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6661 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofi%20Annan | Kofi Annan | Kofi Atta Annan (8 April 1938 – 18 August 2018) was a Ghanaian diplomat. He served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations. He did this from 1 January 1997 to 31 December 2006. Annan and the United Nations were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize. They were awarded the prize "for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world".
Early life
Annan was born in Kumasi, Ghana, to an elite family. His parents, Henry Reginald and Madam Rose Eshun are from the two major ethnic groups that make up the Akan – one of the groups of indigenous people of Ghana.
His father was half Asante and half Fante; his mother was Fante. The Asante were gold merchants while the Fante tribe were the middlemen in the gold trade between the Asante and the British.
Annan, whose first name means "born on a Friday", also had a twin sister, who died in 1991 from a still yet unknown disease. In Ghanaian culture, twins are considered special and are adored.
Annan probably got his first lessons in politics and diplomacy early on from his family. Both of Annan's grandfathers and his uncle were tribal chiefs. Upon his retirement, Annan's father, who worked as an export manager for the cocoa exporter Lever Brothers, was elected governor of Ghana's Asante province.
Education
In 1954, Annan attended Mfantsipim School, an Methodist boarding school in central Ghana. The Secretary-General says that the school taught him "that suffering anywhere concerns people everywhere".
Annan went to Macalaster College in St. Paul, Minnesota and graduating in 1961. He was a Sloan Fellow at MIT in 1971–72, getting a master's degree in management.
His work at the United Nations
Annan became Secretary-General of the United Nations in January 1997, succeeding Boutros Boutros-Ghali of Egypt. Annan was a U.N. veteran who took his first job with the organization in 1962 and worked his way up through various posts including Deputy Director to the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (1980–83) and head of the U.N.'s peacekeeping efforts (1995–96). Annan was the first Secretary-General chosen from the ranks of the U.N.'s staff. He is also the first black man to hold the post and the second African (after Boutros-Ghali). His second term began in 2002 and ran through the end of 2006.
In 2001 he and the United Nations were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world".
Personal life
Annan was married to Nane Annan, a lawyer and artist from Sweden.
Death
Annan died on 18 August 2018 in Bern, Switzerland after a short-illness, aged 80.
Related pages
List of African scientists by country
References
1938 births
2018 deaths
Disease-related deaths in Switzerland
African politicians
African diplomats
Ghanaian people
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Recipients of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria |
6662 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Nations%20General%20Assembly | United Nations General Assembly | The United Nations General Assembly is made up of all United Nations member states. The Assembly meets once a year, which usually begins on the third Tuesday in September and ends in mid-December. The first meeting was held on 10 January 1946.
Voting in the General Assembly on important questions, for example suggestions on world peace, human rights and security, is by two-thirds of those present and voting. Other questions are decided by popular vote. Each member country has one vote.
At present, the Holy See (Vatican City) and Palestine are the only two observer states at the United Nations. Switzerland also had that status until it became a member state.
The current President of the United Nations General Assembly is Abdulla Shahid since 14 September 2021.
United nations general assembly observers have the right to speak in the assembly. The observers have no rights to vote in the assembly.
Related pages
List of Members of the United Nations
General Assembly
1946 establishments |
6663 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining | Mining | Explosives that explode when they are hit are also called mine; Two common types are Land mines and Naval mines.
Mining is the process of digging things out of the ground. Any material that cannot be grown must be mined. Mining things from the ground is called extraction. Mining can include extraction of metals and minerals, like coal, diamond, gold, silver, platinum, copper, tin and iron. Mining can also include other things like oil and natural gas.
Some mining is done by scraping away the soil (dirt) from the top of the ground. This is called surface mining. Some mining is done by going deep underground into a mine shaft. This is called underground mining. Some mining, such as gold mining, is done in other ways. Gold can be mined by searching in the bed of a river or other stream of water to remove the flakes of gold. This is called panning or placer mining.
A worker in a mine is called a miner. Underground mining is a dangerous job. Many mines have accidents. Hundreds of miners die every year from accidents, mostly in poor countries. Safety rules and special safety equipment is used to try and protect miners from accidents. Underground coal mining is especially dangerous because coal can give off poisonous and explosive gases.
Some towns are mining towns. People live there because they can make money as miners or by doing things for miners. When mining stops the town may become a ghost town.
Mining operations often make the environment worse, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most countries have passed regulations to decrease the effect of mining. Work safety has long been a concern, and has been improved in mines. |
6664 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomber | Bomber | A bomber is a type of airplane that is used to attack ground targets, mainly by dropping bombs. The first bombers were made at the start of World War I.
Bombers often fly low to the ground to confuse enemy radar. Most cannot fly very fast. Because of this, bombers are not outfitted to fight other airplanes. To make up for this, bombers in the past had many machine guns for defense.
World War II
Dive bombers were numerous in World War II. They attacked surface targets including tanks and ships.
Strategic bombing became important. Bombers had large crews, sometimes as many as 12 people. Usually a bomber had a pilot, a bombadier, a co-pilot/navigator, and many machine gunners all around to shoot at enemy fighter aircraft defending the target. Friendly fighters often came along to help fight the defenders.
Modern day
Bombers now have one or two people in them. The other positions have been replaced by computers. Bombers have very few guns on them partly because they are much faster. In bombing missions now, the pilot drops a bomb and leaves as quickly as possible. During the Cold War, a few bombers were made that could travel supersonic, so a nuclear bomb could be dropped without killing the people in the airplane. They were never used that way, however.
Other websites
WW2-era Bombers
Bomber aircraft -Citizendium |
6666 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull | Bull | A bull is an intact (i.e., not castrated) adult male of the species Bos taurus. They are more muscular and aggressive than the female of the species, the cow. The bull has long been an important symbol in many cultures, and plays a large role in beef ranching, dairy farming. They are also important in other cultural activities, including bull fighting and bull riding. The management of livestock animals in hot climates is a challenge. The physiological and behavioral changes induced in these animals compromise their welfare, breeding, health, and zootechnical performance, resulting in final products (eggs, milk, and meat) with unsatisfactory characteristics.
As with other animals, some bulls have been regarded as pets.
Life
The bull semen market is very lucrative. Animal agriculture forcefully breeds animals to have what it considers the best traits for food production. In 2011, the U.S. exported $124.7 million worth of bull semen to other nations, representing 32 percent of the global market. In February 2019, an Angus bull named SAV America 8018 sold for the record-breaking price of $1.5 million due to “superior genetics.”
A bull can live up to 18 - 22 years.
References
Cattle |
6673 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntingdon%20Life%20Sciences | Huntingdon Life Sciences | Huntingdon Life Sciences (HLS) are the largest animal testing company in Europe. They were founded in 1951 and are based in Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom. They also have a laboratory in New Jersey, United States. Huntingdon Life Sciences is an international contract research organisation offering a comprehensive range of non-clinical development services. The UK lab carries out medical and product research for many organisations.
Many people feel strongly against HLS. The Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty (SHAC) campaign group are the main opposition group. SHAC were set up in 1999. The opposition to HLS has had many forms. While most animal rights people have used legal means of protest, some people have become extremists and done very bad things. Thus the opposition to HLS has become an example to many people of a good cause gone wrong.
1951 establishments in the United Kingdom
Cambridgeshire
Companies of the United Kingdom |
6674 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntingdon | Huntingdon | Huntingdon is a town in Cambridgeshire in the United Kingdom. It stands on the River Ouse near the A1, a major road in England.
History
The town was chartered in 1205 and founded by Anglo-Saxons.
Huntingdon also has the largest meadow in England; Portholme Meadow. There are many small villages in Huntingdon, it has a high street and a main supermarket. The A14 runs through it.
People
Oliver Cromwell was born here in 1599.
Towns in Cambridgeshire
ru:Huntingdon |
6678 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condom | Condom | A condom is a thin cover that is put on a man's penis and used during sexual intercourse. It is normally made of latex. Condoms are a form of birth control, they can prevent a pregnancy. They can also prevent the spread of certain sexually transmitted infections, such as gonorrhea, syphilis, or HIV. Another name for a condom is prophylactic sheath.
In 2009, most condoms were made of latex. For people with latex allergy, plastic condoms are available.
The first condoms were made of tissue paper. Later models were made of the intestines of animals, such as sheep. Such condoms can still be found sometimes. Certain people prefer sheepskin condoms over latex ones, because sheepskin condoms can transfer body warmth better. However they do not prevent diseases as effectively as latex condoms.
Condoms are popular for several reasons. They are inexpensive and can be bought without a prescription by either a man or a woman. They can be bought at many locations, and they are easy to use (once the couple learns how.) They have no health-related side effects for either the man or the woman, and they are one of the few types of birth control that also reduce the spread of infections. If the couple decides to have a baby, they can stop using condoms at any time and begin trying to get pregnant with no delay.
But condoms have some disadvantages. During sex, the couple must stop to put on the condom just before beginning intercourse, which interrupts and distracts them at an exciting time. Condoms reduce the physical feelings of intercourse, especially for the man, who cannot feel the heat and sensation of the woman's vagina as much. Condoms can also reduce the emotional closeness the man and woman feel during intercourse because there is something between them. Condoms are less effective than many other types of birth control, and if a couple is in a steady relationship and are having sex very often, condoms can become more expensive to use. For these reasons, once a man and woman are in a steady relationship and are sure they are free of infection, the woman often begins to use birth control pills or some other highly effective contraceptive, after which the couple stops using condoms.
Overview
Condoms are rolled up when they are packaged, and are meant to be rolled over an erect penis. They are most commonly made of latex, but are available in other materials. Condoms normally have an expiration date on them. Condoms weaken after this date, and may not work properly. Condoms are also not designed to be used more than once.
It is important to know how to use a condom before using one. If a mistake is made, the condom may not work. This happens a lot. When using a condom for the first time, it could help to try using it alone to get familiar with condoms without any danger.
Nowadays women also can use condoms. Like male condoms, they increase protection for partners from pregnancy and STD's. Female condoms look like a sheath with a flexible ring on both sides of this sheath. With these rings the condom is attached to the vagina. It covers the vagina and cervix to prevent sperm from getting inside the woman's uterus. It is necessary to know that female and male condoms should not be used at the same time. In this case, both condoms may rub against each other, and this will result in failure.
The oldest condoms ever found were from the 1640s. They were made from animal and fish intestines.
Effectiveness
In preventing pregnancy
There are two ways to see how effective condoms are. They are method effectiveness, where how many couples that use the condom every time they have sex do not get pregnant; and actual effectiveness, where the number of people that use condoms either correctly or incorrectly and do not get pregnant are looked at. Most studies show results of effectiveness over a year.
The method failure rate of condoms is 2% per year. The actual failure rate is different in different places, and the rates can be anywhere between 10 and 18% per year.
In preventing sexually transmitted infections
According to a 2001 study by the National Institutes of Health, correct and consistent condom use:
Reduces the risk of HIV/AIDS transmission by approximately 85%.
Reduces the risk of gonorrhea for men by approximately 71%.
Other sexually-transmitted infections may be affected as well, but they could not draw definite conclusions from the research they were working with. In particular, these include STIs associated with ulcerative lesions that may be present on body surfaces where the condom does not cover, such as human papillomavirus (HPV), genital herpes simplex (HSV), chancroid, and syphilis. If contact is made with uncovered lesions, transmission of these STIs may still occur despite appropriate condom use. Additionally, the absence of visible lesions or symptoms cannot be used to decide whether caution is needed.
An article in The American Journal of Gynecologic Health showed that "all women who correctly and consistently used Reality® were protected from trichomonas vaginalis" (referring to a particular brand of female condom).
Causes of failure
The most common reason for a condom failing is that the user has not put it on properly. A condom can also fail because it has been damaged, because the latex has weakened, or because it has come off the penis during sexual intercourse. Something else that can cause a condom to not work, as it should, is sabotage. This can be when one of the partners wants a baby, but the other one does not. Usually they pierce a condom with a sharp object, making the condom useless. Some people see it as not ethical, because one of the two sex partners does it without the other one's knowledge. There are websites that show how to do it, if the woman wants a baby, but the man does not.
One method of testing condoms for microscopic holes involves placing the condom being tested over one conducting form with another on the other side of the condom. If the condom does not prevent an electric current from flowing between the two conducting forms, it fails the test. Holes in condoms are unlikely if proper handling conditions (see below) are followed.
Arguments against condom use
Arguments by religious communities
Several religious communities (like Catholic Christians, Muslims, and some Protestant Christians) see problems if condoms are used:
They say there is a difference in having sex for making babies, and having sex for fun (to make the relationship between the partners stronger).
They say that using a condom to prevent a pregnancy is bad. Rather than using a condom, natural methods should be used to prevent pregnancy. Such methods include choosing the time of the month carefully. (This does not stop sexually transmitted diseases)
Other communities are not as strict, and only look at the result. They leave it to those involved to choose the correct means.
Some people say the use of condoms is against Nature (unnatural).
References
Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 2005. Our Bodies, Ourselves: A New Edition for a New Era. New York: Touchstone.
MacPhail, Catherine and Campbell, Catherine (2001 Jun). "I think condoms are good but, aai, I hate those things: condom use among adolescents and young people in a Southern African township." Social Science and Medicine. 2001, 52(11): 1613-1627.
Kulczycki, Andrzej. "The Sociocultural context of condom use within marriage in rural Lebanon". Studies in Family Planning 35.4 (Dec 2004): 246(15).
Crossley, Michele L. (2004). "Making sense of 'barebacking': Gay men's Narratives, unsafe sex and the 'resistance habitus'". British Journal of Social Psychology, 43: 225-244.
Watt, Emily (2005 April 24). "Older Adults Shy Away from Safe Sex Advice". The Sunday Star-Times (Auckland, New Zealand).
Semple, S.J., Patterson, T.L., & Grant, I. (2004). "Determinants of condom use stage of change among heterosexually-identified methamphetamine users". AIDS & Behavior, 8(4): 391-400.
Other websites
University of California, Santa Barbara's SexInfo - Explains how to correctly use condoms along with information on the advantages, disadvantages, and effectiveness.
Planned Parenthood of America — Provides information and training for all forms of birth control from their website and locations across the U.S.
Condom Research from FHI - Family Health International's topic page on condoms.
Fact sheet on condoms and sexually transmitted diseases - from the US Center for Disease Control in PDF form. Requires AdobeReader.
Contraception |
6684 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka | Osaka | is the capital city of Osaka Prefecture which faces Osaka Bay and the Seto Inland Sea.
Osaka is in the Kansai region. It is the economic and cultural center of the Kansai region.
Since 1980 it had been the second largest city in Japan.
It is a city designated by government ordinance in Japan.
Osaka is surrounded by Hyōgo Prefecture, Kyoto Prefecture, Nara Prefecture, Wakayama Prefecture.
History
Sometimes it is called by its historical name Naniwa.
Because it is by the sea, it is good for transportation. That is why an ancient emperor made Osaka the capital city. In the early part of the 8th century Naniwa was one of capitals of Japan. In the middle of the 16th century Toyotomi Hideyoshi founded Osaka castle and governed Japan in Osaka. The basis of development of Osaka was prepared in those times. Osaka castle was destroyed once by Tokugawa Ieyasu but Ieyasu choose Osaka as one of the political centers in the Western Japan. He made Osaka a direct dominion of the shogun. During the Edo period Osaka was a center of commerce, finance, pharmacy and other products. It was a center for literature and theater. Kabuki in Osaka is as famous as Kabuki in Edo and Kyoto. It is also known for bunraku (a traditional puppet theater) and manzai (a kind of stand-up comedy).
Traditional Osaka food dishes include okonomiyaki (pan-fried batter cake) and takoyaki (octopus dumplings).
In this region, many people speak a dialect called Osaka-Ben (e.g. "ookini"="thank you").
After the Meiji restoration Osaka was modernized and industrialized. It was a center of Japanese industry. After the World War II its economical importance was relatively less because Tokyo grew as an international city and many companies moved their headquarters to Tokyo. But Osaka is still a large, important city.
Sightseeing spots
Universal Studios Japan – This is the most famous theme park in Osaka. There are shows, popular characters and musicals.
Kaiyuukan – This is the most famous aquarium in Osaka. They have animals including whale sharks and penguins.
Yoshimoto shinkigenki – It is a traditional comedy in Namba Grand Kagetsu.
Seasonal spots
In spring, good places to see cherry blossoms are the Mint and Banpakukinen Park.
In summer, there are displays of fireworks at the Tenzin festival, Yodo river festival and PL art of fireworks.
In winter, there are Christmas decorations at Nakanoshima and Midosuzi.
Sports
Football clubs in Osaka
Cerezo Osaka
Gamba Osaka
Baseball teams in Osaka
Hanshin Tigers
Orix Buffaloes
Mind sports in Osaka
Kansai Ki-in (Non-profit organization to promote Go in Osaka)
References
Related pages
Settsu Province
Naniwa-kyō
Other websites
Former capitals of Japan |
6693 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano | Piano | The piano is an acoustic, keyboard and stringed musical instrument in which the strings are struck by wooden hammers that are coated with a softer material (modern hammers are covered with dense wool felt; some early pianos used leather). It is played using a keyboard, which is a row of keys (small levers) that the performer presses down or strikes with the fingers and thumbs of both hands to cause the hammers to strike the strings. It was invented in Italy by Bartolomeo Cristofori around the year 1700 (the exact year is uncertain),
History
The piano has been an extremely popular instrument in Western classical music since the late 18th century. The piano was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, Italy. He made his first piano in 1709. It developed from the clavichord which looks like a piano but the strings of a clavichord are hit by a small blade of metal called a “tangent”. In the piano the strings are hit by a block of wood called a hammer. The early keyboarded instruments, such as the clavichords, harpsichords and organs that were used at that time, had a much shorter keyboard than they do today. Gradually the keyboard became longer until it had the 88 notes (7 octaves plus three notes) of the modern piano.
At first the instrument was called the “fortepiano”. This means “loud-soft” in Italian. It was given this name because it could be played either loudly or softly, depending on how hard the note was hit (the harpsichord could not do this, and the clavichord could only make a tiny difference between louder and softer). Later this name changed to “pianoforte”. This is normally shortened to “piano”. The word “fortepiano” is sometimes used to describe the pianos of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In some languages, such as Russian, “fortepiano” is the normal word for a piano.
Although the piano was invented at the beginning of the 18th century, it was not until 50 years later that it started to become popular. The first time the piano was played in a public concert in London was in 1768 when it was played by Johann Christian Bach. The upright piano was invented in 1800 by John Isaac Hawkings. Seven years later T. Southwell invented “over-stringing”. This means that the strings for the low notes go diagonally across the soundboard so that they can be longer and make a much bigger sound.
The early pianos had strings that were fastened to a frame made of wood. They were not very heavy, but they were not very strong or loud, so they could not be heard very well in a big concert hall. In 1825 the cast-iron frame was invented in America. This made the piano much stronger so that it could make a bigger sound and the strings were not likely to break.
One of the most known fortepiano builders was Johann Andreas Stein from Augsburg, Germany. Stein developed the "Viennese" action, popular on Viennese pianos up to the mid-19th century. Another important Viennese piano maker was Anton Walter. Mozart’s own Walter fortepiano is presently at the Mozart Museum in Salzburg, Austria. Haydn also owned Walter piano, and Beethoven expressed a wish to buy one. The most famous early-romantic piano maker was Conrad Graf (1782–1851), who made Beethoven's last piano. His instruments were played by Chopin, Mendelssohn and Schumann. Johannes Brahms had preferred pianos by Johann Baptist Streicher. The English piano school builders included Johannes Zumpe, Robert Stodart and John Broodwood. Prominent piano makers among the French during the era of the fortepiano included Erard, Pleyel (Chopin’s favorite maker) and Boisselot (Liszt’s favorite).
The production of this older type of instrument had stopped in the end of the 19th century. In the second half of the 20th century people started to be more interested in period instruments, including harpsichord and fortepiano. Some of the more known fortepiano builders included in this 20th-century fortepiano revival have been Philip Belt, Margaret F. Hood, Christopher Clark and Paul McNulty.
Piano parts
A piano has a keyboard with white keys and black keys. When a key is pressed down, the damper comes off the string and a hammer hits the string. It hits it very quickly and bounces off so that the string is free to vibrate and make a sound. Each key is a level that makes a hammer inside the piano hit a string inside, producing a sound. Each string has a different length and so produces-a different note. When the player takes their finger off the key the damper falls back onto the string and the sound stops. The strings are stretched very tightly across the frame, passing over a bridge on the way. The bridge touches the soundboard. This means that the vibrations are sent to the soundboard. The soundboard is a very important part of the piano. If it is damaged the piano will not make a sound.
The mechanism which makes the hammer bounce off the string very quickly is called the “escapement”. In 1821 Sebastian Erard invented a kind of double escapement. This made it possible to repeat the note very quickly. The hammer only touches the string for about one thousandth of a second. The hammers are covered with felt which is a mixture of wool, silk and hair.
Pedals
At the bottom of every modern piano, there are at least two pedals, which are levers that the pianist presses down with his or her feet to change the sound. Many pianos have three pedals, but a few have even more. Each pedal changes the sound in a different way.
The damper pedal (also called the sustain pedal) is the pedal on the right, and the one that is used most often. For this reason, it is often called just "the pedal". It is pressed with the pianist's right foot, and makes the dampers (which look a bit like the hammers) that usually rests on the strings come off, so the strings are free to vibrate. As long as the pianist holds this pedal down, the notes he plays will keep on sounding even when he takes his fingers off the keys. Some other strings will also vibrate very lightly (this is called “sympathetic vibration”), which makes the sound smoother and richer. Pianists have to learn how to use this pedal well. This will depend on such things as the style of the music, the size of the piano, the size and the acoustics of the room in which the instrument is in.
The soft pedal (also called the una corda pedal) is the pedal on the left, and is pressed with the pianist's left foot. As its name suggests, this pedal makes the notes sound quieter. On a grand piano, the whole keyboard and action shift a bit to the left so that the hammers only hit two strings instead of three. The soft pedal is usually used only in classical music and is normally kept down for the whole of a piece or a section of a piece.
On pianos with three pedals, the pedal in the middle does different things on a grand and upright piano. On a grand piano, it is the sostenuto pedal, and is pressed with the pianist's left foot. Like the right pedal, it keeps the sound going, but only on the notes that are being played at the moment when the middle pedal is pressed down. This makes it possible to keep one chord going while playing other notes that will not carry on. All concert grand pianos have a sostenuto pedal, and some modern upright pianos do as well. The middle pedal on some upright pianos is not a sostenuto pedal at all, but a practice pedal. It places a piece of cloth in front of the strings, making the sound very quiet so that a pianist can practice without disturbing other people. The practice pedal can usually be pressed down and put in a slot so that it will stay in place.
Pedal marks in music
The damper pedal is the most important pedal, and so many composers often write down in a piece of music when the pianist should press and when he or she should let go of the damper pedal. In most classical music, there is a sign that says Ped. where the pedal should be pressed, and one that looks like an asterisk where the pedal should be let go. Pedal marks can also appear as a straight line under the staff. Often, the pianist will let go of the pedal and press it again right away; this is called changing pedal. Sometimes, the music will simply say con pedale, which in Italian means with pedal. It means that the damper pedal should be used, but the pianist should know when to change the pedal.
Another sign, which tells a pianist to press the soft pedal is una corda, (Italian for one string). It is held down until another sign, tre corde (meaning three strings), appears, telling the pianist to let go of the soft pedal. In early pianos, it was possible to press the pedal a little way so that the hammers hit two strings, then press it further so that they hit only one string.
There is no sign for the sostenuto pedal, so it is up to the pianist on whether to use it in a specific piece of music.
Famous piano composers
Once the piano became popular in the late 18th century many composers wrote music for the piano. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart started to learn on harpsichords when he was very small, but the piano was becoming popular when he was a young man and he wrote many sonatas and concertos for the piano. Franz Joseph Haydn also wrote a lot of piano music. Ludwig van Beethoven was a very famous pianist before he became very famous as a composer. His piano compositions include 5 concertos and 32 sonatas. In the Romantic period many composers wrote for the piano. They include Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Franz Liszt and Frederic Chopin. Later composers include Sergei Rachmaninoff, Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich and Bela Bartok.
Famous piano players
Some famous piano players from the early days of the piano include Dussek, Mozart, Muzio Clementi, John Field and Chopin. In the 19th century Franz Liszt was a very great influence on the piano by composing and performing very difficult music. Other great pianists include Clara Schumann and Anton Rubinstein. 20th century pianists include Artur Schnabel, Vladimir Horowitz, Josef Hofmann, Wilhelm Kempff, Dinu Lipati, Claudio Arrau, Artur Rubinstein, Sviatoslav Richter and Alfred Brendel. Among the greatest pianists today are Vladimir Ashkenazy, Daniel Barenboim, Leif Ove Andsnes, Boris Berezovsky and Evgeny Kissin.Connor Farrow
Pianists who play popular music include Liberace, Jerry Lee Lewis, Little Richard, Elton John, Billy Joel, Thelonious Monk, Tori Amos and Ray Charles. Perhaps the greatest jazz pianist was Fats Waller.
Also a number of modern harpsichordists and pianists have achieved success in fortepiano performance, including Paul Badura-Skoda, Malcolm Bilson, Andras Schiff, Kristian Bezuidenhout, Ronald Brautigam, Alexei Lubimov, duet Katie and Marielle Labeque, Yuan Sheng, Gary Cooper, Jörg Demus, Richard Egarr, Richard Fuller, Robert Hill, Geoffrey Lancaster, Vladimir Feltsman, Robert Levin, Steven Lubin, Bart van Oort, Trevor Pinnock, Viviana Sofronitsky, Andreas Staier, Melvyn Tan, Jos van Immerseel and Olga Pashchenko.
Playing the piano
The piano has been a very popular instrument ever since the mid 18th century when it soon replaced the clavichord and the harpsichord. By the early 19th century the sound that the piano made was big enough to fill large concert halls. Smaller pianos were made for use in people’s homes. At first these included square pianos and giraffe pianos, later on the upright pianos became popular for home use. Pianos are not often used in orchestras (if they are, they are part of the percussion section). They may, however, be used for piano concertos (pieces for solo pianist accompanied by orchestra). There is a vast amount of music written for piano solo. The piano can also be used together with other instruments, in jazz groups, and for accompanying singing.
Related pages
Keyboard instrument
Pedal
Piano duet
Piano six hands
Piano trio
References
Piano
Keyboard instruments
Percussion instruments |
6695 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel%20Islands | Channel Islands | The Channel Islands are a group of islands near the coast of France. The five largest islands are:
Guernsey
Jersey
Alderney
Sark
Herm
Industry
The main industries are tourism, horticulture (growing plants for food) and financial services (businesses to do with money). Most people speak English, although some people in Guernsey, Jersey and Sark still speak the traditional language of their island.
Laws
Constitutionally, the islands are part of the British crown, but are not part of the United Kingdom. Being part of the mediaeval duchy of Normandy, allegiance is owed to the Queen but not to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which cannot pass laws for the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey except for defence and diplomatic matters, except if the bailiwicks ask it to. In general, the bailiwicks are self-governing, but they often pass laws which are like United Kingdom laws. However some of their laws are still based on Norman law. |
6697 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonism | Hedonism | Hedonism is the view that pleasure and suffering are the basis for what is good or bad. It is a that first appeared in ancient philosophy. "" is the ancient Greek word for "pleasure". There are many different beliefs in hedonism. But in all forms of hedonism, people think that what makes them happy is good. They also think avoiding suffering is good. Some people think pain is the opposite of pleasure, but others do not. Some forms of hedonism say it is important to get as many pleasurable experiences as possible. Others say that the quality of the pleasure matters.
Hedonism is often wrongly said to be related to sex. Sex can be a very pleasurable experience, but when philosophers talk about hedonism, they think more about the pleasure of reading a good book, listening to classical music, or discussing with other philosophers.
Two main types of hedonism are Cyrenaicism and Epicureanism. Cyrenaicism is where people make themselves happy in the fastest amount of time. Epicureanism is where people like to be happy but they do so slowly so that they cause less pain to themselves. They also look more into the future and go for the higher pleasures in life. On the other hand, Maslowism is the term for when you combine the concepts of utilitarianism and hedonism.
Related pages
Egoism
Utilitarianism
References
Ethics
Philosophical movements and positions |
6706 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinkansen | Shinkansen | The is a group of high-speed rail lines in Japan, upon which the famous "Bullet Trains" run. It is the world's first high-speed rail.
The Shinkansen are run by the many JR companies. In the past, Japan Railway was called Japanese National Railways. It is now one group of private companies. JR also run commuter trains and inter-city trains around Tokyo.
Naming
The name "Bullet Train" is the English translation of the Japanese word dangan ressha (弾丸列車), which was the name given to the project while it was being studied in the 1940s. Nowadays, the trains are called Shinkansen trains. The name Shinkansen means "New Trunk Line". The trains are called "Super Expresses".
History
Japan was the first country to build railway lines for high speed travel. Because Japan has many mountains, the network that already existed was made of 3'6" gauge (1067 mm) narrow gauge lines, which tended to take non-direct routes and could not be adapted to higher speeds. Because of this, Japan had a greater need for new high speed lines than countries where the existing standard gauge or broad gauge rail system could be upgraded easily. Unlike the older lines, Shinkansen lines are standard gauge, and use tunnels and viaducts to go through and over obstacles, rather than around them.
Construction of the first section of the Tokaido Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka started in 1959. The line opened on October 1, 1964, just in time for the Tokyo Olympics. The line was an immediate success, reaching the 100 million passenger mark in less than three years on July 13, 1967 and one billion passengers in 1976.
The first Shinkansen trains ran at speeds of up to , later increased to . Some of these trains, with their classic bullet-nosed appearance, are still in use for stopping services between Hakata and Osaka. A driving car from one of the original trains is now in the British National Railway Museum in York.
Many more advanced models of train followed the first type, generally each with its own distinctive appearance. Shinkansen trains now run regularly at speeds of up to , putting them among the fastest trains running in the world, along with the French TGV and German ICE trains.
Originally meant to carry passenger and freight trains by day and night, the Shinkansen lines carry only passenger trains. The system shuts down
between midnight and 6:00 AM every day to allow maintenance to take place, including the running of Doctor Yellow test trains. The few overnight trains that still run in Japan run on the old narrow gauge network which the Shinkansen runs parallel to.
In 2003, JR Tokai reported that the Shinkansen's average arrival time was within 6 seconds of the scheduled time. This includes all natural and human accidents and errors and is calculated from about 160,000 trips Shinkansen made. The previous record was from 1997 and was 18 seconds.
The first derailment (train accident) of a Shinkansen train in passenger service occurred during the Chuetsu Earthquake on October 23, 2004. 6 of the total of 8 cars of the train on the Joetsu Shinkansen derailed near Nagaoka Station in Nagaoka, Niigata.
In 1965 pay phones were made available on Shinkansen trains. That service ended on 29 June 2021, because of the widespread ownership of mobile phones by passengers.
Future
In recent years, due to noise pollution, increasing speed is getting harder. Thus, the current research is aimed to reduce the amount of noise, mainly when trains exit a tunnel.
Three extensions are under construction for opening by 2014-2018: Nagano-Kanazawa, Aomori-Hakodate and Takeo-Onsen-Isahaya.
The first ever Shinkansen line (built in 1964) travelled at and was called the Tōkaido Shinkansen. In 1972 a second one was developed and the improvements on infrastructure allowed it to travel at around . In 2003 the Japanese built the world's fastest ever Shinkansen, with a top speed of .
List of Shinkansen lines
Tōkaidō Shinkansen (Tokyo - Shin-Ōsaka)
Sanyō Shinkansen (Shin-Ōsaka - Hakata)
Tōhoku Shinkansen (Tokyo - Shin-Aomori)
Jōetsu Shinkansen (Ōmiya - Niigata)
Hokuriku Shinkansen (Takasaki - Kanazawa)
Kyūshū Shinkansen (Hakata - Kagoshima-Chūō)
Hokkaidō Shinkansen (Shin-Aomori-Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto)
Two further lines, known as Mini-Shinkansen (ミニ新幹線), have also been constructed by upgrading existing sections of line:
Yamagata Shinkansen (Fukushima-Shinjo)
Akita Shinkansen (Morioka-Akita)
Another standard gauge line using Shinkansen trains is not considered to be a Shinkansen line:
Hakata Minami Line (Hakata-Hakata-Minami)
Gala-Yuzawa Line (Echigo-Yuzawa – Gala-Yuzawa)
The following lines are under development:
Hokkaidō Shinkansen (under construction, Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto - Sapporo)
Hokuriku Shinkansen (under construction, Kanazawa - Tsuruga)
Kyūshū Shinkansen (under construction, Takeo-Onsen-Nagasaki)
Chūō Shinkansen (maglev, under construction, Shinagawa - Nagoya)
Most Shinkansen lines that were proposed during the boom of the early 1970s have been postponed indefinitely. These include a link to Shikoku by the Honshu-Shikoku bridge system, a link from Tokyo to New Tokyo International Airport, and a route covering the entire Sea of Japan coast of Honshu.
List of Shinkansen train models
0 Series (disused)
100 Series (disused)
200 Series (disused)
300 Series (disused)
400 Series (Mini-Shinkansen, disused)
500 Series (disused in Tōkaidō Shinkansen)
700 Series (disused in Tōkaidō Shinkansen)
N700 Series
800 Series
N700S Series
E1 Series (Max,disused)
E2 Series
E3 Series (Mini-Shinkansen)
E4 Series (Max)
E5 Series
E6 Series (Mini-Shinkansen)
E7 Series
H5 Series
W7 Series
List of types of Shinkansen services
Aoba (disused)
Asahi (disused)
Asama
Hayabusa
Hayate
Hikari
Hikari Rail Star
Kodama
Komachi
Max Asahi (disused)
Max Nasuno
Max Tanigawa
Max Toki
Max Yamabiko
Mizuho
Nasuno
Nozomi
Sakura
Tanigawa
Toki
Tsubame
Tsubasa
Yamabiko
hakutaka
Kagayaki
Other websites
East meets West, a story of how the Shinkansen brought Tokyo and Osaka closer together. |
6709 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper | Copper | Copper is a chemical element. It is the 29th element in the periodic table. Its atomic weight is 63.55. It is a transition metal in the middle of the periodic table. The symbol for copper is "Cu", which comes from the Latin word cuprum, which, in turn, came from the Latin word for the island of Cyprus, where copper was found.
Properties
Physical properties
Copper is a reddish-orange color when it is pure, but soon gets a reddish tarnish after it is exposed to air.
Copper is one of the few coloured metals. Most metals are gray or silver. Gold, copper, caesium and osmium are the only four coloured metals. Copper is green as copper(II) carbonate and copper(II) hydroxide. It turns green because it oxidises. After a time in the air, copper forms green copper carbonate at the surface, called verdigris. That is why the copper roof of a building looks green.
Copper is very flexible and ductile. It can be stretched into wires easily. Copper is also very soft, it has a Mohs hardness of 2.5 to 3. That means that it is harder than a fingernail but softer than a steel pocketknife.
It reacts with solutions of hydrochloric acid or ammonia containing oxygen. It can also dissolve in a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid. This makes copper(II) chloride. It does not dissolve in weak acids. It can dissolve in nitric acid to make copper(II) nitrate and nitrogen dioxide or nitric oxide.
Compounds
Copper forms chemical compounds. In these compounds, it has two normal oxidation states: +1 and +2. +2 is more common. Most +2 copper compounds are blue. +1 copper compounds can be white. Copper compounds are weak oxidizing agents. They corrode many metals. This corrosion takes the metal and puts it in the chemical compound, leaving the copper behind. An example would be iron and copper(II) sulfate reacting to make copper and iron(II) sulfate. +1 copper compounds are reducing agents when in air. They are normally made by reduction of +2 compounds.
Copper compounds can be black, green, reddish, white, blue, or yellow.
Copper(I) compounds
Copper(I) compounds have copper in +1 oxidation state. They are weak reducing agents. They react with air to make copper(II) compounds. They also disproportionate to copper and copper(II) compounds. Most of them do not dissolve in water.
Copper(I) acetylide, reddish brown, explosive
Copper(I) bromide
Copper(I) chloride, white when pure, green when oxidized
Copper(I) iodide, colorless solid
Copper(I) oxide, reddish-brown
Copper(II) compounds
Copper(II) compounds have copper in +2 oxidation state. They are weak oxidizing agents. They are greenish when hydrous (water molecules added). They are more stable in air than copper(I) compounds.
Copper(II) bromide, gray solid
Copper(II) carbonate, greenish, forms on copper when in air
Copper(II) chloride, greenish when hydrous, brown when anhydrous
Copper(II) hydroxide, light blue, turns into copper(II) carbonate easily
Copper(II) nitrate, blue, oxidizing agent, used in demonstration voltaic cells
Copper(II) oxide, black
Copper(II) sulfate, blue, most common copper compound
Paris Green, extremely toxic, bright blue-green
Occurrence
Copper can be found as a metal in the ground. Normally, it is green on the outside. Most copper is not as a metal but in chemical compounds. Chalcopyrite is the most common copper ore. It is a mixture of pyrite and copper sulfide. Copper is found in small amounts in living things. Some mollusks and arthropods have blue blood because they have copper in their blood. Animals such as humans and other mammals have red blood because it contains iron.
Uses
Copper can be used in many ways but one example is wires. Copper is used in making wires as it is easy to stretch and it is not expensive. So that’s why large wire companies will use copper as it is cheaper and takes less time to get
Copper may be the oldest metal in use, as very old copper tools have been found. Copper is used in electrical wiring. It can also be shaped into various parts. It can be used in a heat sink. The Statue of Liberty is made of copper. It is also used in pipes carrying water, because it does not corrode.
When people mix copper with tin, bronze is made. Bronze is much harder, and created the Bronze Age. It became less important when people learned to use iron better. When zinc is mixed with copper, brass is made, which is even harder than bronze. Copper with nickel makes cupronickel.
Copper is also used in medical and food production industries. Copper can alter proteins, form radicals, and disrupt enzymes, thereby inactivating or killing bacteria and viruses.
Copper is an easily molded base metal that is often added to precious metals to improve their elasticity, flexibility, hardness, color, and resistance to corrosion.
As chemical compounds
Copper is important in the human body. If a person does not get enough copper, the molecules in the body might not work. Having too much copper, though, can be a problem. Humans get most of the copper they need from food, and vitamins also contain copper to make sure we get enough. Copper compounds are also used to kill fungi and algae.
Safety
Copper is not as toxic as a metal. Copper compounds are toxic, although small amounts are needed to live. Copper is expelled from the body easily, so it does not build up in toxic effects.
Preparation
Copper is sometimes just taken out of the ground and shaped into objects. But most copper is not in a metal form in the ground. Chalcopyrite is the main copper ore. It is heated with air to separate the iron as iron(II) oxide. Some copper(I) oxide is made. Sulfur dioxide is also made. Then silicon dioxide is added, which reacts with the iron(II) oxide to make a liquid which is drained. Now only copper and sulfide are left. The copper sulfide reacts with air to make copper metal and sulfur dioxide. Some copper sulfide reacts with the copper(I) oxide to make copper and sulfur dioxide. This makes impure copper.
Copper is made pure by electrolyzing it. A thin sheet of pure copper is put on the cathode and a thick sheet of impure copper is put on the anode. The electrolyte is copper sulfate. The impure copper gets dissolved in the solution. It then coats the thin sheet of pure copper. This makes the copper pure.
Large amounts of copper are recycled because of its high value and the increasing depletion of worldwide copper reserves.
Related pages
Copper compounds
References
Chemical elements
Metals |
6710 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince | Prince | A prince is a male member of a royal family. A female prince is called a princess.
Each royal family has its own rules saying who is called a prince. In most of these families, the son of a king or a queen is a prince. In some families, the son of a prince is also a prince. In Monaco and Lichtenstein, the ruler of the country is called the prince. |
6711 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess | Princess | A princess is a female member of a royal family. A son of a monarch is called a prince. A princess may become a ruler by heredity or by marriage. Sometimes the expression "princess" is used when a female has noble qualities such as kindness, charity, and virtue.
Stubs |
6712 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore | Ore | An ore is a mineral which has a valuable metal inside it. Ores are usually extracted by being mined. They can sometimes be found on the Earth's surface. Most ores are chemical compounds such as oxides or sulfides. There are different ways to get the metal out of the ore. Iron ore, for example, is smelted in a blast furnace.
Metals |
6713 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gainesville%2C%20Florida | Gainesville, Florida | Gainesville is a city in north-central Florida in the United States. It is the county seat of Alachua County.
It is home to the University of Florida, the largest public university in the state. An alligator (Gator) named Albert is the mascot of the University of Florida. (A mascot is a symbol of qualities the school admires).
People think that growth of the city comes from building the university in the city. People of the city show their strong good feelings for the university by going to football games there, and by showing Gator symbols in businesses and homes.
The city is also famous as the birthplace of singer Tom Petty.
Cities in Florida
County seats in Florida |
6714 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Florida | University of Florida | The University of Florida (UF) is a public university that is in Gainesville, Florida in the United States. The campus is 2,000 acres and has more than 900 structures, as well as other locations in the state of Florida. Important research activities at the university are in medicine, at Shands Hospital, and in agriculture. The mascot of UF is an alligator, and students and fans of the university's athletic teams are often called "Gators."
References
Association of American Universities
Colleges and universities in Florida
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
Southeastern Conference
1853 establishments in Florida |
6715 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men | X-Men | The fictional characters, the X-Men, are a team of superheroes who were born with special mutant powers, making them different from regular humans. The X-Men characters are owned by Marvel Comics, which publishes comic books featuring them as well as many other superheroes. The comic book was one of the first to combine social issues and social commentary into a superhero story, set in a world where people with mutant abilities are hated by those born without them. This is similar to acts of ableism seen throughout history. Unlike "some" mutants, the X-Men try to be good and show tolerance toward humans and other mutants. The idea behind the superheroes were inspired by the African-American equality supporters like Malcolm X and Martin Luther King.
characters
Original X-Men
The original X-Men, as created by writer Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, were
and all first appeared in X-Men #1 (Sept 1963).
The leader and mentor of the X-Men is Professor Charles Xavier, who is more commonly known as "Professor X" and has mental powers. He wants to gain civil rights for mutants in the way that Martin Luther King did for African Americans; through peace.
Other X-Men
Some other well-known X-Men include
Some of the X-Men's enemies include Magneto, Mystique, Sabretooth, Toad, Juggernaut, Mister Sinister and Apocalypse. The leader of X-Men's enemies is Magneto. He wants to gain civil rights for mutants in the forceful style of Malcolm X.
Other media
The X-Men characters have since been featured in various comic book series, motion pictures, toys, animated series, and much more.
References
Marvel Comics superheroes
Marvel Comics adapted into movies |
6717 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20Man | Iron Man | Iron Man is a fictional superhero who wears a suit of armor. His alter ego is Tony Stark. He was created by Stan Lee, Jack Kirby and Larry Lieber for Marvel Comics in Tales of Suspense #39 in the year 1963 and appears in their comic books. He is also one of the main protagonists in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Iron Man is played by Robert Downey Jr in the movies Iron Man, Iron Man 2, The Avengers, Iron Man 3, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Captain America: Civil War, Spider-Man: Homecoming, Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame and he will reprise his role in the untitled Avengers fifth film.
Powers
In the movies and the earlier comic books, Tony Stark is a human. Outside the suit, he does not have any superpowers, however he is very intelligent. He made the suit himself. Iron Man can fly and shoot beams from his hands using special technology called "repulsors" in his boots and gloves. He is not hurt by most weapons like guns and cannons. There are many versions of the Iron Man suit, because Stark keeps making improvements.
In the later comic books, Stark took an experimental virus called "Extremis" which allowed him to control his suit with his mind and summon it wherever he was. Stark would eventually develop an armor that he could store in his body. This armor was known as the "Bleeding Edge Model 37".
Origin story
Stark inherited a large American company called "Stark Industries" when his father died. He was badly injured by a bomb in an attack planned by people who did not like him running his company. Shrapnel from the explosion was moving towards his heart. This would have killed him, but a scientist called Yinsen who was with him made a magnet for his chest which would keep the shrapnel away. In the movies, he makes an "arc reactor" which is put into his chest to stop the shrapnel.
Yinsen and Stark secretly build a heavy suit of armor which they plan to use to escape. However, during the escape, Yinsen dies so that the kidnappers will be distracted from Stark escaping. Stark escapes safely and goes back to America. He makes a better suit and uses it to fight evil.
Personality
Tony Stark is charismatic and eccentric, he is also very proud, but also very altruist and heroic. He did not have a good childhood, and this affects how he acts.
Stark is very smart, and a very talented inventor. His technology is always very advanced, and Iron Man is his greatest piece of work. In both the comics and the movies, he uses the arc reactor (or "repulsor technology") as a form of sustainable energy to help the world.
Stark has very few close friends. Two of them are Pepper Potts, his personal assistant who becomes his girlfriend, and James Rhodes, an American soldier who operates the War Machine armor.
Other websites
Fictional characters introduced in 1963
Marvel Comics adapted into movies
Marvel Comics superheroes
Marvel vs. Capcom fighters
Tony Hawk's (series) guest characters |
6725 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andris%20Piebalgs | Andris Piebalgs | Andris Piebalgs (born September 17, 1957, in Valmiera) is a Latvian politician. Since 22 November 2004 he has been the European Commissioner for Energy.
He was born in Valmiera and was educated at the University of Latvia in Riga. He worked as a teacher in Valmiera in the 1980s. After Latvia became independent from the USSR he was education minister (in charge of schools) from 1990 to 1993, and finance minister (in charge of money) from 1994 to 1995. He was Latvia's ambassador to Estonia from 1995 to 1997, and to the European Union from 1998 to 2003, when he helped Latvia join the EU. He also helped to start a political party called the Latvian Way.
He speaks Latvian, English, German, French, and Russian, and some Estonian.
Before he was made a European Commissioner Piebalgs worked for Sandra Kalniete, a member of the last Commission.
Other websites
Official website
1957 births
Living people
European Commissioners
Latvian politicians |
6728 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusto%20Pinochet | Augusto Pinochet | General Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte (November 25, 1915 – December 10, 2006) was a Chilean army general who led Chile from 1973 to 1990, who came to power after he overthrew Salvador Allende, a socialist president.
Early life
Pinochet was born in Valparaíso, Chile.
Career
Pinochet was a high ranking general in the Chilean Army in the early 1970s. In 1970, Allende was narrowly elected in a close three way race. Western countries like the United States were concerned about Allende. There was discontent in Chile in 1973, with some groups trying to destabilize the government of Allende.
On September 11th, 1973, the Chilean military led a coup d'état against Allende in which they attacked the Presidential Palace in Santiago. Allende committed suicide, and Pinochet took power as the leader of a military council known as a junta. The junta began cracking down on Allende supporters.
About 3,000 Chilean people died because of Pinochet's rule and many other people were tortured. Most of the people that died during Pinochet's rule were communists. The first days of his rule saw the most deaths, and in the weeks after the coup, Allende supporters were arrested and locked in a football stadium in Santiago. Many were released a few months later, but some were imprisoned for years.
Pinochet introduced many neoliberal free market policies bringing growth and great economic progress to Chile." In economic affairs, Pinochet's rule was influenced by the ideas of Milton Friedman. In 1980, a plebiscite (without electoral registries) was held and Pinochet was kept in power.
The coup d'état that was launched to overthrow Allende and put Pinochet in power was supported by the United States, as was Pinochet's regime. The US government has never admitted being involved, but they did support Pinochet while he was in power. The government of the United Kingdom was also pro-Pinochet.
In 1988, there was a plebiscite in Chile. The people were asked whether Pinochet should rule for another eight and a half years. About 56% of the people did not want that. Pinochet, under pressure from other countries was forced to accept the results, and stepped down from power in 1990. Patricio Aylwin became the next president. Pinochet kept his responsibilities as head of the military until 1998. After this, he became a senator for life, but had to leave senate in 2002. He was not arrested because the Supreme Court of Chile said he suffered from dementia. In May 2004, judges said that was not true. On December 13 he was placed under house arrest. Judges in Spain tried to put him on trial for the many crimes against the human rights he committed while leader of Chile.
Death
Pinochet died from congestive heart failure and pulmonary edema on December 10, 2006 in Santiago, Chile, a week after a heart attack, aged 91. His remains were later cremated (Pinochet's request) to avoid vandalism on his tomb.
References
Other websites
Extensive bio by Fundación CIDOB (in Spanish)
Augusto Pinochet (1915–2006) – A Biography
France 24 coverage – Augusto Pinochet's Necrology on France 24
BBC coverage (special report)
Documentary Film on Chilean Concentration Camp from Pinochet's Regime: Chacabuco
CIA Acknowledges Ties to Pinochet’s Repression from The National Security Archive
Chile under Allende and Pinochet
Human rights violation under Pinochet
The Times obituary
Analysis of economic pol
1915 births
2006 deaths
Anti-Communists
Chilean military people
Deaths from congestive heart failure
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Deaths from pulmonary edema
Disease-related deaths in Chile
Former dictators
Generals
People from Valparaíso
Presidents of Chile |
6732 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma%20%28physics%29 | Plasma (physics) | Plasma is a 4th state of matter.
Plasma is created by adding energy to a gas so that some of its electrons leave its atoms. This is called ionization. It results in negatively charged electrons, and positively charged ions. Unlike the other states of matter, the charged particles in a plasma will react strongly to electric and magnetic fields (i.e. electromagnetic fields). If a plasma loses heat, the ions will re-form into a gas, emitting the energy which had caused them to ionize.
Over 99% of the matter in the visible universe is believed to be plasma. When the atoms in a gas are broken up, the pieces are called electrons and ions. Because they have an electric charge, they are pulled together or pushed apart by electric fields and magnetic fields. This makes a plasma act differently than a gas. For example, magnetic fields can be used to hold a plasma, but not to hold a gas. Plasma is a better conductor of electricity than copper.
Plasma is usually very hot, because it takes very high temperatures to break the bonds between electrons and the nuclei of the atoms. Sometimes plasmas can have very high pressure, like in stars. Stars (including the Sun) are mostly made of plasma. Plasmas can also have very low pressure, like in outer space.
On Earth, lightning makes plasma. Artificial (man-made) uses of plasma include fluorescent lightbulbs, neon signs, and plasma displays used for television or computer screens, as well as plasma lamps and globes which are a popular children's toy and room decoration. Scientists are experimenting with plasma to make a new kind of nuclear power, called fusion, which would be much better and safer than ordinary nuclear power, and would produce much less radioactive waste.
Related pages
Gas
Liquid
Solid
Bose-Einstein condensate
Matter
Plasma window
Other helpful websites
Plasma Science and Technology
Plasma on the Internet comprehensive list of plasma related links.
Introduction to Plasma Physics: M.I.T. Introduction by I.H.Hutchinson
Plasma Coalition page
How to make a glowing ball of plasma in your microwave with a grape | More (Video)
Phases of Matter
States of matter
Astrophysics |
6742 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puebla%20%28state%29 | Puebla (state) | Puebla is a state of Mexico. The capital of Puebla is also called Puebla. The volcanos Malinche, Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl are in the state of Puebla.
States of Mexico |
6743 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan%20Aykroyd | Dan Aykroyd | Daniel Edward Aykroyd (born July 1, 1952) is a Canadian actor in theater and motion pictures. He also is a script writer, director and producer
Short biography
Aykroyd was born in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. His parents were Peter and Lorraine Aykroyd. He studied criminology and social science at Carleton University. He dropped out to join a Toronto acting company. Later he went to the United States to pursue his acting career in movies.
Dan Aykroyd is a dedicated Blues fan. For some time he hosted a radio program. He used the alias Elwood Blues. This alias he would later use in the motion pictures The Blues Brothers and Blues Brothers 2000. The first of these movies was co-starred by John Belushi, the second one by John Goodman.
Aykroyd is married to Donna Dixon. They are parents of 3 daughters. Dan's brother Peter Ayrkroyd is a researcher.
Partial filmography
As producer
Soul Man (1997) TV series (supervising producer)
Blues Brothers 2000 (1998)
As director
Nothing But Trouble (1991)
As writer
Saturday Night Live (TV series)
The Blues Brothers (1980)
Ghostbusters (1984)
Blues Brothers 2000 (1998)
References
Other websites
Actors from Ottawa
Canadian movie actors
Canadian movie directors
Canadian movie producers
Canadian screenwriters
Canadian television actors
Canadian television producers
Canadian television writers
Canadian voice actors
Emmy Award winners
1952 births
Living people
People on the autism spectrum |
6744 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Belushi | John Belushi | John Belushi (January 24, 1949 - March 5, 1982) was an American actor in movies and television shows.
Belushi was born in Chicago, Illinois. His mother was the daughter of Albanian immigrants; his father was an immigrant from Albania. His brother is James Belushi, who is also an actor.
John was co-captain of the football team in high school as well as homecoming king in his senior year. In school he was already active in acting, but wanted to become a baseball-coach. His drama-teacher persuaded him to pursue becoming a professional actor.
He appeared mainly in TV shows, and was one of the founders of Saturday Night Live. His Blues Brothers act with Dan Aykroyd was famous, long before The Blues Brothers movie (1980).
Unfortunately Belushi became a drug addict. He used both heroin and cocaine, and a lot of both. When The Blues Brothers was made, he spent about US$40,000 to $75,000 a month on drugs.
John Belushi died in 1982 from a drug overdose injected by Cathy Smith. She was convicted of involuntary manslaughter.
Credits
National Lampoon's Lemmings (1973) (Stage)
The National Lampoon Radio Hour (1973–1974) (Radio) (also Creative Director)
The National Lampoon Show (1975) (Stage)
The Beach Boys: It's OK (1976) (TV)
Saturday Night Live (1975–1979) (TV)
Tarzoon: Shame of the Jungle (1975) (voice)
Goin' South (1978)
National Lampoon's Animal House (1978)
The Rutles: All You Need Is Cash (1978) (TV)
Old Boyfriends (1979)
1941 (1979)
The Blues Brothers (1980)
Continental Divide (1981)
Neighbors (1981)
SNL characters and impersonations
Recurring characters
Samurai Futaba
Captain Ned, one of Miles Cowperthwaite's cronies
Jacob Papageorge alias 'Joliet' Jake Blues, from the Blues Brothers
Jeff Widette, from the Widettes
Kevin (from The Mall sketches)
Kuldorth (from The Coneheads)
Larry Farber (one half of the Farber couple [the wife, Bobbi, was played by Gilda Radner])
Lowell Brock, from the H&L Brock commercials
Matt Cooper, from the Land Shark sketches
Pete, from the Olympia Cafe
Steve Beshekas (who was in real life a good friend of Belushi's since community college)
Frank Leary, one of St. Mickey's Knights of Columbus
Celebrity impersonations
Al Hirt
Babe Ruth
Bert Lance
Cesar Romero
Dino De Laurentiis
Ed Ames
Edward Asner
Elizabeth Taylor
Elvis Presley
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Fred Silverman
George Wallace
Grigori Rasputin
Henry Kissinger
Hermann Göring
Jack Kerouac
Jawaharlal Nehru
Jerry Mathers (as The Beaver from Leave It To Beaver)
Jimmy Hoffa
Joe Cocker
John Lennon
Julia Child
Leonid Brezhnev
Ludwig van Beethoven
Marlon Brando
Menachim Begin
Richard Daley
Robert Blake
Roy Orbison
Sam Peckinpah
Sanjay Gandhi
Steve Rubell
Sun Myung Moon
Tip O'Neill
Truman Capote
Vasiliy Alekseyev
William Shatner
Woody Hayes
Yasser Arafat
Other websites
References
1949 births
1982 deaths
Actors from Chicago
American Eastern Orthodox Christians
American movie actors
American television actors
Comedians from Chicago
Drug-related accidental deaths in the United States
Television personalities from Chicago |
6745 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Blues%20Brothers | The Blues Brothers | The Blues Brothers (Elwood Blues and Joliet "Jake" Blues) are fictional characters which became well known from the TV show Saturday Night Live.
Elwood Blues was first played by Dan Aykroyd, in his radio program on Blues music. Jake Blues was played by John Belushi.
In 1980, Aykroyd and Belushi starred in the movie called The Blues Brothers, playing again the same characters from TV. Unfortunately, Belushi died only two years later, due to a drug overdose. A sequel called Blues Brothers 2000 (1998) starred John Goodman as new partner to Dan Aykroyd but it was not as successful as the first movie.
Both movies were made by Universal Pictures.
The Blues Brothers (1980)
The movie version of the popular characters was directed by John Landis.
Plot summary
Jake and Elwood are sent off by Sister Mary Stigmata of the orphanage to raise money. The money is needed to pay taxes, otherwise the orphanage will be shut down. They try to do this by getting their band back together again.
Actors
John Belushi - 'Joliet' Jake Blues
Dan Aykroyd - Elwood Blues
James Brown - Reverend Big Balck
Cab Calloway - Curtis
Ray Charles - himself
Aretha Franklin - Mrs. Murphy
Steve Cropper - Steve 'The Colonel' Cropper
Donald Dunn - Donald 'Duck' Dunn
Murphy Dunne - Murph
Willie Hall - Willie 'Too Short' Hall
Tom Malone - Tom 'Bones' Malone
Lou Marini - 'Blue Lou' Marini
Matt Murphy - Matt 'Guitar' Murphy
Alan Rubin - Mr. Fabulcous
Carrie Fisher - Mystery woman
Story
"Joliet" Jake Blues is released from jail. His brother, Elwood, picks him up in a former police car. They go to the orphanage they grew up in, since Jake promised the orphanage Mother Superior (nicknamed "The Penguin"). There they find out that the orphanage is in need of money, for taxes. Jake and Elwood are sent off to earn it, but in a legal manner. From the start they are under continuous attention of the police. But Elwood does not mind; they wreck a complete shopping mall (Dixie Square Mall in Harvey, Illinois) in a police chase. They arrive at Elwood's apartment, which is located directly next to an elevated railway. After a night's sleep the apartment is blown up by a mystery woman, right at the moment of a police raid.
The brothers have to find their former band members. They find "Bones" Malone and some others playing Latin music in a nightclub, as "Murph and the Magic Tones". Mr. Fabulous is maitre d' at a chic restaurant "Chez Paul". They convince him to join by ordering expensive bottles of champagne, and by acting like pigs, offending the other guests. They find Matt 'Guitar' Murphy and Blue Lou working in a diner. The place is run by Matt's wife, and she does not want them to join the band. Aretha Franklin, playing Matt's wife makes this clear in the song "Think!", but they go anyway. The next stop is Ray's Music Exchange, run by Ray Charles. Ray nearly shoots a boy who wants to steal a guitar (considering Ray is blind, that's amazing!). They sign an IOU for the equipment.
On the way to find the other members, they spoil a march of the Neo Nazi American Socialist White People Party. The marching members are forced to jump off a bridge into a pond to save themselves. When the brothers try to call their booking agent, the payphone is torched by the mystery woman. Fortunately they survive, and find a couple of dollars change. The Neo Nazis in the meantime find out Elwood's address (which is faked: 1060 West Addison in Chicago is Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs).
The Blues Brothers end up in a Country & Western club, Bob's Country Bunker. They steal the gig of the Good Ole Boys. When Elwood asks "What kinds of music do you usually play here?", the answer is: "Why we have both kinds-Country and Western!". They are protected from beer bottles by wire as they try their first song, but the audience go crazy. So they decide to do "Rawhide", and "Stand By Your Man", along with some other songs. At the end of the performance they owe the owner $100 (the beertab). They run from him and from the real Good Ole Boys. On the run, the Good Ole Boys' camper is wrecked by a police car in pursuit.
They blackmail Maury (their agent) into booking the Palace Hotel Ballroom with 5,000 seats. All kids in the neighborhood help in selling the tickets. Elwood and Jake end up in a gas-station that is out of gas, and the gig starts without them. Cab Calloway sings the opening song "Minnie the Moocher". Both the police and the Good Ole Boys find out where the gig is. When the brothers finally arrive, they sabotage the Good Ole Boys' car. They do two songs, Sweet Home, Chicago, and Come On. They are offered a record contract, and are paid $10,000 in advance.
They flee through a tunnel, being shot at by the mystery woman. She turns out to be Jake's ex-bride, whom he stood up at their wedding. Jake begs for their lives, and even takes off his sunglasses! They seem to fall in love all over again, but Jake leaves her behind.
In a crazy car chase the Good Ole Boys end up in a lake, hundreds of police cars are wrecked and the Neo Nazis cannot brake on an unfinished bridge. The Brothers succeed in getting to the tax office, pursued by police, special units, choppers and the army. They are arrested right after paying the taxes. Back in jail, the band plays their final song, Jailhouse Rock.
Blues Brothers 2000
Despite the name, this sequel (second story following on from the first) came out in 1998.
DVD edition
A twenty-fifth anniversary edition DVD came out on August 30, 2005.
References
1980 movies
1980s criminal comedy movies
1980s musical movies
1980s road movies
American buddy movies
American criminal comedy movies
American musical comedy movies
American road movies
Chase movies
English-language movies
Movies set in Chicago, Illinois
Movies shot in Chicago, Illinois
Works about brothers
Universal Pictures movies
Movies directed by John Landis
United States National Film Registry movies |
6748 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnhem | Arnhem | Arnhem is a city in the Netherlands. It is the capital of the eastern province Guelders (Gelderland). Arnhem has 159,265 citizens (as of 1 January 2019), the agglomeration 722,181 (Arnhem-Nijmegen conurbation). It is in the top-15 of largest cities in the Netherlands.
History
The history of Arnhem goes back to the Middle Ages. Arnhem got city-rights in 1233 from the Count of Zutphen. The exact text is still kept in the Duivelshuis (Devil's house) which is now part of Arnhem's City Hall.
In 1850 Arnhem had 9,000 citizens. The city became popular with rich people from the western part of the Netherlands.
During the World War II Arnhem was severely damaged. The Battle of Arnhem in 1944 is the sad story of UK and Polish paratroopers who fought to get control of the Rhine-bridge. According to the plan of Field Marshal Montgomery, Arnhem was the last in a series of bridges which would be taken by paratroopers. At the same time a ground-army would advance from the Belgium-Dutch border across all these bridges. This operation was called Operation Market Garden. Market for the Airborne-element and Garden to represent the Ground-forces. Arnhem would be the responsibility of the British paratroopers, and would be the last bridge to be crossed by the ground forces. General John Frost succeeded in taking the Arnhem bridge from the Germans. Due to several reasons Frost had to retreat, and the bridge was again in German control. The movie A Bridge Too Far is about this battle. After the Battle of Arnhem the Germans forced Arnhem's citizens to evacuate the city. This was because they were afraid another battle would have to be fought. When Arnhem's citizens came back, they found their city destroyed.
After the war Arnhem was rebuilt, including the Eusebiuskerk (Eusebius Church). The bridge crossing the Rhine is now called John Frost Bridge after the famous UK general, since 1978.
Museums and other attractions
Burgers Zoo (address: Schelmseweg 85) - One of the major Dutch zoo's, with a replica of a tropical rainforest.
Nederlands Openluchtmuseum (address: Schelmseweg 89) - Dutch Open Air Museum in which are many old buildings, farms and factories.
Eusebiuskerk (address: Kerkplein 1) - The rebuilt Eusebius Church, which tower can be visited.
Bronbeek (address: Velperweg 147) - A home for Dutch ex-soldiers (originally KNIL-soldiers only), and also a museum about the history of the Dutch in Indonesia.
Arnhems Oorlogsmuseum 40-45 (address: Kempenbergerweg 780) - Arnhem Warmuseum 1940-1945
References
Other websites
Arnhem's official website
Webcam in the center of Arnhem
Cities in the Netherlands
Settlements in Gelderland
Provincial capitals of the Netherlands |
6749 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/KNIL | KNIL | KNIL is the abbreviation for a Dutch army. This army was in what is now called Indonesia. The official name is Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indisch Leger (Royal Dutch-East Indies Army)
Indonesia was a Dutch colony from 1800 to 1949. It was then called Nederlandsch Indië (Dutch East Indies). The KNIL taskforce was sent there to maintain order.
When Indonesia declared itself independent in 1945 the Dutch fought a war to keep the colony. This war was won by the Indonesians. The Dutch government accepted Indonesia's independence in 1949, and the KNIL ceased to exist.
Army
History of the Netherlands |
6750 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronbeek | Bronbeek | Bronbeek is a former Royal palace in Arnhem, the Netherlands. It is now a museum and a home for elderly soldiers.
Bronbeek was built early 19th century. In 1845 the Dutch King William III bought Bronbeek. He donated it to the Dutch state in 1859. William wanted it to be a home for disabled KNIL soldiers. The inhabitants took their collections of 'souvenirs' with them. This turned into a museum about the Dutch East Indies.
In 2004 50 former soldiers have their home in Bronbeek.
Buildings and structures in the Netherlands
Arnhem |
6751 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Bowie | David Bowie | David Robert Jones OAL (8 January 1947 – 10 January 2016), known professionally by his stage name David Bowie, was an English rock musician and actor.
Early life
Bowie was born on 8 January 1947 in 40 Stansfield Road, Brixton, London.He grew up in Bromley, Kent. He played the saxophone. He was a singer in London blues bands. He used the alias David Bowie because David Jones sounded too much like Davy Jones (of The Monkees). He took the name Bowie from Jim Bowie, who invented the Bowie knife.
Bowie became known to the public with the 1969 song "Space Oddity". This single was released when man first landed on the moon. The song's title is based on the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey by Stanley Kubrick. In 1970, Bowie won an Ivor Novello Award for "Space Oddity".
Career
Ziggy Stardust
Bowie's album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars was released in 1972. It is one of his best-known albums. As a result of his performance, Bowie became a leader of glam rock.
Ziggy Stardust became Bowie's second personality (alter ego). For a press conference, he would show up as Ziggy. Bowie let Ziggy Stardust come to an end during a live concert in the Hammersmith Odeon theatre on 3 July 1973. In 1983, this show was released as movie and soundtrack (Ziggy Stardust – The Motion Picture). Bowie also produced Lou Reed's "Transformer". He released "Aladdin Sane" (his first number one album in the United Kingdom).
Los Angeles and Berlin
In 1974, after releasing the album "Diamond Dogs", Bowie settled in Los Angeles. He experimented with drugs, especially cocaine. In 1975, "Fame" (from the Young Americans album) a song co-written with John Lennon, was number 1 on the United States charts. Bowie played an alien in the movie The Man Who Fell To Earth. A new second personality was The Thin White Duke. This was introduced on the Station to Station album in 1976. The song "Golden Years" scored high in the pop charts. In 2003, the album was ranked number 323 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.
After releasing Station to Station, Bowie moved to Berlin. He was interested in German music. He wanted to end his drug abuse. In Berlin, he started to work with producer Tony Visconti and with Brian Eno, the "king of oblique strategies". Bowie was a producer for Iggy Pop too. The Berlin Trilogy Albums are Low (1977), Heroes (1977) and Lodger (1979) although only Heroes was recorded entirely in Berlin.
1980s
Bowie left Berlin in 1980. In 1980 he recorded and released the album Scary Monsters And Super Creeps, featuring the United Kingdom number 1 single "Ashes To Ashes". In 1981, he had a big hit with "Under Pressure", together with Queen: it peaked at number 1 on United Kingdom charts. In 1983, Bowie released Let's Dance, his biggest selling album. The title track peaked at number 1 in the United Kingdom and The United States Of America.
In 1984, Bowie won a Brit Award as Best Male Artist. In 1985, he won a Grammy Award for Best Video (Short Form). Yet in 1985, David Bowie and Mick Jagger released the charity single "Dancing In The Street". In 1986, Bowie released the hit-single "Absolute Beginners".
Tin Machine
In 1989, Bowie formed the band Tin Machine. This was his first real band since the 1970s. With this band, Bowie recorded three albums: Tin Machine (1989), Tin Machine II (1991) and Oy Vey, Baby (1992).
1990s–2010s
By the 1990s, Bowie had become more interested in soul, jazz and hip hop. This was first noticed on the album Black Tie, White Noise.
Bowie was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on 17 January 1996.
In 2013, after a ten years hiatus, Bowie released his twenty-fourth album, The Next Day. In 2014, he was nominated for Best Rock Album at the Grammy Awards and won a Brit Award for Best Male Artist.
His last album, Blackstar, was released on 8 January 2016. That was his 69th birthday and two days before his death. After Bowie's death, Blackstar reached number one in the United Kingdom and in the United States: it was the only Bowie album to peak at number one in the United States. In 2017 "Blackstar" won 5 Grammy Awards. "Blackstar" also won a Brit Award for the Best Album and David Bowie also won a Brit Award for Best Male Artist.
Personal life
Bowie married Mary Angela Barnett in 1970. Their son, Duncan Jones was born in 1971. The couple divorced in 1980. Bowie married Iman in 1992. The couple's daughter, Alexandria Jones, was born in 2000.
Death
On 10 January 2016 after an 18-month battle with liver cancer, Bowie died in Manhattan, New York City, two days after his 69th birthday. His remains were later cremated on 14 January in a private ceremony in New York.
Genres
Bowie covered many genres including art rock, hard rock, glam rock, alternative rock, krautrock, protopunk, post-punk, electronica, Blue-eyed soul, New Wave, Industrial, Techno, Jazz, Dance music, Funk, Disco, Experimental rock, Folk, Instrumental, Ambient and house.
Studio albums
David Bowie (1967)
David Bowie (also released as Man of Words, Man of Music in Usa and as Space Oddity' in 1972') (1969)
The Man Who Sold the World (1970)
Hunky Dory (1971)
The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (1972)
Aladdin Sane (1973)
Pin Ups (1973)
Diamond Dogs (1974)
Young Americans (1975)
Station to Station (1976)
Low (1977)
"Heroes" (1977)
Lodger (1979)
Scary Monsters (And Super Creeps) (1980)
Let's Dance (1983)
Tonight (1984)
Never Let Me Down (1987)
Tin Machine (1989) (with Tin Machine)
Tin Machine II (1991) (with Tin Machine)
Black Tie White Noise (1993)
Outside (1995)
Earthling (1997)
'Hours...' (1999)
Heathen (2002)
Reality (2003)
The Next Day (2013)
Blackstar (2016)
Filmography (selection)The Image (1969)The Man Who Fell to Earth (1976) - Thomas Jerome NewtonJust a Gigolo (1979) - PaulMerry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence (1983) - Maj. Jack 'Strafer' CelliersLabyrinth (movie) (1986) - Jareth, the Goblin KingThe Last Temptation of Christ (1988) - Pontius Pilate
"Basquiat" (1996)- Andy Warhol Mr. Rice's Secret'' (2000) - Mr. Rice
References
1947 births
2016 deaths
Actors from London
Cancer deaths in New York City
Deaths from liver cancer
English movie actors
English rock singers
Musicians from London
Webby Award winners |
6752 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952 | 1952 | .
Events
January 8 – West Germany has 8 million refugees inside its borders.
January 24 – Sudden heavy snowfall in Algeria.
January 24 – Vincent Massey sworn in as first Canada-born Governor-General of Canada.
Unknown date – Pakistan's first test match.
Unknown date – The Asiatic cheetah was declared extinct in India
Births
January 18 - Michael Angelis, English actor (d. 2020)
January 20 - Paul Stanley, American singer-songwriter and musician (Kiss)
February 13 - Erik Yakovici, Croatian politician and Christian Democrat
February 23 - Brad Whitford, American guitarist (Aerosmith)
March 10 - Mike O'Donnell, English musician and composer
March 11 – Douglas Adams
March 26 – Luka Oztürk, Croatian politician and Croatian judge
April 4 – Gary Moore, Irish musician (Thin Lizzy) (d. 2011)
May 11 - Leart Enzo, Macedonian folk music
May 13 – Wang Xiaobo, Chinese writer
June 28 - John Patrick Lowrie, American voice actor
July 1 – Dan Aykroyd, Canadian actor in TV series and movies
July 6 - Grant Goodeve, American voice over artist
August 7 - Gary Schwartz, American voice actor
September 12 - Neil Peart, Canadian drummer (Rush) (d. 2020)
October 1 - Ivan-Milan Kiraly, Croatian musician
October 22 - Dennis "Fly" Amero, American singer-songwriter and musician (Orleans)
October 31 - Aron Xavier, Croatian politician and judge
November 3 – Jim Cummings, American actor
November 16 – Shigeru Miyamoto, Japanese game designer
December 1 - Ellen McLain, American voice actress
December 11 - Susan Seidelman, American director
Deaths
January 18 – Curly Howard, American actor and comedian
February 6 – King George VI of the United Kingdom
February 19 – Knut Hamsun, Norwegian writer, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature (b. 1859)
February 22 – Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg, first President of Finland
March 7 – Paramahansa Yogananda, Indian guru
March 22 – Uncle Dave Macon, country music performer
March 31 – Wallace H. White, Jr., U.S. Senator from Maine (b. 1877)
April 3 – Miina Sillanpää, Finnish union activist
April 21 – Sir Stafford Cripps, British politician and Chancellor of the Exchequer 1947-1950
May 6 – Maria Montessori Italian educator (cerebral hemorrhage) (b. 1870)
May 8 – Walter Fox, American movie producer
May 21 – John Garfield, actor
June 17 – Krystyna Skarbek, SOE agent
July 26 – Eva Perón, Argentine wife of Juan Perón
September 29 – George Santayana, writer
September 30 – Viscount Waldorf Astor, British businessman and politician
October 28 – Billy Hughes, seventh Prime Minister of Australia
November 9 – Chaim Weizmann, chemist, first President of Israel (b. 1874)
November 18 – Paul Eluard, French poet (b. 1895)
November 23 – Aaro Hellaakoski, Finnish poet
December 12 – Bedřich Hrozný, Czech orientalist and linguist
December 28 – Fletcher Henderson, jazz musician (b. 1897)
Movies released
African Queen
High Noon
Monkey Business
The Greatest Show on Earth
The Snow of Kilimanjaro
New books
Adventures in Two Worlds – A.J. Cronin
Arrow in the Blue – Arthur Koestler
A Buyer's Market – Anthony Powell
Charlotte's Web – E.B. White
East of Eden – John Steinbeck
La Formica Argentina – Italo Calvino
Foundation and Empire – Isaac Asimov
Giant – Edna Ferber
Go Tell it On The Mountain – James Baldwin
The Gown of Glory – Agnes Sligh Turnbull
Heaven and Earth – Carlo Coccioli
The Hidden Flower – Pearl S. Buck
The Houses in Between – Howard Spring
Invisible Man – Ralph Ellison
Island of Desire – Edith Templeton
Judgment Night – C. L. Moore
A Many-splendoured Thing – Han Suyin
Martha Quest – Doris Lessing
The Old Man and the Sea – Ernest Hemingway
The Power of Positive Thinking – Norman Vincent Peale
The Rolling Stones – Robert A. Heinlein
The Saracen Blade – Frank Yerby
The Silver Chalice – Thomas B. Costain
The Small Miracle – Paul Gallico
Steamboat Gothic – Frances Parkinson Keyes
Vermeer – Lawrence Gowing
The Voyage of the Dawn Treader – C. S. Lewis
Hit Songs
"All Of Me" – Johnnie Ray
"Anytime" – Eddie Fisher
"Auf Wiederseh'n Sweetheart" – Vera Lynn
"Be My Life's Companion" – The Mills Brothers
"Botch-A-Me (Ba-Ba-Baciami Piccina)" – Rosemary Clooney
"Christmas Roses" – Frankie Laine & Jo Stafford
"Day Of Jubilo" – Guy Mitchell
"Delicado" – Percy Faith & his Orchestra
"The Glow-Worm" – The Mills Brothers
"A Guy Is A Guy" – Doris Day
"Half As Much" – Rosemary Clooney
"Heart And Soul" – The Four Aces featuring Al Alberts
"Here In My Heart" – Al Martino
"High Noon (Do Not Forsake Me)" – Frankie Laine
"Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me" – Karen Chandler
"I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus" – Jimmy Boyd
"I Went To Your Wedding" – Patti Page
"I'll Walk Alone" – Don Cornell
"I'm Confessin'" – Les Paul and Mary Ford
"I'm Just A Poor Bachelor" – Frankie Laine
"I'm Yours" – Eddie Fisher
"Kiss Of Fire" – Georgia Gibbs
"A Kiss To Build A Dream On" – Louis Armstrong
"Lady Of Spain" – Eddie Fisher
"Lover" – Peggy Lee
"Maybe" – Perry Como & Eddie Fisher
"My Favorite Song" – Georgia Gibbs
"Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania" – Guy Mitchell
"Please, Mr. Sun" – Johnnie Ray & The Four Lads
"Ramblin' Man" – Frankie Laine
"Rock Of Gibraltar" – Frankie Laine
"Settin' The Woods On Fire" – Frankie Laine & Jo Stafford
"A Sinner Am I" – Johnnie Ray
"Slow Poke" – Arthur Godfrey
"So Madly In Love" – Georgia Gibbs
"Somewhere Along The Way" – Nat King Cole
"Sugarbush" – Doris Day & Frankie Laine
"Tell Me Why" – Eddie Fisher
"Temptation" – Mario Lanza
"Tenderly" – Rosemary Clooney
"Tiger Rag" – Les Paul and Mary Ford
"Till I Waltz Again With You" – Teresa Brewer
"Tonight You Belong To Me" – Frankie Laine
"Unforgettable" – Nat King Cole
"Walkin' My Baby Back Home" – Johnnie Ray
"Wheel Of Fortune" – Kay Starr
"When I Fall In Love" – Doris Day
"When You're In Love" – Frankie Laine
"Why Don't You Believe Me" – Joni James
"Winter Wonderland" – Perry Como
"Wish You Were Here" – Eddie Fisher
"You Belong to Me" – Jo Stafford
"You'll Never Be Mine" – Guy Mitchell |
6754 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito%20Mussolini | Benito Mussolini | Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini KSMOM GCTE (29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist. He was also the Prime Minister of Italy from 1922 until 1943. He was the leader of the National Fascist Party.
Biography
Early life
Benito Mussolini was named after Benito Juarez, a Mexican opponent of the political power of the Roman Catholic Church, by his anticlerical (a person who opposes the political interference of the Roman Catholic Church in secular affairs) father. Mussolini's father was a blacksmith. Before being involved in politics, Mussolini was a newspaper editor (where he learned all his propaganda skills) and elementary school teacher.
At first, Mussolini was a socialist, but when he wanted Italy to join the First World War, he was thrown out of the socialist party. He 'invented' a new ideology, Fascism, much out of Nationalist and Conservative views.
Rise to power and becoming dictator
In 1922, he took power by having a large group of men, "Black Shirts," march on Rome and threaten to take over the government. King Vittorio Emanuele III gave in, allowed him to form a government, and made him prime minister. In the following five years, he gained power, and in 1927 created the OVRA, his personal secret police force. Using the agency to arrest, scare, or murder people against his regime, Mussolini was dictator of Italy by the end of 1927. Only the King and his own Fascist party could challenge his power.
Fascism as practiced by Mussolini
Mussolini's form of Fascism, "Italian Fascism"- unlike Nazism, the racist ideology that Adolf Hitler followed- was different and less destructive than Hitler's. Although a believer in the superiority of the Italian nation and national unity, Mussolini, unlike Hitler, is quoted "Race? It is a feeling, not a reality. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today".
Mussolini wanted Italy to become a new Roman Empire. In 1923, he attacked the island of Corfu, and in 1924, he occupied the city state of Fiume. In 1935, he attacked the African country Abyssinia (now called Ethiopia). His forces occupied it in 1936. Italy was thrown out of the League of Nations because of this aggression. In 1939, he occupied the country Albania. In 1936, Mussolini signed an alliance with Adolf Hitler, the dictator of Germany.
Fall from power and death
In 1940, he sent Italy into the Second World War on the side of the Axis countries. Mussolini attacked Greece, but he failed to conquer it. In 1943, the Allies landed in Southern Italy. The Fascist party and King Vittorio Emanuel III deposed Mussolini and put him in jail, but he was set free by the Germans, who made him ruler of the Italian Social Republic puppet state which was in a small part of Central Italy. When the war was almost over, Mussolini tried to escape to Switzerland with his mistress, Clara Petacci, but they were both captured and shot by partisans. Mussolini's dead body was hanged upside-down, together with his mistress and some of Mussolini's helpers, on a pole at a gas station in the village of Millan, which is near the border between Italy and Switzerland.
After death
After the war, several Neo-Fascist movements have had success in Italy, the most important being the Movimento Sociale Italiano. His granddaughter Alessandra Mussolini has outspoken views similar to Fascism.
Sources
Other websites
Mussolini's "Last Will", April 22, 1945 (in Italian). From 'Il Giornale' newspaper
1883 births
1945 deaths
Deaths by firearm in Italy
Former dictators
Former members of the Order of the Bath
Generals
Italian atheists
Italian military people
People executed by firearm
Politicians from Emilia-Romagna
Prime Ministers of Italy
World War II people |
6755 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet%20state | Puppet state | A puppet state is a country that is officially independent but is not so in practice. Puppet governments are usually kept in power by military force provided by an occupying country.
It is a biased term and is used in criticizing the government of the alleged puppet state.
Examples
Examples of puppet states before World War II are:
Far Eastern Republic (puppet state of the Soviet Union).
Kingdom of Holland (puppet state of the First French Empire)
Kingdom of Poland (1916-1918) (puppet state of the German Empire)
Panama (puppet state of the United States)
Grand Duchy of Warsaw (puppet state of the First French Empire)
Emirate of Mongda (puppet state of the Ottoman Empire)
World War II
In World War II the Axis countries created some puppet states, like:
Kingdom of Albania (1939-1943, puppet state of Italy)
Hungarian State of National Unity (1944-1945, puppet state of Nazi Germany)Government of National Unity (Hungary)
Manchukuo (1932-1945, puppet state of the Empire of Japan)
Independent State of Croatia (1941- 1945, puppet state of Italy and Nazi Germany)
Slovak Republic (1939-1945, puppet state of Nazi Germany)
Free State of Burma (1943-1945, puppet state of the Empire of Japan)
After Italy surrendered in World War II the Italian Social Republic was a puppet state created by Germany.
Cold War
During the Cold War (1945-1989) these Eastern European countries were puppet states of the Soviet Union:
People's Republic of Bulgaria (Soviet Union)
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (Soviet Union)
East Germany (Soviet Union)
Hungarian People's Republic (Soviet Union)
Socialist Republic of Romania (Soviet Union)
Polish People's Republic (Soviet Union)
Democratic Republic of Albania (Soviet Union)
Mongolian People's Republic (Soviet Union)
North Korea (Soviet Union), (until 1976)
Next are economic puppets:
Austria (mostly in the north east including Vienna and the old Soviet occupation zone until 1955) (Soviet Union)
In some of these countries the people overthrew the government, but each time they did that (before 1989) the Soviet Union and some of its other puppet states invaded and put the old government back in power. The Soviet Union had also some puppet states outside Europe, such as Mongolia. Some of these countries had more independence from the Soviet Union. For example, the Romanian government sided against the Soviets when they went into Czechoslovakia.
The United States also had some puppet states during the Cold War:
Cuba (United States), (before 1959)
Guatemala (United States), (until 1991)
South Korea A.K.A United States Army Military Government in Korea (United States), (Until 1948)
Republic of Vietnam A.K.A South Vietnam (United States), (Until 1975)
Japan A.K.A Allied Occupation of Japan (United States), (Until 1952)
Now
There are these countries that can be called puppet states now:
Donetsk People’s Republic (puppet state of Russia)
Luhansk People’s Republic (puppet state of Russia)
South Ossetia (puppet state of Russia)
Abkhazia (puppet state of Russia)
Transnistria (puppet state of Russia)
Republic of Artsakh (puppet state of Armenia between 1991-2020, puppet state of Russia since 2020)
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004-2021, puppet state of United States)
This also includes the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan, (2002-2004)
Republic of Iraq (puppet state of United States), (2003-2018)
This also includes the Coalition Provisional Authority, (2003-2004)
Related pages
Banana republic
Satellite state
Politics |
6756 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana%20republic | Banana republic | A banana republic is a politically unstable country whose economy depends on the export of one product in limited supply, such as bananas or minerals. A banana republic has social classes that are divided by wealth. These include a large, poor working class and a small ruling class made up of the businessmen, politicians, and the military. The ruling class controls and exploits the country's economy.
Characteristics of a Banana Republic
The way the phrase banana republic is used has evolved since it was introduced more than a century ago. It is no longer limited to countries in Central America or the tropics. Key characteristics of a banana republic in the modern world include:
Widespread government corruption
Tyrannical government
Unstable government
Civil unrest
Coup attempts/insurgency
Economic dependency on exporting a limited natural resource (which may or may not be bananas)
Infrastructure owned/supported by out-of-country interests
Overall economic dependency on foreign investment or business entities
Widespread poverty
Significant stratification of social classes
Enormous gap between the haves and have nots
Lack of a middle class
Examples of Banana Republics
In the modern world, whether or not a country could accurately be described as a banana republic government is a matter of opinion. A number of countries have been described as banana republics at some point.
Bangladesh
Botswana
Costa Rica
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
Nigeria
Panama
Zambia
A country that at some point might exhibit all of the characteristics of a banana republic could change, which would mean that the term would no longer apply. The fact that someone refers to a country as a banana republic does not mean that the country really is one. Remember that the phrase is a derogatory description rather than an actual type of government.
Related pages
Puppet state
References
Politics |
6757 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana%20Republic | Banana Republic | Banana Republic is a clothing and accessories retailer. The retailer is owned by Gap Inc.. The restaurant was created by both Mel and Patricia Ziegler in 1978. The first store they opened was a two-store safari and travel themed clothing company. Banana Republic was acquired by The Gap, Inc. in 1983 and was rebranded as a mainstream luxury clothing retailer.
Since the end of Q1 2011, there are 642 stores in operation in 32 countries, shipped to 20 countries through company owned websites, and they had the ability to ship to more than 50 countries through a 3rd party.
References
Other websites
Official website
1978 establishments in California
American clothing companies
Companies based in San Francisco |
6760 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom%20of%20Holland | Kingdom of Holland | The Kingdom of Holland was a country that existed from 1806 to 1810. It was in Central and North Netherlands and East Friesland in Germany. It was a puppet state created by France. The king of Holland was Louis Bonaparte.
Related pages
Holland
Puppet states
19th-century establishments in the Netherlands
19th-century disestablishments in the Netherlands |
6761 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor%20Emmanuel%20III%20of%20Italy | Victor Emmanuel III of Italy | Victor Emmanuel III (11 November 1869 – 28 December 1947) was king of Italy from 29 July 1900 to 9 May 1946. He was the son and successor of King Umberto I. He was a member of the House of Savoy.
Early life
Victor was born in Naples. His mother was Queen Margherita of Savoy. He became king in 1900, at age 31, after his father was killed by Gaetano Bresci.
History
After World War I, Benito Mussolini started the March on Rome and Victor Emmanuel III supported him. Mussolini became the Prime Minister and dictator. Because people said Victor Emmanuel III had worked together with Mussolini too much, Italy became a republic in 1946.
Titles and styles
11 November 1869 - 29 July 1900: His Royal Highness The Prince of Naples
29 July 1900 - 9 May 1946: His Majesty The King of Italy
9 May 1936 - 5 May 1941: His Imperial Majesty The Emperor of Ethiopia
16 April 1939 - 8 September 1943: His Majesty The King of the Albanians
9 May 1946 - 28 December 1947 His Majesty King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy
References
Other websites
Genealogy of recent members of the House of Savoy
King Vittorio Emanuele III
1869 births
1947 deaths
Kings and Queens of Italy
World War II people
Princes and Princesses of Savoy |
6763 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter%20ego | Alter ego | An alter ego (from Latin, "other I") is another self — a second personality within a person. It is also called leading a double life. The term "alter ego" was first used in the 19th century. It was inventory by psychologists in talking about dissociative identity disorder.
For example, in The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, Mr. Hyde was Dr. Jekyll's evil alter ego (same person, different personalities).
In literature
The term is also used in popular fiction, like comic books, for the secret identity of a superhero, vigilante, or crimefighter. The character would do this so people won't know that he or she is fighting crime. Examples of characters using alter egos include:
Superman's alter ego is Clark Kent,
Bruce Wayne’s is Batman,
Peter Parker’s is Spider-Man
Music
Sometimes an artist uses an alter ego, like:
Ziggy Stardust was an alter ego from David Bowie
Marilyn Manson is the stage name of Brian Warner
Latin words used in English
Psychology
Human behavior |
6764 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziggy%20Stardust | Ziggy Stardust | Ziggy Stardust is a fictional character. Ziggy was created and used by David Bowie, from 1970 to 1973.
Bowie used Ziggy Stardust as a second personality (alter ego). Ziggy appeared to be neither male nor female.
Ziggy's band was The Spiders From Mars. They recorded a couple of albums:
The Rise And Fall Of Ziggy Stardust And The Spiders From Mars (1972)
Aladdin Sane (1973)
Ziggy's 'life' came to an end in a live concert at Hammersmith Odeon, on July 3, 1973. This show was in 1983 released in a movie: Ziggy Stardust - The Motion Picture. A 30th anniversary edition was released in 2003.
Fictional characters
David Bowie |
6765 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Spiders%20from%20Mars | The Spiders from Mars | The Spiders from Mars was a Rock band from 1970 to 1973. It was a project from David Bowie. Bowie himself was the lead-singer. He created a secondary personality (alter ego) for this purpose: Ziggy Stardust. Ziggy's 'life' came to an end in a live concert at Hammersmith Odeon, on July 3, 1973. This show was in 1983 released in a movie: Ziggy Stardust - The Motion Picture. A re-release of this movie was in 2003: 30th Anniversary Edition.
Ziggy Stardust and The Spiders from Mars recorded a couple of albums:
The Rise And Fall Of Ziggy Stardust And The Spiders From Mars (1972)
Aladdin Sane (1973)
Personnel
Trevor Bolder - Bass guitar
David Bowie - Guitar, Keyboards, Saxophone, Vocals
Mick Ronson - Guitar, Piano, Vocals
Mick "Woody" Woodmansey - Drums
Related pages
Ziggy Stardust
Other websites
The Ziggy Stardust Companion
English rock bands
David Bowie |
6766 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Schumacher | Michael Schumacher | Michael Schumacher (born 3 January 1969 in Hürth, near Cologne) is a German Formula 1 driver. He is widely considered the greatest Formula 1 driver of all time. He has won seven world championship titles and has the most Grand Prix victories in the world. This champion, nicknamed campionissimo by Italian fans of Ferrari, is considered the most popular German personality in the world. Michael's younger brother Ralf is also a Formula 1 driver. When he was small, his father gave him a little kart. It had a small motor bike engine in it. He started getting interest from that time.
Pre-F1 career
In 1984 Michael won the German Kart Championship and went on to win many more. In 1987 he won the German and European Kart Championship. Schumacher signed up with Will Weber's Formula 3 race team and won the 1990 championship.
F1 career
Jordan (1991)
Debut
He made his debut in the Belgian Grand Prix on 25 August. He impressed many fans as he qualified 7th on a track where he had never previously(before) driven with an inferior car. At the start he burnt the clutch and retired.
Benetton (1991-1995)
He was quickly snapped up by Benetton and finished in 5th place at the Italian Grand Prix.
He followed it up with 6th in both Portugal and at the then new Circuit de Catalunya in Spain. He then crashed out in Japan and spun in the torrential rain at the season finale in Australia. In the 6 races he entered, he scored 4 points and 14th in the championship.
1992
He started the season off well with 4th in South Africa followed by his maiden podium finish in 3rd at the Mexican Grand Prix. He followed it up with another 3rd place in Brazil and 2nd in Spain. In San Marino he crashed out, then came 4th in Monaco and 2nd in Canada. He spun off in the rain at the French Grand Prix and finished 4th in Britain and 3rd in Germany. He retired again in Hungary but at Spa Francorchamps, where he made his debut, he won a rain-affected race. He came 3rd in Italy, 7th in Portugal, retired in Japan and came 2nd in Australia. He finished the season in 3rd place overall (in front of Senna) with a total of 53 points.
1993
Williams dominated the season with it's active suspension, and Benetton quickly made a similar one to match Williams. Schumacher won the Portuguese Grand Prix, and finished 9 times on the podium. However, with 7 retirements, he failed to finish 3rd in the championship.
Comeback 2010-2012
In 2010 Schumacher returned to F1 with the Mercedes team. In total he spent 3 years with the team in which he scored 1 pole in Monaco (but he was stripped of it due to a penalty), 1 fastest lap, and 1 podium. He was replaced by Lewis Hamilton for the 2013 season and retired from Formula One.
Racing record
Career summary
Season in progress.
Source: Hilton, Christopher (2006). Michael Schumacher: The Whole Story. Haynes. .
Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Formula One records
As of the end of the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, Michael Schumacher holds the following Formula One records:
Record shared with Alberto Ascari ( Belgian Grand Prix– Argentine Grand Prix). Some sources credit Ascari with nine consecutive wins, disregarding the Indianapolis 500 race, in which Ascari did not compete. The American race formed part of the world championship, but was not run to the same regulations as the other races and was very rarely attended by world championship drivers.
Record shared with Alain Prost ( and ) and Kimi Räikkönen ().
Record shared with Kimi Räikkönen ( and ).
2013 skiing accident
On December 2013, Schumacher sustained a head injury after a skiing accident in France.
References
Other websites
1969 births
Living people
Formula One drivers
Formula One current
German racecar drivers
Sportspeople from North Rhine-Westphalia |
6774 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokohama | Yokohama | is a Japanese city in Kanagawa Prefecture on the island of Honshū.
Yokohama is the capital of Kanagawa Prefecture in the Kantō region. Yokohama is a neighbor city of Tokyo. It has been the second largest city of Japan since the 1980s.
Yokohama has an international trade seaport. It is the largest port in Japan. Many cars and machinery are exported from the port. The downtown area is around the port. Today, the area of Yokohama city includes its former suburb areas like Hodogaya or Totsuka.
In Minato Mirai, there are a lot of places for sightseeing. For example, there are amusement parks and shopping malls.
Yokohama was an entrance for foreign cultures for a long time. Still today Yokohama has the largest Chinatown in Japan.
The airports nearest to Yokohama are Tokyo International Airport and Narita International Airport.
Many educational institutes are located in Yokohama, including Yokohama National University and Yokohama City University.
History
The Yokohama port was created in the middle of the 19th century for foreigners. It was five ports opened to foreign countries who demanded Japan to open ports. And Yokohama was the nearest port to Tokyo, which was then called Edo.
In the Edo period, Hodogaya-juku was one of the fifty-three shogunate-maintained waystations (shuku-eki) along the Tōkaidō road which connected Edo and Kyoto. Two other Tōkaidō rest stops are within the boundaries of modern Yokohama—in Kanagawa ward and Totsuka ward.
Wards of Yokohama
Aoba-ku, Yokohama
Asahi-ku, Yokohama
Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama
Isogo-ku, Yokohama
Izumi-ku, Yokohama
Kanagawa-ku, Yokohama
Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama
Kouhoku-ku, Yokohama
Kounan-ku, Yokohama
Midori-ku, Yokohama
Minami-ku, Yokohama
Naka-ku, Yokohama
Nishi-ku, Yokohama
Sakae-ku, Yokohama
Seya-ku, Yokohama
Totsuka-ku, Yokohama
Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama
Tsuzuki-ku, Yokohama
Related pages
List of the 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō
The Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō
Yokohama F. Marinos
References
Other websites
City of Yokohama website
Kanagawa Prefecture Tourism website
19th-century establishments in Japan |
6777 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis%20countries | Axis countries | Axis countries and Axis Powers are the names for some countries that fought together against the Allies during World War II. The war ended in 1945 with the Axis powers losing and their alliances broken.
Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis Powers
The most important Axis countries formed an alliance called the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis Powers (1922 to 1945). They included:
Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler
Kingdom of Italy under Benito Mussolini
Empire of Japan under Emperor Hirohito
All three countries had authoritarian governments, which were (and still are) often referred to as fascist.
Other countries
Subsequent signatories of the Tripartite Pact
In addition to the main three countries, the less important Axis countries were:
Hungary
Romania
Bulgaria
Other countries that helped the Axis without being a part of them were:
Co-belligerent states
Finland fought against the Soviet Union and participated in the Siege of Leningrad.
Iraq
Thailand
Client states
Slovakia
Philippines (Second Republic)
Vietnam (Empire of Vietnam)
Manchukuo (Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia)
Reorganized National Government of China
Independent State of Croatia
Province of Ljubljana
Controversial cases
Denmark signed treaty of mutual non-aggression.
Spain was neutral, but gave non-military assistance.
Vichy France agreed not to resist after Northern France was conquered. Allowed (forced?) to allow Japan to occupy French Indochina.
Several new or rebel governments that were created by the Axis during the war are:
Burma (Ba Maw regime)
India (Provisional Government of Free India)
Other websites
WW2DB: Tripartite Pact
WW2DB: Axis Countries
World War II
Nazi Germany
20th century in Japan
20th century in Italy
Military alliances |
6780 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis | Axis | Axis means several things:
In mathematics, an axis (mathematics) is a straight line around which a geometric figure can be rotated, or the axis of a graph.
In anatomy, an axis (anatomy) is a vertebra.
In history, the Axis countries were a group of countries that worked together in World War II.
The Axis of Evil |
6786 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic%20language | Icelandic language | Icelandic is the language spoken by the people of Iceland.
It is a Germanic language. It comes from the Old Norse language, the language spoken by the Vikings. Because Iceland is far away from other countries, the language has not changed much. Icelandic people can still read words from hundreds of years ago.
Icelandic uses four characters that are not used in English: þ (thorn), (like 'th' in thin), ð (edh), (like 'th' in this), æ (pronounced like I) and ö (pronounced like the French U). It can also be said that ð is a "softer" version of þ.
Some linguists say there are only two Nordic languages, Eastern-Nordic and Western-Nordic, which includes Icelandic and Faroese because of their similarity.
Icelandic is also one of the most difficult languages to learn.
References
Germanic languages
Languages of Europe |
6790 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passu | Passu | Passu is a small village by the Khunjerab River in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. It lies at an altitude of 2500m (8202.1 feet). The Batura and Passu glaciers and the Karakoram Highway are close to the village. The people speak the Wakhi language and follow the Ismaili sect of Islam.
Other websites
Passu Village
around Passu Hunza pakistan
Passu mentioned on ExplorePak.com
Geography of Kashmir
Villages in Pakistan
Gilgit-Baltistan |
6792 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equator | Equator | The equator is a line which is not real drawn around a sphere or planet, such as the Earth. It is one of the lines known as a line of latitude, or circle of latitude. The name "equator" is Latin for "even-maker"; at equator the day and night are exactly the same length around the year.
The equator is halfway between the North Pole and the South Pole. There, the surface of the planet is parallel to the axis of rotation. The equator divides the surface into the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere.
Climate
Unlike the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere, countries around the equator do not experience the four seasons, and the climate is usually very humid.
Related pages
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere
Solstice and equinox
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Arctic Circle
Antarctic Circle
Celestial equator
Lines of latitude |
6793 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket | Rocket | A rocket may be a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle which is pushed by a rocket engine. Some big rockets are launch vehicles and some are manned (e.g. Saturn V). Other rockets, for example missiles, are unmanned. ("Manned" means that a person is in it; "unmanned" means that the machine goes without a person.)
Most rockets can be launched from the ground because exhaust thrust from the engine is bigger than the weight of the vehicle on Earth. Some are used to bring satellites into orbit. Some rockets such as ion thrusters are too weak and heavy to lift themselves. They work after other rockets bring them to outer space.
The rocket was invented by the Chinese while using gunpowder. The first rockets were shaped like arrows and were not very fast. Most rockets still work by fire. The fire makes hot exhaust gases that expand and shoot out the back. This makes the rocket go forward.
Most rockets still use solid fuel to make the fire. The biggest ones use liquid fuel because it makes a hotter fire so the rocket is more powerful. However, handling the liquid fuel safely is difficult and expensive. Some satellite launch vehicles use both.
Rockets are also used for fireworks and weapons and to control moves in outer space.
Manned rockets, similar to other manned flying machines, are designed to limit their acceleration and vibration to protect the crew. Unmanned rockets however are not bound by the limits of humans.
Some rockets go faster than the speed of sound (). Those that go into Low Earth orbit go .
Yuri Gagarin was a Soviet cosmonaut who, on 12 April 1961, became the first human to fly into outer space. He was in the R-7 rocket launched by the Soviet Union.
Pioneers
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Robert H. Goddard
Wernher von Braun
Hellmuth Walter
References
Ballistics |
6797 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advisor | Advisor | An advisor (or adviser) is someone who gives advice. (Someone who advises.) The job of an advisor is to give good advice that helps the person that he or she is advising. Usually, only certain people, like businessmen or politicians, have advisors. This is because these kinds of people are usually very busy, and they do not have the time to make decisions alone.
In the United States, the President's advisors are called his "Cabinet." Some well-known cabinet members, current and former, from the Bush Administration are:
Donald Rumsfeld
Condoleezza Rice
Colin Powell
People |
6799 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS | MacOS | macOS, formerly Mac OS X from 2001 to 2012 and OS X until 2016, is the name of an operating system for computers made by Apple Inc. These are called Macintosh computers, or Macs. It differs from other computers, as macOS is supposed to run only on Macs and not on other computers. However, people have made the OS run on computers that are not Macs. This is called Hackintosh and violates macOS' license agreement.
macOS first came out in 2001, and is completely different than the "classic" Mac OS that it replaced. Unlike that old (original) operating system, macOS (since OS X) is based on the Unix operating system (current versions have UNIX 03 certification) and on technologies developed between 1985 and 1997 at NeXT, a company that Apple co-founder Steve Jobs created after leaving Apple in 1985. The "X" in Mac OS X and OS X is the Roman numeral for the number 10 and is pronounced as such. The core of macOS is an open source OS called Darwin, but Darwin itself cannot run macOS software.
macOS releases are named after kinds of big cats, or California landmarks, and have a version number that starts with 10. The latest versions of macOS code name is macOS Big Sur (11.0).
Development
Throughout the early 1990s, Apple had tried to create a "next-generation" OS to succeed its classic Mac OS. The current macOS is a Unix operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT from the 1980s until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. That company was also founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 (the "classic" "Mac OS" is much older, came out in 1984). The kernel of NeXTSTEP is based upon the Mach kernel, which was originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University, with additional kernel layers and low-level user space code derived from parts of BSD. Its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the programming language.
Versions
Public Beta: "Kodiak"
On September 13, 2000, Apple released a $29.95 preview of Mac OS X to ask users what they think of the new operating system so far. Apple stopped the Public Beta in March 2001 because of the recent release of OS X 10.0.
Version 10.0: "Cheetah"
On March 24, 2001 Apple released Mac OS X for the first time aka OS X v10.0 (codename Cheetah), but unfortunately, it was a failure due to its many computer bugs and glitches and its slow performance. Luckily this operating system version only stayed on the market up until September when it was moved up to a "higher level".
Version 10.1: "Puma"
Due to many problems and complaints about Cheetah, Apple directly got to work on releasing Puma, the next big cat in Mac OS X. It was released on September 24, 2001. Apple gave 10.0 users a free Mac OS X v10.1 install CD to make up for the flawed operating system before. As of January 7, 2002, Apple said Mac OS 9 and other previous operating systems from Apple were "going in the computer scrapyard" by the end of the month (January 31, 2002) and OS X would be the default and only operating system available on all Macs.
Version 10.2: "Jaguar"
Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar was released on August 24, 2002 and was the first to have its codename in the version branding. The Happy Mac (which formerly appeared when a Mac was starting up) was replaced with a large gray apple logo with the startup sequence of OS X 10.2 Jaguar.
Version 10.3: "Panther"
Mac OS X 10.3 Panther was released on October 24, 2003 and was one of the biggest updates to OS X yet. It featured a new brushed metal interface, an updated Finder, and many more features from Jaguar the year before.
Version 10.4: "Tiger"
Tiger was released on April 29, 2005 and as stated by Apple, featured more than 200 new features. Among the new features, Tiger introduced Spotlight, Dashboard, Smart Folders, updated Mail program with Smart Mailboxes, QuickTime 7, Safari 2, Automaton, Voice-over, Core Image and Core Video. Apple released the first Power Intel Macs for Tiger on January 10, 2006. Tiger ran swell on these computers. It was also the last operating system to support the Aqua color scheme.
Version 10.5: "Leopard"
Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard was released on October 26, 2007. It was completely redesigned featuring a 3D Dock, a new purple color scheme, and over 200 new features. It had both support for PowerPC and Intel Macs too. Leopard was the last release to have support for PowerPC.
Version 10.6: "Snow Leopard"
Mac OS X Snow Leopard was released on August 28, 2009, and rather than featuring changes to the appearance, it featured "Under the hood" changes. Snow Leopard dropped support for PowerPC Macs too.
Version 10.7: "Lion"
OS X Lion was first shown to the public at the "Back to The Mac" event in 2010, announced more at WWDC 2011, and released on July 20, 2011. It featured iOS like features such as a launchpad, the magic trackpad coming to MacBooks, and a new solar system color scheme. Apple also removed Rosetta making it impossible to use PowerPC.
Version 10.8: "Mountain Lion"
OS X Mountain Lion was announced on February 18, 2012, and released on July 25, 2012. It adds more features from iOS 5 and 6 to the Mac such as notifications, messaging, game center, and gaming with people on iPhones, iPods, and iPads.
Version 10.9: "Mavericks"
OS X Mavericks was announced on June 10, 2013 at the 2013 Worldwide Developers Conference. It adds the Maps and iBooks applications, as well as new Finder features, better multi-display support, power improvements, and a new version of Safari. It was released on October 22, 2013. It was the first macOS version that was free.
Version 10.10: "Yosemite"
OS X Yosemite was announced in June 2014 at the 2014 Worldwide Developers Conference. It was in beta form for developers and those enrolled in the public beta programme to test until October 16, 2014 when it was released. It introduces a new flat design, following the aesthetic introduced with iOS 7.
Version 10.11: "El Capitan"
OS X 10.11 El Capitan was released on September 30, 2015 after being announced on June 8, 2015. Similar to Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard, Apple described this release as containing "refinements to the Mac experience" and "improvements to system performance" rather than new features. Refinements include public transport built into the Maps application, GUI improvements to the Notes application, adopting San Francisco as the system font for clearer legibility, and the introduction of System Integrity Protection. The Metal API, first introduced in iOS 8, was also included in this operating system for "all Macs since 2012".
Version 10.12: "Sierra"
macOS 10.12 Sierra was announced on June 12, 2016 and released to the public on September 20, 2016. New features include the addition of Siri, Optimized Storage, and updates to Photos, Messages, and iTunes
Version 10.13: "High Sierra"
The fall release of macOS 10.13 High Sierra was announced on June 5, 2017 at Apple's WWDC event. On September 12, 2017 at Apple's iPhone event, they announced its release to be September 25, 2017. Like OS X El Capitan and OS X Mountain Lion, High Sierra is a refinement-based update having very few new features. High Sierra uses the new Apple File System and includes enhancements to Safari, Photos, and Mail, among other changes.
Version 10.14: "Mojave"
Released on September 24, 2018. There are many additional features to the existing macOS apps. Some highlights are Dark Mode (UI theme & appearance), time shifts reflecting the hour of the day (desktop background), file stacks, edit features in quick look, continuity camera and Group FaceTime features also adds the screenshot app.
Version 10.15: "Catalina"
Released on October 7, 2019. This OS is included with lots of additional new features like sharing your screen to iPad (Sidecar) and is capable of running iPad apps. Catalina is the first version of macOS to exclusively support 64-bit applications. MacOS Catalina also split up iTunes into 3 apps: Music, Podcasts and Movies. Because of the removal of iTunes, syncing your devices is done in Finder.
Version 11.0: "Big Sur"
Released on November 12, 2020, macOS Big Sur changes the version number from 10 to 11. It now supports the ARM64 instruction set architecture (ISA), as Apple is transitioning the Mac to its own Apple Silicon based on the ARM64 platform. It brings the biggest design changes since the introduction of macOS (then called Mac OS X).
Version 12.0: "Monterey"
Released on October 25, 2021. macOS Monterey changes the version number from 11 to 12.
Architecture
At macOS's core is a POSIX-compliant operating system built on top of the XNU kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating system which is macOS.
The Darwin subsystem in macOS is in charge of managing the file system, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration" in macOS, while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes. More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called the procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused. He argues that macOS typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should only be tried when problems emerge.
The architecture of macOS incorporates a layered design:
the layered frameworks aid rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks. Apple provides its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Swift. For the Apple–Intel transition, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines. First and third-party applications can be controlled programatically using the AppleScript framework, retained from the classic Mac OS, or using the newer Automator application that offers pre-written tasks that do not require programming knowledge.
References
Related pages
Macintosh
Other websites
Apple Inc.
macOS
Unix
BSD |
6800 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendsburg | Rendsburg | Rendsburg (Danish: Rendsborg) is a town in Schleswig-Holstein with 30,000 people.
References
Other websites |
6803 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Chirac | Jacques Chirac | Jacques René Chirac (29 November 1932 – 26 September 2019) was a French politician who served as President of the French Republic and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra from 1995 to 2007. He was re-elected in 2002. Before that, he was Prime Minister of France twice, and Mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995.
Assassination attempt
On 14 July 2002, during Bastille Day celebrations, a man tried to shoot Chirac. A lone gunman with a rifle hidden in a guitar case, the would-be assassin fired a shot toward the presidential motorcade. He was then overpowered by bystanders. The gunman, Maxime Brunerie, had psychiatric testing.
After Presidency
On 15 December 2011, Chirac was found guilty for corruption. He was allowed to serve his 2-year sentence without prison time.
As a former president, Chirac had a lifetime pension. He was a member for life of France's Constitutional Council.
Personal life
In 1956, he married Bernadette Chodron de Courcel. They had two daughters: Laurence (1958–2016) and Claude (born 1962). Claude is a public relations assistant and personal adviser. Laurence, who had anorexia nervosa in her youth, did not participate in the political activities of her father.
Health
In 2005, Chirac suffered a stroke. He had been suffering from memory loss and was in ill health. On 10 December 2015, Chirac was hospitalized in Paris for undisclosed reasons, and although his state of health did not "give any cause for concern", he would remain under the intensive care unit.
Death
Chirac died at his home in Paris on 26 September 2019 at the age of 86.
References
Other websites
1932 births
2019 deaths
French criminals
Prime Ministers of France
French Roman Catholics
Mayors of Paris
Presidents of France
Princes of Andorra
Recipients of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria |
6805 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%20Jeckle | Mario Jeckle | Mario Jeckle (25 August 1974 – 11 June 2004) was a German computer scientist.
From 1997 to 2003, Jeckle attended the University of Applied Science in Augsburg. In 1998, he received his computer science degree for his thesis (paper) "Prozeßkettenmodellierung am Beispiel der Gießwerkzeugentwicklung und prototypische Implementierung auf Basis des EDM/PDM - Systems Metaphase" (An example of process chain modelling in casting tool development and prototype implementation on basis of the EDM/PDM - Systems Metaphase). At Augsburg, he taught Java, Java Threads, XML and software engineering.
In 2003, Jeckle became a professor at the University of Applied Sciences in Furtwangen. He taught about XML, databases, software engineering, and "eBusiness" (electronic business).
Jeckle was also a W3C and OMG representative of DaimlerChrysler Research and developed technical standards for XML, UML 2.0, and others. At the beginning of 2004, he was a member of the Technical Architecture Group of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Jeckle was also an author of books and a well-known speaker at conferences and seminars (information groups).
Jeckle was a member of the International Red Cross. On 11 June 2004, he died while giving aid to others who had a car accident on a German highway. While helping, another driver lost control and hit Jeckle and another man.
Memberships
Associate Editor of International Journal of Web Services Research
Associate Editor of International Journal on Web Services
Chairman of the mailinglist of GOOAL.net
Editor of W3C-Dokuments Composite Capability/Preference Profiles (CC/PP): Processing and Protocol Requirements 1.0
Executive Committee Member of the IEEE Technical Community for Services Computing
DaimlerChrysler Research member of the Advisory Committee des World Wide Web Consortiums (W3C)
Headleader of the Masters of System Architekture in Furtwangen.
Member of the Device Independence Working Group (W3C)
Member of the Technical Architecture Group (W3C)
Member of the Web Service Architecture Working Group (W3C)
Member of the Editorial Boards des International Journal of Grid and Utility Computing
Member of the Advisory Board des International Journal on Cases on Electronic Commerce
Member of the Editorial Board des International Journal for Infonomics
Member of the Editorial Board des International Journal of IT Standards & Standardization Research
Member of the Fachbeirat the lecture "Java Spektrum"
Member of the German Architect Board of ASQF
Member of the IBM Developer Works Research Panel
Member of the Java Community Process
Member of the Technical Advisory Board der Gentleware AG
Other websites
private Homepage of Mario Jeckle (in German)
Informatikpreis 1998 (in German)
Tim Berners-Lee to the death of Mario Jeckle (W3C)
In Memoriam: Mario Jeckle (W3C)
German computer scientists
1974 births
2004 deaths |
6812 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighty%20Years%27%20War | Eighty Years' War | The Eighty Years' War, also called Dutch Revolt, was a war between the Netherlands and Spain. It lasted from 1568 to 1648 but was interrupted by a truce between 1609 and 1621. The Peace of Westphalia ended the war. The Netherlands achieved independence in the Eighty Years' War.
Wars involving England
Wars involving France
Wars involving the Netherlands
Wars involving Spain
1568
16th century in Europe
1648
17th century in Europe |
6814 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponent | Exponent | In mathematics, an exponent indicates how many copies of a number (known as the base) is multiplied together.
For example, in the number , 5 is the base and 4 is the exponent. This can be read as "5 to the power of 4". Therefore, in this example, four copies of 5 are multiplied together, which means that .
In general, given two numbers and , the number can be read as " raised to the power of " or " to the th power", where is the exponent.
Bases raised to the power of two, , can be read the base "squared", because the area of a square with a side length of x is .
Similarly, bases raised to the power of three, , can be called the base "cubed", because the area of a cube with a side length of x is .
Exponents are used in algebra. Exponentiation is a way of shortening the process/equation of repeatedly multiplying many copies of a number.
An exponent is a number or symbol, placed above and to the right of the expression to which it applies, that indicates the number of times the expression is used as a factor. For example. the exponent x in indicates x copies of are multiplied together.
There are some basic rules used in exponentiation
1. Product Rule:
Proof - When multiplying a base term by two different exponents , there are m number of a's and n number of a's.
Since exponentiation is simply repeated multiplication of a base term, we get that:
therefore .
For example, . This is true because at first, we had 2 threes times 4 threes which, when multiplied together, gives us 3 multiplied by itself 6 times, or 4+2 times.
2. Quotient Rule:
Proof (when m > n) -
By grouping the corresponding a’s, we get:
Since corresponding a’s become 1, we are then left with
therefore, .
For example, . Notice that , which confirms the proof.
In fact, this property holds when m < n as well, but in that case, we get negative exponents instead. When m < n, the format of the problem becomes .
For more information on negative exponents, see § Negative exponents below.
3. Zero Rule:
Proof: we showed in #1 that .
This equation holds true for as well, so
If this statement is true where , then must equal one. That is:
Negative exponents
A negative exponent is the reciprocal of a number with a positive exponent which can be mathematically represented as In the same way that regular exponents are considered repeated multiplication, negative exponents can be considered repeated division.
Negative exponents can also be different from -1. In this case the negative exponent can be separated from the positive exponent, so
The formula for a negative exponent in terms of a whole number exponent is There are more than one ways to prove this. The first proof involves a pattern form. It is not always a good idea to use patterns because in cases like exponents they may not be complete patterns for every case, but the proof still holds.
Proof #1: Why is ?
***(see zero rule for proof of this!)
divide both sides by
The second proof proves exactly the same thing but dives further into matching equalities
Proof #2:
everything in the next row is proved by the rules in the exponent section
therefore
If we also have a multiplication, like in , it would be written as
Complex exponentiation
A complex number can also be taken to the power of another complex number. The relationship between imaginary numbers and trigonometry, which produces the multiplication formula
This formula basically states that the multiplication of complex numbers is related to addition of angles.
There are some relationships between functions and “infinite degree polynomials”, that are called series representations of the functions. The important series representations that we will focus on are:
From these representations, you should notice that the terms of the sine and cosine series combine, along with some sign changes, to make the exponential series. By introducing the number i into the equation, we get
This result is often used as the beginning of the definition for complex number exponents.
There are some cases where we are raising other numbers to the power i. For example, we can use the following relationship . Here using base 2 and exponent i, we get
When using base i and exponent i, we get
Now we can look at a general formula.
We can rewrite the in the trigonometric form .
By the relationship we found between trigonometry and complex exponent, we can rewrite the equation in complex exponential form, .
Substituting this equation in the exponent in our original equation, we get
This can be simplified to be
The real and imaginary parts of the exponent can be simplified separately to obtain to result
Because there are many ways to describe the angle P, this formula can give many answers. If we allow the variable P to vary by multiples of , we get the final result
Related pages
Exponentiation by squaring
Logarithm
References
Mathematics |
6815 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moresnet | Moresnet | Moresnet or Neutral Moresnet () was a very small territory that existed from 1816 to 1919. It had a size of 3.5 km². It existed because its neighbours could not agree on who should own it, so they decided to make it a neutral territory where both neighbours would both have power. It was 7 km Southwest of Aix-la-Chapelle (Germany), and south of the points were the borders of Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands come together on the Vaalserberg.
Rise
At the Congress of Vienna in 1815 many borders and countries changed. One of the borders was the one between the new United Kingdom of the Netherlands and Prussia. For the most part Prussia and the Netherlands agreed on the border, because it was mostly the same as the old border. Around Moresnet there was a problem. Between the villages of Moresnet and Neu-Moresnet was the zinc mine of Vieille Montagne (in French) / Altenberg (in German). Both countries wanted to have this mine. In 1816 it was decided that the village of Moresnet itself would become part of the Netherlands, Neu-Moresnet would become part of Prussia and the mine and the village of Kelmis around it would become neutral territory where both countries shared the power.
Neutral Moresnet was shaped more or less like a triangle. The southern border was the road between Aix-la-Chapelle and Liège. The mine was just to the north of this road. The most northerly point of the country was the Vaalserberg. When Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830, the land on the Dutch side became Belgian. So from 1830 Belgium and Prussia were in power in Moresnet. At first Moresnet was governed by two royal commissioners, one from each neighbour. Later Moresnet got its own rulers: a mayor and a council of ten members were installed. The mayor was the Head of State, he was appointed by the council.
Most people in Moresnet worked in the zinc mine. Many people from the neighbouring countries also worked in the zinc mine. Because Moresnet was neutral, there were very low taxes and there were no import-tariffs (like in Andorra now). The people from Moresnet were allowed to choose in which army they wanted to serve, but they were not allowed to have their own army.
Fall
The mine was exhausted by 1885, so people from Moresnet had to find a new way to find money. Some wanted to start a casino, or issue their own stamps. Dr. Wilhelm Molly, wanted to change Moresnet into a country where everyone would speak Esperanto. He wanted to name the country Amikejo ("place of friendship"). None of these plans succeeded. Belgium and Prussia (which became a part of Germany in 1871) both wanted to take over the territory. In 1914, in the First World War, Germany invaded Belgium and occupied Moresnet. In 1915 they officially annexed it, so Neutral Moresnet did not exist any more.
In 1919, after the war, in the Treaty of Versailles it was decided that Moresnet would become part of Belgium. From 1940 to 1944, during World War II, Moresnet was occupied by Germany again, but since 1944 it has been part of Belgium again.
1816 establishments in Europe
1920 disestablishments in Europe
19th century in Germany
Former countries in Europe
German Empire
History of Belgium
Liège (province)
States and territories disestablished in the 20th century
States and territories established in the 19th century
Wallonia
Weimar Republic |
6822 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacGyver | MacGyver | MacGyver was an American television series. It was first shown in September 1985 on the television network, ABC. The main character, Angus MacGyver (played by Richard Dean Anderson), often prevented inevitable defeats, saved lives, distracted enemies, made weapons, and even performed everyday tasks usually using very few objects that seemed irrelevant or abnormal to use in such situations. His use of duct tape has led some parts of the world to call it "MacGyver tape."
The term "MacGyver" now means someone who is able to perform amazing feats with the use of very few and often irrelevant objects.
1980s American television series
1985 American television series debuts
1990s American television series
1992 American television series endings
1992 television series endings
Action television series
Spy television series
English-language television programs |
6825 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/December%2022 | December 22 |
Events
Up to 1900
69 - Roman Emperor Vitellius is captured and murdered at the Gemonian Stairs in Rome.
401 - Pope Innocent I is elected.
856 - An earthquake, near Donghan, Persia, kills an estimated 200,000 people.
880 - China: Luoyang, eastern capital of the Tang Dynasty, is captured by rebel leader Huang Chao during the reign of Emperor Xizong of Tang.
1135 - Stephen of Blois becomes King of England.
1603 – Mehmed III Sultan of the Ottoman Empire dies and is succeeded by his son Ahmed I.
1622 - The city of Bucaramanga in present-day Colombia is founded.
1647 - A hurricane strikes the Canary Islands, with Fuerteventura being hit particularly hard.
1711 - Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor is crowned.
1769 - The Sino-Burmese War of 1765-1769 ends with an uneasy truce.
1789 - Revolutionary France is divided into departments.
1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Alexander Suvorov and his Russian armies.
1807 – The Embargo Act, forbidding trade with all foreign countries, is passed by the United States Congress, at the urging of President Thomas Jefferson.
1809 – The Non-Intercourse Act, lifting the Embargo Act except for the United Kingdom and France, passes the United States Congress.
1849 – The execution of Fyodor Dostoevsky is canceled at the last second.
1851 – The first freight train is operated in Roorkee in India.
1857 - Mountaineering: The Alpine Club is founded in London.
1864 – Savannah, Georgia falls to General William Tecumseh Sherman during the American Civil War.
1885 – Ito Hirobumi, a samurai, becomes the first Prime Minister of Japan.
1891 - Asteroid 323 Brucia becomes the first asteroid discovered by the use of photography
1894 – The Dreyfus affair begins, in France, when Alfred Dreyfus is wrongly convicted of treason, on antisemitic grounds.
1894 - The United States Golf Association is founded.
1901 2000
1910 – Chicago Union Stock Yards Fire, 21 firemen were killed.
1937 – The Lincoln Tunnel opens to traffic in New York City.
1939 - Worst day in history of German train travel: Two separate accidents kill 287 people in total.
1942 - World War II: Adolf Hitler orders the development of the V-2 rocket as a weapon.
1944 – World War II: German troops demand the surrender of United States troops at Bastogne, Belgium. See Battle of the Bulge
1944 – World War II: Vietnam People's Army is formed to resist Japanese occupation of Vietnam.
1947 - The Constituent Assembly of Italy approves the country's new constitution.
1956 - Colo, the first gorilla to be bred in captivity, is born at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium in Ohio.
1963 – Cruise ship Lakonia burns 180 miles north of Madeira with the loss of 128 lives.
1964 – Comedian Lenny Bruce is convicted of obscenity.
1965 – A 65 miles per hour speed limit is introduced on country roads and motorways in the United Kingdom.
1968 - Cultural Revolution: People's Daily posted the instructions of Mao Zedong that it is "The intellectual youth must go to the country, and will be educated from living in rural poverty."(Down to the Countryside Movement)
1974 – Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli vote to become the independent nation of Comoros. Mayotte remains under French administration.
1974 - The house of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Edward Heath is attacked by members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army.
1979 - Catalonia is given autonomy within Spain.
1984 – Subway vigilante Bernhard Hugo Goetz shoots four African-American youths on an express train in The Bronx borough of New York City.
1988 – Chico Mendes, a Brazilian rubber tapper, unionist and environmental activist, is assassinated.
1988 – Yitzhak Shamir present his 3rd government in front of the Israeli Parliament
1989 – After a week of bloody demonstrations, Ion Iliescu takes over as president of Romania, ending Nicolae Ceauşescu's Communist dictatorship.
1989 – Berlin's Brandenburg Gate re-opens after nearly 30 years, effectively ending the division of East and West Germany.
1989 – Two Tourist coaches collide on the Pacific Highway north of Kempsey NSW (Kempsey Bus Crash).
1990 – The Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia become independent after the end of their trusteeship.
1990 – Lech Wałęsa is sworn in as President of Poland.
1991 - Armed opposition groups launch a military coup against President of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia.
1992 – An MiG23 and a Boeing 727 of Libyan Arab Airlines collide near Tripoli, killing 157 people.
1997 – Acteal massacre: Attendees at a prayer meeting of Roman Catholic activists for indigenous causes in the small village of Acteal in the Mexican state of Chiapas were massacred by paramilitary forces.
1999 – The Spanish Civil Guard finds near Calatayud (Zaragoza) another van loaded by ETA with 750 kg of explosives (see related event on December 21 1999).
1999 – Tandja Mamadou becomes President of Niger.
From 2001
2001 – Burhanuddin Rabbani, political leader of the Afghan Northern Alliance, handed over power in Afghanistan to the interim government headed by Hamid Karzai.
2001 – Richard Reid attempts to destroy a passenger airliner by igniting explosives hidden in his shoes aboard American Airlines Flight 63.
2001 – CC the cat, the first cloned pet, is born.
2002 - Janez Drnovsek becomes President of Slovenia.
2005 - Astronomers announce the discovery of two more rings around the planet Uranus.
2008 – President of Guinea Lansana Conté dies. Following his death, Moussa Dadis Camara takes power in a coup.
2010 – The end of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell policy regarding Homosexuals in the United States Military is signed into law by Barack Obama.
2011 – Baghdad is struck by a series of bomb explosions.
2015 - SpaceX lands a first stage Falcon 9 rocket on ground after reaching low-Earth orbit, for the first time in history.
2016 - A study finds the VSV-EBOV vaccine against the Ebola virus between 70 and 100% effective, and therefore making it the first proven vaccine against the disease.
2017 - A typhoon hits the southern Philippines, killing almost 200 people.
2017 - The United Nations Security Council votes 15-0 in favour of additional sanctions (punishments) against North Korea.
Births
Up to 1900
244 – Diocletian, Roman Emperor (d. 311)
1095 – King Roger II of Sicily (d. 1154)
1178 – Emperor Antoku of Japan (d. 1185)
1183 - Chagatai Khan, Mongol ruler (d. 1242)
1546 - Kuroda Yoshitaka, Japanese daimyo (d. 1604)
1550 - Cesare Cremonini, Italian philosopher (d. 1631)
1639 – Jean Racine, French dramatist (d. 1699)
1666 – Gobind Singh, Sikh guru (d. 1708)
1694 – Hermann Samuel Reimarus, German writer and philosopher (d. 1768)
1696 – James Oglethorpe, English general, founder of the State of Georgia (d. 1785)
1723 – Carl Friedrich Abel, German composer (d. 1787)
1765 – Johann Friedrich Pfaff, German mathematician (d. 1825)
1798 - George W. Crawford, American politician, Governor of Georgia (d. 1872)
1805 - John Obadiah Westwood, English entomologist and archaeologist (d. 1893)
1807 – Johann Christian Welhaven, Norwegian poet (d. 1873)
1819 – Franz Abt, German composer (d. 1870)
1819 – Pierre Ossian Bonnet, French mathematician (d. 1892)
1848 – Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, German classical philologist (d. 1931)
1850 - Victoriano Huerta, President of Mexico (d. 1916)
1853 - Yevgraf Fyodorov, Russian mathematician (d. 1919)
1856 – Frank B. Kellogg, American lawyer and diplomat, 45th United States Secretary of State (d. 1937)
1858 – Giacomo Puccini, Italian composer (d. 1924)
1862 - Connie Mack, American baseball player, manager and team owner (d. 1956)
1865 - Charles Sands, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1945)
1869 - Dmitri Egorov, Russian mathematician (d. 1931)
1869 - Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet (d. 1935)
1876 – Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Italian poet and editor (d. 1944)
1883 – Edgard Varèse, French-American composer (d. 1965)
1887 – Srinivasa Ramanujan, Indian mathematician (d. 1920)
1888 - J. Arthur Rank, 1st Baron Rank, British movie producer (d. 1972)
1892 - Lawrence Sperry, American pilot (d. 1923)
1899 – Gustaf Gründgens, German actor (d. 1963)
1900 – Marc Allégret, French movie director and screenwriter (d. 1973)
1900 - John C. Slater, American chemist and physicist (d. 1976)
1901 1950
1901 - Andre Kostelanetz, American popular music orchestra leader and arranger (d. 1980)
1903 – Haldan Keffer Hartline, American physiologist (d. 1983)
1905 – Pierre Brasseur, French actor (d. 1972)
1907 – Peggy Ashcroft, British actress (d. 1991)
1907 - Fred M. Wilcox, American film director (d. 1964)
1909 - Patricia Hayes, British actress (d. 1998)
1912 – Lady Bird Johnson, First Lady of the United States (d. 2007)
1914 - Colin Hannah, Australian air force commander and 19th Governor of Queensland (d. 1978)
1915 – Barbara Billingsley, American actress (d. 2010)
1917 - Gene Rayburn, American game show host (d. 1999)
1922 - Ruth Roman, American actress (d. 1999)
1922 - Jim Wright, American politician (d. 2015)
1924 - Lefter Küçükandonyadis, Turkish footballer (d. 2012)
1926 - Alcides Ghiggia, Uruguayan footballer (d. 2015)
1928 - Fredrik Barth, Norwegian ethnologist (d. 2016)
1931 - Gisela Birkemeyer, German athlete
1933 - Abel Pacheco, former President of Costa Rica
1935 - Paulo Rocha, Portuguese director and screenwriter (d. 2012)
1936 – Héctor Elizondo, American actor
1936 - Wojciech Frykowski, Polish actor (d. 1969)
1937 – Eduard Uspensky, Russian writer
1938 - Lucien Bouchard, 27th Premier of Quebec
1940 – Luis Francisco Cuéllar, Colombian politician (d. 2009)
1942 - Yasuyuki Kuwahara, Japanese footballer (d. 2017)
1943 – Paul Wolfowitz, former World Bank President
1944 - Barry Jenkins, English drummer (The Animals)
1945 - Diane Sawyer, American journalist and television presenter
1948 - Rick Nielsen, rock musician
1948 – Noel Edmonds, British television presenter
1948 – Lynne Thigpen, American actress (d. 2003)
1949 – Maurice Gibb, British singer and musician (Bee Gees) (d. 2003)
1949 – Robin Gibb, British singer and musician (Bee Gees) (d. 2012)
1951 1975
1951 - Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster. British businessman (d. 2016)
1952 - Sandra Kalniete, Latvian politician
1955 - Thomas C. Südhof, German-American biochemist, 2013 Nobel Prize winner
1956 - Colo, American-bred Western gorilla (d. 2017)
1958 - Frank Gambale, Australian guitarist, songwriter and musician
1958 - Masaaki Kato, Japanese footballer
1959 – Bernd Schuster, German footballer
1960 - Jean-Michel Basquiat, American artist (d. 1988)
1961 - Yuri Malenchenko, Russian colonel, pilot and astronaut
1962
Andres Cantor, Argentine/American sportscaster
Ralph Fiennes, English actor
1963 – Giuseppe Bergomi, Italian footballer
1963 - Bryan Gunn, British footballer
1967 – Dan Petrescu, Romanian footballer
1967 – Richey James Edwards, Welsh musician (Manic Street Preachers) (disappeared in 1995)
1968 - Luis Hernandez, Mexican footballer
1968 - Lauralee Bell, American actress, director, producer and screenwriter
1969 - Myriam Bédard, Canadian biathlete
1970 - Gary Anderson, Scottish darts player
1970 - Ted Cruz, American lawyer and politician
1972 – Vanessa Paradis, French actress and singer
1972 - Franck Cammas, French sailor
1972 - Steffi Jones, German footballer
1973 - Traci Dinwiddie, American actress
1973 - Heather Donahue, American actress
1975 – Dmitri Khokhlov, Russian footballer
1975 – Stanislav Neckar, Czech ice hockey player
From 1976
1978 - Joy Ali, Fijian boxer (d. 2015)
1978 – Emmanuel Olisadebe, Nigerian-Polish footballer
1978 - Mia Tyler, American model
1979 - Naotake Hanyu, Japanese footballer
1979 – Jamie Langfield, Scottish footballer
1980 - Chris Carmack, American actor, singer and model
1982 - Teko Modise, South African footballer
1982 - Agbani Darego, Nigerian model
1982 - Alinne Moraes, Brazilian actress
1983 - Jennifer Hawkins, Australian model
1984 – Basshunter, Swedish DJ and singer
1985 - Edurne, Spanish singer, actress, model and presenter
1986 – Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, Nigerian Islamist militant
1987 - Lisa Andreas, English-Cypriot singer
1987 - Eder, Portuguese footballer
1988 – Leigh Halfpenny, Welsh rugby player
1989 – Jordin Sparks, American singer
1989 - Logan Huffman, American actor
1990 – Jean-Baptiste Maunier, French singer and actor
1990 - Josef Newgarden, American racing driver
1992 - Anis Amri, Tunisian suspected terrorist (2016 Berlin attack) (d. 2016)
1993 - Ali Lohan, American actress and singer
1993 - Meghan Trainor, American singer
1998 - Genevieve Hannelius, American actress and musician
2001 - CC, first cloned pet
Deaths
Up to 1950
69 – Vitellius, Roman Emperor (b. 15)
1100 - Bretislaus II, Duke of Bohemia (b. 1060)
1603 – Mehmed III, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1566)
1646 - Peter Mogila, Moldovan religious figure (b. 1596)
1708 - Hedvig Sophia of Sweden (b. 1681)
1767 - John Newbery, English children's writer (b. 1713)
1788 – Percival Pott, English physician and surgeon (b. 1714)
1828 - William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist and physicist (b. 1766)
1867 – Jean-Victor Poncelet, French mathematician (b. 1788)
1880 – George Eliot, English writer (b. 1819)
1899 - Dwight E. Moody, American evangelist and publisher (b. 1837)
1902 – Richard von Krafft-Ebing, German psychiatrist (b. 1840)
1917 – St. Francesca Xavier Cabrini, American Catholic saint (b. 1850)
1918 - Aristeidis Moraitinis, Greek aviator (b. 1891)
1925 - Amelie Beese, German aviatrix (b. 1886)
1939 – Ma Rainey, American singer (b. 1886)
1940 – Nathanael West, American writer (b. 1903)
1943 – Beatrix Potter, British writer (b. 1866)
1944 - Harry Langdon, American actor, singer, director and screenwriter (b. 1884)
From 1951
1959 – Gilda Gray, Polish-American singer (b. 1901)
1961 - Elia Dalla Costa, Archbishop of Florence (b. 1872)
1965 – Richard Dimbleby, British broadcaster (b. 1913)
1974 - Sterling North, American author (b. 1906)
1979 – Darryl F. Zanuck, American producer (b. 1902)
1988 – Chico Mendes, Brazilian activist (b. 1944)
1989 – Samuel Beckett, Irish playwright (b. 1906)
1995 – Butterfly McQueen, American actress (b. 1911)
1995 – James Meade, British economist (b. 1907)
2002 – Joe Strummer, British musician (b. 1952)
2002 – Desmond Hoyte, Guyanese politician (b. 1929)
2007 - Julien Gracq, French writer (b. 1910)
2008 – Lansana Conté, President of Guinea (b. 1934)
2009 – Luis Francisco Cuéllar, Colombian politician (b. 1940)
2012 - Cliff Osmond, American actor (b. 1937)
2013 - Diomedes Diaz, Colombian singer-songwriter (b. 1956)
2014 - Joe Cocker, English singer (b. 1944)
2014 - Abd El Aziz Muhammad Hegazi, former Prime Minister of Egypt (b. 1923)
2014 - Joseph Sargent, American movie director, producer and actor (b. 1925)
2014 - Fritz Sdunek, German boxing trainer (b. 1947)
2014 - Christine Cavanaugh, American actress (b. 1963)
2015 - George Clayton Johnson, American science fiction writer (b. 1929)
2015 - Rolf Bossi, German lawyer (b. 1923)
2015 - Freda Meissner-Blau, Austrian politician (b. 1927)
2015 - Peter Lundblad, Swedish singer (b. 1950)
2016 - Yevgeny Dzhugashvili, Russian-Georgian activist and politician (b. 1936)
2016 - Franca Sozzani, Italian journalist, editor of Vogue Italia (b. 1950)
2016 - Miruts Yifter, Ethiopian long-distance runner (b. 1944)
2017 - Jason Lowndes, Australian racing cyclist (b. 1994)
2017 - Gerald B. Greenberg, American film editor (b. 1936)
Observances
Winter solstice (Northern Hemisphere), sometimes occurs on December 21
Summer solstice (Southern Hemisphere), sometimes occurs on December 21
Mother's Day (Indonesia)
Unity Day (Zimbabwe)
Dongzhi Festival (East Asia)
National Mathematics Day (India)
Armed Forces Day (Vietnam)
Days of the year |
6826 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/December%2024 | December 24 |
Events
Up to 1900
563 - Second inauguration of the Hagia Sophia, then a cathedral.
640 - Pope John IV is elected.
759 - China: Tang Dynasty poet Du Fu leaves for Chengdu, where he is hosted by fellow poet Pei Di.
1294 - Pope Boniface VIII is elected, after the resignation of Pope Celestine V.
1717 - A North Sea Christmas flood kills 11,500 people.
1726 – Montevideo, the present-day capital city of Uruguay, is founded.
1777 – James Cook reaches the island of Kiritimati, in present-day Kiribati.
1811 - HMS Defence and HMS St. George sink in a storm off Denmark.
1814 - The Treaty of Ghent ends the War of 1812.
1818 – The famous Christmas carol Stille Nacht, Heilige Nacht (Silent Night, Holy Night), is performed for the first time in Austria.
1851 - The US Library of Congress burns.
1865 – The Ku Klux Klan is founded by Confederate veterans.
1871 - The Opera Aida is first performed in Cairo.
1901 2000
1906 - Reginald Fessenden transmits the first radio broadcast, consisting of a poetry reading, a violin solo, and a speech.
1912 - A mining explosion in Hokkaido, Japan, kills 245 miners.
1913 - In Calumet, Michigan, 73 Christmas party goers die in a stampede after "fire" was falsely yelled.
1914 – World War I: The Christmas Truce begins.
1924 – Albania becomes a Republic.
1929 - An assassination attempt is made on President of Argentina Hipolito Yrigoyen.
1939 - Pope Pius XII makes a Christmas appeal for peace, after the start of World War II.
1942 - World War II: French monarchist Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle assassinates Vichy admiral Francois Darlan in Algiers, French Algeria.
1943 - World War II: Dwight D. Eisenhower becomes Supreme Allied Commander.
1951 – Libya becomes independent, with Idris I as king.
1953 – Tangiwai Disaster: After a volcanic eruption (of Mt. Ruapehu) on New Zealand's North Island, a train plunges into the Whangeahu river following a bridge collapse caused by the eruption, killing 153 people.
1954 – Laos is officially declared independent.
1964 - Flooding kills thousands of people in Southern India and Sri Lanka.
1968 – Apollo 8, with Frank Borman, Jim Lovell and William Anders on board, orbits the moon, and take a spectacular photograph of the Earth.
1971 - A Lockheed L-188 Electra crashes in the Peruvian rainforest, killing 91 people. The only survivor is then-17-year-old German Juliane Koepcke, who lost both her parents in the crash.
1972 - Japan Airlines Flight 472, a Douglas DC-8, lands at Juhu Aerodrome, overshooting the runway, instead of landing at nearby Bombay Santa Cruz Airport.
1973 - The District of Columbia Home Rule Act passes, allowing Washington, DC residents to elect their government.
1974 – Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia, killing 71 people.
1979 – The first European-made rocket Ariane is launched from French Guiana.
1994 - Air France Flight 8969 is hijacked by terrorists on the ground; Over the course of three days, three passengers and four terrorists are killed.
1997 - The Sid El-Antri massacre in Algeria kills between 50 and 100 people.
2000 - The Texas Seven hold up a sports store in Irving, Texas.
From 2001
2003 – Spanish police stop an attempt by ETA to detonate 50 kilogrammes of explosives at Madrid's Chamartin Station.
2005 – Chad declares that it is in a state of war with Sudan, though denies that it has declared war.
2008 – The Lord's Resistance Army, a Ugandan rebel group, begins a series of attacks on the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
2013 - Queen Elizabeth II issues an official pardon to the mathematician Alan Turing (who had died in 1954). Turing was convicted of homosexuality at a time when it was illegal in the UK.
2017 - Alberto Fujimori, former President of Peru, is pardoned for reasons relating to his ill health.
2017 - Guatemala announces that, like the United States, it plans to move its Embassy in Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.
Births
Up to 1800
3 BC – Galba, Roman Emperor (d. 69)
1166 – King John of England (d. 1216)
1389 – John VI, Duke of Brittany (d. 1442)
1475 - Thomas Murner, German poet and translator (d. 1537)
1508 - Pietro Carnesecchi, Italian humanist (d. 1567)
1588 – Constance of Austria, Queen of Poland (d. 1631)
1597 - Honoré II, Prince of Monaco (d. 1662)
1625 - Johann Rudolf Ahle, German composer, organist and theorist (d. 1673)
1635 - Mariana of Austria (d. 1696)
1679 - Domenico Sarro, Italian composer (d. 1744)
1698 - William Warburton, English bishop (d. 1779)
1724 - Johann Conrad Ammann, Swiss physician (d. 1811)
1737 - Silas Deane, American politician (d. 1789)
1745 – Benjamin Rush, American physician and founding father (d. 1813)
1754 – George Crabbe, British poet and naturalist (d. 1832)
1761 - Jean-Louis Pons, French astronomer (d. 1831)
1762 – Selim III, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1808)
1784 - Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna of Russia (d. 1803)
1786 - Gregor MacGregor, Scottish soldier, adventurer and trickster (d. 1845)
1787 - Prince William of Hesse-Kassel (d. 1867)
1796 - Fernan Caballero, Spanish writer (d. 1877)
1798 – Adam Mickiewicz, Polish poet (d. 1855)
1801 1900
1809 – Kit Carson, American frontiersman (d. 1868)
1810 – Wilhelm Marstrand, Danish painter (d. 1873)
1818 – James Prescott Joule, British physicist (d. 1889)
1819 - Antonio de Trueba, Spanish writer (d. 1889)
1821 - Gabriel Garcia Moreno, President of Ecuador (d. 1875)
1837 – Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria (d. 1898)
1837 - Cosima Wagner, wife of Richard Wagner (d. 1930)
1843 – Lydia Koidula, Estonian poet (d. 1886)
1845 – King George I of Greece (d. 1913)
1854 - Jose Maria Reina Barrios, President of Guatemala (d. 1898)
1863 - Enrique Fernandez Arbos, Spanish composer (d. 1959)
1867 - Suzuki Kantaro, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1948)
1868 – Emanuel Lasker, German chess player (d. 1941)
1886 - Richard Teichmann, German chess player (d. 1925)
1869 - Henriette Roland-Holst, Dutch poet (d. 1952)
1872 - Adam Gunn, American athlete (d. 1935)
1872 - Frederick Semple, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1927)
1879 – Queen Alexandrine of Denmark (d. 1952)
1881 – Juan Ramon Jimenez, Spanish writer (d. 1958)
1882 - Hans Rebane, Estonian politician, diplomat and journalist (d. 1961)
1887 - Louis Jouvet, French actor and producer (d. 1951)
1888 - Michael Curtiz, Hungarian-American movie director (d. 1962)
1892 - Ruth Chatterton, American actress, novelist and author (d. 1961)
1893 - Harry Warren, American composer and lyricist (d. 1981)
1894 - Georges Guynemer, French pilot (d. 1917)
1896 – Jens Oliver Lisberg, Faroese law student and designer of the flag of the Faroe Islands (d. 1920)
1897 - Koto Okubo, Japanese supercentenarian (d. 2013)
1898 – Héctor Scarone, Uruguayan footballer (d. 1967)
1900 - Joey Smallwood, 1st Premier of Newfoundland (d. 1991)
1901 1950
1903 – Joseph Cornell, American artist and filmmaker (d. 1972)
1904 – Joseph M. Juran, Romanian-born American engineer (d. 2008)
1905 – Howard Hughes, American movie producer and inventor (d. 1976)
1906 – Joseph Höffner, German cardinal (d. 1987)
1907 – I. F. Stone, American journalist (d. 1989)
1907 – John Cody, American cardinal and Archbishop of Chicago (d. 1983)
1910 – Max Miedinger, Swiss typeface designer (d. 1980)
1914 – Ralph Marterie, Italian-American trumpeter and bandleader (d. 1978)
1914 – Herbert Reinecker, German writer (d. 2007)
1917 – Kim Jong-suk, North Korean figure, mother of Kim Jong-Il (d. 1949)
1919 – Pierre Soulages, French artist
1920 – Franco Lucentini, Italian author and screenwriter (d. 2002)
1922 – Ava Gardner, American actress (d. 1990)
1923 – George Patton IV, American general (d. 2004)
1924 – Mohammed Rafi, Indian playback singer (d. 1980)
1924 – Lee Dorsey, American singer (d. 1986)
1924 – Abdirizak Haji Hussein, 4th Prime Minister of Somalia (d. 2014)
1926 - Ronald Draper, South African cricketer
1927 – Mary Higgins Clark, American writer (d. 2020)
1928 – Manfred Rommel, German politician (d. 2013)
1929 – Lennart Skoglund, Swedish footballer (d. 1975)
1931 – Walter Abish, American author
1931 – Lech Trzeciakowski, Polish historian (d. 2017)
1931 – Mauricio Kagel, Argentine composer (d. 2008)
1934 – Stjepan Mesic, former President of Croatia
1937 – Félix Miéli Venerando, Brazilian footballer (d. 2012)
1940 – Anthony Fauci, American Physician and Director of NIAID
1941 – Hans Eichel, German politician
1941 – Andrzej Suski, Polish Roman Catholic bishop
1943 – Tarja Halonen, former President of Finland
1944 – Woody Shaw, American jazz trumpeter (d. 1989)
1944 – Daniel Johnson, Jr., 25th Premier of Quebec
1945 – Lemmy, British singer and musician (Motorhead) (d. 2015)
1946 – Jeff Sessions, American politician, 84th United States Attorney General
1948 – Frank Oliver, New Zealand rugby player
1948 – Edwige Fenech, Italian actress
1949 – Randy Neugebauer, American politician
1951 1975
1954 - Gregory S. Paul, American author, illustrator and paleontologist
1954 - Jose Maria Figueres, former President of Costa Rica
1955 - Grand L. Bush, American actor
1956 - Irene Khan, Bangladeshi lawyer (Amnesty International)
1957 – Hamid Karzai, former President of Afghanistan
1958 - Lyse Doucet, Canadian journalist and BBC News correspondent
1958 - Philippa Whitford, Scottish politician
1959 – Anil Kapoor, Indian actor
1959 - Keith Deller, English darts player
1960 - Glenn McQueen, Canadian-American animator (d. 2002)
1960 - Carol Vorderman, English television host
1961 – Ilham Aliyev, President of Azerbaijan
1961 - Wade Williams, American actor
1962 - David Cobb, American lawyer and politician
1962 - Darren Wharton, English musician
1963 - Caroline Aherne, English comedienne and actress (d. 2016)
1963 - Mary Ramsey, American singer-songwriter
1966 - Diedrich Bader, American actor
1967 - Mikhail Shchennikov, Russian race walker
1967 - Pernilla Wahlgren, Swedish singer and actress
1968 - Choi Jin-sil, South Korean actress (d. 2008)
1969 – Ed Miliband, British politician
1969 - Mark Millar, British historian
1970 - Amaury Nolasco, Puerto Rican actor
1971 – Ricky Martin, Puerto Rican singer
1972 - Richard Dutruel, French footballer
1973 - Matt Passmore, Australian actor
1973 – Stephenie Meyer, American writer
1973 – Eddie Pope, American footballer
1974 – Marcelo Salas, Chilean footballer
1974 – Ryan Seacrest, American television host
1974 - Thure Lindhardt, Danish actor
From 1976
1978 – Yildiray Basturk, Turkish footballer
1978 - Souleymane Diawara, Senegalese footballer
1979 - Svetlana Pospelova, Russian athlete
1979 – Chris Hero, American professional wrestler
1980 – Stephen Appiah, Ghanaian footballer
1981 – Dima Bilan, Russian singer
1981 – Nneka, Nigerian singer
1982 – Aiba Masaki, Japanese singer and actor
1982 - Robert Schwartzman, American singer
1984 - Austin Stowell, American actor
1985 - Christina Schwanitz, German shot putter
1986 - Ana Brenda Contreras, Mexican-American actress and singer
1986 - Theodor Gebre Selassie, Czech footballer
1986 - Kyrylo Fesenko, Ukrainian basketball player
1986 - Riyo Mori, Japanese model
1986 - Satomi Ishihara, Japanese actress
1987 - Jane Summersett, American ice dancer
1988 - Simon Zenke, Nigerian footballer
1991 - Louis Tomlinson, English singer (One Direction)
1992 – Melissa Suffield, English actress
1993 - Mariya Nishiuchi, Japanese model, actress and singer
1993 - Yuya Kubo, Japanese footballer
2000 - Ethan Bortnick, American singer-songwriter, pianist and actor
Deaths
Up to 1900
1257 - John I, Count of Hainault (b. 1218)
1524 – Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer (b. 1469)
1660 – Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange (b. 1631)
1813 – Empress Go-Sakuramachi of Japan (b. 1740)
1863 – William Makepeace Thackeray, British writer (b. 1811)
1865 - Charles Lock Eastlake, English painter (b. 1793)
1868 - Adolphe d'Archiac, French paleontologist and geologist (b. 1802)
1869 - Edwin M. Stanton, American politician (b. 1815)
1872 - William John Macquorn Rankine, Scottish physician and engineer (b. 1820)
1873 – Johns Hopkins, American philanthropist and benefactor (b. 1795)
1889 - Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate, Dutch clergyman and poet (b. 1819)
1893 - Robert Bentley, British botanist (b. 1821)
1898 - Charbel Makhluf, Lebanese monk and priest (b. 1828)
1901 2000
1914 – John Muir, Scottish-American naturalist and conservationist (b. 1838)
1920 - Stephen Mosher Wood, American politician (b. 1832)
1926 - Wesley Coe, American athlete (b. 1879)
1930 - Eduard David, German politician (b. 1863)
1934 - George W. P. Hunt, American politician, 1st Governor of Arizona (b. 1859)
1935 - Alban Berg, Austrian composer (b. 1885)
1938 - Bruno Taut, German architect (b. 1880)
1941 - Siegfried Alkan, German composer (b. 1858)
1942 - François Darlan, Prime Minister of France (b. 1881)
1947 - Charles Gondouin, French rugby player (b. 1875)
1957 – Norma Talmadge, American actress (b. 1894)
1962 - Wilhelm Ackermann, German mathematician (b. 1896)
1967 - Burt Baskin, American businessman (b. 1913)
1971 - Maria Koepcke, German-Peruvian ornithologist (b. 1924)
1973 – Periyar E. V. Ramasamy, Indian businessman, social activist, and politician (b. 1973)
1977 - Juan Velasco Alvarado, Peruvian politician and military (b. 1910)
1979 – Rudi Dutschke, German sociologist and student leader (b. 1940)
1980 – Karl Dönitz, German admiral (b. 1890)
1980 - Siggie Nordstrom, American actress and singer (b. 1893)
1982 - Louis Aragon, French writer (b. 1897)
1984 – Peter Lawford, British actor (b. 1923)
1985 - Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, American lawyer (b. 1904)
1987 - M. G. Ramachandran, Indian actor, producer and author (b. 1917)
1987 – Joop den Uyl, Dutch politician (b. 1919)
1990 - Thorbjorn Egner, Norwegian author (b. 1922)
1992 – Peyo, Belgian comic writer (b. 1928)
1994 - Rossano Brazzi, Italian actor, singer, director and screenwriter (b. 1916)
1997 - Toshiro Mifune, Japanese actor (b. 1920)
1999 - Maurice Couve de Murville, Prime Minister of France (b. 1907)
1999 – Joao Figueiredo, President of Brazil (b. 1918)
2000 - Nick Massi, American singer and musician (b. 1935)
From 2001
2002 - Kjell Aukrust, Norwegian author (b. 1920)
2008 – Harold Pinter, British playwright (b. 1930)
2008 - Samuel P. Huntington, American politician (b. 1927)
2009 – Rafael Caldera, President of Venezuela (b. 1916)
2010 – Elisabeth Beresford, British writer (b. 1926)
2010 – Roy Neuberger, American banker (b. 1903)
2010 – Eino Tamberg, Estonian composer (b. 1930)
2011 – Johannes Heesters, Dutch-born entertainer, actor and singer (b. 1903)
2012 - Richard Rodney Bennett, British composer (b. 1936)
2012 - Charles Durning, American actor (b. 1923)
2012 - Jack Klugman, American actor (b. 1922)
2013 - Allan McKeown, English-American screenwriter and producer (b. 1946)
2014 - Krzysztof Krauze, Polish movie director and screenwriter (b. 1953)
2014 - Buddy DeFranco, American jazz clarinetist (b. 1923)
2014 - Edward Greenspan, Canadian lawyer (b. 1944)
2015 - Ron Jacobs, American basketball coach (b. 1942)
2016 - Liz Smith, English actress (b. 1921)
2016 - Richard Adams, English writer (b. 1920)
2016 - Rick Parfitt, English musician (Status Quo) (b. 1948)
2016 - Edwin Reinecke, American politician (b. 1924)
2017 - Jerry Kindall, American baseball player (b. 1935)
2017 - Heather Menzies, Canadian-American actress and model (b. 1949)
2017 - Andrey Zaliznyak, Russian linguist (b. 1935)
Observances
Christmas Eve (Western Christianity)
Independence Day (Libya)
Days of the year |
6828 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark | Quark | A quark is an elementary particle which makes up hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons. Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and electrons. It was once thought that all three of those were fundamental particles, which cannot be broken up into anything smaller, but after the invention of the particle accelerator, it was discovered that electrons are fundamental particles, but neutrons and protons are not. Neutrons and protons are made up of quarks, which are held together by gluons.
There are six types of quarks. The types are called flavours. The flavours are up (u), down (d), strange (s), charm (c), top (t), and bottom (b). Up, charm and top quarks have a charge of +, while down, strange and bottom quarks have a charge of -. Each quark has a matching antiquark. Antiquarks have a charge opposite to that of their quarks; meaning that up, charm and top antiquarks have a charge of - and down, strange and bottom antiquarks have a charge of +.
Only up and down quarks are found inside of atoms of normal matter. Two up quarks and one down make a proton ( + - = +1 charge) while two down quarks and one up make a neutron ( - - = 0 charge). The other four flavours are not seen naturally on Earth, but they can be made in particle accelerators. Some of them may also exist inside of stars.
When two or more quarks are held together by the strong nuclear force, the particle formed is called a hadron. Quarks that make the quantum number of hadrons are named 'valence quarks'. The two families of hadrons are baryons (made of three valence quarks) and mesons (which are made from a quark and an antiquark). Some examples of baryons are protons and neutrons, and examples of mesons are pions and kaons.
When quarks are stretched farther and farther, the force that holds them together becomes bigger. When it comes to the point when quarks are separated, they form two sets of quarks, because the energy that is put into trying to separate them is enough to form two new quarks.
Quarks also have color charge and react via the weak force. For baryons, each quark is green, red or blue. One can be one color at one time. For mesons, the quark is red, green or blue and the antiquark is antired (cyan), antiblue (yellow) or antigreen (pink). Quarks can change color by emitting a W boson. For example, if a green color-chrged quark emits a red-antigreen W boson to a red quark, the green quark will become red and the red quark will become green. Therefore, W and Z bosons (which mediate the weak force for neutrinos) help particles react via the weak interaction.
This also causes the beta and beta-plus decay of atoms where a neutron decays into a proton, electron and electron antineutrino, and makes a proton turn into a neutron, positron and electron neutrino.
The idea (or model) for quarks was proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964. Other scientists began searching for evidence of quarks, and succeeded in 1968.
References
Other websites
Basic quark site |
6829 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Hemisphere | Northern Hemisphere | The Northern Hemisphere is the part of the planet that is north of the equator. It has about 90 percent of the world's population and most of the world's land. All of North America and Europe are in the Northern Hemisphere. Most of Asia, two-thirds of Africa and 10 percent of South America are also in this hemisphere. The three largest countries by population; China, India, and the United States, are in the Northern Hemisphere.
Related pages
Southern hemisphere
Eastern hemisphere
Western hemisphere
Seasons
Solstice and equinox
Equator
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Arctic Circle
Antarctic Circle
Hemispheres |
6830 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yesterday | Yesterday | Yesterday might mean:
The day before today
"Yesterday" (Beatles song), a popular song by The Beatles from their album Help!
"Yesterday", a movie named after the song about a man who becomes the only person in the world to remember The Beatles after ending up in a freak accident.
Basic English 850 words |
6832 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messiah | Messiah | Messiah or the Anointed One is the figure promised by God to the Jews for the salvation of the world. The Jews think that the Messiah will be a human being that will save Israel and lead the whole world into the End Of Days and eternal peace.
Other people in real life or fiction are called messianic if they have the qualities of a messiah, or people think they will bring about a better world.
The How, Where, and Why
Why: Jews believe the biblical prophets inspired by God to tell of his coming. During the period of the Roman rule in 1st century BC the idea of the messiah became very important in Jewish thought and teaching. According to the scriptures, the messiah would rescue the people from the Romans and restore the country.
Where: It is not known but most Jews believe that messiah will come to Israel.
How: There are many of ideas about how the messiah will come: Judge, warrior, beggar, academic, Philosopher, healer or a common person.
Jesus as the Messiah
Christianity, which began in Israel with Jewish followers of Jesus (), holds that the Messiah foretold by the Jewish Scriptures is Jesus, and that in fulfillment of prophecy Jesus died for the sins of the world, rose from the dead and lives today, seated at the right hand of God until His return. Most Jews do not hold these beliefs; those who do are sometimes called Messianic Jews. Some Messianic Jews and other Christians see the fact that a majority of Jews do not hold these beliefs as a fulfillment of prophecy. (see Epistle to the Romans chapter 10)
Muslims believe that Jesus was the son of Mary, that he was a mighty prophet of God and that he was the Messiah (though, in Islam, the Messiah has a different role than he does in Christianity or Judaism). They believe that he will come again one day in his Second Coming to fight besides the Mahdi against the Dajjal ("false messiah").
References
Christology
Islamic theology
Judaism
Jesus Christ |
7071 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9sar%20Ch%C3%A1vez | César Chávez | Cesar Chavez (born César Estrada Chávez (March 31, 1927April 23, 1993) was an American farmworker, labor leader and civil rights activist. Chávez started the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) along with Dolores Huerta. He wanted equal rights for Mexicans working in the United States. This union became the United Farm Workers. He led a boycott against grape companies to gain rights for workers. Chávez used nonviolence to make these changes. Chavez is thought of as one of the leaders in the movement for Chicanos to gain more rights in the late-20th century.
Early life
Chávez was born near Yuma, Arizona and went to over 37 schools. He graduated from the eighth grade. He did most of his organizing in California, especially near Bakersfield. Fred Ross taught him to lead unions. Fred Ross was a student of Saul Alinsky.
Activism
In 1965, Chávez and the NFWA started a strike for grape-pickers in California. At the same time, he asked Americans to boycott grapes from California. In 1970, the migrant workers won their fight for better pay.
He kept working against unfair labor rules. He stopped eating in protest three times because of low pay and bad working conditions. When he died, he was leading another grape boycott to stop the use of pesticides.
Legacy
Chávez is respected in California and other states. In 2000, California's state legislature started a holiday to honor him. The holiday is on March 31, Chávez's birthday. This is the first time that a US public holiday honored a Mexican American or a union leader. Many cities have streets or places named for him. These cities include San Francisco, Los Angeles, Albuquerque, New Mexico, Austin, Texas, Chicago, Illinois, Milwaukee, and Salt Lake City. In 1998 he was inducted into the Hall of Honor by the United States Department of Labor.
References
Other websites
"The Story of Cesar Chavez" , United Farmworker's official biography of Chavez.
César E. Chávez Chronology , County of Los Angeles Public Library.
Five Part Series on Cesar Chavez , Los Angeles Times, Kids' Reading Room Classic, October 2000.
"The study of history demands nuanced thinking", Miriam Pawel from the Austin American-Statesman, 2009/7/17. A caution that histories of Chavez and the UFW should not be hagiography, nor be suppressed, but taught "wiktionary:warts and all"
The Fight in the Fields: Cesar Chavez and the Farmworker's Struggle, PBS Documentary.
Farmworker Movement Documentation Project
New York Times obituary, April 24, 1993
Walter P. Reuther Library – President Clinton presents Helen Chavez with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, 1994
1927 births
1993 deaths
People from California
American labor leaders
Nonviolence advocates
People from Arizona
Recipients of the Order of the Aztec Eagle |
7073 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton%2C%20Ontario | Hamilton, Ontario | Hamilton is a medium-sized city in the Canadian province of Ontario.
Factories and businesses
For over 150 years, Hamilton has had factories. For over 100 years, most of them have been steel factories like Stelco and Dofasco. Since the strike of 1946, the workers at Stelco have had a trade union. The workers at Dofasco do not have a trade union. There was also a Studebaker car factory in Hamilton until 1966.
Since the 1980s, industries in Hamilton have had trouble making money and keeping people working. In 2004, Stelco filed for bankruptcy. This means Stelco asked the courts if it could stop paying money it borrowed back to banks. The future for industry does not look good for Hamiltonians.
However, other businesses look much better. People might not think of schools like McMaster University and Mohawk College as businesses, but they are. Students and teachers come to Hamilton and spend their money here. Doctors, teachers, nurses and other professionals train here. Even Tim Hortons doughnut stores started in Hamilton in 1965.
Media
CHCH (CH)
CITS (CTS)
Television, film, music, and newspapers
CH has been a local TV station in Hamilton since 1954. Steve Smith, known for starring in The Red Green Show, started working at CH. Tiny Talent Time is another popular show on CHCH which features many children.
Some movies were filmed in and around Hamilton, such as Anne of Green Gables,5ive Girls and Rocky V, because it looks like other places.
Folksinger Stan Rogers was born in Dundas, which became part of Hamilton in 2001. The Appleton sisters, now famous in Britain, were born in Hamilton. Daniel Lanois is an important singer himself and helped the band U2 with its music. He lived in Hamilton and recorded at Grant Avenue Studios.
The Hamilton Spectator newspaper has been around since the 1840s. It offers tours showing its giant printing press and writers' offices. It also has school projects which include a classroom subscription to the newspaper for every student.
Government
Government is how people organize themselves to be directed by politics. Hamilton was part of Wentworth County until 1974. Wentworth County included the townships of: Ancaster, Barton, Beverly, Binbrook, East Flamborough, West Flamborough, Glanford and Saltfleet. Here is how the government of Hamilton changed over the years:
About 1814 the area became capital of Wentworth County
1815 George Hamilton laid out a townsite in Barton Township and named it after himself
1816 Hamilton became capital of Gore District
1833 Hamilton became a police village
1833 Hamilton became a city
1974 Hamilton remained a city and became part of Hamilton-Wentworth Region which also had five other communities: Ancaster, Dundas, Flamborough, Glanbrook and Stoney Creek (how many of these look the same as the original townships of Wentworth County?)
2001 Hamilton-Wentworth Region and all six of its communities became one city called Hamilton
Politics
Politics is the way people choose the leaders of their communities and the things they decide are important enough to do. Hamiltonians like choosing socially minded people to governm themselves, especially women and minorities. Many people who were mayors, members of Provincial Parliament (MPPs) or members of Parliament (MPs) have things named for them in the city, such as:
Sam Lawrence was mayor in the 1940s. Lawrence Park on the Mountain is named after him.
Ellen Fairclough became Canada's first female cabinet minister in 1957. A government office building is named after her.
Lloyd D. Jackson was mayor in the 1960s. Jackson Square in downtown Hamilton is named after him.
John Munro was an MP and cabinet minister under Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. The Hamilton airport was named after him.
Lincoln ‘Linc’ Alexander was Canada's first black MP in 1965, first black cabinet minister in 1979 and first black lieutenant governor in 1985. A public school and the expressway are named after him.
Victor Copps was mayor in the 1970s. He is the father of Sheila Copps, who used to be an MP until 2004. Copps Coliseum is named after him.
History
Netural and Mohawk Native Canadians of the Six Nations were the first people to live in this area. In 1616, Étienne Brûlé probably became the first European to visit what is now Hamilton. United Empire Loyalists moved into the Hamilton area during and after the American Revolution. The Battle of Stoney Creek was fought during the War of 1812 in what is now Hamilton.
In the mid- to late 1800s, Hamilton became an industrial city with lots of factories . It was close to limestone from the Niagara Escarpment, coal from the United States, iron ore mined from northern Ontario. But factories demanded that people work hard jobs for long hours. In 1872, Hamilton workers marched for a work day of no more than nine hours! The two large steel factories were Stelco (the Steel Company of Canada), created in 1910 and the Dofasco (Dominion Steel Casting Company) in 1912. Dominion is an old word often heard to describe Canada when it was part of the British Empire.
Many schools were built between 1910 and 1930, including Adelaide Hoodless School, Memorial School (for the First World War, Viscount Allenby School (WWI general) and Earl Kitchener School (WWI general). The First World War is often shortened to WWI.
In the 1930s, the Great Depression hit Hamilton. People were unemployed and poor. Factories stoped running. Times were hard. Then the Second World War started and people got jobs again in the army and building guns for the army. August 19, 1942, hundreds of young men from Hamilton were killed by the German army when they tried to attack Dieppe in France.
Sports
There are a few professional sports in Hamilton. The Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League play at Ivor Wynne Stadium. Hamilton would like a National Hockey League team but it does not have one. The Hamilton Bulldogs of the Ontario Hockey League play at Copps Coliseum.
There are many amateur sports in Hamilton. People of all ages can run in the Around the Bay Race . It takes 30 km to go around the edge of Hamilton Harbour or Burlington Bay. The Hamilton Spectator also hosts amateur indoor games. Every year, children from Hamilton and Flint, Michigan compete in the Canusa Games.
The Commonwealth Games are like the Olympics for people who used to be ruled by Britain. In 1930, Hamilton became the first ever host for what ere then called the Empire Games. The city also tried to host the 2010 Commonwealth Games.
McMaster University and Mohawk College have produced national championship teams in a number of sports. McMaster University is a perennial powerhouse in Men's Basketball and Football.
Here in Hamilton we also have recreational leagues for kids to enjoy their childhood by playing many recreational sports such as Hockey(Stoney Creek Minor Hockey), Soccer(Stoney Creek Soccer Club), and Football with (Steelcity Ironmen). In addition, there are a number of other community sport clubs like the Mt Hamilton Youth Soccer Club which has provided an avenue for children to play soccer since 1964.
Buses and trains
There are many buses, apart from the school buses operated by the Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board. For $2.55, the Hamilton Street Railway or HSR takes people inside and across the city.
Travellers can also get to places like Niagara Falls, Dunnville, Buffalo, Kitchener, and London. These buses are run by companies called Greyhound, Trentway Wagar and McCoy. GO Transit has buses and trains that go to Toronto. Using GO however is not a part of the HSR.
City streets
The city streets in the old city of Hamilton follow a pattern. The big streets going north and south are in straight lines. When they are on the Mountain, they have "Upper" in front the their names, except for Garth Street which should be Upper Dundurn Street.
Streets are called "North," such as "James Street North," if they are north of King Street or Queenston Road. Streets are called "South" if they are south of King or Queenston. Streets are called "East," such as "East 5th Street" or "Main Street East," if they are east of James Street or Upper James Street. Streets are called "West" if they are west of James or Upper James.
King and Main Streets are major roads that are almost parallel or side by side one another. They cross at the Delta in east Hamilton. For most of King and Main, cars could only travel one way. So instead of thinking of them as two streets, think of them as one street with a very wide boulevard between them. This changed in the early 2000s, and most of the streets in Downtown Hamilton are now two-way.
Throughout the city there are some neighbourhoods with weird or strange street names. For example, Birdland has streets named after birds like Cardinal, Blue Jay and Swallow. Another neighbourhood on the Mountain has streets named after people from the French Revolution, such as Napoleon, Josephine, and Robespierre. Riverdale West, in the Lower City, has streets named after types of berries.
Other websites
(These links may also appear above.)
The City of Hamilton
Industrial History of Hamilton
The Hamilton Spectator World War 2 Newspaper Archives 1939-1945
Hamilton Public Library
McMaster University
Royal Botanical Gardens
The Royal Hamilton Light Infantry
The Weather Network - Hamilton Ontario
The Hamilton Spectator - Hamilton Newspaper
Hamilton Scores! - Hamilton Amateur Sports News |
7075 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape | Shape | A shape is a geometric figure that can be described with mathematics. One way to classify shapes is to describe a bigger kind of shape that the shape is one of. For example, they can be classified by their different numbers of dimensions. Thus, circles are two-dimensional shapes so, like other 2D shapes, they will fit into a flat plane.
Three-dimensional objects like cubes will not fit inside a plane, because they are not flat. Four-dimensional shapes made of polygons are called polychorons, and shapes made of polygons of any dimension are polytopes.
Two shapes are said to be equal, if one can be changed into the other by turning, moving, growing, shrinking, or more than one of these in combination. Geometry is one of the practical sections of mathematics which involves various shapes and sizes of different figures and their properties.
2D shapes
circle
oval
polygon
triangle
quadrilateral
square
rectangle
octagon
heptagon
hexagon
pentagon
decagon
nonagon
heptadecagon
These are two-dimensional shapes or flat plane geometry shapes. Their sides are made of straight or curved lines. They can have any number of sides. Plane figures made of lines are called polygons. Triangles and squares are examples of polygons.
3D shapes
sphere
platonic solid
tetrahedron
cube
octahedron
dodecahedron
icosahedron
cone
pyramid
hemisphere
cuboid
cylinder
prism
References
These are three-dimensional shapes. Their sides are made of flat or curved surfaces. |
7079 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quechua | Quechua | Quechua, sometimes written Quichua or Ketchua, is a language spoken by 8 million people in the South American nations of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Argentina and Colombia. It was also the language of the ancient Inca Empire. It's part of the Quechuan languages family.
It is the most-spoken Native American language in South America. It is also the most widely-spoken indigenous language. A quarter of people in Peru speak Quechua. People who speak Quechua as their first language are called Quechua Indians by Spanish-speakers. However, the Quechua refer to themselves as Runa ("the people") and call their language Runa Simi.
Quechua has only three vowel sounds: a, i, and u.
Quechua has given names to many places in Peru, including the Ancash Region. is the Quechua word for blue, and it is thought that the name refers to the region's blue skies.
Other websites
A website that teaches Quechua
Languages of South America
Inca civilization |
7082 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking%20water | Drinking water | Drinking water, also known as potable water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for food preparation.
Water in rivers, stream, lakes and underground may contain organisms that cause disease. It may also contain chemicals that might cause illness.
'Water treatment' involves filtering the water through sand beds and then adding a chemical to kill any remaining organisms.
The amount of drinking water needed for good health varies. Americans, on average, drink one litre of water per day and 95% drink less than three litres per day. For those who work in a hot climate, up to 16 litres a day may be required. Liquid water is essential for life.
In developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards. Other uses include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater (wastewater) may be used for toilets or irrigation. Using greywater for irrigation may have risks. Water may be unacceptable if it has high levels of toxins or suspended solids.
References
Water infrastructure |
7085 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen | Pen | A pen (Latin: pinna, feather) is a tool used for writing or drawing. The ink of the pen is pressed onto paper and dries very fast.
Reed pens are the oldest known type of pen. They were made from reeds growing in the delta of the Nile. The ancient Egyptians invented them, and also invented black ink, using soot and gum arabic. Their pens had split nibs to regulated the flow of ink to the writing tip. This simple design is still used in calligraphy today.
Quill pens are one of the oldest type of pens. A quill pen is the feather of a bird, usually a goose. The end of the feather (the quill) was kept very sharp and had to be dipped into ink after every few words.
Reed and quill pens are dip pens because they have to be dipped in ink many times during writing or drawing. Modern dip pens have nibs made of metal.
Fountain pens are like dip pens, but can hold enough ink inside to write several pages before being refilled. Inside, the ink is held in a sac or cartridge.
A ballpoint pen is generally cylindrical plastic shaft that holds ink and is smaller than a fountain pen. It has a small hard ball on the writing end that rolls the ink onto the paper.
A stylus is a pen that cannot write on paper, but can write on clay or wax. Styli of wood or metal have been used for thousands of years, for example in cuneiform writing. A modern computer stylus is usually made of plastic and may have electronics inside. It is used with a touchscreen.
The coming of the personal computer much reduced the need to write on paper. All the same, a personally written letter suggests "I think so much of you that I took the effort to write a real letter."
Related pages
Pencil
Ink
Paper
References
Basic English 850 words
Writing tools |
7091 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leet | Leet | Leet (sometimes written as "1337" or "l33t"), also known as eleet or leet-speak, is another alphabet for the English language that is used mostly on the internet. It uses various combinations of ASCII characters to replace Latinate letters. For example, leet spellings of the word leet include 1337 and l33t; eleet may be spelled 31337 or 3l33t. It is used on the internet in forums, chat rooms and online games.
Leet is mostly used for English, but can also be used with other languages including French, Spanish and German.
Leet-speak
Leet-speak is a mixture of words (mostly computer-related jargon) spelled incorrectly intentionally*, usually coming from typographical errors (e.g. the becomes t3h). The words of Leet-speak are usually put together to create a dialect (small language). This dialect is used in some places for funniness. l33tspeak uses numbers, ASCII symbols, and diacritics together to make symbols that look like Latin letters. For example, in the name "David" would translate in 1337 as |)/-\\/1|).
1337 Alphabet Examples
Most of the time it is only the vowels that are changed and then usually only they are replaced by numbers; therefore, it is unusual to see someone use the leet alphabet to spell out a whole word (although there are common exceptions, namely 1337).
These are only examples; these are not mandatory for Leet-speak, which is not officially defined anywhere, like most slangs.
A: ∆,4, /-\, /_\, @, /\, Д, а
B: 8, |3, 13, |}, |:, |8, 18, 6, |B, |8, lo, |o, j3, ß, в, ь
C: <, {, [, (, ©, ¢, с
D: |), |}, |], |>
E: 3, £, ₤, €, е
F: 7, |=, ph, |#, |", ƒ
G: 9,[, -, [+, 6, C-
H: #, 4, |-|, [-], {-}, }-{, }{, |=|, [=], {=}, /-/, (-), )-(, :-:, I+I, н
I: 1, |, !, 9
J: √,_|, _/, _7, 9, _), _], _}
K: |<, 1<, l<, |{, l{
L: |_, |, 1, ][
M: 44, |\/|, ^^, /\/\, /X\, []\/][, []V[], ][\\//][, (V), //., .\\, N\, м
N: |\|, /\/, /V, ][\\][, И, и, п
O: 0, (), [], {}, <>, Ø, oh, Θ, о, ө
P: |o, |O, |>, |*, |°, |D, /o, []D, |7, р
Q: O_, 9, (,), 0, kw
R: |2, 12, .-, |^, l2, Я, ®
S: 5, $, §
T: 7, +, 7`, '|', `|`, ~|~, -|-, '][', т
U: |_|, \_\, /_/, \_/, (_), [_], {_}
V: \/
W: \/\/, (/\), \^/, |/\|, \X/, \\', '//, VV, \_|_/, \\//\\//, Ш, 2u, \V/
X: ×,%, *, ><, }{, )(, Ж
Y: `/, ¥, \|/, Ч, ү, у
Z: 5, 7_, >_, (/)
Letters for numbers
0 = O or D or space
1 = I or L or 7 or | or !
2 = Z
3 = E or e or m or w or ω or ∈ or ε or ∩∩
4 = h or A or y
5 = S
6 = b or G
7 = T or j or L
8 = B or X
9 = g or J
10 = I and O or L and O or 7 and O
11 = N
0 = C or O or D or Θ or o
Intentional misspelling*
When people write in leet, they spell some words wrong all the time. They might do this to laugh at new people who do not write words with their keyboards well, might just be making fun of English's pronunciation or spelling .
bai or bi --- bye
nd --- and
d00d --- dude
dog8 --- dog
form --- from
gurl or grill --- girl
guise --- guys
h4x or h4x0rz --- hacks (see vocabulary entry hax)
hai --- hi
j00 --- you
kewl --- cool
kk - ok
liek --- like
lopl --- lol
smat --- smart
m8 --- mate
m2 --- me too
mastah --- master
max0r --- max. or maximum
OMG --- oh my god (variations such as OMGG are also common) OMD ~ (Oh my Dance)
own or pwn --- see vocabulary entry own
PMGZ--- OMG with a p and a z
ZPMG--- OMG originally rushed. Typo P instead of O and hitting Z when shift is pressed.
OLO --- LOL (LOL stands for laugh out loud)
ph34 --- fear
pl0x --- please
powwah --- power
pr0n --- porn
t3h --- the (see vocabulary entry: "teh")
wen --- when
wat/whut/wut --- what
winnar --- winner
u --- you
r --- are
y --- why
yass/yus/yos --- yes
ya/yea --- yeah
cya --- see you
10/3u --- loveu
wamen- women
what3v
Leet vocabulary
leet, l33t, l337, 1337, 31337 --- elite
l@ym --- laughing at your momma
ftw, 4tw --- for the win,when something is successful or desirable.
hax, h4x --- hacks
haxor, hax0r, h4x0r, haxzor --- "hacker", cheater (note: also often spelled with two x's)
joo, j00 --- you
meh m3h --- can mean me or oh well. Used to show undecidedness, unworriedness or often as a sign that the user has nothing to say
newbie, noob, n00b, n00b13, nooblet, nub, newb, nubbins --- new, newcomer or new (player), used more often as an insult. Thought to originate from new boy, new-blood, or new in business.
boon or b00n --- more derogatory term than noob with the same insult intended.
own, ownage, 0wn, pwn, pwnage --- own means to be superior or better than someone, the past tense is "pwnt"
phear, ph34r, ph33r --- fear
rox0r, r0xorz --- rock, to be amazing or excellent
c3n50red --- censored
teh, t3h --- "the"
wuut/wuu2 - Basically saying 'What are you up to'. People do choose to say this quite often
woot, w00t --- Thought to originate from We Own the Other Team. It is used to show celebration or happiness.
ZoMG!!!11! --- "Oh My God"
P00nd- Another use of pwn, not to be confused with pr0n.
Pr0n- Porn (pornography)
QQ - cry/complain (eyes with tears) or the shortcut to close Warcraft II
L2<blank> - Learn to <blank>. Often used as L2P (learn to play).
O RLY - "oh, really?" often responded to by YARLY. Also can be accompanied by an ASCII art image of an owl.
YARLY - "yeah, really!" often used as response to ORLY
NOWAI - "no way!" often used as a response to YARLY
pew pew - shooting, often used in the phrase more pew pew less QQ, meaning, more shooting less crying/complaining
GG - good game, this can also be used in a condenscending manner.
BG - bad game, in World of Warcraft this also means Battleground.
noobcannon, N00BC4NN0N - Noobtube, a weapon in a video game that is either over-powered, or requires little skill to use.
PWN4G3 N008 - Pwnage noob.
Stronk - Strong.
GL - Good Luck, So giving someone good luck before a game
HF - Have Fun, telling people to enjoy the game
n1 - Nice One
ns - Nice Shot; complimenting someone, usually on their aim in a FPS (First-person shooter) game.
bm - Bad Manners; usually used to call someone out after a show of bad sportsmanship.
Wrong grammar*
When a person writes in English the person must follow English rules, but most of the time people who write in leet do not use these rules. When they write in leet they try to write it in a special way, so that it is very different from English.
"l33t is teh suck!" (meaning: 'leet sucks') shows that in leet people can use their own rules, and not use the English rules. A lot of times adjectives (describing words) are turned into nouns. The leet word "teh" (the) is also often placed in front of verbs, as in "I teh pwnd j00" (meaning I the owned you, meaning: I beat you badly). another example might be I 4m t3h pwnage!!!!11!!11 (meaning I am the best!)
Leet speakers may also speak normally but without the vowels. Fr xmpl nmbr 1 u cn tll it wrks.= For example, number one you can tell it works.
Pronunciation
Because some words are too long for use in games they have been written how they sound. Here's a quick guide:
pwn --- own, pawn or powne
x or xx (as in haxxorz or haxorz) --- an x followed by a z. In this example, hackzorz would be pronunciation
R0fz --- rolling on floor screaming, pronounced rawfs
Variations
There are some that are uber 1337...using nothing but symbols and numbers to represent their letters...
Example as follows;
1 4/\/\ 7|-|3 |<33/o3|2 ()|" 7|-|3 \_//\/1\/3|253 (I am the keeper of the universe)
Other websites
Noslang.com, internet slang translator
Albinoblacksheep.com, another leet to English translator
*Much of the intentional misspelling said to be part of 1337 is actually more properly part of chatspeak, a completely different thing.
References
Internet
Slang
Encodings |
7095 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall | Waterfall | A waterfall is a place where water rushes down a steep ledge. The water flows from higher land, then it falls down a big step of rock to lower land of softer rock where it will continue on its journey. Usually the lower land is in a gorge. Waterfalls are usually made when a river is young, in places where softer rock is underneath harder rock in the waterfalls
Many people choose them as sacred spots. The roar from a big waterfall is very loud. Some people think it is beautiful music and that a waterfall is one of the most beautiful things in nature.
The highest waterfall in the world is Angel Falls in Venezuela where the water falls .
Related pages
Cataracts of the Nile
References |
7102 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden | Garden | A garden is usually a piece of land that is used for growing flowers, trees, shrubs, and other plants. The act of caring for a garden by watering the flowers and plants and removing the weeds is called gardening.
Types of gardens
There are many types of gardens. People have small private gardens in the backyard outside their house. Some gardens are built indoors in malls, public buildings, or greenhouses. Greenhouses are special buildings where plants are grown. A greenhouse has a transparent glass or plastic roof and walls that let sunlight in.
Water gardens are plants that are grown in ornamental (decorative) pools and ponds. People doing water gardening plant water lilies and other aquatic (water) plants.
Gardening can be done outside of the home, as well. There are in city gardens, botanical gardens (places where plants are grown), zoos which have gardens, and theme parks which have gardens. These types of gardens are cared for by people called gardeners or groundskeepers.
Gardens compared with farms
Gardens are related to farms (agriculture); both gardens and farms are used for growing plants. But farms are much larger than gardens. A farm may have hundreds of square kilometers of plants and crops. A garden in a person's backyard is usually only measures a few square meters.
Farms are businesses which sell the crops, fruit, and vegetables that are produced. Some gardens are businesses, which charge a fee to enter the garden. However, private gardens in people's backyards are used as a hobby or as a recreation, not as a business.
Features of gardens
In addition to plants, many gardens also have landscaping features such as pathways, seats, rock gardens, ponds, fountains, a small stream with or without a waterfall. Some incorporate gazebos and structural designs to accommodate for places to sit or to place a hammock for a siesta. Roman gardens will have its own columns, fountains and statures placed at strategic places depending on its sizes and uses. Japanese gardens have their own unique designs and features.
Role of gardens
Some gardens are created in people's backyards, outside their home (note that in Britain the whole area is called a "garden", not a "yard"). People with gardens in their backyards use gardens as a place to do gardening. Gardening is a type of physical activity which can use enough energy and increase your heart rate that it can be rated as a form of exercise for to relax and exercise certain muscles depending on whether on the activity you do that day such as planting, pruning, weeding, or simply just walk around your garden continuously for 15 minutes or more.
Many people find gardens relaxing especially if the garden is full flowers with strong scents. Some flowers like roses, bougainvilleas, orchids and many others are just beautiful to look at. Many people think that gardens are very beautiful and a place to relax and /or entertain. A garden can have a place to barbecue, to sit and to read.
In many countries and cultures, designing pretty gardens is considered to be an art. In Japan, for instance, Zen monks build decorative gardens with stone and waterfall features using natural materials such as bamboo, rock and BONSAI trees like spruce, pine, and other trees with they trained into miniature forms. In Europe in the 1700s, kings and queens had formal gardens built (for example, the gardens at Versailles, France). In China they also feature Chinese forms of gardens. Now some enterprising people start to have herbal gardens to feature useful herbs used in alternative, traditional, and homeopathic medicine
Related pages
Botanical garden
List of garden plants
Zoo
Plants
Basic English 850 words |
7106 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Zimbabwe | Great Zimbabwe | Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe. The site is not far from the country's border with Mozambique, which is in the southeast of the African continent.
Greater Zimbabwe was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s later Iron Age. The monument first began to be built in the 11th century, and work continued until the 14th century. It covered an area of 722 hectares (1,780 acres) which might have housed up to 18,000 people. It was a royal city for the Zimbabwean monarch. One of its most prominent features were its walls, some of which were over five metres high and which were constructed without mortar. Eventually the city was abandoned and fell into ruin.
The Kingdom of Zimbabwe included the River Zambezi in the north, the Transvaal in the south and Botswana in the east. The people who lived at Great Zimbabwe controlled trade between the coast and inland Africa. The modern country of Zimbabwe is named after it.
Archaeologists have found goods from as far as China that were used by the people. This shows they bought and sold things over great distances. The city had stopped growing when traders from Portugal came to southern Africa 500 years ago, but nobody is sure why this happened. Europeans at first thought that Great Zimbabwe had been built by foreigners. Now we know it was built by the local people. People who have studied the site have learned much about old Africa.
The earliest known written mention of the ruins was in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala, who recorded it as Symbaoe. The first visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871.
References
History of Zimbabwe
Cities in Zimbabwe
World Heritage Sites in Africa
Prehistoric Africa
11th-century establishments in Africa
15th-century disestablishments |
7108 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machu%20Picchu | Machu Picchu | Machu Picchu is a pre-Columbian 15th-century Inca site in Peru, in South America.
The Incas built the city on a mountain ridge, 2430m above sea level. They lived there between 1200 and 1450 AD. Other people lived there before about 650 AD.
The Incas built houses, fields and temples by cutting the rock on the mountain so it was flat. They built an observatory to look at the stars.
When the Spanish invaded Peru, the Incas left Machu Picchu. Nobody knows for sure why they did that, but some think it was because of diseases from Europe. The city was left unfinished, most likely due to the Spanish invasion and/or a civil war between the ruling rival Inca brothers named Huascar and Atahualpa. The Spanish never found Machu Picchu or the lost city during their occupation.
Machu Picchu is very difficult to get to because it is so high in the mountains. It has only one way in and a stone wall to protect it. Most people on Earth did not know it was there until a Yale graduate named Hiram Bingham rediscovered it in 1911. He heard rumours of a hidden city which was already known to the native Peruvians, who guided him there. He led a restoration project that was partly funded by the National Geographic Society. Bingham made a deal with the government to take artifacts to the Peabody Museum for study. Peru is still trying to have those artifacts returned to them.
Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide Internet poll.
Today, there is a new road so that tourists can visit. People can also walk along the Inca Trail, or take a train from Cusco.
Other websites
Information About Machu Picchu
QuickTime Virtual Tour of Machu Picchu and Peru from destination360.com.
Machu Picchu on National Geographic
Machu Picchu on Google Maps.
Machu Picchu travel guide.
Machu Picchu. YouTube
Inca civilization
World Heritage Sites in South America
1450s establishments
Establishments in Peru
1572 disestablishments
16th-century disestablishments in South America |
7109 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal | Journal | a written medium, for instance:
an academic journal
a diary
a literary magazine, a periodical devoted to literature
a daily newspaper
a scientific journal
Journal (mechanical device), the section of a rotating shaft that contacts and turns in a plain bearing
Mining journal, a record systematically describing the strata through which a mine shaft passes (see shaft mining)
Journal entry, an accounting transaction in the double-entry bookkeeping system |
7111 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20Inc. | Apple Inc. | Apple Inc. is a multinational company that makes personal computers (the Macintoshes), mobile devices (iPod, iPhone and iPad), and software (macOS, iOS, watchOS and tvOS). Apple calls its computers Macintoshes or Macs, and it calls its laptops MacBooks. Their line of mobile music players is called iPod, their smartphone line is called iPhone and their tablet line is called iPad. Apple sells their products all around the world. Apple Inc. used to be called Apple Computer, Inc., but Apple changed their name after introducing the original iPhone.
Apple Inc. is a public company and trades on the NASDAQ under the stock ticker AAPL. On March 19, 2015, it became one of the 30 components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.
General history
Apple was started in 1976 by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. Before they made the company, they sold "blue boxes", which had telephone buttons on them. People could use them to make telephone calls from payphones without paying any money. It did this by pretending to be a telephone operator. The company's first product is now called the Apple I computer. They were almost ready to sell it, but a problem happened. Steve Wozniak was working for the computer company Hewlett-Packard, and the papers that said he could work there said he had to give everything he invented to the company before he could do what he wanted to do with it. He showed the first Apple I to the boss at Hewlett-Packard, but they did not want his computer. Wozniak was then free to do what he wanted to do with the Apple I. It began selling in 1976. In 1977, they made their second computer, called the Apple II, which later became very successful compared to Apple I.
iPod
Before the iPhone, the most popular product made by Apple was the iPod. It was first sold in 2001, and Apple sold over 100 million in six years. iPods are used to play music. Recent iPod Touches have a LED screens, can take and show pictures, record, view and edit videos, record word and voice memos, can connect to the Internet for features such as e-mail, and downloading apps from the App Store. The latest iPod Touch is made with a 64-bit architecture.
There are several different types of iPods:
iPod shuffle (4th generation)
iPod shuffle 2 GB - This model has no screen. Instead, it has a click wheel to control the music, and is very small. It was the cheapest iPod at the time. People can sync playlists and Genius mixes but apart from that, it has only basic music playback functions, and also has feature called VoiceOver. It comes in five different colors: silver, orange, pink, green, and blue. A polished stainless steel version is available. It can store about 1,000 songs.
iPod nano
iPod nano 8 GB - The 8GB could store about 2,000 songs. It was discontinued.
iPod nano 16 GB - Comes in space gray, purple, blue, silver, green, yellow, and pink. It can hold about 4,000 songs.
iPod classic
iPod classic 160 GB - comes in black or silver. This is the chunkiest and most original looking iPod, but the best music holder. It can hold about 40,000 songs.
iPod touch
iPod touch 8 GB - Apple announced the fifth generation iPod Touch in 2012, equipping it with a front and rear facing camera, a better display, a better processor for faster performance, and it has a thin new design. It can also run the latest operating system, iOS 9. This makes it a lot closer to the iPhone 5. The 8GB model is discontinued.
iPod touch 16 GB - has a multi-touch screen and looks much like the iPhone. It can be used to view high quality media and to use the Internet, using built-in Wi-fi. Some say it is like an iPhone without the phone. This model can hold about 4,000 songs, but was discontinued in September 2009, and was now put up again to replace the 8 GB in June 2013.
iPod touch 32 GB - This model can hold about 7,000 songs. It first went on sale in February 2008.
iPod touch 64 GB - This model can hold about 14,000 songs. It first went on sale in September 2009.
(PRODUCT) RED
The red iPod shuffle, iPod nano, and iPod touch models, and a few more products, are part of the "(PRODUCT) RED" program. This means that some of the profits from these iPods goes to the Global Fund to fight AIDS in Africa.
Computers
Apple makes computers. Newer computers by Apple run the OS X operating system, which is included with the Mac.
Laptops
MacBook (very skinny and light laptop designed for average users, discontinued)
MacBook Pro (more powerful and fast laptop designed for professional users)
MacBook Air (skinny and light laptop, less expensive than MacBook , but does not include a Retina display option which the Macbook did. After the Macbook was discontinued the Air got the Retina display)
Desktops
Mac Mini (a very tiny, but fully functional computer that does not come with its own monitor, keyboard, or mouse. Used mainly for home and school)
iMac (a computer where everything is built in behind the screen, designed for many uses, such as home, school, and professional (i.e.: Photoshop) use)
Mac Pro (a very powerful, fast computer that does not come with its own monitor, for professional people who need fast computers, i.e.: movie editing)
Software
Apple also makes software for their computers. Some of the software that Apple makes is:
iLife (a set of programs designed for everyday use) contains iMovie, a program for making movies, GarageBand, a program for making music, iPhoto, a program for organizing photos, iTunes, a program for organizing (and buying) music, iWeb (not sold or updated any more), a program for making web pages, and iDVD (also no longer sold or updated), a program to make DVDs. These programs are considered very simple to use.
iWork (a set of programs for office work) contains Pages, a program for making documents and Keynote, a program for making slideshows, and "Numbers" for making spreadsheets. These apps are available on Apple Mac computers, iPhones, iPads and iPod Touchs.
Professional program to make movies called Final Cut Pro, a program for music making called Soundtrack Pro, Motion, a program for high-quality moving graphics authorship, and DVD Studio Pro, a program used to make professional DVDs.
Final Cut Express (a set of programs similar to Final Cut Pro, but simplified and cheaper)
Aperture (for professional photographers to edit their photos, no longer supported or updated)
Logic Studio (A set of programs where professionals can edit and produce audio)
Logic Express (a set of programs similar to Logic Studio, but simplified and cheaper)
Most computer users in the world use Microsoft Windows, the rival to Mac OS X. About 10% of computer users use Apple's Macintosh computers. It is not legal to run Apple's Mac OS X on a Windows computer. However, it is allowed to run Windows on modern Macintosh computers. Even though Apple makes their computers to run Mac OS X, they also make software that allows you to install Windows. This software is called Boot Camp.
Mobile devices
Apple is perhaps most famous for its mobile devices, which are small computers that are easy to carry around. They have touchscreens with multi-touch technology instead of a separate keyboard and mouse. Most of these products run an operating system called iOS. It is very similar to the Android software made by Google. iOS can do a lot of different things, and it does so by running "apps", which are programs similar to those on a PC. Users can download and buy more apps for their device from Apple's App Store.
iPhone
The iPhone is a mobile phone that can be used to make calls, send text messages, play games and music, show photos and videos (like an iPod), browse the Internet, and do much more. It was one of the first smartphones in the world when the first version was announced in 2007. Apple makes and sells a different model every year, with new models being faster and more powerful and having a newer version of iOS than those that come before them. The newest iPhones released are the iPhone 12 and the iPhone 12 Pro which run on iOS 14. Many cellular carriers around the world sell iPhones, including Sprint, Verizon, AT&T, and T-Mobile in the US.
iPad
The iPad is a tablet computer, similar to the iPhone and iPod Touch but with a much larger display - while a typical iPhone has a screen about 4 to 5 inches in size, iPads have screens from 8 to 12 inches big. The first iPad was introduced in 2010 and along with the iPhone, new and better models are made and sold every year. A new iPad will ship with the latest iPad OS software if it is supported.
Apple Watch
The Apple Watch is an example of "wearable technology", because it is worn around the wrist in the same way as a traditional wristwatch. However, it is much more than a wristwatch. It not only tells the time and date but also tracks the fitness of the person wearing it and monitors the person's health. It can also do many of the same things that an iPhone can do, such as use Apple's Siri personal assistant, but it needs to be "paired" with an iPhone for it to do these things, meaning that it will not work if you do not have an iPhone. The Apple Watch has many different designs: there is the standard version, a "Sport" version designed for athletes, and an "Edition" version which is made as a fashion product. These all run "watchOS", a modified version of iOS.
Apple TV
The Apple TV is a box that plugs into a TV. It can connect wirelessly to any computer that has the Apple program iTunes on it. The Apple TV can play music and show photos or videos from iTunes on the TV. Like other Apple products, Apple TV is regularly updated with new software and features. The most recent version comes with a new remote control and includes the Siri voice assistant. It uses tvOS, a TV version of iOS.
Environment
Following several campaigns (for example, Green my Apple), Apple has made their products better for the environment. Previously, the notebook line removed many toxins and improved the products battery life and recharge cycles. Apple products used to ship with chargers and EarPods, but recently Apple has removed the chargers and EarPods from the boxes of most of their products to make the cases smaller. Apple says they did this to make it easier to make and save resources and energy.
Improvements
The MacBook uses a power efficient CPU, M1, and has a power-efficient Retina display, and is slimmer than previous models.
The MacBook, MacBook Pro, and MacBook Air have highly recyclable aluminium and glass enclosures, mercury-free displays and arsenic-free display glass. The printed circuit boards, electrical components, mechanical parts, and internal cables are BFR-free and PVC-free.
The MacBook, MacBook Air, MacBook Pro, and the LED Cinema Display contain energy-efficient LED display technology. The MacBook LED-backlit display uses 30% less power compared to conventional CCFL-backlit displays.
Sleep-mode energy usage has decreased 93% between the first-generation and current-generation iMac. This is due to improvements in CPU power management and increased hardware efficiency.
Between the fourth-generation iPod nano and the first-generation iPod nano, the packaging is 32% lighter and uses 54% less volume.
Apple products are compliant with the European Directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment, also known as the RoHS directive. Examples of materials restricted by RoHS include lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, and PBB and PBDE flame retardants. Apple met many of the RoHS requirements long before the July 2006 deadline.
Starting from the iPhone 12, iPhone 12 Pro and Apple Watch Series 6, Apple products stopped shipping with chargers and EarPods as an incentive for users to reuse previous accessories.
People
CEOs
1977–1981: Michael Scott
1981–1983: Mike Markkula
1983–1993: John Sculley
1993–1996: Michael Spindler
1996–1997: Gil Amelio
1997–2011: Steve Jobs (Interim CEO 1997–2000)
2004, 2009, 2011–present: Tim Cook (Acting CEO during Steve Jobs' health issues; replaced Steve Jobs after he resigned)
Directors
the following individuals sit on the board of Apple Inc.
Arthur D. Levinson, Chairman and CEO of Genentech
Tim Cook
James A. Bell, retired President of Boeing
Al Gore, Former Vice President of the United States
Andrea Jung, Chairman and CEO of Avon Products
Ronald Sugar, former chairman and CEO of Northrop Grumman
Susan Wagner, co-founder of BlackRock
Executives
Arthur D. Levinson, Chairman
Tim Cook, CEO
Jeff Williams, COO
Employees
Since the formation of the Apple Computer Company in 1977, Apple has employed over 95,000 people worldwide. The majority of Apple's employees have been in the United States but Apple has substantial manufacturing, sales, marketing, and support organizations worldwide, with some engineering operations in Paris and Tokyo.
Apple employees include employees of companies Apple owns, and less important, but still relevant companies such as FileMaker Inc. and Braeburn Capital.
Controversy
Apple Corps has sued Apple Inc. many times for trademark infringement. In the first case, Apple Inc. agreed not to go into the music industry. Apple Corps believes this agreement was broken when Apple Inc. launched the iTunes Store, Apple's online music store.
The two companies had trouble in the past, over the use of the Apple name. They made a deal that Apple Computers would not act as a music company. When Apple Computer Inc. began to sell their iPod, and set up their iTunes music store, Apple Corps believed they had broken their agreement, and took them to court. Apple Computers won the case, but the two companies later worked out a new deal. This deal now means that the Beatles music is now on the iTunes store, whereas it was not there before. Apple Computers was then renamed as Apple Inc. because of its mobile technology business. Steve Jobs, then CEO of Apple, Inc., has said in the past that he loves music from The Beatles, which can be considered to be very ironic.
Related pages
Pixar, an animation studio founded by Steve Jobs, one of the founders of Apple.
References
Other websites
1976 establishments in California
Steve Jobs |
7117 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil | Soil | Soil is loose material which lies on top of the land. It has many things in it, like tiny grains of rock, minerals, water and air. Soil also has living things and dead things in it: "organic matter". Soil is important for life on Earth.
Because soil holds water and nutrients, it is an ideal place for plants to grow. Soil holds the roots, and lets plants stand above the ground to collect the light they need to live. Almost as important are the fungi. There are fungi which grow into plant roots, a symbiosis known as mycorrhiza. This helps trees grow. There are many other fungi that live by breaking down dead organic material: the remains of other living things. The broken down material is a main source of plant nutrients.
Many animals dig into the soil and make the soil their home. The large animals use soil to make dens for sleeping and giving birth. The small animals live most of their life in the soil. Earthworms are famous for improving soil. This is because the holes they make let air go into the soil. The holes also let water go through.
The soil also has many microorganisms living in it. Many of them eat the organic material in the soil. They use oxygen and release carbon dioxide. They also release mineral nutrients into the soil.
Soil is different in different places on Earth. This is because the climate and rocks in the Earth are different in different places on Earth. Soils are usually thicker in places where ice sheets covered the ground during the Pleistocene ice ages. This is because the ice sheets ground the rock into powder as they slowly moved over the surface.
What soil is made of
Soil is made of four things.
It has rock pieces and the rocks are made of minerals,
It has dead and living things (organic matter, humus),
It has water.
It has air.
Soil has rock pieces made small by wind and rain and sun and snow. The rocks are made of minerals and some of the minerals dissolve in water. Some of the minerals dissolved in water can be used as food by plants. Soil also has dead and living things (organic matter) in it. When a plant dies, it is eaten by animals including bacteria in the soil. When the bacteria are done eating, what is left behind is called humus. When the bacteria die the plant food (minerals) goes back into the soil. A food for plants is called a "plant nutrient". There are many kinds of plant nutrients. Soil has many empty spaces. Half of the soil is space. The spaces are filled with water and air. Water can enter the spaces in the soil. Plants drink the water and the minerals in the water. Plant roots need air to live. If plant roots do not have air, the roots will die. If the plant roots die, the plant will die. A plant that dies is eaten by bacteria and becomes plant nutrients again.
There are many kinds of soil. Each kind of soil has big and small rocks in it and some humus. If rocks in a soil are as big as your fingers, we call those rocks "gravel". Smaller rocks are called sand. Very small rocks are called silt. Very, very small rocks are called clay. You can see sand with your eye. Sand feels rough between your toes. Silt rock is very small and you must use a lens to see silt. Silt rock is smooth between your toes. Clay rock is too small to see with a lens. To see the smallest things you must use a big microscope. You must use a big microscope to see clay too. Clay rock feels slippery between your toes. Most soils contain all kinds of small rocks. The three best rocks for making soil are sand, silt, and clay.
Soil texture
Every soil has different amounts of sand and silt and clay. The mix of sand and silt and clay is the "texture" of the soil. We can also say the mix has a "soil texture". A soil with a lot of sand is called a "sandy soil texture". A soil with a lot of silt is called a "silt soil texture". A soil with a lot of clay is called a "clay soil texture". Farmers like to grow food in the best soil. The best soil is half sand and some silt and a little clay. The organic matter found in the soil is not counted in the soil texture. Only the rocks are counted when we discover the soil texture. Soil texture is very important.
Clay and humus are special parts of the soil. They help keep water and plant food (plant nutrients) in the soil. Water and plant nutrients stick to clay and humus. Water sticks to all of the rock in the soil. But, water sticks best to clay. Water is taken into (absorbed) into humus like a sponge absorbs water. Humus holds a lot of water and plant nutrients. Clay and humus keep water and plant nutrients in the soil. Sand will hold only a little water in the soil. If the soil has too much sand, the water will flow down into the earth. The water that flows down takes plant nutrients down too. The plant roots can not get at the water and plant nutrients if they go too deep. It is best for soil to have a little bit of clay and humus in it for growing plants.
Soil structure (clumps)
The smallest parts of soil are sand and silt and clay. Those small parts join to make larger parts we call "clumps" or "aggregates". The clumps are made when sand and silt and clay stick together. The humus and clay and minerals in the soil are like glue. The glue sticks the sand and silt and clay together and makes clumps. The clumps make shapes by themselves. Some soils have small round clumps. Other soils have large, hard and flat clumps. The soil with small round clumps is best because it lets in air and water. A little glue is best. If the soil has only a little glue there will be space for water and air and the soil will be soft. If the soil has too much glue the soil will be hard. If the soil has no glue, there will be no space in the soil for air and water. A soil with no spaces is not healthy. Worms in the soil make a slippery glue. When worms make holes in the soil they leave some glue in the soil. Plant roots also make spaces in the soil. When the roots die they leave holes in the soil.
Soil horizons (layers)
A soil has a "soil texture" (sand and silt and clay) and it has organic matter mixed in it. But weather changes the soil. It is cold on the Earth near the north and south poles. It is hot near the equator of the Earth. Some places on Earth get a lot of rain and some places get no rain. Hot and wet weather make one kind of soil. Cold and dry weather make another kind of soil. Rain water makes small things in the soil move down with the water. When the things in the water get stuck in the soil those things make a layer in the soil. If you dig down into the soil you may find many layers in the soil. The layers may have different colors. The layers may have different "soil textures". The top part of the soil may have a lot of humus and sand. Below that layer there may be a layer of silt. Below that layer there may be a layer of clay.
The sand stays on the top because it is large. The silt goes down a little with the water and makes a layer because it is small. The silt is smaller than some of the spaces in the soil. The clay can go down even lower with the water because it is the smallest. The sand will make one layer, the silt will make another layer and the clay will make another layer. The humus can move down with the water and make a layer too. The silt and clay and humus can move down because of the spaces in the soil. But, the silt, clay, and humus will fill the spaces in the soil. When the spaces in the soil are closed, it makes it hard for air to go into the soil. Plant roots do not go where there is no air. When we dig down we find layers in the soil.
We call those layers "soil horizons". The top horizon may be an inch (25mm) thick. We call that layer the "O" horizon or sometimes "topsoil". The next layer (horizon) is the "B" horizon. The next lower layer of soil is the "C" horizon. The bottom layer has many rocks and may be called the bedrock or "R" horizon for "rock". Deep down, there is always bedrock. But you may have to dig down a mile (a km) or more. When the soil dries, the soil may shrink and cracks will form in the soil. The soil in the top layer may fall down into the cracks. This causes the layers of soil to be changed because they are mixed. There may be many types soil where you live or only one type of soil. Different rocks make different soil textures. Different weather makes the different soil textures different. And so, there are different soils all over the world.
Related pages
Agronomy
Soil fertility
References
Other websites
short video about soil from The Guardian newspaper
Ecology
Geology
Natural resources
Soil |
7119 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic | Organic | The word organic is used for different things:
Something of, or relating to, an organism
Organic chemistry, chemistry that is based on carbon, which is the basis for all living things.
Organic matter in soil is material that is, or once was, a plant or animal.
Organic farming, agriculture conducted according to certain standards, especially the use of only naturally produced fertilizers and non-chemical means of pest control. |
7126 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D | 3D | 3D (or 3-D) means three-dimensional, or having three dimensions. For example, a box is three-dimensional; it is solid, and not thin like a piece of paper. It has volume, a top and bottom, left and right (sides), as well as a front and back. You can turn the box around to view it from another side (called a face, surface or simply side).
A dimension is measurable in inches, microns, miles, kilometers, or any other unit of length.
The three dimensions are often called length (or depth), width (or breadth), and height. Some purposes use other words.
3D graphics are used to make video games or animated movies. Many calculations are needed to make pictures seem three-dimensional on a screen. Modern computers usually have a GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) to handle these calculations.
Binocular vision helps people to see the third dimension easily.
In mathematics
In the Cartesian coordinate system, length, width, and height are given in letters (variables) to make them easier to write, or if a value is not known. Often X is width, Y is height, and Z is length. Other 3D coordinate systems such as spherical coordinates include both linear and angular measurements.
The mathematical study of 3D shapes and dimensions is called solid geometry.
Time
Some people see time as a fourth dimension. It is also measured. It is measured in units of time such as seconds, hours, years, or any other measurement of time.
Related pages
3D printing
Holography
Perspective (graphical)
Computing
Animation
Mathematics |
7127 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity | Humidity | Humidity means water vapor in the air, but not to liquid droplets in fog, clouds, or rain. Deserts usually have low humidity, and tropical regions have high humidity. The word "humid" often means that the humidity is high, which gives the feeling of being very damp (wet air), stuffy, or even sweltering when the temperature is also high. When the humidity is low, the air can be said to be "not humid" or "dry."
Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin.
The term "relative humidity" is used to note the amount of humidity as a percent, from 0-100%. Meteorologists use hygrometers to measure the humidity in the air.
Humidity affects the rate of evaporation. With a higher humidity, the rate of evaporation is less.
Related pages
Dew point
Relative humidity
Meteorology
Weather measurements |
7133 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabi-Yau%20manifold | Calabi-Yau manifold | A Calabi–Yau manifold, or 'Calabi–Yau space', is a special type of manifold. It is described in certain branches of mathematics such as algebraic geometry.
The Calabi–Yau manifold's properties, such as Ricci flatness, have applications in theoretical physics. Particularly in superstring theory, the extra dimensions of spacetime might take the form of a 6-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold. This led to the idea of string theory mirror symmetry.
Algebraic geometry |
7136 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum%20mechanics | Quantum mechanics | Quantum mechanics explain how the universe works at a scale smaller than atoms. It is also called quantum physics or quantum theory. Mechanics is the part of physics that explains how things move and quantum is the Latin word for 'how much'. A quantum of energy is the least amount possible (or the least extra amount), and quantum mechanics describes how that energy moves or interacts.
Atoms used to be considered the smallest building blocks of matter, but modern science has shown that there are even smaller particles, like protons, neutrons and electrons. Quantum mechanics describes how the particles that make up atoms work.
Quantum mechanics also tells us how electromagnetic waves (like light) work. Wave–particle duality means that particles behave like waves and waves behave like particles. (They are not two kinds of thing, they are something like both: this is their duality.) Much of modern physics and chemistry can be described and understood using the mathematical rules of quantum mechanics.
The mathematics used to study subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves is very complex because they act in very strange ways.
Waves and photons
Photons are particles that are point-sized, tinier than atoms. Photons are like "packets" or packages of energy. Light sources such as candles or lasers produce light in bits called photons.
The more photons a lamp produces, the brighter the light. Light is a form of energy that behaves like the waves in water or radio waves. The distance between the top of one wave and the top of the next wave is called a 'wavelength'. Each photon carries a certain amount, or 'quantum', of energy depending on its wavelength.
A light's color depends on its wavelength. The color violet (the bottom or innermost color of the rainbow) has a wavelength of about 400 nm ("nanometers") which is 0.00004 centimeters or 0.000016 inches. Photons with wavelengths of 10-400 nm are called ultraviolet (or UV) light. Such light cannot be seen by the human eye. On the other end of the spectrum, red light is about 700 nm. Infrared light is about 700 nm to 300,000 nm. Human eyes are not sensitive to infrared light either.
Wavelengths are not always so small. Radio waves have longer wavelengths. The wavelengths for an FM radio can be several meters in length (for example, stations transmitting on 99.5 FM are emitting radio energy with a wavelength of about 3 meters, which is about 10 feet). Each photon has a certain amount of energy related to its wavelength. The shorter the wavelength of a photon, the greater its energy. For example, an ultraviolet photon has more energy than an infrared photon.
Wavelength and frequency (the number of times the wave crests per second) are inversely proportional, which means a longer wavelength will have a lower frequency, and vice versa. If the color of the light is infrared (lower in frequency than red light), each photon can heat up what it hits. So, if a strong infrared lamp (a heat lamp) is pointed at a person, that person will feel warm, or even hot, because of the energy stored in the many photons. The surface of the infrared lamp may even get hot enough to burn someone who may touch it.
Humans cannot see infrared light, but we can feel the radiation in the form of heat. For example, a person walking by a brick building that has been heated by the sun will feel heat from the building without having to touch it.
The mathematical equations of quantum mechanics are abstract, which means it is impossible to know the exact physical properties of a particle (like its position or momentum) for sure. Instead, a mathematical function called the wavefunction provides information about the probability with which a particle has a given property. For example, the wavefunction can tell you what the probability is that a particle can be found in a certain location, but it can't tell you where it is for sure. Because of this uncertainty and other factors, you cannot use classical mechanics (the physics that describe how large objects move) to predict the motion of quantum particles.
Ultraviolet light is higher in frequency than violet light, such that it is not even in the visible light range. Each photon in the ultraviolet range has a lot of energy, enough to hurt skin cells and cause a sunburn. In fact, most forms of sunburn are not caused by heat; they are caused by the high energy of the sun's UV rays damaging your skin cells. Even higher frequencies of light (or electromagnetic radiation) can penetrate deeper into the body and cause even more damage. X-rays have so much energy that they can go deep into the human body and kill cells. Humans cannot see or feel ultraviolet light or x-rays. They may only know they have been under such high frequency light when they get a radiation burn. Areas where it is important to kill germs often use ultraviolet lamps to destroy bacteria, fungi, etc. X-rays are sometimes used to kill cancer cells.
Quantum mechanics started when it was discovered that if a particle has a certain frequency, it must also have a certain amount of energy. Energy is proportional to frequency (E ∝ f). The higher the frequency, the more energy a photon has, and the more damage it can do. Quantum mechanics later grew to explain the internal structure of atoms. Quantum mechanics also explains the way that a photon can interfere with itself, and many other things never imagined in classical physics.
Quantization
Max Planck discovered the relationship between frequency and energy. Nobody before had ever guessed that frequency is directly proportional to energy (this means that as one of them doubles, the other does, too). Under what are called natural units, then the number representing the frequency of a photon would also represent its energy. The equation would then be:
meaning energy equals frequency.
But the way physics grew, there was no natural connection between the units that were used to measure energy and the units commonly used to measure time (and therefore frequency). So the formula that Planck worked out to make the numbers all come out right was:
or, energy equals h times frequency. This h is a number called Planck's constant after its discoverer.
Quantum mechanics is based on the knowledge that a photon of a certain frequency means a photon of a certain amount of energy. Besides that relationship, a specific kind of atom can only give off certain frequencies of radiation, so it can also only give off photons that have certain amounts of energy.
History
Isaac Newton thought that light was made of very small things that we would now call particles (he referred to them as "Corpuscles"). Christiaan Huygens thought that light was made of waves. Scientists thought that a thing cannot be a particle and a wave at the same time.
Scientists did experiments to find out whether light was made of particles or waves. They found out that both ideas were right — light was somehow both waves and particles. The Double-slit experiment performed by Thomas Young showed that light must act like a wave. The Photoelectric effect discovered by Albert Einstein proved that light had to act like particles that carried specific amounts of energy, and that the energies were linked to their frequencies. This experimental result is called the "wave-particle duality" in quantum mechanics. Later, physicists found out that everything behaves both like a wave and like a particle, not just light. However, this effect is much smaller in large objects.
Here are some of the people who discovered the basic parts of quantum mechanics: Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Satyendra Nath Bose, Niels Bohr, Louis de Broglie, Max Born, Paul Dirac, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Erwin Schrödinger, John von Neumann, and Richard Feynman. They did their work in the first half of the 20th century.
Beyond Planck
Quantum mechanics formulae and ideas were made to explain the light that comes from glowing hydrogen. The quantum theory of the atom also had to explain why the electron stays in its orbit, which other ideas were not able to explain. It followed from the older ideas that the electron would have to fall in to the center of the atom because it starts out being kept in orbit by its own energy, but it would quickly lose its energy as it revolves in its orbit. (This is because electrons and other charged particles were known to emit light and lose energy when they changed speed or turned.)
Hydrogen lamps work like neon lights, but neon lights have their own unique group of colors (and frequencies) of light. Scientists learned that they could identify all elements by the light colors they produce. They just could not figure out how the frequencies were determined.
Then, a Swiss mathematician named Johann Balmer figured out an equation that told what λ (lambda, for wave length) would be:
where B is a number that Balmer determined to be equal to 364.56 nm.
This equation only worked for the visible light from a hydrogen lamp. But later, the equation was made more general:
where R is the Rydberg constant, equal to 0.0110 nm−1, and n must be greater than m.
Putting in different numbers for m and n, it is easy to predict frequencies for many types of light (ultraviolet, visible, and infared). To see how this works, go to Hyperphysics and go down past the middle of the page. (Use H = 1 for hydrogen.)
In 1908, Walter Ritz made the Ritz combination principle that shows how certain gaps between frequencies keep repeating themselves. This turned out to be important to Werner Heisenberg several years later.
In 1905, Albert Einstein used Planck's idea to show that a beam of light is made up of a stream of particles called photons. The energy of each photon depends on its frequency. Einstein's idea is the beginning of the idea in quantum mechanics that all subatomic particles like electrons, protons, neutrons, and others are both waves and particles at the same time. (See picture of atom with the electron as waves at atom.) This led to a theory about subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves called wave-particle duality. This is where particles and waves were neither one nor the other, but had certain properties of both.
In 1913, Niels Bohr came up with the idea that electrons could only take up certain orbits around the nucleus of an atom. Under Bohr's theory, the numbers called m and n in the equation above could represent orbits. Bohr's theory said electrons could begin in some orbit m and end up in some orbit n, or an electron could begin in some orbit n and end up in some orbit m so if a photon hits an electron, its energy will be absorbed, and the electron will move to a higher orbit because of that extra energy. Under Bohr's theory, if an electron falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit, then it will have to give up energy in the form of a photon. The energy of the photon will equal the energy difference between the two orbits, and the energy of a photon makes it have a certain frequency and color. Bohr's theory provided a good explanation of many aspects of subatomic phenomena, but failed to answer why each of the colors of light produced by glowing hydrogen (and by glowing neon or any other element) has a brightness of its own, and the brightness differences are always the same for each element.
By the time Niels Bohr came out with his theory, most things about the light produced by a hydrogen lamp were known, but scientists still could not explain the brightness of each of the lines produced by glowing hydrogen.
Werner Heisenberg took on the job of explaining the brightness or "intensity" of each line. He could not use any simple rule like the one Balmer had come up with. He had to use the very difficult math of classical physics that figures everything out in terms of things like the mass (weight) of an electron, the charge (static electric strength) of an electron, and other tiny quantities. Classical physics already had answers for the brightness of the bands of color that a hydrogen lamp produces, but the classical theory said that there should be a continuous rainbow, and not four separate color bands. Heisenberg's explanation is:
There is some law that says what frequencies of light glowing hydrogen will produce. It has to predict spaced-out frequencies when the electrons involved are moving between orbits close to the nucleus (center) of the atom, but it also has to predict that the frequencies will get closer and closer together as we look at what the electron does in moving between orbits farther and farther out. It will also predict that the intensity differences between frequencies get closer and closer together as we go out. Where classical physics already gives the right answers by one set of equations the new physics has to give the same answers but by different equations.
Classical physics uses the methods of the French mathematician Fourier to make a math picture of the physical world, and it uses collections of smooth curves that go together to make one smooth curve that gives, in this case, intensities for light of all frequencies from some light. But it is not right because that smooth curve only appears at higher frequencies. At lower frequencies, there are always isolated points and nothing connects the dots. So, to make a map of the real world, Heisenberg had to make a big change. He had to do something to pick out only the numbers that would match what was seen in nature. Sometimes people say he "guessed" these equations, but he was not making blind guesses. He found what he needed. The numbers that he calculated would put dots on a graph, but there would be no line drawn between the dots. And making one "graph" just of dots for every set of calculations would have wasted lots of paper and not have gotten anything done. Heisenberg found a way to efficiently predict the intensities for different frequencies and to organize that information in a helpful way.
Just using the empirical rule given above, the one that Balmer got started and Rydberg improved, we can see how to get one set of numbers that would help Heisenberg get the kind of picture that he wanted:
The rule says that when the electron moves from one orbit to another it either gains or loses energy, depending on whether it is getting farther from the center or nearer to it. So we can put these orbits or energy levels in as headings along the top and the side of a grid. For historical reasons the lowest orbit is called n, and the next orbit out is called n - a, then comes n - b, and so forth. It is confusing that they used negative numbers when the electrons were actually gaining energy, but that is just the way it is.
Since the Rydberg rule gives us frequencies, we can use that rule to put in numbers depending on where the electron goes. If the electron starts at n and ends up at n, then it has not really gone anywhere, so it did not gain energy and it did not lose energy. So the frequency is 0. If the electron starts at n-a and ends up at n, then it has fallen from a higher orbit to a lower orbit. If it does so then it loses energy, and the energy it loses shows up as a photon. The photon has a certain amount of energy, e, and that is related to a certain frequency f by the equation e = h f. So we know that a certain change of orbit is going to produce a certain frequency of light, f. If the electron starts at n and ends up at n - a, that means it has gone from a lower orbit to a higher orbit. That only happens when a photon of a certain frequency and energy comes in from the outside, is absorbed by the electron and gives it its energy, and that is what makes the electron go out to a higher orbit. So, to keep everything making sense, we write that frequency as a negative number. There was a photon with a certain frequency and now it has been taken away.
So we can make a grid like this, where f(a←b) means the frequency involved when an electron goes from energy state (orbit) b to energy state a (Again, sequences look backwards, but that is the way they were originally written.):
Grid of f
Heisenberg did not make the grids like this. He just did the math that would let him get the intensities he was looking for. But to do that he had to multiply two amplitudes (how high a wave measures) to work out the intensity. (In classical physics, intensity equals amplitude squared.) He made an odd-looking equation to handle this problem, wrote out the rest of his paper, handed it to his boss, and went on vacation. Dr. Born looked at his funny equation and it seemed a little crazy. He must have wondered, "Why did Heisenberg give me this strange thing? Why does he have to do it this way?" Then he realized that he was looking at a blueprint for something he already knew very well. He was used to calling the grid or table that we could write by doing, for instance, all the math for frequencies, a matrix. And Heisenberg's weird equation was a rule for multiplying two of them together. Max Born was a very, very good mathematician. He knew that since the two matrices (grids) being multiplied represented different things (like position (x,y,z) and momentum (mv), for instance), then when you multiply the first matrix by the second you get one answer and when you multiply the second matrix by the first matrix you get another answer. Even though he did not know about matrix math, Heisenberg already saw this "different answers" problem and it had bothered him. But Dr. Born was such a good mathematician that he saw that the difference between the first matrix multiplication and the second matrix multiplication was always going to involve Planck's constant, h, multiplied by the square root of negative one, i. So within a few days of Heisenberg's discovery they already had the basic math for what Heisenberg liked to call the "indeterminacy principle." By "indeterminate" Heisenberg meant that something like an electron is just not pinned down until it gets pinned down. It is a little like a jellyfish that is always squishing around and cannot be "in one place" unless you kill it. Later, people got in the habit of calling it "Heisenberg's uncertainty principle," which made many people make the mistake of thinking that electrons and things like that are really "somewhere" but we are just uncertain about it in our own minds. That idea is wrong. It is not what Heisenberg was talking about. Having trouble measuring something is a problem, but it is not the problem Heisenberg was talking about.
Heisenberg's idea is very hard to grasp, but we can make it clearer with an example. First, we will start calling these grids "matrices," because we will soon need to talk about matrix multiplication.
Suppose that we start with two kinds of measurements, position (q) and momentum (p). In 1925, Heisenberg wrote an equation like this one:
(Equation for the conjugate variables momentum and position)
He did not know it, but this equation gives a blueprint for writing out two matrices (grids) and for multiplying them. The rules for multiplying one matrix by another are a little messy, but here are the two matrices according to the blueprint, and then their product:
Matrix of p
Matrix of q
The matrix for the product of the above two matrices as specified by the relevant equation in Heisenberg's 1925 paper is:
Where:
A=p(n←n-a)*q(n-a←n-b)+p(n←n-b)*q(n-b←n-b)+p(n←n-c)*q(n-c←n-b)+.....
B=p(n-a←n-a)*q(n-a←n-c)+p(n-a←n-b)*q(n-b←n-c)+p(n-a←n-c)*q(n-c←n-c)+.....
C=p(n-b←n-a)*q(n-a←n-d)+p(n-b←n-b)*q(n-b←n-d)+p(n-b←n-c)*q(n-d←n-d)+.....
and so forth.
If the matrices were reversed, the following values would result:
A=q(n←n-a)*p(n-a←n-b)+q(n←n-b)*p(n-b←n-b)+q(n←n-c)*p(n-c←n-b)+.....
B=q(n-a←n-a)*p(n-a←n-c)+q(n-a←n-b)*p(n-b←n-c)+q(n-a←n-c)*p(n-c←n-c)+.....
C=q(n-b←n-a)*p(n-a←n-d)+q(n-b←n-b)*p(n-b←n-d)+q(n-b←n-c)*p(n-d←n-d)+.....
and so forth.
Note how changing the order of multiplication changes the numbers, step by step, that are actually multiplied.
Beyond Heisenberg
The work of Werner Heisenberg seemed to break a log jam. Very soon, many different other ways of explaining things came from people such as Louis de Broglie, Max Born, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, and Erwin Schrödinger. The work of each of these physicists is its own story. The math used by Heisenberg and earlier people is not very hard to understand, but the equations quickly grew very complicated as physicists looked more deeply into the atomic world.
Further mysteries
In the early days of quantum mechanics, Albert Einstein suggested that if it were right then quantum mechanics would mean that there would be "spooky action at a distance." It turned out that quantum mechanics was right, and that what Einstein had used as a reason to reject quantum mechanics actually happened. This kind of "spooky connection" between certain quantum events is now called "quantum entanglement".
When an experiment brings two things (photons, electrons, etc.) together, they must then share a common description in quantum mechanics. When they are later separated, they keep the same quantum mechanical description or "state." In the diagram, one characteristic (e.g., "up" spin) is drawn in red, and its mate (e.g., "down" spin) is drawn in blue. The purple band means that when, e.g., two electrons are put together the pair shares both characteristics. So both electrons could show either up spin or down spin. When they are later separated, one remaining on Earth and one going to some planet of the star Alpha Centauri, they still each have both spins. In other words, each one of them can "decide" to show itself as a spin-up electron or a spin-down electron. But if later on someone measures the other one, it must "decide" to show itself as having the opposite spin.
Einstein argued that over such a great distance it was crazy to think that forcing one electron to show its spin would then somehow make the other electron show an opposite characteristic. He said that the two electrons must have been spin-up or spin-down all along, but that quantum mechanics could not predict which characteristic each electron had. Being unable to predict, only being able to look at one of them with the right experiment, meant that quantum mechanics could not account for something important. Therefore, Einstein said, quantum mechanics had a big hole in it. Quantum mechanics was incomplete.
Later, it turned out that experiments showed that it was Einstein who was wrong.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
In 1925, Werner Heisenberg described the Uncertainty principle, which says that the more we know about where a particle is, the less we can know about how fast it is going and in which direction. In other words, the more we know about the speed and direction of something small, the less we can know about its position. Physicists usually talk about the momentum in such discussions instead of talking about speed. Momentum is just the speed of something in a certain direction times its mass.
The reason behind Heisenberg's uncertainty principle says that we can never know both the location and the momentum of a particle. Because light is an abundant particle, it is used for measuring other particles. The only way to measure it is to bounce the light wave off of the particle and record the results. If a high energy, or high frequency, light beam is used, we can tell precisely where it is, but cannot tell how fast it was going. This is because the high energy photon transfers energy to the particle and changes the particle's speed. If we use a low energy photon, we can tell how fast it is going, but not where it is. This is because we are using light with a longer wavelength. The longer wavelength means the particle could be anywhere along the stretch of the wave.
The principle also says that there are many pairs of measurements for which we cannot know both of them about any particle (a very small thing), no matter how hard we try. The more we learn about one of such a pair, the less we can know about the other.
Even Albert Einstein had trouble accepting such a bizarre concept, and in a well-known debate said, "God does not play dice".
To this, Danish physicist Niels Bohr famously responded, "Einstein, don't tell God what to do".
Uses of quantum mechanics
Electrons surround every atom's nucleus. Chemical bonds link atoms to form molecules. A chemical bond links two atoms when electrons are shared between those atoms. Thus quantum mechanics is the physics of the chemical bond and of chemistry. Quantum mechanics helps us understand how molecules are made, and what their properties are.
Quantum mechanics can also help us understand big things, such as stars and even the whole universe. Quantum mechanics is a very important part of the theory of how the universe began called the Big Bang.
Everything made of matter is attracted to other matter because of a fundamental force called gravity. Einstein's theory that explains gravity is called the theory of general relativity. A problem in modern physics is that some conclusions of quantum mechanics do not seem to agree with the theory of general relativity.
Quantum mechanics is the part of physics that can explain why all electronic technology works as it does. Thus quantum mechanics explains how computers work, because computers are electronic machines. But the designers of the early computer hardware of around 1950 or 1960 did not need to think about quantum mechanics. The designers of radios and televisions at that time did not think about quantum mechanics either. However, the design of the more powerful integrated circuits and computer memory technologies of recent years does require quantum mechanics.
Quantum mechanics has also made possible technologies such as:
Spectroscopy
Lasers
MRIs
CDs and DVDs
Why quantum mechanics is hard to learn
Quantum mechanics is a challenging subject for several reasons:
Quantum mechanics explains things in very different ways from what we learn about the world when we are children.
Understanding quantum mechanics requires more mathematics than algebra and simple calculus. It also requires matrix algebra, complex numbers, probability theory, and partial differential equations.
Physicists are not sure what some of the equations of quantum mechanics tell us about the real world.
Quantum mechanics suggests that atoms and subatomic particles behave in strange ways, completely unlike anything we see in our everyday lives.
Quantum mechanics describes things that are extremely small, so we cannot see some of them without special equipment, and we cannot see many of them at all.
Quantum mechanics describes nature in a way that is different from how we usually think about science. It tells us how likely to happen some things are, rather than telling us that they certainly will happen.
One example is Young's double-slit experiment. If we shoot single photons (single units of light) from a laser at a sheet of photographic film, we will see a single spot of light on the developed film. If we put a sheet of metal in between, and make two very narrow slits in the sheet, when we fire many photons at the metal sheet, and they have to go through the slits, then we will see something remarkable. All the way across the sheet of developed film we will see a series of bright and dark bands. We can use mathematics to tell exactly where the bright bands will be and how bright the light was that made them, that is, we can tell ahead of time how many photons will fall on each band. But if we slow the process down and see where each photon lands on the screen we can never tell ahead of time where the next one will show up. We can know for sure that it is most likely that a photon will hit the center bright band, and that it gets less and less likely that a photon will show up at bands farther and farther from the center. So we know for sure that the bands will be brightest at the center and get dimmer and dimmer farther away. But we never know for sure which photon will go into which band.
One of the strange conclusions of quantum mechanics theory is the "Schrödinger's cat" effect. Certain properties of a particle, such as their position, speed of motion, direction of motion, and "spin", cannot be talked about until something measures them (a photon bouncing off of an electron would count as a measurement of its position, for example). Before the measurement, the particle is in a "superposition of states," in which its properties have many values at the same time. Schrödinger said that quantum mechanics seemed to say that if something (such as the life or death of a cat) was determined by a quantum event, then its state would be determined by the state that resulted from the quantum event, but only at the time that somebody looked at the state of the quantum event. In the time before the state of the quantum event is looked at, perhaps "the living and dead cat (pardon
the expression) [are] mixed or smeared out in equal parts."
Reduced Planck's constant
People often use the symbol , which is called "h-bar." . H-bar is a unit of angular momentum. When this new unit is used to describe the orbits of electrons in atoms, the angular momentum of any electron in orbit is always a whole number.
Example
The particle in a 1-dimensional well is the most simple example showing that the energy of a particle can only have specific values. The energy is said to be "quantized."
The well has zero potential energy inside a range and has infinite potential energy everywhere outside that range. For the 1-dimensional case in the direction, the time-independent Schrödinger equation can be written as:
Using differential equations, we can figure out that can be written as
or as
(by Euler's formula).
The walls of the box mean that the wavefunction must have a special form. The wavefunction of the particle must be zero anytime the walls are infinitely tall. At each wall:
Consider x = 0
sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1. To satisfy the cos term has to be removed. Hence D = 0
Now consider:
at ,
If then for all x. This solution is not useful.
therefore must be true, giving us
We can see that must be an integer. This means that the particle can only have special energy values and cannot have the energy values in between. This is an example of energy "quantization."
Related pages
Electromagnetic wave
Electron
Photon
Quantum entanglement
Quantum computer
Schrödinger equation
References
Feynman, Richard, 1985. The Strange Theory of Light and Matter . Princeton University Press.
McEvoy, J.P. and Oscar Zarate, 1996. Introducing Quantum Theory. Icon Books.
Notes
More reading
Other websites
A history of quantum mechanics
Introduction to Quantum Theory at Quantiki
Quantum mechanics - Citizendium
Basic physics ideas
Mechanics
Nuclear physics
Quantum mechanics |
7151 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duisburg | Duisburg | Duisburg (; Westphalian: Duisborg, Ripuarian: Duisburch, Low Franconian: Duusbörg) is a German city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It is where the Rhine and the Ruhr rivers meet. About 500,000 people live in Duisburg.
References
Imperial free cities
Urban districts in Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf |
7152 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuopio | Kuopio | Kuopio is a city in Northern Savonia, Finland. It is the biggest city and cultural center of Eastern Finland. In November 2015 the population was about 112.000. It is the 8th biggest city in Finland.
The city is surrounded by lake Kallavesi. Many parts of the city are built on islands. Kuopio has always been a city of education. Two important schools are the University of Eastern Finland and the Savonia University of Applied Sciences.
History
In 2011 the town of Karttula merged with Kuopio. In 2013 Nilsiä merged as well. In 2015, Maaninka merged with the city. In 2017 Juankoski merged with the city.
Twin towns — Sister cities
Kuopio is twinned with:
References
Cities in Finland
Municipalities of Northern Savonia |
7156 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer | Hammer | A hammer is a tool for putting nails into objects such as wood. It has a long handle, and a tip with a flat end for hitting nails. The most common type of hammer (sometimes called a claw hammer) has a curved end (on the other side of the hitting end) for pulling nails out.
A sledgehammer is a hammer that has a longer shaft, and a more massive head. The user can swing it with two hands and apply more force.
History
Hammers were used around 3.3 million years ago. The first hammers were made without handles. Stones attached to sticks with strips of leather or animal sinew were being used. Hammers with handles were made in 30,000 BCE during the middle of the Paleolithic Stone Age. The hammer was used for building, food and protection.
Classification of hammers
Hammers can be classified into two. They are:
Hand-powered hammers
Hand-powered hammers are hammers that are used with the hand. Examples include:
Ball-peen hammer
Boiler scaling hammer
Brass hammer
Bricklayer's hammer
Carpenter's hammer
Cow hammer
Cross-peen hammer
Dead blow hammer
Demolition hammer
Drilling hammer
Electrician's hammer
Engineer's hammer
Gavel
Geologist's hammer
Knife-edged hammer
Lathe hammer
Lump hammer
Magnetic double-head hammer
Magnetic tack hammer
Mallet
Railway track keying hammer
Rock climbing hammer
Rounding hammer
Shingler's hammer
Sledgehammer
Soft-faced hammer
Splitting maul
Strike Tack hammer
Stonemason's hammer
Tinner
Upholstery hammer
Warrington hammer
Welder's chipping hammer
Mechanically-powered hammer
Mechanically-powered hammers are hammers that are used with a machine. Examples include:
Hammer drill
High Frequency Impact Treatment hammer
Jackhammer
Steam hammer
Trip hammer
Hammers as weapons
Big hammers were sometimes used as weapons. A tiny hammer is also used inside most small arms.
References
Basic English 850 words
Tools |
7158 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feces | Feces | Feces (or faeces), also called poo (generally British English), poop, shit, dookie, stool, or number 2 is the body's solid waste left over from eating food. Human feces leave the intestinal tract and are removed from the body through the anus. Feces are known for their unpleasant odor. The color, which can range from dark green through brown (the most common color) to bright yellow, depends on a lot of different things; for example, different foods can change the color of feces, as can some illnesses, like diarrhea. The consistency of feces changes too. In humans it is measured using the Bristol stool scale, a system for separating feces into 7 different types. It is used for medical diagnosis.
Although feces are generally thought to be waste, they actually have many uses. Feces are used by some scientists to follow animal populations. Feces from animals and humans can be used to create fertilizers for plant crops. Some feces are also used as a fuel for fires.
In informal language, there are many words for feces. These are often offensive or even vulgar. Examples include "shit", "poop", and "crap".
References
Related pages
Diarrhea
Constipation
Coprophagia
Urine
Sanitation
Digestive system |
7160 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicism | Catholicism | Catholicism is the traditions and beliefs of Catholic Churches. It refers to their theology, liturgy, morals and spirituality. The term usually refers to churches, both western and eastern, that are in full communion with the Holy See.
In 2012, there were more than 1.1 billion Catholics worldwide. This makes up more than 17% of the world population.
The word "Catholicism" comes from the Greek word catholikismos (). This means "according to the whole".
Characteristics
The word "Catholicism" refers to many things, including its religious beliefs (called theologies and "doctrines"), and its form of religious worship (called liturgies). The word also refers to Catholic religious beliefs about ethics (things that are right and wrong). It also refers to the ways that members of the Catholic religion live and practice their religion.
Many people use the word Catholicism to talk about religious beliefs of the Catholic Church, whose leader is called the "Bishop of Rome" and often called the "Pope". The Catholic Church is based in the Vatican City, a small independent country in the city of Rome, Italy. Sometimes the word also refers to beliefs of other Christian churches, including the Eastern Orthodox Churches, who have many beliefs similar to the Catholic Church, but do not believe the Bishop of Rome is their leader.
The word Catholicism is often used to tell the difference between the beliefs of Catholic Christians and the beliefs of others called Protestant Christians. Catholic and Orthodox churches use church leaders, called bishops, to determine beliefs. Protestants, however, often use each member's own understanding of the Bible to determine beliefs. Protestants use guidelines from the 16th-century Protestant Reformation to understand the Bible. It is the world's second largest religious denomination after Sunnism.
Where the word Catholic came from
The oldest document that uses the name "Catholic Church" is a letter written by a man named Ignatius. Ignatius lived in the ancient city of Antioch. In the year 107, Ignatius wrote a letter addressed to the Christian community in the ancient city of Smyrna. In this letter, Ignatius encouraged the Christian Community to be loyal to their leader, the Bishop. Ignatius wrote:
"Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude of the people also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."
Groups who call themselves "Catholic"
Many different denominations (groups) of Christians call themselves "catholic". Often these groups have special beliefs about their leaders, called bishops. They believe Jesus of Nazareth (whom Christians believe is the Son of God) appointed the first bishops, who appointed future bishops, who eventually appointed each community's current bishops. This appointing of leaders is called "Apostolic Succession".
The groups that use the term "Catholic" to talk about themselves are the:
Catholic Church, which is also called the Roman Catholic Church.
Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox
Old Catholic, Anglican, and some Lutheran and other groups
Communities that believe they lost their "Apostolic Succession", but asked a different community to "ordain" new leaders for them. ("Ordain" or consecrate" is a word for the ceremony that makes a bishop or new religious leader.)
Not all communities believe that other communities use the term "catholic" properly. Also, not all communities believe that the other communities have apostolic succession either. For example, the Catholic Church believes that the Eastern Orthodox have apostolic succession. However, the Catholic Church does not believe that the Anglicans or Lutherans have it.
Eastern Orthodox have similar beliefs about Anglicans and Lutherans. Not all Eastern Orthodox believe that the Catholic Church has apostolic succession. Different members of the Eastern Orthodox churches have different opinions.
However, the Anglicans and Lutherans generally believe that all Christians are part of the "catholic" church. These groups have a very different understanding of the term "Catholic".
History
How it was started
Catholicism was started as a result of Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish man whom Christians believe is the Son of God, a Christian belief known as the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). Catholics believe Jesus to be a descendant of David, a Jewish king from a long time ago. Jesus was crucified by the Romans in the year 33 AD. Catholics believe Jesus rose from the dead, and spoke to his followers, called the twelve Apostles. They also believe that Jesus rose into Heaven, and then sent the Holy Spirit to guide his followers at an event known as Pentecost.
One of his followers, the apostle named Saint Peter, was appointed leader by Jesus and later became recognized as the first Pope, or Bishop of Rome, soon after that he was captured and was martyred in Rome. Catholics believe that Saint Peter was given the "keys of the Kingdom of Heaven," meaning that Jesus made him and the apostles in charge of forgiving sins. Catholics believe that Saint Peter passed the Apostolic Power (the ability to ordain priests and consecrate the Eucharist), given to him by Christ, to the Popes, who continue to pass the power through the papacy to this day. At the current time, the pope is Pope Francis, who is the leader of the Catholic Church. The word pope comes from the Latin word for "father."
In 325, the First Council of Nicaea agreed on how to organize the church. The council agreed the Church had five patriarchs (patriarch was the highest type of church leader). The five leaders were the archbishops of Rome (the Pope), Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and Jerusalem. The Patriarch of Rome, was honored as "first among equals."
Quarrels within the church
In time, several groups split off from the Catholic Church because of differing opinions of theology. This caused breaks from the Church called schisms. Most schisms happened because people had different beliefs about what is true.
In 451, a church division happened when all the church leaders meeting at the Church Council in the city of Chalcedon excommunicated (cut off) three leaders, because they held to monophysitism and would not accept the view that Jesus had two natures (fully divine and fully human). These three were the bishops of Egypt, Syria, and Armenia. Of course, these three bishops did not accept being excommunicated either, so the churches under them are still known today as Oriental Orthodox Churches.
In 1054, an Eastern part of the Catholic Church severed itself, in the East-West Schism. The church in Western Europe which followed the Pope, became known as the Roman Catholic Church. The churches in the rest of the world, which did not think that the Pope should lead all Christians, became known as the Orthodox Church. "Orthodox" means "correct belief;" as they believe that they have kept the teachings of the early church, and the Roman Catholics have not.
The next big secession was the Protestant Reformation. Protestants resisted the valid central authority of the Church in Rome and rejected many practices, beliefs and disciplines. The Reformation started in Germany, where Martin Luther sent his demands for change to the Church. Because of politics in Europe, many nations supported Luther. The Lutheran Church was started. Later the Calvinist or Presbyterian Church started.
In England, King Henry VIII started the Anglican church. He wanted to divorce his first wife; but the Pope wouldn't allow it, as the marriage was valid. At first, the church of King Henry VIII, the Church of England, was very similar to the Catholic Church. The major difference was that the king was head of the church, instead of the Pope. Later, under his son, Edward VI, the Anglican Church became more reformed or Protestant. Anglicans, and several other Protestant denominations, still believe they are reformed Catholics. Puritanism arose among Anglicans who thought the reforms didn't go far enough.
After the Reformation, many other Churches began because of disagreements over beliefs and practices of earlier Protestant doctrine. According to the 2010 U.S. Religious Congregations and Membership Study, this accounts for most of the Protestant denominations in the United States. There are about 314,000 of these. Two examples of these Protestant (or Reformed) churches are Methodist and Baptist.
Religious Beliefs
The same aspects of Catholic and other Christians
The Ten Commandment
The belief that God knows everything, that God has unlimited power, and that everything God does is good
The belief that Jesus Christ died for the sins of the world, rose again, and one day "will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead."
The importance of worshipping God.
The infallibility of the bible
What is different from Eastern Orthodox Christians
The supremacy of the Bishop of Rome (also known as the pope)
the Filioque clause (Nicene creed)
What is different from mainstream Protestants
Catholics believe in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist (this is called Transubstantiation).
Roman Catholics believe God forgives sins through the sacrament of reconciliation (penance), which is performed through a priest, while most Protestants do not believe in the sacrament.
Roman Catholics believe it is important to live by Scripture and Tradition, which the teaching of the Church's Magisterium (the bishops in communion with the Pope) come from, while most Protestants believe in Sola Scriptura (the Bible alone)
Roman Catholics believe that papal authority (in very specific, solemn occasions called "ex Cathedra") and the Bible are infallible, while most Protestants believe in an infallible Bible but not an infallible Pope. Papal infallibility has been declared twice in the history of the Catholic Church. Once to state that Mary was conceived without sin and another to state that Mary was assumed into heaven body and soul.
The Bible Roman Catholics use often include a few texts that are usually not used by Protestants. The best known are called the Deuterocanonical books.
Roman Catholics venerate saints, especially the Virgin Mary (Mother of God). "Venerating saints" means that Roman Catholics give special honor to saints (people in heaven) because they believe that saints can pray for them directly to God. Many Protestants do not, because they regard "venerating saints" as "worshiping saints". Because they believe that only God should be worshipped, they do not venerate. Many Protestants also simply do not believe that any veneration is necessary.
Catholics have an elaborate mariology, while most Protestants do not.
References
Other websites
Catholicism -Citizendium |
7161 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nail | Nail | A nail is a metal object with a flat head and a long, sharp tip. A hammer or nail gun is used to put it into another object. It is often used to join two objects together.
The history of the nail came in three periods:
Hand-wrought (forged) nail (pre-history until 19th century)
Cut nail (roughly 1800 to 1914)
Wire nail (roughly 1860 to the present)
Nails date back at least to Ancient Egypt – bronze nails found in Egypt have been dated 3400 BC. The Bible has references to nails. King David gave iron to make nails for what would become Solomon's Temple.
The Romans made extensive use of nails. The Roman army left behind seven tons of nails when it evacuated the fortress of Inchtuthil in Perthshire, Scotland, in 86 or 87 AD.
References
Basic English 850 words
Hardware (mechanical) |
7162 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship | Dictatorship | A dictatorship is a form of government, where one person effectively has all the power to run a country. In very few cases, a small group of people holds this power. This person is called a dictator. A dictatorship that is ruled by soldiers is called a military dictatorship or junta. An absolute monarchy (the system where there are Kings and Queens who have full power over their country) can be considered to be a dictatorship, but the people are usually not called dictators.
Roman dictators were temporary rulers appointed to protect the state during a war or other emergency. Many countries have laws that allow a similarly time-limited dictatorship, to fight against such problems. Karl Marx has the idea of the Dictatorship of the proletariat. When they became independent in the 1960s and 1970s, many African states changed to be dictatorships, run by one person. Karl Popper distinguished between two different forms of government, "Those where it is possible to change the government without bloodshed, in a popular vote, and those where it isn't." He said that this was the key difference, and not how the forms of government are named.
Dictators often come to power in times of difficulty, such as massive unemployment, inflation, and unrest among the population. Dictators are normally backed by powerful groups, such as landowners, private company owners, bank owners and in some cases institutions like the Roman Catholic Church to put in place law and order by force. This force may be directed at the poorer parts of society, such as unemployed workers, ethnic minorities, working class areas andshanty towns. Examples of this are the dictatorships in Latin America and the prosecution of the Jewish community in 1940s Germany.
Dictators normally need to do a number of things to put in place their dictatorships: they need to get rid of their opponents (which may be political or religious) - some are imprisoned, exiled (sent outside their country) or killed. Dictators will then need to prohibit (or not allow) political parties that oppose their rule. They will confiscate the political parties' property or offices and such things. Dictators may suppress or persecute some religious groups or institutions. Dictators will also need to undo or close down democratic institutions such as parliament and in some cases the congress.
Some social organizations, such as civil rights groups, human rights organisations, legal aid centers, students' unions, teachers' federations, trade or workers unions are also undone and those who persist with such activities may be killed. Dictators often rewrite an existing constitution or put in place a completely new one. This makes their power constitutional (which then cannot be disputed). Dictators then maintain their rule with state terrorism, which normally involves a secret police, death squads, random or night curfew, indefinite arrest without trial and a network of torture centers and concentration camps. Some dictatorships create a fictional (or non existent) internal (inside their country) enemy which they claim to be at war with to justify (give reason for) their use of much military violence against their people.
Recent dictators
Africa
Latin America
Asia
Europe
References
Forms of government |
7163 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity | Electricity | Electricity is the presence and flow of electric charge. Using electricity we can transfer energy in ways that allow us to do simple chores. Its best-known form is the flow of electrons through conductors such as copper wires.
The word "electricity" is sometimes used to mean "electrical energy". They are not the same thing: electricity is a transmission medium for electrical energy, like sea water is a transmission medium for wave energy. An item which allows electricity to move through it is called a conductor. Copper wires and other metal items are good conductors, allowing electricity to move through them and transmit electrical energy. Plastic is a bad conductor (also called an insulator) and doesn’t allow much electricity to move through it so it will stop the transmission of electrical energy.
Transmission of electrical energy can happen naturally (such as lightning), or be made by people (such as in a generator). It can be used to power machines and electrical devices. When electrical charges are not moving, electricity is called static electricity. When the charges are moving they are an electric current, sometimes called 'dynamic electricity'. Lightning is the most known - and dangerous - kind of electric current in nature, but sometimes static electricity causes things to stick together in nature as well.
Electricity can be dangerous, especially around water because water is a form of good conductor as it has impurities like salt in it. Salt can help electricity flow. Since the nineteenth century, electricity has been used in every part of our lives. Until then, it was just a curiosity seen in the lightning of a thunderstorm.
Electrical energy can be created if a magnet passes close to a metal wire. This is the method used by a generator. The biggest generators are in power stations. Electrical energy can also be released by combining chemicals in a jar with two different kinds of metal rods. This is the method used in a battery. Static electricity can be created through the friction between two materials - for instance a wool cap and a plastic ruler. This may make a spark. Electrical energy can also be created using energy from the sun, as in photovoltaic cells.
Electrical energy arrives at homes through wires from the places where it is made. It is used by electric lamps, electric heaters, etc. Many appliances such as washing machines and electric cookers use electricity. In factories, electrical energy powers machines. People who deal with electricity and electrical devices in our homes and factories are called "electricians".
History
The idea of electricity, or the fact that amber acquires the power to attract light objects when rubbed, may have been known to the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus, who lived about 600 B.C.
Another Greek philosopher, Theophrastus, stated in a treatise that this power is possessed by other substances.
The first scientific study of electrical and magnetic phenomena, however, did not appear until A.D. 1600, from research done by the English physician William Gilbert. Gilbert was the first to apply the term electric (Greek, elektron, "amber") to the force that substances exerted after being rubbed. He also distinguished between magnetic and electric action.
Ben Franklin spent much time in electrical research. His famous kite experiment proved that the atmospheric electricity (that causes the phenomena of lightning and thunder) is identical with the electrostatic charge on a Leyden jar. Franklin developed his theory that electricity is a single "fluid" existing in all matter, and that its effects can be explained by excesses and shortages of this fluid.
How electricity works
There are two types of electric charges that push and pull on each other: positive charges and negative charges. Electric charges push or pull on each other if they are not touching. This is possible because each charge makes an electric field around itself. An electric field is an area that surrounds a charge. At each point near a charge, the electric field points in a certain direction. If a positive charge is put at that point, it will be pushed in that direction. If a negative charge is put at that point, it will be pushed in the exact opposite direction.
It works like magnets, and in fact, electricity creates a magnetic field, in which similar charges repel each other and opposite charges attract. This means that if you put two negatives close together and let them go, they would move apart. The same is true for two positive charges. But if you put a positive charge and a negative charge close together, they would pull towards each other. A short way to remember this is the phrase opposites attract, likes repel.
All the matter in the universe is made of tiny particles with positive, negative or neutral charges. The positive charges are called protons, and the negative charges are called electrons. Protons are much heavier than electrons, but they both have the same amount of electric charge, except that protons are positive and electrons are negative. Because "opposites attract," protons and electrons stick together. A few protons and electrons can form bigger particles called atoms and molecules. Atoms and molecules are still very tiny. They are too small to see. Any big object, like your finger, has more atoms and molecules in it than anyone can count. We can only estimate how many there are.
Because negative electrons and positive protons stick together to make big objects, all big objects that we can see and feel are electrically neutral. Electrically is a word meaning "describing electricity", and neutral is a word meaning "balanced." That is why we do not feel objects pushing and pulling on us from a distance, as they would if everything was electrically charged. All big objects are electrically neutral because there is the same amount of positive and negative charge in the world. We could say that the world is exactly balanced, or neutral. Scientists still do not know why this is so.
Electric current
The electrons can move all around the material. Protons never move around a solid object because they are so heavy, at least compared to the electrons. A material that lets electrons move around is called a conductor. A material that keeps each electron tightly in place is called an insulator. Examples of conductors are copper, aluminum, silver, and gold. Examples of insulators are rubber, plastic, and wood. Copper is used very often as a conductor because it is a very good conductor and there is so much of it in the world. Copper is found in electrical wires. But sometimes, other materials are used.
Inside a conductor, electrons bounce around, but they do not keep going in one direction for long. If an electric field is set up inside the conductor, the electrons will all start to move in the direction opposite to the direction the field is pointing (because electrons are negatively charged). A battery can make an electric field inside a conductor. If both ends of a piece of wire are connected to the two ends of a battery (called the electrodes), the loop that was made is called an electrical circuit. Electrons will flow around and around the circuit as long as the battery is making an electric field inside the wire. This flow of electrons around the circuit is called electric current.
A conducting wire used to carry electric current is often wrapped in an insulator such as rubber. This is because wires that carry current are very dangerous. If a person or an animal touched a bare wire carrying current, they could get hurt or even die depending on how strong the current was and how much electrical energy the current is transmitting. You should be careful around electrical sockets and bare wires that might be carrying current.
It is possible to connect an electrical device to a circuit so that electrical current will flow through a device. This current will transmit electrical energy to make the device do something that we want it to do. Electrical devices can be very simple. For example, in a light bulb, current carries energy through a special wire called a filament, which makes it glow. Electrical devices can also be very complicated. Electrical energy can be used to drive an electric motor inside a tool like a drill or a pencil sharpener. Electrical energy is also used to power modern electronic devices, including telephones, computers, and televisions.
Some terms related to electricity
Here are a few terms that a person can come across when studying how electricity works. The study of electricity and how it makes electrical circuits possible is called electronics. There is a field of engineering called electrical engineering, where people come up with new things using electricity. All of these terms are important for them to know.
Current is the amount of electric charge that flows. When 1 coulomb of electricity moves past somewhere in 1 second, the current is 1 ampere. To measure current at one point, we use an ammeter.
Voltage, also called "potential difference", is the "push" behind the current. It is the amount of work per electric charge that an electric source can do. When 1 coulomb of electricity has 1 joule of energy, it will have 1 volt of electric potential. To measure voltage between two points, we use a voltmeter.
Resistance is the ability of a substance to "slow" the flow of the current, that is, to reduce the rate at which the charge flows through the substance. If an electric voltage of 1 volt maintains a current of 1 ampere through a wire, the resistance of the wire is 1 ohm - this is called Ohm's law. When the flow of current is opposed, energy gets "used up" which means it is converted to other forms (such as light, heat, sound or movement)
Electrical energy is the ability to do work by means of electric devices. Electric energy is a "conserved" property, meaning that it behaves like a substance and can be moved from place to place (for example, along a transmission medium or in a battery). Electric energy is measured in joules or kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is being used, stored, or transferred. Flow of electrical energy along power lines are measured in watts. If the electric energy is being converted to another form of energy, it is measured in watts. If some of it is converted and some of it is stored, it is measured in volt-amperes, or if it is stored (as in electric or magnetic fields), it is measured in volt-ampere reactive.
Generating electrical energy
Electrical energy is mostly generated in places called power stations. Most power stations use heat to boil water into steam which turns a steam engine. The steam engine's turbine turns a machine called a 'generator'. Coiled wires inside the generator are made to spin in a magnetic field. This causes electricity to flow through the wires, carrying electrical energy. This process is called electromagnetic induction. Michael Faraday discovered how to do this.
Many sources of heat can be used to boil water for generators. Heat sources may use renewable energy resources in which the supply of heat energy never runs out and non-renewable energy resources in which the supply will be eventually used up.
Sometimes a natural flow, such as wind power or water power, can be used directly to turn a generator so no heat is needed.
References
Other websites
Electricity -Citizendium
Basic English 850 words |
7164 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor%20Moon | Sailor Moon | Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon or Sailor Moon is a shojo manga by Naoko Takeuchi. It was adapted to an anime series by Toei Animation CO., LTD. Sailor Moon was one of the most popular anime/manga series during the 1990s, spanning five seasons, four movies, and multiple video games. It continues to hold a strong fanbase with many fansites devoted to it.
Summary
Usagi (Serena in English) is an eighth grader who is clumsy, a crybaby and who also gets bad grades. One day, she meets a talking cat named Luna, who tells her that she is Sailor Moon, a superhero. She has to fight monsters to save people from getting their energy stolen by evil beings. Usagi has some friends who fight evil along with her. They are named Sailor Mercury, Sailor Venus, Sailor Mars, and Sailor Jupiter. They make up a team called the Sailor Senshi (Senshi means soldier or guardian in Japanese). The Sailor Senshi are named after different planets in the solar system. Each of the Sailor Senshi uses magical powers to become a Sailor Senshi. They are also young Japanese girls. Their real names are not Sailor Mercury, Sailor Venus, Sailor Mars, and Sailor Jupiter. For example, when Sailor Mercury is not fighting evil, her name is Ami Mizuno (Amy in English). The name of Sailor Venus is Minako Aino (Mina in English). The name of Sailor Mars is Rei Hino (Raye in English). The name of Sailor Jupiter is Makoto Kino (Lita in English). Each of them has a transformation sequence where they turn into their Sailor Senshi form, with many colourful effects.
Mamoru Chiba (called Darien Chiba in the English manga and Darien Shields in the English anime) is Usagi's boyfriend. He uses magic powers to transform into a man named Tuxedo Mask, who fights evil along with the Sailor Senshi. In the future, Usagi and Mamoru get married and become the king and queen of the earth. Their daughter, named Chibiusa (Rini in the English version), travels through time to help them and the Sailor Senshi.
Usagi has a cat named Luna, named after the Latin word for moon. Minako has a cat named Artemis after the Greek goddess of the moon (although Artemis is a male cat). Luna and Artemis are not ordinary cats. They can talk, and they have moon symbols on their foreheads. They can also turn into humans in the manga, and Luna turns into a human in one of the anime movies. In the future, they have a kitten named Diana (Diana is the name of the Roman moon goddess).
Later on there are some other Sailor Senshi. They are named after the planets Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto (now a dwarf planet). Sailor Saturn's real name is Hotaru Tomoe. Sailor Uranus' real name is Haruka Tenoh (Amara in English). Sailor Neptune's real name is Michiru Kaioh (Michelle in English). Sailor Pluto's real name is Setsuna Meioh (Trista in English). In the manga and anime series, Haruka and Michiru are lesbians, but in the English anime they were changed to cousins. This is because the English anime was made for younger children than the anime series.
Each Sailor Senshi has different powers. Sailor Moon has powers of love and healing. Sailor Mercury has powers of water and ice. Sailor Mars has fire powers, Sailor Jupiter has electricity and plant powers, and Sailor Venus has light and energy powers. Sailor Chibi Moon, (called Sailor Mini Moon in the English version) has love and sugar powers. Sailor Saturn is death and rebirth, Sailor Neptune is water, Sailor Uranus is earth, and Sailor Pluto has time and death powers. Tuxedo Mask can throw roses against enemies.
The Manga
In the manga there are five series: Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon, Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon R(eturn/omance), Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon Super Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon SuperS Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon Stars. Sailor Moon was originally serialized in the Japanese manga magazine by Kodansha. Afterwards Kodansha published the completed series in volumes. There are eighteen volumes total.
The Anime
The anime stayed close to the story from the manga. However, due to its popularity, Toei made more seasons and produced movies. Sailor Moon was licensed to be aired in the United States by DIC Entertainment (a company that makes TV and film). DIC cut out some scenes and changed some of the dialogue to make it more acceptable for children. Many anime fans did not like the changes. Due to their complaints, ADV Films and later Pioneer Inc. made uncut versions.
The following TV series and movies were made:
Original TV Series (1992-1997)
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon R
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon S
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon SuperS
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon Stars
Revived TV Series (2014-present)
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon Crystal
Movies
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon R: The Movie
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon S: The Movie
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon SuperS: The Movie
Worldwide date
December 28, 1991 (Japan)
March 3, 1992 (UK)
May 14, 1992 (France)
July 10, 1992 (Italy)
November 24, 1993 (USA)
January 19, 1994 (Australia)
March 10, 1994 (Mexico)
April 3, 1994 (Brazil)
June 28, 1994 (Germany)
July 10, 1994 (Iceland)
October 7, 1994 (New Zealand)
February 5, 1995 (Ireland)
June 19, 1995 (Canada)
August 10, 1995 (Spain)
October 20, 1995 (Portugal)
November 30, 1995 (Turkey)
December 10, 1995 (Taiwan)
March 20, 1996 (South Korea)
May 10, 1996 (Egypt)
July 20, 1996 (Israel)
September 10, 1996 (India)
December 20, 1996 (Russia)
March 10, 1997 (Poland)
May 20, 1997 (Netherlands)
July 10, 1997 (Hungary)
References
Manga
Anime
Animated television series
1995 television series debuts
2000 television series endings |
7167 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthetic | Anesthetic | An anesthetic or anaesthetic is a substance that stops pain. It makes people either stop hurting, or go completely to sleep during surgery. Anesthetic can be rubbed onto the skin, given by injection ("shot"), or given as a gas to breathe. The use of an anesthetic is called anaesthesia. Anaesthesia blocks the pain during operations. This lets patients undergo surgery and other procedures without the distress and pain they would normally feel. It comes from Greek roots an-, "without" and aesthetos, "perceptible, able to feel".
The modern anesthetic was created by Joseph Lister. Before it, people sometimes used cocaine, alcohol, and other drugs. Modern anaesthesia is highly complex and often involves a combination of anaesthesia, analgesia and muscle relaxation to enable physicians to do their part. These three tasks are known as the triad of anaesthesia.
Related pages
Anesthesiologist
Nitrous oxide
Sedative
Drugs
Pain |
7169 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel%20Castro | Fidel Castro | Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz ( ) (August 13, 1926 – November 25, 2016) was a Cuban revolutionary and politician. He was Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, and President from 1976 to 2008. He temporarily gave power to his brother Raúl Castro while recovering from surgery in summer of 2006. On February 19, 2008, he announced that he would not return to power. He was in power for 49 years.
Early Life
Castro was born in Birán, Cuba on August 13, 1926. He received a doctorate of law from the University of Havana. He was trained as a military lawyer. He came to power after he and his guerrilla soldiers overthrew the dictatorship of General Fulgencio Batista.
Background
Castro was a communist and he made Cuba the first socialist country of the Americas. During the Cold War he was a friend of the Soviet Union, and he depended on their help until the USSR collapsed. An important moment of the Cold War was the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. In October 1962 the United States of America discovered that the Soviet Union was placing missiles on Cuba, close to the United States. After very tense talking, a big nuclear war was avoided between the Soviet Union and the USA.
Some people call Castro a dictator. They criticize him, because they think he has ignored some human rights, for example, torture, murder and oppression of freedom of speech, both at home and in African countries where he sent Cuban soldiers to spread Communism. Other people do not think this is true. For example, Nelson Mandela has spoken in support of Castro and has thanked him for aid to Africa. Amnesty International criticized Cuba's human rights record but noted slow progress in July of 2002. Supporters of Castro say he gave Cuba the best health care and education of Latin America and created equality between the poor and the rich.
Personal Life
Castro's first wife was Mirta Díaz - Balart. They married in October 1948. They had a son Fidel Ángel "Fidelito" Castro Díaz-Balart, born in September 1949. Díaz-Balart and Castro divorced in 1955. In 1980, Castro married Dalia Soto del Valle. Their marriage would end with Castro's death in 2016.
Death
On November 25, 2016, Castro died at age 90 of natural causes in Havana, Cuba. President Raúl Castro, his brother, announced Fidel's death on state television. His remains were later cremated on November 26, 2016.
References
Other websites
By Fidel Castro
Archive of Fidel Castro's speeches in 6 languages
About Fidel Castro
Guide to the Cuban Revolution Collection, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library
1926 births
2016 deaths
Communist politicians
Cuban military people
Presidents of Cuba
Prime ministers
Former dictators
Socialists
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church |
7170 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin%20America | Latin America | Latin America is the part of the Americas where the people speak Romance languages: Spanish or Portugese. This includes most of South America and Central America (sometimes also the Caribbean islands).
The places in the Americas in Canada and the United States) which speak French are not part of Latin America, although French is also a Romance language.
Latin America has vibrant artistic and cultural traditions. Latin American literature, music, and arts are world famous.
Demographics
Largest cities
The following is a list of the ten largest metropolitan areas in Latin America.
Ethnic groups
People in Latin America are part of several ethnic groups and races. The majority of Latin Americans are Mestizo and some others are Mulatto, Black, Zambo, and Asian.
Native American or indigenous. The Native population in Latin America, came during the Lithic stage. There are more than sixty million of these people. They are the majority only in Bolivia, Peru, and Guatemala. In Ecuador they are a large minority of about 1/4 of the population. Mexico's Native American population is nearly 30%, and is also one of the largest American Indian population in the Americas in terms of absolute numbers. Most of the remaining countries have Native American minorities.
European. In the 1500s, many Iberian colonists came to what is now Latin America. Today, most White Latin Americans are of Spanish and Portuguese origin. The Iberians brought their language, religion, and culture to Latin America.
African. Millions of African slaves were brought to the Americas from the early 1500s onward. The majority went to the Caribbean and Brazil.
Asian. People of Asian descent number several millions in Latin America. The majority of Asian Latin Americans are of Japanese and Chinese heritage, and they mostly live in Peru and Brazil. The largest community of Japanese ethnicity living outside of Japan, resides in Brazil. There is also a growing Chinese population in Panama, as well as Costa Rica (though, Chinese Costa Ricans are a large minority). In the Dominican Republic, there is a place where large numbers of Japanese people came; most Japanese Dominicans live in towns such as Bonao and Santo Domingo.
Arab or Middle Eastern. Arabs in Latin America are also many, but they are mostly found among the Hispanic-Caribbean regions. In Cuba and Puerto Rico. In the Dominican Republic, the Arabs arrived sometime between the 19th and 20th century; (most are Morracians, Lebanese and East Indians).
Most of these ethnic groups can be found anywhere in Latin America; but since most Latin Americans are of mixed-race, many of these ethnic groups do not reach 100%.
Note: Puerto Rico is a territory of the United States.
Language
Spanish and Portuguese are the most common languages in Latin America. Portuguese is the official language of Brazil, while Spanish is the official language of most other Latin America mainland countries, and of Cuba, Puerto Rico (along with English), and the Dominican Republic.
Many people speak Native American languages in Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico. These languages are less common in other countries, but in some countries like Bolivia, they are considered official along with the main European language.
Other Indo-European languages spoken in Latin America include English (mainly in Puerto Rico but also in Guyana), French (spoken in Haiti and French Guiana), and Dutch (in Suriname). Although French is also spoken in the Canadian province of Quebec and the American state of Louisiana, these countries are not considered part of Latin America because they are mostly English-speaking. Guyana, French Guiana (one of the overseas territories of France), and Suriname, which are found the northern part of South America and known together as the Guianas, are the only places in South America that do not speak Spanish or Portuguese.
Some African languages are also spoken in Latin America. The west African Yoruba language (known as Lucumi) is spoken in Cuba, where it is a ritual language used by the Santeria prayers.
In several nations, Creole languages are also spoken, especially in the Caribbean. Palenquero is the Spanish-based Creole language spoken in Colombia by some 3,000 people, it is Spanish with many African influences and some Portuguese influence. Other creoles in mainland Latin America have the same roots, blending Spanish with either African or Indigenous languages or both, as Cuban Spanish does. The island of Haiti also has a well-known creole language, called Haitian Creole.
Religions
Most Latin Americans are Christians. A 2014 survey found that 69% of Latin Americans are Roman Catholic, while 17% are Protestants. Most Protestants are from Brazil or Central America.
Economy
Poverty and inequality
Poverty continues to be one of the biggest challenges for Latin American countries. According to estimates, Latin America is the most unequal region of the world. According to a Country Studies Institute the poorest countries in the region (in 2011) were: Haiti, Nicaragua, Bolivia and Honduras. Undernourishment affects 72% of Haitians, 47% of Nicaraguans and Bolivians, and 32% of Hondurans.
Also, according to the Country Studies Institute, over 90% of Haitians, 75% of Bolivians, 70% of Nicaraguans, and 63% of Hondurans live in poverty.
Related pages
Central America
South America
Puerto Rico
Latin American Literature
Notes
References
Other websites
Latin America – Citizendium
The Washington Post Interactive Map of Politics in Latin America
Andean Community official webpage
Council on Hemispheric Affairs
Latin American Network Information Center
Latin America Working Group
Washington Office on Latin America
Politics in Latin America
Infolatam. Information and analysis of Latin America
North America
South America |
7172 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%2C%20D.C. | Washington, D.C. | Washington, D.C. (also known as simply Washington or D.C., and officially as the District of Columbia) is the capital of the United States. It is a federal district. The President of the USA and many major national government offices are in the territory. This makes it the political center of the United States of America.
Washington was named after the first U.S. President George Washington. "D.C." stands for "District of Columbia". At first, it was made up of a piece from Virginia south of the Potomac River and a piece from Maryland north of the Potomac River. In 1847, Virginia's piece was returned to it, and is now Arlington County and part of the city of Alexandria. Since 1847, all of the District of Columbia is on the north side of the Potomac River. The District of Columbia used to have other small towns which used "D.C.".
Since 1800, the District of Columbia has been the home of all three branches of the U.S. government: Congress, the President, and the Supreme Court. All of the major political parties are based here. It is also the headquarters of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the Organization of American States (OAS). Because it is the home of the President and is important to American politics, many groups often hold large demonstrations and protests here. These are often at the National Mall, a large open park which has many monuments and museums. The District of Columbia’s many museums and monuments make it a popular place for tourists to visit.
In 2020, the United States Census Bureau said that 689,545 people lived within the District of Columbia.
History
When English people first came to the area, there was a Native American village on the spot called Nakochtank. This name survives in the name of the Anacostia River. This river was known for the healing properties of its pure water and it is recorded that the Emperor Powhatan, who lived in what is now Richmond, Virginia, made the trip all the way to Nakochtank once for this reason.
The 1789 United States Constitution said that a capital city would be created in a district, but did not say where it should be. James Madison and others thought it should be far away from other states and cities. This way, it would be independent and not controlled by any state. In 1790, a compromise was reached and capital was placed between Virginia and Maryland. It was a square, ten miles (16 km) long on each side, and split by the Potomac River, which separated the two states. Half of the district was in Maryland and the other half was in Virginia, and the two states gave this land to the government. In 1791, it was named Washington, the District of Columbia to honor George Washington. Columbia was another name for North America.
City design
Washington, D.C. was planned before it was built. Pierre L'Enfant drew a plan for the city that said where all the streets, parks, and important buildings would be. Unlike most cities in the United States, D.C. has many roundabouts or traffic circles. The city was supposed to have long and wide avenues, and many open spaces for monuments and parks. The National Mall is an example of this.
Representation
Local Government
Washington, D.C. is not a state. Its citizens have less control over their city than most Americans, but D.C. has had an elected mayor and a city council since 1973. But Congress can make it so that a local law doesn't happen. The current mayor of Washington, D.C. is Muriel Bowser, a Democrat.
In Congress
The license plates on the cars in Washington, D.C. say, "Taxation Without Representation." This is a protest from people who live in Washington, D.C. about having to pay taxes to the United States without having a vote in the United States House of Representatives. It resembles the protest made by colonists before the American Revolution about having to pay taxes to Great Britain. Some people are against letting Washington, D.C. have a Congressman or Congresswoman because the Constitution only allows states to have Congressmen or Congresswomen.
Culture
Performing arts and music
Washington, D.C. is the center of the nation for its arts. The National Symphony Orchestra, the Washington National Opera, and the Washington Ballet are all inside the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. The Kennedy Center Honors are given every year to the people who have greatly helped the cultural life of the United States. The President and First Lady usually go to the Honors ceremony.
Media
As the national capital of the United States, Washington, D.C. has numerous media outlets in various mediums. Some of these media are known throughout the United States, including The Washington Post and various broadcasting networks headquartered in D.C.
Newspapers
The Washington Post is the oldest and most-read daily newspaper in Washington, and it has developed into one of the most reputable daily newspapers in the U.S. It is most notable for exposing the Watergate scandal, among other achievements. The Washington Post Company has multiple media holdings, including a daily free newspaper called the Express, the Washington Post News Service with Bloomberg News, Fashion Washington, El Tiempo Latino (a Spanish-language publication), the Slate Group, The Daily Herald (in Washington state), as well as the education company Kaplan, Inc. The Washington Post emphasizes national and political news coverage but also covers regional and local stories. Headquartered in downtown Washington, the newspaper employs journalists at 11 regional bureaus in Maryland and Virginia and 14 international bureaus. Content is shared across titles within the Washington Post Company, and the Express, in particular, often reprints content from the Associated Press, Getty Images, and other wire sources.
Washington Times and Washington City Paper also have substantial readership in the District. On February 1, 2005, the free daily tabloid Washington Examiner debuted, having been formed from a chain of suburban newspapers known as the Journal Newspapers.
Washington Blade and Metro Weekly focus on gay issues and the Washington Sun, the Washington Informer, and also Washington Afro on African American issues. Bi-weekly Street Sense focuses on issues of homelessness poverty, and life on the streets. Other special-interest papers include Roll Call, a daily paper focused on politics.
Many neighborhoods in the District have their own community newspapers. Some of these include The Current Newspapers, which has editions serving Dupont Circle, Foggy Bottom, Georgetown, Chevy Chase and Upper Northwest, and a Capitol Hill paper called The Capitol Hill Current/Voice of the Hill. Additional papers include In-Towner (Dupont Circle, Logan Circle and Adams Morgan), Hill Rag (Capitol Hill), East of the River (Anacostia) and D.C. North (Northeast D.C.). In addition, several specialty newspapers serve the U.S. Congress; most notable are Roll Call, The Hill, and Politico.
Television
As of 2008, the Washington Metropolitan Area was the 9th largest designated market area in the United States, with 2,321,610 television homes (2.028% of the U.S. population). The following is a list of television stations serving the metro area:
Most Baltimore area television stations can be seen in the Washington region. Besides being viewed clearly in the District, they can especially be seen in the suburbs of the Interstate 95 corridor between both cities. They are: WMAR 2 (ABC), WBAL 11 (NBC), WJZ 13 (CBS), WMPT 22 / WMPB 67 (PBS/MPB), WUTB 24 (MyNetwork TV), WBFF 45 (FOX), and WNUV 54 (The CW). A DC-MD-VA regional news station, TBD TV, is carried on Channel 8 on all cable systems in Washington, D.C. and surrounding communities.
Public, educational, and government access (PEG) on cable television is provided by the Public Access Corporation of the District of Columbia on two channels simulcast to both local cable television systems. One channel is devoted to religious programming and the other channel provides a diversity of offerings. The District's two Public, educational, and government access (PEG) Channels are DCTV, a non-profit media outlet that provides training and production opportunities to local residents, and OCT TV-16, which provides information about government programs, services, and related opportunities.
Major national broadcasters and cable outlets including NBC, ABC, CBS, FOX, and CNN maintain a significant presence in Washington, as do those from around the world including the BBC, CBC, and Al Jazeera. The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. Also, several cable television networks have their headquarters in the Washington area, including:
BET
C-SPAN
Discovery Channel in Silver Spring, Maryland
National Geographic Channel
Travel Channel in Chevy Chase, Maryland
America's Most Wanted is the only network primetime program produced in Washington.
Radio
As of 2008, the Washington Metropolitan Area was the 9th largest radio market in the United States with a Metro 12+ Population of 4,238,100. The following is a list of radio stations serving the metro area:
AM
FM
Transportation
According to a 2010 study, Washington-area commuters spent 70 hours a year in traffic delays, which tied with Chicago for having the nation's worst road congestion. However, 37% of Washington-area commuters take public transportation to work, the second-highest rate in the country. An additional 12% of D.C. commuters walked to work, 6% carpooled, and 3% traveled by bicycle in 2010.
Washington has very few freeways. The funds that had been dedicated for freeway construction were instead redirected to the region's public transportation infrastructure. The interstate highways that do continue into Washington, including Interstate 66 and Interstate 395, both terminate shortly upon entering the city.
The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) operates the Washington Metro, the city's rapid transit system, as well as Metrobus. Both systems serve the District and its suburbs. Metro opened on March 27, 1976 and presently consists of 86 stations and of track. With an average of about one million trips each weekday, Metro is the second-busiest rapid transit system in the country, after the New York City Subway. Metrobus serves over 400,000 riders each weekday, making it the nation's sixth-largest bus system. The city also operates its own DC Circulator bus system, which connects commercial areas within central Washington.
Union Station is the main train station in Washington, D.C., and handles about 70,000 people each day. It is Amtrak's second-busiest station with 4.6 million passengers annually and serves as the southern terminus for the Northeast Corridor and Acela Express routes. Maryland's MARC and Virginia's VRE commuter trains and the Metrorail Red Line also provide service into Union Station. Expansion plans announced in 2011 will make Union Station the city's primary intercity bus transit center. A new streetcar system opened in 2016.
Three major airports serve The District. The Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport is across from downtown Washington in Arlington, Virginia and has its own Metrorail station. Major international flights arrive and depart from Washington Dulles International Airport, west of the District in Fairfax and Loudoun counties in Virginia. Dulles gained its own Metrorail station in 2016. Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport is northeast of the District in Anne Arundel County, Maryland.
References
Other websites
Guide to Washington, D.C., materials from the Library of Congress
United States capital cities
1790 establishments in the United States |
7174 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20the%20United%20States | President of the United States | The president of the United States of America (POTUS) is the head of state and head of government of the United States of America and the commander in chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government of the United States and is the chairman of the US cabinet.
Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms in office, and is counted as the nation's 22nd and 24th president. There are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a former president was the death of George H. W. Bush on November 30, 2018. He was also the most recently serving president to die.
On November 7, 2020, Joe Biden was elected to be the 46th president of the United States. He was formally inaugurated on January 20, 2021.
Requirements
Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the requirements to hold office. A president must:
be a natural-born citizen of the United States.
be at least thirty-five years old. Theodore Roosevelt, 42, was the youngest, and Joe Biden, 78, is the oldest.
be a permanent resident in the United States for at least fourteen years.
Election process and terms
The president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term, and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers, the other being the vice president of the United States. A president must receive more than 270 electoral college votes in order to win an election. Ronald Reagan received 525 votes which is the most electoral votes of any other president.
A president can only serve two terms as president, which is eight years. Franklin D. Roosevelt served four terms as president. He died shortly after beginning his fourth term. After his death, Congress passed an amendment that limits the number of terms a president can have.
William Henry Harrison served the shortest term, one month, because he died in office from pneumonia.
Inaugurations
A president officially becomes president after being inaugurated on January 20th. The president must be given the oath of office by the Chief Justice of the United States. It is traditionally held at the United States Capitol.
Primary functions
Enforcing laws passed by the United States Congress
Nominating a Cabinet of advisors
Giving pardons or reprieves
With the agreement of the United States Senate he or she can:
Make treaties
Choose ambassadors to foreign countries
Select Judges, and Justices of the Supreme Court
Succession
If the president dies or retires between elections, or is otherwise removed from office, the acting president will become president, who is usually the vice president.
Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy were assassinated while in office. William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding and Franklin Roosevelt died from illness while president. John Tyler was the first vice president of the United States to become president. Calvin Coolidge became president, when Warren G. Harding, the 29th president, died in office.
Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon's vice president, became president after Nixon resigned. Nixon is the only president to have resigned.
Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Donald Trump are the only presidents to have been impeached.
Traveling
A president travels by either traveling on Air Force One, Marine One, or by the Presidential state car. At all times, the president is protected by Secret Service agents. Sometimes, the president may travel to Camp David for either relaxation or to do some work in peace.
List of presidents of the United States
Living former presidents
Presidential rankings
By a majority of historical sources by historians or by the American people; George Washington, Calvin Coolidge, Abraham Lincoln, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton are ranked high on polls.
On the other hand; James Buchanan, Warren G. Harding, Herbert Hoover, Richard Nixon, George W. Bush and Franklin Pierce are thought to be the worst.
Presidents who held other offices
Three former presidents held another U.S. federal office after serving.
Presidential libraries
Since Herbert Hoover, each president has created a institutional place known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers, records, and other documents and materials. There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system.
There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations, such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the State of Illinois.
Several presidential libraries contain the graves of the president such as Richard Nixon at his library in Yorba Linda, California and Ronald Reagan at his library in Simi Valley, California.
Sources
Notes
Other websites |
7177 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948 | 1948 |
Events
January 1 – Nationalisation of UK railways to form British Railways. Arab militants lay siege to the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. First day of the Italian republican constitution.
January 4 – Burma gains its independence from the United Kingdom.
January 5 – Warner Brothers shows the first color newsreel (Tournament of Roses Parade and the Rose Bowl).
January 17 – Truce between nationalist Indonesian and Dutch troops in Java
January 26 – Teigin poison case – Man masquerading as a doctor poisons 12 out of 15 bank employees of the Tokyo branch of Imperial Bank and takes the money; artist Sadamichi Hirasawa is later sentenced for the crime.
January 30 – Indian pacifist and leader Mahatma Gandhi is murdered by a Hindu extremist.
January 30 – 1948 Winter Olympics open in St. Moritz, Switzerland.
February 1 – Soviet Union begins to jam Voice of America broadcasts.
February 4 – Ceylon (later renamed Sri Lanka) becomes independent within the British Commonwealth. King George VI becomes King of Ceylon.
February 18 – Éamon de Valera, head of government since 1932, loses power to an opposition coalition. John A. Costello is appointed Taoiseach of Éire (formerly called the Irish Free State) by President O'Kelly.
February 24 – The Communist Party seizes control of Czechoslovakia.
Works begins on the Crazy Horse Memorial.
May 13 – First Kashmir War between India and Pakistan
April-May – Israel's independence day.
Births
January 9 - Asztalos Lajos, Hungarian politician and priest
January 14 – Carl Weathers, actor
January 14 – T-Bone Burnett, producer, musician
January 16 – John Carpenter, director
January 24 – Elliot Abrams, deputy national security adviser
February 5 – Barbara Hershey, actress
February 19 - Tony Iommi, English guitarist (Black Sabbath)
February 20 – Jennifer O'Neill, actress
March 6 - Stephen Schwartz, American lyricist
March 12 - James Taylor, American folk guitarist
March 22 – Andrew Lloyd Webber
March 26 - Fodor Cseh, Hungarian politician and Shepherds
March 26 - Steven Tyler, American singer (Aerosmith)
May 5 - Bill Ward, English drummer (Black Sabbath)
May 12 – Ivan Kral, Czech-American musician
May 13 – Leon Coetzee, loverboy and attorney
May 26 - Stevie Nicks, American singer (Fleetwood Mac)
May 31 - John Bonham, English drummer (Led Zeppelin) (d. 1980)
June 22 – Todd Rundgren, singer, songwriter, producer
July 4 - Jeremy Spencer, English guitarist (Fleetwood Mac)
July 8 - Raffi, Canadian children’s musician
July 21 - Cat Stevens, English folk musician
July 23 - John Hall, American singer-songwriter and musician (Orleans)
July 30 – Jean Reno, actor
August 5 - David Hungate, American bass guitarist (Toto)
August 6 - Alan Howarth, American sound designer
August 20 - Robert Plant, English singer (Led Zeppelin)
August 30 – Victor Skumin, professor, philosopher, writer.
September 20 - Chuck Panozzo, American bass guitarist (Styx)
September 20 - John Panozzo, American drummer (Styx) (d. 1996)
September 26 - Olivia Newton-John, Australian entertainer
September 29 – Theo Jörgensmann, German jazz clarinet player
October 9 – Jackson Browne, songwriter
October 17 – Margot Kidder, Canadian actress
October 25 – Diana Burrell, English composer
November 6 - Glenn Frey, American singer-songwriter and musician (Eagles) (d. 2016)
November 28 – Agnieszka Holland, Polish director and script writer
December 3 – Ozzy Osbourne, singer/songwriter (Black Sabbath)
December 10 - Abu Abbas, terrorist
December 22 - Rick Nielsen, American guitarist (Cheap Trick)
December 27 – Gérard Depardieu, French actor
Deaths
January 21 – Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, composer
January 30 – Mohandas Gandhi, Leader of Indian Non-Violent Independence movement (assassinated)
January 30 – Orville Wright of the Wright brothers, co-inventor of the airplane
February 2 – Bevil Rudd, South African athlete
February 11 – Sergey Eisenstein, movie director
March 6 – Ross Lockridge, Jr., novelist
March 10 – Zelda Fitzgerald (Mrs. F. Scott Fitzgerald)
March 10 – Jan Masaryk, Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia
March 31 – Egon Erwin Kisch, journalist and writer
April 9 – Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Colombian politician (b. 1903)
April 17 – Suzuki Kantaro, Japanese admiral and prime minister
May 15 – Father Edward J. Flanagan, priest, founder of Boys Town
May 28 – Unity Mitford, British friend of Hitler
June 25 – William C. Lee, Maj, General United States Army (b. 1895)
July 23 – David Wark Griffith, movie director
August 12 – Harry Brearley, inventor of stainless steel
August 16 – Babe Ruth, Baseball Hall of Famer
September 11 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, first Governor-General and founder of Pakistan.
October 24 – Franz Lehár, composer
November 28 – D.D. Sheehan first independent Labour MP. in Ireland
December 23 – Kenji Doihara, Koki Hirota, Seishiro Itagaki, Heitarō Kimura, Iwane Matsui, Akira Mutō, and Hideki Tōjō, Japanese war leaders (hanged)
December 31 – Sir Malcolm Campbell, land and water racer (b. 1885)
Movies Released
Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein
Scott of the Antarctic
New Books
Ape and Essence – Aldous Huxley
Catalina – W. Somerset Maugham
Concluding – Henry Green
Cry, the Beloved Country – Alan Paton
The Foundling – Georgette Heyer
The Golden Warrior – Hope Muntz
Guard of Honor – James Gould Cozzens
The Heart of the Matter – Graham Greene
The Hearth and the Eagle – Anya Seton
The House of Sleep – Anna Kavan
Ides of March – Thornton Wilder
John Aubrey and His Friends – Anthony Powell
Joseph and His Brothers – Thomas Mann
Last Of The Conquerors – William Gardner Smith
The Living Is Easy – Dorothy West
The Mask of Circe – C. L. Moore
Melissa (novel) – Taylor Caldwell
My Glorious Brothers – Howard Fast
The Naked and the Dead – Norman Mailer
Parris Mitchell of King's Row – Henry Bellamann
Raintree County – Ross Lockridge, Jr.
Seraph On The Sewanee – Zora Neale Hurston
Thidwick the Big-Hearted Moose – Dr. Seuss
The Twenty-One Balloons – William Pène du Bois
The White Goddess – Robert Graves
The World is Not Enough – Zoe B. Oldenbourg
The Young Lions – Irwin Shaw
Hit Songs
"Buttons and Bows" – Dinah Shore
"Confess" – Doris Day & Buddy Clark
"Confess" – Patti Page (the first multi-tracked song)
"Deck Of Cards" – Phil Harris
"Don't Have To Tell Nobody" – Frankie Laine
"Gloria" – The Mills Brothers
"I Love You So Much (It Hurts Me)" – The Mills Brothers
"I'm Looking Over a Four-Leaf Clover" – Frankie Laine
"I'm Looking Over a Four-Leaf Clover" – Art Mooney
"I'm My Own Grandpa" – Guy Lombardo & The Guy Lombardo Trio
"Is It True What They Say About Dixie" – Al Jolson & The Mills Brothers
"It's Magic" – Doris Day
"Little White Lies" – Dick Haymes & The Four Hits And A Miss
"Love Somebody" – Doris Day & Buddy Clark
"Mañana" – Peggy Lee
"Monday Again" – Frankie Laine
"My Happiness" – The Pied Pipers
"My Happiness" – Jon and Sondra Steele
"Nature Boy" – Nat King Cole
"Nature Boy" – Sarah Vaughan
"On A Slow Boat To China" – Kay Kyser, Harry Babbitt & Gloria Wood
"Red River Valley" – Jo Stafford
"Red Roses For A Blue Lady" – Vaughn Monroe
"Rosetta" – Frankie Laine
"So Tired" – Russ Morgan
"Someday You'll Want Me To Want You" – Vaughn Monroe
"The Things We Did Last Summer" – Georgia Gibbs
"A Tree In the Meadow" – Margaret Whiting
"Twelfth Street Rag" – Pee Wee Hunt
"Underneath the Arches" – Andrews Sisters
"What Could Be Sweeter" – Frankie Laine
"Wrap Your Troubles In Dreams" – Georgia Gibbs
"Woody Woodpecker" – Kay Kyser
"You Call Everybody Darlin'" – Al Trace
"You Can't Be True, Dear" – Ken Griffin |
7183 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949 | 1949 |
Events
January 20 – Harry S. Truman proposes Point Four program to help world's less developed areas.
February 22 – Grady the Cow, a 1,200-pound cow gets stuck inside a silo on a farm in Yukon, Oklahoma and garners national media attention.
April 4 – Twelve nations sign the North Atlantic Treaty establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).
May 11 – Siam changes its name to Thailand.
September 21 – The German Federal Republic (West Germany) established.
October 1 – The founding of the People's Republic of China is announced by Mao Zedong.
October 7 – The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) is established.
December 27 – Indonesia's independence is recognised by the Netherlands.
Births
January 12 – Murakami Haruki, Japanese writer
January 12 – Ottmar Hitzfeld, German football manager
February 5 – Kurt Beck, German politician
February 22 – Niki Lauda, Austrian racecar driver
February 24 – John Belushi, American actor (d. 1982)
March 28 - Kevin Lloyd, British actor (d. 1998)
April 7 - Wells Kelly, American singer-songwriter and musician (Orleans) (d. 1984)
April 11 – Bernd Eichinger, German movie producer
April 19 – Joachim Sauer, husband of German chancellor Angela Merkel
April 20 – Jessica Lange, American actress
May 9 – Billy Joel, American singer
May 13 – Zoe Wanamaker, actress
May 23 – Alan Garcia, President of Peru (d. 2019)
May 26 – Jeremy Corbyn, English politician
June 6 – Robert Englund, American actor
June 18 – Jaroslaw Kaczynski, Polish politician
June 18 – Lech Kaczynski, President of Poland (d. 2010)
June 20 – Lionel Richie, American singer and musician
June 22 – Meryl Streep, American actress
July 4 – Horst Seehofer, German politician
July 17 - Geezer Butler, English bass guitarist (Black Sabbath)
July 22 - Alan Menken, American pianist and theatre composer
July 26 – Thaksin Shinawatra, Thai politician
July 26 – Roger Taylor, British musician (Queen)
August 1 – Kurmanbek Bakiyev, former President of Kyrgyzstan
August 15 – Ivan Boldirev, Russian ice hockey player
August 20 - Phil Lynott, Irish bass guitarist (Thin Lizzy) (d. 1986)
August 25 - Gene Simmons, American singer-songwriter and musician (Kiss)
August 31 – Richard Gere, American actor
September 9 – Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, President of Indonesia
September 13 - Dennis Pendrith, Canadian bass player
September 19 – Twiggy, British model
September 23 – Bruce Springsteen, American singer and musician
October 3 - Lindsey Buckingham, American guitarist (Fleetwood Mac)
October 4 - Armand Assante, American actor
October 8 – Sigourney Weaver, American actress
October 9 - Bob Leinbach, American singer-songwriter and musician (Orleans)
October 13 - Rick Vito, American guitarist (Fleetwood Mac)
October 21 – Benjamin Netanyahu, Israeli politician
October 25 - Ross Bagdasarian, Jr., American voice actor
November 14 - James "J.Y." Young, American guitarist (Styx)
December 1 – Pablo Escobar, Colombian drug lord (d. 1993)
December 12 – Marc Ravalomanana, former President of Madagascar
December 21 – Thomas Sankara, President of Burkina Faso (d. 1987)
December 22 – Maurice Gibb, singer (Bee Gees) (d. 2003)
December 22 – Robin Gibb, singer (Bee Gees) (d. 2012)
December 25 – Sissy Spacek, American actress
December 26 – Jose Ramos Horta, President of East Timor
Deaths
January 6 – Victor Fleming, American director (b. 1883)
January 11 – Nelson Doubleday, American publisher (b. 1889)
January 14 – Joaquín Turina, Spanish composer (b. 1882)
January 28 – Jean-Pierre Wimille, French race car driver (b. 1908)
February 12 – Imam Hassan al Banna, Egyptian founder of the Muslim Brotherhood (b. 1906)
March 30 – Friedrich Bergius, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1884)
April 19 – Ulrich Salchow, Swedish figure skater (b. 1877)
May 6 – Maurice Maeterlinck, Belgian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1862)
May 9 – Louis II, Prince of Monaco (b. 1870)
May 22 – James Forrestal, U.S. Secretary of Navy and Defense (suicide) (b. 1892)
May 22 – Klaus Mann, German writer (suicide) (b. 1906)
June 10 – Sigrid Undset, Norwegian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1882)
June 14 – Russell Doubleday, American writer and publisher (b. 1872)
July 9 – Fritz Bennicke Hart, English-born composer (b. 1874)
July 12 – Douglas Hyde, first President of Ireland (b. 1860)
July 18 – Vítězslav Novák, Czech composer (b. 1870)
August 18 – Paul Mares, American musician (b. 1900)
August 30 – Arthur Fielder, English cricketer (b. 1877)
September 8 – Richard Strauss, German composer (b. 1864)
September 13 – August Krogh, Danish zoophysiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1874)
September 19 – Will Cuppy, American humorist (b. 1884)
September 19 – Nikolaos Skalkottas, Greek composer (b. 1901)
October 27 – Marcel Cerdan, French boxer (plane crash) (b. 1916)
October 27 – Ginette Neveu, French violinist (plane crash) (b. 1919)
December 6 – Leadbelly, American musician (b. 1885)
December 11 – Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya, Indian philosopher (b. 1875)
December 16 – Sidney Olcott, Canadian movie director (b. 1873)
December 28 – Hervey Allen, American writer (b. 1889)
December 28 – Jack Lovelock, New Zealand athlete (b. 1910)
Awards
Movies released
Adam's Rib
Kind Hearts and Coronets
Samson and Delilah
The Third Man
New Books
The Aleph – Jorge Luis Borges
Alien Land – Willard W. Savoy
The Angry Wife – Pearl S. Buck
Beneath The Sky – Alfred Q. Jarrette
Beyond Earth's Gates – C. L. Moore
Bright Leaf – Foster Fitzsimmons
Cannibal – John Hawkes
Crooked House – Agatha Christie
The Dream Merchants – Harold Robbins
The Egyptian – Mika Waltari
Father of the Bride – Edward Streeter
The Golden Sequence – Martha E. Von Almedingen
The Heat of the Day – Elixabeth Bowen
King of the Wind – Marguerite Henry
Let Love Come Last – Taylor Caldwell
Love in a Cold Climate – Nancy Mitford
Male and Female – Margaret Mead
The Man with the Golden Arm – Nelson Algren
Men of Maize – Miguel Angel Asturias
The Miracles of the Red Altar Cloth – Hermann L. Hunter
Nineteen Eighty-Four – George Orwell
Pride's Castle – Frank Yerby
A Rage To Live – John O'Hara
The Second Sex – Simone de Beauvoir
To Hell and Back – Audie Murphy
Shane – Jack Schaefer
The Sheltering Sky – Paul Bowles
A Town Like Alice – Nevil Shute
The Trial – Franz Kafka
Trouble with Harry – Jack Story |
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