
In 1999, the European Fusion Development Agreement (EFDA) was established with responsibility for the future collective use of JET.
ITER design work
In October 2009, a 15-month shutdown period was started to rebuild many parts of the JET to adopt concepts from the ITER design. This including replacing carbon components in the vacuum vessel with tungsten and beryllium ones.
In mid-May 2011, the shutdown reached its end. The first experimental campaign after the installation of the "ITER-Like Wall" started on 2 September 2011.
On 14 July 2014, the European Commission signed a contract worth €283m for another 5-year extension so more advanced higher energy research can be performed at JET.
Post-Brexit
Brexit threw the plans for JET in doubt. As part of its plan to leave the EU, the UK was to leave Euratom, which provides the funding for JET. Talks on the funding after 2018, when the 5-year plan expired, commenced and a new agreement to extend JET's operation until 2019 or 2020 appeared to be largely complete. These talks were put on hold after the Brexit announcement. However, in March 2019, the UK Government and European Commission signed a contract extension for JET. This guaranteed JET operations until the end of 2024 regardless of Brexit situation. In December 2020, a JET upgrade commenced using tritium, as part of its contribution to ITER. On 21 December 2021, JET produced 59 megajoules using deuterium-tritium fuel while sustaining fusion during a five second pulse, beating its previous record of 21.7 megajoules with Q = 0.33, set in 1997.
Description
JET has a major radius of 3 metres, and the D-shaped vacuum chamber is 2.5 metres wide and 4.2 metres high. The total plasma volume within it is 100 cubic metres, about 100 times larger than the largest machine in production when the JET design began.
JET was one of the first tokamaks to be designed to use a D-shaped vacuum chamber. This was initially considered as a way to improve the safety factor, but during the design, it was also noticed that this would make it much easier to build the system mechanically, as it reduced the net forces across the chamber that are trying to force the torus towards the centre of the major axis. Ideally, the magnets surrounding the chamber should be more curved at the top and bottom and less on the inside and outsides in order to support these forces, which leads to something like an oval shape that the D closely approximated. The flatter shape on the inside edge was also easier to support due to the larger, flatter surface.
While exploring the stability of various plasma shapes on a computer, the team noticed that non-circular plasmas did not exactly cancel out the vertical drift that the twisted fields have originally been introduced to solve. If the plasma was displaced up or down, it would continue travelling in that direction. However, the simulations demonstrated that the drift rate was slow enough that it could be counteracted using additional magnets and an electronic feedback system.
The primary magnetic field in a tokamak is supplied by a series of magnets ringing the vacuum chamber. In JET, these are a series of 32 copper-wound magnets, each one weighing 12 tonnes. In total, they carry a current of 51 MA, and as they had to do so for periods of tens of seconds, they are water cooled. When operating, the coil is attempting to expand with a force of 6 MN, there is a net field towards the centre of the major axis of 20 MN, and a further twisting force because the poloidal field inside the plasma is in different directions on the top and bottom. All of these forces are borne on the external structure.
Surrounding the entire assembly is the 2,600 tonne eight-limbed transformer which is used to induce a current into the plasma. The primary purpose of this current is to generate a poloidal field that mixes with the one supplied by the toroidal magnets to produce the twisted field inside the plasma. The current also serves the secondary purpose of ionizing the fuel and providing some heating of the plasma before other systems take over.
The main source of heating in JET is provided by two systems, positive ion neutral beam injection and ion cyclotron resonance heating. The former uses small particle accelerators to shoot fuel atoms into the plasma, where collisions cause the atoms to ionize and become trapped with the rest of the fuel. These collisions deposit the kinetic energy of the accelerators into the plasma. Ion cyclotron resonance heating is essentially the plasma equivalent of a microwave oven, using radio waves to pump energy into the ions directly by matching their cyclotron frequency. JET was designed so it would initially be built with a few megawatts of both sources, and then later be expanded to as much of 25 MW of neutral beams and 15 MW of cyclotron heating.
JET's power requirements during the plasma pulse are around 500 MW with peak in excess of 1000 MW. Because power draw from the main grid is limited to 575 MW, two large flywheel generators were constructed to provide this necessary power. Each 775-ton flywheel can spin up to 225 rpm and store 3.75 GJ, roughly the same amount of kinetic energy as a train weighing 5,000 tons traveling at . Each flywheel uses 8.8 MW to spin up and can generate 400 MW (briefly).
See also
Fusion power
References
Bibliography
External links
JET pages on the EUROfusion web site
Poloidal field coils diagram
JET demonstrates alpha particle heating. Oct 2005 good graph
Culham Centre for Fusion Energy
The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority
IAEA's information about JET
Photos from JET Torus Hall
Sources
Fusion reactors explained by HowStuffWorks
T. Fujita, et al., "High performance experiments in JT-60U reversed shear discharges", Nuclear Fusion, Vol 39, p. 1627 (1999)
Joint undertakings of the European Union and European Atomic Energy Community
Culham Centre for Fusion Energy
Tokamaks
Energy in the European Union
International science experiments | [
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261355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunshine%20Logro%C3%B1o | Sunshine Logroño | Emmanuel Logroño (born November 1, 1951), better known as Sunshine Logroño, is an American actor. Logroño worked in Puerto Rican media for close to three decades.
Early years
Born in New York to a Puerto Rican mother, Logroño moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico along with his family when he was nine years old. He was soon recognized as a multifaceted entertainer by his schoolteachers and classmates. His nickname "Sunshine" came from a short stint (1973) as a disc jockey for San Juan-based WBMJ-AM, Puerto Rico's first rock and roll station (another WBMJ disc jockey at the time, Raymond Broussard, better known as Moonshadow, later became the co-host of El Vacilón de la Mañana, a very popular Spanish language morning radio talk show in New York City). Sunshine was also heard in 1974 as a part of the new announcing crew at "The New WRAI" 1520, a station created by Bill Thompson and "Radio Man" after the format change from English to Spanish at WBMJ. Besides his short stint as a disc jockey, Logroño served as a voice actor for Puerto Rico's then-active dubbing industry. His was the Spanish-language voice for "Little Joe", one of the Cartwright brothers (played by Michael Landon) in the U.S. television show Bonanza.
Logroño obtained a Bachelor of Arts (English Language Literature) degree ("a degree in unemployment", Logroño claims) from the University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras and a Master of Arts (Theater) degree from Michigan State University. After his return to Puerto Rico, Logroño was a member of the Puerto Rican folk group, Moliendo Vidrio, which also starred bandleader Gary Nuñez and later comedic actress Carmen Nydia Velázquez. Moliendo Vidrio made a few albums during the 1970s. By the late years of that decade, the group disbanded.
Logroño kept himself busy in the late 1970s as a voice talent for radio commercials, as a comedic actor on Puerto Rican television, and as a radio host. He co-hosted a morning radio program, Rompiendo el Día (Daybreak) with Puerto Rican entrepreneur and musician Silverio Pérez, and served as part of the comedic team behind Desafiando a los Genios (Defying the Geniuses), a popular TV mock quiz show starring, among others, actor, writer and film director Jacobo Morales and Puerto Rico's premier comedic actor, José Miguel Agrelot. Two of Logroño's TV characters would surface around this time: Agapito Flores, a rather naive country bumpkin with a speech impairment, and Nicky El Bro, a Nuyorican hustler. A third character, "Chinito Rivera" (a flasher that said little and wore a raincoat he was eager to open at the slightest provocation) would eventually evolve into "El Barbarazo del Amor", one of his radio characters.
Los Rayos Gamma
Morales and Perez would soon revive, along with actor and radio announcer Horacio Olivo, a musical group named Los Rayos Gamma, Puerto Rico's most beloved political satire troupe, which had an extremely short but popular stint in 1968 as the creative vehicle for the late satirical writer and journalist, Eddie López. Logroño filled in for Pérez on vacation, and when Pérez returned, he was allowed to fill in López's shoes (who was considered irreplaceable by some), with great success. Los Rayos Gamma had a television show on channel 7 where they satirized politicians with their songs to high ratings and which would be taken off the air due to their rather direct satirical jabs at then-governor of Puerto Rico Carlos Romero Barceló. They went on to make a few albums and would return to the public spotlight in roughly four-year intervals, coinciding with each general election in Puerto Rico.
At his initial stages in "Los Rayos Gamma", Logroño created a character that seemed to lighten up the absurdity and gravity of another character, played by Morales, that was in turn based on a real-life incident. During the 1930s, Dr. Cornelius P. Rhoads, in charge of health services for the Institute of Tropical Medicine in San Juan, wrote a few letters to friends in the United States in which he described his hatred for Puerto Ricans. Whether the letters were in jest or not, he claimed in them to have implanted cancer cells in local subjects without their consent. One of these letters was intercepted by affiliates to Pedro Albizu Campos's Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico, and Albizu vehemently denounced Rhoades as an unethical and sadistic doctor who treated his patients as guinea pigs. At their television show, Morales played a descendant of Rhoads, "Dr. Cornelius Rodas"; Logroño played his assistant, Igor, wearing a fake hunch, doing guttural noises, and inevitably messing up whatever plans Rodas had for his avowed plans to exterminate Puerto Ricans. Igor reportedly was created when Rodas submitted an unwilling participant to a 23-hour long orgasm using Frankenstein-like electrodes. Igor was a big fan of Puerto Rican culture, Van Halen and pornography, and walked around with a small doll, "Calerito", resembling him, a comedic device that preceded Mini Me by many years. Due to the physical demands on him while playing the character, Logroño has since played Igor only sporadically. A big fan of the character, who got "Igor" as a nickname when he imitated him in high school for his friends, is Juan Gonzalez, the Major League Baseball player.
Los Rayos Gamma edited a music album in 1982, from which "Me apesta la vida" (My Life Stinks), a funk-meets-rap fusion song penned by Logroño, was a minor radio hit in Puerto Rico. Logroño updated the song in a newer version, found in the 2006 Culebro Mendoza album "Culebro Legal", this time set to a hip-hop beat.
Later years
After Los Rayos Gamma'''s TV show was yanked off the air, Sunshine kept active, doing voice-overs for commercials (at one time half of all radio commercials in Puerto Rico featured Logroño's talents in one way or another) and making appearances at several TV shows and radio programs. At one of these shows the comedic characters of Eleuterio Quiñones and his son Elpidio were born. Eleuterio Quiñones, a die-hard supporter of Puerto Rican statehood whose grasp of public affairs and general culture level would be best compared to those of Archie Bunker in the U.S., and his son Elpidio -a 38-year-old special education patient with the emotional age of a child but with rather stunning reproductive organs - are still a staple of Puerto Rican radio and television. Logroño also developed his own audio production company, Man-TK Records (Man-TK being a pun on manteca, the Spanish word for lard. Logroño's work is filled with porcine references throughout his career).
Sunshine's Café
In 1988 Logroño began hosting a show named Sunshine's Cafe on WAPA-TV. Sunshine's Cafe was very popular among Puerto Rico's television viewers and its risqué sense of humor guaranteed four seasons of high ratings and extreme controversy. After the show's first airing all sponsors except one canceled their contracts, and the program spent close to six months without advertising. The program was controversial because it confronted many Puerto Rican stereotypes head-on. It also provided Logroño with a vehicle to bring in many taboo topics in subtext, a technique that he personally credits Bill Cosby with teaching him when Cosby developed a pilot for a Latino-based series in American television that did not evolve into a series.
In the program, Sunshine played many characters; one particular character portrayed a clever closet homosexual named Vitín Alicea Arévalo, many of whose phrases became household sayings. Another character portrayed a fake Pentecostal minister, El Hermano Emmanuel (Brother Emmanuel), who had a hunch (mirroring that of a famous Puerto Rican minister, Yiye Avila), was constantly angry (as yet another local minister, Jorge Raschke), frequently schemed to profit from the members of his congregation, and almost always was caught doing so. El Hermano Emmanuel constantly spoke trilling r's (and was often referred to as "Hermano Emmanuerrrrr"), and used a phrase mocking speaking in tongues: "¡Salamaya!" (derived from "¡Sea la madre!", or "[Damned] be his mother!") as a punchline, particularly whenever the Hermano met a stunningly attractive woman, or when another character caught him in a profiteering scheme. A famous episode had the Hermano try (unsuccessfully) to cure José Feliciano from his blindness (Feliciano's memorable response was: "I can see! I can see! I can see that you're a fake, I still can't see a damn!)
The phrase "Salamaya" is still used in Puerto Rico to refer in jest to devout Pentecostal followers (Hermano Emmanuel constantly had two naive female parishioners follow him everywhere) or a small Pentecostal congregation (particularly those with rudimentary facilities, such as tents). Rapper René Pérez ("Residente") uses it in the Calle 13" song "Ojalai" to describe the song's attractive female subject in rapture-like amazement.
Offended by Logroño's portrayal of ministers, Pentecostal leaders in Puerto Rico threatened Logroño's program with boycotts, and Raschke and Milton Picón (the local representative for Morality in Media) actually confronted him on television talk shows. On a rare bow to public pressure, Logroño discontinued the character ("If I keep on doing it their followers will lynch me!", he gives as an explanation).
Chona, La Puerca Asesina
In exchange for a cameo in the film "La Guagua Aérea", Logroño somehow persuaded film maker Luis Molina Casanova to direct a satirical action film, "Chona, La Puerca Asesina" ("Chona, The Killer Pig"), released in 1988 and filmed in black and white. Many Puerto Rican artists and media personalities (along with Argentine actor Pablo Alarcón, who played a Puerto Rican peasant with a strong Argentine accent) appeared in the film, in which a piglet grows to become ten stories tall and attacks Puerto Rico, Godzilla-style. Among the cameos and film roles are those played by José Miguel Agrelot, Nena Rivera, Wilson Torres (later known for another comedic character named Maneco), Guillermo José Torres, Enrique Cruz, Antonio Pantojas and others (Ruth Fernández sings the movie's theme, her trademark song "Gracias, Mundo"). Jacobo Morales and Logroño appear as Cornelius Rodas and Igor, respectively; Rodas is responsible for enlarging the pig, as requested by Don Rodriguez, one of Agrelot's many comedic characters. A remasterized version, or director's cut, which adds Vitín Alicea to the plot and features improved sound effects, was released in DVD format in 1998.
In 1991, Logroño had a chance to star in a Hollywood movie: he acted opposite Martin Short and Kurt Russell in Captain Ron. He appeared in the movie Contact, alongside Jodie Foster, as a taxi driver, but actually - thanks to the rather extreme talents of the film's editor, Logroño claims - only his left elbow appears on the screen. He won the audition over Rafael Fuentes much to his dismay.
According to an interview that Logroño gave Vea one time, one day, he arrived at his office to learn there was an audition for another movie. By his own account, he caught a flight to New York City, made the audition, and flew back to Puerto Rico, arriving just in time to participate at a play in Mayagüez.
Logroño attempted to show his serious actor side in the late 1990s, participating in various theater plays.
Currently
He was the host of a show named De Noche Con Iris y Sunshine (At Night With Iris & Sunshine), co-hosted by Iris Chacón. When Iris later left the show for personal reasons, it was renamed to De Noche con Sunshine (At Night With Sunshine). In a controversial network switch Sunshine switched to WAPA-TV in 1998 and was the host of a show named Club Sunshine, which was aired until May 2009. During that time in WAPA-TV he was also the vice-president for talent affairs of the television station. Club Sunshine was followed up by Sunshine Remix (later retitled El Remix) and Risas en Combo, both aired on WAPA-TV in an alternating season-wise fashion until both were replaced together by El Remix alone, which still airs on WAPA as of 2019.
On February 25, 2007, Logroño appeared as an archbishop in the filming of the video for Calle 13's "Tango del Pecado", the first featured single of their recent album, "¿Residente o Visitante?". He marries Calle 13's René Pérez and ex-girlfriend Denise Quiñones in a surrealistic wedding where Tego Calderón and Voltio are the best men. On March 21, 2007, Logroño released a children's book, "El coquí que quiso ser sapo" (The coquí who wanted to be a bullfrog), based on a story he once developed and recorded as part of a children stories' album for the Museo del Niño (Children's Museum) in San Juan. A children's musical play based on the book was produced in Puerto Rico in April 2008.
Sunshine has been hosting the afternoon radio show Agitando El Show since 1997, with Fernando Arévalo. The show has one of the biggest audiences and is one of the longest running shows in local radio.
During 2014, Logroño became involved in a dispute with television personality Josué Carrión over a section of Logroño's show, "El Tiempo es Poco", which mocked Carrión's television show El Tiempo Es Oro''. Logroño decided to cancel the section, much like during the 1980s, when he had a similar situation in which he mocked journalist and emcee Ivan Frontera, who got murdered early in 1985, causing the cancellation of Logroño's character, "Ivan Fontecha", during Logroño's shows.
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
List of Puerto Rican songwriters
References
External links
Interview with Logroño and Pérez by Angel Collado-Schwartz
1951 births
Living people
American male film actors
American male radio actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
Comedians from New York (state)
Male actors from New York (state)
Michigan State University alumni
Puerto Rican comedians
Puerto Rican television producers | [
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261356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Veritas | Operation Veritas | Operation Veritas was the codename used for British military operations against the Taliban government of Afghanistan in 2001. British forces played a supporting role to the American Operation Enduring Freedom. In addition, the British contribution was an important part of the overall forces deployed. Operation Veritas also incorporated Operation Oracle, Operation Fingal, and Operation Jacana. It was succeeded by Operation Herrick.
Many British forces were on exercise Saif Sareea II in Oman when the September 11 attacks occurred. This allowed for the swift deployment of some to Afghanistan for operations against the Taliban.
First rotation
The first rotation of forces left in place after the war started included:
HMS Illustrious
HMS Fearless
HMS Cornwall
HMS Nottingham
HMS Southampton
HMS Trafalgar
HMS Triumph
HMS Beagle
RFA Sir Tristram
RFA Sir Percivale
RFA Fort Victoria
RFA Fort Rosalie
RFA Bayleaf
RFA Brambleleaf
RFA Diligence
2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment
40 Commando, Royal Marines was assigned as infantry for the operation, the unit initially deployed only C Coy and B Coy from Diego Garcia BIOT to Bagram in mid November 2001 to support UKSF operations. They were later relieved by A Coy (40 Cdo RM) in mid March 2002, prior to 45 Commando Royal Marines deployment in Operation Anaconda. A Coy were subsequently relieved in June 2002 by B Coy, who were based there until Oct 2002.
Second rotation
In March 2002, the initial naval force were relieved by one centred on HMS Ocean, carrying 45 Commando Royal Marines. Sir Tristram and Sir Percivale remained in the area. The other ships in that force were:
HMS Ocean
HMS York
HMS Campbeltown
HMS Portland
RFA Fort George
RFA Fort Austin
In addition to the naval taskforces present, a substantial RAF presence in the region was extant. Tristar and VC10 tankers refuelled British and US Navy aircraft. Nimrod and Canberra aircraft performed electronic and photo reconnaissance, and Nimrods also conducted maritime patrol operations. Sentry AWACS aircraft were also deployed.
2 CH47 Chinooks from 27 Squadron RAF were deployed, initially aboard HMS Illustrious in October 2001 and redeployed from HMS Ocean to Bagram on the night of 26 March 2002, to be joined by a further 3 CH47 deployed from the UK by C17 aircraft from 99 Squadron. The Chinooks remained at Bagram to support the 45 Commando deployment, returning to RAF Odiham later that year.
Post operation
After the main combat operations were over, the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established in Kabul with Bravo Company 40 Commando providing protection. It was under British leadership for the first few months of its existence, and British troops are still involved with the force in 2006. 45 Commando deployed into Afghanistan from HMS Ocean in March 2002, and conducted several search and destroy operations until July. It did not contact the enemy during that time period.
On 25 August 2004, it was announced by Secretary of State for Defence Geoff Hoon that 6 RAF Harrier GR7 from No. 3 Squadron would be deployed to Afghanistan. This was the first deployment to Afghanistan of RAF fighter aircraft and they are intended to provide close air support (CAS) and reconnaissance for ISAF and Coalition forces.
Commanders
The following have been UK National Contingent Commander for Operation Veritas:
2001 Lieutenant Colonel Henry Worsley
September 2001 to January 2002, Air Marshal Jock Stirrup
References
External links
Operation Veritas – Archived on the National Archives website
Military campaigns involving the United Kingdom
Military operations of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Military operations of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving the United Kingdom | [
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261358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rete%20mirabile | Rete mirabile | A rete mirabile (Latin for "wonderful net"; plural retia mirabilia) is a complex of arteries and veins lying very close to each other, found in some vertebrates, mainly warm-blooded ones. The rete mirabile utilizes countercurrent blood flow within the net (blood flowing in opposite directions) to act as a countercurrent exchanger. It exchanges heat, ions, or gases between vessel walls so that the two bloodstreams within the rete maintain a gradient with respect to temperature, or concentration of gases or solutes. This term was coined by Galen.
Effectiveness
The effectiveness of retia is primarily determined by how readily the heat, ions, or gases can be exchanged. For a given length, they are most effective with respect to gases or heat, then small ions, and decreasingly so with respect to other substances.
The retia can provide for extremely efficient exchanges. In bluefin tuna, for example, nearly all of the metabolic heat in the venous blood is transferred to the arterial blood, thus conserving muscle temperature; that heat exchange approaches 99% efficiency.
Birds
In birds with webbed feet, retia mirabilia in the legs and feet transfer heat from the outgoing (hot) blood in the arteries to the incoming (cold) blood in the veins. The effect of this biological heat exchanger is that the internal temperature of the feet is much closer to the ambient temperature, thus reducing heat loss. Penguins also have them in the flippers and nasal passages.
Seabirds distill seawater using countercurrent exchange in a so-called salt gland with a rete mirabile. The gland secretes highly concentrated brine stored near the nostrils above the beak. The bird then "sneezes" the brine out. As freshwater is not usually available in their environments, some seabirds, such as pelicans, petrels, albatrosses, gulls and terns, possess this gland, which allows them to drink the salty water from their environments while they are hundreds of miles away from land.
Fish
Fish have evolved retia mirabilia multiple times to raise the temperature (endothermy) or the oxygen concentration of a body part above the ambient level.
In many fish, a rete mirabile helps fill the swim bladder with oxygen, increasing the fish's buoyancy. The rete mirable is an essential part of the system that pumps dissolved oxygen from a low partial pressure () of 0.2 atmospheres into a gas filled bladder that is at a pressure of hundreds of atmospheres. A rete mirabile called the choroid rete mirabile is found in most living teleosts and raises the of the retina. The higher supply of oxygen allows the teleost retina to be thick and have few blood vessels thereby increasing its sensitivity to light. In addition to raising the , the choroid rete has evolved to raise the temperature of the eye in some teleosts and sharks.
A countercurrent exchange system is utilized between the venous and arterial capillaries. Lowering the pH levels in the venous capillaries causes oxygen to unbind from blood hemoglobin because of the root effect. This causes an increase in venous blood oxygen partial pressure, allowing the oxygen to diffuse through the capillary membrane and into the arterial capillaries, where oxygen is still sequestered to hemoglobin. The cycle of diffusion continues until the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial capillaries exceeds that in the swim bladder. At this point, the dissolved oxygen in the arterial capillaries diffuses into the swim bladder via the gas gland.
The rete mirabile allows for an increase in muscle temperature in regions where this network of vein and arteries is found. The fish is able to thermoregulate certain areas of its body. Additionally, this increase in temperature leads to an increase in basal metabolic temperature. The fish is now able to split ATP at a higher rate and ultimately can swim faster.
The opah utilizes retia mirabilia to conserve heat, making it the newest addition to the list of regionally endothermic fish. Blood traveling through capillaries in the gills must carry cold blood due to their exposure to cold water, but retia mirabilia in the opah's gills are able to transfer heat from warm blood in arterioles coming from the heart that heats this colder blood in arterioles leaving the gills. The huge pectoral muscles of the opah, which generate most of the body heat, are thus able to control the temperature of the rest of the body.
Mammals
In mammals, an elegant rete mirabile in the efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary glomeruli is important in maintaining the hypertonicity of the renal medulla. It is the hypertonicity of this zone, resorbing water osmotically from the renal collecting ducts as they exit the kidney, that makes possible the excretion of a hypertonic urine and maximum conservation of body water.
Vascular retia mirabilia are also found in the limbs of a range of mammals. These reduce the temperature in the extremities. Some of these probably function to prevent heat loss in cold conditions by reducing the temperature gradient between the limb and the environment. Others reduce the temperature of the testes increasing their productivity. In the neck of the dog, a rete mirabile protects the brain when the body overheats during hunting; the venous blood is cooled down by panting before entering the net.
Retia mirabilia also occur frequently in mammals that burrow, dive or have arboreal lifestyles that involve clinging with the limbs for lengthy periods. In these cases, the rete mirabile may lower limb temperature and therefore the metabolic requirement for oxygen and nutrients in the tissues of the limb. This would be desirable when the blood supply to the limb is limited as a result of a "diving reflex" diverting blood away from the limbs during diving or burrowing or because of postural restrictions on blood supply in the case of clinging, arboreal animals. In the last case, slow-moving arboreal mammals such as sloths, lorises and arboreal anteaters possess retia of the highly developed type known as vascular bundles. The structure and function of these mammalian retia mirabilia are reviewed by O'Dea (1990).
The ancient physician Galen mistakenly thought that humans also have a rete mirabile in the neck, apparently based on dissection of sheep and misidentifying the results with the human carotid sinus, and ascribed important properties to it; it fell to Berengario da Carpi first, and then to Vesalius to demonstrate the error.
See also
Pampiniform plexus, a countercurrent heat-exchanging structure in the spermatic cord
References
External links
Fish gas bladder with an adjacent rete mirabile
Circulatory system
Vertebrate anatomy
Latin biological phrases | [
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261359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Mweru | Lake Mweru | Lake Mweru (also spelled Mwelu, Mwero) is a freshwater lake on the longest arm of Africa's second-longest river, the Congo. Located on the border between Zambia and Democratic Republic of the Congo, it makes up of the total length of the Congo, lying between its Luapula River (upstream) and Luvua River (downstream) segments.
Mweru means 'lake' in a number of Bantu languages, so it is often referred to as just 'Mweru'.
Physical geography
Mweru is mainly fed by the Luapula River, which comes in through swamps from the south, and the Kalungwishi River from the east. At its north end the lake is drained by the Luvua River, which flows in a northwesterly direction to join the Lualaba River and thence to the Congo. It is the second-largest lake in the Congo's drainage basin and is located west of the southern end of the largest, Lake Tanganyika.
The Luapula forms a swampy delta almost as wide as the southern end of the lake. In a number of respects, the lower river and lake can be treated as one entity. For a lake in a region with pronounced wet and dry seasons, Mweru does not change much in level and area. The annual fluctuation in level is , with seasonal highs in May and lows in January. This is partly because the Luapula drains out of the Bangweulu Swamps and floodplain which tend to regulate the water flow, absorbing the annual flood and releasing it slowly, and partly because Mweru's outlet, the Luvua, drops quickly and flows swiftly, without vegetation to block it. A rise in Mweru is quickly offset by a faster flow down the Luvua.
Mweru's average length is and its average width is , with its long axis oriented northeast–southwest. Its elevation is , quite a bit higher than Tanganyika (). It is a rift valley lake lying in the Lake Mweru-Luapula graben, which is a branch of the East African Rift. The western shore of the lake in DR Congo exhibits the steep escarpment typical of a rift valley lake, rising to the Kundelungu Mountains beyond, but the rift valley escarpment is less pronounced on the eastern shore.
Mweru is shallow in the south and deeper in the north, with two depressions in the north-eastern section with maximum depths of .
A smaller very marshy lake called Mweru Wantipa (also known as the Mweru Marshes) lies about to its east, and north of the Kalungwishi. It is mostly endorheic and actually takes water from the Kalungwishi through a dambo most of the time, but in times of high flood it may overflow into the Kalungwishi and Lake Mweru.
Human geography
Exploration
The lake was known to Arab and Swahili traders (of ivory, copper and slaves) who used Kilwa Island on the lake as a base at one time. They used trade routes from Zanzibar on the Indian Ocean to Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika to Mweru and then to the Lunda, Luba, Yeke or Kazembe kingdoms, the last being on the southern shores of Mweru. Western trade routes went from those kingdoms to the Atlantic, so Mweru lay on a transcontinental trade route.
Between 1796 and 1831 Portuguese traders/explorers Pereira, Francisco de Lacerda and others visited Kazembe from Mozambique to get treaties to use the trade route between their territories of Mozambique and Angola. The Portuguese must have known of the lake, and the visitors only had to walk to higher ground about north of Kazembe's Kanyembo capital to see the lake distant. However they were more interested in trade routes than discovery, they had approached from the south and their movements were restricted by Mwata Kazembe, and they did not provide an account of it. Explorer and missionary David Livingstone, who referred to it as 'Moero', is credited with its discovery during his travels of 1867-'8.
Livingstone witnessed the devastation and suffering caused by the slave trade in the area to the north and east of Mweru, and his accounts did help rally opposition to it. The last of the slave trading in the area was as late as the 1890s, however. Meanwhile, between 1870 and 1891, skirmishes and wars between the Yeke king Msiri and neighbouring chiefs and traders unsettled the area. Few Europeans had visited Mweru since Livingstone, until Alfred Sharpe in 1890–1 and the Stairs Expedition in 1892 both passed by on their way to seek treaties with Msiri. The Stairs Expedition killed Msiri and took Katanga for the King Leopold II of Belgium. Sharpe left one of his officers to set up the first colonial outpost in the Luapula-Mweru valley, the British boma at Chiengi in 1891.
Historical development
The western shore of Luapula-Mweru became part of the Belgian Congo and the eastern shore part of Northern Rhodesia, a British protectorate. Lake Mweru to Tanganyika is an area which was exposed to European influence at a very early date, when the lakes were the chief entrance to Northern Rhodesia. Although Kilwa Island is closer to the western shore, it was allocated to Northern Rhodesia, and consequently Zambia has 58% of the lake waters, and DR Congo 42%.
The first Belgian outposts on the lake were set up at Lukonzolwa and Pweto which were at various times the headquarters of their administration of Katanga. They stamped out the slave trade going north-east around the lake. The first mission station on the lake was established in 1892 by Scottish missionary Dan Crawford of the Plymouth Brethren at Luanza on the Belgian side of the lake.
The British moved their boma from Chiengi to the Kalungwishi, with one or two British officers (such as Blair Watson), and a force of African police. In conjunction with operations around Abercorn further down the trade route, this was enough to end the slave trade going east from Mweru, but not enough to bring Mwata Kazembe under British rule, and a military expedition had to be sent in 1899 from British Central Africa (Nyasaland) to do that job (see the article on Alfred Sharpe for more details).
The move of the boma from Chiengi to Kalungwishi had the effect of leaving the Belgian boma at Pweto a free rein at the northern end of the lake, leading a hundred years later to about of Zambian territory next to Pweto being ceded to the DR Congo (then Zaire). See the Luapula Province border dispute for further details and references.
After 1900, the Belgian Congo province of Katanga on the western shores of the lake developed faster than the Northern Rhodesian side, the Luapula Province and the town of Kasenga a few hours by boat up the Luapula River became the most developed in the Luapula-Mweru valley, and until the 1960s was the main commercial centre with better services and infrastructure than elsewhere. The Elizabethville mines started up more quickly than those of the Copperbelt, and Kasenga supplied its workforce with fish. Since 1960, political crises, government neglect and wars on the Congolese side have produced a deterioration in infrastructure, while peace on the Zambian side has produced an increase in population and services, causing the balance to change.
Centres of population
Many fishing villages dot Mweru's shores. A number are seasonal camps. The main towns on the Zambian side are Nchelenge, Kashikishi and Chiengi, and on the DR Congo side, Kilwa (the town opposite the island), Lukonzolwa and Pweto.
Besides Kilwa Island, there are two other inhabited islands in the lake: Zambia's Isokwe Island of , and a Congolese island next to the mouth of the Luapula. (Two other islands in the Luapula swamps have shores on the lake).
The Congolese side of the lake was affected by the Second Congo War of 1999–2003, from which it is still recovering. Many refugees entered Zambia at Pweto and were accommodated in camps in Mporokoso and Kawambwa districts.
Transport
The Belgians operated a regular service by a paddle steamer, the Charles Lemaire, between Kasenga on the Luapula and Pweto at the outlet of the Luvua River, a distance of nearly if a stop at Kilwa was included. Boats still ply that route today. Water transport is less used on the Zambian side, except to Kilwa Island, Isokwe Island and Chisenga Island (in the Luapula swamps).
The Mweru area was served only by dirt roads until the main Luapula Province road on the Zambian side was tarred to Nchelenge in 1987; the population around the lake has grown, much of it exploiting the rich fishery of the lake. When the Copperbelt mines shed workers in the 1980s and 1990s, many ex-miners relocated to the lake shores, particularly around Nchelenge-Kashikishi.
The dirt roads on the Congolese side have been neglected and are in poor condition, and many people cross into Zambia to travel by road. See Congo Pedicle road for more details.
Fishery
Mweru has always been noted for its longfin tilapia, (Oreochromis macrochir), called pale ('pa-lay') in Chibemba, which traditionally were dried on racks or mats in the sun and packed in baskets for market. (Smoking and salting fish are more recent processes in the area). Catfish (one species of which grows up to in length), a kind of carp, tigerfish, elephantfish and sardine-like fish are also caught.
Commercial fishing on Lake Mweru and the Luapula River was pioneered by Greek fishermen from the Dodecanese islands who settled in Kasenga, DR Congo, on the western bank of the Luapula upriver from the lake in the first half of the 19th Century. They used boats built in Greek style powered by charcoal-fuelled steam engines, later replaced with diesel. They supplied the workforce of the copper mines in Lubumbashi (later the whole Copperbelt) with fish which was packed in ice at Kasenga and transported from there in trucks. It was estimated in 1950 there were 50 Greek boats catching of fresh fish per year. It would take a week for a boat to do the round trip to the lake and fill its hold, lined with ice carried on board.
In recent decades the catch has declined due to over-fishing and is estimated at tonnes caught from 4,500 small craft, mainly plank boats. Congolese fishermen catch the most despite having a slightly smaller share of the waters. The Tilapia are caught by gill nets, and do not reach the size they once did. Since the 1980s, 'chisense' fishing increased. This method is used to catch small pelagic fish called kapenta, originally from beaches but now using lights on boats at night to attract the fish which are then scooped up in fine nets.
Mining
The Dikulushi Copper Mine is an open-cast mine north of Kilwa in DR Congo by dirt road, and west of the lake.
The mine was sold by Anvil Mining to Mawson West, an Australian company, in March 2010.
When the mine is operating, heavy trucks carrying concentrate cross Mweru on a large motorised pontoon ferry from Kilwa to Nchelenge, a distance of , then drive to a copper smelter in Tsumeb, Namibia.
Tourism
Lake Mweru is undeveloped for tourism despite being regarded as "truly beautiful". Lack of access in the past, a lack of wildlife conservation, and wars in DR Congo between 1996 and 2003 have not helped. 60 years ago the western and northern shores of the lake were home to large herds of elephant, the Luapula floodplain supported herds of lechwe, and the Lusenga Plain National Park and Mweru Wantipa National Park were noted for Cape buffalo, a great variety of antelope and lion. Most animal populations have been reduced by hunting, loss of habitat, and poaching. On the Zambian side perhaps only Mweru Wantipa National Park has tourism potential. On the Congolese side the Parc National de Kundelungu in the mountains south-west of the lake may be in better condition.
See also
Rift Valley lakes
Luapula River
Luvua River
Kalungwishi River
Kazembe
Katanga Province
Msiri
Lake Mweru Wantipa
Luapula Province border dispute
Luapula Province
References
General references
For area, depth and volume data: AR Bos, CK Kapasa and PAM van Zwieten: "Update on the bathymetry of Lake Mweru (Zambia), with notes on water level fluctuations". African Journal of Aquatic Science, 31 (1) : 145–150 (2006). Accessed 4 March 2007.
For distances: Google Earth.
World Lakes Database entry for Lake Mweru
External links
Zambia tourism info with picture
A Trans-Africa Inland Waterway System?
Democratic Republic of Congo Waterways Assessment
Lakes of the Great Rift Valley
International lakes of Africa
Lakes of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Lakes of Zambia
Congo River
Miombo
Geography of Luapula Province
Democratic Republic of the Congo–Zambia border | [
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261362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITER | ITER | ITER (initially the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, iter meaning "the way" or "the path" in Latin) is an international nuclear fusion research and engineering megaproject aimed at replicating the fusion processes of the Sun to create energy on the Earth. Upon completion of construction of the main reactor and first plasma, planned for late 2025, it will be the world's largest magnetic confinement plasma physics experiment and the largest experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor. It is being built next to the Cadarache facility in southern France. ITER will be the largest of more than 100 fusion reactors built since the 1950s, with ten times the plasma volume of any other tokamak operating today.
The long-term goal of fusion research is to generate electricity. ITER's stated purpose is scientific research, and technological demonstration of a large fusion reactor, without electricity generation. ITERs goals are: to achieve enough fusion to produce 10 times as much thermal output power as thermal power absorbed by the plasma for short time periods; to demonstrate and test technologies that would be needed to operate a fusion power plant including cryogenics, heating, control and diagnostics systems, plus remote maintenance; to achieve and learn from a burning plasma; to test tritium breeding; and to demonstrate the safety of a fusion plant.
ITER's thermonuclear fusion reactor will use over 300MW of electrical power to cause the plasma to absorb 50 MW of thermal power, creating 500 MW of heat from fusion for periods of 400 to 600 seconds. This would mean a ten-fold gain of plasma heating power (Q), as measured by heating input to thermal output, or Q ≥ 10. , the record for energy production using nuclear fusion is held by the National Ignition Facility reactor, which achieved a Q of 0.70 in August 2021. Beyond just heating the plasma, the total electricity consumed by the reactor and facilities will range from 110 MW up to 620 MW peak for 30-second periods during plasma operation. As a research reactor, the heat energy generated will not be converted to electricity, but simply vented.
ITER is funded and run by seven member parties: China, the European Union, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea and the United States. The United Kingdom participates through EU's Fusion for Energy (F4E), Switzerland participates through Euratom and F4E, and the project has cooperation agreements with Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan and Thailand.
Construction of the ITER complex in France started in 2013, and assembly of the tokamak began in 2020. The initial budget was close to €6 billion, but the total price of construction and operations is projected to be from €18 to €22 billion; other estimates place the total cost between $45 billion and $65 billion, though these figures are disputed by ITER. Regardless of the final cost, ITER has already been described as the most expensive science experiment of all time, the most complicated engineering project in human history, and one of the most ambitious human collaborations since the development of the International Space Station (€100 billion or $150 billion budget) and the Large Hadron Collider (€7.5 billion budget).
ITER's planned successor, the EUROfusion-led DEMO, is expected to be one of the first fusion reactors to produce electricity in an experimental environment.
Background
Fusion aims to replicate the process that takes place in stars where the intense heat at the core fuses together nuclei and produces massive amounts of energy in the form of heat and light. Harnessing fusion power in terrestrial conditions would provide sufficient energy to satisfy mounting demand, and to do so in a sustainable manner that has a relatively small impact on the environment. One gram of deuterium-tritium fuel mixture in the process of nuclear fusion produces 90,000-kilowatt hours of energy, or the equivalent of 11 tonnes of coal.
Nuclear fusion uses a different approach to traditional nuclear energy. Current nuclear power stations rely on nuclear fission with the nucleus of an atom being split to release energy. Nuclear fusion takes multiple nuclei and uses intense heat to fuse them together, a process that also releases energy.
Nuclear fusion has many potential attractions. The fuel is relatively abundant or can be produced in a fusion reactor. After preliminary tests with deuterium, ITER will use a mix of deuterium-tritium for its fusion because of the combination's high energy potential. Also this fusion reaction is the easiest to run. The first isotope, deuterium, can be extracted from seawater, which means it is a nearly inexhaustible resource. The second isotope, tritium, only occurs in trace amounts in nature and the estimated world's supply (mainly produced by the heavy-water CANDU fission reactors) is just 20 kilograms per year, insufficient for power plants. ITER will be testing tritium breeding blanket technology that would allow a future fusion reactor to create its own tritium and thus be self-sufficient. Furthermore, a fusion reactor would produce virtually no CO2 emissions or atmospheric pollutants, there would be no chance of a meltdown, and its radioactive waste products would mostly be very short-lived compared to those produced by conventional nuclear reactors (fission reactors).
On 21 November 2006, the seven project partners formally agreed to fund the creation of a nuclear fusion reactor. The program is anticipated to last for 30 years – 10 years for construction, and 20 years of operation. ITER was originally expected to cost approximately €5 billion. However, delays, the rising price of raw materials, and changes to the initial design have seen the official budget estimate rise to between €18 billion and €20 billion.
The reactor was expected to take 10 years to build and ITER had planned to test its first plasma in 2020 and achieve full fusion by 2023, however the schedule is now to test first plasma in 2025 and full fusion in 2035. Site preparation has begun near Cadarache center, France, and French President Emmanuel Macron launched the assembly phase of the project at a ceremony in 2020. Under the revised schedule, work to achieve the first hydrogen plasma discharge was 70% complete in the mid of 2020 and considered on track.
One of the ITER objectives is a Q-value ("fusion gain") of 10. Q = 1 is called a breakeven. There are no fusion devices that have achieved Q = 1 as of the end of 2021. The best result achieved in a tokamak is 0.67 in the JET tokamak. The best result achieved for fusion in general, is achieved in inertial confinement fusion (ICF) experiment type by the National Ignition Facility of Q = 0.70.
For commercial fusion power stations, engineering gain factor is important. Engineering gain factor is defined as the ratio of a plant electrical power output to electrical power input of all plant's internal systems (tokamak external heating systems, electromagnets, cryogenics plant, diagnostics and control systems, etc.). Commercial fusion plants will be designed with engineering breakeven in mind (see DEMO). Some nuclear engineers consider a Q of 100 is required for commercial fusion power stations to be viable.
ITER will not produce electricity. Producing electricity from thermal sources is a well known process (used in many power stations) and ITER will not run with significant fusion power output continuously. Adding electricity production to ITER would raise the cost of the project and bring no value for experiments on the tokamak. The DEMO-class reactors that are planned to follow ITER are intended to demonstrate the net production of electricity.
One of the primary ITER objectives is to achieve a state of "burning plasma". Burning plasma is the state of the plasma when more than 50% of the energy received for plasma heating is received from fusion reactions (not from external sources). There are no fusion devices that achieved a burning plasma as of 2021. At higher Q values, progressively bigger parts of plasma heating power will be produced by fusion reactions. This reduces the power needed from external heating systems at high Q values. The bigger a tokamak is, the more fusion reaction-produced energy is preserved for internal plasma heating (and the less external heating is required), which also improves its Q-value. This is how ITER plans for its tokamak reactor to scale.
Organisation history
The initial international cooperation for a nuclear fusion project that was the foundation of ITER began in 1979 with the International Tokamak Reactor, or INTOR, which had four partners: the Soviet Union, the European Atomic Energy Community, the United States, and Japan. However, the INTOR project stalled until Mikhail Gorbachev became general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in March 1985. Gorbachev first revived interest in a collaborative fusion project in an October 1985 meeting with French President François Mitterrand, and then the idea was further developed in November 1985 at the Geneva Summit with Ronald Reagan.
Preparations for the Gorbachev-Reagan summit showed that there were no tangible agreements in the works for the summit. However, the ITER project was gaining momentum in political circles due to the quiet work being done by two physicists, the American scientist Alvin Trivelpiece who served as Director of the Office of Energy Research in the 1980s and the Russian scientist Evgeny Velikhov who would become head of the Kurchatov Institute for nuclear research. The two scientists both supported a project to construct a demonstration fusion reactor. At the time, magnetic fusion research was ongoing in Japan, Europe, the Soviet Union and the US, but Trivelpiece and Velikhov believed that taking the next step in fusion research would be beyond the budget of any of the key nations and that collaboration would be useful internationally.
Dr. Michael Robert, who is the director of International Programs of the Office of Fusion Energy at the US Department of Energy, explains that, 'In September 1985, I led a US science team to Moscow as part of our bilateral fusion activities. Velikhov proposed to me at lunch one day his idea of having the USSR and USA work together to proceed to a fusion reactor. My response was 'great idea', but from my position, I have no capability of pushing that idea upward to the President.'
This push for cooperation on nuclear fusion is cited as a key moment of science diplomacy, but nonetheless a major bureaucratic fight erupted in the US government over the project. One argument against collaboration was that the Soviets would use it to steal US technology and expertise. A second was symbolic and involved American criticism of how the Soviet physicist Andrei Sakharov was being treated. Sakharov was an early proponent of the peaceful use of nuclear technology and along with Igor Tamm he developed the idea for the tokamak that is at the heart of nuclear fusion research. However, Sakharov also supported broader civil liberties in the Soviet Union, and his activism earned him both the 1975 Nobel peace prize and internal exile in Russia, which he opposed by going on multiple hunger strikes. The United States National Security Council convened a meeting under the direction of William Flynn Martin to discuss the nuclear fusion project that resulted in a consensus that the US should go forward with the project.
This led to nuclear fusion cooperation being discussed at the Geneva summit and release of a historic joint statement from Reagan and Gorbachev that emphasized, "the potential importance of the work aimed at utilizing controlled thermonuclear fusion for peaceful purposes and, in this connection, advocated the widest practicable development of international cooperation in obtaining this source of energy, which is essentially inexhaustible, for the benefit of all mankind." For the fusion community, this statement was a breakthrough, and it was reinforced when Reagan evoked the possibilities of nuclear fusion in a Joint Session of Congress later in the month.
As a result, collaboration on an international fusion experiment began to move forward. In October 1986 at the Reykjavik Summit, the so-called 'Quadripartite Initiative Committee' (Europe through the Euratom countries, Japan, USSR, and the USA) was formed to oversee the development of the project. The year after, in March 1987, the Quadripartite Initiative Committee met at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) headquarters in Vienna. This meeting marked the launch of the conceptual design studies for the experimental reactors as well as the start of negotiations for operational issues such as the legal foundations for the peaceful use of fusion technology, the organizational structure and staffing, and the eventual location for the project. This meeting in Vienna was also where the project was baptized the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, although it was quickly referred to by its abbreviation alone and its Latin meaning of 'the way'.
Conceptual and engineering design phases were carried out under the auspices of the IAEA. The original technical objectives were established in 1992 and the original Engineering Design Activities (EDA) were completed in 1998. An acceptable, detailed design was validated in July 2001 to complete the extended EDA period, and the validated design then went through a Design Review that began November 2006 and concluded in December 2007. The design process was difficult with arguments over issues such as whether there should be circular cross sections for magnetic confinement or 'D' shaped cross sections. These issues were partly responsible for the United States temporarily exiting the project in 1999 before rejoining in 2003.
At this same time, the group of ITER partners was expanding, with China and South Korea joining the project in 2003 and India formally joined in 2005.
There was a heated competition to host the ITER project with the candidates narrowed down to two possible sites: France and Japan. Russia, China, and the European Union supported the choice of Cadarache in France, while the United States, South Korea, and Japan support the choice of Rokkasho in Japan. In June 2005, it was officially announced that ITER would be built in the South of France at the Cadarache site. The negotiations that led to the decision ended in a compromise between the EU and Japan, in that Japan was promised 20% of the research staff on the French location of ITER, as well as the head of the administrative body of ITER. In addition, it was agreed that 8% of the ITER construction budget would go to partner facilities that would be built in Japan.
On 21 November 2006, at a ceremony hosted by French President Jacques Chirac at the Élysée Palace in Paris, an international consortium signed a formal agreement to build the reactor. Initial work to clear the site for construction began in Cadarache in March 2007 and, once this agreement was ratified by all partners, the ITER Organization was officially established on 24 October 2007.
In 2016, Australia became the first non-member partner of the project. ITER signed a technical cooperation agreement with the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO), granting this country access to research results of ITER in exchange for the construction of selected parts of the ITER machine. In 2017, Kazakhstan signed a cooperation agreement that laid the groundwork for technical collaboration between the National Nuclear Center of the Republic of Kazakhstan and ITER. Most recently, after collaborating with ITER in the early stages of the project, Canada signed a cooperation agreement in 2020 with a focus on tritium and tritium-related equipment.
The project began its five-year assembly phase in July 2020, launched by the French President, Emmanuel Macron in the presence of other members of the ITER project.
Directors-General
ITER is supervised by a governing body known as the ITER Council that is composed of representatives of the seven signatories to the ITER Agreement. The ITER Council is responsible for the overall direction of the organization and decides such issues as the budget.
The ITER Council also appoints the director-general of the project. There have been three directors-general so far:
2005–2010: Kaname Ikeda
2010–2015: Osamu Motojima
2015–2020: Bernard Bigot
2020–current: Bernard Bigot
The current director-general, Bernard Bigot, was appointed to reform the management and governance of the ITER project. In January 2019, the ITER Council voted unanimously to reappoint Bigot for a second five-year term.
Objectives
ITER's stated mission is to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion power as a large-scale, carbon-free source of energy.
More specifically, the project has aims to:
Momentarily produce a fusion plasma with thermal power ten times greater than the injected thermal power (a Q value of 10).
Produce a steady-state plasma with a Q value greater than 5. (Q = 1 is scientific breakeven, as defined in fusion energy gain factor.)
Maintain a fusion pulse for up to 8 minutes.
Develop technologies and processes needed for a fusion power station — including superconducting magnets and remote handling (maintenance by robot).
Verify tritium breeding concepts.
Refine neutron shield / heat conversion technology (most of the energy in the D+T fusion reaction is released in the form of fast neutrons).
Experiment with burning plasma state
The objectives of the ITER project are not limited to creating the nuclear fusion device but are much broader, including building necessary technical, organizational, and logistical capabilities, skills, tools, supply chains, and culture enabling management of such megaprojects among participating countries, bootstrapping their local nuclear fusion industries.
Timeline and status
As of May 2021 ITER is near 75% complete toward first plasma. Start is scheduled for late 2025.
The start of the project can be traced back to 1978 when the European Commission, Japan, United States, and USSR joined together for the International Tokamak Reactor (INTOR) Workshop. This initiative was held under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency and its goals were to assess the readiness of magnetic fusion to move forward to the experimental power reactor (EPR) stage, to identify the additional R&D that must be undertaken, and to define the characteristics of such an EPR by means of a conceptual design. From 1978 to the middle of the 1980s, hundreds of fusion scientists and engineers in each participating country took part in a detailed assessment of the tokamak confinement system and the design possibilities for harnessing nuclear fusion energy.
In 1985, at the Geneva summit meeting in 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev suggested to Ronald Reagan that the two countries jointly undertake the construction of a tokamak EPR as proposed by the INTOR Workshop. The ITER project was initiated in 1988.
Ground was broken in 2007 and construction of the ITER tokamak complex started in 2013.
Machine assembly was launched on 28 July 2020. The construction of the facility is expected to be completed in 2025 when commissioning of the reactor can commence and initial plasma experiments are scheduled to begin at the end of that year. When ITER becomes operational, it will be the largest magnetic confinement plasma physics experiment in use with a plasma volume of 840 cubic meters, surpassing the Joint European Torus by a factor of 8.
Reactor overview
When deuterium and tritium fuse, two nuclei come together to form a helium nucleus (an alpha particle), and a high-energy neutron.
+ → + +
While nearly all stable isotopes lighter on the periodic table than iron-56 and nickel-62, which have the highest binding energy per nucleon, will fuse with some other isotope and release energy, deuterium and tritium are by far the most attractive for energy generation as they require the lowest activation energy (thus lowest temperature) to do so, while producing among the most energy per unit weight.
All proto- and mid-life stars radiate enormous amounts of energy generated by fusion processes. Mass for mass, the deuterium–tritium fusion process releases roughly three times as much energy as uranium-235 fission, and millions of times more energy than a chemical reaction such as the burning of coal. It is the goal of a fusion power station to harness this energy to produce electricity.
Activation energies (in most fusion systems this is the temperature required to initiate the reaction) for fusion reactions are generally high because the protons in each nucleus will tend to strongly repel one another, as they each have the same positive charge. A heuristic for estimating reaction rates is that nuclei must be able to get within 100 femtometers (1 × 10−13 meter) of each other, where the nuclei are increasingly likely to undergo quantum tunneling past the electrostatic barrier and the turning point where the strong nuclear force and the electrostatic force are equally balanced, allowing them to fuse. In ITER, this distance of approach is made possible by high temperatures and magnetic confinement. ITER uses cooling equipment like a cryopump to cool the magnets to close to absolute zero. High temperatures give the nuclei enough energy to overcome their electrostatic repulsion (see Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution). For deuterium and tritium, the optimal reaction rates occur at temperatures higher than 100 million °C. At ITER, the plasma will be heated to 150 million °C (about ten times the temperature at the core of the Sun) by ohmic heating (running a current through the plasma). Additional heating is applied using neutral beam injection (which cross magnetic field lines without a net deflection and will not cause a large electromagnetic disruption) and radio frequency (RF) or microwave heating.
At such high temperatures, particles have a large kinetic energy, and hence velocity. If unconfined, the particles will rapidly escape, taking the energy with them, cooling the plasma to the point where net energy is no longer produced. A successful reactor would need to contain the particles in a small enough volume for a long enough time for much of the plasma to fuse.
In ITER and many other magnetic confinement reactors, the plasma, a gas of charged particles, is confined using magnetic fields. A charged particle moving through a magnetic field experiences a force perpendicular to the direction of travel, resulting in centripetal acceleration, thereby confining it to move in a circle or helix around the lines of magnetic flux. ITER will use four types of magnets to contain the plasma: a central solenoid magnet, poloidal magnets around the edges of the tokamak, 18 D-shaped toroidal-field coils, and correction coils.
A solid confinement vessel is also needed, both to shield the magnets and other equipment from high temperatures and energetic photons and particles, and to maintain a near-vacuum for the plasma to populate. The containment vessel is subjected to a barrage of very energetic particles, where electrons, ions, photons, alpha particles, and neutrons constantly bombard it and degrade the structure. The material must be designed to endure this environment so that a power station would be economical. Tests of such materials will be carried out both at ITER and at IFMIF (International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility).
Once fusion has begun, high-energy neutrons will radiate from the reactive regions of the plasma, crossing magnetic field lines easily due to charge neutrality (see neutron flux). Since it is the neutrons that receive the majority of the energy, they will be ITER's primary source of energy output. Ideally, alpha particles will expend their energy in the plasma, further heating it.
The inner wall of the containment vessel will have 440 blanket modules that are designed to slow and absorb neutrons in a reliable and efficient manner and therefore protect the steel structure and the superconducting toroidal field magnets. At later stages of the ITER project, experimental blanket modules will be used to test breeding tritium for fuel from lithium-bearing ceramic pebbles contained within the blanket module following the following reactions:
+ → +
+ → + +
where the reactant neutron is supplied by the D-T fusion reaction.
Energy absorbed from the fast neutrons is extracted and passed into the primary coolant. This heat energy would then be used to power an electricity-generating turbine in a real power station; in ITER this electricity generating system is not of scientific interest, so instead the heat will be extracted and disposed of.
Technical design
Vacuum vessel
The vacuum vessel is the central part of the ITER machine: a double-walled steel container in which the plasma is contained by means of magnetic fields.
The ITER vacuum vessel will be twice as large and 16 times as heavy as any previously manufactured fusion vessel: each of the nine torus-shaped sectors will weigh approximately 500 tons for a total weight of 5000 tons. When all the shielding and port structures are included, this adds up to a total of 5,116 tonnes. Its external diameter will measure , the internal . Once assembled, the whole structure will be high.
The primary function of the vacuum vessel is to provide a hermetically sealed plasma container. Its main components are the main vessel, the port structures and the supporting system. The main vessel is a double-walled structure with poloidal and toroidal stiffening ribs between shells to reinforce the vessel structure. These ribs also form the flow passages for the cooling water. The space between the double walls will be filled with shield structures made of stainless steel. The inner surfaces of the vessel will act as the interface with breeder modules containing the breeder blanket component. These modules will provide shielding from the high-energy neutrons produced by the fusion reactions and some will also be used for tritium breeding concepts.
The vacuum vessel has a total of 44 openings that are known as ports – 18 upper, 17 equatorial, and 9 lower ports – that will be used for remote handling operations, diagnostic systems, neutral beam injections and vacuum pumping. Remote handling is made necessary by the radioactive interior of the reactor following a shutdown, which is caused by neutron bombardment during operation.
Vacuum pumping will be done before the start of fusion reactions to remove all molecules and to create the necessary low density that is about one million times lower than the density of air.
Breeder blanket
ITER will use a deuterium-tritium fuel, and while deuterium is abundant in nature, tritium is much rarer because it is a hydrogen isotope with a half-life of just 12.3 years and there is only approximately 3.5 kilograms of natural tritium on earth. Owing to this limited terrestrial supply of tritium, a key component of the ITER reactor design is the breeding blanket. This component, located adjacent to the vacuum vessel, serves to produce tritium through reaction with neutrons from the plasma. There are several reactions that produce tritium within the blanket. Lithium-6 produces tritium via (n,t) reactions with moderated neutrons, while Lithium-7 produces tritium via interactions with higher energy neutrons via (n,nt) reactions.
Concepts for the breeder blanket include helium-cooled lithium lead (HCLL), helium-cooled pebble bed (HCPB), and water-cooled lithium lead (WCLL) methods. Six different tritium breeding systems, known as Test Blanket Modules (TBM), will be tested in ITER and will share a common box geometry. Materials for use as breeder pebbles in the HCPB concept include lithium metatitanate and lithium orthosilicate. Requirements of breeder materials include good tritium production and extraction, mechanical stability and low levels of radioactive activation.
Magnet system
ITER is based on magnetic confinement fusion that uses magnetic fields to contain the fusion fuel in plasma form. The magnet system used in the ITER tokamak will be the largest superconducting magnet system ever built. The system will use four types of magnets to achieve plasma confinement: a central solenoid magnet, poloidal magnets, toroidal-field coils, and correction coils. The central solenoid coil will be 18 meters tall, 4.3 meters wide, and weigh 1000 tons. It will use superconducting niobium-tin to carry 45 kA and produce a peak field of more than 13 teslas.
The 18 toroidal field coils will also use niobium-tin. They are the most powerful superconductive magnets ever designed with a nominal peak field strength of 11.8 teslas and a stored magnetic energy of 41 gigajoules. Other lower field ITER magnets (poloidal field and correction coils) will use niobium-titanium for their superconducting elements.
Additional heating
To achieve fusion, plasma particles must be heated to temperatures that reach as high as 150 million °C and to achieve these extreme temperatures multiple heating methods must be used. Within the tokamak itself, changing magnetic fields produce a heating effect but external heating is also required. There will be three types of external heating in ITER:
Two one-million volt heating neutral beam injectors (HNB) that will each provide about 16.5MW to the burning plasma, with the possibility to add a third injector. The beams generate electrically charged deuterium ions that are accelerated through five grids to reach the required energy of 1MV and the beams can operate for the entire plasma pulse duration, a total of up to 3600 seconds. The prototype is being built at the Neutral Beam Test Facility (NBTF), which was constructed in Padua, Italy. There is also a smaller neutral beam that will be used for diagnostics to help detect the amount of helium ash inside the tokamak.
An ion cyclotron resonance heating (ICRH) system that will inject 20 MW of electromagnetic power into the plasma by using antennas to generate radio waves that have the same rate of oscillation as the ions in the plasma.
An electron cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH) system that will heat electrons in the plasma using a high-intensity beam of electromagnetic radiation.
Cryostat
The ITER cryostat is a large 3,850-tonne stainless steel structure surrounding the vacuum vessel and the superconducting magnets, with the purpose of providing a super-cool vacuum environment. Its thickness (ranging from ) will allow it to withstand the stresses induced by atmospheric pressure acting on the enclosed volume of 8,500 cubic meters. On 9 June 2020, Larsen & Toubro completed the delivery and installation of the cryostat module. The cryostat is the major component of the tokamak complex, which sits on a seismically isolated base.
Divertor
The divertor is a device within the tokamak that allows for removal of waste and impurities from the plasma while the reactor is operating. At ITER, the divertor will extract heat and ash that are created by the fusion process, while also protecting the surrounding walls and reducing plasma contamination.
The ITER divertor, which has been compared to a massive ashtray, is made of 54 pieces of stainless-steel parts that are known as cassettes. Each cassette weighs roughly eight tonnes and measures 0.8 meters x 2.3 meters by 3.5 meters. The divertor design and construction is being overseen by the Fusion For Energy agency.
When the ITER tokamak is in operation, the plasma-facing units endure heat spikes as high as 20 megawatts per square metre, which is more than four times higher than what is experienced by a spacecraft entering Earth's atmosphere.
The testing of the divertor is being done at the ITER Divertor Test Facility (IDTF) in Russia. This facility was created at the Efremov Institute in Saint Petersburg as part of the ITER Procurement Arrangement that spreads design and manufacturing across the project's member countries.
Cooling systems
The ITER tokamak will use interconnected cooling systems to manage the heat generated during operation. Most of the heat will be removed by a primary water cooling loop, itself cooled by water from a secondary loop through a heat exchanger within the tokamak building's secondary confinement. The secondary cooling loop will be cooled by a larger complex, comprising a cooling tower, a pipeline supplying water from the Canal de Provence, and basins that allow cooling water to be cooled and tested for chemical contamination and tritium before being released into the river Durance. This system will need to dissipate an average power of during the tokamak's operation. A liquid nitrogen system will provide a further of cooling to , and a liquid helium system will provide of cooling to . The liquid helium system will be designed, manufactured, installed and commissioned by Air Liquide in France.
Location
The process of selecting a location for ITER was long and drawn out. Japan proposed a site in Rokkasho, Aomori. Two European sites were considered, the Cadarache site in France and the Vandellòs site in Spain, but the European Competitiveness Council named Caderache as its official candidate in November 2003. Additionally, Canada announced a bid for the site in Clarington in May 2001, but withdrew from the race in 2003.
From this point on, the choice was between France and Japan. On 3 May 2005, the EU and Japan agreed to a process which would settle their dispute by July. At the final meeting in Moscow on 28 June 2005, the participating parties agreed to construct ITER at Cadarache with Japan receiving a privileged partnership that included a Japanese director-general for the project and a financial package to construct facilities in Japan.
Fusion for Energy, the EU agency in charge of the European contribution to the project, is located in Barcelona, Spain. Fusion for Energy (F4E) is the European Union's Joint Undertaking for ITER and the Development of Fusion Energy. According to the agency's website: F4E is responsible for providing Europe's contribution to ITER, the world's largest scientific partnership that aims to demonstrate fusion as a viable and sustainable source of energy. [...] F4E also supports fusion research and development initiatives [...]
The ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility aimed at developing and optimizing the neutral beam injector prototype, is being constructed in Padova, Italy. It will be the only ITER facility out of the site in Cadarache.
Most of the buildings at ITER will or have been clad in an alternating pattern of reflective stainless steel and grey lacquered metal. This was done for aesthetic reasons to blend the buildings with their surrounding environment and to aid with thermal insulation.
Participants
Currently there are seven signatories to the ITER Agreement: China, the European Union, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea and the United States.
As a consequence of Brexit, the United Kingdom formally withdrew from Euratom on 31 January 2020. However, under the terms of the EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement, the United Kingdom remains a member of ITER as a part of Fusion for Energy following the end of the transition period on 31 December 2020.
In March 2009, Switzerland, an associate member of Euratom since 1979, also ratified the country's accession to the Fusion for Energy as a third country member.
In 2016, ITER announced a partnership with Australia for "technical cooperation in areas of mutual benefit and interest", but without Australia becoming a full member.
In 2017, ITER signed a Cooperation Agreement with Kazakhstan.
Thailand also has an official role in the project after a cooperation agreement was signed between the ITER Organization and the Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology in 2018. The agreement provides courses and lectures to students and scientists in Thailand and facilitates relationships between Thailand and the ITER project.
Canada was previously a full member but pulled out due to a lack of funding from the federal government. The lack of funding also resulted in Canada's withdrawing from its bid for the ITER site in 2003. Canada rejoined the project in 2020 via a cooperation agreement that focused on tritium and tritium-related equipment.
ITER's work is supervised by the ITER Council, which has the authority to appoint senior staff, amend regulations, decide on budgeting issues, and allow additional states or organizations to participate in ITER. The current Chairman of the ITER Council is Won Namkung, and the ITER Director-General is Bernard Bigot.
Members
(as a member of Euratom and Fusion for Energy)
(as a part of Fusion for Energy)
Non-members
(through the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) in 2016)
(through the Government of Canada in 2020, mostly on the grounds of tritium)
(through the National Nuclear Center of the Republic of Kazakhstan (NNC-RK) in 2017)
(through the Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (TINT) in 2018)
Domestic agencies
Each member of the ITER project – China, the European Union, India, Japan, Korea, Russia, and the United States – has created a domestic agency to meet its contributions and procurement responsibilities. These agencies employ their own staff, have their own budget, and directly oversee all industrial contracts and subcontracting.
ITER China
China's contribution to ITER is managed through the China International Nuclear Fusion Energy Program or the CNDA. The Chinese agency is working on components such as the correction coil, magnet supports, the first wall, and shield blanket. China is also running experiments on their HL-2M tokamak in Chengdu and HT-7U (EAST) in Hefei to help support ITER research.
ITER EU
The ITER Agreement was signed by Euratom representing the EU. Fusion for Energy, often referred to as F4E, was created in 2007 as the EU's domestic agency, with headquarters in Barcelona, Spain, and further offices in Cadarache, France, Garching, Germany, and Rokkasho, Japan. F4E is responsible for contributing to the design and manufacture of components such as the vacuum vessel, the divertor, and the magnets.
ITER India
ITER-India is a special project run by India's Institute for Plasma Research. ITER-India's research facility is based in Ahmedabad in the Gujarat state. India's deliverables to the ITER project include the cryostat, in-vessel shielding, cooling and cooling water systems.
ITER Japan
Japan's National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Sciences and Technology, or QST, is now the designated Japanese domestic agency for the ITER project. The organization is based in Chiba, Japan. Japan collaborates with the ITER Organization and ITER members to help design and produce components for the tokamak, including the blanket remote handling system, the central solenoid coils, the plasma diagnostics systems, and the neutral beam injection heating systems.
ITER Korea
ITER Korea was established in 2007 under Korea's National Fusion Research Institute and the organization is based in Daejeon, South Korea. Among the procurement items that ITER Korea is responsible for four sectors of the vacuum vessel, the blanket shield block, thermal shields, and the tritium storage and delivery system.
ITER Russia
Russia occupies one of the key positions in the implementation of the international ITER Project. The Russian Federation's contribution to the ITER project lies in the manufacture and supply of high-tech equipment and basic reactor systems. The Russian Federation's contribution is being made under the aegis of Rosatom or the State Atomic Energy Corporation. The Russian Federation has multiple obligations to the ITER project, including the supply of 22 kilometers of conductors based on 80 tons of superconducting Nb3Sn strands for winding coils of a toroidal field and 11 km of conductors based on 40 tons of superconducting NbTi strands for windings of coils of a poloidal field of the ITER magnetic system. Russia is responsible for the manufacture of 179 of the most energy-intensive (up to 5 MW/sq.m) panels of the First Wall. The panels are covered with beryllium plates soldered to CuCrZr bronze, which is connected to a steel base. Panel size up to 2 m wide, 1.4 m high; its mass is about 1000 kg. The obligation of the Russian Federation also includes conducting thermal tests of ITER components that are facing the plasma. Today, Russia, thanks to its participation in the Project, has the full design documentation for the ITER reactor.
ITER US
US ITER is part of the US Department of Energy and is managed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee. US ITER is responsible for both the design and manufacturing of components for the ITER project, and American involvement includes contributions to the tokamak cooling system, the diagnostics systems, the electron and ion cyclotron heating transmission lines, the toroidal and central solenoid magnet systems, and the pellet injection systems.
Funding
In 2006, the ITER Agreement was signed on the basis of an estimated cost of €5.9 billion over a ten-year period. In 2008, as a result of a design review, the estimate was revised upwards to approximately €19 billion. As of 2016, the total price of constructing and operating the experiment is expected to be in excess of €22 billion, an increase of €4.6 billion of its 2010 estimate, and of €9.6 billion from the 2009 estimate.
At the June 2005 conference in Moscow the participating members of the ITER cooperation agreed on the following division of funding contributions for the construction phase: 45.5% by the hosting member, the European Union, and the rest split between the non-hosting members at a rate of 9.1% each for China, India, Japan, South Korea, the Russian Federation and the USA. During the operation and deactivation phases, Euratom will contribute to 34% of the total costs, Japan and the United States 13 percent, and China, India, Korea, and Russia 10 percent.
Ninety percent of contributions will be delivered 'in-kind' using ITER's own currency, the ITER Units of Account (IUAs). Although Japan's financial contribution as a non-hosting member is one-eleventh of the total, the EU agreed to grant it a special status so that Japan will provide for two-elevenths of the research staff at Cadarache and be awarded two-elevenths of the construction contracts, while the European Union's staff and construction components contributions will be cut from five-elevenths to four-elevenths.
The American contribution to ITER has been the subject to debate. The U.S. Department of Energy has estimated the total construction costs to 2025, including in-kind contributions, to be $65 billion, although ITER disputes this calculation. After having reduced funding to ITER in 2017, the United States ended up doubling its initial budget to $122 million in-kind contribution in 2018. It is estimated the total contribution to ITER for the year 2020 was $247 million, an amount that is part of the U.S. Department of Energy's Fusion Energy Sciences program. Under a strategic plan to guide American fusion energy efforts that was approved in January 2021, the U.S. Department of Energy directed the Fusion Energy Sciences Advisory Committee to assume that the U.S. will continue to fund ITER for a ten-year period.
Support for the European budget for ITER has also varied over the course of the project. It was reported in December 2010 that the European Parliament had refused to approve a plan by member states to reallocate €1.4 billion from the budget to cover a shortfall in ITER building costs in 2012–13. The closure of the 2010 budget required this financing plan to be revised, and the European Commission (EC) was forced to put forward an ITER budgetary resolution proposal in 2011. In the end, the European contribution to ITER for the 2014 to 2020 period was set at €2.9 billion. Most recently, in February 2021, the European Council approved ITER financing of €5.61 billion for the period of 2021 to 2027.
Manufacturing
The construction of the ITER tokamak has been compared to the assembly of “a giant three-dimensional puzzle” because the parts are manufactured around the world and then shipped to France for assembly. This assembly system is the result of the ITER Agreement that stipulates that member contributions were to be mostly “in-kind” with countries manufacturing components instead of providing money. This system was devised to provide economic stimulus and fusion expertise in the countries funding the project and the general framework called for 90% of member contributions to be in material or components and 10% to be in money.
As a result, more than 2800 design or manufacturing contracts have been signed since the launch of the project. According to a 2017 estimate from French Minister for Research, Education and Innovation, Frédérique Vidal, there were 500 companies involved in the construction of ITER and Bernard Bigot stated that €7 billion in contracts had been awarded to prime contractors in Europe alone since 2007.
The overall assembly of the tokamak facility is being overseen through a €174-million contract awarded to Momentum, a joint venture between Amec Foster Wheeler (Britain), Assystem (France), and Kepco (South Korea). One of the largest tenders was a €530-million contract for HVAC systems and mechanical and electrical equipment that was awarded to a European consortium involving ENGIE (France) and Exyte (Germany). A tokamak assembly contract worth €200 million also went to a European consortium, Dynamic, that includes the companies Ansaldo Energia (Italy), ENGIE (France), and SIMIC (Italy). The French industrial conglomerate Daher was awarded more than €100 million in logistics contracts for ITER, which includes the shipment of the heavy components from the different manufacturers around the world.
In America, US ITER has awarded $1.3 billion in contracts to American companies since the beginning of the project and there is an estimated $800 million in future contracts still to come. The major US contracts include General Atomics being selected to design and manufacture the crucial central solenoid magnet.
In 2019, the Chinese consortium led by China Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation signed a contract for machine assembly at ITER that was the biggest nuclear energy contract ever signed by a Chinese company in Europe.
Russia is supplying magnet and vacuum-injection systems for ITER with construction being done at the Sredne-Nevsky Shipyard in Saint Petersburg.
In India, the contract for construction of the cryostat, one of the fundamental pieces of the tokamak, was awarded to Larsen & Toubro, who also have ITER contracts for water cooling systems.
Two of Japan’s industrial leaders, Toshiba Energy Systems & Solutions and Mitsibishi Heavy Industries, have contracts to manufacture the torodial field coils for ITER. Construction of another key part of the tokamak, the vacuum vessel, was awarded to Hyundai Heavy Industries and is being built in Korea.
Criticism
The ITER project has been criticized for issues such as its possible environmental impacts, its usefulness as a response to climate change, the design of its tokamak, and how the experiment’s objectives have been expressed.
When France was announced as the site of the ITER project in 2005, several European environmentalists stated their opposition to the project. For example, the French politician Noël Mamère argued that the fight against global warming would be neglected as a result of ITER: “This is not good news for the fight against the greenhouse effect because we're going to put ten billion euros towards a project that has a term of 30–50 years when we're not even sure it will be effective." However, another French environmental association Association des Ecologistes Pour le Nucléaire (AEPN) welcomed the ITER project as an important part of the response to climate change.
Within the broader fusion sector, a number of researchers working on non-tokamak systems, such as the independent fusion scientist Eric Lerner, have argued that other fusion projects would be a fraction of ITER's cost and could be a potentially more viable and/or more cost-effective path to fusion power. Other critics, such as Daniel Jassby, accuse ITER researchers of being unwilling to face up to the technical and economic potential problems posed by tokamak fusion schemes.
In terms of the design of the tokamak, one concern arose from the 2013 tokamak parameters database interpolation that revealed the power load on a tokamak divertor would be five times the previously expected value. Given that the projected power load on the ITER divertor will already be very high, these new findings led to new design testing initiatives.
Another issue that critics raised regarding ITER and future deuterium-tritium (DT) fusion projects is the available supply of tritium. As it stands, ITER will use all existing supplies of tritium for its experiment and the current state-of-the-art technology isn’t sufficient to generate enough tritium to fulfill the needs of future DT fuel cycle experiments for fusion energy. According to the conclusion of a 2020 study that analyzed the tritium issue, “successful development of the DT fuel cycle for DEMO and future fusion reactors requires an intensive R&D program in key areas of plasma physics and fusion technologies.”
Responses to criticism
Proponents believe that much of the ITER criticism is misleading and inaccurate, in particular the allegations of the experiment's "inherent danger". The stated goals for a commercial fusion power station design are that the amount of radioactive waste produced should be hundreds of times less than that of a fission reactor, and that it should produce no long-lived radioactive waste, and that it is impossible for any such reactor to undergo a large-scale runaway chain reaction. A direct contact of the plasma with ITER inner walls would contaminate it, causing it to cool immediately and stop the fusion process. In addition, the amount of fuel contained in a fusion reactor chamber (one half gram of deuterium/tritium fuel) is only sufficient to sustain the fusion burn pulse from minutes up to an hour at most, whereas a fission reactor usually contains several years' worth of fuel.
Moreover, some detritiation systems will be implemented, so that, at a fuel cycle inventory level of about , ITER will eventually need to recycle large amounts of tritium and at turnovers orders of magnitude higher than any preceding tritium facility worldwide.
In the case of an accident (or sabotage), it is expected that a fusion reactor would release far less radioactive pollution than would an ordinary fission nuclear station. Furthermore, ITER's type of fusion power has little in common with nuclear weapons technology, and does not produce the fissile materials necessary for the construction of a weapon. Proponents note that large-scale fusion power would be able to produce reliable electricity on demand, and with virtually zero pollution (no gaseous CO2, SO2, or NOx by-products are produced).
According to researchers at a demonstration reactor in Japan, a fusion generator should be feasible in the 2030s and no later than the 2050s. Japan is pursuing its own research program with several operational facilities that are exploring several fusion paths.
In the United States alone, electricity accounts for US$210 billion in annual sales. Asia's electricity sector attracted US$93 billion in private investment between 1990 and 1999. These figures take into account only current prices. Proponents of ITER contend that an investment in research now should be viewed as an attempt to earn a far greater future return and a 2017-18 study of the impact of ITER investments on the EU economy have concluded that 'in the medium and long-term, there is likely to be a positive return on investment from the EU commitment to ITER.' Supporters contend that the answer to these questions requires the ITER experiment, especially in the light of the monumental potential benefits.
Furthermore, the main line of research via tokamaks has been developed to the point that it is now possible to undertake the penultimate step in magnetic confinement plasma physics research with a self-sustained reaction. In the tokamak research program, recent advances devoted to controlling the configuration of the plasma have led to the achievement of substantially improved energy and pressure confinement, which reduces the projected cost of electricity from such reactors by a factor of two to a value only about 50% more than the projected cost of electricity from advanced light-water reactors. In addition, progress in the development of advanced, low activation structural materials supports the promise of environmentally benign fusion reactors and research into alternate confinement concepts is yielding the promise of future improvements in confinement. Finally, supporters contend that other potential replacements to the fossil fuels have environmental issues of their own. Solar, wind, and hydroelectric power all have very low surface power density compared to ITER's successor DEMO which, at 2,000 MW, would have an energy density that exceeds even large fission power stations.
Safety of the project is regulated according to French and EU nuclear power regulations. In 2011, the French Nuclear Safety Authority (ASN) delivered a favorable opinion, and then, based on the French Act on Nuclear Transparency and Safety, the licensing application was subject to public enquiry that allowed the general public to submit requests for information regarding safety of the project. According to published safety assessments (approved by the ASN), in the worst case of reactor leak, released radioactivity will not exceed 1/1000 of natural background radiation and no evacuation of local residents will be required. The whole installation includes a number of stress tests to confirm efficiency of all barriers. The whole reactor building is built on top of almost 500 seismic suspension columns and the whole complex is located almost 300 m above sea level. Overall, extremely rare events such as 100-year flood of the nearby Durance river and 10,000-year earthquakes were assumed in the safety design of the complex and respective safeguards are part of the design.
Between 2008 and 2017, the project has generated 34,000 job-years in the EU economy alone. It is estimated that in the 2018–2030 period, it will generate a further 74,000 job-years and €15.9 billion in gross value.
Similar projects
Precursors to ITER were EAST, SST-1, KSTAR, JET, and Tore Supra.
Other planned and proposed fusion reactors include SPARC, DEMO, NIF, HiPER, MAST, SST-2, CFETR (China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor), T-15MD and other 'DEMO-phase' national or private-sector fusion power plants.
See also
Atoms for Peace (US Cold War-era science diplomacy strategy)
Baruch Plan (post-War US attempt to internationalize fission)
COLEX process (isotopic separation)
Fusenet, European Fusion Education Network, 2008-2013
Fusion for Energy, the Domestic Agency in charge of managing EU contributions to the ITER project
International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility, proposed, construction not started
ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility, the facility dedicated to the development of the ITER neutral beam injector prototype
JT-60, Japan's magnetic fusion program
Wendelstein 7-X., stellarator developed in Germany
National Ignition Facility, U.S.-based lab for fusion ignition
Nuclear power in France
Science diplomacy
Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production
DEMOnstration Power Plant or DEMO, the next step, at least 15% larger than ITER and the first to produce electricity
PROTO (fusion reactor), the step after DEMO, and the first to produce commercially viable electricity
Notes
References
Further reading
Claessens, Michel. (2020). ITER: The giant fusion reactor: Bringing a Sun to Earth. Springer.
Clery, Daniel. (2013). A Piece of the Sun. Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.
ITER. (2018). ITER Research Plan within the Staged Approach (Level III - Provisional Version). ITER.
Wendell Horton, Jr, C., and Sadruddin Benkadda. (2015). ITER physics. World Scientific.
External links
ITER China website
ITER EU (Fusion for Energy) website
ITER India website
ITER Japan website
ITER Korea website
ITER Russia website
ITER US website
The New Yorker, 3 March 2014, Star in a Bottle, by Raffi Khatchadourian
Archival material collected by Prof. McCray relating to ITER's early phase (1979–1989) can be consulted at the Historical Archives of the European Union in Florence
"ITER Talks (1): Introduction to ITER" video (53:00) at YouTube, by ITER Organization, July 23, 2021.
The roles of the Host and the non-Host for the ITER Project. June 2005 The broader approach agreement with Japan.
Fusion Electricity - A roadmap to the realisation of fusion energy EFDA 2012 - 8 missions, ITER, project plan with dependencies, ...
Buildings and structures in Bouches-du-Rhône
International science experiments
Science diplomacy | [
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261364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent%20Cody%20Banks | Agent Cody Banks | Agent Cody Banks is a 2003 American spy comedy film directed by Harald Zwart. It follows the adventures of the 15-year-old title character, played by Frankie Muniz, who has to finish his chores, avoid getting grounded, and save the world by going undercover for the CIA as a James Bond–type superspy. Hilary Duff, Angie Harmon, Keith David, Cynthia Stevenson, Daniel Roebuck, Darrell Hammond, Ian McShane, and Arnold Vosloo co-star. The movie was filmed in British Columbia and was released in the United States on March 14, 2003.
This film was the first major motion picture project for Duff apart from the film spinoff of her Lizzie McGuire TV series, as well as for Harmon, who had just come off a three-year stint as Assistant D.A. Abbie Carmichael on NBC's Law & Order. A sequel was released the following year. The film's executive producers include Madonna (whose then-production company Maverick Films acquired the script) and Jason Alexander (he was originally attached to direct before being replaced by Vic Armstrong, who was ultimately replaced by Zwart).
Plot
Cody Banks, a 15-year-old bullied high school junior in Seattle, applies for a junior field ops position at the Central Intelligence Agency's Special Activities Division after completing a training summer camp. Answering to his handler Agent Ronica Miles, Cody is called upon a mission to find information about a scientist named Dr. Albert Connors. Connors is employed by a SPECTRE-type organization named ERIS, led by Dr. Brinkman and his henchman François Molay. As every CIA officer is known to Brinkman's organization, the CIA uses the unknown Banks, who is placed into the prep school of Dr. Connors' daughter Natalie, the William Donovan Institute.
Cody soon finds he has no social skill with girls and has no time to do this while balancing his chores and homework. The CIA decides to help by doing his chores and homework, trying to build his status, and going into the school to set him up with Natalie. The CIA also assemble a varying team of "experts" to train Cody into how to talk to girls, and issue him with a variety of gadgets with various functions.
Eventually, Cody befriends and falls in love with Natalie after rescuing her from falling off a ladder while putting up a banner, and he is invited to her 16th birthday party, where he goes undercover to her father's lab. Cody finds that Dr. Brinkman is planning to use nanobots — which can destroy any carbon or silicon-based substance — to destroy the world's defense systems so he can threaten anyone who opposes him. Since the nanobots are inactive in the cold, he plans to use ice cubes to distribute them. After Connors, Dr. Brinkman, and François leave the lab, Cody tries to take one of the ice cubes, only for it to melt his shoe when in his possession.
Shortly after this, Cody fights male bullies, at the party. The fight makes the school newspaper, and the CIA suspends Cody from the mission. Meanwhile, with Connors refusing to aid him in his plans, Dr. Brinkman sends François and some men to catch Natalie and bring her into his base in the Cascade Mountains. Meanwhile, disobeying orders to leave her out of it, Cody and Natalie eat ice cream at a restaurant. Cody attempts to explain things to Natalie but François and a group of henchmen come over to their table, beat Cody up, and take Natalie. Cody is fully removed from the mission and is grounded for being missing for hours from his house.
Cody gets his brother Alex to make sure his parents do not find out that he has disappeared by giving him the $5,000 the CIA gave him. Knowing Natalie's location via a tracking device in a necklace he gave her as a birthday present, Cody breaks into the CIA weapons hold and steals a rocket powered snowboard and other devices to rescue Natalie. Cody gets a ride to the top of the mountain and snowboards to the factory where Natalie is held. However, he gets caught in a grove of trees as Ronica finds him using a SoloTrek XFV. After convincing her that they need to rescue Natalie, the pair infiltrate the laboratory and Cody rescues Natalie, also explaining the truth about why he went out with her.
However, the trio are captured by Brinkman's men, although Cody quickly escapes. Natalie is held hostage by Dr. Brinkman, who puts an ice cube with a nanobot inside on her forehead to make her father program the system. Cody sets off a series of explosive charges he and Ronica planted throughout the base, and in the ensuing battle, Ronica fights off several of Dr. Brinkman's men, and Natalie kills Dr. Brinkman by placing the ice cube with the nanobots into his mouth, causing it to melt, and the nanobots to devour him from the inside out. Cody later defeats François and sends him to the CIA using the SoloTrek XFV, before fleeing the exploding facility in a helicopter with Ronica, Natalie and Dr. Connors. The CIA welcomes Cody back to the team and congratulates him for completing the mission, and Cody decides to have Natalie earn her drivers license as a reward in which she succeeds in. Then they stop by at a beach, cut Ronica off when she calls and kiss, starting a relationship.
Cast
Frankie Muniz as Agent Cody Banks, a 15-year-old teenager who applies for the junior ops division
Hilary Duff as Natalie Connors, Cody’s girlfriend
Angie Harmon as Veronica "Ronica" Miles, Cody’s supervisor
Keith David as CIA Director
Ian McShane as Dr. Brinkman, leader of the ERIS who wants to take over the world
Arnold Vosloo as François Molay, Dr. Brinkman's right hand man.
Martin Donovan as Dr. Albert Connors, Natalie's father
Daniel Roebuck as Mr. Banks, Cody's father
Cynthia Stevenson as Mrs. Banks, Cody's mother
Connor Widdows as Alex Banks, Cody's younger brother
Darrell Hammond as Earl
Peter New as Rosychuk
Noel Fisher as Fenster
Jessica Harmon as Natalie's friend
Production
For his participation in the film, Frankie Muniz was paid $2 million, the highest paid to a child actor at that point since Macaulay Culkin. Agent Cody Banks was developed as part of a broader strategy by MGM to make less-expensive films that can appeal to younger and niche audiences. Both Muniz and Harmon did most of their own stunts for the film. The film used Media.net’s Edit System Dailies to transfer pre-digitized Avid system files from the post production facility Rainmaker in Vancouver directly to the pic’s editing rooms in Los Angeles without having to wait for tapes to be delivered, allowing producers and executives to receive their viewing copies half a day sooner than through the traditional method.
Reception
The film received generally mixed reviews. Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 39% "Rotten" rating, stating that the film "should satisfy young teens, but offers nothing new for those who are familiar with the formula."
Agent Cody Banks opened at #2 with $14,064,317 behind Bringing Down the Houses second weekend. By the time the film closed on July 31, 2003, the film had earned $47,938,330 domestically and an additional $10,857,484 internationally, adding up to a total $58,795,814.
Home media
Agent Cody Banks was released on VHS and DVD on August 5, 2003, and the Blu-ray was then released on May 24, 2016.
Controversy
When the film was released on home video, MGM included an apologetic paragraph in response to a throwaway line involving "Special ed". The furor erupted over an almost throwaway line in the film, at the end of the testy first meeting between the film’s protagonist, played by Frankie Muniz, and his love interest, played by Hilary Duff. After Muniz’s character stumbles through several inane questions, Duff’s character barks, “Are you in special ed?” and stomps off.
Broadcast
In India and Israel, the film was premiered on Jetix.
In Italy, it was aired on Sky Cinema then on K2, Frisbee, and Paramount Channel.
In Southeast Asia, the film is aired on Fox Family Movies, along with Agent Cody Banks 2: Destination London.
Sequel
Muniz reprised his title role in the sequel, Agent Cody Banks 2: Destination London, was released on March 12, 2004. Duff and Harmon were replaced by Anthony Anderson and Hannah Spearritt.
See also
Agent Cody Banks 2: Destination London
Alex Rider
CHERUB
Christopher Cool
Henderson's Boys
If Looks Could Kill
James Bond Jr.
Stormbreaker
Young Bond
References
External links
2003 films
2003 action comedy films
2003 romantic comedy films
2000s adventure comedy films
2000s English-language films
2000s spy comedy films
2000s teen comedy films
2000s teen romance films
20th Century Fox films
American action comedy films
American adventure comedy films
American films
American romantic comedy films
American spy comedy films
American teen comedy films
American teen romance films
Films about the Central Intelligence Agency
Films directed by Harald Zwart
Films scored by John Powell
Films set in Russia
Films set in Seattle
Films set in Washington (state)
Films with screenplays by Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz
Films with screenplays by Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Teen action films
Teen adventure films | [
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261365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton%20Miller | Dayton Miller | Dayton Clarence Miller (March 13, 1866 – February 22, 1941) was an American physicist, astronomer, acoustician, and accomplished amateur flautist. An early experimenter of X-rays, Miller was an advocate of aether theory and absolute space and an opponent of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
Born in Ohio to Charles Webster Dewey and Vienna Pomeroy Miller, he graduated from Baldwin University in 1886 and obtained a doctorate in astronomy at Princeton University under Charles A. Young in 1890. Miller spent his entire career teaching physics at the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Ohio, as head of the physics department from 1893 until his retirement in 1936. Following the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895, Miller used cathode ray tubes built by William Crookes to make some of the first photographic images of concealed objects, including a bullet within a man's limb. Active in many scientific organizations, Miller was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society. During the 1920s, he served as secretary, vice president, and president of the American Physical Society and as chairman of the division of Physical Sciences of the National Research Council. From 1931 to 1933 he was president of the Acoustical Society of America.
Scientific contributions
Aether research
In 1900, he began work with Edward Morley on the detection of aether drift, at the time one of the "hot" areas of fundamental physics. Following on with the basic apparatus as the earlier Michelson–Morley experiment, Miller and Morley published another null result in 1904. These experimental results were later cited in support of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
Miller continued to work on refining his experimental techniques after 1904, conducting millions of measurements on aether drift, and eventually developing the most sensitive interferometer in the world at that time.
Dayton Miller performed over 326,000 turns of interferometer with 16 readings each one, (more than 5,200,000 measurements). They showed what appeared to be a small amount of drift (about 9 km/s, 1/3 of the velocity of the Earth around the Sun). With white light and 32 m arms he could see nearly always the same result:
A shift amplitude of 0.12 ± 0.01 fringe, incompatible with zero.
A shift phase that points to an apex in the constellation Dorado.
The amplitude analysis suggests a drag of aether. But the analysis of phase suggests that the Solar System goes towards the constellation Dorado at a speed of 227 km/s.
These results were presented by Miller as a positive indication of the existence of an aether drift. However, the effect Miller saw was tiny – much smaller than would be expected for a stationary aether. In order for these results to be consistent with an aether, it had to be assumed that the aether was dragged along with the Earth to a much greater extent than aether theories typically predicted. Values that high could be eliminated due to other physical phenomenon like stellar aberration, which put upper limits on the amount of dragging. Furthermore, the measurement was statistically far from any other measurements being carried on at the time. Fringe shifts of about 0.01 were being observed in many experiments, while Miller's 0.08 was not duplicated anywhere else, including Miller's own 1904 experiments with Morley, which showed a drift of only 0.015.
Based on an error analysis, Miller's critics argued that he overestimated the precision of his results, and that his measurements were actually perfectly consistent with a fringe difference of zero—the null result that every other experiment was recording. However, Miller continued to defend his results, claiming that the probable reason for the so-called null results were that they were not being done at high locations (such as mountain tops), where the ether wind (drift) was supposedly much higher due to less ether drag.
Einstein was interested in this aether drift theory and acknowledged that a positive result for the existence of aether would invalidate the theory of special relativity, but commented that altitudal influences and temperatures may have provided sources of error in the findings. Miller commented:
During the 1920s a number of experiments, both interferometry-based, as in Miller's experiment, and others using entirely different techniques, were conducted, and these returned a null result as well. Even at the time, Miller's work was increasingly considered to be a statistical anomaly, an opinion that remains true today, given an ever-growing body of negative results.
For example, Georg Joos reprised Miller's experiment using a very similar setup (the arms of his interferometer were 21 m vs. the 32 m in the Miller experiment) and obtained results that were 1/50 the magnitude of those from Miller's (see Michelson–Morley experiment#Subsequent experiments). However, Miller claimed that the explanation for results of the experiments of Georg Joos were because they were done at low altitude in the interior of a building, where the aether wind was very low.
Shankland analysis
In 1955, Robert S. Shankland, S. W. McCuskey, F. C. Leone, and G. Kuerti performed a re-analysis of Miller's results. Shankland, who led the report, noted that the "signal" that Miller observed in 1933 is actually composed of points that are an average of several hundred measurements each, and the magnitude of the signal is more than 10 times smaller than the resolution with which the measurements were recorded. Miller's extraction of a single value for the measurement is statistically impossible, the data is too variable to say "this" number is any better than "that"—the data, from Shankland's position, supports a null result as equally as Miller's positive.
Shankland concluded that Miller's observed signal was partly due to statistical fluctuations and partly due to local temperature conditions, and also suggested that the results of Miller were due to a systematic error rather than an observed existence of aether. In particular, he felt that Miller did not take enough care in guarding against thermal gradients in the room where the experiment took place, as, unlike most interferometry experiments, Miller conducted his in a room where the apparatus was deliberately left open to the elements to some degree.
In Shankland's analysis, no statistically significant signal for the existence of aether was found. Shankland concluded that Miller's observed signal was spurious, due mainly to uncontrolled temperature effects rather than to the observed existence of an aether. In addition, some mainstream scientists today have argued that any signal that Miller observed was the result of the experimenter effect, i.e., a bias introduced by the experimenter's wish to find a certain result, which was a common source of systematic error in statistical analysis of data before modern experimental techniques were developed. (This effect was not addressed by name in Miller's early textbook on experimental techniques; see Ginn & Company, 1903).
Other endeavors
Dr. Miller published manuals designed to be student handbooks for the performance of experimental problems in physics. In 1908, Miller's interest in acoustics led him to develop a machine to record sound waves photographically, called the phonodeik. He used the machine to compare the waveforms produced by flutes crafted from different materials. During World War I, Miller worked with the physical characteristics of pressure waves of large guns at the request of the government. Dayton Miller was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1921. He was a member of the National Research Council in Washington, D.C. from 1927 to 1930.
Published works
Laboratory Physics, a Student's Manual for Colleges and Scientific Schools. (New York: Ginn & Company, 1903)
Extract from a Letter dated Cleveland, Ohio, August 5th, 1904, to Lord Kelvin from Profs. Edward W. Morley and Dayton C. Miller., (Philosophical Magazine, S. 6, Vol. 8. No. 48, Dec. 1904, pp. 753–754)
On the Theory of Experiments to detect Aberrations of the Second Degree. (with Edward Morley, Philosophical Magazine, S. 6, Vol. 9. No. 53, May 1905, pp. 669–680)
Report of an experiment to detect the Fitzgerald-Lorentz Effect (with Edward Morley, Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLI, No. 12. 1905)
Final Report on Ether-drift Experiments (with Edward Morley, Science, Vol. XXV, No. 2. p. 525, 1907)
The Science of Musical Sounds (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916, revised 1926)
Anecdotal History of the Science of Sound (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1935)
Sound Waves: Their Shape and Speed (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1937)
Sparks, Lightning and Cosmic Rays (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1939)
The Ether-Drift Experiments and the Determination of the Absolute Motion of the Earth (Reviews of Modern Physics 5, 203-242 (1933))
See also
Aether and Luminiferous aether
History of physics
List of physics topics
Michelson–Morley experiment
References and external links
Main
"Dayton Clarence Miller". Today in Science, March 13 - births.
"Dayton Miller images". American Institute of Physics, 2003.
William Fickinger "Miller's Waves" an Informal Scientific Biography 2011.
Other endeavors
Dayton C. Miller Collection online and full collection finding aid at The Library of Congress.
Dayton Miller's acoustics collection, describing his research in acoustics
"The Phonodeik". The science of musical sounds.
"Professor Dayton Miller's Research in Acoustics". Engineering Sciences E-129.
"Crookes x-ray tubes" Dittrick Medical History Center, Case Western Reserve University. 2004.
1866 births
1941 deaths
People from Strongsville, Ohio
American physicists
Case Western Reserve University faculty
Princeton University alumni
Burials at Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland
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Subsets and Splits