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Events Afghanistan becomes independent from Persia. February 11 – A combined French and Indian force, commanded by Coulon de Villiers, attacks British troops at Grand Pré, Nova Scotia. April 9 – The Scottish Jacobite Lord Lovat was beheaded by axe on Tower Hill, London, for high treason. May 14 – War of the Austrian Succession: First battle of Cape Finisterre. June 9 – Emperor Momozono rises to power in Japan, after Emperor Sakuramachi. Births January 15 – John Aikin, English doctor and writer (died 1822) January 19 – Johann Elert Bode, German astronomer (died 1826) January 26 – Samuel Parr, English schoolmaster (died 1825) February 19 – John "Walking" Stewart, traveller and philosopher (died 1822) February 21 – Eugenio Espejo, Ecuadorian scientist (died 1795) May 5 – Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1792) July 6 – John Paul Jones, American naval captain (died 1792) October 8 – Jean-François Rewbell, French politician (died 1807) December 12 – Anna Seward, English writer (died 1809) Deaths January 16 – Barthold Heinrich Brockes, German poet (born 1680) March 16 – Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II of Russia (born 1690) March 23 – Claude Alexandre de Bonneval, French soldier (born 1675) April 2 – Johann Jacob Dillenius, German botanist (born 1684) April 7 – Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, Prussian field marshal (born 1676) May 28 – Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French writer (born 1715) May 31 – Andrei Osterman, Russian statesman (born 1686) June – Nadir Shah, Persian leader (born 1688) June 19 – Alessandro Marcello, Italian composer (born 1669) July 9 – Giovanni Bononcini, Italian composer (born 1670) October 10 – John Potter, Archbishop of Canterbury (born c.1674) November 17 – Alain-René Le Sage, French writer (born 1668) December 2 – Vincent Bourne, English classical scholar (born 1695)
Events Ongoing Seven Years War (1756 - 1763) Births August 12 – King George IV of the United Kingdom, Prince of Wales (d. 1830) November 1 – Spencer Perceval, British politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1812) Deaths Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, German philosopher
Events The Pilgrim Fathers come to America
Events Births Deaths Montezuma II (born 1466) Pier Gerlofs Donia (bron 1480) April 6 – Raphael (b. 1483)
This is a list of the towns in Greenland that have over 1,000 people living in them (the first name is in Greenlandic, the second is in Danish): Nuuk (Godthåb) Pop. 14.501 Sisimiut (Holsteinsborg) Pop. 5.350 Ilulissat (Jakobshavn) Pop. 4.533 Qaqortoq (Julianehåb) Pop. 3.144 Aasiaat Pop. 3.100 Maniitsoq (Sukkertoppen) Pop. 2.859 Tasiilaq (Amassalik) Pop. 1.848 Paamiut (Frederikshåb) Pop. 1.817 Narsaq Pop. 1.764 Nanortalik Pop. 1.509 Uumannaq Pop. 1.366 Qasigiannguit Pop. 1.320 Upernavik Pop. 1.178 Pop. stands for population. Greenland, towns
Qaqortoq, also known by its Danish name Julianehåb, is a town in southwestern Greenland. With a population of 3,100, it is South Greenland's biggest town. It is the fourth biggest town in Greenland. The name Qaqortoq is Western Greenlandic, and it means "white". Qaqortoq also is the seat of the municipality of Qaqortoq which apart from the town itself includes three small settlements. Qaqortoq was founded by Norwegian Anders Olsen in 1775. Near Qaqortoq are the Hvalsey ruins, the most famous Norse ruins in Greenland. References "Greenland and the Arctic". By Etain O'Carroll and Mark Elliott. Lonely Planet 2005. . Other websites 'Official' Qaqortoq website (limited information in English) English version Settlements in Greenland
Sisimiut (also known by its Danish name 'Holsteinsborg') is a town in southwestern Greenland. With 5,247 people (as of 2005), it is the second biggest town in Greenland. It is 75 kilometers north of the Arctic Circle, and is Greenland's most northern year-round port which has no ice. Other websites Municipality of Sisimiut Settlements in Greenland
The Arctic Circle is one of the five major circles of latitude (imaginary lines around the Earth) that are often marked on maps of the Earth. This is the parallel of latitude that (in 2000) runs 66° 33' 39" north of the Equator. The Arctic Circle is one way to say what part of the Earth is in the Arctic. The North Pole is in the center of the Arctic Circle. Countries which are partly within the Arctic Circle are: Russia Canada Denmark (Greenland) United States of America (Alaska) Norway Sweden Finland Iceland (less than 1 square kilometre) The position of the Arctic Circle is not fixed. It directly depends on the Earth's axial tilt. The axial tilt fluctuates within a margin of 2° over a 40,000-year period, mostly due to tidal forces from the orbit of the Moon. The tilt is currently diminishing, so the Arctic Circle is drifting northwards at a speed of about per year. Related pages Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere Western Hemisphere Seasons Solstice and equinox Equator Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn Antarctic Circle Circle of latitude Lines of latitude Arctic
Kabul is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. According to a 2012 estimate, the population of the city was around 3,289,000. Ths includes Tajiks, Pashtuns, Hazaras and some other smaller ethnic groups. It is the 64th largest and the 5th fastest growing city in the world. It is 1,800 meters, or 5,900 feet above-sea-level. Kabul is over 3,500 years old. Districts The city of Kabul is inside Kabul District - a district of Kabul Province. The city is also a municipality (shārwāli) - because it is also capital of a province; That municipality is divided into 22 administrative districts called municipal districts or city districts (nāhia); These districts (are the same, or) coincide with the official Police Districts (PD). Related pages Kabul Province References
Parfait is a type of food that is eaten as a dessert. It is a French word that means perfect. Styles of Parfait Parfaits are made differently in different countries. French Parfait A common parfait is the French kind. A French parfait mixes sugar, whip cream, an egg yolk, sauce, cold fruit and frozen ice cream. French parfaits are usually served on a plate not in a glass. Japanese Parfait Japanese parfait made mainly of ice cream and fruit with a sweet ingredient. It is served in a tall glass. It is a classic on a coffee shop menu. It is one of the more popular desserts. Varieties Fruit parfait Chocolate parfait Strawberry parfait Mango parfait Banana parfait Custard pudding parfait Green tea parfait Ice cream French food
Parrots are birds of the order Psittaciformes. There are about 372 species in 86 genera. They are found in most tropical and subtropical regions. The greatest diversity of parrots is found in South America and Australasia. Parrots are intelligent birds. They have relatively large brains, they can learn, and they can use simple tools. Because some species have the ability to make sounds like human voices and have plumages with bright colors, many species are kept as pets. This includes some endangered and protected species. Parrots are very clever. Description Parrots are not very heavy, in relation to their size, and compact body with a large head and a short neck. Their beaks are short, strong and curved. The two parts of the beak are very strong and used to break fruits and seeds. The tongue is large and strong. Most parrots can fly, though many lost their powers of flight after they came to live on oceanic islands. The kakapo is an example. They have strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet (with two toes facing forward and two toes facing back) that are very useful to climb up trees. Many parrots are vividly coloured, and some are multi-coloured. The plumage of cockatoos ranges from mostly white to mostly black, with a mobile crest of feathers on the tops of their heads. Most parrots exhibit little or no sexual dimorphism. They form the most variably sized bird order in terms of length. The smallest of the parrots is the pigmy parrot (Micropsitta pusio) with an adult weight of and a length of . With a length (from the top of its head to the tip of its long pointed tail) of about , the hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) is longer than any other species of parrot, although half that length is tail. Behavior The most important components of most parrots' diets are seeds, fruits like nuts, buds and other plant material. A few species sometimes eat animals and carrion (dead animal carcasses), while the lories and lorikeets are specialised for feeding on floral nectar and soft fruits. Almost all parrots nest in tree hollows, and lay white eggs from which hatch altricial (helpless) young. Parrots are among the most intelligent birds, as are the crow family: ravens, crows, jays and magpies, and the ability of some species to make sounds like human voices enhances their popularity as pets. Conservation The capture of wild parrots for the pet trade, as well as hunting, habitat loss and competition from invasive species, has diminished wild populations, with parrots being subjected to more exploitation than any other group of birds. Measures taken to conserve the habitats of some high-profile species have also protected many of the less charismatic species living in the same ecosystems. Some parrots can live up to 80 years. Many parrots can imitate human speech; they can speak simple words if repeated a few times. Origins and evolution Transposons in the genomes of passerines and parrots are similar, but those in the genomes of other birds are not. This is strong evidence that parrots are the sister group of passerines. Europe is the origin of the first presumed parrot fossils, which date from about 50 million years ago (mya). The climate there and then was tropical. Several fairly complete skeletons of parrot-like birds have been found in England and Germany. On the whole it seems likely that these are not direct ancestors of the modern parrots, but related lineages which evolved in the northern hemisphere, and which have since died out. The earliest records of modern parrots date to about 23–20 mya and are also from Europe. Subsequently, the fossil record—again mainly from Europe—consists of bones clearly recognisable as belonging to parrots of modern type. The southern hemisphere does not have nearly as rich a fossil record for this period as the northern, and contains no known parrot-like remains earlier than the early to middle Miocene, around 20 mya. The first unambiguous parrot fossil (as opposed to a parrot-like one) is found in the Miocene. It is an upper jaw, identical that of modern cockatoos. Related pages True parrots Lovebird References Other websites Animal Diversity Web - Psittaciformes - parrots ITIS Report - Psittaciformes Tree of Life - Psittaciformes World Birds Taxonomic List - Psittaciformes
Angel Cake is also the name of a doll in the Strawberry Shortcake series. Angel food cake is an example of cake that became popular in the United States in the 19th century. It is also called angel cake. It is very light and fluffy. Because of this, it is named Angel cake because it is said to be "food for the angels." Angel food cake needs the egg whites to be whipped until they are stiff, and carefully folded into the other ingredients. For this method of "leavening" to work well, it is helpful to have flour that has been made of softer wheat. This causes angel food cake to have a very light texture and taste. Angel food cake should be cut with a serrated knife, as a solid blade tends to compress the cake rather than cut it. Some people like to add aromatic spices to angel food cake. References Other websites Cakes
A wrench (or spanner) is a tool used to provide grip and turn nuts and bolts, and similarly shaped objects. In British English, spanner is the standard term. The most common shapes are called open-ended spanner and ring spanner. The term wrench is generally used for tools that turn non-fastening devices (e.g. tap wrench and pipe wrench), or may be used for a monkey wrench – an adjustable spanner. What a wrench or spanner does is to grip. Pulling or pushing the handle to rotate gives mechanical advantage. It applies torque to turn objects – usually rotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts – or keep them from turning. Adjustable wrenches An adjustable spanner, or adjustable wrench, or crescent wrench in American English, is a tool. It may move its jaw to rotate nuts or bolts of different sizes. It was invented by Edwin Beard Budding (1795–1846), who also invented the lawnmower. tools
Salman Rushdie ( Nastaliq: ; born 19 June 1947) known as Mallun Rushdie in the Islamic world, is a novelist and essayist. He is the author of Midnight's Children (1981), which won the Booker Prize. It later won the "Booker of Bookers". Rushdie was born in India, but was sent to England to go to private school. He has lived in the United States since 2000. Salman Rushdie is well known for writing stories which use "magic realism", which is similar to surrealism. This means that things in his stories happen which may be magic or impossible, such as falling from an aeroplane and floating down as gently as paper. He often writes about India, and his stories often are set in different parts of the world. Fiction In 1988, Rushdie wrote a book called The Satanic Verses. The book included a fictional story about some characters with a made-up religion. Some people have said that it insults Muhammad, but others disagree. Rushdie said about the story: "his Prophet was not called Muhammad, lived in a city not called Mecca, and created a religion not (or not quite) called Islam. And he appeared only in the dream sequences of a man being driven insane by his loss of faith.". Because of this book, a fatwa was issued by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini of Iran. It called for Rushdie's execution. Controversy The leader of the country of Iran talked on the radio about Rushdie. He said that Rushdie did not believe in Islam and that Rushdie should be executed because he thought the book was bad. This is called a fatwa. In the year 1989, the British government began protecting Rushdie. He says he has always been an atheist, but is still interested in religion. Rushdie was knighted for services to literature in the Queen's Birthday Honours on 16 June 2007. Many nations with Muslim majorities were not happy with this. Pakistan's Religious Affairs Minister Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq said the knighthood was wrong. Then the Prime Minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto said this was not the way Pakistan thought. Their fathers Zia-ul-Haq and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto were in Rushdie's novel Shame. The BBC said that "In 1998, the Iranian Government gave a public commitment it would not carry out the death sentence against Mr Rushdie", but some people such as "Iranian hardliners" don't agree. Personal life He has been married four times. His last marriage was to actress and model Padma Lakshmi; they divorced in 2007. Writing by Salman Rushdie Fiction Grimus Midnight's Children Shame The Satanic Verses Haroun and the Sea of Stories East, West The Moor's Last Sigh The Ground Beneath Her Feet Fury Shalimar the Clown The Enchantress of Florence Luka and the Fire of Life Je Moeder Nonfiction The Jaguar Smile: A Nicaraguan Journey Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981-1991 Step Across This Line: Collected Nonfiction 1992-2002 Plays Haroun and the Sea of Stories (with Tim Supple and David Tushingham) Midnight's Children (with Tim Supple and Simon Reade) Screenplay Midnight's Children Anthologies Mirrorwork: 50 Years of Indian Writing, 1947-1997 (coeditor) Best American Short Stories 2008 (coeditor) Gallery References Other websites Contemporary writers: Salman Rushdie. British Council: Arts. Retrieved December 17, 2006. The Rushdie Experiment conducted in Tehran, Iran, in October/November 2006 to see if he has outlasted public hatred of him Long interview with Rushdie in which he provides context for the fatwa and reflects on the rise of Islamic fundamentalism Interview with Rushdie for Princeton Report on Knowledge about storytelling, freedom of expression and the 2004 US presidential election. Rushdie to teach at Emory New York Times special feature on Rushdie, 1999 The Rushdie death threat affair Rushdie timeline Summaries of all his novels and links to interviews with Rushdie Booker Prize winners English novelists English essayists Indian novelists Indian essayists Royal Society of Literature 1947 births Living people
Lilo & Stitch is a 2002 animated movie, released by Walt Disney Pictures and produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation. on June 21, 2002. The 41st animated movie in the Disney animated features canon, it was written by and directed by Chris Sanders and Dean DeBlois. It was the second of three Disney animated movies produced mainly at the Walt Disney Feature Animation Florida studio in Walt Disney World's Disney-MGM Studios in Orlando, Florida. The movie was rated PG for "mild sci-fi action". Lilo & Stitch was nominated for the 2002 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, which went to Hayao Miyazaki's movie, Spirited Away which also was released by Walt Disney Pictures and starred Daveigh Chase (in the English version). The movie was so popular that it started a franchise. A direct-to-video sequel, Stitch! The Movie, was made. It launched a television series, Lilo & Stitch: The Series, and a second direct-to-video sequel, Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch, was released in August 2005. A third and final television sequel, Leroy & Stitch, was released in June 2006 and ended the TV series. Another television series, an anime called Stitch!, aired in Japan from 2008 to 2011, later gaining two post-series specials in 2012 and 2015. A third TV series, a Chinese animated series called Stitch & Ai, began airing in 2017. Both the later two series took out Lilo as a main character, separating Stitch from her and putting him into different countries on Earth where he makes new friends with other human girls and becomes part of their families. The movie was released on VHS and DVD on December 3, 2002. In 2003, a 2-disc DVD version was announced to come out along with Alice in Wonderland and Pocahontas, which were released in 2004 and 2005. A 2-Disc Special Edition DVD of Lilo & Stitch was released in the UK on August 22, 2005, along with the UK release of Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch, but a release in the US was affected by many delays. On March 24, 2009, Disney finally released the special edition DVD, which is called a 2-Disc "Big Wave Edition". This new DVD has everything that the original DVD had and adds an audio commentary, a 2-hour documentary, more deleted scenes, a number of behind-the-scenes featurettes, and some games. The original DVD is no longer available, with the new one having the same list price. Plot An evil alien scientist named Dr. Jumba Jookiba creates "Experiment 626", a creature built to cause chaos and destruction. This is against the law of his planet, and he is arrested. 626 escapes the planet, flying a spaceship to Earth. On Earth, a little human girl named Lilo adopts 626 (thinking he is a dog) and names him "Stitch". Lilo lives in Hawaii, a series of islands in the United States of America. Lilo's mother and father have died in a car crash, so her older sister Nani takes care of her. Stitch at first uses Lilo to avoid being captured by the alien officials, but the they become friends when Lilo teaches Stitch how to be good. She uses music by Elvis Presley in her lessons. Stitch also learns a new phrase: "'Ohana" means family. Family means nobody gets left behind, or forgotten." Because of this, Stitch decides to go against his original purpose in order to keep his family together. The alien officials manages to find Stitch on Earth and prepare take him away, but they decide to let Stitch stay with Lilo in Hawaii after she explains that she legally purchased Stitch. Jumba and Pleakley become members of Nani, Lilo, and Stitch's family, and the movie ends with various footage and pictures of Stitch and his new family's life together. Cast Daveigh Chase as Lilo Pelekai Chris Sanders as Stitch Tia Carrere as Nani Pelekai David Ogden Stiers as Dr. Jumba Jookiba Kevin McDonald as Agent Pleakley Ving Rhames as Cobra Bubbles Zoe Caldwell as Grand Councilwoman Jason Scott Lee as David Kawena Kevin Michael Richardson as Captain Gantu Susan Hegarty as Rescue Lady Hans Zimmer as Male Officer Production An animated scene that had to be changed due to the September 11, 2001 attacks was where Stitch hijacks a Tsunami Air Boeing 747-400 and follows Gantu to the city of Honolulu. Stitch is the launched out of Tsunami Air Boeing 747-400 and lands on Gantu’s ship but he is blown off and lands on the road. Gantu is able to find Stitch by using his computer. He tries to shoot the alien but misses. A truck comes close to Stitch and he commandeers it. Stitch drives over a volcano and dumps the fuel into it. This shoots Stitch up like a rocket and he lands on Gantu’s ship. Crashes through the windshield into the cockpit, Furiously trying to pound Stitch with his fist, Grabs Gantu's hand. and throws him through the windshield onto the wing of Tsunami Air Boeing 747-400 below, Gantu tries to shoot Stitch, Stitch breaks the capsule with his head and takes Lilo out. Lilo kisses Stitch’s nose as he jumps off, When Stitch saves Lilo and they jump back onto Tsunami Air Boeing 747-400 and destroy Gantu's ship. The Tsunami Air Boeing 747-400 then crashes into the ocean near David on his surfboard. Lilo asks if he will give them all rides back to shore In the final movie, Stitch finds Jumba's spaceship and follows Gantu to the mountains and volcanoes. Reception The movie opened at #2 with $35,260,212 in its first weekend, less than $500,000 behind the movie Minority Report. In its second week, fell to #3, again behind the Steven Spielberg movie at #2. The movie made $145,794,338 in the United States and Canada, and $127,349,813 internationally, finishing with $273,144,151 in the world. Lilo & Stitch received very positive reviews from critics and movie-goers alike, and it was the most successful Walt Disney Pictures movie after the Disney Renaissance of 1989 to 1999 until Bolt a few years later. The movie's success at the box office and on DVD led to a franchise, with three direct-to-video and televisions sequels and three television series. The movie has received 139 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes, 119 positive and 20 negative, giving it a positive total rating of 86%. Soundtrack The soundtrack of the movie was released by Walt Disney Records on June 21, 2002. It, along with the movie, has more Elvis Presley songs than any of Elvis' own movies. Spin-offs On August 26, 2003, Disney released a direct-to-video sequel, Stitch! The Movie, which was made as the pilot to a TV series titled Lilo & Stitch: The Series. This series ran for 65 episodes between on September 20, 2003 and July 29, 2006. The series carried on where the movie left off and showed Lilo's efforts to capture and re-home Jumba's remaining experiments. This series ended with TV movie Leroy & Stitch, which was released on June 27, 2006. On August 2005, Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch, another direct-to-video sequel to the movie, was released. In this movie, Stitch has a glitch because his molecules were never fully charged (this is different than a deleted opening, "Stitch's trial", which was seen on the DVD release of Lilo & Stitch). Lilo wants to win the May Day hula contest like her mother did in the 1970s, but Stitch continues to have problems. Lilo thinks Stitch is not behaving right, until she finds out that Stitch is dying. In March 2008, Disney announced that it is to produce a remade version of Lilo & Stitch, called Stitch!, for the Japanese market. The show, which began in October 2008, features a Japanese girl named Yuna (formerly referred to as Hanako) in place of Lilo, and is set on a fictional island in Okinawa prefecture instead of Hawaii. The series is produced by the Japanese animation house Madhouse LTD. On October 4, 2018, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Disney would be making a live action remake. Release Dates References Other websites Official site 2002 animated movies 2002 science fiction movies Disney animated movies English-language movies Impact of the September 11 attacks Lilo & Stitch American family movies American musical movies American science fiction movies
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs is a list of the top one hundred comedy movies in American cinema. The American Film Institute presented it on June 14, 2000. The list Some Like It Hot (1959) Tootsie (1982) Dr. Strangelove (1964) Annie Hall (1977) Duck Soup (1933) Blazing Saddles (1974) MAS*H (1970) It Happened One Night (1934) The Graduate (1967) Airplane! (1980) The Producers (1968) A Night at the Opera (1935) Young Frankenstein (1974) Bringing up Baby (1938) The Philadelphia Story (1940) Singin' in the Rain (1952) The Odd Couple (1968) The General (1927) His Girl Friday (1940) The Apartment (1960) A Fish Called Wanda (1988) Adam's Rib (1949) When Harry Met Sally... (1989) Born Yesterday (1950) The Gold Rush (1925) Being There (1979) There's Something About Mary (1998) Ghostbusters (1984) This Is Spinal Tap (1984) Arsenic and Old Lace (1944) Raising Arizona (1987) The Thin Man (1934) Modern Times (1936) Groundhog Day (1993) Harvey (1950) National Lampoon's Animal House (1978) The Great Dictator (1940) City Lights (1931) Sullivan's Travels (1941) It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963) Moonstruck (1987) Big (1988) American Graffiti (1973) My Man Godfrey (1936) Harold and Maude (1972) Manhattan (1979) Shampoo (1975) A Shot in the Dark (1964) To Be or Not to Be (1942) Cat Ballou (1965) The Seven Year Itch (1955) Ninotchka (1939) Arthur (1981) The Miracle of Morgan's Creek (1944) The Lady Eve (1941) Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948) Diner (1982) It's a Gift (1934) A Day at the Races (1937) Topper (1937) What's Up, Doc? (1972) Sherlock, Jr. (1924) Beverly Hills Cop (1984) Broadcast News (1987) Horse Feathers (1932) Take the Money and Run (1969) Mrs. Doubtfire (1993) The Awful Truth (1937) Bananas (1971) Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936) Caddyshack (1980) Mr. Blandings Builds His Dream House (1948) Monkey Business (1931) Nine to Five (1980) She Done Him Wrong (1933) Victor/Victoria (1982) The Palm Beach Story (1942) Road to Morocco (1942) The Freshman (1925) Sleeper (1973) The Navigator (1924) Private Benjamin (1980) Father of the Bride (1950) Lost in America (1985) Dinner at Eight (1933) City Slickers (1991) Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982) Beetlejuice (1988) The Jerk (1979) Woman of the Year (1942) The Heartbreak Kid (1972) Ball of Fire (1941) Fargo (1996) Auntie Mame (1958) Silver Streak (1976) Sons of the Desert (1933) Bull Durham (1988) The Court Jester (1956) The Nutty Professor (1963) Good Morning, Vietnam (1987) Lists of movies American Film Institute
The Irish Sea (sometimes called the Manx Sea) is a body of water that separates Ireland and Great Britain. It is known to be one of the most polluted seas in the world including the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. The sea is important to regional trade, shipping and fishing. It is a source of power generation in the form of wind power and nuclear plants. Annual traffic between Great Britain and Ireland amounts to over 12 million passengers and of traded goods. Economics It covers and at its deepest point is deep. In 2008, about of fish were caught. Shell fish made up three quarters of this amount. The Irish Sea has 17 active oil and gas drilling platforms. It is estimated there are about 1.6 billion barrels of oil in the Barryroe oil field alone. Sealife At least thirty species of shark can be found in the Irish Sea at different times. These include the basking, thresher, blue, mako and porbeagle sharks. There are about 12 species of Dolphin, porpoise and whales in the Irish Sea. These include the common dolphin, bottlenose dolphin and the harbor porpoise. References Seas of the Atlantic Ocean Ireland Geography of the United Kingdom
A party is a social gathering primarily for celebration and recreation. Party could also mean an individual person, or group of individuals: Party (pronoun), used to identify a grammatical person: "First-party" pronoun, such as we "Second-party" pronoun, such as you "Third-party" pronoun, such as they one or more participants in the context of a legal, business, or political relationship: First party, a principal in the relationship (referring to self) or the obvious dominant principal Second party, the other principals in the relationship Third party (disambiguation), some other person or entity with some involvement (many uses across many disciplines) Party (law), a person or group of persons composing a single entity for the purposes of the law a party in politics: Political party, an organization that seeks to attain political power within a government Third party (politics), any minor party in any two-party system The Party (politics) can refer to a dominant political party in a country, often the only party (in a single party systems). For example, in reference to the Soviet Union, the Party means the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Wedding party, the bride, groom, bridesmaids, groomsmen and sometimes other participants in a wedding The members of an expedition, often armed. Sometimes synonymous with squad; e.g.: Hunting party Scouting party Parti (a foreign spelling) may also mean: Architectural parti, the underlying idea behind a work of architecture. a foreign political party - possibly also "Partia" See articles beginning in Parti, usually foreign political parties. Media Party (film), (1984) by Govind Nihalani. "Party", a 2007 episode of The Mighty Boosh Party (Nick Swardson album), a comedy album by Nick Swardson Technology A party, in role-playing games, is a group of game characters working together for a common purpose, generally comprised of the participating player characters. Third-party developer, hardware or software developer not directly tied to the primary product that a consumer is using in the video game industry: First-party developer, a division of a console manufacturer, who develops games for the company's video game console Second-party developer, a company that is tied to, and makes games specifically for, a console manufacturer Third-party developer, a company licensed by, but not directly tied to, a console manufacturer Other The Party (disambiguation) Surprise party, a celebration that is not made known to one or more of the guests until it occurs
Hate or hatred is an emotion of very strong dislike for someone or something. It is a desire to avoid, restrict, remove, or destroy that person or thing. It is often thought the opposite of love. Hatred can also be a form of projection. Sigmund Freud said that hatred was a selfish feeling that wishes to get rid of whatever is making that person unhappy. The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology says that hate is a "deep, enduring (long-lasting), intense emotion expressing animosity, anger, and hostility towards a person, group, or object." Hatred can often cause the hate crime and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights prohibits inciting hatred by the Article 20. References Basic English 850 words Emotions
Events The Solomonid king Yekuno Amlak kills the last king of the Zagwe dynasty in Ethiopia. The Solomonids begin to rule Ethiopia, which they continue until 1974. Louis IX of France starts the Eighth Crusade by attacking Tunis. In Korea, the Sambyeolcho Rebellion begins. Births Jacob ben Asher, Spanish Rabbi (Jewish religious leader) Deaths King Louis IX of France
Dallas is a large city in the northern part of the U.S. state of Texas. It is a part of a much larger group of cities called the Metroplex, along with important cities like Arlington, Denton, Fort Worth, and Plano. The city is one of the largest in the United States. For many years, the city was known as the city in which President John F. Kennedy was killed, but that is not associated with the city as much anymore. Sports The city is home to the Dallas Cowboys, a professional American football team. The city is also home to the Dallas Stars, a hockey team in the NHL, the Texas Rangers, a baseball team in the MLB, and the Dallas Mavericks, a basketball team in the NBA. History The city of Dallas was founded in 1841 by John Neely Bryan. Over time, it grew into a large city with many companies. In 1907 Neiman Marcus set up shop , and later in 1915 Southern Methodist University opened. On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was shot dead. In 2014, ebola virus infected several people in Dallas, killing some. A nurse who got it sued the hospital. On July 7, 2016, five police officers were shot dead. Climate Dallas has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Koeppen climate classification). People Dallas has a large Mexican American and African American population. References Other websites Official city website The Handbook of Texas Online: Dallas, Texas 1840s establishments in the Republic of Texas 1841 establishments in the United States Dallas County seats in Texas
Ilulissat (population 4,000) is the third largest city in Greenland. The town is about halfway up the country's west coast, at 69 degrees north latitude, about 200 kilometers north of the Arctic Circle. Illulisat is also known by its Danish name of Jakobshavn (or Jacob's Harbour). In direct translation, Ilulissat is the Greenlandic word for 'The Icebergs'. Ilulissat is Greenland's most popular tourist place, because it is near to the beautiful Ilulissat Ice Fjord - tourism is now the town's main industry. Ilulissat was the birthplace of the great polar explorer Knud Rasmussen, and his childhood home in the center of the town is now a museum dedicated to him. History Inuit villages have been in the area of the ice fjord for at least three thousand years. The abandoned settlement of Sermermiut two kilometers south of the modern town of Ilulissat was once amongst the largest settlements in Greenland, with around 250 residents. The modern town was founded in 1741 by a missionary and a trader of fur, who had built a trading lodge in the area. Ilulissat ice fjord The Ilulissat fjord goes west 40 kilometers from the Greenland icecap to Disko Bay, close to Ilulissat town. At its eastern end is the Jakobshavn Isbrae Glacier, the most productive glacier in the Northern Hemisphere. The glacier flows at a rate of 20-35 metres per day, resulting in around 20 billion tons of icebergs breaking off and leaving the fjord every year. On breaking up the icebergs come out into the open sea and at first, they travel north with ocean currents. Soon, they start turning south and they go into the Atlantic Ocean. The Ilulissat Icefjord was made a United Nations World Heritage Site in 2004. Transportation Air Greenland has air services to Ilulissat. Related pages List of towns in Greenland Other websites Ilulissat tourist information site Settlements in Greenland
The genus Pan is made up of two living species: the chimpanzee and the bonobo. Taxonomically, these two ape species are called panins; however, both species are more commonly called chimpanzees or chimps. Together with gorillas, orangutans and humans, they are part of the family Hominidae. Taxonomy Genus Pan: Chimpanzees Common chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes Bonobo or Pygmy chimpanzee, Pan paniscus Habitat The common chimpanzee lives in West and Central Africa. The bonobo lives in the rain forests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The two species are on opposite sides of the Congo River. Life and description Chimpanzees mainly eat fruit, leaves, flowers, seeds, bark, honey, insects, bird eggs, and meat. They spend a lot of time with other chimpanzees from their group, acting up, playing, and chatting. Sometimes they will groom each other; combing and looking through each other's thick fur; picking out the dirt and insects. Grooming helps chimps feel comfortable and friendly. Chimpanzees can walk on two feet, but they prefer to move about on all four legs. On the ground, they walk on their hind feet and knuckles. They have hands that look like human hands, but their thumbs are shorter than those of humans. At night, chimpanzees sleep in nests that they make on tree branches. They bend twigs and tuck in leaves to make a soft platform to rest in a place that is safe from enemies on the ground. The gestation period of chimpanzees lasts between six and eight months. Usually only one offspring is produced; they rarely have twins. Chimpanzees live up to 60 years in the wild. Jane Goodall has studied chimpanzees since 1960. She observed how chimpanzees use tools in several ways. They will pick up rocks to crack nuts for a meal. They also strip down twigs and stick them into a termite mound to collect a tasty snack. Some have been known to make a sponge from leaves in order to hold more drinking water. The chimp chews leaves to soften them up, dips them in rainwater, and then squeezes the water into its mouth. Chimpanzees are also known to think ahead and solve problems. Chimpanzee aggression The behavior described in this section refers to the common chimpanzee. At present there is no evidence that the bonobo has a similar level of aggressive behavior. Attacking monkeys Chimpanzees attack Colobus monkeys by working as a team to corner them in the high branches of the trees. Then they tear the monkey apart and eat it. It is thought the main benefit is that meat is a more rich source of nutrition than their usual vegetarian diet. "Goodall’s Gombe data have also led researchers to take a closer look at the role that hunting plays in chimp feeding habits. One recent Gombe study, for instance, concluded that the 45 members of one troop ate a ton of monkey meat per year. During one hunting binge, chimps killed 71 colobus monkeys in 68 days; one chimp alone killed 42 monkeys over five years. All told, chimps may kill and eat a third of the Gombe’s colobus population each year. Researchers have also found that lower-ranking males often trade the meat for mating privileges; such trades may help prevent inbreeding". Otherwise one or two males might father most of a troop’s children. Attacking other chimpanzee groups If they can, male chimpanzees try to kill the male members of neighboring groups. Males work together when they spot a chance to make a lightning raid on an isolated male from the other group. They kill him. In Gombe, Tanzania, a group in the 1970s was seen to kill seven of their neighbors one by one, until all were gone. It can take years for this to happen but, when it does, the remaining females and the neighboring territory are added to the now larger group. Attacks like this are carefully planned, done only when success is likely, and carried out in silence. The advantage for the males that triumph is to breed more children. Their tribe also holds a larger territory, and so has access to more food. Several authors have drawn a connection between this behaviour and the origins of human warfare. Scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology studied chimpanzees in Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire. The project followed four groups of chimpanzees for twenty years. They found that female chimpanzees patrolled territory and fought with chimpanzees from other groups too, not just males. The scientists wondered if human beings have been imagining that male chimpanzees do all the fighting because we think of human warfare being done mostly by men. One of the scientists, Catherine Crockford, said: "We are now accumulating compelling evidence that cooperation among non-related individuals, and among males and females, has likely been under selection due to the competition between neighboring groups. These findings have therefore strong implications to understand the evolution of cooperation in social species and in humans in particular. Continuous and long-lasting research and conservation efforts are necessary if we want to understand the interplay between competition and cooperation in this emblematic species for human evolution, and how it relates to our own evolution." Communication Chimpanzees show their emotions with their faces and sounds. They make hooting sounds to express the discovery of food, and the face of a chimpanzee with a scowling face and lips pressed is to express annoyance. This means the chimpanzee may attack. Or, the chimpanzee may bare its teeth to express that it is afraid or that a more dominant chimp is approaching.p74/5 Relationship with humans According to a genome study done by the Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium, humans share either 96% or 95% of their DNA with chimpanzees. However, this applies only to single nucleotide polymorphisms, that is, changes in single base pairs only. The full picture is rather different. 24% of the chimpanzee genome does not align with the human genome, and so cannot be directly compared. There are 3% further alignment gaps, 1.23% SNP differences, and 2.7% copy number variations totaling at least 30% differences between chimpanzee and Homo sapiens genomes. On the other hand, 30% of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimpanzee proteins. Related pages Ape References Hominins
A meridian is an imaginary line of longitude drawn along the surface of the earth from the North Pole to the South Pole. Geographers today measure these lines from what they call the Prime Meridian. It is the line of longitude that goes through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England. They decided this at the 1884 International Meridian Conference. Meridians, as lines of longitude, are measured in degrees. The Prime Meridian, as the starting point, is 0 (zero) degrees. Lines west of the Prime Meridian are either called west, as in "the longitude of Los Angeles, California is 118 degrees west", or as a negative number: "the longitude of Los Angeles, California is -118 degrees". Going the other direction, east of the Prime Meridian is always said as a positive number: "The longitude of Mecca is about 40 degrees east," or just "The longitude of Mecca is about 40 degrees." Related pages Eastern Hemisphere Western Hemisphere International Date Line Lines of longitude
Events and trends The Bonneville Slide blocks the Columbia River near the site of present-day Cascade Locks, Oregon with a land bridge 200 feet (60 m) high. The river eventually removes the blockage, but this event is remembered in the local legends of the Native Americans as the Bridge of the Gods. The first newspaper to be published in English. The War of the Spanish Succession, started in 1701. The Age of Enlightenment The Industrial Revolution, a time period starting in the 1700s. The Scientific Revolution, another important cultural advance. World leaders King Frederick IV of Denmark (1699–1730). King William III of England and Scotland (1689–1702). Queen Anne of Great Britain (1702–1714). King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715). Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705). Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (1705–1711). Tsar Peter I of Russia (1682–1725). King Philip V of Spain (1700–1746). King Charles XII of Sweden (1697–1718).
A district is an area or locality. In some places, it is a kind of local government. Some of the countries districts are used in are Austria, Belgium, China, England, Germany, Hong Kong, Serbia, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan, India, Portugal, Switzerland, the United States, and many more. In the South Asian subcontinent, including India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, the common term for an official or government administration district is Zillah. Lists of districts Districts of Albania Districts of Austria Districts of Bangladesh Districts of Belize Districts of England Districts of Germany Districts of Japan Districts of Libya Districts of Northern Ireland Districts of Pakistan Districts of Slovakia Districts of Switzerland
Literacy means the ability to read and write. Being able to read and write is an important skill in modern societies. Usually, people learn how to read and write at school. People who can read and write are called literate; those who cannot are called illiterate. According to UNESCO, illiteracy is not being able to write or read a simple sentence in any language. They estimated that, in 1998, about 16% of the world's population were illiterate. Illiteracy is highest amongst the states of the Arabian Peninsula, and in Africa, around the Sahara. In those countries about 30% of men, and 40-50% of women are illiterate, by the UN definition. One of the causes of illiteracy is that someone who can manage to live without being able to read and write often does not have any reason to want to learn to read and write. Cultural factors also play a part, such as having a culture in which the oral tradition (communicating by speaking) is more important than writing. A tribe that mostly herds livestock, for example, may have no need to read or write. There are two different kinds of illiteracy: People with primary illiteracy have never learned how to read or write. People who have learned some reading and writing, but not well enough for their work are called functionally illiterate. Perhaps they cannot write well enough to fill out a form, or to understand instructions in a manual. In most industrial countries, the main problem is functional illiteracy. In English the word literacy has traditionally meant to be well educated. It also meant to be familiar with literature (to know about books). In the late 19th century the word came to include the ability to read and write. It still kept its larger meaning. In modern usage, literacy also means being able to read print, visual, and sound texts. To continue learning students must be literate in more than just reading and writing text. Related pages Aliteracy Writing Reading Literacy test Right to education References Education
The Isle of Man () is an island in the Irish Sea, off the coast of Great Britain (of which it is a crown dependency). Douglas is the capital city. It also has a flag with a red background and 3 armoured legs joined together - "whichever way you throw us, we always land on our feet". It has a Parliament called Tynwald. It is the longest running parliament in the world. Government The Isle of Man is a Crown dependency. Foreign affairs, defence, and good government are handled by the British government, but in all other matters the island is independent. The Isle of Man Government is the executive and proposes laws to the legislature, Tynwald. Laws passed by Tynwald are given royal approval by the Lieutenant Governor unless the British Minister of Justice says they do not help the good government of the island. Geography The Isle of Man is an island in the Irish Sea, it is northwest of the European continent. It is between the United Kingdom and Ireland. The island is 22 km wide and 52 km long, it has a total area of 572 km². The Isle of Man has a total of 160 km of coastline, it has no important bodies of water. Apart from the island itself, the Isle of Man also includes some nearby islands. The most important of these islands are called Calf of Man, St Patrick's Isle and St Michael's Isle. The island's terrain is varied, it has mountains in the north and south. A valley is more or less in the center of the island, between the cities of Douglas and Peel. The northern part of the island is very flat. Snaefell is the Isle of Man's highest mountain, it measures 621 meters above sea level. It is said that you can see Scotland, England, Ireland and Wales from the top of mount Snaefell. Weather The Isle of Man has a usually mild weather. Summers are cool and winters are mild and rainy. Rainfall is similar to that of the other British Isles. Elevated parts of the Isle of Man get more rainfall, especially mount Snaefell. The northern and southern parts of the island are not as rainy as the rest. The island's weather is normally cool. The highest temperature ever registered is 28.9 °C, in Ronaldsway. The Isle of Man is not very sunny, but it is less cloudy than other parts of the British Isles; strong winds around the island help keep clouds in constant movement. Geology The geology of Man is notable for the Iapetus Suture, which runs almost unseen right through the rocks of the island. The suture is the remnant of a once huge ocean, the Iapetus Ocean, which was lost about 420 million years ago as three continents came together. Environment The Isle of Man became separated from Ireland and the British Isles about 8500 years ago. The short period of time between the melting of glaciers and the rise of sea level allowed a small number of species to colonize the island by land. The island was heavily deforested in the Middle Ages, which weakened its environment. Some land is now protected by the government to help preserve its wildlife. Curraghs Wildlife Park, in the wetlands, is home to many species of animals and plants. Many bird species live on the island. Plant life A lot of the Isle of Man's plant life, or flora, is composed of shrubs (bushes) and other short plants. Several species of grass and moss also live there. Mosses on the island contribute to the formation of peat. There is peat in the island's wet areas. The island has heavily deforested in the Middle Ages. Common trees on the island include ashes, elms, pines, willows, and hawthorns. There are also other trees on the island, as well as many species of flowering plants. Bogs are home to ferns and orchids. Animal life The Isle of Man is home to many bird and insect species. Many species live in "curraghs" (wetlands in the northeast of the island). Curraghs are protected by the Government of the Isle of Man. Curraghs Wildlife Park is in these wetlands, it is both a zoo and a protected area. During the winter, curraghs are the second largest nesting ground of the Hen Herrier in Europe. The Peregrine Falcon, Merlin, European Robin, Willow Warbler, Song Thrush, Dunnock, Swan and a subspecies of Winter Wren possibly native to the island also nest in the curraghs. The Chough is also in the Isle of Man, it is more common than in other parts of Europe. Some farming methods have decreased the bird population of the island. The Northern Lapwing is now rarely found, and the Yellowhammer is now extinct on the island. 18 species of butterfly and 250 species of moth also live on the Isle of Man. Most of them live in the wetlands during different seasons. References Other websites Manx Government Website A comprehensive site covering many aspects of Manx life from fishing to financial regulation Google Maps Satellite Photo Isle of Man Guide Large website about the island Information on places in the Isle of Man Tynwald.org Hansards, Order Papers and Background to the Manx Government. Manx Radio The Government/commercial funded radio station for the Isle of Man Birching in the Isle of Man 1945-1976 Article about the use of the birch as a judicial punishment in the Isle of Man. Manx Notebook Manx History Archive.
The French Revolution was a revolution in France from 1789 to 1799. A result of the French Revolution was the end of the French monarchy. The revolution began with a meeting of the Estates General in Versailles, and ended when Napoleon Bonaparte took power in November 1799. Before 1789, France was ruled by the nobles and the Catholic Church. The ideas of the Enlightenment were beginning to make the ordinary people want more power. They could see that the American Revolution had created a country in which the people had power, instead of a king. The government before the revolution was called the "Ancien Régime". Causes of the revolution Many problems in France led up to the Revolution: Under the Kings Louis XV and Louis XVI, France had fought against Prussia and the British Empire in the Seven Years' War. They fought against Britain again in the American Revolution. They borrowed much money to pay for the wars, and the country became poor. The high price of bread and low wages of workers caused the ordinary people to suffer from hunger and malnutrition. This made them dislike the rich nobles, who had the money to eat well and build huge mansions. The Roman Catholic Church, which owned the most land in France, put a tax on crops called the dime (tithe) which hurt the poorest and hungriest people as they were not able to afford the tax. Ideals of Enlightenment. Many people disliked absolute rule by the royalty and the nobility. They could see that in other countries, such as in the United States, which had recently been formed, people like them had more power over the government. They also wanted freedom of religion. The first and the second estate i.e., the Clergy and the Nobility, enjoyed all the privileges and rights but the Third Estate (everyone else, middle class, city workers and peasants) had to pay tithes and taille (taxes paid to Church and the court). The ‘Estates-General’ Before the Revolution, France was divided into three Estates. The First Estate was the Clergy (the church). It made up 1% of the population. The Second Estate was the Nobles, which also made up 1% of the population. The other nearly 98% of the population was in the Third Estate. Representatives of the people from all three estates together made up the Estates-General. In May 1789, the Estates-General was called by King Louis in order to deal with the money problems of the country. They met at the royal Palace of Versailles. However, the members of the Third Estate were angry. They had made lists of problems they wanted to fix called the Cahiers de Doléance The members of the Third Estate (The commoners) were angry that they were being taxed the most when they were the poorest group of people. They, and the Director-General of Finances, Jacques Necker, thought the Church and the Nobility ought to be taxed more. They also wanted votes in the Estates-General to be more fair. Even though the Third Estate had many more members than the other two Estates, each Estate only had one vote in the Estates-General. The Third Estate thought this could be improved by giving members of the Estates-General a vote each. However, when they talked to the other Estates, they could not agree. Forming the National Assembly Since the First and Second Estates would not listen, The Third Estate decided to break away and start their own assembly where every member would get a vote. On 10 June 1789, they started the National Assembly. The king tried to stop them by closing the Salle des États meeting room, but they met in an indoor tennis court instead. On June 20, they took the Tennis Court Oath, where they promised to work until they had created a new constitution for France. The storming of the Bastille In July 1789, after the National Assembly was formed, the nobility and the king was angry with Jacques Necker, the Director-General of Finances, and they fired him. Many Parisians thought that the King was going to shut down the National Assembly. Soon, Paris was filled with riots and looting. On 14 July 1789, the people decided to attack the Bastille prison. The Bastille contained weapons, as well as being a symbol of the power of the nobility and the rule of the king. By the afternoon, the people had broken into the Bastille and released the seven prisoners being held there. The Members of the Third Estate took over Paris. The president of the National Assembly at the time of the Tennis Court Oath, Jean-Sylvain Bailly, became mayor of the city. Jacques Necker was given back his job as Director-General of Finances. Soon, the King visited Paris and wore the red, white and blue (tricolor) ribbons (cockade) that the revolutionaries were wearing. By the end of July, the revolution had spread all over France. The National Assembly The National Assembly began to make lots of changes. On 4 August, the National Assembly ended the special taxes the Church was collecting, and put a stop to the rights of the Nobility over their people, ending feudalism. On 26 August, the National Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which was written by the nobleman Marquis de Lafayette. The National Assembly began to decide how it would be under the new constitution. Many members, especially the nobles, wanted a senate or a second upper house. However, more people voted to keep having just one assembly. The King was given a suspensive veto over laws, which meant he would only have the power to delay laws being made, not stop them. In October 1789, after being attacked at the Palace of Versailles by a mob of 7,000 women, the King was convinced by Lafayette to move from Paris to the palace in Tuileries. The Assembly began to divide into different political parties. One was made up of those against the revolution, led by the nobleman Jacques Antoine Marie de Cazales and the churchman Jean-Sifrien Maury. This party sat on the right side. A second party was the Royalist democrats (monarchists) which wanted to create a system like the constitutional monarchy of Britain, where the king would still be a part of the government. Jacques Necker was in this party. The third party was the National Party which was centre or centre-left. This included Honoré Mirabeau and Lafayette. Ways The French Church Changed Under the new government, the Roman Catholic Church would have much less power than they had before. In 1790, all special taxes and powers of the Church were cancelled. All the Church’s property was taken over by the state. On 12 July 1790, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy made all clergy employees of the state and made them take an oath to the new constitution. Many clergy, as well as the Pope, Pius VI, did not like these changes. Revolutionaries killed hundreds for refusing the oath. Working on the Constitution On 14 July 1790, a year since the storming of the Bastille, thousands of people gathered in the Champs de Mars to celebrate. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand led the crowd in a religious mass. The crowd, including the King and the royal family, took an oath of loyalty to “the nation, the law, and the king.” However, many nobles were unhappy with the revolution and were leaving the country. They were called émigrés (emigrants). Although the members of the Estates-General had only been elected for a year, the members of the Assembly had all taken the Tennis Court Oath. They had promised to keep working until they had a constitution and no constitution had been made. It was decided that the members would keep working until they had a constitution. The Assembly continued to work on a constitution and make changes. Nobles could no longer pass their titles to their children. Only the king was allowed to do this. For the first time, trials with juries were held. All trade barriers inside France were ended along with unions, guilds, and workers' groups. Strikes were banned. Many people with radical ideas began to form political clubs. The most famous of these was the Jacobin Club, which had left-wing ideas. A right-wing club was the Club Monarchique. In 1791, a law was suggested to prevent noble émigrés from leaving the country. Mirabeau had been against this law, but he died on 2 April, and by the end of the year, the law was passed. Royal family tries to leave Paris Louis XVI did not like the revolution, but did not want to get help from other countries or run away from France like the émigrés. General Bouille held the same views and wanted to help the king leave Paris. He said that he would give the King and his family help and support in his camp at Montmédy. The escape was planned for June 20, 1791. Dressed as servants, the royal family left Paris. However, their escape was not well planned, and they were arrested at Varennes on the evening of June 21. The royal family was brought back to Paris. The Assembly imprisoned Louis and his wife Marie Antoinette, and suspended the king from his duty. Completing the Constitution Although the king had tried to escape, most members of the Assembly still wanted to include the king in their government rather than to have a Republic with no king at all. They agreed to make the king a figurehead, with very little power. The king would have to take an oath to the state. If he did not, or if he created an army to attack France, he would no longer be king. Some people, including Jacques Pierre Brissot, did not like this. They thought the king should be completely removed from the throne and the constitution. Brissot made a petition and a huge crowd came to the Champs de Mars to sign it. Republican leaders Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins came and gave speeches. The National Guard, led by Lafayette, was called in to control the crowd. The mob threw stones at the soldiers who first fired their guns over the heads of the crowd. When the crowd kept throwing stones, Lafayette ordered them to fire at the people. Up to 50 people were killed. After this, the government closed many of the political clubs and newspapers. Many radical left-wing leaders, including Danton and Desmoulins, ran away to England or hid in France. Finally the constitution was completed. Louis XVI was put back on the throne and came to take his oath to it. He wrote, “I engage to maintain it at home, to defend it from all attacks from abroad, and to cause its execution by all the means it places at my disposal.” The National Assembly decided that it would stop governing France on 29 September 1791. After that date, the Legislative Assembly would take over. The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792) The new Legislative Assembly met for the first time in October 1791. Under the Constitution of 1791, France was a Constitutional Monarchy. The King shared his rule with the Legislative Assembly, but had the power to stop (veto) laws he did not like. He also had the power to choose ministers. The Legislative Assembly had about 745 members. 260 of them were “Feuillants”, or Constitutional Monarchists. 136 were Girondins and Jacobins, left-wing liberal republicans who did not want a king. The other 345 members were independent, but they voted most often with the left wing. The Legislative Assembly did not agree very well. The King used his veto to stop laws that would sentence émigrés to death. Because so many of the members of the Assembly were left-wing, they did not like this. Crisis of Constitution The people were turning against King Louis XVI. On 10 August 1792, the members of a revolutionary group called the Paris Commune attacked the Tuileries, where the King and Queen were living. The King and Queen were taken prisoner. The Legislative Assembly held an emergency meeting. Even though only a third of the members were there and most of them were Jacobins, they suspended the King from duty. War The kings and emperors of many foreign countries were worried by the French Revolution. They did not want revolutions in their own countries. On 27 August 1791, Leopold II of the Holy Roman Empire/Austria, Frederick William II of Prussia, and Louis XVI’s brother-in-law, Charles-Philippe wrote the Declaration of Pillnitz. The Declaration asked for Louis XVI to be set free and the National Assembly to be ended. They promised that they would invade France if their requests were ignored. The Declaration was taken very seriously among the revolutionaries. With the Legislative Assembly in place, the problems did not go away. The Girondins wanted war because they wanted to take the revolution to other countries. The King and many of his supporters, the Feuillants, wanted war because they thought it would make the King more popular. Many French were worried that the émigrés would cause trouble in foreign countries against France. On 20 April 1792, the Assembly voted to declare war on Austria (Holy Roman Empire). They planned to invade the Austrian Netherlands, but the revolution had made the army weak. Many soldiers deserted. Soon, Prussia joined on the Austrian side. They both planned to invade. Together, on 25 July, they wrote the Brunswick Manifesto, promising that if the royal family was not hurt, no civilians would be hurt in the invasion. The French believed that this meant the king, Louis XVI, was working with the foreign kings. Prussia invaded France on 1 August, 1792. This first stage of the French Revolutionary Wars continued until 1797. September Massacres In September, things got worse. The Legislative Assembly had almost no power. No single group was controlling Paris or France. The country was being invaded by the Prussian Army. The revolutionaries were very angry and violent. They began to go into prisons and kill people they thought were traitors to France. They hated the priests of the Roman Catholic Church the most, but they also killed many nobles and ordinary people. By 7 September, 1,400 people were dead. National Convention (1792-1795) The Legislative Assembly had lost all its power. France needed a new government. On 20 September 1792, the National Convention was formed. The Convention had both Girondins and radical Jacobins. Execution of Louis XVI The Brunswick Manifesto had made many people suspicious of the king. They thought he was plotting with the Prussian and Austrian rulers to invade France. In January 1793, the National Convention voted and found Louis XVI guilty of “conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety.” On the twenty-first of January, the King was executed using the guillotine. Marie Antoinette, the Queen, was also executed on the sixteenth of October. Revolt in Vendée People in the area of Vendée did not like the revolutionary government. They did not like the rules about the church in the Civil Constitution of the Church (1790) and new taxes put in place in 1793. They also disliked being forced to join the French army. In March, they rose up against the government in a revolt. The war lasted until 1796. Hundreds of thousands of people from Vendée (Vendeans) were killed by the Revolutionary French army. The Jacobins Seize Power Now that the king was dead, the National Convention made a new republican constitution that began on 24 June. It was the first one that did not include the king and gave every man in France a vote. However, it never came into power because of the trouble between the Jacobins and Girondins. The war with Austria and Prussia was causing the state to have money problems. Bread was very expensive and many people wanted things to change. In June 1793, the Jacobins began to take power. They wanted to arrest many Girondin members of the National Convention. In July, they became angrier when Charlotte Corday, a Girondin, killed Jean-Paul Marat, a Jacobin. By July, the coup was complete. The Jacobins had taken power. They put in new, radical laws including a new Republican Calendar with new months and new ten-day weeks. They made the army bigger and changed the officers to people who were better soldiers. Over the next few years, this helped the Republican army push back the attacking Austrians, Prussians, British, and Spanish. The Reign of Terror In July 1793, a Jacobin called Maximilien de Robespierre and eight other leading Jacobins set up the Committee of Public Safety. It was the most powerful group in France. This group and Robespierre were responsible for the Reign of Terror. Robespierre believed that if people were afraid, the revolution would go better. The Reign of Terror lasted from the spring of 1793 to the spring of 1794. It was not only the nobility who died in the Reign of Terror. Anyone who broke the Jacobins' laws, or was even suspected of breaking their laws or working against them, could be arrested and sent to the guillotine, most without a trial. Even powerful people who had been involved in the Jacobin coup were executed. Prisoners were taken from the prisons to “Madame Guillotine” (a nickname for the guillotine) in an open wooden cart called the tumbrel. According to records, 16,594 people were executed with the guillotine. It is possible that up to 40,000 people died in prison or were killed during the Reign of Terror. By July 1794, people began to turn against Maximilien de Robespierre. He and his Revolutionary Tribunal had killed 1,300 people in six weeks. On 27 July, the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety turned against him. Robespierre tried to get help from the Convention’s right-wing members, but he failed. A day later, Robespierre and many of his supporters in the Paris Commune were sentenced to death by guillotine without any kind of trial. This reaction against Robespierre is called the Thermidorian Reaction. Now that the terror was over, the National Convention started to make a new Constitution, called the Constitution of the Year III. On 27 September 1794, the constitution came into effect. The Directory (1795-1799) The new constitution had created the Directoire (Directory), which was the first government of France to be bicameral (split into two houses). The lower house, the parliament, had 500 members. It was called the Conseil de Cinq-Cent (Council of Five Hundred). The upper house, the senate, had 250 members and was called the Conseil des Anciens (Council of Elders). There were five directors chosen every year by the Conseil des Anciens from a list made up by the Conseil de Cinq-Cent. This group was in charge and was called the Directory. Although the constitution of 1793 had given all men in France a vote, in this constitution only people with a certain amount of property could vote. The Directory was much more conservative than the governments in France since 1789. The people were tired of radical changes and the unstable governments. Things were much more stable under the Directory than they had been before. However, the Directors were disliked by the people - especially the Jacobins, who wanted a republic, and the royalists, who wanted a new King. France’s money problems did not go away. The Directors ignored elections that did not go the way they wanted. They ignored the constitution in order to do things to control the people. They used the ongoing war and the army to keep their power. Coup of 18 Brumaire The Coup of 18 Brumaire brought General Napoleon Bonaparte to power as First Consul of France and in the view of most historians ended the French Revolution. This bloodless coup d'état overthrew the Directory, replacing it with the French Consulate. The 18 Brumaire marks the end of the Republican part of the French Revolution when Napoleon Bonaparte took the reign. Other websites The Musée de Veygoux - a museum in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes dedicated to the French Revolution and Desaix The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Daffy Duck is a cartoon duck from the Warner Bros. cartoons. He stands on two legs, has a black body, a white ring about his neck, and an orange beak. He first appeared in Porky´s Duck Hunt in 1937. In 1946, Daffy had started to change, and Daffy became less looney. Over the years, Daffy Duck had changed from screwball and heckling character to greedy and a jealous character. Looney Tunes characters Fictional ducks Fictional characters introduced in the 1930s Animated characters Comics characters Comic books Tune Squad players
World leaders King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670). Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland (1653–1658). Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland (1658–1659). King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715). Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (1637–1657). Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705). King John II of Poland (1649–1668). King John IV of Portugal (1640–1656). King Afonso VI of Portugal (1656–1667). Tsar Aleksey I of Russia (1645–1676). King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665). Queen Christina of Sweden (1632–1654). King Charles X of Sweden (1654–1660).
The guillotine is a machine used to execute people by decapitation (chopping off their heads). A guillotine is made of a heavy blade attached to a rack, which moves up and down on a vertical frame. When the executioner releases the rack, it will fall down and the blade will cut the convict's head off. History Machines like the guillotine were first invented in the Middle Ages, and were used throughout Europe. For example, Scotland used a machine called the "Scottish Maiden". Such machines were seldom used in France, until the French Revolution of 1789. Instead, aristocrats were executed by beheading and ordinary criminals by hanging. The guillotine became the only legal way to execute someone in France. The guillotine was used because it caused a quick death. Everyone, rich or poor, died the same way, no matter what social class. The guillotine was commonly used in France (including France's colonies), Switzerland, Italy, Belgium, Germany, and Austria. It was also used in Sweden. Today, all of these countries have abolished (legally stopped) the death penalty. The guillotine is no longer used. The invention of the guillotine Joseph Guillotin The guillotine is named after a French medical doctor, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin. Guillotin was against the death penalty. Realising he could not stop the death penalty, Guillotin instead tried to think of a quicker, less painful way of executing people. On October 10, 1789, he suggested using a machine to do all the executions. The actual guillotine was designed by another doctor, Antoine Louis. Guillotin did not help much with the design, but his name went down in history. Against Guillotin's wishes, the new machine quickly became known as the Guillotine. Guillotin regretted this until death in 1814. Design The design for a quick, painless, decapitation machine was given to Tobias Schmidt, a German engineer. Schmidt built the first guillotine and tested it, on animals at first, but later on dead humans. It was made of two fourteen-foot uprights joined by a crossbar, whose inside edges were grooved and greased with tallow; the weighted blade was either straight, or curved like an axe. The system was started by a rope and pulley, while the whole construction was set up on a platform. The first execution was in 1792. Later use The guillotine was still the only legal way to execute a person in France until 1979, when France stopped using the death penalty. In Nazi Germany, the guillotine was used to kill prisoners sentenced for serious crimes like murder, treason, or conspiracy against the government. A guillotine was last used in West Germany in 1949 and East Germany in 1961. The last person guillotined was the Tunisian murderer Hamida Djandoubi in 1977. History Capital punishment
A school uniform is a standard set of clothing students wear when they go to some schools. It might have a particular color of trousers or skirt, plus a matching shirt and perhaps a jacket or necktie, with matching shoes. In some countries, like Germany, students can wear anything they like when they go to school. In other countries, like England, there is usually a standard dress code in school, usually a set of dressing for girls and one for boys. Boys and girls need to wear school uniforms when they go to school. In many countries, such as the United States, some schools require wearing a uniform, and some do not. Originally, school uniforms were introduced to hide the social differences between students, but uniforms can also help with safety. Using standard uniforms can also save the money needed to buy extra clothes as fashion to impress other people at school. Uniforms are also thought to improve discipline and school spirit. However, school uniforms can also help with health and safety by having clothes which have been tested to be safer when worn. Some fabrics can cause skin rashes in some people, while a uniform can be made of comfortable fabrics. Also, loose-fitting clothes can get caught in machinery or playground equipment, which limits what activities children can do safely. There are several types of economic bullying which can be lessened by use of school uniforms. When many students are from families with less money, sometimes students with more money have stood out because they wore newer shoes, where neither shoe was in poor shape. In schools where more students are rich, poorer students have been insulted for the old-style or tattered clothes they wore. Uniforms
Primates are an order of mammals. It includes all lemurs, monkeys and apes, including humans. Most primates (but not humans) are mainly or entirely forest dwellers. There are about 400 species of primates. All primates are similar to humans in many ways, but language is an important advantage which only humans have. Other primates have a pattern of calls and gestures, but not language as we know it. Primates have hands with five fingers and flat fingernails (most other animals have claws). All primates are covered with fur (hair), but in humans the body hair is only noticeable in two places: on the head and around the genitals. Primates are split into two groups: Strepsirrhini and Haplorhini. Haplorrhini includes monkeys, tarsiers and apes including humans. Strepsirrhini includes lemurs, lorises, galagos (also called bush babies) and the aye-aye. Primates are one of the few eutherian groups which re-evolved colour vision. Colour vision was lost in mammals during the long period when dinosaurs ruled the Earth, and mammals were mainly small nocturnal animals. Classification Order Primates Suborder Strepsirrhini Lemurs Lorises Suborder Haplorhini Tarsiers Platyrrhini: New World monkeys Catarrhini: Old World monkeys Apes and humans Clade References Related pages Primates
The Tropic of Cancer (cancer (♋) is Latin for crab) is one of the five major circles of latitude (imaginary lines around the Earth) that are often marked on maps of the Earth. This is the parallel of latitude that is 23° 26' 22" north of the Equator. At every June Solstice the Sun passes straight overhead on the tropic. This never happens anywhere north of the Tropic of Cancer. Related pages Northern Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere Western Hemisphere Seasons Solstice and equinox Equator Tropics Tropic of Capricorn Southern Hemisphere Arctic Circle Antarctic Circle Lines of latitude
An equinox is when the sun passes directly over the equator. There are two equinoxes each year. Equinox can also mean either of the two days when this happens. On these days, the nights are equal in length at latitudes L° North and L° South. The word equinox comes from two Latin words meaning "equal" and "night". Around the day of the equinox, the length of the day is a little over twelve hours and the length of the night is a little under twelve hours. They are not exactly equal because the sun is not a point in the sky and because the sunlight bends as it comes to earth. The exact day and time when this happens depend on how far away from the equator it is being measured. They occur on or around March 21 and September 21. Solstices fall around June 21st and December 21st at odd intervals. The equinoxes are the beginning of spring, and autumn (or fall in the US). The time of daylight is quite easy to measure. This was done in many cultures where festivals were celebrated at the equinoxes. Related pages Solstice Time Astronomical phenomena
The Teufelsbrücke (bridge of the devil) is a bridge over the river Reuss in the Swiss canton of Uri. First bridge The valley called Schöllenenschlucht is an important access route to the St.Gotthard alpine pass. However, the valley is very narrow, featuring a dangerous river Reuss. The first bridge across the river was built in 1230. This was a wooden bridge. This meant that due to bad weather it had to be replaced often. In the 16th century, it was replaced by a bridge of stone. That stone bridge was heavily damaged in the Napoleonic wars in 1799. Nobody could use the bridge because of the damage. Trade with Italy was done over the alpine pass at Splügen. The first bridge was completely destroyed in a stormy night in 1888. Second bridge Only in 1820 could the order to build a new bridge be given. The construction of the bridge took 10 years. Third bridge In the middle of the 20th century, the second bridge was no longer able to handle the traffic. A third bridge, featuring two lanes, one for each direction, was built in 1958. Myth of the creation of the bridge Building the first bridge was very hard. According to a local myth, the first bridge was built by the devil himself. The condition attached was that the devil should get the soul of the first to pass over the bridge. So, when the bridge was finished, people chased a goat over the bridge. Of course, the devil was furious, so he went to pick up a large stone (called Teufelsstein, the devil's stone). He wanted to smash the bridge he just built to pieces. On his way to the ridge however, he encountered an old believing woman with a cross. Scared of the cross, he left the stone, and fled. The devil's stone weighs 2000 tons. 300.000 Swiss Francs were used in 1977 to shift the stone 127 meters to make way for the motorway passing over the St.Gotthard pass. Popular belief has it that the moving of the stone was the cause of an increased number of accidents on kilometre 16 on the St. Gotthard road tunnel. Other websites Buildings and structures in Switzerland Stone bridges
The term grandparent means the parents of a person's father or mother. Grandparents have always been important members of a family. The role of a parent is often very different from the role of a grandparent. Parents are the providers and disciplinarians of their children. Grandparents are often much freer to enjoy and have fun with their grandchildren. A grandparent-grandchild relationship is usually much simpler than that of a parent and child. The term 'grandparent' is used for both male and female genders. The male grandparent is called a grandfather. The female grandparent is a grandmother. When looking at the relationship from the point of view of the grandparent, the term grandchild is used. A grandchild is the child of a person's child. It can also be used based on gender. Grandchild is correct for either gender. Grandson is male. Granddaughter is female. Grandparents and grandchildren For example: Bob has a son named Rick. Rick, in turn, has 2 children; a boy (Bill) and a girl (Mary). Bob is the grandfather (male grandparent) of both Bill and Mary. Bill is the grandson (male grandchild) of Bob, and Mary is the granddaughter (female grandchild) of Bob. Rick's mother would be the grandmother (female grandparent) of both Mary and Bill. There are a number of nicknames for a person's grandparents. These include 'grandpa', 'grandpapa', 'papa' and 'pawpa' for a grandfather. Nicknames for grandmothers include 'grandma', 'grammy', 'granny', and 'nanna'. There are also many unique nicknames. An example is American actress Goldie Hawn who did not want to be called 'grandma', instead came up with the nickname 'Glamma.' Traditionally, grandparents were highly respected in most cultures. Today many grandparent-grandchild relationships are declining. Much of the modern world does not value older people the way societies did in the past. Also, popular entertainment, especially programs and movies aimed at 'tweens' (children 10 to 12 years old) portray adults as being foolish. This makes the involvement of grandparents more important than ever. Great-grandparents A person's great-grandparent's parents would be that person's "great-great-grandparents". Commonly the prefix great- is added, one for each additional generation. To avoid having to add several "greats" when discussing a direct ancestors, ordinals are commonly used instead. For example, a "great-great-grandfather" would be a "second great-grandfather". A "great-great-great-grandfather" would be a third great-grandfather, and so on. Some sources also use cardinal numbers for numbering greats. For example, a great-great-great-great-great-great-grandmother becomes "six times great grandmother". However, sixth great-grandmother would be most commonly used. Not counting the individual person in the relationship, a parent is the first generation of the person's ancestors. A grandparent is the second generation (from the individual). A great-grandparent would be the third generation and so a great-great grandparent would be in the fourth generation of ancestors, and so on. Another way of putting it is a person's second great-grandparent is a grandparent's grandparent. In the past, many great-grandparents died long before their great-grandchildren were born. Today, people in many societies are living longer. This means many children get to know at least one of their great-grandparents. Nuclear family vs close kin The word 'family' is often used to mean the same as the term Nuclear family. Strictly speaking, a nuclear family is made up of a husband, a wife, and their children. It may also be used to include a stepparent, stepchildren or adopted children. However, the latter family unit is more commonly called a blended family. Close kin however extends the family unit. For example, second cousins are all descendants of one or both great-grandparents. Family units extending to second cousins are considered close kin. So the term includes great-grandparents as well. Third cousins (all those descended from second great-grandparents) are not considered close kin, but just family. Distant grandparents and pedigree collapse A person's ancestor tree is a binary tree. It is formed by the person, the parents (2), the grandparents (4), great-grandparents (8), and so on. With each increasing generation of great-grandparents the number doubles. In other words, a person's sixth great grandparents (great-great-great-great-great-great-grandparents) would number 256 or (2 to the 8th power). However, the number of individuals in such a tree grows exponentially and will eventually become impossibly high. For example, a single individual alive today would, over 30 generations going back to the High Middle Ages, have about generations or just over a billion ancestors. That would be far more than the total world population at the time. This paradox or impossible situation, is explained by having shared ancestors, which is called pedigree collapse. Instead of every person today having a family tree of all unique ancestors, many of these ancestors occupy more than one position in the pedigree. In other words, one's 15th great-grandfather may have been their 15th great-grandfather more than once if the person today is descended from children of both or all of his marriages. So in a typical family tree, the same ancestor may pop up in more than one place in the pedigree. Pedigree collapse is generally caused by close relatives marrying in the past, which was common in many societies. Even today, because most people do not know their ancestry beyond their grandparents, they are inadvertently marrying their own distant cousins. On average, a typical European marriage today is between sixth cousins (those descended from a common sixth great-grandparent). In closed societies the relationship is usually much closer. Related pages Parent Father Mother Child Family tree Notes References Family Relationships
Events and trends Thirty Years' War goes on in Europe. September 8, 1636 – Thanks to a vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Harvard College is the first college in the Americas. World leaders King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway (1588–1648). King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland (1625–1649). Hong Taiji, Emperor of the Qing. King Louis XIII of France (1610–1643). Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of France (1624–1642). Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (1620–1637). Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (1637–1657). Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelderland (1625–1647). Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644). King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665). King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1611–1632) Queen Christina of Sweden (1632–1654).
Leptons are elementary particles with spin 1/2 (a fermion) that are not affected by strong nuclear force. They are a family of particles that are different from the other known family of fermions, the quarks. Electrons are a well-known example that are found in ordinary matter. There are six leptons: the electron, muon, and tau particles and their associated neutrinos. The different varieties of the elementary particles are commonly called "flavors", and the neutrinos here are considered to have distinctly different flavor. Of the six leptons, three have electric charge and three do not. The best known charged lepton is the electron (e). The other two charged leptons are the muon (µ) and the tau (τ), which are like electrons but much bigger. The charged leptons are all negative particles, their antiparticles are positively charged (for example, the antiparticle of the electron, e-, is a positron, e+). The superparticle of a lepton is called a "slepton." Elementary particles
Events and trends Permanent Dutch settlement of New York Bay and the Hudson River. Permanent English settlements in Massachusetts and Virginia.
Jersey is an island in the English Channel off the northwest coast of France. It is a crown dependency of the British monarchy. Jersey is called a bailiwick because the person who is the head of law for the island is called the Bailiff. The Bailiwick of Jersey also includes the islands of the Minquiers and Ecréhous, where nobody lives. The other islands of the Channel Islands belong to the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The country code (also used for internet) is JE. Over 106 000 people live on the main island. Thirty per cent of them live in its only town, Saint Helier. Along with English and French, more than two thousand people speak Jèrriais, a local variation of the Norman language. Politics Jersey is not a part of the United Kingdom or of the European Union, but the Queen of the UK is the Queen of Jersey as well. It has its own parliament called the States of Jersey which passes laws for the island. The Chief Minister of Jersey is in charge of the government. His name is John Le Fondré. Jersey is divided into 12 parishes which elect their own politicians and have control over some roads and the Honorary (volunteer) police. History People lived in Jersey before the sea rose and made it an island. There are many pre-historic (very old) buildings in Jersey, like La Hougue Bie. The island was part of Normandy, and in 1066, Normandy became part of England. In 1259, the King of England lost Normandy but kept Jersey and Guernsey. Jersey was invaded by the French in the Battle of Jersey in 1781. During World War 2, Jersey was controlled by the Nazis. It was freed on 9 May 1945, which is called Liberation Day and is the national day of Jersey. Geography Jersey is an island. It is in the English Channel, a sea in between France and England. It is 22 kilometres (14 miles) from France and 160 kilometres (100 miles) from England. It is the biggest of the Channel Islands, a group of islands. The other big Channel Island is called Guernsey. The island is around 9 miles from east to west and 5 miles from north to south, so it is often called "nine-by-five". The island can have a hot weather in summer and normally has mild weather in winter but sometimes is as cold as -10.3 degrees Celcius. It is sunnier than England, but it rains more as well. Culture Jersey's culture is a mixture of French and British culture. The people speak English, but the old language is called Jèrriais, which is like French. Because Jersey is an island, fish is a popular food in the island. There is a fish market in the middle of St Helier which sells fresh fish. Jersey is famous for its milk (from Jersey Cows) and its potatoes (called Jersey Royals). Jersey's newspaper is called the Jersey Evening Post which has been printed since 1890. There is a musical festival every year called the Weekender which happens in Trinity. The Jersey Eisteddfod is a big art, music, drama, language and dance compeition that happens every year. Many islanders take part and are given certificates. Jersey takes part in the Commonwealth Games and the Island Games (which happened in Jersey in 1997 and 2015). Jersey does not have famous sports teams, so islanders who can play sports really well often play for England or other countries in the UK. Economy Jersey has a lot of finance companies who manage people's money. Some call it a tax haven because it has low taxes and many people that use its businesses to pay lower taxes. Jersey also has a lot of hotels and farms. Parishes There are 12 parishes on the island. Saint Helier is the capital and main town of Jersey. There are many shops, offices, parks and important buildings. Saint Saviour is on the east of Saint Helier. There are lots of houses and many people who live here work in Saint Helier. Saint Clement is in the south east of the island. It is the smallest parish in area. Grouville is next to Saint Clement. It has a large golf course. Saint Martin is north of Grouville. It has a large castle in the village of Gorey called Mont Orgeuil Castle. Trinity has lots of farms. Jersey's zoo is in Trinity. Saint John is in the north of the island. Saint Mary has the smallest number of people than any other parish. Saint Ouen is the biggest parish in area. It has Saint Ouen's Bay, a large beach which is good for surfing. Saint Peter has the island's airport. Saint Brelade has a lovely beach called St Brelade's Bay and a lighthouse called Corbiere Lighthouse. Saint Lawrence is in the middle of the island. References Other websites About Jersey (Visitors' guide) Les Pâraîsses d'Jèrri en Jèrriais (map of parishes, coat-of-arms, and history) States of Jersey (Jersey government's website) BBC Jersey Jersey History This is Jersey (Local Portal) Jersey Insight (Local Portal) Map of Jersey English-speaking countries Islands of the Channel Islands
The Democratic Republic of East Timor or Timor Leste is a country in Southeast Asia. It is on the eastern side of the island of Timor. It also includes the smaller islands of Atauro and Jaco Island, and a small area, named Oecusse, inside the west side of Timor. Oecusse is an exclave, which means it is separated from the main part of the country by part of another country. That other country is Indonesia. The capital and largest city, Dili, is home to one hundred and fifty thousand people. The next largest city is Baucau. (see List of settlements in East Timor). East Timor gets its name from the Malay word for "east", timur. It is a member of the United Nations the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries. History For a long time, Portugal controlled the East Timor and called it the Colony of Portuguese Timor. In 1975, the Portuguese army left, and East Timor was invaded (taken over) by the Indonesian army in 1975. The invasion was very violent. The army stayed there until 1999, when they gave up control of the territory with the help of the United Nations. At the time, the United States government said it did not know Indonesia was going to invade East Timor. But secret documents, released from 2002 to 2005, show that Henry Kissinger, the Secretary of State of the United States, did know, and supported the invasion. When it got its independence on 20 May 2002, it became the first country to become independent in the twenty-first century (since the year 2001). In 2006, when Montenegro became independent, East Timor was no longer the newest one. Since then, East Timor has not been given much attention in the news. Recently, the Colombian music artist Shakira made a song named "Timor", which talks about the country. The attention is because there has been fighting in East Timor between gangs (groups of criminals with guns), security forces (the country's army). Australia, a large nearby country, sent troops in to make peace. East Timor is a small country located between Australia and Indonesia, 3,000 years ago, East Timor was a mountainous island composed of migrant indigenous people from New Guinea, Australia and Melanesia. There were some migrants from Austronesia searching for a new life on this island. Some of the people arrived from South China and North Indochina looking for trade because East Timor had resources which could be exported, like sandalwood, honey, slaves and wax. During the Second World War, the Japanese occupied the region, encountered strong resistance to their attempts to force the population to grow foods for their troops and export. At the time 30% of the population died. On 25 April 1974, the Portuguese Armed Forces headed by General António de Spínola organized a Military Coup against Salazar’s regime called the Revolution of Carnations. After this revolution, Portugal decided to give freedom to the colonized countries. Geography East Timor is the largest of the Lesser Sunda Islands. To the north of the island are the Ombai Strait, Wetar Strait, and the greater Banda Sea. To the south the Timor Sea separates the island from Australia. The country has many mountains. Its highest point is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at . The climate is tropical and generally hot and humid. The Nino Konis Santana National Park is on the eastern tip of the island. The park includes coral reefs, coastal area, and mountains. Municipalities East Timor is divided into 13 municipalites. These were formerly named districts. The municipalities are divided into administrative posts (former subdistricts), and further subdivided into sucos. The 13 municipalities are: Aileu Ainaro Baucau Bobonaro Cova Lima Dili Ermera Lautém Liquiçá Manatuto Manufahi Oecusse Viqueque Gallery References Other websites Asia Times article on the Timor Gap dispute ETAN Links – Extensive links on East Timor Governo Timor Leste – Official governmental site Bairo Pite Clinic website – Information on Health in East Timor Health Alliance International website – More information on health projects in East Timor by HAI Jornal Nacional – Semanário Links to Timor Leste government sites Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Suara Timor Lorosae – local newspaper in Tetum and Indonesian Tourism Timor-Leste – Tourism Guide to travel to Timor-Lest Lesser Sunda Islands Least developed countries
Country music (sometimes called Country & Western) is a form of music that has been enjoyed by people all over the United States for decades. Famous singers from this genre include Johnny Cash, Patsy Cline, the Judds, Dolly Parton, Glen Campbell, George Jones and Tammy Wynette, George Strait, Kenny Rogers, Loretta Lynn, Randy Travis, Tanya Tucker, Willie Nelson, Reba McEntire, Garth Brooks, Toby Keith and Hank 3 Country music's strongest appeal is with American rural and small-town populations, but many American cities have a large audience. The music also has listeners in Canada, in England, and worldwide. The popularity of Country comes and goes with each decade. Sometimes a new movie (like Midnight Cowboy or Urban Cowboy), hit record (like "She Believes In Me" by Kenny Rogers), or new performer (like Randy Travis in the 1980s) raises new interest. History Country music has its roots and beginnings in folk music. The old cowboy and pioneer songs of the American frontier were popular in the early twentieth century, and so were arrangements of pop music songs by rural (or rural-sounding) performers. Country musicians also adapted new musical instruments, like the Hawaiian steel guitar. Modern-day Country music started in the years after World War II. The Sons of the Pioneers and The Carter Family performed old and new songs, in a way that reminded people of singalongs and jamborees of the past. Hank Williams is often called the first songwriter of country music. His songs were easy to learn and remember, and their lyrics said things felt by many people. His music is still performed today. Some of the early rock and roll musicians, like Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Elvis Presley, began their career as country performers. Nashville, Tennessee became the center of Country music, much like New Orleans became the center of Jazz. The Grand Ole Opry broadcast performances by The Carter Family and others, and became an important breaking ground in Country music. A television series, Hee-Haw, was a long-running showcase for Country performers, and was hosted by musicians Buck Owens and Roy Clark. When cable television became popular in the United States, The Nashville Network (TNN) and Country Music Television (CMT) brought Country music videos and related programming to nationwide audiences. (In later years, as interests changed, TNN changed its programming. It also changed names, first to "The National Network", then to Spike TV, which is its name today.) Country music began in the Southern United States at 1920. And Bob Wills had developed the Western Swing. Country comedy Country-styled comedy is also popular, with writers and performers like Jeff Foxworthy, Bill Engvall, Larry the Cable Guy, and others. Many comedians have appeared with Country acts, including Andy Griffith, Ray Stevens, and George Lindsey. Lindsey, Lulu Roman and Junior Samples were cast members of Hee-Haw, and so were Grandpa Jones and Minnie Pearl. Homer and Jethro and Pinkard & Bowden were duos of musicians who made parodies of Country and pop songs. The Beverly Hillbillies, a CBS television series, included music by Flatt and Scruggs. Members of the cast appeared in character at Country concerts, and on other television shows, to entertain audiences. Other websites Roughstock - country music resource; also has a history of the genre CMT (Country Music Television) Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum The Country Music Association (America) Country Weekly magazine Grand Ole Opry website Countryfied Soul
Events and trends Thomas Neale designed Seven Dials The Salem Witchcraft Trials are held in Massachusetts Bay Colony (1692). Dutch explorer Arnout Vielle discovers the first trade route down the Ohio Valley, New York Colony financed and profitable (1692). World leaders King Christian V of Denmark (1670–1699). King Frederick IV of Denmark (1699–1730). Queen Mary II of England and Scotland (1689–1694). King William III of England and Scotland (1689–1702). King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715). Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705). Tsar Ivan V of Russia (1682–1696). Tsar Peter I of Russia (1682–1725). King Charles II of Spain (1665–1700). King Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697). King Charles XII of Sweden (1697–1718). Deaths Daibhidh O Duibhghennain, d. 1696
Tootsie is a 1982 American romantic comedy-drama movie from Columbia Pictures. It stars Dustin Hoffman as a struggling actor, who dresses as a woman and soon has a role in a soap opera. In 1998 the United States Library of Congress chose the movie to keep in the National Film Registry. The theme song to the movie, "It Might Be You", was a Top 40 hit in the U.S., and also hit #1 on the U.S. adult contemporary chart. Stephen Bishop sang the song and the music was by Dave Grusin / Marilyn and Alan Bergman. Cast Dustin Hoffman as Michael Dorsey / Dorothy Michaels Jessica Lange as Julie Nichols Teri Garr as Sandy Lester Dabney Coleman as Ron Carlisle Charles Durning as Leslie "Les" Nichols Bill Murray as Jeff Slater Sydney Pollack as George Fields George Gaynes as John Van Horn Geena Davis as April Page Doris Belack as Rita Marshall Lynne Thigpen as Jo Estelle Getty as Middle Aged Woman Michael M. Ryan as Elderly Aged Man Release dates Awards The movie was nominated for ten Academy Awards. Lange was the only winner, for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. The nominations were: Best Picture: Sydney Pollack and Dick Richards Best Actor in a Leading Role: Dustin Hoffman Best Actress in a Supporting Role: Teri Garr Best Director: Sydney Pollack Best Original Screenplay: Larry Gelbart, Murray Schisgal and Don McGuire Best Original Song ("It Might Be You"): Dave Grusin (music), Alan Bergman (lyrics) and Marilyn Bergman (lyrics) Best Sound: Arthur Piantadosi, Les Fresholtz, Dick Alexander and Les Lazarowitz Best Cinematography: Owen Roizman Best Film Editing: Fredric Steinkamp and William Steinkamp The movie was number two in the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list in 2000. It was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. References Other websites 1982 comedy-drama movies 1980s romantic comedy movies 1980s romantic drama movies Academy Award winning movies American comedy-drama movies American romantic comedy movies American romantic drama movies Columbia Pictures movies English-language movies Movies directed by Sydney Pollack United States National Film Registry movies
Lynyrd Skynyrd is an American southern rock band from Jacksonville, Florida. Their name comes from one of their school teachers who was named Leonard Skinner. They wrote songs including: "Sweet Home, Alabama", "Simple Man" and "Freebird." The lead singer's name was Ronnie Van Zant. After Ronnie died, his brother Johnny Van Zant became lead singer. Plane crash On October 20, 1977, the band was on tour flying to Baton Rouge, Louisiana for their next gig, when their 1977 Convair 240 plane ran out of fuel and crashed in a heavily wooded area. Ronnie Van Zant, Steve Gaines, backup singer Cassie Gaines, assistant road manager Dean Kilpatrick and the pilots were killed in the crash. The rest of the band and crew were injured and temporarily split up. They reunited in 1987 with Van Zant's younger brother Johnny as their new singer. References 1966 establishments in the United States 1960s American music groups 1970s American music groups 1980s American music groups 1990s American music groups 2000s American music groups 2010s American music groups American rock bands Musical groups established in 1966 Musical groups from Florida Musicians from Jacksonville, Florida Southern rock bands
Peter Handke (born December 6, 1942 in Griffen (Carinthia)) is an Austrian author and translator of books. Peter Handke is known for his extremely critical (and perhaps even absurd) plays. Perhaps his best-known play is called Publikumsbeschimpfung (translates roughly as insulting /offending the audience). The play consists of actors insulting and offending the audience, and later congratulating them for the good performance. The play has been labelled as antitheater. In 2019, Handke was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Note Other websites Peter Handke, Song of childhood "A son's long good-bye", Svenska Dagbladet, Karl-Erik Tallmo, September 23, 1988 1942 births Living people Austrian Nobel Prize winners Austrian writers European translators People from Carinthia (state)
IDD is an abbreviation that could mean: International Direct Dialing (see also: List of country calling codes) Iodine deficiency disorders. This term is often in use when people talk of plans to stop it. Insulin-dependent diabetes
Density is a measurement that compares the amount of matter an object has to its volume. An object with much matter in a certain volume has high density. An object with little matter in the same amount of volume has a low density. Density is found by dividing the mass of an object by its volume: where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. Changes of density In general, density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature. Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material. Increasing the temperature usually lowers the density, but there are exceptions. For example, the density of water increases slightly between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C. When water freezes, it expands by about 9% in volume, making ice that is less dense than liquid water. Water expands as it drops below 4 °C. Measures Fresh water is often used as a standard of relative density. This is called specific gravity. The most common SI units for density are g/cm3 and kg/m3. When the numerator is much larger than the denominator, that means the substance has a higher density. When the denominator is much larger than the numerator, the substance has a lower density. Other uses of the term "Density" sometimes means the ratio between other properties instead of mass and volume. Then it means how much of a property can be found in a specific piece of what they are looking at. For example, population density is how many people live within the same amount of land area. The population density in the city is higher than the country side because people live closer to each other in the city. In computers, storage density is how much data can fit on a data storage device in relation to its physical size. A Blu-ray disc has a higher storage density than a DVD which has a higher storage density than a CD, even though they all have almost exactly the same volume. References Measurement Matter
A gram, or gramme, is a unit of measure in the metric system. It measures mass, or how much matter something is. The symbol is g. One gram used to be defined as the mass of one cubic centimetre of pure water at 3.98 degrees Celsius. Now one gram is defined as 1/1000 of a kilogram. A milligram is 1/1000 of a gram. References Units of mass
Longitude is a way to say where a place is on the Earth. It is measured starting from an imaginary north-south line called the Prime Meridian. (A meridian is an imaginary line drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole.) Longitude says how far east (positive numbers) or west (negative numbers) of the Prime Meridian any place is. Longitude is measured using degrees, the same way an angle is. The Prime Meridian is 0° (zero degrees), and the farthest away is +180° eastward and -180° westward. Unlike latitude, which has the equator as a natural starting position, there is no natural starting position for longitude. Other meridians have been used in the past, but most scientists now agree to use the Prime Meridian. For centuries navigators at sea were seldom able to know their longitude. The problem was solved by making better clocks (chronometers) in the early 19th century. Unlike latitude, longitude does not maintain a constant distance between degrees since meridians all come together at the poles and are far apart at the equator. This means people near the North or South Pole can cross many degrees of longitude by travelling a short distance. The time difference between longitudes is 4 minutes per degree. The distance between degrees of longitude is maximum at the equator. Related pages Latitude Lines of longitude Measurement What are the lines latitude and longitude
Hilary Erhard Duff (often as Hilary Duff) (Born: September 28, 1987) is an American actress and singer. She got celebrity famous by being in the television program show' Lizzie McGuire she has gone onto a movie career, with roles in mainstream pictures. Among the movies she plays in are Cheaper by the Dozen, The Perfect Man, A Cinderella Story, Raise Your Voice, Material Girls and independent movies such as War, Inc. and Greta. Duff has also ventured into a music career as a pop musician, releasing 8 albums (for example Most Wanted, Dignity, Metamorphosis, Hilary Duff) and 15 music videos (for example Reach Out, With Love, Stranger, Wake Up, So Yesterday, Come Clean). Lately she has also ventured into a fashion career as a designer for DKNY, with her new line Femme for DKNY. In June 2018, Duff and her boyfriend Matthew Koma announced that they are expecting a baby girl. Filmography {\|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%;" border="2" cellpadding="4" background: #f9f9f9; \|- align="center" ! colspan=4 style="background:#B0C4DE;" \| Film \|- align="center" ! style="background: #CCCCCC;" \| Year ! style="background: #CCCCCC;" \| Film ! style="background: #CCCCCC;" \| Role ! style="background: #CCCCCC;" \| Notes \|- \| 2001 \| Human Nature \| Young Lila Jute \| \|- \| rowspan=3 \| 2003 \| Agent Cody Banks \| Natalie Connors \| \|- \| The Lizzie McGuire Movie \| Lizzie McGuire/Isabella Parigi \| \|- \| Cheaper by the Dozen \| Lorraine Baker \| \|- \| rowspan=2 \| 2004 \| A Cinderella Story \| Samantha "Sam" Montgomery (Cinderella) \| \|- \| Raise Your Voice \| Teresa "Terri" Fletcher \| \|- \| rowspan=2 \| 2005 \| The Perfect Man \| Holly Hamilton \| \|- \| Cheaper by the Dozen 2 \| Lorraine Baker \| \|- \| 2006 \|Material Girls \| Tanzania "Tanzie" Marchetta \| also Producer \|- \| 2008 \|War, Inc. \| Yonica Babyyeah \| \|- \| rowspan=3 \| 2009 \|What Goes Up \| Lucy \| Premiered at the 3rd Annual Buffalo Niagara Film Festival \|- \| Greta \| Greta \| also Executive Producer \|- \| Stay Cool \| Shasta O'Neil \| Premiered at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival \|- \|rowspan="2"\| 2010 \|Provinces of Night \|Raven Halfacre \| [Post-production] \|- \|The Story of Bonnie and Clyde \| Bonnie Parker \|[Pre-production] \|- \| unreleased \| Foodfight!\| Sunshine Goodness \| (Voice only) \|} Discography Studio albums Santa Claus Lane (2002) Metamorphosis (2003) Hilary Duff (2004) Dignity (2007) Breathe In. Breathe Out. (2015) Compilation albums Disney Artist Karaoke Series: Hilary Duff (2005) Most Wanted (2005) 4Ever (2006) Best of Hilary Duff (2008) Metamorphosis / Hilary Duff / Dignity (2009) Live albums The Girl Can Rock (2004) Live At Gibson Amphitheatre - August 15th, 2007'' (2009) References Other websites Official music site 1987 births Living people Actors from Houston, Texas American movie actors American pop singers American television actors Extras Singers from Houston, Texas
An oil platform is a large structure placed in the sea. It is used to drill for oil or natural gas at the bottom of the sea. The platform may be attached to the sea floor (stationary)or it might be movable(mobile). In general, oil platforms are located on the continental shelf. As of 2006, drilling for resources up to 8km away from the platform was possible. Energy
A continental shelf is the part of the continent that is under water. The shelf was part of the land during the ice ages in the glacial periods, but under water in the interglacial periods. We are at present in an interglacial period. Every continent is in the sea, like an island. Most of the island is above the water line, and we see it as a continent. Some of it though, is below the water line. Beyond the continental shelf, the bottom goes down to much greater depths. The continental shelf is a shallow ocean. It varies in depth, up to 140 metres deep. It varies greatly in its width. At the leading edge of a moving continental plate there will be little or no shelf. The western edge of the Americas are an example. The shelf on a passive edge of a plate will be wide and shallow. The widest shelf is the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean: it is 1500 km (930 miles) in width. Inland seas There have been, at some periods, shallow seas inside continents. These are called epicontinental seas. Much of present-day North America was covered by an epicontinental sea called the Sundance Sea during the Jurassic period. In the Cretaceous an even larger area was covered by the Western Interior Seaway. Ecology Continental seas have the richest life of the oceans, more species and greater numbers than anywhere else. This is because it has both sunlight and nutrients for photosynthesis. This causes microscopic algae and cyanobacteria to bloom, and then animals eat the phytoplankton. Most of the nutrients in the oceans are washed down from the continents by rivers. In particular, the continents are almost the only source for some key elements such as iron. The lack of nutrients away from continents explains why so much of the Pacific Ocean is almost barren of life, and why the shelves are so rich in life. Topography The shelf usually ends at a point of decreasing slope (called the shelf break). The sea floor below the break is the continental slope. The character of the shelf changes dramatically at the shelf break, where the continental slope begins. With a few exceptions, the shelf break is located at a remarkably uniform depth of roughly ; this is likely a hallmark of past ice ages, when sea level was lower than it is now.p43 References Landforms Oceanography Biomes
The Mariana Trench is the deepest known submarine trench. It is also the deepest known location on Earth itself. It lies south and east of the Mariana Islands, and has a depth up to 10,971 m (7 miles). The western end of the trench is near Guam. The trench is about 2,550 kilometres (1,580 miles) long but has a mean width of only 69 kilometres (43 miles). Challenger Deep The deepest part of the trench is known as the Challenger Deep. It is named after the British Royal Navy survey ship HMS Challenger, whose expedition of 1872–76 made the first recordings of its depth. A 2009 sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep from the Kilo Moana found a spot with a depth of (6.82 miles). The sonar system has an accuracy of better than 0.2% of water depth. Water pressure is more than a thousand times as great as at the surface. The Challenger Deep has been reached four times by submersibles, namely the manned bathyscaphe Trieste on 23 January 1960, the unmanned robotic deep-sea probes Kaiko (Japanese) in 1995 and Nereus (U.S.) in 2009, and by James Cameron in the Deepsea Challenger on 26 March, 2012. Cameron was able to film a 3D movie of the bottom of the trench. Lifeforms The HMS Challenger expedition found radiolaria in the two dredged samples taken when the Challenger Deep was first discovered. On their 1960 descent, the crew of the Trieste noted that the floor consisted of diatomaceous ooze and reported observing "some type of flatfish, resembling a sole, about 1 foot long and 6 inches across" lying on the seabed. The report has since been questioned, with suggestions that it may have been a sea cucumber. The video camera on board the Kaiko probe spotted a sea cucumber, a scale worm and a shrimp at the bottom. At the bottom of the Challenger deep, the Nereus probe spotted one polychaete worm about an inch long. An analysis of the sediment samples collected by Kaiko found large numbers of simple organisms at . The overwhelming majority of the organisms collected were simple, soft-shelled foraminifera (432 species according to National Geographic). Eighty-five percent of the specimens were organic, soft-shelled forams. This is unusual compared to samples of sediment from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20%. As small organisms with hard, calcareous shells have trouble growing at extreme depths because of the high solubility of calcium carbonate in the pressurized water, scientists theorize that the preponderance of soft-shelled organisms in the Challenger Deep may have resulted from survivors of the biosphere present when the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now. Tectonic plates The trench is one of the results of a large boundary where two oceanic tectonic plates have converged (collided). At the boundary, the western edge of the Pacific Plate is subducted beneath the small Mariana Plate. Because the Pacific plate is the largest of all the tectonic plates on Earth, crustal material at its western edge has had up to 170 million years to compact and become very dense; hence its great height-difference relative to the higher-riding Mariana Plate, at the point where the Pacific Plate crust is subducted. This deep area is the Mariana trench proper. The movement of these plates is also responsible for the formation of the Mariana Islands. References Pacific Ocean Oceanography Plate tectonics
The Mariana Islands (also the Marianas; up to the early 20th century sometimes called Islas de los Ladrones meaning "Islands of Thieves") are a group of islands made up by the summits of 15 volcanic mountains in the western Pacific Ocean. They are the southern part of a seamount range that goes on for 1,565 miles (2,519 km) from Guam to near Japan. The Marianas are the northernmost islands of a larger island group called Micronesia. The Marianas have a total land area of 396 square miles (1026 km²) and are composed of two administrative units: Guam is a US territory the Northern Mariana Islands (including the islands of Saipan, Tinian and Rota) comprise a Commonwealth of the United States . The first European to discover the island group was Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. In 1667 Spain formally claimed them, and named them after Spanish queen consort and later regent Mariana of Austria. Islands of Oceania Island insular areas of the United States Micronesia
In computing, an image scanner is a device used to transfer images or text into a computer. There are special models for scanning photo negatives, or to scan books. In the computer, the signal from the scanner is transferred to a digital image. This image can then be edited, printed, etc. All scanners have special parts which are used to take a picture from an object. Charge-coupled device or Contact Image Sensor parts take the light from the object and change it into a digital signal. The digital signal is then transferred to the computer memory or is read in the scanner's processor. With some software it can be changed to a compressed digital image, like JPEG or PNG. Text printed or written by hand can be changed to ASCII code by an OCR program. Types The main types of scanner Desktop scanner (flatbed scanner). This is probably the most popular type. An object to be scanned (picture, image, text sheet) is put on the glass. Under the glass, there is a moving Image Sensor. Hand scanner. The device is moved on the paper by hand. It was popular during the 1990s. Rotary scanner (drum scanner) used for fast scanning large numbers of sheets of paper. Smartphone scanner scans a document by taking a photo with the smartphone's camera. Producers Canon HP Lexmark Mustek Plustek Other References Related pages Digital camera Other websites Scanning tips More tips on scanning HP scanning Computer hardware Data input
Scanner may refer to: Technology Scanner (radio), for searching for and receiving radio broadcasts Image scanner, which digitizes a two-dimensional image 3D scanner, which digitizes the three-dimensional shape of a real object Neutron scanner, a scanner which utilizes neutrons to penetrate objects for analysis Port scanner, in computer networking Virus scanner (Antivirus) Vulnerability scanner, a computer program that probes for weaknesses Barcode reader, which reads the data encoded in a barcode Lexical analyzer, a computer program Stepper, a part of the photolithography process A rotating radar antenna An outside broadcasting control vehicle An automotive electronic control unit diagnostic tool An automated spotlight A biometric scanner, an electronic device with a sensor to read patterns or images from faces, irises and finger pads to create a biological template or profile WikiScanner, a tool that provides a searchable database of anonymous Wikipedia edits Popular culture Scanner (comics), a mutant appearing primarily in X-Men comics. Scanner (band), a German speed metal band Scanners (band), an alternative band from London Scanner, the stage name of British electronic musician Robin Rimbaud Scanner (Code Lyoko), a fictional teleportation device Scanner (Half-Life), a floating enemy in the Half-Life video game series Scanners Live in Vain, a science fiction short story by Cordwainer Smith A Scanner Darkly, a science fiction novel by Philip K. Dick Scanners, a 1981 science fiction horror film In much science fiction, especially older science fiction, the term scanner is used to refer to what is usually now termed a computer monitor. Other A personality type described by self-help author Barbara Sher
A brassière, commonly called a bra, is an undergarment for women. Its main purpose is to support their breasts, but is sometimes also used for sexual attraction in the form of lingerie. The bra is a nineteenth century invention which took off as a fashion garment in the 20th century. Brassière measurement Brassière measurement (also called bust size or bra size) refers to the size of bra a woman wears. Bra sizes were first introduced in the 1910s. The sizes vary from one manufacturer to another. Bra size systems are often used to label off-shelf bras and not custom-made bras. The term cup, in relation to bras, began being used in 1916 when two patents were issued. Cup sizes are given in letters such as A, B, C, D, E, F and G the Further the letter is the bigger the bra needed so for example a C size bra is bigger then an A size bra. Bra sizes in most countries have a number and a letter (for example, 34B). The number comes from the measurement of the ribcage directly underneath the breasts. The letter is a measure of how much larger the breasts are than the ribcage. This is found by measuring the chest over the breasts (across the nipples) and subtracting the ribcage measurement from the breast measurement, then finding the matching letter of the alphabet. For example, someone with a 3-inch difference between the breast measurement and the ribcage measurement would have a C-cup bra. However, this does not always work, since different manufacturers have differently-sized bras. Many women prefer to find a brand and size that works for them by trial and error. Underwear Breasts
Torture is when someone puts another person in pain as a punishment or in order to force them to do or say something. This pain may be physical or psychological. People who have been tortured often suffer from long term physical problems or mental health issues and the person may even die. Reasons for torture Reasons for torture can include punishment, revenge, political re-education, deterrence, and interrogation. Victims or third parties may be forced to take actions against their will. Torture may for the sadistic gratification of those watching the torture. Torture for information A common reason for torture is to get information from the victim, for example, to get confessions or the names of accomplices. Information got by torture is unreliable, because people suffering tend to say whatever the questioner wants them to say. Nevertheless, it was used for centuries by all kinds of societies. It was authorised by the Christian Church during the Inquisition from 1252 to 1816. In 1600 Anton Praetorius fought against torture and against the hunting of witches. Present day Almost all countries agree that torture is a violation of human rights and one of crimes against humanity. On 10 December 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Article 5 states, "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment". Amnesty International is the leading non-governmental organisation against the use of torture. It has regularly reported on which countries it thinks still use torture. It says "Over the last five years, Amnesty has reported torture in at least three quarters of the world - 141 countries". References War crimes
This is about events of the 1680s. For births and deaths in the 1860s see :Category:1860s births and :Category:1860s deaths. Events The Treaty of Ratisbon between France and England in 1684 ended the Age of Buccaneers. 1685: The Chinese army attacks a Russian post at Albazin. The events lead to the Treaty of Nerchinsk. Isaac Newton publishes Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. In this document, he introduces his laws of motion, and his theory of gravity. The Glorious Revolution brings William and Mary to power in England. World leaders King Christian V of Denmark (1670–1699) King Charles II of England and Scotland (1660–1685) King James II of England and Scotland (1685–1688) Queen Mary II of England and Scotland (1689–1694) King William III of England and Scotland (1689–1702) King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715) Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705) King Peter II of Portugal (1667–1706) Tsar Feodor III of Russia (1676–1682) Tsar Ivan V of Russia (1682–1696) Tsar Peter I of Russia (1682–1725) King Charles II of Spain (1665–1700) King Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697) Padshah Aurangazeb (Mughal Empire) Bhonsle Dynasty of the Marathas Shambhaji (1680–1689) Rajaram Chhatrapati (1689–1700) Reference
Cheaper by the Dozen refers to two movies based on the book of the same name by Frank Bunker Gilbreth, Jr. and Ernestine Gilbreth Carey: Cheaper by the Dozen (1950 movie), the 1950 original, starring Clifton Webb Cheaper by the Dozen (2003 movie), a 2003 remake starring Steve Martin, Ashton Kutcher and Hilary Duff
Dependency has a number of meanings: Dependency theory In project management, a dependency is a link amongst a project's terminal elements. In computer science, dependency is a state in which one object uses the functions of another object. Dependency theory is an economic worldview. A dependent area is a classification of territory. A dependent territory. Co-dependency is a state of behaviour. A chemical dependency is such a strong need for a substance in order for an animal (usually a person) to function properly. A former or current colony, such as those governed by the United Kingdom.
Iqaluit (Inuktitut: ᐃᖃᓗᐃᑦ) is the capital of and largest community in Nunavut Territory in Canada. It is the most northerly capital in Canada, and is also Canada's fastest growing community. History The name is Inuktitut word meaning "place of many fish". It is built on the mouth of the Sylvia Grinnell River, on Frobisher Bay. English explorer Martin Frobisher sailed into the bay in 1576 and thought he had discovered the Northwest Passage. The settlement was called Frobisher Bay from 1955 until 1987. The weather in there is normally cold. References Cities in Canada Nunavut Provincial and territorial capitals of Canada
A phasor is a tool in mathematics. It is used to show numbers in a different coordinate system. Certain electronic components have models that can be described more easily by the use of phasors. Inductors add a +90º "phase", while capacitors add -90º "phase". Both elements work on the imaginary axis. Resistors have 0º "phase", and are considered real. Engineering
Svalbard is a group of islands in the Arctic Ocean. It is the most northern part of Norway. It is about halfway between mainland Norway and the North Pole. Spitsbergen is the largest island, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya. The islands are governed by the Governor of Svalbard. The government is located at Longyearbyen. Other settlements include research outposts, the Russian mining community of Barentsburg, the research community of Ny-Ålesund and the mining outpost of Sveagruva. The islands were first used as a whaling base in the 17th and 18th centuries. After this, they were abandoned. Coal mining started at the beginning of the 20th century, and several permanent villages were built. The Spitsbergen Treaty of 1920 states that Norway is in control of Svalbard. The 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard part of Norway. These treaties also set out rules that economic activities could be done freely and that no military activities can take place. There are only two mining companies, one Norwegian and one Russian. Research and tourism are important industries. There are no roads to connect the settlements. Instead, snowmobiles, aircraft and boats serve as transport. Svalbard Airport in Longyearbyen is the main airport. In summer, the plants grow quickly (one plant every 25-78 days) during the midnight sun. Svalbard is a breeding ground for many seabirds. There are also polar bears, reindeer, and mammals that live in the sea. Seven national parks and 23 nature reserves cover two-thirds of Svalbard. This protects the fragile natural environment. Sixty percent of land is covered by glaciers, and the islands have many mountains and fjords. Climate Svalbard's climate is a combination of an Arctic climate (Köppen: ET) tempered by the North Atlantic Current. Nordenskiöld Land is the warmest and wettest part of the archipelago, caused by the convergence of mild and humid air from the south and cold air from the north. Average summer highs are typically while average winter highs are . Svalbard experiences midnight sun from 19 April through 23 August, polar night from 27 October through 14 February and civil polar night from 14 November through 29 January. However, due to shading from mountains, the sun is not visible in Svalbard until around 8 March. Snow typically covers the town from November through March. The warmest temperature ever record in Svalbard was an extraordinary in July 1977 and the coldest was a frigid in March 1986. Despite its extreme northerly location, Svalbard has recorded a temperature above freezing in all months. One example was in February 2012, when the mild temperatures had an affect on both people and wildlife. The climate is known to be warming very rapidly. Svalbard has also not recorded a temperature below freezing in July. Warm temperatures can occasionally occur in Summer. The most recent warm spell was at the end of July to the beginning of August in 2015, when the mercury hit . Bjornoya (Bear Island) holds the record for the lowest average annual sunshine total in Europe, at just 595 hours, sunnier than some parts of Scotland. Conversely, Longyearbyen, further to the north-west, receives almost twice as much sunshine as Bjornoya. References Related pages Svalbard in fiction Other websites Governor of Svalbard Official site Archipelagos Arctic islands Islands of Norway
Events The Franco-Dutch War Father Jacques Marquette continues to explore the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River. Other Frenchmen explore North America. The Quakers come to America from England. Newton and Leibniz independently discover calculus. Popish Plot started by Titus Oates. Oates' aim is to kill King Charles II. Plot fails and ends in 1681. Deaths John Milton, British poet World leaders King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670). King Christian V of Denmark (1670–1699). King Charles II of England and Scotland (1660–1685). King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715). Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705). King Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1669–1673). King John III of Poland (1674–1696). King Peter II of Portugal (1667–1706). Tsar Aleksey I of Russia (1645–1676) Tsar Feodor III of Russia (1676–1682). King Charles II of Spain (1665–1700). King Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697).
Margrethe II (Margrethe Alexandrine Þórhildur Ingrid) (born 16 April 1940) is the Queen regnant of Denmark. Only very rarely is her name anglicized as Margaret II. Life Princess Margrethe was born at Amalienborg Palace, Copenhagen, to Crown Prince Frederik and Crown Princess Ingrid. She was baptised on 14 May 1940 at the Naval Church in Copenhagen. As King Christian X of Denmark was also the King of Iceland at the time of her birth, the Princess was given an Icelandic name, Þórhildur (spelled with the Icelandic thorn character, simplified as "th"). She studied archaeology at Girton College, Cambridge in 1960-1961. She was also at the London School of Economics in 1965. Margrethe was not born to be monarch, even though she was the eldest child of the Crown Prince, later King. At the time of her birth, only males could ascend the throne of Denmark. The act of succession was changed in 1953. Her father King Frederik IX died in 1972, and Queen Margrethe II became the first female Danish Sovereign. In 2018, her husband Prince Henrik died of pneumonia in February and her first cousin Princess Elisabeth died in June. Other websites The Queen's Homepage The Official Website of The Danish Monarchy Illustrations - Lord of the Rings Notes 1940 births Living people Kings and Queens of Denmark Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany People from Copenhagen Current national leaders
Enterprise architecture is comprehensive framework used to manage and align an organization's business processes, information technology, computer hardware and software, local and wide area networks, people, operations and projects with the organization's overall strategy. A strong enterprise architecture process helps to answer basic questions. Frameworks There are numerous enterprise architecture frameworks defined. Here is a list of a few prevalent frameworks: Zachman Framework TOGAF Agile Architecture Business
Mutilation is when the way a human body looks is permanently changed. This change may be due to an accident, or it may be the result of torture. Losing a part of the body (like a hand), or permanent scars (different looking skin after a bad injury heals) on the body, might be a result of mutilation. Health Torture
Heiner Zieschang (born 12 November 1936 in Kiel; died 5 April 2004) was a German mathematician. He was a professor at Ruhr-University Bochum from 1968 till 2002. In 1996 he was made an honorary doctor of the University of Toulouse and in 1997 he was an honorary professor of Moscow State University. Literature Heiner Zieschang: Flächen und ebene diskontinuierliche Gruppen. Berlin 1970, Heiner Zieschang: On decompositions of discontinuous groups of the plane. Math. Zeit. 151 (1976), 165-188 Heiner Zieschang: Surfaces and planar discontinuous groups, Berlin 1980 Heiner Zieschang: Finite groups of mapping classes of surfaces. Berlin 1981, Gerhard Burde ; Heiner Zieschang: Knots, Berlin [u.a.] 1985 Ralph Stöcker, Heiner Zieschang: Algebraische Topologie. Teubner, Stuttgart 1988, Heiner Zieschang: Lineare Algebra und Geometrie. Stuttgart 1997, Other websites Heiner Zieschang at the Mathematics Genealogy Project 1936 births 2004 deaths German academics German mathematicians People from Kiel
Jan Mayen is an island in the Arctic Ocean. It is part of Norway. The island's area is 373 km². A large part of the island is an active volcano, the Beerenberg, which is 2,277m high. Jan Mayen is 600 km north of Iceland, 500 km east of Greenland and 1000 km west of the Norwegian mainland. There is a radio station and a meteorological station on the island. The staff at these stations are the only people living on the island. History There are many claims and stories about discovery of the island. Some claims and possible discoveries are as early as the beginning of the 6th century. However, the first discovery that is certain was in 1614. The Dutchman Jan Jacobs May van Schellinkhout visited the island then and it is named for him. His first mate made maps of some of the coast. It is incorrectly assumed that Henry Hudson discovered the island in 1607 and called it Hudson's Tutches or Touches, but there is no evidence for this. Thereafter it was allegedly seen several times by navigators who claimed its discovery and renamed it. Thus, in 1611 or the following year whalers from Hull named it Trinity Island; in 1612 Jean Vrolicq, a French whaler, claimed in 1629 that he had discovered the island and called it Île de Richelieu; and in 1614 English captain John Clarke named it Isabella. The island has very few residents. The Long Range Navigation (Loran-C) base has a staff of 14 and a weather services station has a staff of four. The staff members of both stations live in Olonkinbyen. The island has no native people living on it, but is given the ISO 3166-1 country code SJ, the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) .no (.sj is allocated but not used ) and data code JN. Its amateur radio call sign prefix is JX. Related pages Svalbard References Other websites Satellite Radar image of Jan Mayen Photographs and information on Jan Mayen Jan Mayen crew LORAN-C mast Jan Mayen Arctic islands Islands of Norway Uninhabited regions
A gate is a place between two parts of a wall, or a fence which could be opened and closed to let people go through it. In the Middle Ages, a city gate also allowed people to go into a (walled) city. Nowadays, people also talk about gates at airports. When going on an aircraft, people need to get together in a certain area of the airport first. They then pass through some kind of doorway to get onto the plane. That is what is called gate. Walls
A city gate is a gate that is found in many medieval cities. It was the place where people could enter or leave a walled city. Very often, city gates were closed during the night. Fortification Walls
Bern (French: Berne, Italian: Berna, Romansh: Berna, Bernese German: Bärn) is the capital city of Switzerland. It is also the capital of the canton of Bern. As of early 2006, 127.000 people live in the city. History Bern was started in 1191 by Berchthold V. von Zähringen. A legend says that he said he would name the city after the next animal he caught. So when he caught a bear (German: "Bär") the city was named Bern. Zähringen built the city in the half-circle the river Aare makes. Traffic Public streetcars and buses are run by an organization called BernMobil. There are 3 streetcar lines and about 15 bus lines. Most of the lines are in the city but some travel away from the city. There is also the Marzilibahn, a funicular (inclined- or cliff-railway) which goes from the banks of the Aare up to the Federal Building (German: "Bundeshaus"). The Marzilibahn is 105 meters long. It is the shortest funicular in Europe. Another funicular, called the Gurtenbahn, goes from the section of Bern called Wabern, which is on the river Aare, up to the top of Gurten, a large hill 585 meters high that is just south of Bern. A small airport, Belpmoos, is located a short distance south of Bern in Belp. Folk Festivals Zibelemärit (onion market) Each year, on the 4th Monday in November, there is the Onion Market in Bern, where onions are sold. Many people visit the market in the early morning and throw confetti. They also hit other people with hammers made out of plastic Aareleuchten (glowing Aare) Since 1996, every August 1 (a national holiday in Switzerland) they hold the Aareleuchten. The Aareleuchten is paid for by SwissAid. During the festival, people put small ships with a light in them into the river Aare. All of these small lights make the Aare "glow." Gallery References Other websites Bern Public Transportation Website (BernMobil) Gurtenfestival Buskers Bern Imperial free cities 1191 establishments 1190s establishments in Europe Establishments in Switzerland
A demo is a small portion or sample of a product. Usually the product is music, video game, or computer program. Demos are usually given to people who might be interested the product to try it before buying and advertise the product. Software da:Demo (computerspil)
A preview is a small piece of something used to show what the whole is like before it is generally available. Typically, previews exist for movies and possibly video games. They usually are a small portion of video showing what the game or movie is like to advertise it. In software, a preview can be a feature that allows a user to see what a document looks like before the user prints it out, or posts it on a website. Computing Movie industry Television
An atomic mass (symbol: ma) is the mass of a single atom of a chemical element. It includes the masses of the 3 subatomic particles that make up an atom: protons, neutrons and electrons. Atomic mass can be expressed in grams. However, because each atom has a very small mass, this is not very helpful. Instead, atomic mass is expressed in unified atomic mass units (unit symbol: u). 1 atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a single carbon-12 atom. 1 u has a value of 1.660 539 066 60(50) × 10−27 kg. A carbon-12 atom has a mass of 12 u. Because electrons are so light, we can say that the mass of a carbon-12 atom is made of 6 protons and 6 neutrons. Because the masses of protons and neutrons are almost exactly the same, we can say that both protons and neutrons have a mass of roughly 1 u. Hence, we can get a rough value of an atom's mass in atomic mass units by working out the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus, which is called the mass number. The atomic mass of an atom is usually within 0.1 u of the mass number. The number of protons an atom has determines what element it is. However, most elements in nature consist of atoms with different numbers of neutrons. An atom of an element with a certain number of neutrons is called an isotope. For example, the element chlorine has two common isotopes: chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. Both isotopes of chlorine have 17 protons, but chlorine-37 has 20 neutrons, 2 more neutrons than chlorine-35, which has 18. Each isotope has its own atomic mass, called its isotopic mass. In the case of chlorine, chlorine-35 has a mass of around 35 u, and chlorine-37 around 37 u. As mentioned above, note that the atomic mass of an atom is not the same as its mass number. The mass number (symbol: A) of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Mass numbers are always whole numbers with no units. Also, relative isotopic mass is not the same as isotopic mass, and relative atomic mass (also called atomic weight) is not the same as atomic mass. A relative isotopic mass is the mass of an isotope relative to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. In other words, a relative isotopic mass tells you the number of times an isotope of an element is heavier than one-twelfth of an atom of carbon-12. The word relative in relative isotopic mass refers to this scaling relative to carbon-12. Relative isotopic mass is similar to isotopic mass and has exactly the same numerical value as isotopic mass, whenever isotopic mass is expressed in atomic mass units. However, unlike isotopic mass, relative isotopic mass values have no units. Like relative isotopic mass, a relative atomic mass (symbol: Ar) is a ratio with no units. A relative atomic mass is the ratio of the average mass per atom of an element from a given sample to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom. We find the relative atomic mass of a sample of an element by working out the abundance-weighted mean of the relative isotopic masses. For example, to continue the chlorine example from above, if there is 75% of chlorine-35 and 25% of chlorine-37 in a sample of chlorine, Related pages Relative atomic mass Mass number Atomic mass unit References Other websites Atomic mass -Citizendium Chemistry
There are different definitions of price. Perhaps the simplest definition is to say "price is the value of a product (good) or service". A price is expressed in other goods, services, or in money. Here is an example about price: Peter raises sheep for their wool. Sally raises chickens for their eggs. Winter is coming, so Sally wants to make a warm wool coat. She first measures how much wool she needs for a coat. She thinks she needs the wool from 2 sheep for the coat. She then goes to Peter and asks him what he wants for the wool she needs. Peter then tells her the price he is asking for his wool. Sally might trade some of her chicken eggs for the wool. Sometimes trading eggs for wool is difficult. So people invented something they called money. This is cash or currency used for trading. If Peter does not need eggs, he will not trade his wool for eggs. The price for his wool in eggs is zero, but Peter does need something else. So Sally goes to a market and sells some of her eggs for money. Then she goes to Peter and gives him money for the wool. How much money Peter wants for his wool is the price. Basic English 850 words
Doping or dope can mean: Adding a dopant to something Doping (semiconductor), adding impurities into a semiconductor to change its electrical properties Doping in sport, the use of drugs to improve athletic performance Blood doping, increasing the number of red blood cells in the bloodstream Aircraft dope, a type of lacquer formerly used in airplane skins
Events The Qing dynasty begins in China. Europeans reach New Zealand and Tasmania. The English Civil War. Births William Penn, English Quaker Deaths Galileo Galilei, Italian writer and scientist World leaders King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway (1588–1648). King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670). King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland (1625–1649). King Louis XIII of France (1610–1643). Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of France (1624–1642). Cardinal Mazarin, chief minister of France (1642–1661). Anne of Austria, Queen Dowager and Regent of France (1643–1651). King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715). Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (1637–1657). Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelderland (1625–1647). William II, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelderland (1647–1650). Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644). Pope Innocent X (1644–1655). King John IV of Portugal (1640–1656). King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665). Queen Christina of Sweden (1632–1654).
Events The Great Fire of London in England. The Ottoman Empire attacks Europe, but is beat back at the Battle of Saint Gotthard. Births Cotton Mather, American pastor Queen Anne of Great Britain Jonathan Swift, Irish writer Deaths Blaise Pascal, French thinker Shah Jahan, Emperor of India Frans Hals, Dutch painter World leaders King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670). King Charles II of England (1660–1685). King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715). Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705). King John II of Poland (1649–1668). King Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1669–1673). King Afonso VI of Portugal (1656–1667). King Peter II of Portugal (1667–1706). Tsar Aleksey I of Russia (1645–1676). King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665). King Charles II of Spain (1665–1700). King Charles X of Sweden (1654–1660). King Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697). Emperor Yohannes I of Ethiopia (1667–1682).
The Gaza Strip is a self-governing stretch of land along the Mediterranean. The main city in the Gaza Strip is called Gaza. The strip is currently governed by Hamas, a group declared as terrorists by many western nations for its launching of rockets into Israel. The territory is 41 kilometers (25 mi) long, and from 6 to 12 kilometers (3.7 to 7.5 mi) wide, with a total area of 365 square kilometers (141 sq mi). About 1.8 million Palestinians live on a surface of roughly 360 km², making Gaza the 3rd most densely populated area on Earth. History Gaza was formed in 1967 when Israel moved Jewish communities and troops into Gaza. Israel controlled the Strip's borders, coastline and airspace until 2005, when it withdrew. An election was held in January 2006, which Hamas won. Since then, Israel has conducted several wars with Hamas due to alleged terrorist acts, causing much of the infrastructure of Gaza to be non functional. It has been placed under an Israeli and U.S.-led international economic and political boycott since 2006. References
Unemployment or joblessness is when a person who is of normal working age (usually about 15-18 to about 60-65) does not have a paid job. They therefore do not get paid a salary. It is one of social issues and human rights violations. In some parts of the world, there are social networks to care for the unemployed. Overview The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people divided by the total population of that age group of a country. The unemployment rate is influenced by many things, including the government of a country to the average age of a country's population. Unemployment is a bad thing for society. A certain amount of unemployment is natural. 'Full employment' does not mean no-one is out of work. Governments now aim to increase the number of jobs (which can be done) rather than cut out all unemployment (which cannot be done). Most affected group of people People with Autism and other mental disabilities are mistreated in the workplace, leading to only around 15% of autistic people being employed at all. References Employment Social issues
A salary is a type of payment a person gets for work done for a job. A salary is usually paid for a fixed period of time, such as a month or a week. Generally, it does not matter how many hours are worked, the salary remains the same. If someone is not a salaried employee, they are generally an "hourly" employee and are paid a certain amount for each hour's which is known as "wages." Related pages Minimum wage Worker Employment Income
Instant noodles are a product used in cooking - a type of pre-cooked noodle. These noodles are cooked at the factory and packaged as dried noodles, often with a special powder that adds flavor to the noodles. The dish is prepared very quickly (usually 5 minutes or less), simply by putting the noodles together in hot water and then adding the powder. A kind of noodle soup is then ready to eat. Instant noodles are very popular in Asia, and among many students and poorer people, because they are very cheap to produce and to buy. In the United States, a package of instant noodles sometimes costs only ten cents. There are many companies who manufacture Instant Noodles, some of them being: Maggi (Nestle) Top Ramen Chings Tasty Treat Nongshim Noodles Asian foods
Louis Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971) nicknamed Satchmo or Pops was an American jazz trumpeter and singer from New Orleans, Louisiana. He sang the blues and played the trumpet and the cornet. He was famous in many countries. He was also known for his good singing voice and he also encouraged the style of scat to the jazz world. Armstrong won many awards during his career. He died of a heart attack in July 6, 1971 in Corona, Queens, New York City. References Other websites 1901 births 1971 deaths African-American singers American jazz musicians Cardiovascular disease deaths in New York Deaths from myocardial infarction American jazz singers Musicians from New Orleans, Louisiana Singers from New Orleans, Louisiana Trumpeters
Events and trends The Treaty of Arras ends the alliance of Burgundy and England. This changes the Hundred Years' War to help France.
Element can mean: Chemical element, a substance that can not be divided into smaller chemical parts The elements or weather The four basic elements in mysticism, alchemy, mythology and fantasy fiction - Fire, Water, Air and Earth A thing that a set holds A book by Euclid called the Elements. In it, Euclid talks about geometry. VOA Special English words
CBS Broadcasting Inc. (CBS) (full name: Columbia Broadcasting System) is an American television network. Along with ABC, NBC and FOX, it is one of the country's four major television networks. CBS Television Shows TV Show Drama Comedy Sitcom Pham Viet Dung Stations KCBS Los Angeles, California WCBS New York, New York WBBM Chicago, Illinois Other websites Official site Columbia Broadcasting System Viacom 1927 establishments in the United States
The prime minister of Canada () is the head of government and chief executive of Canada. The prime minister is the senior most minister of the cabinet of Canada and directs the executive branch of the federal government, known as the Council of Ministers. The minister is usually always the leader of the majority party in the Canadian Parliament. In 2015, Justin Trudeau became the 23rd prime minister of Canada. List of prime ministers Living former prime ministers As of , there are six living former prime ministers of Canada, the oldest being Jean Chrétien (born 1934). The most recent former prime minister to die was John Turner, on September 18, 2020. The living former prime ministers, in order of service, are: References Other websites History of Prime Ministers Government of Canada Canadian first ministers
Magnetism is a force that attracts (pulls closer) or repels (pushes away) objects that have a magnetic material like iron inside them (magnetic objects). In simpler words, it is a property of substances which pull closer or repel other objects. It is a subject in physics. Magnets Magnetism can be made by a permanent magnet, or by electricity in a wire. This is called an electromagnet. When magnets are put near magnetic objects, the magnet and the object are pulled toward each other. This is called magnetic attraction. Magnets can also repel (push away) other magnets. Most objects that are attracted to magnets have iron in them. This is ferromagnetism. Some metals, such as aluminum, are much more weakly attracted. This is paramagnetism. A few metals are weakly repelled. This is diamagnetism. Magnetic fields Magnets have an unseen area around them called a "magnetic field". Magnetic objects inside this unseen field are attracted to the magnet. Magnetic things outside the magnetic field are not attracted to the magnet. This is why a magnet must be close to an object to attract it. The poles of two magnets repel or attract each other. Different poles attract each other. For example, if the south pole of one magnet is put near the south pole of another magnet, the magnets will repel each other. This will also happen with two north poles that are put near each other. If a north pole is put near a south pole, the magnets will attract each other until they stick to each other and can be hard to pull apart. Magnetic domains Magnetism is caused by electrons (the negative particles in atoms that are also electric charges) spinning. The more a group of electrons spin in the same direction, the stronger the magnetic force. In a magnet, many electrons are spinning in the same direction. We can magnetize a small piece of iron by 'rubbing' it with a magnet. The electrons in the iron get 'spun' by the passing magnet just like a basketball player spinning a basketball. Uses of magnets Magnets have many uses. One of them was found long ago when explorers found that a magnet could be used as a compass to show the direction of north & south. Electromagnets and electromagnetism Electromagnets are another kind of magnet. They only work when electricity is running through them. An electric current makes a magnetic field. If you wrap the wire into a coil, the electrons spin around the coil and make a stronger magnetic domain. Often, these magnets work by using a coil of wire that makes a magnetic field when there is a current in it. In addition to this coil of wire, a large piece of metal, usually iron, is placed inside the coil to increase the magnetic field made. Though most large electromagnets employ many solenoids to lift heavy objects, smaller solenoids are used in everyday electronics. For example, they are used to change voltage in a transformer. Electromagnets are used to make many things work like computers, televisions, radios and doorbells. Electromagnetic waves Electromagnetic radiation including radio waves and light waves are used for communication including broadcasting and optical fiber, and for many other purposes. Earth's magnetic poles North magnetic pole The North Magnetic Pole is the point on the surface of Earth's northern hemisphere where the planet's magnetic field points vertically downwards. There is only one place where this occurs, near to (but distinct from) the Geographic North Pole. Its southern hemisphere counterpart is the South Magnetic Pole. Since the Earth's magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, a line drawn from one to the other does not pass through the geometric centre of the Earth. The North Magnetic Pole moves over time due to magnetic changes in the Earth's core. In 2001, it was near Ellesmere Island in northern Canada at . As of 2015, the pole is thought to have moved east beyond the Canadian Arctic territorial claim to . Reversals of Earth's magnetic field Earth does change its magnetic poles every million years (plus or minus 200,000 years). Before a change of magnetic field, the Earth's magnetic field becomes weaker and moves around, like a spinning top would before it falls. The Earth has already had hundreds of changes (flip flops). Scientists know this as a result of studies of magnetism on the sea floor, near the mid-Atlantic ridge. The lava slowly moves out of this crevasse (gap in the sea floor) and then it cools with its iron oxide molecules all pointing in the new direction of the Earth's magnetic field. We can look at the history of this magnetic field today to look back at the many flips in the past. Reversals occur at intervals from less than 0.1 million years to as much as 50 million years. The most recent geomagnetic reversal, called the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal, occurred about 780,000 years ago. Another global reversal of the Earth's field, called the Laschamp event, occurred during the last ice age (41,000 years ago). However, because of its brief duration it is called an "excursion". References Other websites Info on electromagnets at wondermagnet.com Magnetism, Citizendium
The Althing () is the national parliament of Iceland. It is the oldest legislature in the world that still exists. It was founded in 930 at Thingvellir (the "assembly fields"), which is almost east of Iceland's capital, Reykjavík. When the Althing was formed, that was the beginning of Iceland as a country. Iceland is divided into six electoral constituencies. Each constituency elects nine members. Another nine seats are divided between parties based on how many people in the whole country voted for them. History The Althing formed around the year 930, about 60 years after humans arrived on the island of Iceland. It started as a meeting of the country's most powerful leaders. They met to make laws and rule on matters of justice. All free men could attend the assemblies, which were usually the main social event of the year. Forming the centre of the meeting place was the lögberg (law rock), a rock where the speaker of the assembly sat. It was his responsibility to say the laws and decisions out loud to the people. The most important group within the Althing was the lögrétta. It was made up of the country's 36 district leaders, nine other members, and the speaker. This group made the laws and ruled on legal disputes. Royal period After the union with Norway in 1264, the speaker was replaced by two administrators called lögmenn, who were appointed by the Norwegian king. The lögrétta shared legislative power with the king. Laws adopted by the Althing had to be approved by the king, and if the king made a law, it had to be approved by the Althing. In the 14th century, the monarchies of Norway and Denmark were united and Iceland was ruled from Copenhagen. This became an absolute monarchy and the Althing gave up the right to make laws for Iceland. It served only as a court of law until June 1800, when the king dissolved it completely. It was replaced by a High Court of three judges who met in Reykjavik. Constitutional period In July 1843, the king said the Althing could be recreated. Elections were held the year after, and the new parliament met for the first time on 1 July 1845. A constitution was created in 1874. It granted the Althing joint legislative power with the crown in matters relating only to Iceland. It increased the number of members of the Althing to 36: 30 of them were elected and the other six appointed by the king. Iceland was given home rule in October 1903. In December 1918, Iceland was brought into a personal union with the King of Denmark. It was set so that after 25 years, the country could choose to leave the union. The Althing was given unlimited legislative power. The king no longer had any law-making powers in the country. The number of members of the Althing was increased to 42 in 1920, and to 52 in 1942. Women were given the right to vote in 1915. The first female member of parliament was elected in 1922. Modern period When Denmark was occupied by Germany on 9 April 1940, its union with Iceland was no longer in effect. On the next day, the Althing gave the Icelandic cabinet executive power. It made the prime minister head of state. A year later the Althing appointed a regent to represent the king. This office continued until 1944, when the personal union with the Danish king expired. The modern-day Republic of Iceland was established at a session of the Althing held at Thingvellir on 17 June 1944. References Other websites Reykjavík Iceland 10th-century establishments in Europe Establishments in Iceland
Blues can mean more than one thing: The blues is a type of music. The blues is another name for sadness, or depression (mood). The Blues refers to many sports teams who play while wearing a blue kit.
Amapá is one of the states of Brazil. It is in the far north, bordering French Guiana in the north. To the east is the Atlantic Ocean, and to the south and west is the Brazilian state Pará. The state is mostly covered by rainforest. The state is known for producing iron and other metals. Amapá has only been a Brazilian state since 1988. References 1988 establishments in Brazil States of Brazil
A fictional character is a person or animal in a narrative work of art (such as a novel, play, television series, or movie) The character can be completely fictional or based on a real-life person. In that case, the difference between a "fictional" and "real" character can be made. Coming from the ancient Greek word χαρακτήρ, the English word dates from the Restoration, although it became widely used after its appearance in Tom Jones in 1749. From this, the sense of "a part played by an actor" developed. Character, mainly when played by an actor in the theatre or cinema, involves "the illusion of being a human person." In literature, characters guide readers through their stories, helping them to understand plots and ponder themes. Since the end of the 18th century, the phrase "in character" has been used to describe an effective impersonation by an actor. Since the 19th century, the art of creating characters, as practiced by actors or writers, has been called characterisation. The word character can also mean "personality". We can say that someone has a "strong character" meaning a strong, confident personality. It is sometimes used as a noun in this sense: "He is a real character" (meaning someone you cannot easily forget). A character role in a play means one of the people in the play who have a particular character (personality). They contrast with the main characters of the play. For example, a pair of lovers may be the main characters of the story. The character roles who help the story might be: a wicked step-mother, a kind nurse, an old wise man, a fool, a domestic worker who is very old, a "Mary Sue" who is virtually without flaws, and so forth. These may be archtypes. References
The blues is a form of music that started in the United States during the start of the 20th century. It was started by former African slaves from spirituals, praise songs, and chants. The first blues songs were called Delta blues. These songs came from the area near the mouth of the Mississippi River. Many African Americans were taken to the north esp. in the northwest of the United States, to find work. They took the blues with them and developed it into new styles. The most important is the Chicago Blues, which is played with electric amplified instruments. But other cities and states have their own form of Blues developed from the Delta Blues (f. e. Texas Blues, West Coast Blues and others). Chord pattern Blues is based on a simple pattern. “Blues is easy to play, but hard to feel”-Jimi Hendrix. A common form for the blues is a repeating 12 bar form (each bar has 4 beats). This is put together as 3 phrases or sections, each being 4 bars long. The basic blues only needs 3 chords, one based on the first note of the scale - the tonic chord, one based on the fourth note of the scale - the subdominant chord, and one based on the fifth note of the scale - the dominant chord. The first section or phrase of 4 bars only uses the tonic chord. A common variation is to use the subdominant chord in the second bar. The second phrase has 2 bars (8 beats) of subdominant chord then 2 bars of tonic chord. The third phrase has 1 bar (4 beats) of dominant chord, 1 bar of subdominant chord and finishes with 2 bars of tonic chord. In a scale based on the note C (C is the 1st or tonic, F is the 4th or subdominant, and G is the 5th or dominant), the chord pattern of a 12 bar blues would be like this: C C C C \|C C C C or F F F F \|C C C C \|C C C C \| F F F F \|F F F F \|C C C C \|C C C C \| G G G G \|F F F F \|C C C C \|C C C C \| Melodic pattern The melody of the simplest blues scales are based on the minor pentatonic scale for example C Eflat G A Bflat C, with extra notes (called "blue notes") added like this C Eflat Gflat G A Bflat C. Blue notes do not normally fit a scale, but they give the music a special feeling. Lyric pattern The lyrics (words) are usually about life, more specifically, the bad things in life. They are simple blues songs that are also based around the form of 3 phrases. The first phrase is set over the first 4 bars of music. The second phrase words are a repetition of the first phrase, this always happens and emphasises the message. The third phrase completes the "story" and rhymes (ends with the same sound) as the first line. This verse from Robert Johnson's "Crossroad Blues" shows how these phrases work in a song: I went to the crossroads, fell down on my knees I went to the crossroads, fell down on my knees Asked the Lord above, have mercy now, save poor Bob if you please Blues influenced music The blues have made a difference in newer American and Western popular music, such as jazz, bluegrass, rhythm and blues, rock and roll, hip-hop, and country music, as well as common pop songs. Notable blues musicians Blind Blake (c. 1893-c. 1933) Bobby 'Blue' Bland Big Bill Broonzy (1893/1898-1958) Eric Clapton Albert Collins Robert Cray (born 1953) Willie Dickson Lowell Fulson Buddy Guy (born 1936) Earl Hooker John Lee Hooker (1917 - 2003) Howlin Wolf Etta James(1938 - 2012) Robert Johnson (1909/1912-1938) Albert King B. B. King (born 1925) Fredie King Leadbelly (1885-1949) Little Walter Louisiana Red (1932) Taj Mahal (musician) (born 1942) Magic Sam Memphis Slim (1915-1988) Ma Rainey (1886-1939) Bessie Smith (1894-1937) Mamie Smith (1883-1946) Tanpa Red Big Joe Turner (1911-1985) Stevie Ray Vaughan (1954-1990) T-Bone Walker (1910-1975) Muddy Waters (1915-1983) Johnnie 'Guitar' Watson Junior Wells Barry White References Other websites Blues Foundation Blues Classroom from the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) African-American history
Macroeconomics studies large-scale economic decisions. For example, a whole country's economy (or, its economic output) is summarised by the GDP (gross domestic product). Many governments use macroeconomic ideas to decide how much tax to collect and what interest rates should be. It also considers the amount of unemployment, the rate that prices go up (inflation), and the exchange rates of its currency. The exchange rate affects the amount of imports and exports. Exchange rates and taxation are "levers of the economy". Less dramatic, but also very important, are decisions about government spending inside the country. Such policy decisions are politically controversial due to differing political ideas on government spending. Another factor in macroeconomics is the make-up of the population. A growing population is economically different from a stable population (one which is not growing). Sources Blanchard, Olivier 2011. Macroeconomics updated. 5th ed, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Related pages Microeconomics Constitutional economics Political economy
Game theory is the study of how and why people make decisions. (Specifically, it is "the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers".) It helps people understand parts of science and politics. An alternative term suggested "as a more descriptive name for the discipline" is interactive decision theory. In the Cold War period, the strategic decisions of the United States and the Soviet Union were sometimes viewed as an exercise in game theory. In that case the "players" being studied were the United States and the Soviet Union. Game theory is not just about games, but how and why businesses make decisions, and just about any decision based on valuing likely outcomes. In game theory, all of these situations are "games" since the people involved make choices based on how they value the possible outcomes of the choices. This is true even of cases where the decisions of a single person only affect that one person. Game theory is found in the financial choices people make, and is found in the study of economics. Prisoner's Dilemma One example is the prisoner's dilemma. It gives an example where co-operation may not be the "best choice" in game theory. Suppose two people are arrested for a crime, and the police are uncertain which person committed the crime, and which person abetted the crime. Each is given a choice: If each remains silent, they are both soon released. If one betrays the other, the betrayer goes free, and the other is imprisoned for a long time. If each betrays the other, they both are held for a shorter time. If you are a prisoner in this situation and you only care about yourself, the way to get the smallest sentence is to betray the other prisoner. No matter what, you get a shorter sentence when you betray than when you do not. Imagine a situation where you are one of the prisoners, if the other prisoner stays silent and does not betray, then betraying means you do not go to jail at all instead of going to jail for 6 months. If the other prisoner betrays, then betraying lets you go to jail for 2 years instead of 10 years. In short, "betrayal" is the best strategy, and is called the "dominant strategy." Variations The prisoner's dilemma does not have same result if some of the details are different. If the prisoners (or countries) can talk with each other and plan for the future, they might both decide to cooperate (not betray) because they hope that will make the other country help them in the future. In game theory, this is called a "repeated game." If the players are altruistic (if they care about each other), they might be okay with going to jail so they can help the other person. Philosophy Game theory has also been used in philosophy. Responding to two papers by W.V.O. Quine from 1960 and 1967, used game theory to develop a philosophical account of convention {norm}. With this, he provided the first analysis of common knowledge and used it to analyze play in coordination games. In addition, he first suggested that it is possible to understand meaning in terms of signaling games. This suggestion has been pursued by several philosophers since Lewis. Edna Ullmann-Margalit (1977) and Bicchieri (2006) developed theories of social norms. They define them as Nash equilibria which arise from transforming a mixed-motive game into a coordination game. Game theory has also challenged philosophers to think in terms of interactive Epistemology: what it means for a collective to have common beliefs or knowledge, and what are the consequences of this knowledge for the social outcomes resulting from agents' interactions. Philosophers who have worked in this area include Bicchieri (1989, 1993), Skyrms (1990), and Stalnaker (1999). Using the ethics part of philosophy pursues Thomas Hobbes' project of deriving morality from self-interest. Since games like the Prisoner's dilemma present an apparent conflict between morality and self-interest, explaining why cooperation is required by self-interest is an important part of this project. This general strategy is a component of the general Social contract view in Political philosophy (for examples, see and ). Other authors have attempted to use evolutionary game theory to explain the emergence of human attitudes about morality and corresponding animal behaviors. These authors look at several games including the prisoner's dilemma, Stag hunt, and the Nash bargaining game as providing an explanation for the emergence of attitudes about morality (see, e.g., and ). References Economic theories Game theory

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