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The Emblem of Iran was made after the Islamic Revolution in that country, in 1979. After the revolution, Iran decided to use a new flag. The old flag had a picture of a golden lion and a sabre, that was a symbol for the Shah (king) of Iran. This emblem is a symbol for the whole country and the Islamic character of the new government. It is drawn to look like a version of the word الله which means "God" in Persian (the language of Iran) and also in the Arabic language. It looks like a tulip, which is an old symbol for Iran. 1980s establishments in Iran 1980 establishments in Asia Iran Iran
Tennis is a sport played with a felt-covered rubber ball, a tennis racket, and a court. Since 1998, every September 23 has been called "Tennis Day". Tennis’s official name is "lawn tennis". First, early in the 11th century, players in France played a sport like this with their hands. It was called “Jeu de Paume”. In the 15th century the players played with rackets. Now it is called “tennis”. It became popular in England and France. King Henry III of France was a big fan of the game. This kind of sport is still played but is known as real tennis ("real" here meaning "royal"). The sport of "lawn tennis" played on grass courts was invented in mid 19th-century England and later spread into many other countries. The name of the sport is usually shortened to "tennis". Tennis matches There are many different kinds of courts, like grass, clay or hard court. The goal of tennis is to hit the ball over the net into the other player’s court. When the other player cannot return the ball, a point is won. The game is played with two or four people. When it is played with two people, it is called “singles”, and when it is played with four people, it is called “doubles”. The court has "alleys" on each side, which are "fair" territory when playing doubles. A tennis game has a number of sets. Each set has a number of games, and each game has points. The points are counted love (0, after the French l'oeuf), fifteen (15), thirty (30), and forty (40). If both players get to forty, the score is deuce from which 2 more points are needed to win the game. When one player reaches six games, it is one set. If it is a three-set match, the player who wins two sets first is the winner. If the game count reaches 5–5, the set must be won with two more games than the other player, like 7–5 or 8–6. If the game count gets to 6–6, a "tiebreaker" is played. In a tiebreak, players have to get at least seven points while getting two more points than the other player to win the set. In tiebreak points are called “one,” “two,” etc. Soft tennis There is also soft tennis. Soft tennis is different from regulation tennis. For example, the racket, ball and rules are much different. Soft tennis is popular in Japan. Thousands of people play soft tennis. Tennis is quite a popular sport which lots of people enjoy watching. Shots There are many different "shots" and "strokes", ways to hit the ball, in tennis. A stroke is the way the body is moved to hit the ball. A shot is how the ball is hit. These include: Strokes The backhand is a type of stroke hit by swinging the racquet away from the body. The stroke begins with the arm holding the racquet held across the body. It is then moved in front of the body to hit the ball. For a right-handed player, a backhand begins on the left side of his body, continues across his body as the ball is hit, and ends on the right side of his body. It can be either a one-handed or a two-handed stroke. The forehand is the opposite of the backhand. It starts with the arm outside of the body and moves across the body. For a right handed player, the arm starts on the right side of the body and moves across the body to the left side. The forehand is hit with one hand (most commonly the hand the player uses to write). Shots A serve (sometimes called a service) is a shot to start a point. The serve is usually started by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it across the net. The serve may be done underhand or overhead. The overhead serve the most common form. The serve is done from behind the baseline (the line at the back of the court). The serve must land on the inside of the service line and center service line on the other side of the net to call it good. The serve that is set has to be in the box diagonal to where the server serves. A volley is a shot that is hit before the ball bounces on the ground. Usually, a player hits a volley while standing near the net. It is sometimes done farther back, in the middle of the court or even near the back. A drop shot is tapping . A good drop shot travels just far enough that the opponent cannot run fast enough to get to it. A lob is a shot that can use backhand or forehand swings. For a lob the person has to swing through, but make the tennis ball go up. When the ball goes up the goal is for the ball to land in between the baseline (the line at the back of the court) and the service line. Four Grand Slams Tennis is now a sport that is played at the Olympics. They also have big tournaments like the U.S. Open, Australian Open, French Open and Wimbledon. These four are known as Grand Slam events. Australian Open (January) French Open ( May-June) Wimbledon (June - July) US Open (August-September) Winning all four Grand Slams in the same year is called a Calendar Slam. They are the most important tennis tournaments of each season (year). This is because of the world ranking points, tradition, prize-money, and public attention. Notes Other websites ATP The official site for men's professional tennis WTA The official site for women's professional tennis Tennis Ball Hopper
A teacher is a person who helps people to learn. A teacher often works in a classroom. There are many different kinds of teachers. Some teachers teach young children in kindergarten or primary schools. Others teach older children in middle, junior high and high schools. Some teachers teach adults in colleges and universities. Some teachers are called professors. There are different ways of teaching. Different teachers use a variety of methods to teach. Teachers explain new knowledge, write on a blackboard or whiteboard, sit behind their desks on chairs, help students with their work and mark students' work. They may also use a computer to write tests, assignments or report cards for the class. Related pages Education Pedagogy School Education occupations
Getafe is a city 15 km south of Madrid, in the Community of Madrid, Spain. 158,363 people live there. It has great commercial and industrial activity and many mass media. In Getafe there is a university, a military air base, and has a football team in the first division of the Spanish's League. References Cities in the Community of Madrid Municipalities in the Community of Madrid
The Manhattan Project was the program based in the United States which tried to make the first nuclear weapons. The project went on during World War II, and was run by the U.S. Army. The head of the project was General Leslie R. Groves, who had led the building of the Pentagon. The top scientist on the project was Robert Oppenheimer, a famous physicist. The project cost $2 billion, and created many secret cities and bomb-making factories, such as a laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico, a nuclear reactor in Hanford, Washington, and a uranium processing plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The Manhattan Project had to find solutions to two difficulties. The first difficulty is how to make the special isotopes of uranium (uranium-235) or plutonium. This process is called separation and is very slow. The United States built very big buildings with three different kinds of machine for separation. They made enough fissionable special isotopes for a few nuclear weapons. The second difficulty was how to make a bomb that will produce a big nuclear explosion every time. A weapon with a bad design can make a much smaller nuclear explosion. This is called a "fizzle". In July 1945, the Manhattan Project solved the two difficulties and made the first nuclear explosion. This test of a nuclear weapon was called "Trinity" and was a success. The Manhattan Project created two nuclear bombs which the United States used against Japan in 1945. Espionage The Manhattan Project operated under a blanket of tight security. This was to prevent the Axis countries, especially Nazi Germany, from accelerating their own nuclear projects or undertaking covert operations against the project. The possibility of sabotage was always present. At times, people suspected sabotage when equipment failed. While there were some problems believed to be the result of careless or disgruntled employees, there were no confirmed instances of Axis-instigated sabotage. However, on 10 March 1945, a Japanese fire balloon struck a power line, and the resulting power surge caused the three reactors at Hanford to be temporarily shut down. Maintaining security was difficult because so many people worked on the project. A special Counter Intelligence Corps detachment handled the project's security issues. By 1943, it was clear that the Soviet Union was trying to penetrate the project. Lieutenant Colonel Boris T. Pash, the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the Western Defense Command, investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley. Oppenheimer informed Pash that he had been approached by a fellow professor at Berkeley, Haakon Chevalier, about passing information to the Soviet Union. The most successful Soviet spy was Klaus Fuchs. Fuchs was a member of the British Mission who played an important part at Los Alamos. The 1950 revelation of Fuchs' espionage activities damaged the United States' nuclear cooperation with Britain and Canada. Subsequently, other instances of espionage were uncovered, leading to the arrest of Harry Gold, David Greenglass and Ethel and Julius Rosenberg. Other spies like George Koval remained unknown for decades. People will never know the value of the espionage. One reason was that the Soviet atomic bomb project was held back by a shortage of uranium ore. The consensus is that espionage saved the Soviets one or two years of effort. References Further reading General, administrative, and diplomatic histories Technical histories (Available on Wikimedia Commons) Participant accounts Other websites WW2DB: Operation Trinity and the Manhattan Project Nuclear weapons 1940s in the United States
Hadschi Baba Scheich (Haji Baba Sheikh) (Hecî Baba Şêx in Kurdish) was the prime minister of the Republic of Mahabad. After the republic was conquered by the Iranian army in 1947 he was the only one who was not hanged together with president Qazi Muhammad at the Chuwarchira Square in Mahabad in 1947. He was immune because of his religious standing. The journalist and lyric Hemin Mukriyani was his secretary during the republic. Literature Archie Roosevelt, Jr., "The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad" ,Middle East Journal, no. 1 (July 1947), pp. 247-69 Kurdish politicians
Ajam (عجم) in Arabic means non-Arabic-speaker. Ajam is an Arabicized word that came from Jam or jamshid the name of a A Persian legendary king or prophet ,according to old stories he was the king able to fly around the world by a throne or Carpet. in most of the languages Ajam and Ajami means Persian. in Arabic Ajam means someone whose mother tongue is not Arabic. The early use of the term included all of the peoples with whom the Arabs had contact including Persians, Greeks, Ethiopians, and the somewhat related Nabataeans. Etymology In general, during the Umayyad period Ajam was a pejorative term used by Arabs who believed in their social and political superiority, in early history after Islam. According to the book "Documents on the Persian Gulf's name ", pages 22–44 explanation of Ajam and the Persians "The word Ajam has many different uses and meanings throughout the history. words had a simple meaning at first, but over the time, other meanings and concepts are added to its early meaning, especially when the word goes to other languages. Ajam was first used for Persian native speaking in the poems of the Arab poet of pre Islam but after expansion of Islam it also was referred to Turks,Zoroastrianism and others. Today, in Arabic literature, "Ajam" is used to refer to the non-Arab person. Ajam has never meant dumb in Arabic literature , using The word Ajam as a derogatory meaning was very late and very rare and unofficial concept in Umayyad period time. according to the new finding "Ajam infact had a root in the persian word Jam Jamshid The stories of "Jam and Jamshed and the word Molouk Ajam (Persian emperor) were well known to the Arabs before Islam and the word Molouk Ajam (Ajam kings) and Molk e Ajam(persia) were used in poems of famous 7 Arab poets of Jahiliyyah (pre Islam). one of the famous Arab figures Nadr ibn al-Harith wrote a book about the stories of the Molouk of Ajam (persian kings)Rustam Naqsh-e Rustam and Jamshid and Fereydun and presented it to the new Muslims and said that my book is more important than the stories of Muhammad. Al-A'sha another famous Arabic Jahiliyyah (pre Islam) poet from ArabiaNajd, had wrote poems describing Ajam/Persian king(Molouk Ajam) one of the Al-A'sha poem is:" أَوْ عَاتِقًا مِنْ أَذْرُعَاتٍ مُعَتَّقًا مِمَّا تَعَتَّقَهُ مُلُوكُ الأَعْجَمِ For the first time in the Umayyad period, the derogatory use of the word Ajam applied to the Persians. but during Abbasid and after The word Ajam was used for the Persians not only for humiliating but also a source of pride, as some Arabs even in The pre-Islamic period proudly narrated the glorious stories of the Molouk(kings) of Ajam and the Molk of Jam (Persia).the Arab poets Yaqut al-Hamawi and Al-Mutawakkil wrote: "I am the son of the honors Offspring of Jam(jamshid) holder of the glory legacy of Persian kings.انا ابن المکارم من النسل جم و حائز ارث ملوک العجم according to the Documents on the Persian Gulf's name it is very natural that in Arabicizing the words sometimes A is added to the words like Asfehan Isfahan in Arabic from the word Persian word SEPAHAN . during the period Iranian Intermezzo native Persian Muslim dynasties the word ajam and persian both were used to refer to Iranian. Many Arabic sources refer to Persian language as Ajami language or Ajmo. Persian is the official language in Iran as "Parsi" and "Farsi", in Afghanistan as Parsi and Dari, and Tajiki in Tajikistan, Persian in Bahrain is called "Ajami" and in Kuwait "Ayami" . In classical Arabic, especially in the first centuries of the Islamic period, the Persian language was called "the language of the Ajam" لسان العجم, and the Iranian people were called the "Ajami" and the persian gulf was called Ajam Gulf, in many books and deed, Tafsir al-Zahak The oldest commentary on Quran wrote on page 524 " In Surah An-Nahl, verse 103,the word Ajami refers to Salman Farsi and says Ajami is the Persians. .also Arabic word for dictionary is mo'jam (moajam) that means definition of the non Arabs(ajam) word. According to The Political Language of Islam, during the Islamic Golden Age, 'Ajam' was used colloquially as a reference to denote those whom Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula viewed as "alien" or outsiders. The early application of the term included all of the non-Arab peoples with whom the Arabs had contact including Persians, Byzantine Greeks, Ethiopians, Armenians, Assyrians, Mandaeans, Arameans, Jews, Georgians, Sabians, Samaritans, Egyptians, and Berbers. During the early age of the Caliphates, Ajam was often synonymous with "foreigner" or "stranger". In the Western Asia, it was generally applied to the Persians, while in al-Andalus it referred to speakers of Romance languages - becoming "Aljamiado" in Spanish in reference to Arabic-script writing of those languages - and in West Africa refers to the Ajami script or the writing of local languages such as Hausa and Fulani in the Arabic alphabet. In Zanzibar ajami and ajamo means Persian which came from the Persian Gulf and the cities of Shiraz and Siraf. In Turkish, there are many documents and letters that used Ajam to refer to Persian. In the Persian Gulf region and also the Turks people still refer to Persians as Ajami, referring to Persian carpets as sajjad al Ajami (Ajami carpet), Persian cat as Ajami cats, and Persian Kings as Ajami kings. Notable examples The Persian community in Bahrain is called Ajami. Ajam was used by the Ottomans to refer to the Safavid dynasty. The Abbasid Iraq Al-Ajam province (centered around Arax and Shirvan). The Kurdish historian, Sharaf Khan Bidlisi, uses the term Ajam in his book Sharafnama (1597 CE) to refer to the Shia Persians. In the Eastern Anatolia Region, Azerbaijanis are sometimes referred to as acem (which is the Turkish translation of Ajam). Although claimed otherwise by Mahmood Reza Ghods, Modern Sunni Kurds of Iran do not use this term to denote Persians, Azeris and Southern Kurds. According to Sharhzad Mojab, Ecem (derived from the Arabic ‘ajam) is used by Kurds to refer to Persians and, sometimes, Turks. Adjam, Hajjam, Ajaim, Ajami, Akham (as Axam in Spain for ajam), Ayam in Europe. In Turkish, the word acem refers to Iran and Iranian people. It is also used as a surname. In Arab music, there is a maqam (musical mode) called Ajam, pejoratively translated to "the Persian mode", corresponding to the major scale in European music. Related pages Barbarian - which came to refer to people who spoke neither Greek nor other "civilized" languages (such as Latin), and derived from a root meaning "speaking incomprehensibly" or "babbling" References Arabic words and phrases Ethnic and religious slurs Persian communities outside Iran Anti-Iranian sentiments Racism in the Arab world
Boston Terriers are a dog breed. They are considered to be one of the few American breeds as they can trace their origins to Boston, Massachusetts. It's hard to believe that these comical, family friendly dogs were originally bred to be ferocious pit-fighting dogs tracing their ancestors to an English Bulldog and the now extinct English White Terrier. They are usually very small, but can also be bred as medium sized dogs. They are considered to be cute dogs and are getting ever more popular. They are in many commercials and many celebrities have them. Boston Terriers are a smart breed of dogs. They can be extremely hyperactive, but overall are well behaved with training. Their excitement and enthusiasm is a perk of their personality. They are compactly built with short, round heads, short tails, but strong limbs. They have a smooth coat, with colors of brindle, seal brown or black and evenly marked with white. Boston Terriers are inside dogs that love affection. This breed is balanced with being independent (sometimes stubborn) and affectionate and wanting attention from humans. They require very little work when a part of a family and they are good dogs for children. Caring for a Boston Terrier requires little work. With a short coat, Bostons might need a bath every one to two weeks. Brushing is not necessary although it helps remove loose hair and reduces shedding. Bostons love rawhides (a chewy animal skin) and other chew toys that help with keeping their teeth healthy. Brushing your dog's teeth is recommended by vets for any breed. Boston Terriers do have sensitive stomachs and will eat grass when their stomach is upset but for the most part, this breed does not have restrictions on what they can eat. Terriers
Events The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) fought between two rival alliances: the first side was the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the Electorate of Hanover, and Prussia; the second side was Austria, the Kingdom of France, the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Saxony, and Sweden. Gregorian Calendar accepted in Europe. The French and Indian War on the American Continent. Lisbon is destroyed by an earthquake. Great Upheaval: French settlers are moved out of Acadia by the British. The Battle of Plassey of 1757 in Bengal resulted in the beginning of British rule in India and the end of Indian independence. Births Betsy Ross, American seamstress Miguel Hidalgo, Mexican Catholic priest and revolutionary Marie Antoinette, Queen of France Deaths Johann Sebastian Bach, German musician King John V of Portugal Montesquieu, French writer Iyasus II, Emperor of Ethiopia
Events January 22 – Coup d'état in the Netherlands (Batavian Republic). Unitarian Democrat Pieter Vreede makes an end to the power of the parliament (with a conservative-moderate majority). 7 March – French forces invade the Papal States and establish the Roman Republic April 7 – The Mississippi Territory is organized from territory from Georgia and South Carolina and is later twice made larger to include disputed land claimed by both the U.S. and Spain April 26 – France leaves Geneva May 24 – Irish nationalists start bloody rebellion against British occupation. June 12 – French take Malta June 12 – Coup d'état in the Netherlands (Batavian Republic). Moderates depose Pieter Vreede. July 1 – Napoleon's troops land in Egypt July 14 – The Alien and Sedition Acts become United States law making it a federal crime to write, publish, or utter false statements about the United States government July 21 – Napoleon defeats Mameluke forces near the Pyramids July 24 – Napoleon occupies Cairo July 30 – Selim III defeats Napoleon in Egypt July 31 – Second elections in the Netherlands (Batavian Republic). No general elections this time. August 1 – Horatio Nelson defeats the French navy under Admiral Brueys at the Battle of the Nile. Nelson himself is injured on the head. August 22 – French troops land at Killala in County Mayo to assist Irish rebellion. September 18 – Lyrical Ballads published anonymously by Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth Franz Xaver, Baron Von Zach, Scientific Editor, Astronomer, begins editing journals about navigation and the geographic positions of cities. XYZ Affair in the U.S., followed by naval battles, but no war is declared. First mechanical music boxes Alessandro Volta and La Place discover electricity The Afghans Army occupied Lahore in Punjab Aarau is the temporary capital of the Helvetic Republic Alois Senefelder invents lithography Eli Whitney contracts with the US Federal Government for 10,000 rifles, which he produces with interchangeable parts Charles Brockden Brown publishes the first American Novel Wieland or The Transformation an American Tale Ongoing events French Revolution (1789-1799) Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)-Second Coalition/Egyptian Campaign May-October – Irish Rebellion of 1798
Events Erik den helige is succeeded by Karl Sverkersson. See Swedish monarchs. Heiji Rebellion in Japan Yasovarman II succeeds his uncle Dharanindravarman as ruler of the Khmer Empire. Dharanindravarman's son Jayavarman, acquieses to his cousin's succession and goes into exile in neighboring Champa. Spital am Semmering founded by Margrave Ottokar III of Styria The City of Tomar is founded in Portugal by Gualdim Pais 1160
Events Nur ad-Din invades Egypt, and his nephew Saladin becomes the sultan over the territory conquered by Nur ad-Din. Prince Andrey Bogolyubskiy sacks the Kievan Rus' capital Kiev. Start of the conquest of Ireland. Richard fitzGilbert de Clare ('Strongbow') makes an alliance with the exiled Irish chief, Dermot MacMurrough, to help him recover his kingdom of Leinster. Eleanor of Aquitaine leaves the English court of Henry II to establish her great court in Poitiers where the Courts of Love flourished.
1196 (MCXCVI) was . Events Spring, London, popular uprising of the poor against the rich led by William Fitz Osbern. According to a popular legend, Prince Madog of Gwynedd reached North America in what is present-day Alabama. Stefan Prvovencani becomes Grand Župan of Serbia Creation of water boards in the region of present-day Netherlands, thereby being one of the oldest democratic entities still in existence in the world today. Births January 3 — Emperor Tsuchimikado of Japan (d. 1231) Alice of Champagne, daughter of Henry II of Champagne and regent of Jerusalem (d. 1246) Deaths August 15 — Conrad II, Duke of Swabia (b. 1173) King Alfonso II of Aragon (b. 1152) Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria William Fitz Osbern Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Prince of Trubchevsk and Kursk
Events January 2 – Russia and Prussia divide Poland January 9 – Jean-Pierre Blanchard becomes the first to fly in a balloon in the United States. January 21 – After being found guilty of treason by the French Convention, "Citizen Capet" i.e. Louis XVI of France is guillotined. February 1 – France declares war on Great Britain, the Netherlands (see French Revolutionary Wars) February 12 – The Congress of the United States passes a law legally requiring the return of slaves escaping from slave states into free territory or states, the Fugitive Slave Act February 25 – George Washington holds the first Cabinet meeting as President of the United States. February 27 – The Giles resolutions are introduced to the United States House of Representatives asking the House to condemn Alexander Hamilton's handling of loans. March 1 – John Langdon becomes President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate until March 3 March 5 – French troops are defeated by Austrian forces and Liège is recaptured March 7 – France declares war on Spain April 1 – Unsen volcano erupts in Japan and causes an earthquake. About 53.000 dead April 6 – Committee of Public Safety established in France with Georges Danton as its head. April 22 – George Washington signs the Neutrality Proclamation. May 31 – Regular troops under Francois Hanriet demand that the Girondins must be expelled from the national convention June 2 – Girondins overthrown June 10 – The Jardin des Plantes museum opened in Paris (a year later it would become the first public zoo). July 9 – Act Against Slavery passed in Upper Canada July 13 – Charlotte Corday kills Jean-Paul Marat in his bath July 22 – Alexander Mackenzie reaches the Pacific Ocean becoming the first Euro-American to complete a transcontinental crossing north of Mexico July 29 – John Graves Simcoe decides to build a fort and settlement at Toronto, having sailed into the bay there August 10 – Feast of Unity – Crowds in Paris burn monarchist emblems August 23 – Universal conscription in France September 5 – In France, the French National Convention votes to implement terror measures to repress French Revolutionary activities. The ensuing "Reign of Terror" will last until the spring of 1794 and causes death of 35,000-40,000 people. October 12 – The cornerstone of Old East, the oldest state university building in the United States, is laid in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, on the campus of the University of North Carolina. The 12th of October is now celebrated at the University as University Day. November 8 – In Paris, the French Revolutionary government opens the Louvre to the public as a museum October 16 – Execution of Marie Antoinette October 28 – Eli Whitney applied for a patent for his cotton gin, (the patent was granted the following March). October 31 – Execution of arrested Girondist leaders in France in a guillotine November 24 – French Revolutionary Calendar begins December 8 – Execution of Madame du Barry December 9– New York City's first daily newspaper, the American Minerva, is established by Noah Webster. December 17 – French forces under Napoleon capture Toulon from royalists and British troops The city of Butler, Pennsylvania founded Louis XVI of France b. 1754
1800 (MDCCC) was an exceptional common year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday in the Julian calendar. As of the start of 1800, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. As of March 1 (O.S. February 18), when the Julian calendar acknowledged a leap day and the Gregorian calendar did not, the Julian calendar fell one day further behind, bringing the difference to 12 days until February 28 (O.S. February 16), 1900. Events World population hits 1 billion. March 14 – Cardinal Barnaba Chiaramonti is elected pope as Pius VII. March 21 – Pius VII is ordained. April 24 – U.S. Library of Congress founded. May 5 – Great Britain passes the Act of Union to join Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to take effect on 1 January 1801. The act is signed by King George III in August. May 15 – Napoleon Bonaparte crosses the Alps and invades Italy. June 14 – Battle of Marengo, Napoleon defeats the Austrian troops near Marengo, Italy. June 2 – First smallpox vaccination in North America, at Trinity, Newfoundland. June 27 – Pascha Jussuf Karamanli of Tripoli declares war on Sweden by having the flagpole on the consulate chopped down. September 5 – The island of Malta, that was occupied by the French, is conquered by British troops. November 1 – U.S. President John Adams becomes the first President of the United States to live in the Executive Mansion (later renamed the White House). November 17 – The U.S. Congress holds its first Washington, DC session. December 3 – Battle of Hohenlinden, the French army defeats the Austrian troops. December 24 – An assault on Napoleon Bonaparte fails in Paris. December 24 – Pierre Coudrin and Henriette Aymer de la Chevalerie found the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary in Paris. Invention of the voltaic pile by Alessandro Volta: the first chemical battery The infrared radiation is discovered by Wilhelm Herschel. The Althing of Iceland, the world's oldest parliament, is abolished.
Vigdís Finnbogadóttir (born April 15, 1930) was the 4th president of Iceland. She was president from 1980 to 1996. She was the world's first elected female head of state. With a presidency of exactly sixteen years, she also remains the longest-serving, elected female head of state of any country to date. Currently, she is a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador, and a Member of the Club of Madrid. At her election in 1980 she was the first woman to be elected the head of state in a democratic election. She was re-elected unopposed in 1984 and 1992, and beat her opponent in the election of 1988. She studied literature and drama at the University of Grenoble and the Sorbonne in Paris, and also at the University of Iceland. She graduated in English and French literature, and has a degree in education. References Other websites official cv Vigdís Finnbogadóttir Institute of Foreign Languages 1930 births Living people People from Reykjavík Presidents of Iceland
Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson (born May 14, 1943) is an Icelanic politician. He served as the fifth President of Iceland, from 1996 to 2016, re-elected without opposition in 2000, and was re-elected in 2004, 2008, and 2012. He was born in Ísafjörður, Iceland. From 1962 to 1970, he studied economics and political science at the University of Manchester. He was a professor at the University of Iceland for political science, served as a Member of the Althing, and was the Minister of Finance (1988–1991). He married Guðrún Katrín Þorbergsdóttir in 1974, who gave birth to twin daughters the following year. Guðrún Katrín was very popular in Iceland, and her charm is without a doubt one of the main reasons her husband was elected; she charmed the nation from the start of his campaign. Her death from cancer in 1998 was a shock to the nation and her family. Ólafur's second marriage was to Dorrit Moussaieff to whom he had been engaged since May 2000. This took place on his 60th birthday May 14, 2003. He announced in his new year's message on 1 January 2016, that he would be stepping down from the presidency at the end of his fifth term, namely on 1 August 2016. He left office on 1 August 2016. He was succeeded by Guðni Th. Jóhannesson. References 1943 births Living people Presidents of Iceland
Births March 4 - Sir John Lawrence, British Indian administrator October 22 – Franz Liszt, Hungarian composer Events May 14 – Paraguay declares independence from Spain. Bolivia declares indepencence. Uruguay fights against Spain.
Coral Springs is a planned city in Florida, United States. It was founded on July 10, 1963. Cities in Florida 1963 establishments in the United States 1960s establishments in Florida
Events In 1565 St. Augustine is founded by the Spanish admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés on August 28 in modern-day Florida. The city is the oldest continually occupied European settlement in the continental United States. In 1569, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is founded. Start of Eighty Years' War. World leaders Queen Elizabeth I in England Philip II, King of Spain Births William Shakespeare, British writer Karl I of Liechtenstein, first Prince of Liechtenstein Jahangir, Mughal Emperor of India Deaths Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Flemish painter Vladimir of Staritsa, Russian prince
The Affenpinscher is a small breed of dog in the toy group. These dogs originally came from Germany. They are known to have existed since the 1600s. Their name comes from the German word "Affe," which means "monkey," because their faces remind people of monkeys. Originally, the dog was bred to be a "ratter," a type of dog that kills rats and mice in homes, farms, and stables. Now that mice are not so commonly found in the home, Affenpinschers are usually just kept as pets. Appearance The Affenpinscher is a very small kind of dog. It weighs between . Its height is between at the shoulder. Their face is flat and "monkey-like." The most common and preferred colour of fur for this breed is black, but they can also come in grey, beige, and other colours. In the American Kennel Club, a good example of these dogs could be any colour. In the French and British Kennel Clubs they must only be black. Temperament Even though Affenpinschers were bred to hunt mice, they do not like to chase other animals, so they can happily live with other pets. They are playful but very stubborn. These dogs can be difficult to train, because they do not like to listen to instructions and often become bored. Affenpinschers are somewhat territorial (protective) when it comes to their toys and food, so they are not recommended for homes with very small children. This dog is mostly quiet, and does not bark much. It can become very excited if attacked, and shows no fear. toward any aggressor. Health A small study showed that these dogs live an average of 11.4 years, which is not very long for a small dog (small dogs usually live 14-15 years). One of their most common health problems is bladder disease, which happens most often when the dogs are older (8 years and up.) Their short faces can make it difficult for them to breathe and exercise in hot weather. Like many kinds of dogs, Affenpinschers often get a disease called hip dysplasia which makes it difficult for them to run or walk. Extinct variant The Seidenpinscher (Silky coated Pinscher), was bred from the Affenpinscher and the Maltese (dog) around 1800. The dog had long, tousled, silky hair, a curly tail like the Maltese dog, a face like the Affenpinscher, and a size like a Affenpinscher or Maltese dog. All colors was allowed. The Seidenpinscher is believed to have died out between the two world wars. A well-known painting is that of the Seidenpinscher Puss from 1863. References Dog breeds
The Yorkshire Terrier or Yorkie is a small breed of terrier dog. It originated in the United Kingdom in the town of Yorkshire, from where it gets its name. They were first bred to catch mice and rats, so they are often fast and energetic. Yorkies usually weigh about 7 pounds (3.18 kg) and have a dark gray or black coat with a brown face. According to the American Kennel Club (AKC), Yorkies are the second most popular dog breed in America, behind only the Labrador Retriever. They are really playful, they will always want to play. Terriers
The Chiffons was an all-woman singing group. They started in New York City in 1960. 1960 establishments in the United States 1960s American music groups 1960s establishments in New York (state) 1970s American music groups 1980s American music groups 1990s American music groups 2000s American music groups African-American musical groups American girl groups Musical groups established in 1960 Musical groups from New York City The Bronx
Mott the Hoople was a English hard rock/glam rock band. They formed in 1969 and broke up in 1976. English rock bands English hard rock bands
Turner & Hooch is a 1989 American criminal comedy-drama movie. It stars Tom Hanks as Detective Turner and Beasley the Dog as Hooch. It was a very successful movie from A Dog’s Life. 1989 comedy-drama movies 1980s buddy movies 1980s crime drama movies 1980s criminal comedy movies American buddy movies American comedy-drama movies American crime drama movies American criminal comedy movies Buddy comedy movies Buddy cop movies Buddy drama movies English-language movies Movies about dogs Movies set in California Movies directed by Roger Spottiswoode
The Temptations are a successful R&B singing group. They formed in Detroit, USA in 1960. The Temptations have four Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles and 14 Billboard R&B number-one singles. They have three Grammy Awards. The Temptations were the first Motown act to earn a Grammy Award. Other websites Musical groups from Detroit, Michigan 1960 establishments in the United States 1960s establishments in Michigan
Brenda Mae Tarpley or Brenda Lee (born December 11, 1944 in Atlanta, Georgia) is an American pop singer. She was popular in the 1960s. She stood tall and was called “Little Miss Dynamite” because of her strong voice. She was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2002. References Notes Other websites Brenda Lee's official site 1944 births Living people Singers from Atlanta, Georgia People from Springfield, Missouri
Buddy Clark (born Samuel Goldberg, July 26, 1912 – October 1, 1949) was an American popular singer of the Big Band era. He had success in the 1930s and 1940s, returning to the United States after World War II. He died in a plane crash in 1949. Singers from Massachusetts American Jews 1912 births 1949 deaths
Air Supply is a pop music singing group. They formed in Melbourne, Australia in 1976. The current members are Russell Hitchcock (born June 15, 1949 in Melbourne) and Graham Russell (born June 1, 1950 in Nottingham, England). In 1981 they got with their song "The One That You Love" a number one hit in the United States. They had their most popular times during the early 1980s. Australian rock bands Australian pop music groups Musical duos Musical groups from Melbourne Musical groups established in 1975 1975 establishments 1970s establishments in Australia
The Sex Pistols were the first popular punk group in Britain and one of the first bands to come from the rising U.K. punk scene of the late 1970s. They were only together for about 3 years, from late 1975 to early 1978, and they were known for their rowdy behaviour more than their music. The music they made gave many new artists a big influence on their music, mostly in the alternative music and punk scenes such as California punk rock group Green Day. The band members were Johnny Rotten (vocals), Paul Cook (drums), Steve Jones (guitar) and Glen Matlock (bass). Sid Vicious later replaced Matlock on bass in February 1977 but died 2 years later. They recorded only one studio album, called Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols during the summer of 1977. One of their most famous songs is "Anarchy In The UK". Another one of their most famous songs is "God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)", which was banned by the BBC for it's contents. They split up after a show at Winterland on January 14th, 1978, with Rotten saying "You ever get the feelin' you're bein' cheated?" Albums Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols (1977) The Great Rock n' Roll Swindle (1979) (Soundtrack to a film of the same name) Flogging A Dead Horse (1980) (Greatest Hits Compilation Album) Other websites God Save The Sex Pistols John Lydon Official Site The Filth and the Fury Photographs by Bob Gruen 1975 establishments in the United Kingdom 1978 disestablishments in the United Kingdom 1970s British music groups English punk bands Musical groups established in 1975 Musical groups disestablished in the 1970s Musical groups from London
Walter Murphy (b. December 19, 1952) is a classically trained American pianist. He was born in New York City. He had a hit song in the late 1970s, "A Fifth of Beethoven". Other websites Walter Murphy's Allmusic Page American pianists Musicians from New York City 1952 births Living people
Events Transition from the Muromachi to the Azuchi-Momoyama period in Japan Fourth War of Religion in France, including the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Vilcabamba, last independent part of the Inca Empire, is conquered by the Spanish. 8.3 Ms Earthquake destroys the town of Concepción Births Abbas I of Safavid dynasty, Shah of Iran Juan Pujol, Catalan composer of music and organist Robert Catesby, English leader of the Gunpowder Plot Deaths Tupac Amaru, last of the Inca kings John Knox, Scottish religious reformer
Bette Davis (April 5, 1908 – October 6, 1989), full name Ruth Elizabeth Davis, was an American actress of the stage, cinema and television. She was born in Lowell, Massachusetts. She was nicknamed "The Queen of Hollywood" or the "First Lady of the American Screen" and "The Fifth Warner Brother" during her career. Davis had held the most Academy Award nominations for any actress (with ten) until Katharine Hepburn took her place with twelve. Bette Davis made over 100 films across 60 years. Some of the most popular films include: Of Human Bondage (1934), Marked Woman (1937), Jezebel (1938), Dark Victory (1939), The Letter (1940), The Little Foxes (1941), Now, Voyager (1942), Watch on the Rhine (1943), Mr. Skeffington (1944), All About Eve (1950), The Virgin Queen (1955), The Catered Affair (1956), Pocketful of Miracles (1961), What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962), Death on the Nile (1978) and The Whales of August (1987). In 1981 Kim Carnes sang the hit song "Bette Davis Eyes". Davis liked the song. Carnes gave Davis a gold record. Davis hung the gold record on a wall. The Kennedy Center honored Davis in 1987. She died of breast cancer in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France. Other websites Bette Davis at Classic Actresses Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Bette Davis Sources Actors from Massachusetts American movie actors American stage actors American television actors Cancer deaths in France Deaths from breast cancer Kennedy Center honorees 1908 births 1989 deaths People from Lowell, Massachusetts
The Gunpowder Conspiracy of 1605 was a plan to murder King James I of England and VI of Scotland. Other names for the plot are The Powder Treason or The Gunpowder Plot. A group of Catholics wanted to blow up the Houses of Parliament during the State Opening of Parliament on 5 November 1605. This would have killed the king, and most of the Protestant aristocracy. The conspirators also planned to kidnap the royal children, and lead a popular revolt in the Midlands. Origins Robert Catesby led the planning of the conspiracy, which started in May 1604. The people who helped him were either rich Catholics, or gentry families who had a lot of influence. Catesby may have come up with the plot when he saw that there was little hope that Great Britain would become more tolerant to Roman Catholics, under King James I. Many Catholics were disappointed about the situation. It is more likely though that Catesby simply wanted to give the Catholics in England a chance: The plot was to be the first step of a rebellion. Afterwards, James' nine-year-old daughter (Princess Elizabeth) could be put in as a Catholic head of state. Other plotters were Thomas Winter (also spelled Wintour), Robert Winter, John Wright, Christopher Wright, Robert Keyes, Thomas Percy (also spelled Percye), John Grant, Ambrose Rokewood, Sir Everard Digby, Francis Tresham and Thomas Bates (Catesby's servant). The explosives were prepared by Guy "Guido" Fawkes, a man with 10 years military experience. Fawkes had fought with the Spanish against the Dutch in the Spanish Netherlands. The main Jesuit in England, Father Henry Garnet was said to know the details of the plot. Oswald Tesimond, a fellow Jesuit had told him. Robert Catesby confessed them to Tesimond, and gave him the permission to tell Garnet. Although he was convicted, there has since been some debate over how much Garnet really knew. As the details of the plot were known through confession, Garnet was not allowed to reveal them to the authorities. He did not think it was a good idea. Nevertheless, the plot went ahead. Garnet's opposition to it did not save him from being hanged, drawn and quartered for treason in 1606, though. Planning In the 17th century, the Palace of Westminster was made of many buildings, spread over a large area. They were grouped around the medieval chambers, chapels, and halls of the old royal palace. This palace housed both Parliament and the various law courts. The palace was also easier to access than it is today. Merchants, lawyers, and other people lived and worked on the palace grounds. As a member of the King's Bodyguard, Percy was able to lease rooms next to the House of Lords, in May 1604. The plotters' original idea was to dig their way under the foundations of the Lords chamber to put the gunpowder there. The main idea was to kill James, but many other important targets would be present, including most of the Protestant nobility and senior bishops of the Church of England. Guy Fawkes, as "John Johnson", was put in charge of this building, where he posed as Percy's servant. Catesby's house in Lambeth was used to store the gunpowder with the tools for digging. However, the Black Plague came back to London in the summer of 1604 and proved to be particularly severe. For this reason, the opening of Parliament was changed to 1605. By Christmas Eve, the miners had still not reached the buildings of Parliament, and just as they restarted work early in 1605, they learned that the opening of Parliament had been further postponed to 3 October. The plotters then took the opportunity to row the gunpowder up the Thames from Catesby's house in Lambeth, to hide it in their new rented house: they had learned (by chance) that a coal merchant named Ellen Bright had vacated a ground-floor undercroft directly beneath the House of Lords chamber. Presented with this golden opportunity, Percy immediately took pains to secure the lease. He created the story that his wife would join him in London and that he would need the extra storage space. Fawkes assisted in filling the room with gunpowder, which was hidden beneath a wood store under the House of Lords building, in a cellar leased from John Whynniard. By March 1605, they had filled the undercroft underneath the House of Lords with 36 barrels of gunpowder, hidden under a store of winter fuel. Had all 36 barrels been successfully ignited, the explosion could easily have reduced many of the buildings in the Old Palace of Westminster complex to rubble, and would have blown out windows in the surrounding area of about a one kilometre radius. The conspirators left London in May, and went to their homes or to different areas of the country, because being seen together would arouse suspicion. They arranged to meet again in September; however, the opening of Parliament was again postponed. The weakest parts of the plot were the arrangements for the subsequent rebellion which would have swept the country and installed a Catholic monarch. Due to the requirements for money and arms, Sir Francis Tresham was eventually admitted to the plot, and it was probably he who betrayed the plot in writing to his brother-in-law Lord Monteagle. An anonymous letter revealed some of the details of the plot; it read: "I advise you to devise some excuse not to attend this parliament, for they shall receive a terrible blow, and yet shall not see who hurts them". According to the confession made by Fawkes on Tuesday 5 November 1605, he had left Dover around Easter 1605, bound for Calais. He then travelled to Saint-Omer and on to Brussels, where he met with Hugh Owen and Sir William Stanley before making a pilgrimage to Brabant. He returned to England at the end of August or early September, again by way of Calais. Guy Fawkes was left in charge of executing the plot, while the other conspirators fled to Dunchurch in Warwickshire to await news. Once Parliament had been destroyed, the other conspirators planned to start a revolt in the Midlands. Discovery During the preparation, several of the conspirators had been concerned about the safety of fellow Catholics who would be present in Parliament on the day of the planned explosion. On the evening of Friday, 26 October Lord Monteagle received an anonymous letter while at his house in Hoxton. Monteagle had the note read out loud, possibly to warn the plotters that the secret was out, and promptly handed it over to Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, the Secretary of State. The conspirators learned of the letter the following day, but decided to go ahead with their plan, especially after Fawkes inspected the undercroft and found that nothing had been touched. Having been shown the letter, the King ordered Sir Thomas Knyvet to conduct a search of the cellars underneath Parliament, which he did in the early hours of 5 November. Shortly after midnight, Fawkes was found leaving the cellar the conspirators had rented and was arrested, giving his name as John Johnson. Inside, the barrels of gunpowder were discovered hidden under piles of firewood and coal. Far from denying his intentions during the arrest, Fawkes stated that it had been his purpose to destroy the King and the Parliament. Nevertheless, Fawkes maintained his false identity and continued to insist that he was acting alone. Later in the morning, before noon, he was again interrogated. He was questioned on the nature of his accomplices, the involvement of Thomas Percy, what letters he had received from overseas and whether or not he had spoken with Hugh Owen. A letter written by Gentleman of the Bedchamber, Sir Edward Hoby gave details of all those that would have been caught in the explosion: On 5 November we began a Parliament, to which the King should have cometh in person, but refrained through a practice but that morning discovered. The plot was to have blown up the King at such time as he should have been sat in his royal throne, Nobility and Commons and with all Bishops, Judges and Doctors at one instant, and the blast to have ruined the whole estate and kingdom of England. Fawkes was taken to the Tower of London and interrogated there under torture. Torture was forbidden, except by the express instruction of the monarch or a body such as the Privy Council or the Star Chamber. In a letter of 6 November, King James I stated: The discovery of the Gunpowder Plot aroused a wave of national relief at the delivery of the king and his sons, and inspired in the ensuing parliament a mood of loyalty and goodwill, which Salisbury astutely exploited to extract higher subsidies for the king than any (bar one) granted in Elizabeth's reign. In his speech to both Houses on 9 November, James expounded on two emerging preoccupations of his monarchy: the Divine Right of Kings and the Catholic question. He insisted that the plot had been the work of only a few Catholics, not of the English Catholics as a whole, and he reminded the assembly to rejoice at his survival, since kings were divinely appointed and he owed his escape to a miracle. Trial and executions On hearing of the failure of the plot, the conspirators fled towards Huddington Court near Worcester, a family home of Thomas and Robert Wintour. Heavy rain, however, slowed their travels. Many of them were caught by Richard Walsh, the Sheriff of Worcestershire, when they arrived in Stourbridge. The remaining men attempted a revolt in the Midlands. This failed, coming to a dramatic end at Holbeche House in Staffordshire, where there was a shoot-out resulting in the deaths of Catesby and Percy and capture of several other principal conspirators. Jesuits and others were then rounded up in other locations in Britain, with some being killed by torture during interrogation. Robert Wintour managed to remain on the run for two months before he was captured at Hagley Park. The conspirators were tried on 27 January 1606 in Westminster Hall. All of the plotters pleaded "Not Guilty" except for Sir Everard Digby, who attempted to defend himself on the grounds that the King had reneged on his promises of greater tolerance of Catholicism. Sir Edward Coke, the attorney general, prosecuted, and the Earl of Northampton made a speech refuting the charges laid by Sir Everard Digby. The trial lasted one day (English criminal trials generally did not exceed a single day's duration) and the verdict was never in doubt. The trial ranked highly as a public spectacle, and there are records of up to 10 shillings being paid for entry. Four of the plotters were executed in St. Paul's Churchyard on 30 January. On 31 January, Fawkes, Winter and a number of others implicated in the conspiracy were taken to Old Palace Yard in Westminster, in front of the scene of the intended crime, where they were to be hanged, drawn and quartered. Fawkes, although weakened by torture, cheated the executioners: when he was to be hanged until almost dead, he jumped from the gallows, breaking his neck and killing himself, thus avoiding the gruesome latter part of his execution. Henry Garnet was executed on 3 May 1606 at St Paul's. His crime was of being the confessor of several members of the Gunpowder Plot, and as noted, he had opposed the plot. Many spectators thought that his punishment was too severe. Antonia Fraser writes: Due to the Gunpowder Plot, many Catholics found themselves persecuted or imprisoned in the Tower of London, including the following: Anthony-Maria Browne, 2nd Viscount Montagu, due to Guy Fawkes being one of his servants and Robert Catesby having warned him not to attend Parliament. Lady Agnes Wenman of Thame Park as a Catholic and relative of the Dowager Lady Elizabeth Vaux. Dowager Lady Elizabeth Vaux for being a supporter of Fr. Henry Garnet. Edward Vaux, 4th Baron Vaux of Harrowden for being a Catholic, son of the above. Edward Stourton, 10th Baron Stourton for being a cousin of Sir Francis Tresham who was a Gunpowder Plotter, and for getting a letter telling him to be absent from Parliament. Henry Mordaunt, 4th Baron Mordaunt for getting a letter telling him to be absent from Parliament. Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland for being the cousin of Sir Thomas Percy (plotter) Sir Alan Percy brother of the above and Lieutenant of the Gentleman Pensioners under Northumberland's captaincy, who were also the King's Bodyguard. Dudley Carleton, 1st Viscount Dorchester for being the secretary of the Earl of Northumberland. Historical impact Greater freedom for Catholics to worship as they chose seemed unlikely in 1604, but after the plot in 1605, changing the law to afford Catholics leniency became unthinkable; Catholic Emancipation took another 200 years. Nevertheless, many important and loyal Catholics retained high office in the kingdom during King James' reign. Interest in the demonic was heightened by the Gunpowder Plot. The king himself had become engaged in the great debate about other-worldly powers in writing his Daemonology in 1597, before he became King of England as well as Scotland. The apparent devilish nature of the gunpowder plot also partly inspired William Shakespeare's Macbeth. Demonic inversions (such as the line fair is foul and foul is fair) are frequently seen in the play. Another possible reference made in Macbeth was to equivocation, as Henry Garnett’s A Treatise of Equivocation was found on one of the plotters, and a resultant fear was that Jesuits could evade the truth through equivocation: Faith, here's an equivocator, that could Swear in both the scales against either scale; Who committed treason enough for God's sake, Yet could not equivocate to heaven - Macbeth, Act 2 Scene 3 The Gunpowder Plot was commemorated for years after the plot by special sermons and other public acts, such as the ringing of church bells. It added to an increasingly full calendar of Protestant celebrations which contributed to the national and religious life of seventeenth-century England. Through various permutations, this has evolved into the Bonfire Night of today. Professor Ronald Hutton has considered the possible events which could have followed the successful implementation of the Gunpowder Plot, with the resultant destruction of Parliament and death of the king. He concluded that the violence of the act would have instead resulted in a more severe backlash against suspected Catholics. Without the involvement of some form of foreign aid, success would have been unlikely, as most Englishmen were loyal to the institution of the monarchy, despite differing religious convictions. England could very well have become a more "Puritan absolute monarchy", as "existed in Sweden, Denmark, Saxony, and Prussia in the seventeenth century", rather than follow the path of parliamentary and civil reform that it did. Commemoration When Parliament met in January 1606 for the first time after the plot they passed an Act of Parliament called the "Thanksgiving Act". This made services and sermons commemorating the Plot an annual feature on 5 November. The act remained in force until 1859. On 5 November 1605, it is said that the people of London celebrated the defeat of the plot with fires and street festivities. The tradition of marking the day with the ringing of church bells and bonfires started soon after the Plot and fireworks were also included in some of the earliest celebrations. In Britain the fifth of November is also called Bonfire Night, Fireworks Night or Guy Fawkes Night. It remains the custom in Britain, on or around 5 November, to let off fireworks. Traditionally, in the weeks running up to the 5th, children made "guys"—effigies supposedly of Fawkes—usually made from old clothes stuffed with newspaper, and with a grotesque mask, to be burnt on 5 November bonfire. These effigies would be shown in the street, to collect money for fireworks, although this practice is becoming less common. The word guy came thus in the 19th century to mean an oddly dressed person, and in the 20th and 21st centuries to mean any male person. Institutions and towns may hold firework displays and bonfire parties, and the same is done on a smaller scale in back gardens throughout the country. In some areas, particularly in Sussex, there are extensive processions, large bonfires and firework displays organised by local bonfire societies; the most extensive of which takes place in Lewes. The Houses of Parliament are still searched by the Yeomen of the Guard before the State Opening of Parliament, however, this is done as a traditional custom rather than a serious anti-terrorist precaution. A commemorative British two pound coin was issued in 2005 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the plot. The cellar in which Fawkes watched over his gunpowder was demolished in 1822. The area was further damaged in the 1834 fire and destroyed in the subsequent rebuilding of the Palace of Westminster. The lantern which Guy Fawkes carried in 1605 is in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. A key supposedly taken from him is in Speaker's House, Palace of Westminster. These two items were shown in a major exhibition held in Westminster Hall from July to November 2005. According to Esther Forbes (a biographer), the Guy Fawkes Day celebration in the pre-revolutionary American Colonies was a very popular holiday. In Boston, the celebration took on anti-authoritarian overtones, and often became so dangerous that many would not venture out of their homes. In November 1930, taking advantage of the bonfires used on the holiday, Alfred Arthur Rouse murdered an unknown man and planted his body as a substitute for Rouse's in his Morris Minor (1928) automobile (which was then set alight). The scheme did not work out, and Rouse was arrested, tried and executed for the crime. Accusations of state conspiracy Many at the time felt that Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury had been involved in the plot to gain favour with the king and enact more stridently anti-Catholic legislation. Such theories alleged that Cecil had either actually invented the plot or allowed it to continue when his agents had already infiltrated it, for the purposes of propaganda. These rumours were the start of a long-lasting conspiracy theory about the plot. Yet while there was no "golden time" of "toleration" of Catholics which Father Garnet had hoped for at the start of James' reign, the legislative backlash had nothing to do with the plot: it had already happened by 1605, as recusancy fines were re-imposed and some priests expelled. There was no purge of Catholics from power and influence in the kingdom after the Gunpowder Plot, despite Puritan complaints. The reign of James I was, in fact, a time of relative leniency for Catholics, few being subject to prosecution. This did not dissuade some from continuing to claim Cecil's involvement in the plot. In 1897 Father John Gerard of Stonyhurst College, namesake of a Jesuit priest who had performed Mass to some of the plotters, wrote an account called What was the Gunpowder Plot?, alleging Cecil's culpability. This prompted a refutation later that year by Samuel Gardiner, who argued that Gerard had gone too far in trying to "wipe away the reproach" which the plot had exacted on generations of English Catholics. Gardiner portrayed Cecil as guilty of nothing more than opportunism. Subsequent attempts to prove Cecil's responsibility, such as Francis Edwards's 1969 work Guy Fawkes: the real story of the gunpowder plot?, have similarly foundered on the lack of positive proof of any government involvement in setting up the plot. There has been little support by historians for the conspiracy theory since this time, other than to acknowledge that Cecil may have known about the plot some days before it was uncovered. Modern plot analysis According to the historian Lady Antonia Fraser, the gunpowder was taken to the Tower of London magazine. It would have been reissued or sold for recycling if in good condition. Ordnance records for the Tower state that 18 hundredweight (equivalent to about 816 kg) of it was "decayed", which could imply that it was rendered harmless due to having separated into its component chemical parts, as happens with gunpowder when left to sit for too long—if Fawkes had ignited the gunpowder during the opening, it would only have resulted in a weak splutter. Alternatively, "decayed" may refer to the powder being damp and sticking together, making it unfit for use in firearms — in which case the explosive capabilities of the barrels would not have been significantly affected. The Gunpowder Plot: Exploding The Legend, an ITV programme presented by Richard Hammond and broadcast on 1 November 2005, re-enacted the plot by blowing up an exact replica of the 17th-century House of Lords filled with test dummies, using the exact amount of gunpowder in the underground of the building. The dramatic experiment, conducted on the Advantica Spadeadam test site, proved unambiguously that the explosion would have killed all those attending the State Opening of Parliament in the Lords chamber. The power of the explosion, which surprised even gunpowder experts, was such that seven-foot deep solid concrete walls (made deliberately to replicate how archives suggest the walls in the old House of Lords were constructed) were reduced to rubble. Measuring devices placed in the chamber to calculate the force of the blast were themselves destroyed by the blast, while the skull of the dummy representing King James, which had been placed on a throne inside the chamber surrounded by courtiers, peers and bishops, was found a large distance away from the site. According to the findings of the programme, no-one within 100 metres of the blast could have survived, while all the stained glass windows in Westminster Abbey would have been shattered, as would all windows within a large distance of the Palace. The power of the explosion would have been seen from miles away, and heard from further still. Even if only half the gunpowder had gone off, everyone in the House of Lords and its environs would have been killed instantly. The programme also disproved claims that some deterioration in the quality of the gunpowder would have prevented the explosion. A portion of deliberately deteriorated gunpowder, at such a low quality as to make it unusable in firearms, when placed in a heap and ignited, still managed to create a large explosion. The impact of even deteriorated gunpowder would have been magnified by the impact of its compression in wooden barrels, with the compression overcoming any deterioration in the quality of the contents. The compression would have created a cannon effect, with the powder first blowing up from the top of the barrel before, a millisecond later, blowing out. In addition, mathematical calculations showed that Fawkes, who was skilled in the use of gunpowder, had used double the amount of gunpowder needed. A sample of the gunpowder may have survived: in March 2002, workers investigating archives of John Evelyn at the British Library found a box containing various samples of gunpowder and several notes suggesting a relation to the Gunpowder Plot: "Gunpowder 1605 in a paper inscribed by John Evelyn. Powder with which that villain Faux (sic) would have blown up the parliament.", "Gunpowder. Large package is supposed to be Guy Fawkes' gunpowder". "But there was none left! WEH 1952 Related pages Popish Plot Notes Bibliography Other websites The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 Catholic Encyclopedia: The Gunpowder Plot The Gunpowder Plot (Website exploring the history of the plot for younger users) The Gunpowder Plot (House of Commons Information Sheet) The Gunpowder Plot Society iTV "Gunpowder Plot" Program What If the Gunpowder Plot Had Succeeded? A summary of the Gunpowder Plot events Publications about the Gunpowder Plot A contemporary account of the executions of the plotters The Gunpowder Plot Game BBC Interactive Guide: Gunpowder Plot Guardian Unlimited Analysis of the Sketch of the Plotters 1600s in England Rebellions in Europe 1605 17th century rebellions
John Knox (c. 1510 – 24 November 1572) was the man who brought the Protestant Reformation to Scotland. He was one of the founders of the Presbyterian Church. Knox joined the movement to change the Roman Catholic church in Scotland. He married twice and had five children. Knox preached until he died. A fight between Catholic France and Protestant England for Scotland began again because of the Reformation. Sometimes France had more power. Other times England had it. Knox spent many months as a galley slave. He also spent time in exile because of his Protestant beliefs. During a trip to Scotland, Knox's preaching helped the Protestant movement. Several Protestant noblemen came together and made a group called the Lords of the Congregation. When the group had more power, they invited Knox back to Scotland to stay. During 1500 and 1561, the Scottish Parliament accepted the Reformed confession of faith made by Knox and other people. Knox argued many times with Mary, Queen of Scots. In his book History of the Reformation in Scotland he writes about his five "conversations" with the Roman Catholic queen. In one of these conversations, Mary asked Knox what right he had to rebuke the queen so directly and openly. Knox replied, "...I am a worm of this earth, and yet a subject...but I am a watchman, both over the realm (land) and the Kirk [Church] of God...For that reason I am bound in conscience (it is my duty) to blow the trumpet publicly (openly)". Mary's violent life finally made even her Catholic helpers lose their support. She gave up the throne. So, Knox was able to make the Protestant church in Scotland. Because of him, the Presbyterian church was made. References 1510s births 1572 deaths British Protestants Calvinists Christian theologians Presbyterians Protestant Reformers Scottish Christians
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is one of the Nobel Prizes which were created by Alfred Nobel. This award is decided by the Karolinska Institutet, a major medical center in Sweden. The Prize is given every year to a person or persons who have done excellent work in the area of medicine (treating or stopping disease) or physiology (the way the body works). Nobel Prize winners 1901–1910 1901 – Emil von Behring, Germany, for making a serum to stop people getting the disease diphtheria 1902 – Ronald Ross, United Kingdom, for work on malaria 1903 – Niels Ryberg Finsen, Denmark, for treating Lupus vulgaris (tuberculosis of the skin), with light radiation. 1904 – Ivan Pavlov, Russia, for his work on the way digestion works. 1905 – Robert Koch, Germany, for studying tuberculosis 1906 – Camillo Golgi, Italy and Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Spain for their work on the parts of the nervous system 1907 – Alphonse Laveran, France, for his work on the way protozoa can cause disease 1908 – Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Russia, and Paul Ehrlich, Germany, for finding out how immunity fights disease 1909 – Emil Theodor Kocher, Switzerland, for his work on the thyroid gland 1910 – Albrecht Kossel, Germany, for his work on proteins and nucleic substances 1911–1919 1911 – Allvar Gullstrand, Sweden, for his work on light refraction and the eye 1912 – Alexis Carrel, France, for his work on joining blood vessels and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs 1913 – Charles Robert Richet, France, for his work on anaphylaxis 1914 – Robert Bárány, Austria, for his work on the ear and balance 1915 – Not awarded 1916 – Not awarded 1917 – Not awarded 1918 – Not awarded 1919 – Jules Bordet, Belgium, for his discoveries about immunity 1920–1929 1920 – August Krogh, Denmark, for his discoveries about capillaries 1921 – Not awarded 1922 – Archibald Vivian Hill, United Kingdom, for finding out how muscles make heat 1922 – Otto Fritz Meyerhof, Germany, for finding out how oxygen makes chemical changes in lactic acid in muscles 1923 – Frederick Grant Banting, Canada and John Macleod, Canada, for the discovery of insulin" 1924 – Willem Einthoven, The Netherlands, for inventing the electrocardiogram" 1925 – Not awarded 1926 – Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger, Denmark, for his discovery that an infection could lead to cancer 1927 – Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Austria, for his discovery that malaria inoculation helps the treatment of paralysis 1928 – Charles Jules Henri Nicolle, France, for his work on typhus 1929, Christiaan Eijkman, The Netherlands, for finding out how to use a vitamin to stop nerve pain" 1929 – Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins, United Kingdom, for his discovery of the vitamins that help growth 1930–1939 1930 – Karl Landsteiner, for discovery of human blood types. 1931 – Otto Heinrich Warburg, Germany, for his discovery of the respiratory enzyme. 1932 – Sir Charles Scott Sherrington, United Kingdom, and Edgar Douglas Adrian, United Kingdom, for discoveries about neurons (nerve cells). 1933 – Thomas Hunt Morgan, United States, for his work on chromosomes and heredity". 1934 – George Hoyt Whipple, George Richards Minot, and William Parry Murphy, United States, for their work on how eating liver could cure anaemia. 1935 – Hans Spemann, Germany, for finding the organizer effect in embryonic development. 1936 – Sir Henry Hallett Dale, United Kingdom, and Otto Loewi, Austria for their discoveries about neurotransmitters and nerve impulses. 1937 – Albert Szent-Györgyi, Hungary, for his discoveries about cells, vitamin C and chemical changes of fumaric acid. 1938 – Corneille Heymans, Belgium, for work on the paranasal sinus and aortic mechanisms in the control of breathing. 1939 – Gerhard Domagk, Germany, for finding the antibacterial effects of prontosil. 1940–1949 1940 – Not awarded 1941 – Not awarded 1942 – Not awarded 1943 – Henrik Carl Peter Dam, Denmark, for his discovery of vitamin K 1943 – Edward Adelbert Doisy, United States, for work on vitamin K" 1944 – Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Gasser, United States, for their discoveries about single nerve fibres 1945 – Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain, United Kingdom and Howard Walter Florey, Australia, for the discovery of penicillin and making it into an antibiotic to cure infectious diseases 1946 – Hermann Joseph Muller, United States, for the discovery of mutations caused by X-ray irradiation 1947 – Carl Ferdinand Cori and Gerty Theresa Cori, née Radnitz, United States, for their work on catalytic conversion of glycogen 1947 – Bernardo Alberto Houssay, Argentina, for finding out how the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe works in the metabolism of sugar 1948 – Paul Hermann Müller, Switzerland, for his work on DDT as a poison against several insects 1949 – Walter Rudolf Hess, Switzerland, for his discovery of the way the brain controls the internal organs 1949 – António Egas Moniz, Portugal, for using leucotomy (brain surgery) to cure some mental illnesses. 1950–1959 1950 – Philip French, Edward Kendall, United States, and Tadeusz Reichstein, Switzerland, for the hormones of the adrenal cortex. 1951 – Max Theiler, Union of South Africa, for his discoveries about yellow fever. 1952 – Selman Waksman, United States, for discovering streptomycin, the first antibiotic to work against tuberculosis. 1953 – Hans Krebs, United Kingdom, for his discovery of the citric acid cycle. 1953 – Fritz Lipmann, United States, for his discovery of co-enzyme A. 1954 – John Enders, Frederick Robbins, and Thomas Weller, United States, for discovering the poliomyelitis virus and growing it in a laboratory. 1955 – Hugo Theorell, Sweden, for his discoveries about enzymes changing with oxygen. 1956 – André Cournand, Dickinson Richards, United States, and Werner Forssmann, Federal Republic of Germany, for their discoveries about heart catheterization and changes in the circulatory system. 1957 – Daniel Bovet, Italy for his work on antihistamine and what they do to parts of the body. 1958 – George Beadle and Edward Tatum, United States, for finding out how genes work. 1958 – Joshua Lederberg, United States, for finding out how genetic recombination works in bacteria (transduction (genetics)). 1959 – Arthur Kornberg and Severo Ochoa, United States, for their discovery of how living things make ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). 1960–1969 1960 – Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Australia, and Sir Peter Medawar, United Kingdom, for their discovery of acquired immune tolerance. 1961 – Georg von Békésy, United States, for his discoveries about the cochlea (inner ear). 1962 – Francis Crick, United Kingdom, James D. Watson, United States, and Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand, for finding the structure of nucleic acids and its importance in coding information in living things. 1963 – Sir John Eccles, Australia, Alan Hodgkin, United Kingdom, and Andrew Huxley, United Kingdom, for their discoveries about nerve cell membrane. 1964 – Konrad Bloch, United States, and Feodor Lynen, Federal Republic of Germany, for finding out how cholesterol and fatty acid work in the body. 1965 – François Jacob, André Lwoff, and Jacques Monod, France, for finding out how genes control viruses. 1966 – Peyton Rous, United States, for his discovery that viruses can cause tumours. 1966 – Charles Brenton Huggins, United States, for using hormonal treatment of prostate cancer. 1967 – Ragnar Granit, Sweden, Haldan Keffer Hartline, and George Wald, United States, for their discoveries about how the eye works. 1968 – Robert W. Holley (U.S), Har Gobind Khorana (India), and Marshall W. Nirenberg, United States, for their understanding of the genetic code and its role in protein synthesis. 1969 – Max Delbrück, Alfred Hershey, and Salvador Luria, United States, for finding how viruses reproduce. 1970–1979 1970 – Julius Axelrod, Ulf von Euler, Sweden, and Sir Bernard Katz, United Kingdom, for finding out about transmittors in the nerve terminals and how they work 1971 – Earl W. Sutherland, Jr., United States, for his discoveries about hormones 1972 – Gerald M. Edelman, United States, and Rodney R. Porter, United Kingdom, for finding out the chemical structure of antibodies 1973 – Karl von Frisch, Federal Republic of Germany, Konrad Lorenz, Austria, and Nikolaas Tinbergen, United Kingdom, for their discoveries about individual and social behaviour patterns 1974 – Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, Belgium, and George E. Palade, United States, for their discoveries about cells 1975 – David Baltimore, Howard Temin, and Renato Dulbecco, United States, for finding what happens when tumour causing viruses infect normal cells. 1976 – Baruch S. Blumberg and D. Carleton Gajdusek, United States, for their discoveries about the beginnings and spreading of infectious diseases 1977 – Roger Guillemin, Andrew W. Schally, United States, for their discoveries about how the brain makes peptide hormone 1977 – Rosalyn Yalow, United States, for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones 1978 – Werner Arber, Switzerland, Daniel Nathans, United States, and Hamilton O. Smith, United States for finding restriction enzymes and their use in molecular genetics" 1979 – Allan M. Cormack, United States, and Godfrey N. Hounsfield, United Kingdom, for the development of computer assisted tomography 1980–1989 1980 – Baruj Benacerraf, United States, Jean Dausset, France, and George D. Snell, United States, for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that control immunological reactions 1981 – Roger Sperry, United States, for finding out the role of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain 1981 – David Hubel, United States, and Torsten Wiesel, Sweden, for their discoveries about information processing in the visual system" 1982 – Sune Bergström, Bengt I. Samuelsson, Sweden, and John R. Vane, United Kingdom, for their discoveries about prostaglandins. 1983 – Barbara McClintock, United States, for her discovery of mobile genetic elements 1984 – Niels K. Jerne, Denmark, Georges Köhler, Germany, Federal Republic of Germany, César Milstein, Argentina and the United Kingdom, for theories about the development and control of the immune system and the discovery of monoclonal antibodies are made 1985 – Michael S. Brown, and Joseph L. Goldstein, United States, for finding out how cholesterol is controlled 1986 – Stanley Cohen, United States, and Rita Levi-Montalcini, Italy and the United States, for their discoveries of growth factors 1987 – Susumu Tonegawa, Japan, for his discovery how the genes make different antibodies 1988 – Sir James Black United Kingdom, Gertrude B. Elion, and George H. Hitchings, United States, for finding important rules for drug treatment 1989 – J. Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus, United States, found how disturbing a large family of genes that control the normal growth and division of cells, can cause normal cells to change into cancer cells. 1990–1999 1990 – Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas, United States, for their discoveries about organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of disease. 1991 – Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, Federal Republic of Germany, for finding what single ion channels do in cells. 1992 – Edmond H. Fischer, Switzerland and the United States, and Edwin G. Krebs, United States, for finding reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological control mechanism. 1993 – Richard Roberts, United Kingdom, and Phillip Sharp, United States, for their discoveries of split genes. 1994 – Alfred G. Gilman, and Martin Rodbell, United States, for finding G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells. 1995 – Edward B. Lewis, United States, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Federal Republic of Germany, and Eric F. Wieschaus, United States, for finding how embryonic development is changed by genes. 1996 – Peter C. Doherty,Australia,and Rolf M. Zinkernagel, Switzerland, for finding how the immune system knows which cells are virus-infected. 1997 – Stanley B. Prusiner, United States, for his discovery of prions, proteins that make people sick. 1998 – Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro and Ferid Murad, United States, for finding how nitric oxide works as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system. 1999 – Günter Blobel, United States, for the discovery that proteins have built-in signals that control their transport and localization in the cell. 2000–2009 2000 Arvid Carlsson, Sweden, Paul Greengard, United States, and Eric Kandel, United States, for their discoveries about signal transduction in the nervous system. 2001 Leland Hartwell, United States, Tim Hunt, United Kingdom, and Sir Paul Nurse, United Kingdom, for finding the main controls in the cell cycle. 2002 Sydney Brenner, United Kingdom, H. Robert Horvitz, United States, and Sir John Sulston, United Kingdom, for their finding the genetic controls of organ development and programmed cell death. 2003 Paul Lauterbur, United States, and Sir Peter Mansfield, United Kingdom, for inventing magnetic resonance imaging. 2004 Richard Axel and Linda Buck, United States, for finding small receptors and the organization of the olfactory system, (how we smell things). 2005 Barry Marshall and Robin Warren, Australia, for finding the bacterium Helicobacter pylori that causes gastritis and peptic ulcer disease. 2006 Andrew Fire and Craig Mello, United States, for finding how RNA interference can switch genes on or off. 2007 Mario Capecchi, United States, Sir Martin Evans, United Kingdom, Oliver Smithies, United States, for finding a way to switch off genes in mouse embryonic stem cells. This leads to genetically changed mice. 2008 Harald zur Hausen, Germany, for finding the human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer. Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier, France, for finding the human immunodeficiency virus. 2009 Elizabeth Blackburn, Australia, Carol Greider, US, and Jack Szostak, England, for their work on chromosomes. 2010–2019 2010 Robert Edwards, U.K., for the development of in vitro fertilization. 2011 Bruce Beutler, U.S.A., Jules Hoffmann, France, for their discoveries about how innate immunity is activated. Ralph Steinman, Canada/U.S.A. for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity. (awarded posthumously) 2012 John Gurdon, U.K., and Shinya Yamanaka, Japan, for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become stem cells. 2013 James Rothman, Randy Schekman, both US, and Thomas G. Sudhof, Germany for "discovering the molecular basis of neutrotransmitters release". 2014 John O'Keefe U.K./U.S., May-Britt Moser & Edvard Moser Norway for "discovering the cells that make a positing system in the brain" (the hippocampus as a mental map for spatial memory). 2015 William C. Campbell (1/4)/ Satoshi Ōmura (1/4) / Tu Youyou (1/2) for therapy against (respectively) roundworm parasites, and malaria. 2016 Yoshinori Ohsumi, Japan, for autophagy. 2017 Michael Rosbash, Michael W. Young & Jeffrey C. Hall, all U.S., for "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm" 2018 James P. Allison, U.S, Tasuku Honjo, Japan for "discovery of cancer therapy by inhibitation of negative immune regulation". 2019 William Kaelin Jr., U.S., Peter J. Ratcliffe, U.K., Gregg L. Semenza, U.S. for "their discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability". 2020- 2020 Harvey J. Alter, U.S, Michael Houghton, U.K, & Charles M. Rice, U.S. for "the discovery of Hepatitis C virus". 2021 David Julius, U.S. and Ardem Patapoutian, U.S. for "discovories of receptors for temperature and touch". Related pages List of Nobel Prize winners by country List of Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry List of Nobel Prize winners in Economics List of Nobel Prize winners in Physics List of Nobel Prize winners in Literature List of Nobel Peace Prize winners References Physiology
The Nobel Prize in Literature is one of many Nobel Prizes given in honor of Alfred Nobel. Every year, a writer is chosen by the Swedish Academy to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature. They choose someone who they think has written something that has great value. The prize was awarded the first time in 1901 to Sully Prudhomme of France. Writing of any language could possibly win the Nobel Prize. List of laureates List of Nobel Prize laureates (winners) in Literature from 1901 to the present date. Related pages List of Nobel Prize winners by country List of Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry List of Nobel Prize winners in Economics List of Nobel Prize winners in Physics List of Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine List of Nobel Peace Prize winners References Other websites The Nobel Prize in Literature - Laureates Nobel Prize Winners in Literature The Nobel Prize Written in Stone - Burial locations of literary figures. Literature
The Zuni, also called Zuñi or Ashiwi are a Native American tribe. They live near the Zuni River. This river flows into the Little Colorado River, in western New Mexico, United States. They are famous for their language, which is not like other Pueblo or Native American languages. It is a language isolate. Native American People from New Mexico
A fallacy is an incorrect argument in logic and rhetoric. It gives a result which is not valid or lacks soundness. In mathematics, a fallacy can occur when the reasoning violates the condition of its applicability. Fallacies are either formal fallacies or informal fallacies. Formal fallacies A formal fallacy is an error in logic. This shows in the argument's form. All formal fallacies are types of non sequiturs (the conclusion does not follow from the premises). Appeal to probability – A statement that takes something for granted because it would probably be the case (or might be the case). Argument from fallacy – A statement assuming that if an argument for some conclusion is fallacious, then the conclusion itself is false. Affirming the consequent – If A, then B; B, therefore A. Denying the antecedent – If A, then B; not A, therefore not B. Existential fallacy – An example would be: "Everyone in the room is smart". It does not imply that there is a smart person in the room, because it does not state that there is a person in the room. Undistributed middle All students carry backpacks. My grandfather carries a backpack. Therefore, my grandfather is a student. All students carry backpacks. My grandfather carries a backpack. Everyone who carries a backpack is a student. Therefore, my grandfather is a student. Even if the conclusion of an argument is correct, it is not supported by the logic given. Informal fallacies Informal fallacies are arguments that are fallacious for reasons other than structural flaws. They usually need examination of the argument's content. Some examples of informal fallacies include: Argument from ignorance (appeal to ignorance, argumentum ad ignorantiam) – assuming that a claim is true because it has not been or cannot be proven false, or vice versa. Argumentum ad hominem – evading of the actual topic by directing the attack at one's opponent. Begging the question (petitio principii) – providing what is essentially the conclusion of the argument as a premise. Equivocation – misleadingly using of a term with more than one meaning (by glossing over which meaning is intended at a particular time). False dilemma (false dichotomy, fallacy of bifurcation, black-or-white fallacy) – holding two alternative statements as the only possible options, when in reality there are more. Fallacy of many questions – someone asks a question that presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted by all the people involved, such as "Have you stopped beating your wife?" Inflation of conflict – The experts of a field of knowledge disagree on a certain point, so the scholars must know nothing, and therefore the legitimacy of their entire field is put to question. Ignoratio elenchi (irrelevant conclusion, missing the point) – an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question. Mind projection fallacy – when one considers the way one sees the world as the way the world really is. Moralistic fallacy – inferring factual conclusions from purely evaluative premises in violation of fact–value distinction. For instance, inferring is from ought is an instance of moralistic fallacy. Moralistic fallacy is the inverse of naturalistic fallacy defined below. Moving the goalposts (raising the bar) – argument in which evidence presented in response to a specific claim is dismissed and some other (often greater) evidence is demanded. Onus probandi – from Latin "onus probandi incumbit ei qui dicit, non ei qui negat" the burden of proof is on the person who makes the claim, not on the person who denies (or questions the claim). It is a particular case of the "argumentum ad ignorantiam" fallacy, here the burden is shifted on the person defending against the assertion. Post hoc ergo propter hoc Latin for "after this, therefore because of this" (faulty cause/effect, coincidental correlation, correlation without causation) – X happened, then Y happened; therefore X caused Y. The Loch Ness Monster has been seen in this loch. Something tipped our boat over; it's obviously the Loch Ness Monster. Psychologist's fallacy – an observer presupposes the objectivity of his own perspective when analyzing a behavioral event. Red herring – a speaker attempts to distract an audience by deviating from the topic at hand by introducing a separate argument the speaker believes is easier to speak to. Reification (hypostatization) – a fallacy of ambiguity, when an abstraction (abstract belief or hypothetical construct) is treated as if it were a concrete, real event or physical entity. In other words, it is the error of treating as a "real thing" something that is not a real thing, but merely an idea. Retrospective determinism – the argument that because some event has occurred, its occurrence must have been inevitable beforehand. Shotgun argumentation – the arguer offers such a large number of arguments for their position that the opponent can't possibly respond to all of them. Special pleading – where a proponent of a position attempts to cite something as an exemption to a generally accepted rule or principle without justifying the exemption. Sunk cost fallacy – where what we have invested leads us to invest more. Wrong direction – cause and effect are reversed. The cause is said to be the effect and vice versa. Faulty generalizations Faulty generalizations are made when one reaches a conclusion from weak premises. Unlike fallacies of relevance, in fallacies of defective induction, the premises are related to the conclusions—yet only weakly buttress the conclusions. A faulty generalization is thus produced. Accident – an exception to a generalization is ignored. Cherry picking (suppressed evidence, incomplete evidence) – act of pointing at individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position, while ignoring a significant portion of related cases or data that may contradict that position. False analogy – apples and oranges: an argument by analogy in which the analogy is poorly suited. Hasty generalization (fallacy of insufficient statistics, fallacy of insufficient sample, fallacy of the lonely fact, leaping to a conclusion, hasty induction, secundum quid, converse accident) – basing a broad conclusion on a small sample. Inductive fallacy – A more general name to some fallacies, such as hasty generalization. It happens when a conclusion is made of premises that lightly support it. Overwhelming exception – an accurate generalization that comes with qualifications that eliminate so many cases that what remains is much less impressive than the initial statement might have led one to assume. Thought-terminating cliché – a commonly used phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used to quell cognitive dissonance, conceal lack of thought-entertainment, move onto other topics etc. but in any case, end the debate with a cliche—not a point. Slippery slope relates to action: if we do this / if we do not do this, then... [various things will happen] Red herring fallacies A red herring fallacy is an error in logic where a proposition is, or is intended to be, misleading in order to make irrelevant or false inferences. In the general case any logical inference based on fake arguments, intended to replace the lack of real arguments or to replace implicitly the subject of the discussion. Red herring – argument given in response to another argument, which is irrelevant and draws attention away from the subject of argument. Ad hominem – attacking the arguer instead of the argument. Argumentum ad populum (appeal to widespread belief, bandwagon argument, appeal to the majority, appeal to the people) – where a proposition is claimed to be true or good solely because many people believe it to be so. Appeal to equality – where an assertion is deemed true or false based on an assumed pretense of equality. Association fallacy (guilt by association) – arguing that because two things share a property they are the same. Appeal to authority (argumentum ab auctoritate) – where an assertion is deemed true because of the position or authority of the person asserting it. Appeal to accomplishment – where an assertion is deemed true or false based on the accomplishments of the proposer. Appeal to consequences (argumentum ad consequentiam) – the conclusion is supported by a premise that asserts positive or negative consequences from some course of action in an attempt to distract from the initial discussion. Appeal to emotion – where an argument is made due to the manipulation of emotions, rather than the use of valid reasoning. * Appeal to motive – where a premise is dismissed by calling into question the motives of its proposer. Appeal to novelty (argumentum novitatis/antiquitatis) – where a proposal is claimed to be superior or better solely because it is new or modern. Appeal to poverty (argumentum ad Lazarum) – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is poor (or refuting because the arguer is wealthy). (Opposite of appeal to wealth.) Appeal to tradition (argumentum ad antiquitam) – a conclusion supported solely because it has long been held to be true. Appeal to nature – wherein judgment is based solely on whether the subject of judgment is 'natural' or 'unnatural'. Appeal to wealth (argumentum ad crumenam) – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is wealthy (or refuting because the arguer is poor). (Sometimes taken together with the appeal to poverty as a general appeal to the arguer's financial situation.) Argument from silence (argumentum ex silentio) – a conclusion based on silence or lack of contrary evidence. Genetic fallacy – where a conclusion is suggested based solely on something or someone's origin rather than its current meaning or context. Naturalistic fallacy (is–ought fallacy, naturalistic fallacy) – claims about what ought to be on the basis of statements about what is. Reductio ad Hitlerum (playing the Nazi card) – comparing an opponent or their argument to Hitler or Nazism in an attempt to associate a position with one that is universally reviled. (See also – Godwin's law) Straw man – an argument based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position. Tu quoque ("you too", appeal to hypocrisy, I'm rubber and you're glue) – the argument states that a certain position is false or wrong and/or should be disregarded because its proponent fails to act consistently in accordance with that position. Two wrongs make a right – occurs when it is assumed that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out. Related pages Pot calling the kettle black References Sources Damer, T. Edward 2009. Attacking faulty reasoning: a practical guide to fallacy-free arguments. 6th ed, Wadsworth. Flew, Antony 1984. A dictionary of philosophy. 2nd ed, Macmillan. Walton, Douglas 2008. Informal logic: a pragmatic approach. 2nd ed, Cambridge University Press. Further reading Other websites Logically Fallacious
Goat may mean: Domestic goat Wild goat (Capra aegagrus)
Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia. Its full name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. It is also sometimes called Burma. Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia that is not an island. It is also part of South Asia. It is bordered by China on the north, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, and the India on the northwest, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest. There are over of coastline. Government The country was ruled by a military junta led by General Ne Win from 1962 to 1988. Its political system today stays under the tight control of its military government. In 1991, Senior General Than Shwe began ruling the country. In 2011 Thein Sein was elected as a first president of the civilian government. In 2016 Htin Kyaw became the second elected civilian leader. Aung San Suu Kyi, who is prevented from becoming President by the constitution of Myanmar, will act as an advisor to Kyaw. In March 2018, Win Myint became the country's tenth and current President. Origin and history of the name In 1989, the military junta officially changed the English version of its name from Burma to Myanmar. It also made a new name in English for places in the country, such as its former capital city, from Rangoon to Yangon. The official name of the country in the Burmese language, Myanmar did not change, however. The renaming was controversial, seen by some as linguistically bad. Accepting the name change in the English-speaking world has been slow, with many people still using the name Burma to refer to the country. Major news organizations like the BBC still call it Burma. Some question the military junta's authority to "officially" change the name in English in the first place. Aung San Suu Kyi, however, calls the country Myanmar now. History Myanmar had a strong kingdom in ancient times, but the nation was taken over by the British in the 1800s. It was occupied by the Empire of Japan in the 1940s. Myanmar became independent in 1948 as the Union of Burma, and had a democratic government at first. However, in 1962, a coup d'état brought the military into power, where it has been ever since. The founder of modern Myanmar, Aung San was assassinated months before independence. His daughter Aung San Suu Kyi was placed under house arrest many times for leading the democracy movement. In 1991, the military junta agreed to democratic elections, which were won by the National League for Democracy, and should have made Aung San Suu Kyi the Prime Minister. However, the dictatorship ignored the results of the elections and continued ruling. In November 2005, the military government stated that the national capital would be moved from Yangon to a location near Pyinmana, which was renamed Naypyidaw in March 2006. Since independence in 1948 and the assassination of Aung San, Burma has had civil wars between its governments and minority ethnic groups like the Kachin, Karen, Shan and others. These conflicts are known as the Internal conflict in Burma. National symbols of Myanmar Land Today, there are 14 sections. 7 are called states and the other 7 are called divisions. The divisions are split into townships. The townships are divided into villages and wards. Largest cities Photos Related pages List of rivers of Myanmar Myanmar at the Olympics Myanmar national football team References British India Least developed countries 1940s establishments in Asia 1948 establishments
Events Sonni Ali, first Songhai king, conquers many of his African neighbors. Thirteen Years' War ends in eastern Europe. The Portuguese continue to explore the world. Chimú Empire taken over by soldiers of the Inca Empire in South America. Births King Louis XII of France Emperor Go-Kashiwabara of Japan Erasmus, Dutch thinker Montezuma II, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlán Pope Paul III Juan de Zumárraga, first bishop of Mexico Deaths Prince Henry the Navigator, Portuguese explorer David of Trebizond, Byzantine Emperor Zhengtong Emperor of China Nicholas of Cusa, German mathematician and astronomer Pope Pius II Skanderbeg, Albanian national hero Zara Yaqob, Emperor of Ethiopia
Events The first Portuguese navigators reach the coast of modern Sierra Leone. March 5 – King Christian I of Denmark declares the unity of the two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, who have been treated as one ever since (although under different national affiliations). March 6 – Treaty of Alcacovas – Portugal gives Castile the Canary Islands in exchange for claims in West Africa June – The Earl of Warwick and Edward, Earl of March, eldest son of the Duke of York, land in England with an army and seize London. July 18 – Battle of Northampton – Warwick and March defeat a Lancastrian army and seize King Henry. It is agreed that York will be Henry's heir, disinheriting the King's son Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales. December 30 – Battle of Wakefield – A Lancastrian army under Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset and Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland defeats a Yorkist army under the Duke of York and his son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland. Both York and Rutland are killed, the latter murdered after the battle. York's son Edward becomes leader of the Yorkist faction.
Events January 22 – Battle of Ridanieh. The Turkish forces of Selim I defeat the main Mamluk army in Egypt under Touman Bey. February 3 – Capture of Cairo by the Turks. First contact of organized western merchants with China. August 15 – Portuguese merchant Fernao Pires de Andrade met Chinese officials through an interpreter at Pearl River estuary and landed at Hong Kong. October 31 – Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses on the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church. Conquest of Riazan by Grand Prince Vasili III of Muscovy. Selim I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire conquers Palestine and Egypt, and declares himself Caliph. Third outbreak of the sweating sickness in England, especially bad in Oxford and Cambridge Births Jacques Peletier du Mans, French mathematician (died 1582) Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, English aristocrat (died 1547) Deaths
Events January 5 – Great fire in Eindhoven, Netherlands. February – Thomas Wyatt surrenders to government forces in London. February 12 – After claiming the throne of England the previous year, Lady Jane Grey is beheaded for treason alongside her husband. March 17 – Princess Elizabeth imprisoned in The Tower. April 12 – Mary of Guise becomes Regent of Scotland. July 23 – 25 – Wedding of Queen Mary I of England and King Philip of Naples, only son of Emperor Charles V in Winchester, England. August 12 – Battle of Renty. French forces led by Francis, Duke of Guise turn back an invasion of Picardy by Charles V. The French forces in Siena surrender to the Imperialists after a long siege. Mikael Agricola becomes the bishop of Turku. Jesuits establish São Paulo in Brazil.
Events May 16 – Sir Thomas More resigns as Lord Chancellor of England. June 25 – Suleiman I leads another invasion of Hungary, which fails miserably. September 1 – Lady Anne Boleyn is created Marchioness of Pembroke by her fiancée, King Henry VIII of England. November 16 – Francisco Pizarro and his men capture Inca Atahualpa. Atahualpa wins Inca civil war over Huáscar The Prince is published five years after death of the writer Niccolò Machiavelli Pantagruel is published by François Rabelais Henry VIII grants the Thorne brothers a Royal Charter to found Bristol Grammar School.
1206 (MCCVI) was . Events Temujin becomes Genghis Khan of the Mongol people, he started the Mongol Empire Qutb ud-Din starts the Mameluk dynasty in India, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Livonian Brothers of the Sword in alliance with Semigallians beats Livs King Valdemar II and archbishop Andreas Sunonis made a raid to Saaremaa island, Estonia. The islanders were forced to give up and the Danes built a fortress there, but they found no volunteers to stay there. They burned it down themselves and left the island. Births Béla IV of Hungary (died 1270) Güyük Khan Deaths Ikhtiyar al-Din Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji – Founder of Muslim rule in Bengal April 7 – Frederick I, Duke of Lorraine June 4 – Adèle of Champagne, queen of Louis VII of France Muhammad of Ghor, Persian conqueror and sultan (born 1162) Jamuqa, Mongol military and political leader
Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in the British Isles at high. It is in Scotland, near Fort William. The mountain forms part of the Three Peaks Challenge and attracts an estimated 100,000 climbers per year, The name comes from the Scottish Gaelic, Beinn Nibheis, which may mean poisonous or terrible. The Summit The summit of Ben Nevis is a large stony plateau of about . The highest point is marked with a large stone mound which sits an Ordnance Survey trig point. The ruined walls of an observatory are also on the summit. An emergency shelter has been built on top of the observatory tower for people caught out by bad weather. The roof of the shelter is higher than the trig point by several feet, making it the highest man-made structure in the UK. A war memorial to the dead of World War II is next to the observatory. On 17 May 2006, a piano that had been buried under one of the cairns on the peak was uncovered by the John Muir Trust, which owns much of the mountain. The piano is believed to have been carried up for charity by removal men from Dundee over 20 years earlier. The view from the UK's highest point can reach to over , and mountains such as the Torridon Hills, Morven in Caithness, Lochnagar, Ben Lomond, Barra Head and Knocklayd in County Antrim, Northern Ireland can be seen. References Geography of Scotland Mountains of the United Kingdom
Snowdon is the highest mountain in Wales. Its top is known as Yr Wyddfa (Old Welsh meaning "the grave"). The English name Snowdon comes from Saxon "Snow Dun", meaning "snow hill". It is in Snowdonia National Park. As the highest mountain in Wales, Snowdon is one of three mountains climbed as part of the Three Peaks Challenge. References Mountains of the United Kingdom Geography of Wales
Manaus is the principal city of the North Region of Brazil. It is the capital of Amazonas. Manaus had a great age when latex was discovered in the Amazon region. Manaus developed economically and culturally. After that great age, latex started to be produced in other countries, particularly Malaysia and Indonesia, where due the similar climate the plants start to grow even faster than in Brasil. Manaus is considerated as the entrance door to the biggest ecological reservation in the planet: The Amazon rainforest. Its name come from a tribe called Manaós that lived in this area and means "Mother of God". The colonization started on 1669, with a small fort, and around it grew a settlement. In 1833 it became a village, with the name of Manaus. On October 24th of 1848 it receive the name of city and became the Capital of the state. Manaus is the site of the "encontro of the waters" where two big rivers Rio Negro (black river) and Solimoes River come together and for more than 10 km "walk together but not mixed" because of their differing density, and then become the Amazon. The American Charles Goodyear, inventor of vulcanization, developed a procedure to process the juice of the rubber tree into rubber. The city became rich, and India rubber barons paid for a big biggest luxury from Europe, a copy the Grand Paris Opéra - the TEATRO AMAZONAS. Other monuments from this time include the MERCADO MUNICIPAL, a copy of the famous market halls Les Halles in Paris, the arts centre RIO PALACIO NEGRO between fascinating Portuguese facades. Today Manaus is a foreign trade zone. Foreign enterprises pay here no import duties what guarantees a certain income for the city and the region. Electronics, wood industry and oil refineries have settled in the outskirts in industrial areas. The harbour is the most important trading centre for the care of the city with regional, national and international products. About 1.5 million people live in Manaus. It was nominated as one of the places for the Soccer World Cup 2014. the city is growing rapidly and start to prepare for the event that will bring a lot of people. Manaus in Facebook The Opera house is the major cultural heritage of the Amazonas. It was inaugurated in 1896 during the rubber boom. In spite of the predominance of neoclassic elements, other styles were used, so the architecture is eclectic, with materials brought from Europe as well as artists like Domenico de Angelis, Giovanni Capranesi and Crispim do Amaral. Preserved as a national heritage since 1965, today, with more than 100 years, it has room for 681 people including balconies and three floors of boxes. After the restauration made by the state government in 1990, the theater rescued its splendor, with performances of famous operas, national and international musicians. Cities in Amazonas State Capitals of Brazilian states 1669 establishments 17th-century establishments in Brazil
Amazonas is the name of four places in South American nations: Amazonas (Brazil), a state in Brazil Amazonas Department, Colombia Amazonas Region, Peru Amazonas (Venezuela), a state in Venezuela Related pages Amazon
Events The War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748) World leaders Louis XV of France (king from 1715 to 1774) Afsharid dynasty of Persia Nadir Shah, 1736–1747 Adil Shah, 1747–1748 Ebrahim Afshar, 1748 Shah Rukh, 1748–1750 George II of Great Britain (king from 1727 to 1760) Philip V of Spain (king from 1700 to 1746) Ferdinand VI of Spain (king from 1746 to 1759) Pope Benedict XIV Births Marquis de Sade, French writer Pope Pius VII Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States Deaths Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, the last of the Medicis Alexander Pope, English writer Jonathan Swift, Irish writer
Tocantins is a state in central Brazil. The state was made in 1988 out of the northern part of Goiás, and construction began on the capital, Palmas, in 1989. Palmas is much newer than most cities in the area. The state is the border between the Amazon Rainforest and Brazil's grassy flatlands. The state is very important for raising and selling cows and other farm animals. References 1988 establishments in Brazil States of Brazil
The Amazon rainforest is the largest forest in the world. It grows in the tropical basin of the Amazon River. The forest lies in a basin drained largely by the Amazon River, with 1100 tributaries. It is a moist broadleaf forest which covers seven million square kilometers (1.7 billion acres). Of this, five and a half million square kilometers (1.4 billion acres) are covered by the rainforest.' This region includes territory belonging to nine nations. Most of the forest is in Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, and Colombia with 10%. Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana have just a small amount of rainforest. The Amazon has over half of the planet's remaining rainforests. It is the largest and most species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world. The forest was formed at least 55 million years ago, in the Eocene period. Biodiversity Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome. Tropical forests in the Americas have more species than African and Asian wet forests. More than one-third of all species in the world live in the Amazon rainforest. It is the richest tropical forest in the world in terms of biodiversity. The region is home to ~2.5 million insect species, tens of thousands of species of plants, and some 2000 species of birds and mammals and a similar number of fish. The diversity of plant species is the highest on earth with some experts estimating that one square kilometre may contain over 75,000 types of trees and 150,000 species of higher plants. One square kilometre of Amazon rainforest can have about 90,000 tons of living plants. This is the largest collection of living plants and animal species in the world. One in five of all the birds in the world live here. To date, an estimated 438,000 species of plants of economic and social interest have been registered in the region with many more remaining to be discovered or cataloged. Amazonian forests as a store of carbon dioxide More than one fifth of the Amazon rainforest has already been destroyed. The forest which remains is threatened. People who care for the environment warn about the loss of biodiversity. They also point out that releasing the carbon which is stored in the trees will increase global warming. Conservation Environmentalists are concerned about loss of biodiversity due to the destruction of the forest, and about the release of the carbon in the vegetation, which would accelerate global warming. Amazonian evergreen forests account for about 10% of the world's productivity on land and 10% of the carbon stores in ecosystems—of the order of 1.1 × 1011 metric tonnes of carbon. Amazonian forests are estimated to have accumulated 0.62 ± 0.37 tons of carbon per hectare per year between 1975 and 1996. Some people have calculated that it may even pay to save the forest. They said that one hectare of Amazonian forest in Peru is worth about US $6280, if it is used to harvest fruits, latex and timber (wood). If all the wood is cut down for timber, it has a value of about US $1000. Obviously, this can only be done once; it is not sustainable. When the forest has been cleared, the hectar of land can be used as a pasture, and is worth about US $148. Not all people agree on the study; some have questioned the assumptions behind it. The Brazilian Air Force has been using surveillance aircraft to monitor the forest. At a conference in 2004, scientists warned that the rainforest will no longer be able to absorb the millions of tons of greenhouse gases annually, as it usually does, because of the increased speed of rainforest destruction. 9,169 square miles of rain forest were cut down in 2003 alone. In Brazil alone, European colonists have destroyed more than 90 indigenous tribes since the 1900s. With them have gone centuries of knowledge of the medicinal value of rainforest species. As their homelands continue to be destroyed by deforestation, rainforest peoples are also disappearing. Rubber boom Once the process of vulcanization was invented, companies began to make many kinds of new rubber products, such as boots and seals for machines. American and European companies began buying large amounts of latex from Brazil. This boom in Brazilian rubber began around 1870, but the need for automobile tires brought the greatest wealth to the new rubber producers. Other rain forest had rubber trees, but Amazonia had by far the best. However, the trees could not be farmed on plantations because if they were next to each other, the insects would eat them. Therefore, people had to find the trees in the rain forest, cut slits in them, leave cups to collect the latex, and come back later to get it. Thousands of people moved to the rain forest to work collecting rubber. Most of these people were hired by rich rubber merchants. The rubber merchants loaned them money to come down the river and buy tools. Each merchant’s collectors had to sell the rubber only to their rubber merchant at low prices and buy supplies only from them at high prices. That meant the collectors were always in debt to their merchant and could not leave to do something else. The rubber merchants quickly became very rich. The center of the rubber trade was Manaus on the Rio Negro. It became first a boom town and then a beautiful, wealthy city. It had electricity before most of the cities in the United States did. The newly rich merchants built huge expensive homes and brought in automobiles to travel on the city’s few roads. They built a magnificent opera house with crystal chandeliers and decorated tiles brought all the way from Europe. However, the rubber boom only lasted about forty years, ending by 1913. Some men had taken the seeds of the Amazon rubber trees and began growing them in the Asian rain forests. The trees grew well there, and they could be grown on plantations. The insects that could destroy them were in South America. So the price of rubber began to fall, and the rubber boom stopped. Related pages Ecology Forestry 2019 Brazil wildfires 2020 Brazil wildfires References Melillo, J.M. \| display-authors = etal 1993. Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production. Nature 363:234–240. Tian H. \| display-authors = etal 2000. Climatic and biotic controls on annual carbon storage in Amazonian ecosystems. Global Ecology and Biogeography 9:315–335. Other websites Some links to help save the rainforest for free by clicking once every day Amazon burning More info on the Amazon Rainforest Rainforests Regions of South America
Gosport is a town in Hampshire, England. The population of Gosport is around 78,000 References Other websites Towns in Hampshire
Indonesian language () is the national and official language of Indonesia and is used in the entire country. It is the language of official communication, taught in schools and used for broadcast in electronic and digital media. Being the top multilingual (especially trilingual) country in the world, most Indonesians also speak their own ethnic or native languages, with the most widely spoken being Javanese and Sundanese which consequently give huge influence into the Indonesian language itself. With huge speakers throughout the country as well as by the diaspora who live abroad, Indonesian language is listed as one of the most spoken languages worldwide. Indonesian language recognized as one of the official languages by several nations globally, such as Timor Leste, Vietnam, etc. Indonesian language also officially taught and used in schools, universities, and institutions worldwide, especially in Australia, Netherlands, Japan, South Korea, Timor Leste, Vietnam, Taiwan, United States of America, United Kingdom, etc. Having a long-established historical ties with European countries since the colonialism era, some of Indonesian terms has absorbed into some European languages, mainly the Dutch and English. Indonesian language itself also has numerous loanwords which derived from the European languages, mainly from the Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, and English. Indonesian language also has loanwords derived from Sanskrit, Chinese, and Arabic which diffused in Indonesian due to the trade and religious-based activities that had been done since ancient times within the Indonesian archipelago region. References Austronesian languages Languages of Indonesia
All in the Family is an American situation comedy that aired on CBS from 1971 to 1979. It is about a working class family who live in Queens, New York City. The main character is Archie Bunker. The show deals with many controversial issues (including abortion and racism). The sitcom was created by Norman Lear and it was developed by Lear and Bud Yorkin. It is based on the British sitcom Till Death Us Do Part which was made by Johnny Speight. Carroll O'Connor, Jean Stapleton, Sally Struthers, Rob Reiner, and Danielle Brisebois are the main actors on the show. All in the Family is seen in the United States of America as one of the greatest television programs in history. The show did not do good in the first season but the a lot more people watched when CBS put in the summer reruns on television. Many people liked that the show talked about controversial issues. The show got number 1 on the Nielsen ratings from 1971 to 1976. It was the first television show to do this. The episode "Sammy Visit's" was number 13 on [[TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time\|TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time]] and [[TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time\|TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time]] had All in the Family as the fourth greatest show of all time. Bravo put Archie Bunker as the "greatest character of all time." All in the Family had seven spin-off shows made. That is the most spin-off shows from any show ever. The show ended on April 8, 1979 but the spin-off show called Archie Bunker's Place started on September 23, 1979 and carried on with Archie Bunker until 1984. 15 years later Norman Lear created 704 Hauser which was about a new family living in Archie Bunker's house after he sold it. The show was ended early after five episodes were put on television. Plot All in the Family is about a family who lives during the early 1970s in the suburbs of Queens, New York City. The sitcom's main character is a World War II veteran and blue-collar worker Archie Bunker. Archie Bunker is old, a bigot, and is not very smart. He gets mad at the changes he sees in the world and wants to go back to when life was more easier. Archie does not like the Democratic Party and is a Republican. He stereotypes every person he meets. His wife, Edith Bunker is a nice woman but she is not very smart. She has a very big family but her family does not like Archie Bunker. Archie and Edith have one child. They have a daughter named Gloria Stivic who is a feminist. Archie calls Gloria "little girl". Gloria is married to Michael Stivic who is unemployed and is of Polish descent. Archie calls Michael the "Meathead" because Michael has different ideas about politics then Archie. Michael and Gloria have a son together. Archie thinks that Michael is dead from his neck to his head. Archie does not like the Jeffersons who are the African American family that live next door to them. Archie argues with George Jefferson many times but George's wife is a friends with Edith. Her name is Louise Jefferson. George and Louise have a son named Lionel Jefferson who helps out Archie. The Jeffersons move away and into the city. Edith also has a cousin named Maude Findlay who takes care of the Bunkers when they get sick. Archie argues with Maude many times because they do not have the same opinions about politics. The characters who live around Archie and his family are meant to show the changing demographics in the world, which Archie does not like. Early seasons of the show During the show the family goes through different situations. Many of the most funny moments of the show are in the first season. Early in the show, Michael wrote an angry letter to President Richard Nixon and Archie wrote a letter to Richard Nixon about why he liked him. Archie and the Jeffersons argue over the color of God's skin because he does not think God is black. But Archie gets drunk and is locked in the basement and he thinks that God came to rescue him but it was just one of the Jeffersons. He is surprised that God is black and bows down to him. In many of the episodes Michael and Archie argue. One time Archie was nearly arrested for owning tear gas and another time he went missing. Archie and the people he works with go on strike and Archie does not have a job. But Edith gets a job instead because the family needs money. This makes Archie mad because he thinks that the husband should be working. There are also some flashback episodes. The first one is about the first time Archie and Michael meet. It is a very famous episode and Michael got the name "meathead" in it. In the third season the episode,"The Bunkers and the Swingers" won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series. The episode was about Edith an Archie not knowing that they agreed to change husbands and wives for a night with other people who do it as a job. Later seasons of the show Later on, Archie is in a broken elevator with a woman who Archie thought was crazy, an African American businessman and a Puerto Rican man and women who is about to give birth. In season eight of the show Gloria and Michael move out of the house and move into their own house to raise their son but the house is very close to Archie and Edith's house. Michael and Gloria start to argue many times and they think they might get divorced. Michael looks to Archie for help but it does not work very much. They do stayed married for the rest of the show. Archie's ideas about transgender people are put to test when he saved a transgender person's life not knowing that they were transgender. Many important and controversial things happen in season eight of the show. During the episode "Edith's 50th Birthday" a man who is dressed up as a police officer tried to rape Edith. Edith fights him off but has a very hard time telling Archie about it. Another time Archie and Michael are locked in Kelsey's Bar together and they argue but become very close and Archie finally tells Michael that he loves him. Later in the show Archie and Edith raise a young girl named Stephanie Mills who was abandoned by her father and her mother (Edith's cousin). Archie buys a bar with a friend and they own it. The story of All in the Family continued in Archie Bunker's Place and the house is the main place with a new family named the "Cumberbatches" in the spin-off show 704 Hauser but the show was cancelled less then a month after it started. Creating the show The first pilot episode All in the Family is based on the 1960s British sitcom television show Till Death Us Do Part. Norman Lear said he read about the show in a Variety magazine. He thought the show was like the relationship that he had with his father. Norman Lear bought the rights to use Til Death Us Do Part and used the ideas of the show in All in the Family. Norman Lear is the creator of All in the Family. He would also add some of the things his father did into the show. CBS wanted to have the show but the show was going to be on ABC. There was two pilot episodes made. One was made on September 3, 1968 and called And Justice For All. The pilot episodes had different actors and actresss for Michael (Tim McIntire) and Gloria Stivic (Kelly Jean Peters) and the house they lived in looked different. Archie and Edith were named "Archie Justice" and "Edith Justice" instead of Archie Bunker and Edith Bunker. Micheal was named “Dickie” for the first pilot. Lionel Jefferson was played by D'Urville Martin instead of Mike Evans. For the start of the episode, Archie and Edith were singing, "Those were the Days" but the song was longer and shots of where they lived were shown but not them. Also Edith played the piano faster in this pilot episode then the rest of the show. The camera showed the door mat which said "Justice" before the episode started. The pilot was taped with three cameras so the people watching could see the characters feelings about things. This would be used for the entire show. Most other sitcoms used one camera but All in the Family was the first and more sitcoms used three cameras after. The pilot talked about many important issues instead of just one. The characters talked about race, welfare, antisemitism, and even different types of sausage. The ending credits of the pilot episode is the kitchen room with the party decorations up. Edith and Archie are singing the same song from the beginning as the credits roll. The second pilot episode ABC did not like the first pilot because they did not think Archie and Edith were good together but ABC gave Lear the money to make a second pilot. The episode was made on February 10, 1969 in Los Angeles and it was called Those were Days. The second pilot episode was almost the same as the first pilot episode but in this pilot Gloria was played by Candice Azzara and Chip Oliver played Richard. Richard was the name of Michael Stivic's character and was named "Dickie" in the first pilot episode. D'Urville Martin played Lionel Jefferson again. Another difference from the pilot episodes and the rest of the show is that Edith can be rude to Archie at times and calls Archie,"Mr. Religion." For the start of this pilot episode, Edith and Archie are singing "Those were the Days" the same way it would be for the rest of the show. After Edith and Archie start to sing, shots of the neighborhood that they live in are shown but not Manhattan. The ending credits are Archie and Edith singing the same song but they are not shown. Instead the same shots from the opening song is shown but backwards. This was used for the rest of the show. The pilots both had the same story. Gloria and Richard are making a surprise anniversary party for Edith and Archie. Gloria does not want Richard to argue with Archie. Their friend, Lionel Jefferson was fixing the toilet for them. When Richard and Gloria leave Archie and Edith come home, Edith is surprised to see the party. But when Richard and Gloria come back, Richard and Archie start to argue about controversial ideas. Gloria tells Archie that she is going to leave because they keep arguing but she does not. Lionel comes back to the house and Archie tries to show Richard that he likes African-Americans but insults Jewish people instead. Lionel and Richard play a joke on Archie and try to make him think that he is Jewish. Edith opens a present from Archie but he did not make it. She is very happy but Archie is confused. The episodes end with Archie insulting Richard. Making the rest of the show This was the last pilot and it would be two years until the first episode of the All in the Family was made. Both of the pilot episodes were never put on television. ABC did not like the show because they thought it was too controversial and because another show, Turn-On was ended after one episode. They also thought that the people who watch ABC would not like Archie Bunker. Norman Lear and Bud Yorkin took back the screenplay and thought about making a movie with All in the Family and not a show because Norman and Bud has made good movies. Norman Lear had a meeting with United Artists about making movies and Bud had a meeting with CBS. CBS thought about getting All in the Family back. Norman Lear and Bud Yorkin agreed to make 13 episodes for the first season and CBS bought the show back. The show was filmed at CBS Television City in Hollywood from 1971 to 1975 and then was filmed at Metromedia Square also in Hollywood, from 1975 to 1979. Tandem Productions was the company that produced the show. Norman Lear and Bud Yorkin created the company. Norman Lear wanted the show to be made in black and white but CBS would not let him. The furniture in the show did not have many colors in them this was because Norman Lear wanted the people watching the show to make it feel like they were looking at family photos. All in the Family was the first American sitcom to be recorded in front of a live audience. Each episode is 25 or 26 minutes long. CBS had a warning before each episode to warn the people watching that controversial topics would be talked about on the show, but they did it too make people laugh. CBS did this so people would know before the show started if they were going to be offended by what was on the show. Rob Reiner and Sally Struthers played Michael and Gloria instead and the first episode was put on television on January 12, 1971. All in the Family was not famous in the first season. But the show started to become famous when CBS had reruns of the first season on television. Setting and location All in the Family takes place Astoria which is a neighbourhood in the Queens, New York. Many episodes of the show take place at Archie and Edith's house. The address for the house Archie and his family is 704 Hauser but the address is not real. The house is real and is in Greendale also in New York. The Bunker's live near New York State Route 25A which is where Kelsey's Bar is and where Archie Bunker's Place is set. Many of the places mentioned in the show are real. Like the high school that Archie Bunker goes too is a real high school in Flushing, New York. Cultural impact Most sitcoms before All in the Family did not talk about controversial issues. All in the Family became very famous because it talked about controversial topics like race and sexuality but in a funny way. Many people liked the show because they thought the show was relatable for them because the show was about average people in the 1970s. Norman Lear used this when he made other shows like Sanford and Son. All in the Family won many awards for it's success. The chairs that Archie Bunker and Edith sit in and the table that is in between the chairs are on display at the National Museum of American History. On the table is Archie's favorite beer and a bowl to stop his cigar when he is done smoking. The hat that Archie wears on the show is also at this museum. During the 1972 United States presidential election, shirts, and buttons were sold that said "Archie Bunker for President." In 1998, the United States Postal Service created a stamp that cost 33 cents and was about All in the Family. In the sound recordings of the Watergate scandal the then-U.S President Richard Nixon was heard talking about how All in the Family "glorifies homosexuality." He talks about Archie Bunker and calls Michael his "hippie son-in-law" but not does not say the show's name. Richard Nixon liked the show, having been mentioned many times in the sitcom and even been the plot of the second episode of the show. Nixon did not go on the show. The rapper, Redman says Archie Bunker name in some of his songs when rapping about cigars because Archie is very well known for smoking large cigars. Characters Main characters A main character is a character who is in almost all the episodes or is important to the story. Archie Bunker: Archie Bunker is played by Carroll O'Connor. Archie wishes for the years when he was younger and more people agreed with his ideas. Archie was a soldier in World War II and fought in Italy. Archie can be a bigot and does not think very much but is also very loving and is having trouble adapting to the way the world is changing. He argues with people who do not agree with him. Edith Bunker: Edith Bunker is played by Jean Stapleton. Edith is Archie's nice wife. Edith loves were husband Archie very much but Archie insults her sometimes. Edith ignores Archie but there are times when she will insult him back. She is best well known for shouting, "Oh Archieeeeee!" when Archie comes back to the house. Edith is not very smart and does not understand some of the things Archie says. Edith is not in four of the episodes of All in the Family but is in the rest. Gloria Stivic: Gloria Stivic is played by Sally Struthers. Gloria is the daughter of Archie and Edith and is married to Michael Stivic. She is a feminist and does not agree with her father when they talk. When Michael and Archie argue, Gloria supports Michael. Gloria and Micheal have a son named Joey. Michael Stivic: Michael Stivic is played by Rob Reiner. Michael is of Polish American descent and is a hippie. Michael is married to Gloria. Michael argues with Archie in almost every episode and they are both stubborn. In the show Michael's ideas are seen as more correct then Archie's. Michael is the smartest person in the house and tells everyone about it. Harrison Ford was asked to play Michael but said no. Stephanie Mills: Stephanie Mills is played by Danielle Brisebois. Stephanie Mills is nine years old and is the daughter of Edith's cousin who left her. Stephanie is in season nine of the show. In the show, Stephanie is cute and smart, she also gives Archie a few important words at times. Supporting characters Supporting characters are characters who are in many episodes and help the main characters at times. The Jeffersons: The Jeffersons are the African American family who live next to the Bunkers. George Jefferson is played by Sherman Hemsley, Louise Jefferson is played by Isabel Sanford and their son Lionel Jefferson is played by Mike Evans. George and Archie argue many times but Louise and Edith are good friends. Lionel is friends with Gloria and Michael. He also helps Archie when he needs a repair. Maude Findlay: Maude Findlay is played by Bea Arthur. Maude is Edith's cousin and is very liberal. She is one of Archie Bunker's main antagonist and they hate each other. She helps out the Bunkers when they are sick. She is in one other episode which is used to set up her own show Maude.Irene and Frank Lorenzo: Irene Lorenzo is played by Betty Garrett and Frank Lorenzo is played by Vincent Gardenia. Irene and Frank lived next door to the Bunkers. Archie did not like them because Irene was Irish and Frank was Italian but Archie worked at the same place as Irene. Irene helps out the Bunkers when there is a problem with their house but Frank and Irene leave the show and it is not said why they leftBarney Hefner: Barney Hefner is played by Allan Melvin. He was a good friend of Archie Bunker and worked at a bar with him. Barney was not in many episodes at first but started to be in many more as the show went on. Barney is also in many episodes of Archie Bunker's Place. Recurring characters A recurring character is a character who is in only a few episodes but does not have a big part. Jerome "Stretch" Cunningham: Stretch Cunningham is played by James Cromwell. Archie's friend and co-worker from the loading dock. What Archie did not know was that Stretch was Jewish, which he finds out after Stretch died and Archie went to the funeral. Archie's eulogy for his friend is one of the few times in the show where he shows emotions for someone. Theresa Betancourt: Theresa Betancourt is played by Liz Torres. A Puerto Rican nurse who meets Archie when he goes to the hospital for surgery. She later rents Mike and Gloria's former room at the Bunker house. She called Archie "Papi". Torres joined All in the Family in the fall of 1976, but her character was not liked by the people watching the show, and the role was phased out before the end of the season. Mr. Munson: Mr. Munson is played by Billy Halop. He is the cab driver who lets Archie use his cab to make extra money. Kelcy or Tommy Kelsey: Tommy Kelsey is played by Bob Hastings. He owns the bar Archie goes to a lot and later buys: Kelcy was also played by Frank Maxwell in the episode "Archie Gets The Business". The name of the bar is Kelcy's Bar. Harry Snowden: Harry Snowden is played by Jason Wingreen. He is a bartender at Kelcy's Bar who continues to work there after Archie buys it as his business partner: Harry had tried to buy the bar from Kelcy, but Archie was able to come up with the money first. Mildred Turner: Mildred Turner is played by Gloria LeRoy. He is a secretary at the plant where Archie works. Mike and Gloria think he and she could be having an affair. She does not like Archie because he and Stretch because of their sexist behavior, but later becomes friendly with him. Father Majeskie: Father Majeskie is played by Barnard Hughes. He is a local Catholic priest Archie thinks is trying to convert Edith: He appeared in multiple episodes. The first time was when Edith accidentally hit Majeskie's car near the local supermarket with a can of cling peaches in heavy syrup. Pinky Peterson: Pinky Peterson is played by Eugene Roche. He makes jokes and is one of Archie Bunker's buddies, in three episodes, first in the episode "Beverly Rides Again", then the memorable Christmas Day episode called "The Draft Dodger" (episode 146, 1976), and finally the episode "Archie's Other Wife". Lyle Sanders: Lyle Sanders is played by Sorrell Booke. He is a manager at Archie Bunker's workplace, Prendergast Tool and Die Company: He had appeared on the series as Lyle Bennett, the manager of a local television station, in the episode "Archie and the Editorial" in season three. Beverly La Salle: Beverly La Salle is played by Lori Shannon. He is a transvestite entertainer, who appeared in three episodes: "Archie the Hero", "Beverly Rides Again", and "Edith's Crisis of Faith". In that third episode, Mike and Beverly are attacked, and Beverly dies in a hospital from injuries suffered during the fight. Blanche Hefner: Blanche Hefner is played by Estelle Parsons. She is Barney's second wife, and Archie does not like her, though Edith likes her very much. The character is mentioned throughout much of the series after Barney's first wife, Mabel, had died, though she only appeared in a handful of episodes during the last few seasons. Estelle Parsons also appeared in the season-seven episode "Archie's Secret Passion" as Dolores Fencel. Mr. Edgar van Ranseleer: Edgar van Ranseleer is played by Bill Quinn. He is a blind person and is at the bar a lot. He's first name is never said. In a running joke, Archie usually waves his hand in front of Mr. van R's face when he speaks to him. His role was later expanded on Archie Bunker's Place, where he appeared in all four seasons. Justin Quigley: Justin Quigley is played by Burt Mustin. Mr. Quigley first appeared in the episode: "Edith Finds an Old Man" where he runs away from an old age home. He moves in with the Bunkers but quickly leaves to share an apartment with his friend Josephine "Jo" Nelson, played by Ruth McDevitt. He appeared in several other episodes, including "Archie's Weighty Problem". Mr. Mustin previously appeared in a first-season episode as Harry Feeney, the night watchman at Archie's workplace. Aunt Iola: Aunt Iola is played by Nedra Volz. She is Edith's aunt, and she stayed with the Bunkers for two weeks. Edith wanted her to move in, but Archie would not allow it, though when he thought Iola did not have any place to go, he told her privately that she could always stay with them. Sybil Gooley: Sybil Gooley is played by Francine Beers and Jane Connell. She worked at Ferguson's Market, Sybil was right that Gloria and Mike were having a baby boy by doing a ring on a string "swing test" over Gloria's stomach. Sybil also appeared in the episode "Edith's 50th Birthday" and spilled the beans on her surprise party because she had not been invited. Archie and she did not get along, and he referred to her as a "Big Mouth". Amelia DeKuyper: Amelia DeKuyper is played by Rae Allen and Elizabeth Wilson. She is Edith's cousin. Archie does not like Amelia and her husband, Russell, who are wealthy. In one episode, Amelia and her husband visit the Bunkers to bring them gifts from a recent trip to Hawaii, but in a private moment, Amelia shares with Edith that, despite appearances, she and Russell are thinking about a divorce. The character was played by two different actresses in three episodes of the show. Russell DeKuyper: Russell DeKuyper is played by Richard Dysart and George S. Irving. Amelia's husband. He is a plumber who owns the business started by Amelia's father and uncles. He talks about all the money he has in front of Archie and is grossed out at the way Archie lives. He appeared in two of the episodes that also had Amelia. Reverend Chong: Reverend Chong is played by Clyde Kusatsu appeared in three episodes. He would not baptize baby Joey in season six, and then remarried Archie and Edith, and Mike and Gloria in season eight, and helped Stephanie Mills in season nine when she learned that she was Jewish. Josephine "Jo" Nelson: Josephine Nelson is played by Ruth McDevitt. She played the girlfriend of Justin Quigley. She appeared in three episodes from seasons four through six. Gloria and Mike ahad them as their god grandparents. Archie liked Justin and Jo unlike most people. She died following the end of the sixth season. Jimmy McNabb: Jimmy McNabb is played by William Benedict. The Bunkers' neighbor, he appeared in two episodes during the first and second seasons, and was talked about to many times during the first few seasons. Mr. Whitehead''': Mr. Whitehead is played by Jack Grimes. He was the local funeral director. He is short and has white hair. The death of Archie's cousin Oscar in a season-two episode of All in the Family Mr. Whitehead shows Archie some caskets. Theme song Those Were the Days The opening theme song for All in the Family is played at the start of each episode. The song is composed by Charles Strouse and the lyrics were written by Lee Adams. Those Were the Days is sung by Archie Bunker and Edith. Edith is playing during the piano during the song. In the introduction many clips of Manhattan from the sky are used. The clips start to show the neighborhoods as it gets closer to the Bunker's house. The final clip returns to the Bunker's house and Edith and Archie finish singing. There are many shorter versions of the lyrics here is the longest one which was made for Atlantic Records: Boy, the way Glenn Miller played songs that made the hit parade Guys like me we had it made Those were the days Didn't need no welfare state ev'rybody pulled his weight gee our old LaSalle ran great Those were the days And you knew who you were then girls were girls and men were men Mister we could use a man like Herbert Hoover again People seemed to be content fifty dollars paid the rent freaks were in a circus tent Those were the days Take a little Sunday spin go to watch the Dodgers win Have yourself a dandy day that cost you under a fin Hair was short and skirts were long Kate Smith really sold a song I don't know just what went wrong those were the days! In 1975 Rob Reiner, Sally Struthers, Jean Stapleton, and Carroll O'Connor sung "Those were the Days" but changed the name to "These are the days." The song was for the live audience but was not but on television. The lyrics were different and it was about what was currently going on and realizing the changes. This was the only time that Reiner and Struthers were also singing with Stapleton and O'Connor. Remembering YouRemembering You was the closing theme song for All in the Family. The song would play after each episode had ended and the credits were being shown. The song was composed by Roger Kellaway. The lyrics were never added to the show but Carroll O'Connor did sing them when he was an television. During the song the clips from Those were the Days would play but instead it would be backwards. It used to just be a piano playing but lyrics sung by Archie Bunker actor, Carroll O'Connor were added. In the episode "Stewie Loves Lois" of Family Guy this song was played for the end credits: Got a feelin' it's all over now - All over now, we're through. And tomorrow I'll be lonesome, Remembering You. Got a feelin' the sun will be gone - The day will be long and blue. And tommorrow I'll be cryin', Remembering You. There'a a far away look in your eye when you try to pretend to me, That everything is the same as it used to be. I see it's all over now - All over now, we're through. And tomorrow I'll be startin' Remembering You. Family tree This is the family tree for the Bunker family. Archie and Edith have one daughter, Gloria who is married to Michael. They have one son named Joey. Archie also has a brother named Fred. The information about Archie's siblings do not work a lot. Early in the show Archie says that he has three siblings. But later on he says he was an only child. But there are episode after this that have Archie's brother Fred in them. Episodes and ratings Episodes After the two pilot episodes from 1968 and 1969, the first episode of the first season of All in the Family was called "Meet the Bunkers" and was on television January, 12 1971. Most of the seasons had 24 episodes but the first season only had 13 episodes. There were nine seasons of All in the Family. In the episode, "Sammy's Visit" the longest laugh from the crowd happened when Sammy Davis Jr. kissed Archie during a photo. The episode was number 13 on [[TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time\|TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time]]. A special 90 minute episode was made in season nine for the 200th episode. The episode was called The 200th Episode Celebration of All in the Family. The last episode is called "Too Good Edith" and is used to start the story of the spin-off Archie Bunker's Place. Five episodes of All in the Family won awards for the episodes: Episode 15 of season 2 won an Emmy Award for "Outstanding Writing (Comedy)". Also in season 2 episode 21 won an Emmy for "Outstanding Direction". In season 3 episode 7 won an Emmy for "Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series". The episode "Cousin Liz" won an Emmy for "Outstanding Writing (Comedy)". In season eight the two part episode, "Edith's 50th Birthday" won an Emmy for "Outstanding Direction (Comedy)". Syndication Syndication is when a television program is being shown on a different television network then the first one it was one. CBS started to do reruns of All in the Family during the sixth season of the show on September 1, 1975. Viacom stopped this in September 1979 and let other television networks air the show. In the late 1980s networks like TBS had the show on. From January 3, 2011, to December 31, 2017, the show aired on Antenna TV. As of January 1, 2018, the show began to air on GetTV. RatingsAll in the Family is one of three shows ever to be number 1 in the Neilsen ratings five years in a row. The show was in the top 10 for seven of the nine seasons. 40.2 million people watch the show's last episode.All in the Family first season aired at 9:30 pm because more famous shows were aired at 8:00 pm. When a show is "aired" it means it is on television at that time. When the show started to be famous, CBS moved the show to 8:00 pm because more people would watch at that time. CBS moved the show to 9:00 pm but put the show back to 8:00 in the last season. Home media Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first six seasons of All in the Family on DVD from 2002 to 2007. Then in 2010 Shout! Factory released the seventh season of the show on DVD. In 2011, they released the eight and ninth season on DVD. In 2012 the whole show was released on DVD. Spin-offs When a new show is created from a show that is already present, that is called a spin-off. All in the Family has the most spin-offs of any television show ever. There are even spin-offs of the spin-off shows. Maude, The Jeffersons, Good Times, and Archie Bunker's Place were successful sitcoms and Norman Lear and CBS decided to make more. But Gloria, Checking In, and 704 Hauser were not successful and were cancelled. Maude was the first spin-off of All in the Family. It started in 1972 and is about Edith Bunker's liberal cousin, Maude Findlay after she moved to Upstate New York. The show deals with many controversial issues like All in the Family.Good Times is a spin-off of Maude. The actress Esther Rolle played Florida Evans in both television shows. The show is about an African American family in the Chicago housing project. The show became very famous. Some people think that Good Times is not a spin-off because the show changes the name of Florida Evans's husband and Maude's name is not said in the show. The Jeffersons is a spin-off of All in the Family and even had more seasons then All in Family. It is the longest lasting spin-off of All in the Family. The show is about Archie Bunker's old neighbours, The Jeffersons moving out to a new home in the East Side of New York City.Checking In is a spin-off of The Jeffersons. It is about the maid in The Jeffersons getting a new job at a hotel. Not many people liked the show. The show only had four episodes and in The Jeffersons it is said that the hotel where the maid worked at and where the show took place burned down so she came back. Archie Bunker's Place is a spin-off of All in the Family and is about Archie Bunker after the end of All in the Family. Archie owns a bar in Queens. Stephanie Mills who was in the last season of All in the Family is in this show. The last time Michael is seen is on the show. During the show Archie's wife, Edith dies of a stroke because Jean Stapleton who plays Edith did not want to play Edith anymore. Gloria is a spin-off of All in the Family and is about Gloria Stivic raising her son after her husband, Michael left her. The show had one season. Archie was going to be in the show but it did not happen. An episode of Archie Bunker's Place was used to start this show.704 Hauser is a spin-off of All in the Family and is about a new family living in the house the Bunker's used to live in almost 20 years later. Unlike in All in the Family where the parents are conservative and the children are liberals, in 704 Hauser the son is conservative and his parents are liberals. John Amos the actor from Good Times is in the show. Joey Stivic (son of Michael and Gloria Stivic) is in the show. The show was cancelled less then a month after it started. This is the last spin-off and last time the fictional universe of All in the Family and it's spin-offs are seen. 2019 television special On May 22, 2019 ABC aired a television program special. The special was called Live in Front of a Studio Audience and new actors did an episode of All in the Family and Good Times. Comedian and television host of Jimmy Kimmel Live! Jimmy Kimmel and the creator of All in the Family, Norman Lear wrote the episode. Woody Harrelson played Archie Bunker and Marisa Tomei played Edith Bunker. The special was filmed in front of a live audience. Cast These are the actors and the characters they play in All in the Family. Awards and nominationsAll in the Family is the first sitcom to have every actor who played the main characters win Primetime Emmy Awards for the show. The show also got nominated for many awards. A nomination is when something is picked with other people to maybe with something. Primetime Emmy awards and nominations 1971 Outstanding New Series (Won) Outstanding Series – Comedy (Won) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Won) Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy: John Rich for "Gloria's Pregnant" (Nominated) Outstanding Writing Achievement in Comedy: Norman Lear for "Meet the Bunkers" (Nominated) Stanley Ralph Ross for "Oh, My Aching Back" (Nominated) 1972 Outstanding Series – Comedy (Won) Outstanding Single Program – Drama or Comedy for "Sammy's Visit" (Nominated) Outstanding Achievement in Live or Tape Sound Mixing: Norman Dewes for "The Elevator Story" (Won) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Won) Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Nominated) Outstanding Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Won) Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy: John Rich for "Sammy's Visit" (Won) Outstanding Writing Achievement in Comedy: Burt Styler for "Edith's Problem" (Won) Alan J. Levitt and Philip Mishkin for "Mike's Problem" (Nominated) Norman Lear and Burt Styler for "The Saga of Cousin Oscar" (Nominated) 1973 Outstanding Comedy Series (Won) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated) Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Nominated) Outstanding Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Nominated) Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy: Bob LaHendro and John Rich for "The Bunkers and the Swingers" (Nominated) Outstanding Writing Achievement in Comedy: Lee Kalcheim & Michael Ross & Bernie West for "The Bunkers and the Swingers" (Won) 1974 Outstanding Comedy Series (Nominated) Best Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated) Best Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated) Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Won) Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Nominated) 1975 Outstanding Comedy Series (Nominated) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated) Outstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Nominated) 1976 Outstanding Comedy Series (Nominated) 1977 Outstanding Comedy Series (Nominated) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated) Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: Paul Bogart for "The Draft Dodger" (Nominated) Outstanding Art Direction or Scenic Design for a Comedy Series: Don Roberts for "The Unemployment Story" (Nominated) 1978 Outstanding Comedy Series (Won) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Won) Outstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Won) Outstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Nominated) Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: Paul Bogart for "Edith's 50th Birthday" (Won) Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series: Bob Schiller and Bob Weiskopf for "Edith's 50th Birthday" (Nominated) Larry Rhine & Erik Tarloff & Mel Tolkin for "Edith's Crisis of Faith" (Nominated) Harve Brosten & Barry Harman & Bob Schiller & Bob Weiskopf for "Cousin Liz" (Won) 1979 Outstanding Comedy Series (Nominated) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated) Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy, Comedy-Variety, or Music Series: Sally Struthers (Won) Outstanding Directing for a Comedy, Comedy-Variety, or Music Series: Paul Bogart for "California, Here We Are" (Nominated) Outstanding Writing for a Comedy, Comedy-Variety, or Music Series: Milt Josefsberg & Bob Schiller & Phil Sharp & Bob Weiskopf for "California, Here We Are" (Nominated) Outstanding Video Tape Editing for a Series: Harvey W. Berger and Hal Collins for "The 200th Episode Celebration of 'All in the Family'" (Nominated) Golden Globe Awards and Nominations 1972 Best TV Show – Musical/Comedy (Won) Best TV Actor – Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Won) Best TV Actress – Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated) Best Supporting Actor – Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated) Best Supporting Actress – Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated) 1973 Best TV Show – Musical/Comedy (Won) Best TV Actor – Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated) Best TV Actress – Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Won) Best Supporting Actor – Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated) Best Supporting Actress – Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated) 1974 Best TV Show – Musical/Comedy (Won) Best TV Actor – Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated) Best TV Actress – Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Won) Best Supporting Actor – Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated) Best Supporting Actress – Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated) 1975 Best TV Show – Musical/Comedy (Nominated) Best TV Actor – Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated) Best TV Actress – Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated) Best Supporting Actress – Television: Betty Garrett (Won) 1976 Best TV Actor – Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated) Best Supporting Actor – Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated) 1977 Best Supporting Actor – Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated) Best Supporting Actress – Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated) 1978 Best TV Series – Musical/Comedy (Won) Best TV Actor – Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated) Best TV Actress – Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated) 1979 Best TV Series – Musical/Comedy (Nominated) Best TV Actress – Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated) 1980 Best TV Actress – Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated) TCA Heritage Award In 2013, the Television Critics Association gave All in the Family'' with its Heritage Award for its cultural and social ways it changed society. Notes References Other websites All in the Family Sitcom All in the Family TV Show on Facebook All in the Family on emmys.com All in the Family on TVLand.com All in the Family on TV.Com 1971 establishments in the United States 1971 television series debuts 1979 disestablishments in the United States 1979 television series endings 1970s American sitcoms American television series based on British television series CBS network shows Emmy Award winning programs Golden Globe Award winning programs Queens (New York City) Television series about families Television series set in New York City English-language television programs
Saint can mean different things: Religion Different religions & groups use the term saint differently. The word comes form Latin Sanctus, which means holy. In general, saints are believed to be good examples of how people should live, or what people should do. Saints are synonymous, or are associated, with holiness. In the Roman Catholic Church, to become a saint, you have to go through a process called canonization, which is performed by the Pope. In the New Testament, the term Saint is used to refer to any member of the Church of Christ. In the Roman Catholic Church, a saint is someone who lives a very holy life and loves others. Catholics believe that anyone who is in heaven is already a saint. However, to be declared an official saint by the Church, someone must be canonized. In Mormonism, a saint is someone who is of Mormon line. In Protestant churches, a saint is anyone who is baptized and lives their faith. Sports teams Southampton F.C. is the nickname for an English football team based in the city of Southampton. The New Saints are a League of Wales football club representing the Welsh town of Llansantffraid-ym-Mechain and the nearby English town of Oswestry. Northampton Saints are a rugby union club. The New Orleans Saints are a professional American football franchise of the National Football League. St Kilda Football Club in the Australian Football League is known as The Saints. Entertainment "The Saint" is a character created by Leslies Charteris. The Saint has appearred in a number of books, movies and TV shows, including The Saint, a 1997 movie starring Val Kilmer Saint is the title of a novel by Ted Dekker Saint (Heavy Metal), a Christian heavy metal band. For the pioneering Australian punk band, see The Saints. There are also two actresses by the name of Saint: Eva Marie Saint and Silvia Saint. When the Saints Go Marching In is a popular tune also known as "The Saints". Other Saint is a type of pigeon Saint can be used to describe a really loving or caring person.
Saint Lucia is a tropical island country in the eastern Caribbean Sea. It is a part of the Lesser Antilles, and it is north of the islands of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and south of Martinique. As of 2010 there are about 174,000 people. The official language is English. Saint Lucian Creole French (Kwéyòl), which is a French-based Creole is spoken by 95% of the people. About 70% of the people are Roman Catholic. Two Nobel laureates, Arthur Lewis, an economist, and Derek Walcott, a poet and playwright, have come from the island. Saint Lucia is a full and participating member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) and La Francophonie. Quarters Saint Lucia has 11 quarters, or parishes of the island. Cities The cities in Saint Lucia are: Anse La Raye Bocage Castries - Capital Canaries Choiseul Dennery Desruisseaux Gros Islet Laborie Micoud Mon Repos Praslin Ravine Poisson Rodney Bay Soufrière Ti Rocher Vieux Fort Geography The volcanic island of Saint Lucia is more mountainous than many other Caribbean islands. The highest point is Mount Gimie, at above sea level. Two other mountains, the Pitons, form the island's most famous landmark. They are between Soufrière and Choiseul on the western side of the island. Saint Lucia is also one of the few islands in the world that has a drive-in volcano. It is also famous for clear seas and sandy beaches. The capital city of Saint Lucia is Castries. Over one third of all the people live in the capital. Major towns include Gros Islet, Soufrière and Vieux Fort. The local climate is tropical. They have northeast trade winds. There is a dry season from December 1 to May 31, and a wet season from June 1 to November 30. Sport The Windward Islands cricket team includes players from Saint Lucia. They play in the West Indies regional tournament. Darren Sammy is the first Saint Lucian to represent the West Indies. He is the current captain. Tourism Tourism is important to Saint Lucia's economy. There are more tourists during the dry season (January to April). Saint Lucia tends to be popular due to its tropical weather and scenery and its many beaches and resorts. Other tourist attractions include a drive-in volcano, Sulphur Springs, the Botanical Gardens, the Majestic twin Peaks "The Pitons", a world heritage site, the rain forests, and Pigeon Island National Park. Most tourists visit Saint Lucia as part of a cruise. Most of their time tends to be spent in Castries, although Soufriere, Marigot Bay and Gros Islet are popular locations to visit. Related pages List of rivers of Saint Lucia List of Saint Lucian people Saint Lucia at the Olympics Saint Lucia national football team References Commonwealth realms English-speaking countries Current monarchies Caribbean Community
Yuri Alexeyevich Gagarin (; March 9, 1934 – March 27, 1968) was a Russian cosmonaut (astronaut). He became the first human in space. Gagarin was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Early life Yuri Gagarin was born in the village of Klushino near Gzhatsk (now in Smolensk Oblast, Russia), on 9 March 1934. The town next to Gzhatsk was renamed Gagarin in 1968 in his honour. His parents, Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina, worked on a collective farm. While manual workers are thought as "peasants," this may be too-simple if applied to his parents — his mother was said to love reading, and his father was a skilled carpenter. Yuri was the third of four children, and his elder sister helped raise him while his parents worked. Like millions of people in the Soviet Union, the Gagarin family suffered during the Nazi invasion in World War II. His two elder siblings were sent out to Nazi Germany for slave work in 1943, and did not return until after the war. While a youth, Yuri became interested in space and planets, and began to dream about his space tour which would one day become a reality. Yuri was thought by his teachers, as smart and hard-working, sometimes mischievous. His mathematics and science teacher had flown in the Soviet Air Forces during the war, which was said to make some impression on young Gagarin. After starting an apprenticeship in a metalworks as a foundryman, Gagarin was selected for further training at a technical high school in Saratov. While there, he joined the flight club, and learned to fly a light aircraft. In 1955, after finishing his technical schooling, he entered military flight training at the Orenburg Pilot's School. While there he met Valentina Goryacheva. Yuri married her in 1957, after gaining his pilot's wings in a MiG-15. Post-graduation, he was told to go to Luostari airbase in Murmansk Oblast, close to the Norwegian border, where bad weather made flying risky. As a full-grown man, Gagarin was tall, which was an advantage in the small Vostok cockpit. He became a lieutenant of the Soviet Air Force on November 5, 1957 and on November 6, 1959 he got the rank of senior lieutenant. Sports Gagarin kept physically fit throughout his life, and was a good sportsman. As the space explorer Valery Bykovsky wrote: As well as being a good ice hockey player, Gagarin was also a basketball fan, and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being an umpire/referee. Career in the Soviet space program Selection and training In 1960, after the search and selection process, Yuri Gagarin was selected with 19 other space explorers for the Soviet space program. Along with the other soon to be space explorers, he was tested by experiments made to test his physical and psychological score; he also underwent training for the upcoming flight. Out of the twenty originally selected, the final choice for the first launch was between Gagarin and Gherman Titov because of their performance in training, as well as their physical fitness. Spaceflight On 12 April 1961, Gagarin became the first man to travel into space, launching to orbit aboard the Vostok 3KA-3 (Vostok 1). His call sign in this flight was Kedr (Cedar; ). During his flight, Gagarin famously whistled the song "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows" (). The first two lines of the song are: "The Motherland hears, the Motherland knows/Where her son flies in the sky". This song was written by Dmitri Shostakovich in 1951 (opus 86), with words by Yevgeniy Dolmatovsky. Around the same time, some Western people claimed that Gagarin, during his space flight, had made the comment, "I don't see any God up here." However, no such words appear in the direct record of Gagarin's talk with the Earth during the spaceflight. In a 2006 interview a close friend of Gagarin, Colonel Valentin Petrov, said that Gagarin never said such words, and that the phrase came from Nikita Khrushchev's speech at the fullness of the Central Committee of the CPSU, where the anti-religious propaganda was talked about. In a certain context Khrushchev said, "Gagarin flew into space, but didn't see any God there." Fame and later life After the flight, Gagarin became a world famous celebrity. He toured in many places like in Italy, the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, and Japan. He did this to promote the Soviet Union achievements. In 1962, he began serving as a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. He later came back to Star City. While there, he worked on designs for a reusable spacecraft. Gagarin worked on these designs in Star City for seven years. He became Lieutenant Colonel (or Podpolkovnik) of the Soviet Air Force on 12 June 1962. Then on 6 November 1963 he got the rank of Colonel (Polkovnik) of the Soviet Air Force. Soviet people tried to keep him away from any flights, being worried of losing their hero in an accident. Gagarin was backup pilot for Vladimir Komarov in the Soyuz 1 flight. As Komarov's flight ended in a deadly crash, Gagarin was banned from training for and helping out in further spaceflight/s. Death Gagarin then became deputy training director of the Star City cosmonaut training base. At the same time, he began to re-join as a fighter pilot. On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, he and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died in a MiG-15UTI crash near the town of Kirzhach. Gagarin and Seryogin were buried in the walls of the Kremlin on Red Square. People are not sure what caused the crash, but a 1986 investigation thinks that the turbulence from a Su-11 'Fishpot-C' interceptor using its afterburners may have caused Gagarin's plane to go out of control. Russian documents opened to the public in March 2003 showed that the KGB had changed their own investigation of the accident. In addition to this, one government and two military investigations. The KGB's report removed many conspiracy thoughts, instead of showing the actions of air base personnel added to the crash. The report says that an air traffic controller made Gagarin have old weather information. But by that time of his flight, conditions had become very bad. Ground crew also left fuel tanks on the aircraft. Gagarin's planned flight needed good weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation ended, saying that Gagarin's aircraft entered a spin, either because of a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the old weather report, the crew thought their altitude to be higher than it actually was, and could not properly react to bring the MiG-15 out of its spin. In his 2004 book Two Sides of the Moon, Alexey Leonov tells that he was flying a helicopter in the same area that day when he heard "two loud booms in the distance." His thought was that the Sukhoi jet was flying below its minimum allowed altitude, and "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier." The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov thinks the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier, and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing. Related pages Space race Valentina Tereshkova References Gavrilin, Vyacheslav Sportsmen of the Soviet Union Other websites Yuri Gagarin - The First to Fly Gagarin's photos Obituary, NY Times, 28 March 1968 Yuri Gagarin Killed As Test Plane Falls Юрий Гагарин. Дорога в космос — his book in Russian (HTML) Photo, Audio and Video with Yuri Gagarin , online version of CD created to his 70th anniv. on the homepage of Russian state archive for scientific-technical documentation (RGANTD). Article in online Encyclopedia of cosmonautics A lot of information about the first human's flight to space. Gagarin's flight 3D visualization — contains the real record of his conversation with the Earth during the spaceflight Annotated transcript of Gagarin's radio conversations with ground stations, starting 2hrs (4:10 UTC) before launch Gagarin — detailed biography at Encyclopedia Astronautica List (with photos) of Gagarin statues 11 minutes long interview of Yuri Gagarin by The Finnish Broadcasting Company in 1961 Yuri's Night - World Space Party Yuri Gagarin: The first man in space 1934 births 1968 deaths Aviation deaths Aviators Colonels Cosmonauts Recipients of the Order of Lenin Russian people Soviet military people
The Yangtze River, or Yangzi (Simple Chinese: 扬子江 / Traditional Chinese: 揚子江), or Chang Jiang (Simple Chinese: 长江 / Traditional Chinese: 長江), is the longest River in China and Asia, as well as the world's third longest river (after the Amazon and the Nile). It is honored as one of the two main cradles of Chinese civilization. (another is Yellow River) The river is about 3,900 kilometers long and is one of the busiest waterways in the world. It goes from the western part of China (Plateau of Tibet) into the East China Sea, which is part of the Pacific Ocean. It has been thought of as a dividing point between northern and southern China. It helped start the Chinese civilization. On the river is a big dam called the Three Gorges Dam, which is the biggest in the world. It forms a man-made lake that stretches almost upstream. The Yangtze River is home to many species. The Finless porpoise is endangered and the Lipotes vexillifer (Chinese river dolphin) which died in 2002. Top tourist attractions for the Yangtze river cruise are Chongqing Dazu Carvings, Three Gorges, lesser Three Gorges, Bai Di City, Fengdu Ghost City and so on. The Yangtze River is also known as the Yanugzi or Chang Jiange. Uses transport drinking water cleaning boundary marking ingredients for food Pollution The Yangtze river is becoming extremely polluted. The Yangtze river contains oil, dead animals and rubbish including cans, bags, wrappers, glass and plastic bottles. In 2001 about 23.4 billion tons of sewerage and factory waste was dumped in the river. References Other websites Attractions along Yangtze River Yangtze River Cruise Guide Rivers of China
"Sons and Daughters of Saint Lucia" is the national anthem of Saint Lucia. The song has been used since the country became independent in 1979. Lyrics English lyrics Sons and daughters of Saint Lucia, Love the land that gave us birth. Land of beaches, hills and valleys, Fairest isle of all the earth! Wheresoever you may roam, Love, oh love, our island home. Gone the times when nations battled, For this Helen of the west. Gone the days when strife and discord, Dimmed her children's toil and rest. Dawns at last a brighter day, Stretches out a glad new way. May the good Lord bless our island, Guard her sons from woe and harm. May our people live united, Strong in soul and strong in arm. Justice, Truth and Charity, Our ideal forever be! French translation Fils et filles de Sainte-Lucie, aime la terre qui nous a donné naissance. Terre de plages, de collines et de vallées, la plus belle île de toute la terre! Partout où vous pouvez errer, Amour, oh amour, notre île à la maison. Fini le temps où les nations se battaient Pour cette Hélène de l'ouest. Fini le temps où les conflits et la discorde atténué le travail et le repos de ses enfants. Lève enfin un jour plus lumineux, s'étend d'une manière nouvelle et heureuse. Que le bon Dieu bénisse notre île, protège ses fils du malheur et du mal. Que notre peuple vive uni, fort dans l'âme et fort dans le bras. Justice, vérité et charité, notre idéal soit pour toujours! National anthems Saint Lucia
Events 1590 March 14 – Battle of Ivry – Henry IV of France again defeats the forces of the Catholic League under the Duc de Mayenne. May–August – Unsuccessful siege of Paris by Henry IV of France. Henry is forced to raise the siege when the Duke of Parma comes to its relief with a Spanish army. May 17 – Anne of Denmark is crowned queen of Scotland. August 18 – John White, the governor of the Colony of Roanoke, returns from a supply-trip to England and finds his settlement deserted. September 15 – Pope Urban VII succeeds Sixtus V. December 5 – Pope Gregory XIV succeeds Urban VII. Coptic Pope Gabriel VIII succeeds Yoannis XIV. Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Meletius I succeeds Silvester. Japan is united by Toyotomi Hideyoshi Seven-Year War – Japan invades Korea in 1592 and 1597. Journey to the West first appears in China.
Events Kyoto becomes the Japanese capital. Begin of the Heian period. Council of Frankfurt – oldest known mentioning of Frankfurt.
Events Pope Silverius deposed by Belisarius at the order of Justinian, who appoints as his successor Pope Vigilius. Battle of Camlann between Arthur and Mordred. (traditional date) December 27 – Construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is completed.
This article is about a city in Mexico. For the birthplace of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, see Tampico, Illinois. Tampico is the main city in the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico. It was the site of an incident called the Tampico Affair during the Mexican Revolution in the early 20th century that led to armed conflict between Mexico and the United States. About 80 years earlier Tampico was part of a less serious conflict between the two countries, called the Tampico Expedition. cities in Mexico Tamaulipas
A goalkeeper is someone who protects a team's goal. There are goalkeepers in sports like football (soccer) and ice hockey, for example. The goalkeeper's mission is to prevent the opposing team from scoring a goal. Goalkeepers normally wear more protective gear than other players on the team but this is not always true. Football A goalkeeper's kit (or uniform) consists of shin guards and gloves to protect his hands from the impact of the ball when he catches it. Historically, however, until the 1960s goalkeepers would wear no hand protection. Until the early 20th century, the goalkeeper would often wear the same coloured strip as his teammates, with the only different item of clothing being his cap. However, in 1909, the Scottish Football Association took steps to ensure the goalkeeper would wear a different colour from the outfield players. This was to show his different role, as the only player allowed to handle the ball. Ice hockey The goalkeeper in ice hockey (a Goalie) uses thicker padding than the other players on the team. This is to prevent damage caused by being hit by the puck. The hockey stick of the goalie is much wider than the stick of other players. The bottom edge is also longer and flatter. The goalie has a very large leather glove on one hand. This glove has a large area to help catch the puck. Goalies normally wear masks that give protection to the entire face and head as well as the neck. Field hockey In field hockey, the goalkeeper stands in the goal net, and stops the other team scoring. Goalkeepers need a lot of kit to protect them from the hockey balls that are hit at them. here is a list: Helmet - Protects the head and face Neck guard - Protects the neck Breastplate - Protects the body, and sometimes back Elbow pads - Protect the arms. Sometimes breastplate and elbow guards combine to form all-in-one Smock - An extra large shirt that covers the breastplate and elbow pads, or the all-in-one Gloves - Protect the hands. Right glove has a hole in it to hold the stick Box - Protects the groin Shorts - Protect the thighs and upper bottom Shin guards - Protect the lower legs Kickers - Protect the feet Stick - Acts as an extra reaching tool for dives Goalkeepers are the only position in hockey allowed to kick the ball. If another player kicked the ball it would be a foul. Images Other websites The Museum of Goalkeeping Charting goalkeeping throughout the history of football. Goalkeepers Sports
Events The beginnings of the 'Golden Age' of Literature in England Sir Humphrey Gilbert claims Newfoundland as England's first overseas colony in 1583 Francis Drake had come back from going around the world, bringing back with him many treasures. Deaths Mary, Queen of Scots (b. 1542)
1583 (MDLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar. Events Newfoundland claimed by England. University of Edinburgh started. Births January 8 – Simon Episcopius, Dutch theologian (d. 1643) March 3 – Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury, English diplomat, poet, and philosopher (d. 1648) April 10 – Hugo Grotius, Dutch philosopher and writer (d. 1645) June 16 – Axel Oxenstierna, Lord High Chancellor of Sweden (d. 1654) June 20 – Jacob De la Gardie, Swedish soldier and statesman (d. 1652) July 2 – Dodo Knyphausen, German soldier (d. 1636) September – Girolamo Frescobaldi, Italian composer (d. 1643) September 24 – Albrecht von Wallenstein, Austrian general (d. 1634) November 24 – Juan Martínez de Jáuregui y Aguilar, Spanish poet (d. 1641) December 17 – Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey, English adventurer and soldier (d. 1642) December 25 – Orlando Gibbons, English composer (d. 1625) date unknown Hendrick Jacobszoon Lucifer, Dutch pirate and buccaneer (d. 1627) Johann Heinrich Alting, German divine (d. 1644) John Beaumont, English poet (d. 1627) Bonaventura Elzevir, Dutch printer (d. 1652) Stanisław Lubomirski, Polish nobleman (d. 1649) Philip Massinger, English dramatist (d. 1640) Hayashi Razan, Japanese neo-Confucianist scholar (d. 1657) probable Alexander Henderson, Scottish theologian (d. 1646) Nzinga, warrior queen of Ndongo and Matamba (d. 1663) Aurelian Townshend, English poet (d. 1643) Deaths March 18 – King Magnus of Livonia (b. 1540) April – Lucas David, Prussian historian (b. 1503) May 6 – Zacharias Ursinus, German theologian (b. 1534) June 6 Nakagawa Kiyohide, Japanese military commander (b. 1556) Shibata Katsutoyo, Japanese military commander (b. 1556) June 9 – Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1525) June – Oda Nobutaka, Japanese samurai (b. 1558) July 1 – Sakuma Morimasa, Japanese samurai and warlord (beheaded) July 6 – Edmund Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1519) September 9 – Humphrey Gilbert, English explorer (born c. 1537) September 16 – Catherine Jagiellon, queen of John II of Sweden (b. 1526) November 11 – Gerald Fitzgerald, 15th Earl of Desmond, Irish rebel November 24 – René de Birague, French cardinal and chancellor (b. 1506) December 14 – Ivan Fyodorov, Russian printer December 31 – Thomas Erastus, Swiss theologian (b. 1524) date unknown Shibata Katsuie, Japanese military commander (b. 1530) Andrei Kurbskii, Russian writer (b. 1528)
Events January 10 – Marriage of Napoleon and Josephine is annulled January 20 – Tyrolean rebel leader Andreas Hofer executed March 11 – Napoleon marries Marie-Louise of Austria April 19 – Venezuela achieves home rule: Emparan, Governor of the Captaincy General is removed by the people of Caracas and a Junta is installed. May 10 – Revolutionary occupation of Buenos Aires town hall. May 25 – Armed citizens of Buenos Aires expel the Viceroy from Spain and establish a provincial government for Argentina. June 8 – Birth of Robert Schumann, German composer. June 23 – John Jacob Astor forms the Pacific Fur Company. July – Napoleon annexes the Kingdom of Holland. July 20 – Colombia declares independence from Spain. August 6 – City of Mompos in modern-day Colombia is declares independence from the Spanish Empire September 8 – The Tonquin sets sail from New York Harbor with 33 employees of John Jacob Astor's newly created Pacific Fur Company on board. After a six-month journey around the tip of South America, the ship will arrive at the mouth of the Columbia River and Astor's men will establish fur-trading town of Astoria. September 16 – Dieciséis de septiembre, the Mexican War of Independence of the Republic of Mexico September 18 – Chile forms the National Junta, which is their first passage towards independency. September 26 – A new Act of Succession is adopted by the Riksdag of the Estates and Jean Baptiste Bernadotte becomes heir to the Swedish throne. October 12 – First Oktoberfest: The Bavarian royalty invites the citizens of Munich to join the celebration of the marriage of Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria to Princess Therese von Sachsen-Hildburghausen. October 27 – United States annexes West Florida from Spain November 10 – the Berners Street Hoax – Theodore Hook manages to attract dozens of people to 53 Berners Street in London King George III of the United Kingdom recognized as insane Amadou Lobbo initiates his jihad in present-day Mali. Russia acquires Sukhumi through a treaty with Abkhazian dukes, and declares a protectorate over the whole of Abkhazia. Macon's Bill No. 2 First steamboat on the Ohio River
Events The Great Awakening – A Protestant religious movement active in the British colonies of North America Octant invented (probably around 1730) independently by John Hadley in Great Britain and Thomas Godfrey in the American colonies World leaders Louis XV King of France (king from 1715 to 1774) Shahs of Persia (Safavid dynasty and Afsharid dynasty) Tahmasp II, 1723–1732 Abbas III, 1732–1736 Nadir Shah, 1736–1747 (Began the Afsharid dynasty) George II King of Great Britain (king from 1727 to 1760) Philip V King of Spain (king from 1700 to 1746)
Events Pope Clement XII elected September 17 – Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Ahmed III (1703-1730) to Mahmud I (1730-1754) Anna Ivanova (Anna I of Russia) became czarina
Events June 19 – The Albany Convention of New England Colonies proposes an American Union July – Columbia University founded as King's College by royal charter of King George II of England. The college was originally in Lower Manhattan. Instruction was suspended in 1776 and the school would be reopened in 1784 as Columbia College. With the college's growth in the 19th Century, it would be renamed Columbia University in 1896. Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mahmud I (1730-1754) to Osman III (1754-1757) Beginning of the French and Indian War in North America. Britain and its colonies adopted a new Marriage Act that formulated many of the rules of modern marriage. Births September 9 – William Bligh, Captain of the Bounty, Governor of New South Wales (d. 1817) nv:1751 – 1800
Events November 5, 1605 – The Gunpowder Plot to blow up the British Parliament. 1607 – John Smith of Jamestown enters Virginia and meets the princess, Pocahontas. September 2, 1609 – Henry Hudson enters New York Bay. Galileo popularizes the astronomical use of the telescope. Breast baring is a popular fashion amongst the women of England and the Netherlands.
Events September 2-Henry Hudson enters New York Bay Lake Champlain was named for the French explorer Samuel de Champlain.
Events February 8 – Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, rebels against Queen Elizabeth I of England – his revolt is quickly crushed February 25 – Robert Devereux's head is chopped off as a punishment Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrives in China A bad harvest in Russia due to rainy summer Dutch troops chase Portuguese from Málaga Start of Siege of Kinsale, in Ireland – the siege started in the Autumn of 1601, and ended in the Battle of Kinsale on 3 January 1602 according to the Gregorian Calendar used today. This calendar was already being used by the Irish and Spanish forces in the battle, but for the English side, who were still using the old Julian Calendar, the date of the battle was 24 December 1601.
Events February 20 – In a coup d'état, Chinese Chancellor Zhang Jianzhi murdered the Zhang brothers and restored Emperor Zhongzong. This marks the end of the short-lived Zhou Dynasty in China Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik succeeded by al-Walid I ibn Abd al-Malik. Beginning of a long period of fighting between Trebizond and the Arabs Pope John VII succeeds Pope John VI. Births Amoghavajra, Chinese translator and Buddhist Deaths January 11 – Pope John VI November -- 武則天
Events January 11 – Pope Miltiades ends his reign as the Catholic Pope. August 30 – Council of Arles, which confirmed the pronouncement of Donatism as a schism, and passed other canons. Synod of Ancyra: consulting a magician is declared a sin earning five years of penance. Pope Silvester I succeeds Pope Miltiades. Alexander becomes Bishop of Byzantium.
Year 1500 (MD) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The year 1500 wasn't a leap year in the Proleptic Gregorian calendar. The year was seen as being especially important by many Christians in Europe, who thought it would bring the beginning of the end of the world. Their belief was based on the phrase "half-time after the time", when the apocalypse was due to occur, which appears in the Book of Revelation and was seen as referring to 1500. This time was also just after the Old World's discovery of the Americas in 1492, and therefore was influenced greatly by the New World.[1] Historically, the year 1500 is also often identified, somewhat arbitrarily, as marking the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of the Early Modern Era. The end of this year marked the halfway point of the 2nd millennium, as there were 500 years before it and 500 years after it. Events Europe's population was about 60 million. January 5 – Duke Ludovico Sforza recaptures Milan, but is soon driven out again by the French. January 26 – Vicente Yáñez Pinzón becomes the first European to discover Brazil. April 21 – Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral officially discovers Brazil and claims the land for Portugal. November 11 – Treaty of Granada – Louis XII of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon agree to divide the Kingdom of Naples between them. Emperor Go-Kashiwabara ascends to the throne of Japan. Battle of Hemmingstedt: The Danish army fails to conquer the peasants' republic of Dithmarschen. Second Battle of Lepanto – The Turkish fleet of Kemal Re'is defeats the Venetians. The Turks proceed to capture Modon, Lepanto, and Koron. The Luo, a Nilotic people from modern Sudan, settle the Cwezi states, establishing the state of Buganda. (approximate date) Diogo Dias is the first European to see Madagascar.
Events January 16 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Cape St. Vincent February – Armed Neutrality of the North alliance formed between Denmark, Sweden, and Russia. March 26 – The British Gazette and Sunday Monitor, the first Sunday newspaper in Britain April 16 – The University of Münster in Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany is founded May 12 – American Revolutionary War: Charleston, South Carolina is taken by British forces. May 29 – American Revolutionary War: Loyalist forces under Col. Banastre Tarleton kill surrendering American soldiers in the Waxhaw Massacre. August 16 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Camden – The British defeat the Americans near Camden, South Carolina. September 25 – Benedict Arnold flees to British-held New York October 2 – American Revolutionary War: British spy John Andre is hanged by American forces. October 10-16 – Great hurricane flattens the islands of Barbados, Martinique and St. Eustatius November 29 – Maria Theresa of Austria dies and her Habsburg dominions pass to her ambitious son, Joseph II, who has already been Holy Roman Emperor since 1765. Britain attacks the United Provinces before it can join the Neutral Alliance, because of its support for the American uprising. First Epsom Derby horse race run at Epsom Downs, Surrey, England. Emperor Kokaku ascends to the throne of Japan In Ireland, Lady Berry, who is sentenced to death for the murder of her son, is released when she agrees to become an executioner (retires 1810) Good grain and wine harvest in France 35th and last volume of Diderot's Encyclopédie published Births Deaths
Events Rebellion against king Sancho II of Portugal in favor of his brother Alphonso. The rebuilding of Westminster Abbey is started. Pope Innocent IV sends two missions to the Mongol Khan, suggesting that the Mongols convert to Christianity.
Mel Brooks (born June 28, 1926) is a Jewish American actor, comedian, writer, movie director, and producer. When he was born in Brooklyn, his name was Melvin Kaminsky. He has directed, produced and written several movies. Most of these are comedies that make references to other movies. Legacy Brooks is one of the few artists who have received an Oscar, Emmy, Tony, and Grammy. He was awarded his first Grammy for Best Spoken Comedy Album in 1999 for his recording of The 2000 Year Old Man in the Year 2000 with Carl Reiner. His two other Grammys came in 2002 for Best Musical Show Album for the soundtrack of The Producers and for Best Long Form Music Video for the DVD "Recording the Producers - A Musical Romp with Mel Brooks". He won his first of four Emmy awards in 1967 for Outstanding Writing Achievement in Variety for a Sid Caesar special. He went on to win three Emmys in 1997, 1998, and 1999 for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his role of Uncle Phil on Mad About You. He won his three Tony awards in 2001 for his work on the musical, The Producers for Best Musical, Best Original Musical Score, and Best Book of a Musical. He also won a Hugo Award and a Nebula Award for Young Frankenstein. Three of Brooks's movies are on the American movie Institute's list of funniest American films: Blazing Saddles (#6), The Producers (#11), and Young Frankenstein (#13). Brooks worked with some people many times. Performers who worked on three or more of Brooks' movies are: Gene Wilder, Dom DeLuise, Madeline Kahn, Harvey Korman, Cloris Leachman, Ron Carey, Dick Van Patten and Andréas Voutsinas. On December 5, 2009 Brooks was one of five recipients of the 2009 Kennedy Center Honors at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. On April 23, 2010 Brooks was awarded the 2,406th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Personal life Brooks was married to Florence Baum from 1953 to 1962. Their marriage ended in divorce. Mel and Florence had three children, Stephanie, Nicky, and Eddie. Brooks was married to the actress Anne Bancroft from 1964 until her death from uterine cancer on June 6, 2005. They met at a rehearsal for the Perry Como Variety Show in 1961 and married three years later. Their son, Max Brooks, was born in 1972. In 2010, Brooks said Bancroft was the main force behind his involvement in making The Producers and Young Frankenstein for the musical theater. Work Writer/director The Producers (1968) (Academy Award, best original screenplay) The Twelve Chairs (1970) (also actor) Blazing Saddles (1974) (also actor) Young Frankenstein (1974) Silent Movie (1976) (also actor) High Anxiety (1977) (also actor/producer) History of the World, Part I (1981) (also actor/producer) Spaceballs (1987) (also actor/producer) Life Stinks (1991) (also actor/producer) Robin Hood: Men in Tights (1993) (also actor/producer) Dracula: Dead and Loving It (1995) (also actor/producer) Theatre Leonard Sillman's New Faces of 1952 (1952) (sketches for a revue) Shinbone Alley (1957) (co-book-writer) All-American (1962) (book-writer) The Producers (2001) (composer, lyricist, co-book-writer, producer; Tony Award for Best Musical, Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical, Tony Award for Best Original Score, Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics, Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Book of a Musical) Young Frankenstein (2007) (composer, lyricist, co-book-writer, producer) Other credits Your Show of Shows (TV) (1950–1954) (writer) New Faces of 1952 (Broadway) (1952) (writer) and "New Faces", the 1954 movie version (writer) The Critic (created and narrated, won Academy Award for Best Animated Short movie) (1963) Get Smart (TV) (1965–1970) (co-creator, writer) The Electric Company (TV) (1971–1977) (voice of recurring little cartoon man who asks: "Who's the dummy writing this show?!") Hollywood Squares (1972) (Guest star) When Things Were Rotten (1975) (co-created, writer) The Muppet Movie (1979) (Special Guest Star-Mad Scientist Professor Max Krassman) The Elephant Man (1980) (uncredited executive producer) To Be or Not to Be (1983) (actor, producer) The Fly (1986) (uncredited producer) The Fly II (1989) (uncredited producer) The Nutt House (1989) (co-creator) The Tracey Ullman Show (1990) (actor-Buzz Schlanger) Look Who's Talking Too (1990) (voice of Mr. Toilet Man) Frasier (1993) (voice of Tom) Rugrats (1994) The Little Rascals (1994) (actor-Mr. Welling) Silence of the Hams (1994) (actor-Checkout Guest) The Simpsons (1995, "Homer vs. Patty and Selma") (voice-himself) Caesar's Writers (1996) (himself, panel member) Mad About You (TV) (1996–1999) (actor-Uncle Phil) The Prince of Egypt (1998) (uncredited, additional voices) Svitati (AKA Screw Loose) (1999) (actor-Jake Gordon) It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie (2002) (voice of Joe Snow) The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius: Season 2 (2003) (voice of Santa Claus) Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks (2003–2007) (voice of Wiley the Sheep) Curb Your Enthusiasm: Season 4 (2004) (actor) Robots (2005) (voice of Bigweld) The Producers (2005) (writer, producer, cameo as himself) Spaceballs: The Animated Series (2008) (writer, producer, voice) Get Smart (2008) (Consultant) The 2000 Year Old Man: The Complete History (2009) DVD The Wizard of Oz (2012) (actor-The Wizard of Oz) References Other websites Academy Award winning composers Actors from New York City American movie actors American screenwriters American television actors American television producers American television writers American voice actors Emmy Award winners Grammy Award winners Jewish American actors Jewish American comedians Jewish American writers Kennedy Center honorees Movie directors from New York City Movie producers from New York City Tony Award winning actors Writers from New York City 1926 births Living people Laurence Olivier Award winners Comedians from New York City
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is a national park in the U.S. state and island of Hawaii. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The park was created in 1916. It includes The Mauna Loa, which is the Earth's biggest volcano, and Kilauea, the Earth's most active volcano. The park shows the results of millions of years of volcanism, and evolution. These processes produce bare land from the sea, and with complex and unique ecosystems, a distinct Ancient Hawaiian culture. Kīlauea, one of the world's most active volcanoes, and Mauna Loa is the biggest, it offers scientists with insights on the birth of the Hawaiian Islands, and can give visitors views of the dramatic volcanic landscapes. In recognition of its outstanding natural values, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park has been designated as an International Biosphere Reserve in 1980 and a World Heritage Site in 1987. Recent events On March 19, 2008, there was a small explosion in Halemaumau crater, the first explosive event since 1924 and the first eruption in the Kīlauea caldera since September 1982. Debris from the explosion was scattered over an area of . A small amount of ash was also reported at a nearby community. The explosion covered part of Crater Rim Drive and damaged Halemaumau overlook. The explosion did not release any lava, which suggests to scientists that it was driven by hydrothermal or gas sources. This explosion event followed the opening of a major sulfur dioxide gas vent, greatly increasing levels emitted from the Halemaumau crater. In 2008, Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park and Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes became sister parks. Gallery Related pages List of World Heritage Sites in the United States References Other websites Geography of Hawaii National parks in the United States World Heritage Sites in the United States 1916 establishments in the United States 20th-century establishments in Hawaii
Pertussis, also known as whooping cough, is a disease that affects about 300,000 people in the US every year, out of 30–50 million cases per year. There is a vaccine that can prevent it, so most cases of it are in places where people cannot afford, cannot get, or refuse to get the vaccine. However, this vaccine does not work forever. The disease lasts about 6 weeks, and symptoms include vomiting, violent coughing, and other flu-like symptoms. It is called whooping cough for the sound an infected person makes when they cough. The disease usually infects younger people, as they are more prone to diseases. Other websites Pertussis: new insights in diagnosis, incidence and clinical manifestations, F.G.A. Versteegh, Thesis, 2005 Diseases caused by bacteria Respiratory system
A deity is thought to be a powerful spirit that controls events and the nature of things. Deities are also called gods. A female god is often called a goddess. The adjective of deity is ‘divine’. This word comes from the Latin deus (female: dea). Different religions believe in different deities. Since there are many religions in the world there are many different ideas about how many deities there are, what they are, and what they can do. Followers of many ancient religions and some modern religions believe in many deities, which is called polytheism. The two largest religions on earth, Christianity and Islam, believe in only one God, which is called monotheism. Deism is the belief that a deity exists, but that the deity does not very often change or never changes things in the universe. Pantheism is the belief that the universe is the deity, while atheism is the belief that there are no deities. In most religions, believers think deities are immortal (cannot die), and have powers far beyond human powers. Examples Some of the deities of different religions are: From the Ancient Greek religion: Zeus, Apollo, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Poseidon, Hades, Thanatos, Dionysus, Hera, Artemis, Hephaestus, Hermes, nymph From the Ancient Norse religion: Thor, Odin From the Ancient Roman religion: Jupiter, Mars, Venus From the Ancient Egyptian religion: Isis, Osiris, Horus, Thoth, Ra, Hathor, bastet From Christianity: Jesus, Yahweh, the Holy Spirit (Considered to Christians as the three parts of one God) From Judaism: Hashem From Hinduism: Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Durga, Ganesha and many more. From Buddhism: Deva From Islam: Allah From Shinto called kami: Amaterasu the Sun goddess, Inari the Fox god, Izanagi the first human, Ryuujin the Sea god, Shinigami the death gods, Susanoo the Storm god From Deanism: Gaia From an unknown religion Oriphine the Draconic Curiosity goddess References
Odin (Old Norse: Óðinn) is the god of wisdom, poetry, death, divination, and magic in Norse mythology. Son of Borr and the giantess (jötunn) Bestla, Odin is the chief of the Æsir and king of Asgard. He is married to the goddess Frigg, and is father to the gods Thor, Baldr, Höðr, Víðarr, and Váli. Known as the All-Father, Odin is often accompanied by two ravens, Huginn and Muninn, along the wolves Geri and Freki; the god rides into battle atop an eight-legged steed, Sleipnir, and wields the mighty spear Gungnir, which was fashioned for him by the dwarves known as the Sons of Ivaldi and is said to never miss its target. A defining feature of Odin is his being one-eyed, a result of him having sacrificed an eye to drink from the Well of Urðr, which granted him an incomprehensible amount of knowledge of the universe. Odin himself often receives counsel from the severed head of the being Mímir, which recites secret knowledge to him. Half of the souls of those slain in battle will be guided by the Valkyries, battle maidens, to Valhalla, Odin's enormous and majestic hall: the other half go to Fólkvangr, Freyja's realm. Odin was known in Old English as Wōden, in Old Saxon as Wōdan, and in Old High German as Wuotan or Wōtan, all of which stem from the reconstructed Proto-Germanic *wōđanaz. The modern English weekday name Wednesday bears the god’s name. (from Old English Wōdnesdæg, “Wōden’s day”). Family Odin is the son of Borr and the jötunn Bestla. He is married to the goddess Frigg, by whom he is the father of the twin gods Baldr and Höðr. With the giantesses Gríðr and Rindr, Odin has two other sons named Víðarr and Váli. His eldest son is Thor, god of thunder, born to him by Jörð, the personification of the Earth. Related pics Saturn - Roman mythology equivalent to Odin Kronos - Greek equivalent to Odin Other websites Odin -Citizendium Norse gods and goddesses
Qazi Muhammad (1893-1947) was the Nationalist and Religious Kurdish leader and the Head of Republic of Mahabad (Republic of Kurdistan), the second modern Kurdish state in the Middle East (after Republic of Ararat). He acted as the president of the Russian backed Republic of Mahabad, in Kurdistan of Iran (Eastern Kurdistan) in 1946. He was also the founder of the Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran. A year later, the Kurdish national movement (Komeley Jiyanewey Kurd) that he helped organize was crushed by Iran's central government. The Iranian military court sentenced him to death, and he was hanged in Chuwarchira Square in the center of city of Mahabad at March 30 1947. Mustafa Barzani, the father of nationalist Kurdish movement in Iraqi Kurdistan (Southern Kurdistan), was the defence minister in his cabinet. One of his sons Ali Qazi is today an active member in the kurdish movement. Literature Archie Roosevelt, Jr., "The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad" ,Middle East Journal, no. 1 (July 1947), pp. 247-69 1893 births 1947 deaths History of Iran Kurdish politicians
Brine is water that has more than 5% salt in it. It is used for preserving food. For this it is much like vinegar or sugar. Brine is also used to transport heat. Adding salt to water lowers the freezing point of the water. The solubility of salt in water depends on temperature. At 15.5 ° Celsius, a saturated solution of brine can hold 26.4 % salt by weight. At 0°, it can hold 23.3% salt. Brines also have some pharmaceutical properties, which can be used to treat people, especially those with diseases of the skin, allergies and common colds. Related pages Salinity Salt water References Food preservation Medicine
Events Fall of Constantinople (now called Istanbul). France wins the Hundred Years' War against England. The first printing press is made in Europe by Johann Gutenberg. The Gutenberg Bible is the first book printed with movable type. Siege of Belgrade. War of the Roses starts. Births Queen Isabella of Castile Christopher Columbus, Italian sailor Leonardo da Vinci, Italian inventor Girolamo Savonarola, Italian religious reformer Ferdinand II of Aragon Deaths Murad II, Ottoman Sultan John Kemp, Archbishop of Canterbury
Events January 1 – London, Ontario is incorporated as a city. January 23 – The first bridge over the Mississippi River opens in what is now Minneapolis, Minnesota, a crossing made today by the Father Louis Hennepin Bridge. January 23 – The region of Wairarapa, New Zealand was hit by the strongest earthquake ever recorded in New Zealand, which reached Magnitude 8.1 on the Richter Scale. There were five deaths. January 29 – Lord Aberdeen resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom over the management of the Crimean War. February 5 – Lord Palmerston becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom February 11 – Kassa Hailu is crowned Tewodros II, Emperor of Ethiopia, by Abuna Salama III in a ceremony at the church of Derasge Maryam. March 3 – US Congress appropriates $30,000 to create US Camel Corps March 16 – Bates College in Lewiston, Maine was founded. May 15 – The Great Gold Robbery of 1855 in England June 29 – The Daily Telegraph begins publication September 3 – Last Bartholomew Fair on London, England September 11 – Sevastapol falls to the British troops December 22 – Metropolitan Board of Works established. Stamp duty was removed from newspapers in Britain creating mass market media in the UK. The Panama Railway becomes the first railroad to connect the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean by rail as the railroad's route across Panama is completed. Births May 10-Sri Yukteswar Giri, Indian guru
Aladdin is a fictional person from the story Aladdin and the Enchanted Lamp, which is part of the Book of One Thousand and One Nights. Story The young man Aladdin is told by a sorcerer (magician), who is pretending to be his uncle, to get him an oil lamp from a cave. Aladdin gets the lamp, but the sorcerer tries to trick him. So, Aladdin keeps the lamp for himself. Aladdin learns that inside the lamp there is a djinn. The djinn can fulfill every wish of the lamp's owner. With the djinn's help, Aladdin becomes rich and powerful and marries a princess. The sorcerer returns and tricks Aladdin's wife into giving him the magic lamp. Aladdin finds out that in a ring he has, there is another djinn. This djinn helps Aladdin defeat the sorcerer, get back the magic lamp, and save his wife. Adaptions (new versions of the story) There have been different versions of the story: Nicolas Isouard wrote an opera from it in 1822. There is a ballet version by Michael François Hoguet. That version was done in 1854. Wenzel Gährich contributed the music to the ballet version. There is a film The Thief of Bagdad. It was shot in 1940. It was one of the first films to use Technicolor. There is a Bollywood version Aladdin and Sinbad. In it, both characters meet and participate in the adventures of each other. The djinn is female. In the end Aladdin marries her (rather than the princess). Disney also made a version of Aladdin, who appeared in several adaptions. In the Disney film Aladdin, he is a smart young thief in the fictional city of Agrabah. He meets and falls in love with the Sultan's daughter, Jasmine, an independent soul who, much like Aladdin, wants to escape from her current life. Jafar, the Sultan's evil advisor, tricks Aladdin into helping him find a magic lamp, which ends up with Aladdin and his monkey and friend, Abu. The lamp's occupant is a lunatic, shape-shifting genie, who promises his master three wishes, and though he cannot make Jasmine fall in love with Aladdin – he can make things easier for him. By making Aladdin look like rich and handsome Prince Ali, Aladdin does not impress the Princess, and discovers that it was his true self she liked him all along. Using his own smartness and courage, Aladdin defeats Jafar and his evil plans, becoming a prince. Fictional characters
In Buddhism, Nirvana is the state of perfect peace free from reincarnation reached by not wanting more than you have. It means happiness and peace. It is every Buddhist's goal to achieve Nirvana. The Buddha described it as: “the far shore, the subtle, the very difficult to see, the unaging, the stable, the undisintegrating, the unmanifest, the unproliferated, the peaceful, the deathless, the sublime, the auspicious, the secure, the destruction of craving, the wonderful, the amazing, the unailing, the unailing state, the unafflicted, dispassion, purity, freedom, the unadhesive, the island, the shelter, the asylum, the refuge...” (SN 43:14) Related pages Moksha Other websites Nibbana - excerpts from the Pali Tripitaka defining Nirvana "Nirvana Sutra": full English translation of the "Nirvana Sutra" and appreciation of its teachings. Buddha - A Hero's Journey to Nirvana Salvation Versus Liberation, A Buddhist View of Paradise Worlds In-depth explanation of Nibbana according to the Pali Canon Explanation of Nibbana according to dmc Mind Like Fire Unbound - a discussion of fire imagery as used in the Buddha's time A Buddhist practice based on the four stages of the Buddha's enlightenment that lead him to Nirvana Nirvana - a modern scientific view. Buddhist terminology
Lahti is a city in Päijänne Tavastia, Finland. Literally it means bay. It is part of the province of Southern Finland. As of April 2014, there were about 103,450 people living in Lahti. Lahti was the eighth biggest city in Finland as of 31 August 2012. The concert house Sibelius Hall () in Lahti is named after Jean Sibelius. Many stars, including Antti Tuisku, have performed there. History Lahti's transport was big already at 14th century. Lahti was first a village that belonged to Hollola. It was been burned in 1877. Lahti has been a city since 1905. The population then was 2,779. In 2016, Nastola merged with the city of Lahti. Sights Lanu-puisto Pikku-Vesijärvi Population grow Other websites The official Lahti page References
The British Virgin Islands are part of the Virgin Islands, which are chain of islands in the Caribbean, the territory is part of the United Kingdom. The British Virgin Islands are the Eastern half of the island chain, and they are a British Overseas Territory. The British Virgin Islands has sixteen islands which people live on. They have more than twenty islands with no inhabitants (people). Over 22,000 people live there, which is many fewer than the neighbouring United States Virgin Islands. The capital city, Road Town, is on Tortola, one of the islands in the group. Most of the people live on Tortola, but the other main inhabited islands (islands with people) are Anegada, Virgin Gorda and Jost Van Dyke. History The islands were originally lived in by Caribbean Indians called Arawaks. By the time the first European explorers discovered the British Virgin Islands all of the Arawaks had left. The first Europeans to try and settle in the British Virgin Islands were the Dutch, but the English came soon after and the English and the Dutch settlers used to fight. The Spanish also claimed the islands, but no Spanish people ever tried to settle there. But the Spanish did attack the British and Dutch settlers. In 1672 the British took control of the islands during a war against the Dutch and they have held on to them ever since. During the early years after European settlement the British Virgin Islands was a plantation economy which relied heavily upon slave labour. After slavery was abolished in the British Virgin Islands there was a long period of decline and many people left. Those who remained were mostly descended from African slaves, although many of them also left to try and find better lives elsewhere. In the 1950s the British Virgin Islands got its own government, and the economy of the islands began to get better with the introduction of tourism and financial services. Government The British Virgin Islands are mostly indepependent, but some parts of the Government is run by the United Kingdom. A new constitution was introduced in 2007. It grants more control over everyday life to the Islanders, and lists the protection a person can expect from the government. The head of Government in the British Virgin Islands is called the Premier, and he is in charge of a group of ministers of Government which is called the Cabinet. Laws are passed by a group of elected politicians in the House of Assembly. Most of the international relations are still dealt with by the British Government in London on behalf of the people of the British Virgin Islands. Economy Most people in the British Virgin Islands work in the tourist trade or in financial services. There are also a small number of farmers and fishermen. References Other websites A visual guide to the British Virgin Islands
A lamp is a device that makes light and heat. Lamps usually work with electricity, using a lightbulb. In the United States, a lamp is usually considered a desk lamp or floor lamp. Other sources of light are called 'lights', such as streetlights, flashlights, and headlights, which in some countries are called streetlamps, torches and headlamps. Before electric lamps were invented, gas lamps, oil lamps or candles were used. Related pages Compact fluorescent lamp Gas discharge lamp Lava lamp (mostly used for decoration rather than lighting a room) References Furniture Lamps
Pinocchio is a fictional character from the 1883 book The Adventures of Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi. Pinocchio is a puppet, made by wood carver, Gepetto. When he tells lies, his nose gets longer. Pinocchio learns about being a real life boy and wants to be a real human being instead of a puppet made of wood and strings. The most well-known version of the story is the 1940 animated Disney movie Pinocchio. Other websites Characters in written fiction
Diplomacy is the use of tact to gain strategic advantage or to find mutually acceptable solutions to a common challenge. It may include the phrasing of statements in a non-confrontational, or polite manner. Diplomacy often involves countries making an agreement with each other, such as a treaty. Diplomacy is the talk between the representatives of states, such as their heads of state. Sometimes, these talks are about trade or business, and sometimes they are about war and peace. Diplomacy happens a lot when two or more countries fight. Diplomats are people that are sent from their home country, to meet with and talk to diplomats and leaders of foreign countries. An important type of diplomat is called an ambassador. An ambassador lives in a foreign country and works in an embassy to be available for meetings with the government of that country. Literature and sources Black, Jeremy. A History of Diplomacy (U. of Chicago Press, 2010) Berridge, G. R. Diplomacy: Theory & Practice, 3rd edition, Palgrave, Basingstoke, 2005, Cunningham, George. Journey to Become a Diplomat: With a Guide to Careers in World Affairs FPA Global Vision Books 2005, Dorman, Shawn, ed. Inside a U.S. Embassy: How the Foreign Service Works for America by American Foreign Service Association, Second edition February 2003, Callieres, Francois De. The Practice of Diplomacy (1919) Fischer, Roger and Ury, William L. Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In (1991) Hill, Henry Bertram. The Political Testament of Cardinal Richeleiu: The Significant Chapters and Supporting Selections (1964) Kennan, George F. American Diplomacy (Walgreen Foundation Lectures) (1985) Kissinger, Henry. A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh, and the Problem of Peace: 1812-1822 (1999) Henry Kissinger. Diplomacy (1999) Kurbalija J. and Slavik H. eds. Language and Diplomacy DiploProjects, Mediterranean Academy of Diplomatic Studies, Malta, 2001, . The volume contains collection of paper presented at the international conference. Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy Dover Publications, Metternich, Clemens von. Mettetnich: The Autobiography, 1773-1815 (2005) Nicolson, Sir Harold George. Diplomacy (1988) Nicolson, Sir Harold George. The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity: 1812-1822 (2001) Nicolson, Sir Harold George. The Evolution of Diplomatic Method (1977) Nierenberg, Gerard The Art of Negotiating Rana, Kishan S. and Jovan Kurbalija, eds. Foreign Ministries: Managing Diplomatic Networks and Optimizing Value DiploFoundation, 2007, Rana, Kishan S. The 21st Century Ambassador: Plenipotentiary to Chief Executive DiploFoundation,2004, Roeder, Larry W. "Diplomacy, Funding and Animal Welfare", Springer, Hamburg, 2011 Ernest Satow. A Guide to Diplomatic Practice by Longmans, Green & Co. London & New York, 1917. A standard reference work used in many embassies across the world (though not British ones). Now in its fifth edition (1998) Wicquefort, Abraham de. The Embassador and His Functions (2010) Jovan Kurbalija, Valentin Katrandjiev. Multistakeholder diplomacy : challenges and opportunities. Malta 2006, Igor Janev, Diplomacy, IPS, Belgrade, 2013, Related pages International relations Political science Other websites Diplopundit Politics Diplomacy
Acellular or non-cellular life is life that exists without a cellular structure. Some scientists say that a virus is a type of life form. Biology
The state of México is one of the administrative divisions of the country of Mexico. It is one of 32 administrative divisions. It is in the centre of the country. It borders Hidalgo, Querétaro, Tlaxcala, Puebla, Michoacán, Morelos and Guerrero as well as Mexico City. The capital of the state is Toluca. Its biggest city is Ecatepec de Morelos, which borders Mexico Federal district. Teotihuacan is also in this state. It is about 21.355 km² in surface. About 14 million people live there as of 2005. States of Mexico
A yawn is a reflex. It involves a large, long taking in of air, the stretching of eardrums as the jaw opens wide, and last a (sometimes loud) breathing out. Pandiculation is the act of yawning and stretching simultaneously. It is easy to see when someone is yawning, but no-one knows what its function is. Yawning is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, overwork, lack of stimulation and boredom. In humans, yawning is often triggered by others yawning (e.g. seeing a person yawning, talking to someone on the phone who is yawning) and is a typical example of positive feedback. This "infectious" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees and dogs. Cats both yawn and stretch, though not necessarily at the same time. Contagiousness The yawn reflex has long been observed to be contagious. In 1508, Erasmus wrote, "One man's yawning makes another yawn.," and the French proverbialized the idea to "Un bon bâilleur en fait bâillier deux." ("One good gaper makes two others gape"). Often, if one person yawns, this may cause another person to "empathetically" yawn. Observing another person's yawning face (especially his/her eyes), even reading, or thinking about yawning, or looking at a yawning picture can cause a person to yawn. The immediate cause for contagious yawning may be the mirror neurons in the frontal cortex of certain vertebrates, which, upon being exposed to a stimulus, activates the same regions in the brain. Mirror neurons have been proposed as a driving force for imitation which lies at the root of much human learning such as language acquisition. Yawning may be an offshoot of the same imitative impulse. Reasons, functions Charles Darwin argued, in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, that if a behaviour was present in many cultures, then it must be inherited (wholly or partly). All traits which appear in a wide range of animals must have some function which is supported (or was supported) by natural selection. In most cases the function is obvious, but with yawning we do not know what that function is. Suggestions have been made, but they do not seem to account for its widespread occurrence in mammals, and possibly in other vertebrates. Other vertebrates Because mammals have similar emotions, and can show their emotions very clearly, it is agreed that when they look as if they are yawning, it is yawning in every sense. The reasons for this are similar to the reasons why we think other humans feel the same as us when the show the same signs. References Ethology Physiology

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