text
stringlengths 1
237k
|
|---|
Doom is a first-person shooter video game made by id Software in 1993. It is one of the first games to use three-dimensional levels. The game is about killing demons and zombies in order to stop an invasion. Doom has traps, including crushing ceilings, radiation pools, and exploding barrels, that can kill the player. Doom was also the first game with multiplayer deathmatch. This means you can fight with other players instead of the demons and zombies. The game was made with a computer language called C using some new techniques created by John Carmack.
It has five sequels: Doom 2 that came out in 1994, Final Doom that came out in 1996, Doom 3 that came out in 2004, Doom (2016), and Doom Eternal.
Doom is split into three basic components, the engine, the Iwad file, and the optional Pwad file. The engine contains the code needed to run the game on a computer. The Iwad file contains the default levels, sounds, pictures, and other components. Pwad files contain custom levels. The source code to the Doom engine was released in 1997 and can be downloaded for free. The full 3-episode and 4-episode Iwad files have not been released for free and must still be purchased.
Doom is a shareware game of three episodes, each having eight standard levels and one secret level. The secret level in each episode is accessed by finding a secret exit in one of the normal levels. The episodes are Knee-Deep In The Dead, The Shores Of Hell and Inferno. In the shareware version the only episode that can be played is Knee-Deep In The Dead. The expansion pack of Doom is Ultimate Doom, which has the fourth episode, Thy Flesh Consumed.
In Doom, the player can carry and use many different weapons. Each have their own special features and strengths. They are your Fists, the Pistol, Shotgun, Chaingun, Rocket Launcher, Plasma Gun, BFG-9000, and Chainsaw. The player gets new weapons by finding them in the level. Most weapons can be found in more than one level. Some weapons share ammo. For example, both the Pistol and Chaingun use bullets, and the Plasma Gun and BFG both use energy cells. The player must be careful not to waste ammo because if he or she does, there may be more than one weapon that cannot be used. The Fists and Chainsaw do not have ammo limits, so the player can use them as long as they want.
Doom was also made for the SNES, Sega 32X, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, 3DO, Atari Jaguar, and Game Boy Advance. It can also be downloaded online for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch.
Shooter video games
1993 video games
Doom series
DOS games
Sega 32X games
Sega Saturn games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games |
The Jam was an English rock band formed in Woking, Surrey in 1972. The members were Paul Weller (guitar, vocals), Bruce Foxton (bass guitar, vocals), and Rick Buckler (drums). Having come out of from the short Punk movement they went on to become one of the UK's top bands. They had four number one hits which were Going Underground, Start!, Town Called Malice and Beat Surrender.
The Jam disbanded in 1982. Lead singer Paul Weller went on to have hits with The Style Council during the remainder of the 1980s. During the 1990s he had a successful solo career.
References
1972 establishments in the United Kingdom
1982 disestablishments in Europe
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
English punk bands
English rock bands
Musical groups disestablished in 1982
Musical groups established in 1972
New wave bands
Surrey
1980s disestablishments in the United Kingdom |
Alchemy is the very old study and philosophy of how to change basic substances (such as metals) into other substances. It also studied how substances (and how they are changed into other substances) were related to magic and astrology. People who studied alchemy were called alchemists. Some things alchemists tried to do were change lead or mercury into gold, make the philosopher's stone, and make the "elixir of life," which they thought could cure (make better) any disease and make someone young again.
Alchemists believed that substances, mind, philosophies, religion, magic and astrology were related to each other. They tried to find connections between them. They tried to understand one by understanding the other. Some alchemists used metals (like gold or silver) to represent spiritual or occult ideas. People in many different countries studied alchemy.
In the 1600s and 1700s, people started to study only the properties of substances without trying to relate them to secret, old knowledge. They did experiments and wrote down what they discovered so other people could learn from them. One of the important people who did these experiments was Robert Boyle. People called the new study of substances chemistry.
Scientists have since discovered how to change one kind of element (the simplest kind of chemical substance) into another. In 1980, an American scientist named Glenn Seaborg discovered how to change a very tiny amount of bismuth into gold with a nuclear reactor. Making gold this way is much more difficult and expensive (costs a lot of money) than mining or recycling it.
References
Alchemy |
Goldfinger is a 1964 spy movie based on the seventh James Bond book written by Ian Fleming. Goldfinger is the third James Bond movie in the series. It is also third to star Sean Connery as the British Secret Service agent James Bond. Shirley Bassey sings the title song of the movie.
Plot
In this movie, the main bad guy is named Auric Goldfinger, and he likes gold a lot. In the movie, James Bond tries to find out what Goldfinger's bad plan is, and in the end James Bond wins and stops Goldfinger. His plan is to blow up Fort Knox so that the price of gold will go up. Goldfinger has a sidekick called Oddjob who throws his metal hat at people.
It is noted for the character with the unusual name Pussy Galore, played in the movie by Honor Blackman.
Cast
Sean Connery as James Bond
Gert Fröbe as Auric Goldfinger
Honor Blackman as Pussy Galore
Harold Sakata as Oddjob
Cec Linder as Felix Leiter
Shirley Eaton as Jill Masterson
Tania Mallet as Tilly Masterson
Desmond Llewelyn as Q
Bernard Lee as M
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny
Burt Kwouk as Mr. Ling
Martin Benson as Mr. Solo
Raymond Joung as Sierra
Nadja Regin as Bonita
Alf Joint as Capungo
Michael Mellinger as Kisch
Margaret Nolan as Dink
Bill Nagy as Mr. Midnight
Hal Galili as Mr. Strap
James Bond movies
1964 movies
Movies based on books
English-language movies
Movies directed by Guy Hamilton |
A scar is the natural result of a healing process in the human body. When the dermis is hurt by a wound, the wounded tissue will be replaced by scar tissue. Scar tissue is not identical to the tissue it replaces. A scar will look different (and have different characteristics) than the surrounding tissue.
Scar tissue is composed of the same protein (collagen) as the tissue that it replaces, but the fiber composition of the protein is different; instead of a random basketweave formation of the collagen fibers found in normal tissue, in fibrosis the collagen cross-links and forms a pronounced alignment in a single direction. This collagen scar tissue alignment is usually of inferior functional quality to the normal collagen randomised alignment. For example, scars in the skin are less resistant to ultraviolet radiation, and sweat glands and hair follicles do not grow back within scar tissues. A myocardial infarction, commonly known as a heart attack, causes scar formation in the heart muscle, which leads to loss of muscular power and possibly heart failure. However, there are some tissues (e.g. bone) that can heal without any structural or functional deterioration.
References
Dermatology |
Warcraft is a series of computer games made by Blizzard Entertainment. The games in this series are real-time strategy games, where players play as their characters and gain experience to level up.
Series
The different games from the series are Warcraft: Orcs and Humans, Warcraft 2: Battle.net edition (with an expansion pack) and Warcraft 3 and its expansion pack, The Frozen Throne. The most successful game of the series is The Frozen Throne expansion pack, which sold more than 12 million copies. The MMORPG World of Warcraft is based on these games. Blizzard Entertainment also created World of Warcraft, which was published by Vivendi Games.
References
Other websites
The History of Warcraft
Warcraft series official website
Blizzard video games
Video game series
Real-time strategy video games |
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (DIN German Institute for Standardization) is the German national organization for standardization.
It publishes on average 2,000 standards per year in almost all fields of technology and increasingly in non-technical fields (e.g. services).
Example of DIN standards
DIN 476: international paper sizes (now ISO 216 or DIN EN ISO 216). Specifies the System where the paper size DIN A4 is from. In short, there are different series (A,B,C,..). Each series has a number of different sizes. If you go up one with the number, you halve the size. DIN A3 is as large as two pages of DIN A4. The biggest in that series is DIN A0. See Paper size for more.
DIN 1301: International System of Units (better known as the SI System of units)
DIN 5007: Rules for sorting words alphabetically. Also tells what to do with special characters, like ä or ß.
DIN 5008: Rules for writing a (German) letter. Specifies how the letter as a whole should look. Also looks at things like correctly writing a date, or a time.
DIN 72552: electric terminal numbers in automobiles
DIN 31635: transliteration of the Arabic language.
Germany |
Paper comes in different sizes. There are names for the different sizes of paper. In different parts of the world, different sizes and names are used.
There are also envelope sizes made to fit different kinds of paper. Envelope sizes are normally wider to fit the paper inside.
International sizes
In most of the world an international system of paper sizes is used. The normal size of paper is called A4. It is measured in metric units. It is 210 millimetres wide and 297 millimetres long. This is about the size of US letter, but it is a little narrower, and a little longer. The Deutsches Institut für Normung chose this standard in 1922 and other countries soon followed.
The other common size of paper in Europe is called B5. It is 176 millimetres wide by 250 millimetres long. This is about the same as executive size in the United States. It is sometimes used for writing personal letters to people.
There are also many other paper sizes used for writing notes, for big posters, for books, and for other things.
In the international paper size system, the sizes are based on mathematical formulas. A0 is the biggest at 1 square metre. A1 is half as big as A0. A2 is half as big as A1, and so on. The sizes with "B" and "C" in their name are in between the "A" sizes.
Sizes in United States and Canada
In the United States and Canada the normal size of paper is called letter size, or sometimes US letter. It is inches wide and 11 inches long (216 × 279 mm).
The other common size of paper in the US is called legal, or sometimes US legal. It is also inches wide, but it is 14 inches long. It is similar to the size called foolscap in Britain.
Another size is called executive. It is inches wide by inches long. It is not very common. It is sometimes used for writing personal letters to people.
There is also a size called tabloid. It is 11 inches wide, and 17 inches long. That is the same size as two pieces of letter size put next to each other.
There are also many other paper sizes used for writing notes, for big posters, for books, and for other things.
Paper sizes and computer printers
Most printers used with computers are designed to fit US letter and A4, and smaller paper sizes. Sometimes they can fit US legal also. For larger paper sizes, printers at professional printing businesses may be needed.
Details
Below are charts showing all the different sizes of paper that are usually made, listed in increasing order of size. Dimensions are shown width first, then length.
If a company wants to make something with a different size of paper than these, they have to have it specially cut for them.
Paper |
An envelope is a form of packing. Envelopes are used for sending letters or documents using regular postal mail. Envelopes are usually made of paper or hardened paper.
An envelope may be small enough to make you need to fold the paper going into it, or it can be as large as the paper so that you do not need to fold it. A large envelope is called a manila envelope, usually colored a color in between yellow and orange, and is used to send several pages of papers when a regular envelope would be too small. Another reason a manila envelope would be used would be to send important papers (e.g. birth certificates) that are better left unfolded.
To pay to send the mail, a stamp is usually attached to the envelope.
Related pages
Electronic mail
Letter (paper)
Letter box
Postcard
Telegram
Other websites
Postal service
Stationery
Paper |
Francis Hutcheson (born August 8, 1694, died August 8, 1746) was an Irish philosopher and one of the founding fathers of the Scottish Enlightenment.
Irish philosophers
1694 births
1746 deaths |
Yasser Arafat (24 August 1929 – 11 November 2004) is best known as the first leader of the Palestinian people. He was Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004. In 1993, he also became president of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA).
Arafat was born in Jerusalem, Gaza or Cairo. He studied civil engineering at Cairo University. He worked as an engineer in Kuwait.
In 1994, Yasser Arafat was one of the three recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize. The others were Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres. They got the prize for their peace efforts in the Middle East when Palestinian National Authority was formed.
The views of him are somewhat divided. Some people see him as a hero, who fought for the cause of the Palestinian people. Others see him as a terrorist, who promoted the use of violence to reach his goals. Still others think he was a charismatic leader, but he made too many concessions to the Israeli government.
Yasser died in Paris from a cerebral hemorrhage. The next day he was buried at his compound, with a hasty funeral in Ramallah on November 12. He was reburied on November 13, about 3:30 am. He was buried in a special casket, with the hope of being reburied in Jerusalem one day when an independent State of Palestine with East Jerusalem as its capital would be established.
Related pages
List of Nobel Prize winners by country
Notes
References
Other websites
Life in Palestine after Arafat, Situation worse, not what Bush and Sharon planned
The Real Obstacle to Peace was Ariel Sharon, not Yasser Arafat
Death of Arafat, burial and reburial November 13 2004
Dr. Fathi Arafat, brother of Yasser Arafat
1929 births
2004 deaths
Asian military people
Billionaires
Deaths from cerebral hemorrhage
Engineers
Muslim terrorists
Palestinian Muslims
Palestinian nationalists
Palestinian politicians
Palestinian terrorists
People from Cairo
People from Jerusalem
Presidents (government)
Time People of the Year |
An antidote is a chemical or medicine that will reverse the effects of some poisons. An antidote will make some or all of the effects of the poison go away.
Each antidote only works for certain poisons.
Not every poison has an antidote. For example, the poison aconitine has no known antidote. Aconitine is a very poisonous toxin that comes from the Aconitum plant. If enough of the poison enters a person's body, the person often dies.
Examples of antidotes
Activated charcoal
Activated charcoal can be used as an antidote for many poisons, but only poisons that were swallowed. For example, activated charcoal can be used for some drug overdoses, and for some poisonings. The charcoal attaches to the poison and keeps it from being taken into the bloodstream through the stomach.
Activated charcoal will not work for every kind of poison. For example, it will not work for alcohol, strong acids, and products made of petroleum (like paint thinner and fuel oil).
Antivenoms
Antivenoms will fight the poisonous effects of bites from venomous animals (animals that make venom), like some snakes and spiders.
To create some antivenoms, a little bit of venom is injected into an animal, like a horse. That animal's immune system will create antibodies which signal other cells in the immune system to destroy the venom. Then, those antibodies can be taken out of the animal's blood to make an antivenom. Then, when that antivenom is given to a person who has been poisoned by that venom, the person's immune system will already "know" to kill the venom.
Atropine
Sometimes, antidotes are poisons themselves. For example, atropine, which is found in deadly nightshade, is very poisonous. However, because of the way it reacts with the body, atropine is used as an antidote against some insecticides and certain kinds of nerve gas. Atropine is carried on many ambulances because it has other uses. For example, it can help restart a heart that is not beating.
There is a product called DuoDote that combines atropine with a medicine called pralidoxime chloride (also called 2-PAM). Both medicines are antidotes against some insecticides and nerve gases. DuoDote is given by injection (through a needle into the thigh muscle). It comes in an auto-injector, which looks like a large pen. When its safety cap is taken off and the auto-injector is pushed against the thigh, it will automatically send the needle into the thigh and deliver the medicines. DuoDote is not carried on many ambulances, but some special teams that specialize in treating poisons carry them.
Cyanide antidotes
There are a few different antidotes to cyanide. Some of them need to be given together in order to work.
Often, the first thing that medical professionals will do for cyanide poisoning is to give amyl nitrate or sodium nitrate. These work by making the cyanide attach (stick) to a chemical called methemoglobulin. When it is stuck to methemoglobulin, cyanide is not as dangerous. However, methemoglobulin will only stick to cyanide for a while. Eventually, it will not stick any more. This is why another medicine is needed.
That medicine is called sodium thiosulfate. This medicine sticks to cyanide, and never un-sticks. It helps make cyanide into another chemical that is not poisonous. This new chemical can easily be removed from the body by the kidneys, through urination.
Some ambulances carry cyanide antidote kits for firefighters who have breathed in too much smoke. (Smoke from a fire has cyanide in it.) These antidote kits are auto-injectors like the DuoDote.
Ethanol
Ethanol - drinking alcohol - can actually be used as an antidote. It works for people who have been poisoned by drinking ethylene glycol. Ethylene glycol is used in antifreeze. Because ethylene glycol tastes very sweet, children and animals sometimes drink a lot of it without realizing that it is poison.
Ethanol also works as an antidote for methanol poisoning. Methanol is sometimes called "wood alcohol." It is also used in antifreeze, fuel, and solvents. People can get methanol poisoning accidentally by getting methanol on their skin or breathing it in. Methanol is also poisonous if it is drunk.
Ethanol works as an antidote for ethylene glycol and methanol by sticking to those poisons. Once the ethanol is stuck onto the poisons, the kidneys urinate out the poisons.
A medicine called fomepizole is also an antidote for ethylene glycol and methanol poisoning. It works the same way as ethanol.
Naloxone (Narcan)
Naloxone is an antidote for overdoses on opiates, like heroin, oxycodone (OxyContin), and other prescribed painkillers. The most common brand name for the naloxone antidote is Narcan.
Opiates cause changes in the body by sticking to special opiate receptors (like landing spots) in the brain. If they are not attached to these receptors, they cannot cause any changes in the body. Naloxone works by pushing the opiates off their landing spots. Narcan sticks to those landing spots instead and keeps opiates from attaching to them.
Naloxone should not be confused with naltrexone, which is a different medicine.
Oxygen
100% (pure) oxygen is an antidote for carbon monoxide poisoning. When pure oxygen is not enough, hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) can also be used.
HBOT is done in a special tube or room that can handle high pressures (called a hyperbaric chamber). 100% pure oxygen is sent into the room for the patient to breathe. However, the air pressure is increased to three times more than the normal air pressure. This helps the lungs get more oxygen than they could if the patient were breathing at normal air pressure. It also makes it easier for the blood to carry more oxygen to the entire body.
Vitamin K
Vitamin K is an antidote for warfarin (Coumadin) poisoning. Warfarin is a medicine which makes the blood thinner. It is used to prevent blood clots. However, if a person is given too much warfarin, their blood can get too thin. When the blood is too thin, it cannot clot. This can cause serious bleeding problems.
The blood needs vitamin K to be able to clot. When a person has warfarin poisoning, giving them vitamin K can make their blood able to clot again.
It takes vitamin K four to six hours to reverse warfarin poisoning. Because of this, if a person with warfarin poisoning is bleeding, doctors may also give fresh frozen plasma. This will work more quickly to make the blood less thin.
References
Drugs
Poisons |
Yitzhak Rabin (March 1, 1922 – November 4, 1995) was an Israeli politician and general. He was born in Jerusalem. He was the fifth Prime Minister of Israel from 1974 until 1977 and again from 1992 until his assassination in 1995 by Yigal Amir, a right-wing extremist who had strongly opposed Rabin's signing of the Oslo Accords and to peace with Palestine. He was the first local-born Prime Minister of Israel, the only Israeli Prime Minister to be killed and the second to die in office (following Levi Eshkol).
Yitzhak Rabin was one of the three recipients of the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize. The others were Yasser Arafat and Shimon Peres. All three got the prizes for trying to make peace in the Middle East.
He died in Tel Aviv in 1995 after being assassinated. He was buried Helkat Gdolei Ha'uma in Mount Herzl in Jerusalem.
References
Other websites
1922 births
1995 deaths
Assassinated people
Burials at Mount Herzl
Former Members of Knesset
Government ministers of Israel
HaAvoda politicians
Israeli former political leaders
Israeli generals
Israeli Nobel Prize winners
Jewish Israeli politicians
Jewish military people
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Murder victims
Murders by firearm
People from Jerusalem
Prime Ministers of Israel
Time People of the Year |
General is a word with many meanings:
The military rank of General officer, also in paramilitary, etc.
The equivalent ecclesiastical position of general superior.
Of or relating to a genus.
A blue-collar worker who does many different services, often called simple a "General" or "General Employee". This is most often found in food service careers.
The corrupt leader of military regime in Capcom's Mega Man X4.
General snus is a brand of snus manufactured in Sweden by Swedish Match
General (Freeware game), a freeware strategic game developed by Russian NewGame Software
General Tire, a brand of tire owned by German tire manufacturer Continental AG
General Records, a record label
The second strongest piece in Stratego.
Basic English 850 words |
Pleasure is an emotion. It is the opposite of pain. Humans and many other mammals feel pleasure. People feel pleasure when they do something that is fun or that feels good.
Pleasure in neuroscience
Pleasure is studied in neuroscience. Neuroscientists have mapped pleasure "hotspots" in the brain. Pleasure is important for a person's mental health and well-being. The loss of pleasure is common in people with mental illnesses like depression, schizophrenia, and addiction.
Pleasure in psychology
Pleasure is studied in positive psychology. How much pleasure someone feels changes from person to person. Pleasure depends how special something is. There is no rule that says what pleasure is for every person.
Sigmund Freud wrote about the "pleasure principle" in the 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle. According to Freud, the pleasure principle is what drives people to do things that give them a feeling of immediate gratification.
Pleasure in philosophy
The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus said that people feel the most pleasure possible when they have no suffering.
Hedonism is another philosophy that is focused on pleasure. It says that pleasure is good. In Hedonism, people focus on pleasure and avoid pain.
Utilitarianism is a philosophy that focuses on pleasure. It says that morality requires that people do what has the most utility for the most people.
Related pages
Happiness
References
Emotions |
After might mean"
After (novel), a book by Francine Prose
After... (visual novel), a visual novel
After... (movie), a 2006 thriller film about urban exploration
Basic English 850 words |
A kettle is a type of pot that is used in a kitchen. It is used to make water hot or to boil water. It comes from the Latin word catillus ("deep pan or dish for cooking").
In the past, kettles were made of metal bins like copper. Kettles were put on a rack or a hook above the fire to become hot. Now, metal kettles are put on the stove or rangetop. Sometimes they are made of ceramic or clay.
Now, some people have electric kettles. These kettles plug into the wall and use electricity to generate heat. They are usually plastic or metal. They heat water faster than kettles on a stove. Kettles are often used to make tea.
They are more common in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth than other places like the United States.
References
Basic English 850 words
Cooking appliances |
Nerve gas or nerve agent is the name of a family of chemical poisons. Usually people call them nerve agents (they are not always gases). They work by changing the way the nerves work in the human body. They stop messages from the brain from getting sent to the muscles and organs.
Nerve agents are organic chemicals that have phosphorus in them (organophosphates). Many organophosphates are pesticides, and have the same effects as nerve agents if people are exposed to them. However, these pesticides are not used against people as weapons like nerve agents are.
Since they are chemical weapons, nerve agents are classified as weapons of mass destruction by the United Nations according to UN Resolution 687. Since 1993, making or stockpiling them has been against international law.
Nerve agents have long-lasting effects. People who survive nerve agent poisoning almost always have chronic damage to the brain and nerves. This damage can also cause mental health problems.
How they work
Nerve agents work by blocking communication between the brain and the body. Usually, a neurotransmitter (a chemical messenger) called acetylcholine gives the signal for the muscles to tighten up. It also keeps them from relaxing. However, when it is time for the muscles to relax, an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase destroys acetylcholine, and another neurotransmitter tells the muscles to relax.
Nerve agents work by blocking acetyl-cholinesterase. Too much acetylcholine builds up, because it is not getting destroyed by acetylcholinesterase. The muscles keep getting more and more signals to tighten up. Basically, the brain loses control over the body's muscles. It cannot make the muscles relax. This leads to many of the unique signs and symptoms of nerve agent poisoning.
Acetylcholine also signals the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) to kick in. Usually, the PNS balances out with the sympathetic nervous system to maintain homeostasis. However, when there is too much acetylcholine, the two systems cannot balance, and the sympathetic nervous system does not work correctly.
Symptoms
Nerve agent poisoning causes a very unique group of signs and symptoms. Some medical providers use the acronym "SLUDGE" to remember them:
Salivation: The salivary glands make a very large amount of saliva (spit); the person will drool a lot
Lacrimation: Tears will run out of the person's eyes
Urination: As the brain loses control over the body's muscles, the person will involuntarily urinate
Defecation: For the same reason, the person will also involuntarily defecate
Gastric upset: The person will have an upset stomach
Emesis: The person will vomit
Some medical professionals use a different version of this acronym: "SLUDGE and the Killer B's." "The Killer B's" are three life-threatening symptoms:
Bradycardia: Slow heart rate (caused by over-actiity of the parasympathetic nervous system)
Bronchoconstriction: The bronchi (tubes to the lungs} get narrower, as the muscles around the airways tighten up
Bronchorrhea: Making more than 100mL of mucus per day. This can build up in the lungs or make the lungs be unable to inflate normally
As the person gets worse, they will have muscle twitches, then start having seizures and go into status epilepticus. People can die because their brain cannot control their breathing muscles, and they stop breathing.
Commonly known nerve agents
"G series" nerve gases
These nerve gases are called "G series" because they were first created by German scientists. They were all discovered and made before or during World War II.
Sarin, also called GB
Tabun, also called GA.
Soman, also called GD.
"V series" nerve gases
Nobody agrees on why these nerve gases are called "V series." Different people say the V stands for "Victory," "Venomous" (poisonous), or "Viscous" (thick liquid).
The most commonly known "V series" nerve gas, VX, was made in the 1950s by the United Kingdom's military researchers.
International law
There have been two major international laws that relate to nerve agents:
Hague Convention of 1899: This was the first agreement that made it illegal to use toxic gas as a weapon (in section IV,2.)
Geneva Protocol of 1925: This agreement was signed on June 17, 1925, and took effect on February 8, 1928. It permanently bans the use of all forms of chemical and biological warfare. The agreement was signed after World War I, where mustard gas and other chemical weapons were used. People were afraid that chemical and biological warfare could have terrible effects in any future war. The protocol was extended by the Biological Weapons Convention (1972) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993).
Related pages
Nerve agents
Chemical weapon
References |
A herbicide is a poison that kills plants. There are many kinds of herbicides, from weedkillers for gardens to Agent Orange which was used to destroy forests in the Vietnam War.
Agriculture
Chemical compounds |
Hugh Marston Hefner (April 9, 1926 – September 27, 2017) was the founder of Playboy Magazine and its Editor-in-Chief.
Birth and education
Hefner was born into a Methodist family, to Glenn Hefner, an accountant, and Grace (Swanson) Hefner, a teacher, on April 9, 1926 in Chicago, Illinois. He was raised in Woodlawn, Chicago. Hefner served in the US Army (1944 - 1946). He attended the Art Institute of Chicago (1946), the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, earning a BA in Psychology (1949), and Northwestern University, 1949.
Marriages and children
Hefner married Mildred Williams (June 25, 1949 - 1959, divorced); Kimberley Conrad (July 1, 1989 - September 2009, divorced); and Crystal Harris (December 31, 2012 - 2017, his death).
Hefner has several children. With Mildred, he has David Paul (August 30, 1955) and Christie Ann (November 8, 1952). With Kimberley, he has Cooper Bradford (September 4, 1991) and Marston Glenn (April 9, 1990).
Hefner was a distant relative of George W. Bush and John Kerry.
Career
Hefner owned a multi-million mansion called the Playboy Mansion. He was also the executive producer of Roman Polanski's 1971 movie version of Macbeth. Hefner also appeared in cameos of himself in some movies.
When nude photographs of Jayne Mansfield on the set of Promises! Promises! were published in the June 1963 issue of Playboy, Hefner was brought into Chicago city court on obscenity charges.
In 2013, Hefner announced that his youngest son, Cooper, would succeed him and eventually help run the Playboy Empire.
Hefner supported legalizing same-sex marriage. He said that a fight for gay marriage is "a fight for all our rights. Without it, we will turn back the sexual revolution and return to an earlier, puritanical time."
Hefner owned a burial plot next to Marilyn Monroe's grave in Los Angeles.
Death
Hefner died at his home in Beverly Hills, California on September 27, 2017 after suffering from a cardiac arrest and sepsis caused by respiratory failure and an e. coli infection the age of 91.
References
Other websites
Hugh M. Hefner Foundation
1926 births
2017 deaths
Actors from Chicago
American chief executives
American civil rights activists
American editors
American journalists
American LGBT rights activists
American military personnel of World War II
American movie actors
American sex industry businesspeople
American socialites
Businesspeople from Chicago
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Los Angeles
Deaths from cardiac arrest
Deaths from respiratory failure
Deaths from sepsis
Infectious disease deaths in Los Angeles
Magazine founders
Military people from Chicago
Publishers
Writers from Chicago |
Urination (peeing) is how animals and humans remove urine from their bodies. Urine is the scientific term for "pee", the liquid bodily waste filtered out of the bloodstream by kidneys and from the liquids that a person drinks. The bladder temporarily holds the waste fluid.
Urinary system |
Nyctalopia (Greek for Night blindness) is a disease of the human eyes.The eyes of people who are night-blind cannot adapt to situations where there is relatively little light; as a result, they have trouble seeing in such situations.
There are a number of conditions that can cause this; most commonly:
lack or deficiency of Vitamin A
Several genetic conditions, most notably retinitis pigmentosa
Wounds of the eye
Diseases |
Martinique is an island in the Caribbean Sea. It has an area of 1,128 km². Nearly 400,000 people live there.
Martinique was known by indigenous peoples of the Caribbean as Madiana or Madinina. It was colonized by the French in the 17th century, and they introduced racist slavery there as they spread it all around the world. France still claims to own the island today, even though there has been an independence movement.
The capital city is Fort-de-France. Other towns include Sainte-Anne and St. Pierre (which was destroyed by a volcano named Mont Pelée in 1902 and killed 30,000 people).
Martinique is well known for its zouk music. Artists such as Kassav' have made it famous over the years. Frantz Fanon, an important anti-colonial revolutionary, was born there.
The ethnic makeup of the country is: 90% African and Mixed African with anything from Chinese, East Indian or White. and 10% White, Amerindian, Chinese and East Indian.
Related pages
Guadeloupe, another French island in the Caribbean
Other websites
Martinique Tourism Authority |
PHP (PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor) is a scripting language that helps people make web pages more interactive by allowing them to do more intelligent, complex things. PHP code is run on the web server.
A website programmed with PHP can have pages that are password protected. A website with no programming cannot do this without other complex things. Standard PHP file extensions are: .php .php3 or .phtml, but a web server can be set up to use any extension.
Its structure was influenced by many languages like C, Perl, Java, C++, and even Python. It is considered to be free software by the Free Software Foundation.
History
PHP was first created by Rasmus Lerdorf in 1995. It is now developed and improved by a large team of people. Its name at first stood for Personal Home Page, but it was later changed to PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor; using its old acronym in the new name.
Example
An example Hello World program:
<?php
echo "Hello, World!";
?>
It is common to put PHP code inside a HTML document, for example:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Hello World</title>
</head>
<body>
<?= '<p>Hello World</p>'; ?>
</body>
</html>
References
Other websites
Official PHP website
PHP Tutorial for beginners
PHP Tutorial for beginners
[./Https://webtopfree.blogspot.com/2021/07/php-what-is-php-in-hindi-technology.html https://webtopfree.blogspot.com/2021/08/How-to-learn-PHP.html ] what is PHP
PHP.orgPHP tutorials for beginners
Programming languages
Web design |
A Hello world program is usually a program made by computer programmers that are new to a programming languages, or to test if the compiler for this language is working correctly. It will simply put the text Hello, World! on the screen.
One way to do the Hello World program is shown below, in the C programming language.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
printf("Hello World");
return 0;
}
On Python programming language:print("Hello World")On Pascal programming language
program helloworld;
begin
WriteLn('Hello World');
end.
On Lua programming language:print("Hello World")
On C++ programming language:#include <iostream>
int main()
{
std::cout << “Hello World” << std::endl;
return 0;
}
Other websites
helloworld.org
The Hello World Collection
codepad.org - Can compile some of the programs
Programming languages
Software |
Events and trends
The oldest pianos still in existence today are from the 1720s.
World leaders
Louis XV, King of France (king from 1715 to 1774)
Shahs of the Safavid dynasty in Persia:
Husayn, 1694–1722
Tahmasp II, 1723–1732
George I, King of Great Britain (king from 1714 to 1727)
George II, King of Great Britain (king from 1727 to 1760)
Philip V, King of Spain (king from 1700 to 1746)
References |
The 2030s (pronounced "twenty-thirties") will begin on January 1, 2030 and will end on December 31, 2039.
The decade as a whole
This decade will be called "the twenty-thirties". The Roman number will be MMXXX.
Events to happen
Voyager 2 will stop transmitting back to Earth.
January 19, 2038 - 32-bit clocks will return to 1970.
September 1, 2039 will be the 100th anniversary of Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland (the start of World War II).
References |
DarkBASIC is a programming language that is very easy to create games in so people do not need to worry about DirectX. People now use the more powerful DarkBASIC Professional.
Hello World in DarkBASIC
print "Hello, World!"
Other websites
DarkBASIC
DarkBasic - The Gaming Language
Programming languages |
The Extensible Markup Language (short XML) is a markup language like HTML but is extensible. It's created by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). XML defines rules for the construction of a document. XML adds context to the information in a document. It does not say how this should be displayed.
Some programs get information out of an XML-document. To do that, they need an API. There are many APIs for XML.
You can write a description of an XML document in a way that is useful for programmers. There are several languages for this; the best known is called DTD.
Syntax
XML uses less than (<) and greater than (>) to show tags. For example, a paragraph in HTML would be <p>.
A closing tag is a tag used to enclose the value of the tag. The tag has a slash (/) before its name. For example, </p>
A tag which is empty can be represented as an opening tag but with a slash before the >. For example, <p />
The XML specification defines a valid XML document as a well-formed XML document which also conforms to the rules of a Document Type Definition (DTD).
Languages
The following languages are based on XML.
Text
XSL-FO
DocBook
DITA
XHTML (HTML based on ALL)
TEI (Text Encoding Initiative)
NITF (News Industry Text Format)
Images
SVG (vector graphics)
X3D (3D modelling language)
Collada (Language to change informations between different 3D programs)
Earth
Geography Markup Language (GML)
GPS Exchange Format (GPX): XML for GPS informatons
Keyhole Markup Language (KML): coordinates for Google Earth
OpenImmo : XML for Houses with position informations
Multimedia
SMIL (Informations with times from multimedia)
MPEG-7 (for MPEG-7)
Laszlo (LZX)
Safety
SAML (describe and send informations about safety)
XML Signature
XML Encryption
Other
There are a lot more languages that use XML. A couple of them are:
RSS
WAP/WML
Sources
Other websites
XeML.net
W3C XML Page
Markup languages |
JavaScript is a high-level programming language that follows the ECMAScript standard. It was originally designed as a scripting language for websites but became widely adopted as a general-purpose programming language, and is currently the most popular programming language in use. JavaScript is usually found running in a web browser as interactive or automated content, ranging from popup messages and live clocks to large web applications. JavaScript is also commonly used in server-side programming through platforms like Node.js, or "embedded" in non-JavaScript applications where the base programming language lacks the high-level functionality that JavaScript offers.
Despite the similarities in name and syntax, JavaScript is not related to the programming language Java. Though the names of both languages are trademarks of Oracle Corporation, the two languages follow different design principles, and are actively developed by unrelated organizations.
Use
JavaScript is typically inserted into HTML when used on the web, either directly in the file in an HTML tag, or linked to a separate file containing the script.
JavaScript, as a full featured scripting language, can be used to provide functionality to a website. Examples include:
Using AJAX in order to load content without refreshing the website.
Changing HTML through the Document Object Model
Changing CSS
Validating inputs of forms and sending them.
Tracking users as they move throughout the website.
Frameworks
A majority of websites use what is known as a framework. Frameworks may allow programming to be easier as more predefined procedures are defined within it. Such a library is jQuery.
Beyond web browsers
JavaScript is also used outside of web browsers. As a scripting language, JavaScript can be used to define the behaviour of applications such as extensions in GNOME Shell.
In addition, there are runtime environments for running JavaScript as a server side programming language. Such an environment is Node.js.
Electron is a framework which allows graphical applications to be made with web technologies, by running on the Chromium browser and Node.js.
Syntax
A JavaScript program is made of a collection of instructions called "statements". A semicolon marks the end of a statement, and allows multiple statements to be placed on the same line. However, it is typical to write each statement on its own line to keep a program file readable.
Variables can be defined in several ways. In an older version named "ES5", variables are defined using the var keyword. In the newer versions after ES5, variables can be defined using const for constant variables and let for local variables. The value of constant variables cannot be re-declared or reassigned. Variables assigned using const or let are contained within blocks, while variables assigned using var are contained within functions.// ES5
var x = 1;
// ES6+
const y = 10;
let t = 5;
Examples
The script below prints "Example" on the screen. The lines that start with // are comments, which are used to describe the actions of the program.
function sayHi() {
let name = prompt("What's your name?");
// this name is saved to a variable
alert("Hello " + name);
// whatever the name is, the browser alerts "hello (name)"
// a variable was used (name)
}
sayHi(); // Runs the function sayHi
/* This is also a comment, but it can span multiple lines.
Like this.
*/
In the above code it says "Hello " + name
If you want to put JavaScript in your HTML, you put it between an opening <script> and closing </script> tag. These tags mean that whatever is between them is a script and not text to be put onto the web page. The script below inserts the numbers 1 through 10 at the bottom of a webpage:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<head>
<title>Example page</title>
<script> // This is the script tag
for (let counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++) {
document.body.innerHTML = document.body.innerHTML + counter + "<br>";
/*
This puts the number, then a new line element (<br>),
at the end of the web page.
*/
}
// End javascript: </script>
</head>
<body></body>
The for() loop makes whatever code is between the { and the } happen more than one time. In this case, it keeps looping until numOfTimesAround is equal to 10, then it stops. This means it equals ten. It's a bit confusing at first, but it works.
Differences between Java and Javascript
In Java, to define a variable, you have to say what type of variable it is: a number, a word, a letter, or more. In JavaScript, this is not necessary.
In JavaScript, functions are stored as variables (unlike Java). This makes the following code okay in JavaScript:
function sayHi() {
alert("Hi!");
}
sayBye = function() {
alert("Bye!");
}
sayHi();
sayBye();
JavaScript is interpreted, but Java, in most cases, must be compiled. This means that JavaScript needs to be run by another computer program (an interpreter), but finished Java can be run as its own program.
Related pages
HTML
Ajax (programming)
Java (programming language)
TypeScript
Other websites
Learn JavaScript on the Mozilla Developer Center
Mozilla's Official Documentation on JavaScript
Video - Firefox 2 and Javascript with Mozilla Corp and JavaScript creator Brendan Eich
References for Core JavaScript versions: 1.5
New in JavaScript: 1.7 , 1.6
List of JavaScript releases: versions 1.0 - 1.7
Brendan's Roadmap Updates: JavaScript 1, 2, and in between - the author's blog entry
comp.lang.javascript FAQ Official FAQ for the comp.lang.javascript Usenet group
RFC 4329, a document for the registration of media types related to ECMAScript and JavaScript. The current recommendations are "application/javascript" and "application/ecmascript", although neither is recognized by Internet Explorer.
References
Programming languages
Internet
Web design |
The World Money Fair is an international bourse of coins. A bourse is where dealers, collectors and the public to buy, sell and trade coins.
In 1970 A. M Beck founded in Muinch the "Organisation of European Coins-Bourses", "Organisation Europäischer Münzen-Börsen" (OEMB) in German. He had the idea to build up a stronger market for the collecting of coins.
Two years later the organisation organized in Basel the 1st international bourse of coins. During the time it was developed to the "World Money Fair". Today more than 40 nations are members of this organisation. In 2006, the bourse is at the 1st time in Berlin. At the start the German Secretary of State Karl Diller presented the new German 2 Euro Coin. It shows the Holstentor of Lübeck.
Money |
Autocracy is a form of government. In an autocracy, a single person has all legal and political power, and makes all decisions by himself or herself. The person who holds the power is called an autocrat.
When there is a monarch ruling a country as an absolute monarchy, this is also called an autocracy. Having an autocratic government does not mean the country is governed well or governed poorly. It is just a description on how it is set up.The two types of Autocracy are Absolute monarchy and Dictatorship
In modern times, most autocrats gain power as part of a larger nationalist, communist, or fascist movement. Once in power, they eliminate all other kinds of authority in the country, such as judges, the legislature, and political parties.
Historical examples of autocracies include: The Aztec Empire in Mesoamerica, in it, the Aztec Emperor functioned as both the sole ruler of the Empire himself, as well as of its military, he also was the religious figurehead behind the empire's aggressive foreign policy (In this time, the priesthood supported a pantheon that demanded human sacrifice, and the nobility consisted mainly of warriors who had captured many prisoners for these sacrificial rites), Eastern Han under Dong Zhuo, the Empire of Japan under Hirohito, and the Roman Empire, in 27 B.C., Augustus founded the Roman Empire following the end of the Roman Republic. Augustus officially kept the Roman Senate while effectively consolidating all of the real power and influence in himself. In recent years dictators have been called autocratic.
Related pages
De facto rule, government
Absolute monarchy
Byzantine Empire
Theocracy
Totalitarianism
References
Forms of government |
Oligarchy is a form of government. In an oligarchic system, all the power is held by a small group of people. It is usually the most powerful people who govern the state. It was used in Sparta, where the kingship alternated between three leading families.
Rule by the best
An oligarchy where the best rule is called Aristocracy.
Rule by the rich
If the richest people rule the country, this is called Plutocracy.
Other websites
Online Text: Leonard Whibley, Greek Oligarchies: Their Character and Organisation (1896), still the only full-scale treatment of oligarchy in Classical Greece.
Forms of government |
Punctuation is the name for marks used in writing text. They are to help understanding and the correct reading. These are some common punctuation marks used in English:
. is a period or full stop
, is a comma
? is a question mark
! is an exclamation mark
' is an apostrophe or single quote mark
" is a quotation mark/inverted comma
: is a colon
; is a semicolon
... is an ellipsis mark
- is a hyphen
is an en dash
is an em dash
( ) are parentheses or curved brackets
[ ] are brackets or square brackets.
There are other punctuation marks but used less often. Other languages have other marks, such as French using guillemets, « » as quotation marks.
Rules of punctuation
The use of punctuation in English can change from place to place and from time to time, for the rules in use at that location. Modern typography suggests that punctuation should only be used when there is a need. That results in less punctuation than was the case in the early 20th century.
The use of these marks is often decided by a group or organization and then written down into a style guide of format rules. Newspapers have a style guide to make their content use the same rules (for consistency).
Reasons for punctuation
One reason is obedience. If we work for an organization with a house style guide, then we use that guide.
Punctuation helps the reader understand what is meant. Consider these examples:
He did not go to town because his father was absent. This means he did go to town, and the reason was not his father's absence.
He did not go to town, because his father was absent. This means he did not go to town, and the reason for not going was that his father was absent.
In the second example, no style guide will help. The writer just has to make sure that the sentence is understood as it is written. Punctuation is there to help the reader make sense of what is written. Often it is best to change the sentence so that the meaning does not rest on a comma.
He went to town, but not because his father was away.
Because his father was away, he did not go to town.
That seems to make the meanings clear.
Period or full stop
A period (U.S.A.), full stop (U.K. and Commonwealth) or full point (typography and printing), looks like this: .
A period or stop is used to end a sentence. The period plus a space separates sentences in prose, and makes it easier to read. If they are not needed, they should not be used. So, for example, in a list format it is obvious when a section ends, therefore it does not need a full stop.
A period can show numbers that are smaller than one. With money, a period is used to show the amount of money less than one dollar.
For example: "Elizabeth bought a soda for $1.25." means that Elizabeth paid one dollar and twenty-five cents for her drink.
A period is sometimes used to show that a word has been made shorter. A word that is made shorter with a period is called an abbreviation.
For example: The words doctor or mister are often made shorter when used with a name. "Dr. Smith" is the name of a doctor whose last name is Smith, and "Mr. Banerjee" and "Mrs. Yang" are common ways of writing. However, in modern typography, plain "Mr, Mrs/Ms" or "Dr" are more common. "Mrs" is never written in full: to write "mistress" is to mean something quite different. See also capitalization.
Comma
A comma looks like this: ,
A comma has many uses. Some of these are shown below:
To separate things in a list: "cows, horses, pigs, and sheep". A comma that is used before the word and in a list is called an Oxford comma. Some people do not use Oxford commas: "cows, horses, pigs and sheep".
To separate two sentences with a conjunction: "Most birds have separate toes, but ducks' feet are webbed."
To separate parts of a sentence: "Mimi, hungry as she was, was shy to come forward and have a slice of cake."
To indicate a pause in a sentence or question: "Hallie, did you remember to feed the cat?"
In some European countries, commas are used as the -Insert number base here- point, instead of a full stop. Instead of €3.57 it would be €3,57. In an inverse to that, €17,693 (Seventeen thousand, etc.) would be €17.693.
Question mark
A question mark looks like this: ?
Question marks are used when writing a question, to make an inquiry, or to ask something.
For example:
"Hallie, have you done your homework?"
"Elizabeth said 'How are you?' to Hallie."
"Why is the sky blue?"
"Do you like apples?"
Exclamation mark
An exclamation mark looks like this: !
An exclamation mark is used to write about a suprise or emotion, or to write the words a person shouted. It can be used to make a statement stronger or more forceful.
For example:
"What a bad cat she has!"
"Jane, come here!"
"You did a good job!"
How wonderful this city is!
Don't talk, get out!
And also an exclamation mark can be used with a question mark, to make a question more forceful.
For example:
"What did you do that for?!" she said angrily.
Apostrophe
An apostrophe looks like this: '
An apostrophe has two main uses:
Ownership
An apostrophe can be used to show that something belongs to someone else.
If there is only one thing, the letter s is used after an apostrophe to show ownership.
For example:
"It was the boy's dog."
"We will go in Mimi's car."
Sometimes the letter s is not used after an apostrophe to show ownership. A word will end with just an apostrophe if there is more than one thing and the word already ends with an s.
For example:
"Father put away the girls' clothes" means that Father had to tidy up for several girls.
"Father put away the girl's clothes" means that Father tidied up for only one girl.
Contractions
An apostrophe can be used to put two small words together. Two small words that are put together with an apostrophe to make one word are called contractions. This is normal in writing about a person speaking. Spoken English often uses contractions because these words are easier to say.
For example:
Cannot can be made into the word can't.
It is can be made into the word it's, for example, "It's a nice day today."
Common mistakes when using apostrophes
Pronouns do not use an apostrophe to show that something belongs to something else. Among these are its, his, hers, theirs.
For example:
"The bird flapped its wings," not "The bird flapped it's wings."
"It is his bike," not "It is his's bike."
Plurals (words referring to more than one thing) do not need an apostrophe.
For example:
"Apples for sale," not "Apple's for sale."
Quotation marks
Quotation marks (also called quote marks or quotes for short) are used around the words that people have said, or direct speech. They are used in pairs.
For example:
Hallie said, "Mimi, please wash the dishes."
"Today," said our teacher, "is the first day of the rest of your lives."
Example:
"After recording 'Beat It', Michael Jackson went on to record several more hits".
Order of punctuation
When quotation marks sit next to periods and commas, there are two styles of punctuation. These two styles are most commonly referred to as "American" and "British"; the British one is also called "logical quotation".
Both systems have the same rules regarding question marks, exclamation points, colons, and semicolons. But they differ in how they treat full stops and commas.
In all major forms of English, question marks, exclamation marks, semicolons, and any other punctuation are placed inside or outside the closing quotation mark depending on whether they are part of the quoted material.
Did he say, "Good morning, Dave"?
No, he said, "Where are you, Dave?"
There are three major definitions of the word "gender": vernacular, sociological, and linguistic.
British practice
The style in the United Kingdom and other non-American places is called British style,
logical quotation,
or logical punctuation. it includes inside quotation marks only those punctuation marks which appeared in the original quoted material. Otherwise it places punctuation outside the closing quotation marks. Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage provides an early example of the rule: "All signs of punctuation used with words in quotation marks must be placed according to the sense."
When dealing with words-as-words, short-form works and sentence fragments, this style places periods and commas outside the quotation marks:
"Carefree", in general, means "free from care or anxiety".
The name of the song was "Gloria", which many already knew.
She said she felt "free from care and anxiety".
With direct speech, British placing depends on whether or not the quoted statement is complete or a fragment. According to the British style guide Butcher's Copy-editing, American style should be used when writing fiction. In non-fiction, some British publishers may permit placing punctuation that is not part of the person's speech inside the quotation marks but prefer that it be placed outside. Periods and commas that are part of the person's speech are permitted inside the quotation marks regardless of whether the material is fiction.
"Today," said Cinderella, "I feel free from care and anxiety." (fiction)
"Today", said the Prime Minister, "I feel free from care and anxiety." (preferred in non-fiction)
"Today I feel happy," said the woman, "carefree, and well." (regardless)
U.S. practice
In the United States, the prevailing style is called American style, whereby commas and periods are almost always placed inside closing quotation marks. This style of punctuation is common in the U.S. and to a lesser extent, Canada as well., and is the style usually recommended by The Chicago Manual of Style and most other American style guides.
When dealing with words-as-words, short-form works and sentence fragments, standard American style places periods and commas inside the quotation marks:
"Carefree," in general, means "free from care or anxiety."
The name of the song was "Gloria," which many already knew.
She said she felt "free from care and anxiety."
This style also places periods and commas inside the quotation marks when dealing with direct speech, regardless of whether the work is fiction or non-fiction:
"Today," said Cinderella, "I feel free from care and anxiety." (fiction)
"Today," said the Prime Minister, "I feel free from care and anxiety." (non-fiction)
Ending the sentence
In both major styles, regardless of placement, only one end mark (?, !, or .) can end a sentence. Only the period, however, may not end a quoted sentence when it does not also end the enclosing sentence, except for literal text:
"Hello, world," she said. (American style)
"Hello, world", she said. (British non-fiction)
She said, "Hello, world." (both styles)
"Hello, world!" she exclaimed. (both styles)
"Is anybody out there?" she asked into the void. (both styles)
Colon
This is a colon: :
Colons can be used at the beginning of a list. "This is a list of animals: birds, cats, insects, pigs, and sheep.".
Colons can be used to replace a semicolon in between two parts of a sentence, but this is not common today.
Standard English usage is to have no spaces before, and one space after a colon.
Semicolon
A semicolon looks like this: ;
A semicolon has only two uses. First, to connect two independent clauses into a single sentence. For example:
"I could tell that it was getting late; it was growing darker by the second."
The second use of a semicolon is to separate items in a series when the items contain parenthetical elements within themselves. For example:
"The following crewmembers were on the bridge: James T. Kirk, captain of the
Enterprise; Mr. Spock, first science officer; Mr. Sulu, helmsman; Mr. Scott,
engineer; and Dr. McCoy, chief medical officer."
A semicolon is also used with a conjunctive adverb when joining two clauses. In reality, this is the same as the first rule, but it looks different enough to sometimes cause concern.
For example:
"huzaifa, context in which all life exists; consequently, it is more than a political issue."
Ellipsis
An ellipsis is a mark that looks like this: ...
It is used to show where words have been omitted when writing what a person said. It can also be used to show that there is more to be said but the person stopped at that point.
For example:
... one day all Americans will live peacefully throughout the world ... they will be at peace with all other world inhabitants ...
So much more could be said ...
Hyphen
A hyphen looks like this: -. Hyphens have many uses in writing:
Some words can have a hyphen added to change the meaning. For example, re-form means "start again" but reform means "change". A re-formed group is different from a reformed group.
A hyphen is used to spell out some numbers (thirty-two, forty-nine, eighty-six).
When a name for a material such as "stainless steel" is used with a word for a thing made of that material, a hyphen is used, as in "stainless-steel knife".
Some words have letters at the beginning, or prefixes, these can sometimes use hyphens: un-American, anti-pollution, non-proliferation
When spelling out a word: H-Y-P-H-E-N
In some cases, when putting two words together would be hard to understand. For example, if something is like a shell, writing it as "shelllike" is hard to read with so many uses of the letter 'l'. It is better to use "shell-like."
When writing words that someone has spoken when that person has difficulty speaking, as in: "I reached for the w-w-w-watering can." This is called a stammer.
When adding words that already have a hyphen. For example: two to year-old as in: "He was a two- or three-year-old dog."
If a word for a person (a name or proper noun) is used with another name, a hyphen is used such as "the Merriam-Webster dictionary" or "the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact."
Some people take a name from the family names of both parents, or from the last name of their father and spouse. For example: "John Rees-Williams". This is not always the case, for example: "Hillary Rodham Clinton".
A hyphen is also used when a word is too long to fit in one row of writing. This is often done in books, magazines and newspapers to save space and paper. A long word is broken into two parts, of nearly the same length, with a hyphen at the end of the first part. The normal way is to make the first part of the word as much like a complete word as possible. For example:
References
Bibliography
Trusse, Lynne 2003. Eats, shoots, and leaves. Profile Books.
Carey G.V. 1946. Mind the stop: a brief guide to punctuation with a note on proof-correction. Cambridge University Press, |
Land can mean some territory, forming part of a country. Roughly 22% of the surface of Earth is land, while the rest is covered with water. Land can have different types of soil; it may be covered with stones, sand, dirt, etc. Sometimes it is not clear where land ends and a body of water begins.
Related pages
Geology
Landscape
Land (economics)
Other websites
Conserving Land for People
References
Basic English 850 words
Earth
Geology
Geography
Navigation |
A surface is the outer part of something. Most surfaces have a width and a length, but no depth.
Surfaces are studied in geometry.
Examples of Surfaces
An apple has a skin on its surface.
People live on the Earth's surface.
A piece of metal is put in red paint. The metal is taken out of the paint. After, the outside of the piece of metal is red. The parts of the metal that are now red are called the surface of the object.
Boats move on the surface of the sea.
Small insects can walk on the surface of the water, because of surface tension.
Notes
Geography |
Sexual slavery is a special case of slavery or forced labour. Sexual slaves are like normal slaves, except for the following:
They may have been forced into prostitution;
The people are slaves, forced to do non-sexual labour. However, sexual relations with the slaves may be permitted, or even common;
They may be forced into sexual slavery with only one master. Often the fact that they really are slaves is hidden through marriages.
This term is also used by the Vienna Declaration for the women's rights and by the name of humanitarian international law.
Sex industry
Modern-day slavery |
Here is a list of currently existing top-level domains (TLDs).
References
Other websites
IANA's information on TLDs
The Internet Domain Survey
Computer-related lists
Country codes |
Events
The Congress of the United States signs a treaty to end the American Revolutionary War.
The Methodist Church is started by John Wesley.
Births
October 13 – King Ferdinand VII of Spain
November 24 – Zachary Taylor, 12th President of the United States
Deaths
August 28 – Junípero Serra, Spanish missionary
December 26 – Seth Warner, American Revolutionary War leader |
The following is a list of Atlantic hurricane seasons. All began on June 1 in their respective years. They ended on November 30. These dates are when tropical cyclones usually form in the Atlantic Ocean.
The Atlantic hurricane season is the time of year that hurricanes form in the northern Atlantic Ocean. The season starts on June 1 and ends November 30. There is an average of ten tropical storms, six hurricanes, and two or three major hurricanes in the Atlantic.
The National Hurricane Center helps watch for hurricanes in the northern Atlantic and makes forecasts about were the storms will go.
Before 1800s
Before 1600
17th century
18th century
1800s
1800–1809
1810–1819
1820–1829
1830–1839
1840–1849
1850–1859
1860–1869
1870
1871–1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900s
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000s
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
Related pages
List of Pacific hurricane seasons
Weather lists |
The following is a list of Pacific hurricane seasons. They all began on May 15 in the eastern Pacific and June 1 in the central Pacific in their respective years. There, they end on November 30. These dates are when tropical cyclones usually form in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
Before the satellite age started in the 1960s, data on east Pacific hurricanes is extremely unreliable. Most east Pacific storms are of no threat to land.
1900s
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000s
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Related articles
List of Atlantic hurricane seasons
List of Pacific typhoon seasons
Weather lists |
The 1963 Atlantic hurricane season started on June 1, 1963, and ended in November 30, 1963.
The most famous hurricane of the season was Hurricane Flora. It was one of the most deadly. It killed 7,200 people in Haiti and Cuba.
Storms
Hurricane Arlene
A group of clouds in the central Atlantic became a tropical storm on July 31. It went to the west and it became a hurricane on August 2. The hurricane quickly became a category 2 hurricane with 100 mph (160 km/h) winds. Arlene got to Bermuda on August 9. Afterwards it got wind speeds of 100 mph (160 km/h) again that night. It got weaker until it left the tropics on August 11. No one died from it.
Hurricane Beulah
Before Hurricane Beulah there was a tropical wave moving in the tropical Atlantic. It was put together enough to be called a tropical depression on August 20, and it became strong enough to be called a tropical storm the next day. Beulah moved to the northwest, becoming a hurricane on the 22nd and a big hurricane on the 24th. The hurricane moved to the north.
Tropical Storm Three
A weak storm north of Puerto Rico moved northeast. It became a tropical depression on September 10. It became a tropical storm on the 11th. This small storm had 60 mph (100 km/h) winds on the 12th. That was the fastest the winds would become.
Hurricane Cindy
Over the Gulf of Mexico Cindy turned into a tropical storm on September 16. Cindy turned into a hurricane the next day. It did not become any stronger before it got to High Island, Texas. Cindy brought a lot of rain to southeast Texas as it moved to the southwest over the state. The hurricane weakened on the 20th, after causing $12.5 million (1963 dollars) in damage. It killed three people.
Hurricane Debra
On September 19, a tropical wave became a tropical depression in the Atlantic Ocean. It turned into a tropical storm on the 21st. It did not hit the islands as it moved north. Debra became a hurricane later on the 21st.
Hurricane Edith
The Intertropical Convergence Zone developed a tropical depression on September 23, east of the Lesser Antilles. It moved west and it became a hurricane on the 24th. It went through the Windward Islands on the 25th as a hurricane with 95 mph (140 km/h) winds. Upper-level winds made it stay as a minimal hurricane before it got to Dominican Republic on the 27th. The island killed the hurricane. Edith was gone by the 29th. Edith killed ten people in Martinique, injured 50 people across the Caribbean, and caused $47 million in damage. It was unlucky that Hurricane Flora came just days later.
Hurricane Flora
Hurricane Flora was the deadliest hurricane of the season. It killed over 7,000 people and created hundreds of millions of dollars in damage.
Hurricane Ginny
Ginny was strange. It is one of the most recent hurricanes to make landfall near New England. It made 18 inches (50 cm) of snow over Maine. The hurricane killed 7 people and created $300,000 in damage (1963 dollars).
Tropical Storm Helena
Tropical Storm Helena formed on October 25. It reached its maximum of 50 mph (80 km/h) before it hit the Lesser Antilles. Helena's strength changed a lot for the next 3 days. Though it was weak, Helena was able to kill 5 people and create $500,000 in damage.
1963 storm names
The following names were used for tropical storms and hurricanes that formed in Atlantic in 1963. Names that were not used are marked in gray.
Retirement
The name Flora was never used again.
Related pages
List of Atlantic hurricane seasons
Atlantic hurricane seasons
Atlantic hurricane season |
Sildenafil is an aphrodisiac. It is a medication that is also called Viagra, Revatio and (in the Indian subcontinent) Caverta.
Sildenafil makes the blood vessels become wider. This lowers the blood pressure. Sildenafil mostly works in the penis and in the lungs. This medicine increases blood flow to the penis. This helps the penis become erect during sexual intercourse. Sildenafil also helps pulmonary hypertension. Because this medicine makes the blood vessels wider, it makes it easier for blood to flow. Sildenafil was patented in 1996 and first made to sell in 1998.
Related pages
Adverse effect
References
Human sexuality
Pharmacology |
Events
January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies and is succeeded by his son Francis I of the Two Sicilies.
February 12 – The Creek cede the last of their lands in Georgia to the United States government, and migrate west
March 4 – John Quincy Adams officially succeeds James Monroe as President of the United States.
July 6 – The Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sønderborg-Beck gains possession of Glücksburg and changes his title to Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. The line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg later became the Royal House of Greece, Denmark and Norway.
July 30 – Malden Island (an uninhabited island in the central Pacific Ocean) discovered.
August 6 – Bolivia gains independence from Peru as a republic with the instigation of Simón Bolívar
August 25 – Uruguay declares independence from Brazil (See Uruguay's independence)
September 27 – The world's first modern railway, the Stockton and Darlington Railway opens in England.
October 26 – The Erie Canal opens – passage from Albany, New York to Lake Erie
December 1 – Nicholas I of Russia succeeds his older brother Alexander I.
Decembrist Revolt in Russia.
The first horse-drawn omnibuses established in London
First roller skates
Aluminium discovered
City of Brisbane founded – see History of Brisbane
The electromagnet was invented by William Sturgeon
Deaths
May 2 – Michail Leontievich Bulatov, Russian military |
Events
January 17 – Johann Friedrich Struensee and Queen Caroline Matilda are arrested, leading to his execution and her banishment from Denmark
July 17 – Massacre at Bloody Falls: Chipewyan chief Matonabbee traveling as the guide to Samuel Hearne on his Arctic overland journey, massacre a group of unsuspecting Inuit.
September 8 – In California, Fathers Pedro Cambon and Angel Somera found Mission San Gabriel Arcangel in what is now San Gabriel, California.
October 9 – The Dutch merchant ship Vrouw Maria sinks near the coast of Finland. Captain Raymund Lourens and his crew escape unharmed.
November 16 – During the night the Tyne floods, destroying many bridges and killing several people; the main bridge at Newcastle upon Tyne is not completed until 1781
Discovery of Oxygen.
The territory of Baden-Baden is inherited by the Margrave of Baden-Durlach, forming Baden.
Emperor Go-Momozono ascends to the throne of Japan
Plague in Moscow – 57,000 dead
The trade monopoly with Iceland is transferred to the Danish crown.
Births
April 13 – Richard Trevithick, English inventor (d. 1833)
April 18 – Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, Austrian field marshal (d. 1820)
April 27 – Jean Rapp, French general (d. 1821)
June 5 – Prince Ernest Augustus of Great Britain, King of Hanover (d. 1851)
August 14 – Sir Walter Scott, Scottish writer (d. 1832)
September 5 – Archduke Charles of Austria, Austrian general and statesman (d. 1847)
September 23 – Emperor Kokaku of Japan (d. 1840)
October 9 – Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick (d. 1815)
October 23 – Jean-Andoche Junot, French general (d. 1813)
November 14 – Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist and physiologist (d. U momma)
Deaths |
Events
The Cornish language died out
2nd edition of Encyclopædia Britannica published
January 3 – American Revolutionary War: American general George Washington defeats British general Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Princeton.
January 12 – Mission Santa Clara de Asís is founded in what is now Santa Clara, California
January 16 – Vermont declares its independence from New York becoming an independent country, a status it retained until it joined the United States as the 14th state in 1791
June 13 – American Revolutionary War: Marquis de Lafayette lands near Charleston, South Carolina to help the Continental Congress train its army.
June 14 – Stars and Stripes adopted by the Continental Congress as the Flag of the United States.
August 16 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Bennington – British forces are defeated by American troops.
September 3 – Cooch's Bridge – Skirmish of American Revolutionary war in New Castle County, Delaware where the Flag of the United States was flown in battle for the first time.
September 11 – Battle of Brandywine – Major American Revolutionary war victory for British in Chester County, Pennsylvania.
September 19 – American Revolutionary War: First Battle of Saratoga/Battle of Freeman's Farm/Battle of Bemis Heights.
October 4 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Germantown– Troops under George Washington are repelled by British troops under Sir William Howe.
October 17 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Saratoga– American troops defeat the British.
November 15 – American Revolutionary War: After 16 months of debate, the Continental Congress approves the Articles of Confederation in the temporary American capital at York, Pennsylvania.
November 17 – Articles of Confederation submitted to the states for ratification.
November 29 – San Jose, California founded. It is the first pueblo in Spanish Alta California.
December 24 – Kiritimati discovered by James Cook
The code duello is adopted at the Clonmell Summer Assizes as the form for pistol duels in Ireland. It is quickly denounced but nevertheless widely adopted throughout the English-speaking world. |
Events
January 2 – The United Kingdom captures Calcutta, India.
March 14 – On board the HMS Monarch, Royal Navy Admiral John Byng is executed by firing squad for breach of the Articles of War.
May 6 – Battle of Prague – Frederick the Great defeats an Austrian army and begins to besiege the city.
June 18 – Battle of Kolin – Frederick is defeated by an Austrian army under Marshal Daun, forcing him to evacuate Bohemia.
June 23 – Battle of Plassey – 3000 British troops under Robert Clive defeat a 50,000 strong Indian army under Siraj-ud-Dawlah at Plassey.
July 26 – Battle of Hastenbeck – An Anglo-Hanoverian army under the Duke of Cumberland is defeated by the French under Louis d'Estrées and forced out of Hanover.
July 30 – Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf – A Prussian army under Hans von Lehwald is defeated by the Russian army of Marshal Stepan Apraksin.
October 16 – Austrian raiders plunder Berlin.
October 30 – Osman III dies and is succeeded as Ottoman Sultan by Mustafa III.
November 5 – Battle of Rossbach. Frederick defeats the French-Imperial army under the Duc de Soubise and Prince Joseph of Saxe-Hildburghausen, forcing the French to withdraw from Saxony.
November 22 – Battle of Breslau – An Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine defeats the Prussian army of Wilhelm of Brunswick-Bevern and forces the Austrians behind the Oder.
December 6 – Battle of Leuthen – Frederick defeats Prince Charles's Austrian army.
Deaths |
Year 4 BC was a common year starting on Tuesday or Wednesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Sabinus and Rufus.
Events
Herod Archelaus becomes the ruler of Judea. Herod Antipas rules Galilee and Perea.
Publius Quintilius Varus leads Roman legions to Jerusalem to restore order. He crucifies 2,000 Jewish rebels.
Births
Jesus (possible)
Deaths
Herod the Great (b. 73 BC)
Marcus Tullius Tiro, freedman of Cicero |
Percy James Patrick Kent-Smith or Sylvester McCoy (born 20 August 1943) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for playing the seventh incarnation of the Doctor on Doctor Who from 1987–1989, he also briefly played the Doctor in beginning of the 1996 TV movie.
Other websites
1943 births
Living people
Scottish movie actors
Scottish stage actors
Scottish television actors |
Paul McGann (born 14 November 1959) is an English actor. He is best known for his roles in Withnail and I (1987) and as the Eighth Doctor in the 1996 Doctor Who television movie.
English movie actors
English television actors
1959 births
Living people
English voice actors |
Georgia O’Keeffe (November 15 1887 – March 6 1986) was an American artist. She was born near Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, U.S. O'Keeffe studied art at the Art Institute of Chicago, Art Students' League, University of Virginia, Charlottesville and Teachers College.
She is mainly known for her modernist paintings. These paintings use both abstract and concrete elements.
Concrete means that objects can be recognized. For example, she painted flowers, rocks, shells, animal bones and landscapes.
Abstract means that there may be colors and forms, but nothing real can be seen in the pictures.
Family
Georgia O'Keeffe married Alfred Stieglitz in 1924. Stieglitz was a famous photographer and he helped O'Keeffe gain success in her career. He owned the first studio her art was displayed in. Georgia and Alfred evidently wrote over 25,000 love letters to each other.
Auction record
O'Keefe holds the world auction record for a painting by a woman (November 2014). Her Jimson Weed/White Flower No 1 sold for $44.4m (£28.8m) at the O'Keeffe Museum in Santa Fe, New Mexico. O'Keeffe's large-format depictions of flowers which she painted as if they had been seen in close-up.
Gallery
References
1887 births
1986 deaths
American painters
People from Wisconsin |
Genesis is an English progressive rock group. They formed in 1967. They have sold about 150 million albums all over the world. This puts them among the top 30 best-selling recording artists of all time. The group's members have included Peter Gabriel and Phil Collins. Both of them were successful as solo artists as well.
Members of the group
Over the years, Genesis has changed members more than once. The first line-up was Peter Gabriel (vocals), Anthony Phillips (guitar), Tony Banks (keyboards), Mike Rutherford (bass & guitar), and Chris Stewart (drums).
Other drummers until 1970 were John Silver and John Mayhew. In August 1970, Phil Collins began playing drums for Genesis. In some songs, he also sang. The same year Phillips left, and Steve Hackett joined as a guitarist in 1971.
The band also made a song called "Supper's Ready" which is almost 23 minutes long. Many fans call it their best because it has many different parts.
After the release of the album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974), Gabriel left the band. Collins took over the singing. He was singer for Genesis from 1976 to 1996. When Hackett also left, in 1977 there were only three members left. The 1978 album was called ...And Then There Were Three... because of this.
The band ended up making lots of well-known songs, like Abacab, Invisible Touch and No Son of Mine.
The last studio album with Collins was We Can't Dance in 1991. He left the band in 1996 and was replaced with singer Ray Wilson. Because the album Calling All Stations (1997) with Ray Wilson was not very successful, the group disbanded.
After a break of eight years, Genesis started a world tour in 2006. The members now are Phil Collins, Mike Rutherford and Tony Banks. The band disbanded again at 2011 due to Collins retiring and Collins came back from retiring at 2015.
Genesis were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2010.
Band members
Peter Gabriel – Lead vocals (1967–1975)
Tony Banks – Keyboards (1967–1998, 2006–2011)
Mike Rutherford – Bass guitars, guitars, backing vocals (1967–1998, 2006–2011)
Anthony Phillips – Guitars (1967–1970)
Chris Stewart – Drums (1967–1968)
John Silver – Drums (1968–1969)
John Mayhew – Drums (1969–1970)
Phil Collins – Drums, lead vocals, backing vocals (1970–1996, 2006–2011)
Mick Barnard – Guitars (1970–1971)
Steve Hackett – Guitars (1971–1977)
Ray Wilson – Lead vocals (1996–1998)
Nir Zidkyahu – Drums (1996–1998)
Discography
Studio albums
From Genesis to Revelation (1969)
Trespass (1970)
Nusery Cryme (1971)
Foxtot (1972)
Selling England by the Pound (1973)
The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974)
A Trick of a Tail (1976)
Wind & Wuthering (1976)
...And Then There Were Three... (1978)
Duke (1980)
Abacab (1981)
Genesis (1983)
Invisible Touch (1986)
We Can't Dance (1991)
Calling All Stations (1997)
1967 establishments in England
1960s British music groups
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
English rock bands
Musical groups established in 1967
Progressive rock bands
Surrey
Atlantic Records artists |
Deadly nightshade or belladonna (Atropa belladonna) is a well-known, hardy perennial shrub. It is a member of the nightshade family.
Originally, it grew in Europe, North Africa, and Asia. It has also been seen in North America, but is far less common there. Usually it grows in the shade. The plant does not like direct sunlight. Often it grows in places where the soil is rich in limestone.
Belladonna is poisonous
Most parts of the plant are known to be very poisonous. Children have died from eating as few as three berries. One leaf contains enough poison to kill an adult. The root usually contains the most poison.
The poison present in the plant is called atropine.
Effects of the poison
The effects of atropine are dilated (big) pupils, hallucinations, and difficulty in seeing (the vision may not be as sharp as always, it may be difficult to focus on some object). Problems keeping upright, feeling like one is flying, and being confused are also symptoms.
The pulse of the victim grows faster and faster, and the rate at which the heart is beating will go up. Toxic reaction to atropine causes fever, delirium, stupor and rash on head, neck and upper trunk. There may be agitation, difficulty in speaking and swallowing. Coma and convulsions usually come before death.
Nightshades
Perennials |
A perennial is a plant that bears leaves and perhaps flowers every year. Some plants only bear leaves and flowers once, then they die. Such plants are called annual. Other plants live for two years. They are called biennial.
Most trees and shrubs are perennial plants. |
A shrub or bush is a category of plants. A tree usually has one stem, which at some height has branches. A shrub can have multiple stems from the bottom up. Usually, bushes do not grow as tall as trees, very often they are less than 1–2 m tall.
Very many plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.
A shrubbery is a garden with shrubs as the main feature.
Shrubs as a botanical structural form
In botany and ecology a shrub is more specifically used to describe the particular physical structural or plant life-form of woody plants which are less than 8 meters high and usually have many stems arising at or near the base.
For example, a descriptive system widely used in Australia is based on structural characteristics based on life-form, plus the height and amount of foliage cover of the tallest layer or dominant species.
For shrubs 2–8 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
dense foliage cover (70–100%) — closed-scrub
mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — open-scrub
sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — tall shrubland
very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — tall open shrubland
For shrubs less than 2 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
dense foliage cover (70–100%) — closed-heath
mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — heath
sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — low shrubland
very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — low open shrubland
References
Other websites
Selecting Shrubs for Your Home (University of Illinois Extension) |
An evergreen is a plant which keeps its leaves throughout the year. Which is Different with deciduous plants, which lose their leaves during the winter or wet seasons. There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs.
Types of plants |
Deciduous means "temporary" or "tending to fall off" (deriving from the Latin word decidere, to fall off).
When talking about plants this means that the plant loses its leaves, usually in autumn. The leaves will then grow again in spring.
When referring to teeth, it means the teeth at the front of the mouth that grow and fall out and are replaced in childhood. They are called deciduous teeth.
In botany and horticulture, deciduous plants are trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials which lose all of their leaves for part of the year. This is called abscission. Leaf loss happens in winter in temperate or polar climates.
With evergreens, foliage is shed differently from deciduous trees. They seem green year round. Plants that are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous; they lose old foliage as new growth begins. Other plants are semi-evergreen and lose their leaves before the next growing season, keeping some in winter or dry periods. Some trees, including a few species of oak, have desiccated leaves that stay on the tree through winter. These persistent dry leaves are dropped in the spring as new growth begins.
Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, as this increases the effectiveness of pollination. Not having leaves also improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants.
References
Types of plants |
A place is called in the shade when the sun is shining, and some object, a tree for example, blocks the direct sunlight. So the sunlight can not reach the spot. The dark image, which the object casts on the ground (or on another object) is called shadow, not shade.
Shade can also mean a darker or lighter color of the same base color. For example: in a picture of a tree's shadow, the grass in the shade will be a darker shade of green than the grass out of the shade.
Basic English 850 words
Optics |
A hallucination is seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling or feeling things that do not really exist. Usually people have to be awake and conscious to have hallucinations. That way, a person who sees or hears something that is not really there has a hallucination. Hallucinations are different from dreams. When people dream they are not awake. Hallucinations are also different from illusions. Illusions are based on real perceptions, which are distorted or interpreted in a wrong way.
Certain drugs can cause hallucinations. Some illegal drugs are taken because they cause hallucinations. Certain mental illnesses can also cause hallucinations. In some cases, withdrawal of a drug can also cause hallucinations. This has especially been reported by people trying to stop taking sleeping pills, or by alcoholics.
People who have hallucinations are not necessarily ill, lack of sleep can also cause hallucinations. Hallucinations just before going to sleep or just after waking up are considered normal.
What are the different types of hallucinations?
Hallucinations can affect all of a person's senses. People with the mental illness of schizophrenia may hear sounds or voices that are not really there. People with certain mental illnesses may also have hallucinations in which they see a person or thing which is not really there. People are less likely to have hallucinations in which they smell or touch something that is not really there. Certain forms of epilepsy can cause hallucinations. Finally, hallucinations can be the result of certain substances taken or of certain physical constellations. Most of the time, these substances are taken to get the hallucinations. Sometimes, (severe) lack of sleep, or high fever can lead to hallucinations brought on by such viruses as the common cold.
How many people are affected by hallucinations?
Many studies have shown hallucinatory experiences take place across the world. Several studies, one of them done as early as 1894, have reported that approximately 10% of the population experience hallucinations. A recent survey of over 13,000 people reported a much higher figure. According to the study, almost 39% of the people reported hallucinatory experiences. 27% of the people reported daytime hallucinations, mostly outside the context of illness or drug use. From this survey, hallucinations affecting smell or taste seem the most common in the general population.
What are the causes of hallucinations?
Illnesses
Diseases or illnesses
Some diseases such as brain disorders or infections may cause a person to have hallucinations. As well, an alcoholic (person who is addicted to alcohol) who stops drinking alcohol suddenly may experience a type of hallucinations called delirium tremens (or "DT's"). Some people have hallucinations if they do not sleep for a number of days, or if they do not eat for a number of days.
Chemicals or drugs
Some people have hallucinations because they purposefully or accidentally put chemicals or drugs into their bodies.
Illegal drugs
Some people use illegal drugs that cause vivid hallucinations, such as LSD ("acid") and PCP ("angel dust"). Many kinds of drugs - even legal ones - will cause hallucinations, if very large doses are taken, and it is seen as a side effect.
Legal drugs
Some legal drugs that dentists, doctors, or surgeons use cause hallucinations. The dentists, doctors, and surgeons use drugs called anaesthetics to make people not feel pain, or to make people become unconscious. But the drugs also have some other additional effects, which are called side effects, such as nausea (feeling sick) and hallucinations.
Many dentists use an anaesthetic called nitrous oxide ("laughing gas"). Inhaling large quantities of nitrous oxide can cause people to have hallucinations. Doctors and surgeons use many types of anaesthetic gases so that patients who are being operated become unconscious. When a person inhales anaesthetic gases, they may have hallucinations for several minutes, until they become unconscious.
Accidental poisoning
Some adults accidentally swallow a poisonous chemical because it is in a bottle that has the wrong label. In some cases, children swallow a poisonous chemical because they think that it is a food product or a drink. Some dangerous, poisonous chemicals which can make people very sick or even kill them also cause hallucinations.
Lack of sleep
Some people have hallucinations when they have not slept for a long time; other people have something resembling a hallucination before falling asleep. This is usually called hypnagogia. Most of the time, the people experiencing this kind of hallucinations are aware of the fact that they are not real.
References
Psychology
Health |
A shadow is a dark area on a bright surface. It is caused by something blocking a source of light. A shadow's outline, called a silhouette, will have the same shape as the object blocking the light.
Depending on the light source, or sources, a wide range of effects can be produced. A point source of light casts only a simple shadow, called an "umbra". A "penumbra" is the region in which only a portion of the light source may be blocked. If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightness or even colors. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows,
Astronomical shadows are usually sharp. This is because in space the light usually does not go through an atmosphere.
Light |
Events
June 26 – Christ's Hospital and King Edward's School, Witley created by Royal Charter
July 6 – Edward VI of England dies
July 10 – Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed Queen of England – for the next nine days
July 18 – Lord Mayor of London proclaims Queen Mary as the rightful Queen – Lady Jane Grey willingly gives up the title of queen.
August 2 – Battle of Marciano. French forces invading Italy under Marshal Blaise de Monluc are defeated by an imperial army under the Marquis of Marignano and are forced to retreat into Siena, which is besieged by the imperial forces.
August 3 – Queen Mary arrives in London
August 22 – Duke of Northumberland, supporter of Jane Grey, executed
September Protestant bishops in England are arrested and Roman Catholic bishops are restored
September 23 – The Sadians consolidate their power in Morocco by defeating the last of their enemies
October 27 – Calvinists burn Michael Servetus as a heretic in Geneva
Battle of Sievershausen – Elector Maurice of Saxony defeats the Catholic forces of Margrave Albert of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Maurice is mortally wounded.
Shanghai is fortified for the first time. |
Events
February 23 – First performance of Handel's Orlando, in London
June 9 – James Oglethorpe is granted a royal charter for the colony of Georgia.
December 7 – The original Covent Garden Theatre Royal (now the Royal Opera House) is opened
Genoa regains Corsica
139 members of the Paris Parlement are exiled by order of the King, but are eventually triumphant over the Crown, and secure their recall in December
Cobalt discovered
Births
February 22 - George Washington, first President of the United States
April 5 - Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French artist
April 13 - Frederick North, Lord North, Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782
December 6 - Warren Hastings, first Governor-General of India
Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer
Deaths
October 31 - Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia, Duke of Savoy
References |
Events
January 9 – Philip Astley stages the first modern circus (London)
May 10 – John Wilkes is imprisoned for writing an article for the North Briton severely criticizing King George III. This action provokes rioting in London
Secretary of State for colonies appointed in Britain
Massachusetts Assembly dissolved for refusing to assist collection of taxes.
Boston citizens refuse to quarter British troops
France buys Corsica from Genoa
Gurkhas conquer Nepal
First of the weekly numbers of the Encyclopædia Britannica are published; 100 are planned
James Cook's first voyage: 1768-1771
Births
12 February 1768 Francis I of Austria
Deaths
3 March 1768 Nicola Porpora |
The Sims is a video game released in 2000 . It is a life simulator that imitates real life. Sims can get jobs, have needs, and can get married. It was the third best selling computer and video game of all time (it mostly sold well on the computer).
The Sims was so successful it has created three sequels, (The Sims 2 in 2004, The Sims 3 in 2009, and The Sims 4 in 2014) along with many other spin-offs of the series.
History
The Sims was created by Will Wright, who worked at Maxis, which was owned by EA Games. It was first released in February 2000. His intention was to make an open-ended game without a set objective. This feature was the reason why it attracted so many gamers.
Gameplay
The first part of the game is to make a family, or play one of the preexisting families. Every family can have children and adults. A player can choose what they look like from many different clothes and hair styles. Each family must include at least one adult.
Each family starts with $20,000, regardless of how many sims are in the family. After the family is made, the player can move them into a lot. Some lots are empty while other lots have houses on them.
There are many different floor coverings, wall coverings and doors to choose from when building a house. After building, the player can purchase objects, such as a refrigerator, bed, or other things.
Players control the Sims in Live Mode. The main goal is to keep the Sim's eight needs up and in the green. These needs eventually go down as time goes by. If Sims have no energy, they will fall to the ground. If they are swimming and run out of energy they will drown. If they are too hungry, they will die of starvation.
Other goals include making money (called Simoleons in this game). Sims must get jobs to get more money so they can pay bills, buy new objects, and expand the house. If they do not go to work two days in a row, they will be fired. Each Sim has eight skill levels to work towards. Each skill level has 10 points. For instance, in the military job, the ultimate requirement is 10 body points. Jobs also require a certain number of friends to receive a promotion. The higher they go, the more money they make per day.
Children must go to school. If they do not keep their grades up, they will be sent to military school and will never return. They can read books to study.
Expansion packs
The Sims is well known for having many expansion packs, or smaller games that add onto the main game. The player must own the original game to buy and install these packs. The Sims has 7 official expansion packs.
Other Sims games
After it sold well on the computer, it was put on other platforms such as the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, GameCube and Xbox. The console releases are:
The Sims (Console Game)
The Sims Bustin' Out
The Urbz: Sims in the City
The Sims 2 (console Game)
These all follow a different concept. They are more objective-based rather than free-willed and have not been as popular as the original PC editions.
References
The Sims
2000 video games |
A webcam is a video camera that connects to a computer, and can let people see each other over the Internet. Most people that have webcams use them with an instant messenger to see each other at the same time. Webcams can also be used for recording videos and video blogs. The webcam can be part of a computer, mobile phone or it can be an independent device.
History
The first webcam was developed in 1991 at Cambridge University and the first commercial camera started in 1994 and was made by Logitech.
Cameras
Internet
Data input |
The y-intercept of a line on a graph is where the line touches (or intercepts) the y-axis (the numbered line going straight up).
The equation for straight lines is . "" is the -intercept.
Related pages
Algebra
Mathematics |
The Last Waltz was final concert of the Canadian/American rock group The Band. It took place on Thanksgiving (November 26) in 1976 at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco, California. It was also made into a movie by Martin Scorsese, that came out in 1978.
Other musicians who were in The Last Waltz concert were:
Ronnie Hawkins
Dr. John
Bobby Charles
Neil Young
Neil Diamond
Joni Mitchell
Paul Butterfield
Muddy Waters
Eric Clapton
Emmylou Harris
Van Morrison
Bob Dylan
Ringo Starr
Ronnie Wood
Stephen Stills
Carl Radle
1976 in music
Music in San Francisco
English-language movies
1976 in the United States
1970s in California
Movies directed by Martin Scorsese
Concerts |
Events
April – Paris is recaptured by the French
End of the Hussite Wars in Bohemia. Sigismund is accepted as King.
Alexandru I Aldea is replaced as ruler of Wallachia by Vlad II Dracul. |
1241 is a year in the 13th century.
Events
April 5 – Mongols of Golden Horde under the command of Subotai defeat feudal Polish nobility, including Knights Templar, in the battle of Liegnitz
April 27 – Mongols defeat Bela IV of Hungary in the Battle of Sajo. |
Events
The Glagolitic alphabet, devised by Cyril and Methodius, missionaries from Constantinople, is adopted in the Bulgarian Empire.
Alfred the Great captures London and renames it Lundenburgh. The boundaries between Wessex and the Danelaw are shifted.
Alfred the Great builds a small harbour called Queenhythe slightly upstream from London Bridge.
Alfred the Great mints the first halfpenny. Previous halfpennies had been pennies cut in half.
Earl Aethelred is given control of London by Alfred the Great. Alfred's sister Ethelfleda marries Aethelred.
Leo VI succeeds his stepfather Basil I as Byzantine emperor and replaces patriarch Photius with his brother Stephen I.
Khan Boris I of Bulgaria establishes the Preslav and Ohrid Literary Schools.
Charles II of France purchases peace with Vikings at Paris. |
1204 (MCCIV) was .
Events
February – Byzantine emperor Alexius IV is overthrown in a revolution, and Alexius V is proclaimed emperor.
April 12 – The Fourth Crusade take Constantinople by storm, and pillage the city for three days. End of the Fourth Crusade.
May 16 – Baldwin, Count of Flanders is crowned emperor of the Latin Empire a week after his election by the members of the Fourth Crusade.
Theodore I Lascaris flees to Nicaea after the capture of Constantinople, and establishes the Empire of Nicaea; Byzantine successor states are also established in Epirus and Trebizond.
Boniface of Montferrat, a leader of the Fourth Crusade, founds the Kingdom of Thessalonica.
The writings of French theologian Amalric of Bena are condemned by the University of Paris and Pope Innocent III.
Valdemar II, King of Denmark, is recognized as king in Norway.
Angers and Normandy are recaptured from England by Philip II of France.
The Cistercian convent of Port-Royal is established.
The district of Cham becomes subject to Bavaria.
Philip of Swabia becomes a subject of Hermann I of Thuringia.
Beaulieu Abbey founded.
Jersey enjoys self-government thanks to the division of the Duchy of Normandy.
Births
Haakon IV, King of Norway (died 1263)
Heinrich Raspe, Landgraf of Thuringia (died 1247)
Abû 'Uthmân Sa'îd Hakam al Qurashi, Ra'îs of Manûrqa (died 1282)
Deaths
January 1 – King Haakon III of Norway
February 8 – Alexius IV Angelus, Byzantine Emperor
March 31 – Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of France and England
August 11 – King Guttorm of Norway
August 14 – Minamoto no Yoriie, Japanese shogun (born 1182)
October 21 – Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester
December 13 – Maimonides, Spanish rabbi and philosopher (born 1135)
Ban Kulin – ruler of Bosnia (born 1163)
Amalric of Bena, French theologian
William de Burgh, English politician
Emeric of Hungary (born 1174)
Isaac II Angelus, Byzantine Emperor
Suleiman II of Rum
David Soslani, Prince of Ossetia |
Events
Barcelona sacked by Al-Mansur
Greenland colonized by Icelandic Viking Erik the Red (the date is according to legend but has been established as at least approximately correct – see History of Greenland)
Lady Wulfruna founded the town that later became the city of Wolverhampton
Henry the Wrangler restored as Duke of Bavaria
Rajaraja Chola I becomes the Chola Emperor and brings in another golden era of Chola Empire
Births
Emma of Normandy, Queen of England and first Queen Mother of England; mother of Edward the Confessor and aunt of William the Conqueror (died 1055) |
Events
August 9 – The Bulgars win the war with the Byzantine Empire; the latter signs a peace treaty, which is considered as the birth-date of Bulgaria
Wilfrid of York is expelled from Northumbria by Ecgfrith and retires into Sussex |
Events
May 18 – Playwright Thomas Kyd's accusations of heresy lead to an arrest warrant for Christopher Marlowe.
June 22 – Ottoman Empire defeated in Battle of Sisak, their first defeat in Europe.
July 25 – King Henry IV of France returns to Catholicism, and is recognized as King in most of France.
Outbreak of the Long War in Hungary between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans.
Mihai Viteazul becomes prince of Walachia. |
Events
Pope Innocent XIII becomes pope
Johann Sebastian Bach composes the Brandenburg Concertos
April 4 – Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
September 10 – Treaty of Nystad is signed, bringing an end to the Great Northern War
November 2 – Peter I is proclaimed Emperor of All the Russias
Births
April 19 - Roger Sherman, signer of the American Declaration of Independence (d. 1803)
Deaths
July 18 - Antoine Watteau, French painter (b. 1684)
September 2 - Kwon Sang-ha, Korean writer
September 17 - Marguerite Louise d'Orléans, Grand Duchess of Tuscany
December 13 - Alexander Selkirk, Scottish sailor (original "Robinson Crusoe") (b. 1676) |
The Vedas are the four holiest books of the by mankind to the next, perhaps over thousands of years.
Each book has four major kinds of text – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). The Vedas are written inVedic Sanskrit.
Later types of Hinduism that are very different from the types of Hinduism that follow the Vedas respect them.
The four Vedas are:
the Rigveda
the Yajurveda
the Samaveda
the Atharvaveda
Rigveda
Rigveda is the first of the four Vedas. Rigveda means a Veda of praise. This Veda has several verses (hymns). This Veda is also the oldest Hindu holy book.
Yajurveda
Yajurveda is the second of the four Vedas. Yajurveda means the Veda of the Yajus. Yajus were mantras sung during religious activities. Yajurveda is divided into two parts. The name of the first part is Black Yajurveda, called Taittiriya.The Taittirīya Upanishad is a Vedic era Sanskrit text, embedded as three chapters of the Yajurveda. It is a mukhya Upanishad, and likely composed about 6th century BC. The Taittirīya Upanishad is associated with the Taittirīya school of the Yajurveda, attributed to the pupils of sage Tittiri. The name of the second part is White Yajurveda,is called Vajasaneyi.
Samaveda
Samaveda is the third Veda of the four Vedas. Samaveda means the Veda of sacred songs. This Veda also has many hymns. They were sung by the Hindu priests and other Hindus during religious activities.
Atharvaveda
Atharvaveda is the fourth of the four Vedas. Atharvaveda means the Veda of knowledge.
The Atharvaveda holds key for the massive vedic knowledge on the sciences like medicine, sorcery and has many facts that the present generation is still trying to crack.
References
Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1996. .
Michaels, Axel. Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton University Press: 2004. .
Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press, 1957; Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. .
Walker, Benjamin Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism, (Two Volumes), Allen & Unwin, London, 1968; Praeger, New York, 1968; Munshiram Manohar Lal, New Delhi, 1983; Harper Collins, New Delhi, 1985; Rupa, New Delhi, 2005, .
Winternitz, Moriz. History of Indian Literature. Vol. 1 (of two volumes), p. 1. (Calcutta 1926)
Bibliography
.
Other websites
A translation of Rig Veda
The Vedas at sacred-texts.com
Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva
Hindu texts
Vedas |
The Prime Minister of Greenland (, lit Leader of the Government; ), officially referred to as the Premier, is the head of the Government of Greenland. The incumbent prime minister is Múte Bourup Egede of the Siumut party.
The prime minister is usually leader of the majority party in the Parliament of Greenland. Jonathan Motzfeldt became Prime Minister after home rule was granted to Greenland in 1979.
List of prime ministers of Greenland
References
Greenland |
Serbia and Montenegro (Serbian: Србија и Црна Гора, Srbija i Crna Gora, abbreviated as "SCG") was the name of the state union of Serbia and Montenegro. They used to be two separate Yugoslav republics. In 2006, they became their own countries.
It was on the west-central Balkan Peninsula, next Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia on the western sides, Hungary to the north, Romania and Bulgaria to the east, North Macedonia to the south and Albania to the southwest, with just over 200 km of coast on the Adriatic.
Serbia and Montenegro worked together in only some political areas. The states had separate economic policies and currencies (money). Although both the states now had more freedom to do as they pleased than they did as Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Montenegro was still a Sovereign State united under one government.
The people of Montenegro still wanted independence though, on 21 May 2006 they held a vote to ask the Montenegrin's whether they still wanted to stay in the union. The vote for independence won by 55.5%. On 3 June 2006 Montenegro declared independence; followed by Serbia's deceleration of independence two days later on the 5 June.
Former countries in Europe
Former federations
Former republics
1992 establishments in Europe
2006 disestablishments in Europe |
A Minister can be a Member of Parliament, or a Clergyman (person who works as a Minister in the Church). This article talks about a Minister as a Member of Parliament.
What is a minister?
A Minister is a Member of Parliament who has a special role dealing with a certain area of Government. In the British Government, there are Ministers for lots of different things, like Children, Work & Pensions and Culture, Media & Sport. There are descriptions (things that describe) of what these people do at the bottom of this page.
Ministers in the government report to the Prime Minister, who also tells them what they need to do in relation to their jobs. The Deputy Prime Minister also reports to the Prime Minister.
Other Ministers, even though they are not called Ministers, include the Foreign Secretary, and the Home Secretary.
What describes these jobs?
Minister for Children
The Minister for Children looks after children's rights - these are laws which take care of how children are treated by their parents or guardians (a guardian is someone who looks after a child when their parents are not able to), and their care in society. The job means that this Minister has a special role in the lives of all children in the UK.
Minister for Work and Pensions
This Minister looks after jobs (Employment) and money given to people who are in need (Welfare Benefits). They set the rules saying what people who have no job must do to try and get one, and how much money people who have no job or are in need, get to live on. The Minister also sets rules about what happens to people who do not do enough to find a job, or who break the law by working while they are getting Welfare Benefits.
Minister for Culture, Media and Sport
This Minister has a special role which means they promote (make popular) British Culture and Traditions. They also take care of Broadcasting laws and laws about what newspapers and television stations can and cannot do. Also, they have a duty to promote sporting activities which take place in Britain and help the government attract major sports events to Britain (the recent decision to let Britain host the Olympic Games in 2012 is an example of this).
There are a lot of other Ministers in the Government, and you can find out about them by writing to the Houses of Parliament in London. Their address is:The Houses of ParliamentWestminsterLondonSW1A 0AA'
What about other countries?
Other countries also have Ministers who, like those in Britain, deal with special things related to how people live. You can find out about them by looking at the Wikipedia in your own country.
References
Government occupations
id:Menteri#Menteri di Indonesia |
Jealousy or envy is a feeling (or emotion) people get when they want what others have. This is a negative feeling. When someone is jealous of someone else, they usually dislike the other person. These particular emotions are usually caused by a person having a certain object or quality which you desire but can not obtain. Jealousy is caused by lacking of self confidence and judging your abilities. Jealousy is not reasonable rationally.
Emotions
Seven deadly sins |
Anger is one of the basic emotions. It is an inherited response, and is common to all mammals and a number of other animals. It happens when we are threatened, offended, wronged, or denied something we really want or need.
Psychology of anger
Anger is a normal emotion. It involves a strong, uncomfortable and emotional response to a provocation. There is a sharp distinction between anger and aggression (verbal or physical, direct or indirect). Both influence each other. Anger can start aggression or increase its probability or intensity. However, it is not necessary nor sufficient for aggression.
Anger is a bit like a pressure cooker: we can only apply pressure against our anger for a certain amount of time until it explodes.
People show anger to others by their face, what they do with their body, not trying to understand or help other people's problems, and sometimes acts of aggression or force in public (e.g. punching a wall). Animals and humans might try to scare- by making loud sounds, trying to make their bodies look bigger, by showing their teeth, or by staring.
When we face a challenge, our response may be anger or fear. It may be difficult to decide whether to face the challenge, or walk away. In animal behaviour terms, we face the choice of a fight or flight response.
Hormones and body changes
Being angry changes the human body by making the heart beat faster, increasing blood pressure (the pressure made by the blood at right angles of the walls of blood vessels) and increasing amounts of the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline (chemicals which send messages to parts of the body to make changes).
Being angry makes the levels of the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline in the body go up, although this does not last for very long. Adrenaline quickly makes the body ready to act when there is important trouble by increasing the supply of oxygen and glucose (needed to make energy) to the brain and muscles, while slowing less important things the body is doing, like digesting food.
Noradrenaline is released during stress. It goes to areas of the brain which control attention (how much you think or concentrate) and reactions. It is very important when the body chooses "fight-or-flight" (attacking or running away). Then it increases heart rate, takes glucose out of storage so it can be used, and increases blood flow to muscles.
Symptoms
Anger may be passive anger or aggressive anger.
These two types of anger have some characteristic symptoms:
Passive anger
Passive anger can be expressed in various ways. Basically it means being angry, but not facing the issue at hand.
Walk away, turn one's back on a crisis, avoid conflict, not arguing back. Consequence: problem not solved, and tends to eat away at one's self-confidence.
Psychological manipulation, such as provoking people to aggression and then patronizing them, provoking aggression but staying on the sidelines, emotional blackmail, false tearfulness, feigning illness, sabotaging relationships, using sexual provocation, using a third party to convey negative feelings, withholding money or resources.
Indirect aggression, such as stockpiling resentments that are expressed behind people's backs, giving the silent treatment or under the breath mutterings, avoiding eye contact, putting people down, gossiping, anonymous complaints, poison pen letters, stealing, and conning.
Obsessive behavior, such as needing to be inordinately clean and tidy, making a habit of constantly checking things, over-dieting or overeating, demanding that all jobs be done perfectly.
Self-blame, such as apologizing too often, being overly self-critical, inviting criticism.
Aggressive anger
The symptoms of aggressive anger are:
Bullying.
Destructiveness, such as destroying objects as in vandalism, harming animals, child abuse, destroying a relationship, reckless driving, substance abuse.
Hurtfulness, such as physical violence, including sexual abuse and rape, verbal abuse, biased or vulgar jokes, breaking a confidence, using foul language, ignoring people's feelings, willfully discriminating, blaming, punishing people for unwarranted deeds, labeling others.
Selfishness, such as ignoring others' needs, not responding to requests for help, queue jumping.
Threats, such as frightening people by saying how one could harm them, their property or their prospects, finger pointing, fist shaking, wearing clothes or symbols associated with violent behaviour, tailgating, road rage, slamming doors.
Unjust blaming, such as accusing other people for one's own mistakes, blaming people for your own feelings, making general accusations.
Unpredictability, such as explosive rages over minor frustrations, attacking indiscriminately, dispensing unjust punishment, inflicting harm on others for the sake of it, using alcohol and drugs, illogical arguments.
References
Other websites
Managing and controlling anger
Is Anger Worth It? Buddhist Video Teaching
Emotions
Seven deadly sins
Basic English 850 words |
A light microscope works like a refracting telescope except that the object is very close to the objective lens. An object to be studied, for example a tiny organism so small it looks like just a dot, is put on a slide, which is usually a flat piece of glass. The clips on the microscope's flat stage hold the slide in place. The stage can be adjusted to add more light. It also moves to allow different layers of the object to be in focus. The user looks through the microscope eyepiece. A mirror at the bottom of the microscope reflects light rays up to the object through a hole in the stage. Objective lenses magnify the image which is made even larger when it is seen through the eyepiece lenses. Some light microscopes are actually digital cameras, made to photograph small things but having no eyepiece.
Many microscopes, often used in colleges and high schools, normally have a top magnification of 40x with the option of having 4x and 8x. This lets the microscope show basic cells and other items. Others can magnify hundreds of times, or thousands.
Components
All modern optical microscopes designed for viewing samples by transmitted light share the same basic components of the light path, listed here in the order the light travels through them. Also almost all microscopes have the same 'structural' components:
Ocular lens (eyepiece) (1)
Objective turret or Revolver or Revolving nose piece (to hold multiple objective lenses) (2)
Objective (3)
Focus wheel to move the stage (4 – coarse adjustment, 5 – fine adjustment)
Frame (6)
Light source, a light or a mirror (7)
Diaphragm and condenser lens (8)
Stage (to hold the sample) (9)
These entries are numbered according to the image on the right.
Alternatives
Optical microscopes cannot show things that are smaller than light waves, because of the diffraction limit. Microscopes which can see smaller things include:
Atomic force microscope (AFM)
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Scanning ion-conductance microscopy (SICM)
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM)
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Ultraviolet microscope
X-ray microscope
Other websites
Antique Microscopes.com A collection of early microscopes
Historical microscopes , an illustrated collection with more than 3000 photos of scientific microscopes by European makers
The Golub Collection, A collection of 17th through 19th Century microscopes, including extensive descriptions
Molecular Expressions, concepts in optical microscopy
Online tutorial of practical optical microscopy
OpenWetWare
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek: father of microscopy and microbiology
Microscopes |
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (Leiden, 15 July 1606 – Amsterdam, 4 October 1669) was a famous Dutch painter and artist.
He is generally considered one of the greatest painters and printmakers in European art history, and the most important in Dutch history.p420 His contributions to art came in a period that historians call the Dutch Golden Age.
After his success as a young portrait painter, he had personal tragedy and financial hardships in his later years. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, and his reputation as an artist remained high.p427 For twenty years he taught nearly every important Dutch painter.p203
Rembrandt's greatest creative work is seen in his portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible. His self-portraits are a unique biography, in which the artist surveyed himself without vanity and with the utmost sincerity.p420
Personal life
He went to the University Leiden but he liked painting better so he became a painter. In 1631 he went to live in Amsterdam, because people there had heard of him and wanted him to paint their portraits. He married a woman called Saskia van Uylenberg in 1634. They had four children, but three of them died very young. Only their fourth child, Titus, who was born in 1641, survived into adulthood. Saskia died in 1642 soon after Titus's birth, probably from tuberculosis.
During Saskia's illness, a nurse was hired, who probably also became Rembrandt's lover. She later charged Rembrandt with breach of promise and was awarded 200 guilders a year.p28 When Rembrandt learned she had pawned Saskia's jewellery, which Rembrandt had given her, he had her committed for twelve years to a poorhouse (a 'bridewell') at Gouda.
Rembrandt then lived with a young woman called Hendrickje Stoffels from Bredevoort who had been his maid. They had a daughter called Cornelia. Rembrandt died in Amsterdam on 4 October 1669.
Works
Rembrandt painted many famous pictures. The portraits use light and dark colors; people sitting in the pictures are often shown in a calm or thoughtful appearance. He was such a good painter, that many of his pictures make people feel as if they are taking part in what is happening. Paintings by Rembrandt can be seen in art galleries all over the world.
Throughout his work Rembrandt used colour which darkens as it approaches the edge of the painting, and lighter towards the center. There is always a certain person, or event, or group of people that is near the center, and they are shown to be brighter than the rest of the picture. The dark backgrounds are painted to be very interesting and important. In most of his paintings, there are deep whites and blacks which shows contrast between different parts of the work.
References
Other websites
1606 births
1669 deaths
Dutch painters
Dutch Protestants
People from Leiden
Printmakers |
Big Five are the United States's major movie production studios which also distribute their product. All of them have historic flagship production facilities near Hollywood.
All Big Five major studios (Walt Disney Pictures, Warner Bros. Pictures, Paramount Pictures, Universal Pictures, and Columbia Pictures) are parts of much larger business enterprises, with their corporate headquarters offices far from Hollywood.
The group of major studios long numbered seven, but was reduced to six with the fading from importance of MGM in the 1980s.
They became five when, on November 6, 2017 - Disney announced its deal to buy Fox for $52.4 billion.
The American major studios
Current
Majors
Universal Pictures - NBCUniversal / Comcast
Paramount Pictures - ViacomCBS
Warner Bros. Pictures - WarnerMedia / AT&T
Walt Disney Pictures / 20th Century Studios - The Walt Disney Company
Columbia Pictures / TriStar Pictures - Sony Pictures Entertainment
Mini-Majors
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer - Amazon
Lionsgate Pictures - Lions Gate Entertainment
Amblin Partners
Amblin Entertainment
DreamWorks Pictures
ErosSTX
Eros International
STXfilms
Former
Major
RKO Radio Pictures - Defunct since 1957.
United Artists - acquired by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1981.
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer - filed for bankruptcy in 2010.
20th Century Fox - bought by The Walt Disney Company in 2019 and renamed as 20th Century Studios in 2020.
Other
Embassy Pictures - sold to Coca-Cola in 1985.
Vestron Pictures - folded into Live Entertainment in 1991.
New Line Cinema - acquired in 1993 by Turner Broadcasting System; TBS merged with Time Warner in 1996.
Miramax Films - acquired in 1993 by The Walt Disney Company, Filmyard Holdings in 2010 and beIN in 2016.
Artisan Entertainment - folded into Lions Gate Entertainment in 2003.
DreamWorks Pictures - now became a label of Amblin Partners since 2015.
The Weinstein Company - filed for bankruptcy in 2018 but bought by Lantern Capital.
The European major studios
Current
Gaumont Film Company
Pinewood Studios
Nordisk Film
BBC Films
Pathé Frères
Constantin Film
SF Studios
Former
Titanus - closed down in 1964; revived as a small studio in 1970.
Sheperton Studios - sold to Pinewood Group in 2001.
Rank Organisation - bought by The Rank Group in 1996; motion picture involvement ended in 2006.
Optimum Releasing - bought by StudioCanal in 2006; later renamed as StudioCanal UK in 2011.
Movie studios |
Culinary mustard is a condiment people use when making food. It comes from the seeds of the mustard plant.
Preparation
Mustard is prepared by grinding the seeds of the Mustard plant, and mixing them with water or vinegar. Depending on which seeds are taken, and/or how much vinegar is added, the mustard may turn out hotter or less hot.
Use
Most mustard is made available as a bottled condiment and can be spread on a slice of sandwich bread, salad, vegetables, meat or squirted onto a hotdog or a potato salade the best type of salde in the world, along with ketchup, horseradish and other spices. It is often found in fast-food restaurants in the form of a small packet which the diner may open and squeeze into the dish of choice.
Related pages
Condiment
Ketchup
Spice
Condiments |
A condiment is a prepared food that is put to other food, to make the food better or taste different. It usually is in the form of a sauce or a powder. Salt and pepper are examples of well-known condiments. Ketchup, mustard, relish, mayonnaise, horseradish, soy sauce and Worcestershire sauce are also well-known condiments. |
Vinegar is a liquid containing mainly water and acetic acid and used mostly in cooking. It can be made from wine or other liquids containing alcohol, like cider or fermented fruit juices. Ethanol is oxidized from the liquid, resulting in vinegar.
Vinegar made from dates is a traditional product of the Middle East. It can also be made through the use of certain bacteria. Vinegar contains about 5% of Acetic acid. The acid makes it sour.
In cooking, it is often used as a condiment to add to salad, fish, french fries and vegetables like pickles and cabbage. It is much used in salad dressings.
The pH of vinegar depends on how much acid is in it. Apple cider vinegar is typically between pH 4.25 and 5.00 if undiluted. Distilled vinegar has a pH of around 2.4.
References
Condiments |
An insecticide is a poison made to kill insects and spiders.
Insects are very tough animals that have adapted to a great variety of settings. Therefore, the poison used to kill them is also deadly to humans. There can be great danger of eating pesticide when you have vegetables. This is why often people will rub an apple on their jumper before eating it. This adds a nice shine to the apple and rubs away some of the pesticides. If you do not clean the jumper there is a risk pesticide might build up.
Agriculture
Poisons |
Paranoia is a mental health condition that affects a person's thoughts. A person with paranoia is called paranoid. Paranoia is a thought process heavily influenced by anxiety or fear, often to the point of irrationality and delusion.
A paranoid person's thinking is shaped by fear and anxiety. For example, the person may fear that other people are "out to get them" or are planning to hurt them. They may believe that video cameras are watching them, or that a certain group (like the police or CIA) is following them. They may also believe that other people can control their thoughts or use magic to hurt them. Even if these fears seem strange or absurd to others, they feel very real to the person with paranoia. They truly believe that they are in danger.
Paranoia is different from phobias. In a phobia, someone has an irrational fear, but does not blame anyone for this fear. A paranoid person will often make false accusations and say that something was intentional, when it was just coincidence or an accident.
If a person is truly paranoid, their fears must not be explained by common beliefs, like their religion. For example, some religions say that people can use magic to hurt others. So a person from one of those religions should not be diagnosed as paranoid just because he/she has this belief. They would also have to have other paranoid beliefs - which could not be explained by religious beliefs - to be diagnosed with paranoia.
Very often, people with paranoia also have other thought disorders, or mood disorders. Paranoia can be a symptom of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and other mental illnesses.
In everyday talk, people may use "paranoid" to mean more normal worries. For example, someone may call a friend paranoid for thinking that his teacher hates him.
References
For example Nimra
Psychosis |
A delusion is a false belief held by a person. If doctors talk about delusions they mean that the false belief is the result of some disease, usually a disease of the mind, such as paranoia, schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, but not always neccesarily, delusions can come in many different forms such as political differences, economic differences such as a god complex upheld by someone who believes they are all powerful and many other types.
Delusions also have other properties, according to Karl Jaspers:
They can not change (that is they are fixed)
Those holding the belief are absolutely certain of its truth.
The beliefs may be implausible or bizarre.
Studies on psychiatric patients show that delusions vary in intensity and conviction over time, which suggests that certainty and incorrigibility are not necessary components of a delusional belief.
Delusions do not necessarily have to be false or 'incorrect inferences about external reality'. Some religious or spiritual beliefs by their nature may not be falsifiable, and hence cannot be described as false or incorrect, no matter whether the person holding these beliefs was diagnosed as delusional or not.
A doctor or psychiatrist may say that a delusion is false, because it seems to be unlikely or bizarre.Psychiatrists rarely have the time or resources to check the validity of a person’s claims; this means that some true beliefs are erroneously classified as delusional. This is known as the Martha Mitchell effect, after the wife of the attorney general who alleged that illegal activity was taking place in the White House. At the time her claims were thought to be signs of mental illness. Only after the Watergate scandal was she proved right, and sane.
Treating delusions is difficult, but in some cases antypsychotics can be used. If the delusions pose a risk to the health of the patient (if consented) or the health of others, people may also be treated against their will.
References
Psychosis |
Paganism is a term that covers a great number of spiritual and religious beliefs, and someone who follows one of these beliefs is known as a Pagan. Some of those in ancient times, who are called Pagans today, believed there was not just one god but a number of gods and goddesses. The stories from Greek mythology are famous examples from a pagan religion. Pagans usually focus on spirituality and nature, rather than on doctrines and dogma. Not all pagans are polytheists (belief in more than one god). Some of them are monotheists (belief in only one god).
The word pagan (without a capital P) is often used to describe anyone who holds religious beliefs that differ from the main world religions. A similar term is heathen. Today Pagan, with a capital P, often refers to people who follow Neo-Pagan religions that honour the Earth. The best known Neo-Pagan religion is Wicca. Another well-known neo-pagan faith is Druidism, but there are many other Neo-Pagan religions with different beliefs.
Some pagan and neo-pagan religions
Ancient Meitei paganism
Asatru
Baltic paganism
Greek religion
Dodekatheism
Celtic reconstructionist paganism
Druidism
Finnish paganism
Germanic paganism
Kemetism
Slavic paganism
Wicca
Surviving religions of earlier cultures
Enough has survived of the ancient religions of cultures from pre-modern Africa, South America, New Guinea and Japan to give us quite a clear picture. Since African slaves were taken to both South America and the United States, it is no surprise that their beliefs and practices still survive. Not, of course, as the dominant religion, but they do survive.
In a similar way, but much less well documented, are the ancient religions of other groups such as the Ainu in Japan, the tribes in New Guinea, the many tribes in Amazonia, and the fractured remnants of traditional religions in African countries.
All these groups have one thing in common: they are not part of farming revolution which happened in the Middle East, and which spread quickly to Eurasia. The religions which started there are called the religions of the book because their original beliefs were written down. Of course, writing was one of the original inventions of a settled people, one able to invest time and energy into activities which would be far more difficult for more traditional peoples.
References
Other websites
Usenet newsgroup for Pagans
The Witches Voice, a networking and education site
Religions |
Year 1578 (MDLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
January 31 – Battle of Gemblours – Spanish forces under Don John of Austria and Alexander Farnese defeat the Dutch. Don John begins to recover control of the French-speaking Southern Netherlands
August 4 – Battle of Al Kasr al Kebir – The Moroccans defeat the Portuguese. King Sebastian I of Portugal is defeated and killed in North Africa, leaving his elderly uncle, Cardinal Henry, as his heir. This initiates a succession crisis in Portugal.
October 1 – Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, succeeds Don John as Spanish Governor-General of the Netherlands.
Martin Frobisher held the first celebration of Thanksgiving by Europeans in North American at Newfoundland by the Frobisher Expedition.
Tibet – Sonam Gyrso receives from prince Atlan Khan the title of "Talaï" and becomes the third Dalai Lama.
Battle of Wenden – The Russians are defeated by the Swedes, who proceed to take Polotsk.
The Ottoman Empire conquers Abkhazia.
Sixth and so far the last outbreak of the sweating sickness in England |
1504 was a year of the Gregorian calendar, that started on a Friday.
Events
January 1 – French troops surrender Gaeta to the Spanish under Cordoba.
January 31 – France cedes Naples to Aragon.
February 29 – Christopher Columbus uses his knowledge of a lunar eclipse that night to convince Native Americans to provide him with supplies.
Michelangelo (Michelangelo Buonarroti) finishes his sculpture of David – August 8 it is erected in Florence.
Moldavia, Stephan III the Great fights against Turkey and Poland.
Baber besieges and captures Kabul.
Ferdinand II of Aragon becomes King of Naples as Ferdinand III.
Christopher Columbus return to Spain from his fourth voyage where he and his younger son, Ferdinand, explored the coast of Central America from Belize to Panama.
Aldo Manuzio publishes Demosthenes.
Grünenwald: "Crucifixion".
Voyage of Juan de la Cosa to South America.
A Funj leader, Amara Dunqas, founds the Black Sultanate (As Saltana az Zarqa) at Sennar. (History of Sudan (Coming of Islam to the Turkiyah))
Births
August 6 – Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 1574)
Giovanni Battista Giraldi, Italian writer
Deaths
November 9 – King Frederick IV of Naples
November 26 – Queen Isabella of Castile (born 1451)
Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara, Italian astronomer |
Events
George Friderich Handel becomes a British subject.
Jonathan Swift publishes Gulliver's Travels.
The city of Montevideo was established.
Mary Toft allegedly gives birth to 16 rabbits in England, later revealed to be a hoax.
The Gujin tushu jicheng, an immense Chinese encyclopedia, is printed using movable copper type.
Births
June 23 - Victor Amadeus III, King of Sardinia
April 5 - Benjamin Harrison V, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence (d. 1791)
June 3 - James Hutton, Scottish geologist (d. 1797)
June 11 - Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain, daughter of Philip V of Spain
June 20 - Louise Henriette de Bourbon, mother of Philippe Égalité (d.1759)
December 1 - Oliver Wolcott, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence
Horatio Gates, American general
Philidor, French chess player
George Wythe, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence
Deaths
August 8 - Margravine Johanna of Baden-Baden, Duchess of Orleans |
A person has courage if they do something even though they are afraid. Courage can be doing things that other people think should be scary. A person has courage if they put themself in danger to save another person (this is called mental strength). If someone has courage, it is said that they are courageous, standing up for what you believe in (also called moral strength).
For example, someone may be said to have courage if they fight a lion, or save a baby from a burning building.
Courage is the opposite of fear and can also be called bravery.
Emotions |
Events
The Great Northern War
World leaders
King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715)
King Louis XV of France (1715–1774).
Queen Anne of Great Britain (1702–1714).
King George I of Great Britain (1714–1727).
Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (1705–1711).
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1711–1740).
Husayn, Shah of Persia during the Safavid dynasty
Tsar Peter I of Russia (1682–1725).
King Philip V of Spain (1700–1746).
King Charles XII of Sweden (1697–1718).
Queen Ulrike Eleonora of Sweden (1719–1720). |
A fan or fanatic is someone who like a thing, a person, or an idea. Things that fans might like are hobbies, sports (often a team), music, a kind of movie or book, or almost anything. There are lots of kinds of fans, including science fiction fans and fans of popular music stars, like The Beatles. Fans will meet with each other to talk about and share their interest, often in large groups called conventions.
The word fanatic can also be used to talk about people who care a lot about politics, religion or their own group of people. Some fanatics can hurt other people whom they dislike, or who disagree with them.
In British English, supporter is their word for a person who likes and supports a sportsperson or a team. Many teams of some sports have thousands of supporters, for example, the football team Real Madrid. In American English, supporter is more often used to talk about people in politics. Supporters of a politician, a political party, or an idea such as a particular law may like their subject very much, but usually are not violent.
Sports
Fandom |
Formula 1 is a type of motorsport. Teams compete in a series of Grand Prix races, held in different countries around the world. Some of the most popular races are held in Monaco, Japan, Italy and Britain. The cars are very fast, reaching speeds of up to 350 kilometers per hour (220 miles per hour). The championship has been won many times by different teams like McLaren, Ferrari and Williams. Teams can consist of as many as 600 people, who all come together every race weekend, and using each of their individual expertise try to obtain the best result - a victory. The winning driver and team each get twenty-five points towards the Drivers' and Constructors' Championship. Teams consist of drivers, test drivers, a team principal, mechanics, engineers, and designers. Winning a race takes a good qualifying position, flawless strategy, perfect pitstops and a fast car. If you get the most poles (first place) then you get a trophy. This was added in 2014.
Drivers are paid huge salaries and money to risk their lives every time they step into the cockpit of the F1 car. Like all types of motor racing, the dangers associated with Formula One are great. Therefore, there are many safety measures. Drivers wear 4 layers of flameproof overalls, made of a fire resistant material called Nomex. A drivers helmet must be able to resist an 800 degree Celsius flame for at least 45 seconds, as well as big G forces. The helmets are so strong that they can be driven over by trucks with no damage being done to them. Carbon fibre is the ideal material for the bodywork of Formula One cars, as it is light and strong. Because of this, the cars are very expensive to build and repair. The design of cars differs from team to team. Each team has two entries into the championship, which means two cars to build. The current tyre suppliers are Pirelli - making sure every car has the right tyre for the differing weather conditions. Wet weather driving is considered a skill in Formula One, as the cars are harder to drive.
The body that runs Formula One, the FIA, is based in France. Although Formula One is a 'billion dollar business', a drop in viewership and attendance figures at races has prompted the FIA to make a number of rule changes in recent years. These changes are meant to make the races more interesting, so more people watch F1 on television.
Related pages
Formula One racing |
Abdullah Öcalan is the leader of Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), an influential socialist organization in Turkey. Turkey branded Abdullah Öcalan as a terrorist and has been imprisoned for the rest of his life for terrorist activities in 1999. "Öcalan" means, in Turkish, "he who takes revenge".
He was born on April 4, 1949 into a poor peasant family in the village of Ömerli, in the district of Halfeti in Şanlıurfa Province. He studied at vocational school and then pursued a course at the School of Political Science, Ankara University. He became involved in militant Maoist politics and was first arrested in 1973. In 1975 he went to Syria where he was one of the founder members of the PKK in 1978. At the First Congress in November 1978 he was elected leader.
Although the organization was named the Kurdistan Workers Party, it never became a real political party and it was not registered as one, because it would have been rejected by Turkey which did not agree with its ideology.
He left Turkey in 1979, before the military coup of September 1980, which led to the imprisonment of thousands of members and sympathisers of the organization. In 1982 the PKK decided to resume guerrilla warfare inside Turkey and in August 1984 the military wing, the Liberation Units of Kurdistan (HRK), began operations. In 1985 the political wing was renamed the National Liberation Front of Kurdistan (ERNK) and in 1986 the HRK became the Peoples Liberation Army of Kurdistan (ARGK). Öcalan's pronouncements had become increasingly moderate through the 1990s, publicly he stated his desire to move the PKK away from violence and towards a political approach.
He was forced out of his group's base in Syria, following pressure from Turkey, in November 1998. He fled to Russia and then Europe, he was arrested after arriving from Moscow at Rome's Fiumicino Airport. He was soon released while he appealed for political asylum, Italian law forbids the extradition of someone to a country where they would face a death sentence. An extradition request from Germany also collapsed amid political maneuvering. He left Italy on January 16, 1999 and returned to Russia but soon left for Greece, apparently intending to fly from there to The Hague. He was refused entry to a number of European states and instead, on February 3 the Greek authorities flew him to Nairobi, Kenya.
Imprisoned in Turkey
On February 15, 1999 Turkey succeeded in kidnapping or arresting him in Nairobi and quickly transported him to Turkey. The details of his capture remain unclear. On February 16, across Europe, Kurdish supporters responded with protests, acts of violence and terrorism. Öcalan was charged with treason in Ankara, Turkey on February 23.
Öcalan was held as the only inmate on the prison island of Imrali. He was tried before a military court on the island from May 31, 1999. The trial had six days of proceedings and he was sentenced to death on June 29. His appeal was rejected in November but the sentence was suspended while there was a review by the European Court of Human Rights. In September 2002 a Turkish court finally reduced his sentence to life imprisonment. The country had abandoned the death penalty in August 2002 as part of the process towards joining the European Union.
Since he was put in prison, Öcalan has had much more time to read and write. He has changed many of his views, and wants more peaceful solutions instead of violence. One of the authors who influenced Öcalan's changed thinking was Murray Bookchin, an American writer whose idea of "Libertarian municipalism" would lead Öcalan to develop Democratic Confederalism.
References
Other websites
Homepage dedicated to Abdullah Ocalan, including some of his works in English
BBC timeline, February 1999 - September 2002
CNN article 'The Ocalan Trial'
1949 births
Living people
Kurdish people
Turkish people
Extradition |
The Caribbean Community , or CARICOM, is a group of nations in the Caribbean Sea that have come together founded on 4 July 1973. They share their products, and they have a government to help organize the area. They are mainly together to help trade and their economies.
The full members are:
Barbados
Belize
Dominica
Grenada
Guyana
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat (a territory of the United Kingdom)
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
1973 establishments |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.