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Which Boeing airliner made its maiden flight in September 1981? | 33 Years Ago – Boeing 757 Makes First Flight (1982) | From The Archives
33 Years Ago – Boeing 757 Makes First Flight (1982)
Comments 6
The Boeing 757 made its first flight on Feb. 19, 1982, and it was not without its challenges. The aircraft’s engine indication and crew alerting system (EICAS), then a new feature in Boeing’s 757/767 ‘glass cockpit’ design, indicated a stall in the No. 2 Rolls-Royce RB.211-535C engine which was running at flight idle. Test pilot Lew Wallick later recalled the EICAS first indicated a problem by flashing up a warning about low oil pressure in the engine, followed by an amber light on the caution panel.
Wallick said that an attempt to increase power by advancing the throttles failed, with the EICAS confirming the engine was outside the windmill-start envelope. A normal air start was carried out and the aircraft landed normally at Paine Field in Everett, Wash., after a 2-hr., 31-min. flight.
The incident, although an unfortunate event to occur on a first flight, proved the value of the new systems on the 757 and showed that the new technology behind the controversial move from a three-person to a two-person crew was sound. Wallick later said that “even with a flight engineer, we wouldn’t have caught it until the hard-wired light came on, unless you were looking at those gauges as it happened.”
Aviation Week & Space Technology reported the flight in its March 1 edition, but a photo of the 757 in flight would not make the magazine’s cover for two more weeks. The airliner was certified in December, 1982 and entered service with Eastern Airlines on Jan. 1, 1983.
727stretch
on Feb 20, 2015
There was an article on Leeham News about the engine issue itself. There isn't an engine, and that's the problem. A new one will need to be developed in the 40k lb thrust range, as the existing A320/B737 family engines cannot scale up that far. Supposedly the new PW Geared turbofan, or a derivative of such, may be able to scale up that far but it said that'd be 10+ years down the road if at all.
GONE
on Feb 21, 2015
GE / CFM-56 LEAP 1A is already past the 32K mark. I doubt it'd take ten years to get to 40K. Can it scale up? Or, maybe an RB-211 de-rated.. those Brits have all sorts of tricks up their sleeves.
| 767 |
Mother Gothel, Vladimir and Flynn Rider are all characters in which 2010 Disney film? | DaddyBobPhotos.com - Aircraft
The Boeing Company is an American multinational aerospace and defense corporation. Founded in 1916 by William E. Boeing in Seattle, Washington, the company has expanded over the years, and merged with McDonnell Douglas in 1997. Boeing moved its corporate headquarters from Seattle to Chicago, Illinois, in 2001. Boeing is made up of multiple business units, which are Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA); Boeing Defense, Space & Security (BDS); Engineering, Operations & Technology; Boeing Capital; and Boeing Shared Services Group.
Boeing is among the largest global aircraft manufacturers, and the third largest aerospace and defense contractor in the world based on defense-related revenue. The company is the largest exporter by value in the US, and its stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.
In March 1910, William E. Boeing bought Heath's shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which later became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15, 1916, as "Pacific Aero Products Co.". Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry, where he became wealthy and acquired knowledge about wooden structures. This knowledge would prove invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the local supply of Spruce wood.
William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two "B&W" seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U.S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft. Boeing bought a Glenn Martin "Flying Birdcage" seaplane (so called because of all the guy-wires holding it together) and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Boeing realized he could build his own plane in that amount of time. He and his friend Cdr. G.C. Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a lakeside hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattle's Lake Union. Many of Boeing's early planes were seaplanes.
On May 9, 1917, the company became the "Boeing Airplane Company". In late 1917, the US entered World War I and Boeing knew that the US Navy needed seaplanes for training. So Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C so much that they ordered fifty more. The company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River.
When World War I ended in 1918, a large surplus of cheap, used military planes flooded the commercial airplane market, and this prevented aircraft companies like Boeing from selling any new airplanes. Because of this, many airplane companies went out of business, but other companies, including Boeing, started selling other products. Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds.
Milestones
In 1923, Boeing began a competition against Curtiss for a contract to develop a pursuit fighter for the U.S. Army Air Service. Although Curtiss finished its design first and was awarded the contract, Boeing continued to develop its PW-9 fighter. That plane, along with the Boeing P-12/ F4B fighter, made Boeing a leading manufacturer of fighters over the course of the next decade.
In 1925, Boeing built its Model 40 mail plane for the US government to use on airmail routes. In 1927, an improved version of this plane was built, the Model 40A. The 40A won the U.S. Post Office's contract to deliver mail between San Francisco and Chicago. The 40A also had a passenger cabin that accommodated two passengers.
On July 27, 1929, the 12-passenger Boeing 80 biplane made its first flight. With three engines, it was Boeing's first plane built with the sole intention of being a passenger transport. An upgraded version, the 80A, carrying eighteen passengers, made its first flight in September 1929. [12]
In 1930, the Monomail, a low-wing monoplane that carried mail, was built. Built entirely out of metal, it was very fast and aerodynamic, and it also had retractable landing gear. In fact, its design was so revolutionary that the engines and propellers of the time could not handle the plane. By the time controllable pitch propellers were developed, Boeing was building its Model 247 airliner. Two Monomails were built. The second one, the Model 221, had a 6-passenger cabin.
In 1933 the revolutionary Boeing 247 was introduced, the first truly modern airliner. The 247 was an all-metal low-wing monoplane that was much faster, safer, and easier to fly than other passenger aircraft. For example, it was the first twin engine passenger aircraft that could fly on one engine. In an era of unreliable engines, this vastly improved flight safety. Boeing built the first sixty aircraft exclusively for its own United Airlines subsidiary's operations. This badly hurt competing airlines, and was typical of the anti-competitive corporate behavior that the US government sought to prohibit at the time.
In 1938, Boeing completed work on its Model 307 Stratoliner. This was the world’s first pressurized-cabin transport aircraft, and it was capable of cruising at an altitude of 20,000 feet (6,100 m) – above most weather disturbances. It was based on the B-17, using the same wings, tail and engines.
During World War II, Boeing built a large number of B-17 and B-29 bombers. Many of the workers were women whose husbands had gone to war. In the beginning of March 1944, production had been scaled up in such a manner that over 350 planes were built each month. To prevent an attack from the air, the manufacturing plants had been covered with greenery and farmland items. During these years of war the leading aircraft companies of the US cooperated. The Boeing-designed B-17 bomber was assembled also by Lockheed Aircraft Corp. and Douglas Aircraft Co., while the B-29 was assembled also by Bell Aircraft Co. and by Glenn L. Martin Company.
Boeing developed military jets such as the B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress bombers in the late-1940s and into the 1950s. During the early 1950s, Boeing used company funds to develop the 367–80 jet airliner demonstrator that led to the KC-135 Stratotanker and Boeing 707 jetliner.
In 1958, Boeing began delivery of its 707, the United States' first commercial jet airliner, in response to the British De Havilland Comet, French Sud Aviation Caravelle and Soviet Tupolev Tu-104, which were the world’s first generation of commercial jet aircraft. With the 707, a four-engine, 156-passenger airliner, the US became a leader in commercial jet manufacture. A few years later, Boeing added a second version of this aircraft, the 720, which was slightly faster and had a shorter range.
Vertol Aircraft Corporation was acquired by Boeing in 1960, and was reorganized as Boeing's Vertol division. The twin-rotor CH-47 Chinook, produced by Vertol, took its first flight in 1961. This heavy-lift helicopter remains a work-horse vehicle up to the present day. In 1964, Vertol also began production of the CH-46 Sea Knight.
In December 1960, Boeing announced the model 727 jetliner, which went into commercial service about three years later. Different passenger, freight and convertible freighter variants were developed for the 727. The 727 was the first commercial jetliner to reach 1000 sales, and a few years later the 1500 mark was reached.
In 1967, Boeing introduced another short- and medium-range airliner, the twin-engine 737. It has become since then the best-selling commercial jet aircraft in aviation history. The 737 is still being produced, and continuous improvements are made. Several versions have been developed, mainly to increase seating capacity and range.
In January 1970, the first 747, a four-engine long-range airliner, flew its first commercial flight. This famous aircraft completely changed the way of flying, with its 450-passenger seating capacity and its upper deck. Boeing has delivered nearly 1,400 747s. The 747 has undergone continuous improvements to keep it technologically up-to-date. Larger versions have also been developed by stretching the upper deck. As of 2012, the 747 is still being produced, with its newest version being the 747-8.
In April 1994, Boeing introduced the most modern commercial jet aircraft at the time, the twin-engine 777, with a seating capacity of approximately 300 to 370 passengers in a typical three-class layout, in between the 767 and the 747. The longest range twin-engined aircraft in the world, the 777 was the first Boeing airliner to feature a "fly-by-wire" system and was conceived partly in response to the inroads being made by the European Airbus into Boeing’s traditional market. This aircraft reached an important milestone by being the first airliner to be designed entirely by using computer-aided design (CAD) techniques. The 777 was also the first airplane to be certified for 180 minute ETOPS at entry into service by the FAA.
In August 1997, Boeing merged with McDonnell Douglas in a US$13 billion stock swap under the name The Boeing Company. However this name had actually been Boeing's official name previously adopted on May 21, 1961. Following the merger, the McDonnell Douglas MD-95 was renamed the Boeing 717, and the production of the MD-11 was limited to the freighter version. Boeing introduced a new corporate identity with completion of the merger, incorporating the Boeing logo type and a stylized version of the McDonnell Douglas symbol, which was derived from the Douglas Aircraft logo from the 1970s.
n September 2001, Boeing moved its corporate headquarters from Seattle to Chicago. Chicago, Dallas and Denver – vying to become the new home of the world’s largest aerospace concern – all had offered packages of multimillion-dollar tax breaks. Its offices are located in the Fulton River District, Chicago just outside the Loop, Chicago.
Boeing has achieved several consecutive launches, beginning with the formal launch of the 787 for initial delivery to All Nippon Airways. Rollout of the first 787 occurred on July 8, 2007, with the first flight taking place on December 15, 2009.
In May 2006, four concept designs being examined by Boeing were outlined in The Seattle Times based on corporate internal documents. The research aims in two directions: low-cost airplanes, and environmental-friendly planes. Codenamed after the well-known Muppets, a design team known as the Green Team concentrated primarily on reducing fuel usage. All four designs illustrated rear-engine layouts.
"Fozzie" employs open rotors and would offer a lower cruising speed.
"Beaker" has very thin, long wings, with the ability to partially fold-up to facilitate easier taxiing.
"Kermit Kruiser" has forward swept wings over which are positioned its engines, with the aim of lowering noise below due to the reflection of the exhaust signature upward.
"Honeydew" with its delta wing design, resembles a marriage of the flying wing concept and the traditional tube fuselage.
As with most concepts, these designs are only in the exploratory stage, intended to help Boeing evaluate the potentials of such radical technologies.
Commercial Aircraft
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Which marsupial has the Latin name Phascolarctos cinereus? | Koala Information
Usually, koalas produce only a single young, rarely twins are born.
At birth, the young is about 19 mm in length and weighs about 0.5 g.
At 7 weeks, the young has a head length of about 26 mm. The head is large in proportion to the rest of the body.
By 13 weeks, the young has attained a body weight of about 50 g and a head length of 50 mm.
At about 22 weeks of age, the eyes open and the young begins to poke its head out of the pouch for the first time.
By 24 weeks of age, the cub is fully furred and the first teeth erupt.
At 30 weeks, the cub weighs about 0.5 kg and has a head length of 70 mm. It now spends most of the time out of the pouch clinging to the mother's belly.
Some 6 weeks later, the cub weighs 1 kg and no longer enters the pouch. It spends much of the time sitting on the mother's back, but returns to the mother's belly in cold, wet weather and to sleep.
At 37 weeks, the cub moves from contact with the mother; the excursions were brief and quickly terminated if the mother moved.
At 44 weeks, the cub still ventures less than a meter from the mother.
By 48 weeks, the cub is more adventurous and no longer squeaked when the mother was removed. At this age, mother and cub are often seen sleeping back to back.
The cub remains with the mother until about 12 months of age when it weighs a little over 2 kg.
From: The Koala: A Natural History by Anthony Lee & Roger Martin
Koala Physiology
Unlike bears or seals, koalas do not rely on a layer of fat below the skin as a form of insulation.
Blood flow to extremities in cold weather, as in humans, can be reduced, resulting in the conservation of heat.
Shivering has also been observed in cold climes as a means of creating heat through rapid contractions of certain muscles. This seems to occur when outdoor temperatures drop below 10 degrees Centigrade.
When temperatures exceed 25-30 degrees Centigrade, koalas use evaporative cooling in their airways to regulate body temperature by increasing respiration rates. They can simultaneously reduce water loss by decreasing the amount of water in their urine.
From: Koalas - Australia's Ancient Ones by Ken Phillips
More Koala Facts
Koalas don't live in families, but are solitary animals.
Koalas sleep as long as 18 hours a day and have a low-energy diet of eucalyptus leaves.
Koalas are not "drunk" or otherwise intoxicated by their leaves.
Although koalas obtain most of their water from leaves -- the name koala is thought to mean "no drink" in several native Aboriginal tongues -- they do occasionally drink water at the edges of streams.
From: Koalas - Australia's Ancient Ones by Ken Phillips
| Koala |
Which animal has the highest known blood pressure of any mammal in the world? | Phascolarctus cinereus - definition of Phascolarctus cinereus by The Free Dictionary
Phascolarctus cinereus - definition of Phascolarctus cinereus by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Phascolarctus+cinereus
(kō-ä′lə)
n.
An arboreal Australian marsupial (Phascolarctos cinereus) that has dense grayish fur, large ears, and sharp claws and feeds chiefly on the leaves of eucalyptus trees.
[Probably from misreading of earlier coola, koolah, from Dharuk gula, gulawany.]
koala
koala bear
n
(Animals) a slow-moving Australian arboreal marsupial, Phascolarctus cinereus, having dense greyish fur and feeding on eucalyptus leaves and bark. Also called (Austral): native bear
[from a native Australian language]
ko•a•la
a gray, tree-dwelling Australian marsupial, Phascolarctos cinereus, resembling a teddy bear.
[1800–10; erroneous sp. for earlier koola(h) < Dharuk gú-la]
ko·a·la
(kō-ä′lə)
A tree-dwelling Australian marsupial that resembles a small bear. Koalas have grayish fur, large ears, and sharp claws, and they feed exclusively on leaves and shoots of the eucalyptus tree.
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
Noun
1.
koala - sluggish tailless Australian arboreal marsupial with grey furry ears and coat; feeds on eucalyptus leaves and bark
opossum , phalanger , possum - small furry Australian arboreal marsupials having long usually prehensile tails
Translations
كوالاكوالا: حيوان أسترالي يُشْبِه الدب
koala
[kəʊˈɑːlə] N (also koala bear) → koala m
koala
[kəʊˈɑːlə] n (also koala bear) → koala m
koala
n (also koala bear) → Koala (bär) m
koala
[kəʊˈɑːlə] n (also koala bear) → koala m inv
koala (bear)
(kouˈaːlə) noun
a type of Australian tree-climbing animal that looks like a small bear, the female of which carries her baby in a pouch. koala(beer) كوالا: حيوان أسترالي يُشْبِه الدب коала coala koala der Koala(-bär) koala κοάλα koala koaala کوالا koala koala דוֹב קוֹאָלָה भालू जैसा जानवर koala koala koala kóalabjörn, pokabjörn coala コアラ 코알라 koala koala lācis beruang koala koala pungbjørn , koala koala كوالا coala (urs) koala коала koala koala koala koala หมีโคอาลา keseli ayı, koala 無尾熊 коала آسٹریلیا کا ایک کیسہ دار جانور جس کی مادہ بچوں کو تھیلی میں لے کر گھومتی ہے gấu túi 树袋熊（无尾熊）
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Who was appointed manager of the England football team in May 2012? | Roy Hodgson appointed England manager by FA - BBC Sport
BBC Sport
Roy Hodgson appointed England manager by FA
1 May 2012
Media playback is not supported on this device
Roy Hodgson news conference in full
Roy Hodgson has been appointed England manager on a four-year contract.
The West Brom boss succeeds Fabio Capello after talks with the Football Association on Monday and Tuesday.
Hodgson - a varied career
Born in Croydon in 1947
Played for Gravesend & Northfleet, Maidstone and South African side Berea Park
Started managerial career at Swedish side Halmstad in 1976
Has managed in Sweden, England, Switzerland, Italy, Denmark and Norway
Managed Inter Milan during two spells in the 1990s
Coached Switzerland at 1994 World Cup, was in charge of UAE from 2002 to 2004 and Finland between 2005 and 2007
Managed Blackburn, Fulham and Liverpool in the Premier League and moved to West Brom in February 2011
Full Hodgson factfile
He will remain in charge of the Baggies for their last two games of the Premier League season.
The 64-year-old will lead his country after managing 18 teams, including three national sides, during a coaching career spanning 36 years.
"Let's hope we can get everybody behind us and make certain that we work as a team and help the team get the results everyone in England expects and wants," said Hodgson.
Hodgson's contract at West Brom runs out on 30 June but the Premier League club said they have agreed to release him after their final game of the season on 13 May so he can prepare for Euro 2012.
England have two friendlies, at Norway on 26 May and home to Belgium on 2 June, before their first match in the tournament in Poland and Ukraine against France on 11 June.
The Football Association said in a statement it was "delighted" to announce the appointment of Hodgson, whose contract also covers the 2014 World Cup and Euro 2016.
Media playback is not supported on this device
The men who managed England
"Hodgson has won a total of eight league titles in a distinguished career, and coached the national teams of Switzerland, Finland and the United Arab Emirates," it added.
"Along with his vast experience of international and European football, Hodgson is the only English manager currently working in the top flight to have won the League Managers' Association Manager of the Year award."
The FA announced on Sunday it had approached Hodgson for the job despite widepsread speculation linking Tottenham boss Harry Redknapp with the vacancy after Capello quit in February.
Hodgson guided Switzerland to the 1994 World Cup and the side achieved a Fifa ranking of third in the world as they qualified for Euro 1996.
His former clubs include Inter Milan, Blackburn, Grasshoppers, FC Copenhagen, Fulham and Liverpool. He has also managed in Norway and Sweden, and been a member of Fifa and Uefa's technical study groups at tournaments.
Hodgson's Premier League record
1.40
Hodgson leaves West Brom after 15 months at the club.
Chairman Jeremy Peace said: "We did not want Roy to leave and he will be a tough act to follow.
"But we understand Roy's desire to take the England job and he will leave us after the Arsenal game on 13 May with our best wishes.
"Of course, with Euro 2012 around the corner, we appreciate that some of Roy's focus over the next 12 days will be on England matters. But we are delighted he will be seeing the season out with us.
"The board will now concentrate on the important task of appointing a new head coach to continue our project as we prepare for a third successive season in the Premier League."
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Hodgson appointment not based on cost - Bernstein
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In June 1957, John Diefenbaker became Prime Minister of which country? | 'I'm hoping everyone will get behind the team' says new England manager Roy Hodgson | The Independent
'I'm hoping everyone will get behind the team' says new England manager Roy Hodgson
Tuesday 1 May 2012 16:06 BST
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'I'm hoping everyone will get behind the team' says new England manager Roy Hodgson
1/2
Roy Hodgson at today's press conference
GETTY IMAGES
Roy Hodgson pictured arriving at Wembley yesterday
GETTY IMAGES
Roy Hodgson at today's press conference
The FA have appointed Roy Hodgson as the new England manager.
The West Brom boss has signed a four-year deal which will take him to the end of Euro 2016 in France.
The FA confirmed their decision at 3pm today following four-hour long talks held yesterday and further discussions this morning between the 64-year-old and the four members of the Club England board charged with appointing a successor to Fabio Capello, who resigned in February.
Speaking at this afternoon's conference, Hodgson expressed his delight but was quick to call on the support of the fans.
"It is a very proud day for me, I'm a very happy man to be offered the chance to manage my country," he said.
"I'm looking forward to the task ahead. Everyone knows it is not an easy one but I'm hoping that everyone, fans and supporters will get behind the team.
"It's the team that counts, they go out and win football matches. What I'll do is try to make sure the team is well prepared for the challenge ahead. I'm really looking forward to it."
Since emerging as the FA's preferred choice, Hodgson has come under scrutiny from fans and some sections of the press. Asked if that scrutiny was something he had taken into consideration before accepting the role, Hodgson replied, "No."
Speaking about England's hopes at Euro 2012, Hodgson said: "I think England always have to go into tournaments to win them because we are a major football nation. The players would be disappointed if we didn't expect less of them than trying to win the tournament. It's always a big job to win people over and it's important first of all to have the chance."
The FA said that from a short-list of candidates, "Roy emerged as the outstanding candidate." They also confirmed that the decision to appoint Hodgson was a "unanimous" one.
Pushed to answer questions about Harry Redknapp, who was considered by many to be the favourite for the role, the FA refused to speak about individuals, although revealed there had been more than two names on the short-list.
"We decided a month ago that Roy Hodgson was the preferred candidate. This was not a two-man race. There were other candidates."
Sir Trevor Brooking, a member of the Club England board, said that the process of approaching a single manager "gives him [Hodgson] a really good platform." He also warned of the challenge ahead, telling the press conference: "It's going to be a tough job, whoever the manager is."
Hodgson himself said on the subject: "I've got great respect for Harry. He sent me a voicemail message. He's been very gracious. I hope we stay friends. We have unwittingly become rivals."
It was revealed at the press conference that the suggested date of May 10 to announce the squad for Euro 2012 had been put back.
Hodgson said: "It's going to be difficult, of course, but I've hopefully got a lot of time to think and a make decision [on the squad]. All players are pretty well known to me despite not having worked with many of them. It's important after this press conference to get down to work - we will put back announcing the squad until after the last game of the season so that I've done as much research and spoken to as many people as possible."
The FA also said that Hodgson's appointment was not based on financial motivations.
Questioning at the press conference led on some of the major issues dogging the national team, including the subject of John Terry's compatibility with Rio Ferdinand and the England captaincy.
"I think the important thing is for me to speak to as many people as possible and John and Rio will be two I need to speak to," said Hodgson.
On the captaincy he said: "That's another issue that we'll have to carefully think about. In the days ahead, it will be one of the things that I will have to look at."
Wayne Rooney is suspended for the first two games of Euro 2012, but it appears that Hodgson will be taking the Manchester United forward with him to Poland and Ukraine.
"I'm looking forward very much to Wayne Rooney coming to the Euros with us and his contribution, albeit that he can't play the first two games," he said.
One player he won't be taking to Poland and Ukraine is Jack Wilshere, who will miss the tournament through injury. Yet the Arsenal midfielder was the first England international to take to Twitter this afternoon to back the appointment.
"Not many have the experience that Roy Hodgson has - proved he is a top manager at international level so I don't see any reason why he can't do it. For England... good choice in my opinion! Good luck and I hope I can help him in some way in the future!"
Discussing the prospect of linking up with the squad, many of whom publicly backed Redknapp for the role, Hodgson appeared relaxed.
"Every coach has to win over players, it's part of your job," he said.
"It won't be the first time I'm meeting a group of players, many of whom I don't know, but given my CV and the work I've done over the years I don't have any problems with it.
"My job is to make certain that players are united behind the cause. Our cause is a very big one: we're England, it interests a lot of people.
"I'm expecting everyone in England to support their England football team and get behind the team and myself.
"What we'll be trying to do is give England the type of successful football team we've been looking for since 1966."
Hodgson's critics have pointed to his ill-fated six-month spell at Liverpool as cause for concern. At today's press conference, the former Fulham manager met the issue straight on.
"I'm prepared. The fact is I took it (pressure and criticism) at Liverpool and I'll take it here," he said.
"But the Liverpool chapter is in the past and I'm concentrating on the future. There are lots of other chapters in my past I could concentrate on if I wanted to that would put a smile on my face.
"(Former club) Inter, I would submit, wasn't exactly too easy when it comes to scrutiny and size of club.
"The England manager's job is the pinnacle of success for every English manager and it certainly brings with it a lot of scrutiny and criticism and I have to be prepared for that."
The FA statement released ahead of today's press conference read: "The Football Association is delighted to announce the appointment of Roy Hodgson as England manager.
"Joining from West Bromwich Albion, Hodgson has agreed a four-year deal to become the full-time manager of the Three Lions.
"Hodgson, aged 64, who has won a total of eight league titles in a distinguished career, and coached the national teams of Switzerland, Finland and the United Arab Emirates, met with FA officials at Wembley on Monday.
"Having taken Switzerland to the FIFA World Cup in 1994 - their first Finals competition for 28 years - Hodgson also achieved a FIFA ranking of third in the world as well as successfully qualifying the team for Euro 96.
"His former clubs include Inter Milan, Blackburn Rovers, Grasshoppers, FC Copenhagen, Fulham and Liverpool. He has also managed in Norway and Sweden.
"In addition, he has been a regular member of FIFA and UEFA's technical study groups at tournaments.
"Along with his vast experience of international and European football, Hodgson is the only English manager currently working in the top flight to have won the League Managers' Association manager of the year award."
This long-term appointment will see Hodgson manage the national team in Poland and Ukraine this summer, the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, and Euro 2016 in France.
Before he takes up the reigns full-time at Wembley, he must first see out the season at West Brom. The Midlanders have two Premier League games remaining, against Bolton and Arsenal. Although the FA have agreed that he will be released for England duties when required.
Baggies chairman Jeremy Peace said: "Roy's appointment as England manager is obviously disappointing news for the club as we would have liked him to sign a new contract, which was in the process of negotiation, and remain as our head coach.
"But we understand Roy's desire to take the England job and he will leave us after the Arsenal game on May 13 with our best wishes.
"Of course, with Euro 2012 around the corner, we appreciate that some of Roy's focus over the next 12 days will be on England matters.
"But we are delighted he will be seeing the season out with us.
"With the help of the coaching staff, he will prepare the team in his usual, meticulous manner as we finish what has already been a successful season."
West Brom players have been airing their support for their departing manager. Chris Brunt tweeted: "Congratulations to Roy Hodgson he will do a good job for England like he has done for us over last 18 month. Great coach and a good man."
While Steven Reid also took to Twitter to say: "Good luck to Roy Hodgson. Been a pleasure working with him. Brought the club forward massively!"
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Which British singer and musician is known as ‘The Modfather’? | Paul Weller, Eventim Apollo: 'the modfather remains a dynamic force'
Paul Weller, Eventim Apollo: 'the modfather remains a dynamic force'
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5 December 2015 • 10:27pm
Former Jam singer delivered his new set with full-throated gusto, says Pete Naughton
Apart from David Bowie , it’s hard to think of any British solo artist who’s had as varied, long-lasting and determinedly forward-looking a career as Paul Weller. The man fondly known as the Modfather now has a CV that spans five decades and 22 albums – six with mod groundbreakers The Jam, four more soulful outings with The Style Council and 12 notably diverse solo records – without ever having succumbed to the kind of “those were the days” nostalgia that often grips rockers of a certain age.
It’s also hard to think of a British solo artist – or any long-serving musician, for that matter – who remains as untouched by the ravages of time. Walking out onto the stage at the Hammersmith Apollo on Friday night, nattily togged out in a blue blazer, black collarless shirt and shiny grey slacks and with a Fender Telecaster slung around his neck, he looked as slim, lithe and gig-ready as he did in the Thatcher years. The crowd, many of them inwardly wishing that they did too, erupted, and Weller launched into I’m Where I Should Be, a pulsing, electro-rock number from his latest record, 2015’s Saturns Patterns (sic).
Over the following two hours, Weller and his fiercely well-drilled five-piece band – two drummers, a bassist, a keyboardist and former Ocean Colour Scene guitarist Steve Cradock – powered through a 27-song set that’s been finely tuned over months of touring this year. There were songs from almost every period of his career, from the bossa-nova-inflected pop of the Style Council’s Ever Had It Blue to the dreamy R&B balladry of 1992’s Above the Clouds, to the edgy, synth-driven indie of Paperchase, from 2012’s Sonik Kicks. Weller was an impressively dynamic force throughout, delivering vocals with full-throated gusto, jumping adeptly between guitar and stage piano, barely pausing for breath between numbers.
The only disappointments of the evening came from the Apollo’s acoustics, which rendered some of Weller’s newer, rhythmically experimental material almost unlistenable: Saturns Pattern, for instance, is an ineffably catchy, multi-layered pop number on the 2015 record from which it takes its name, but which lost its bite entirely in performance. All was forgiven, though, by the time the band launched into a rip-roaring encore of The Jam’s A Town Called Malice, which brought the venue to its feet – and which felt every bit as improbably youthful as the man belting it out on stage.
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What is a female hippopotamus called? | Paul Weller: The Story Of The Modfather | Live4ever Media
Paul Weller: The Story Of The Modfather
By Live4ever - Posted on 25 May 2010 at 7:52am
Happy Birthday to Paul Weller, who celebrates his 52nd birthday today. To mark the event we take a look through his extraordinary career, which is going as strong as ever over thirty years since he first burst onto the music scene.
When Paul Weller walked away from The Jam at the end of 1982 it was another impulsive move from a fiercely ambitious, driven man who in just five years had earned a reputation as one of the most engaging and creative songwriters of his time.
In doing so, he had taken his group from the brink of failure after the release of their second album to the biggest in Britain. At the age of just 24, he was the frontman of a band enjoying success in the UK not seen since The Beatles, a hero to millions of fans. But now he had left at the height of their powers to pursue completely new avenues.
His story was far from over.
Born 1958 in Surrey, Paul was named John William Weller by his parents John, a taxi driver and Ann, a part-time cleaner. By the age of fourteen, inspired by the legendary British bands of his youth, Weller had already formed The Jam, initially taking up the role as bass player alongside childhood friends Steve Brookes and Dave Waller.
After playing gigs organised by his father in various working men’s clubs, Weller and co. were soon joined on drums by Rick Buckler before Brookes, unhappy with the direction his band was going in, was replaced by Bruce Foxton. With Brookes departed, the classic Jam line-up had taken shape as Weller and Foxton exchanged guitar duties and, after making steady progress on the London club scene, they signed to Polydor Records.
By 1977, they were ready to record their first album.
Weller with his Jam bandmates Foxton (far left) & Buckler (centre)
The trio emerged with debut record ‘In The City‘ in the May of ’77, led by the title-track and lead single which instantly highlighted Weller’s knack for social commentary and became an instant anthem for the youth of the day.
Released at the height of the punk scene, the album pushed The Jam to the forefront of the movement, yet it was clear to everyone that this was a band by no means falling in line with the self-imposed ideologies of punk. Indeed, their successes would transcend far beyond punk’s implosion not long after.
Weller made no secret of his love for punk, both in its power and attitude, but his rebellious streak and contempt for authority, which had been apparent right from his school days, made it impossible for him to ever fall in line with the genre’s traditional ethos.
The Jam happily championed the sixities British acts which were sneered at by so many of punk’s leading lights, while their habit of playing in matching suits also helped to distinguish themselves from the DIY style of the era, and was an obvious two-fingered gesture to any rules being laid down by their rivals. It put The Jam as close to The Beatles as they were to the Sex Pistols.
Following their debut release, it was far from a smooth ride for Weller and The Jam. Although the non-LP single ‘All Around The World‘ of July 1977 had further confirmed the band’s rising status in the UK, under pressure to lay down a new album as quickly as possible the second effort ‘This Is The Modern World‘ was widely seen as a critical and commercial failure.
With Weller’s confidence stung by this disappointment, attention subsequently turned to bassist Bruce Foxton, who had contributed songwriting to the band’s earlier efforts, to be the driving force behind their third studio LP. The excellent Foxton-penned single ‘News Of The World‘ handed The Jam a top 30 hit in March 1978, and they re-entered the studio intent on recording an album driven by their bass player.
It wasn’t to be; the sessions broke down with producer Chris Parry dismissing the new tracks as sub-standard. After climbing the mountain with ease, they had just as quickly come close to falling off the edge. At a critical time Weller, who had lost all interest in writing, returned home looking for fresh inspiration. Reaching back to his earliest influences, especially The Kinks, Weller’s first mini-crisis was averted, and the band were soon back in the studio led by a re-invigorated talisman armed with a host of new songs.
An undoubted success, the result of those sessions, ‘All Mod Cons‘, is Weller’s first true classic. Released towards the end of 1978, The Jam’s third studio album instantly blew away any doubt which had been hanging over the band since the release of ‘This Is The Modern World‘. The record presents Weller truly finding his feet as a songwriter, skilfully combining the power and passion of punk with the classic sounds of his early heroes, as well as offering the first signs of a desire to explore other genres of music in his writing.
‘All Mod Cons‘ is packed with instant classics from start to finish; tracks such as ‘A-Bomb In Wardour Street‘ and ‘To Be Someone (Didn’t We Have a Nice Time?)‘ continued the sharp line tradition of The Jam’s debut, yet with tracks such as ‘In The Crowd‘ and ‘English Rose‘, Weller also displayed a love for soul and classic R n B which would sonically become a big part of The Jam towards the end of their career, and which would dominate Weller’s songwriting for a large part of the next decade.
The cover of ‘David Watts‘ of course offers a nod to one of Weller’s biggest inspirations, Ray Davies, whose band was so crucial in galvanising him following the collapse of the 1978 initial sessions. Closing the album is one of Weller’s finest tracks, ‘Down In The Tube Station At Midnight‘, whose haunting vibe and perfect production tells the story of a vicious mugging deep in the London underground. It handed The Jam another top 10 hit when it was released in October 1978.
Following the achievements of ‘All Mod Cons‘, two more non-album singles soon had The Jam back in the UK Top 20 and the follow-up album ‘Setting Sons‘ arrived in November 1979.
The record further cemented The Jam’s position as one of the most popular bands of the day, and continued the positive critical response first truly achieved with ‘All Mod Cons‘. Originally conceived by Weller as a concept album, it is arguably The Jam’s most ambitious even though the concept was never fully realised. The wider scope and new directions being sought, including an all-strings arrangement of the previous Foxton-written b-side ‘Smithers-Jones‘, were further signs of the group’s move into a more sophisticated sound, of Weller’s deep desire for The Jam to rapidly evolve.
Slightly patchier in quality than their previous effort, the album nevertheless continued the momentum from ‘All Mod Cons’, and also spawned a first Top 5 hit when ‘The Eton Rifles‘, motivated by the late-seventies Right To Work marches, peaked at #3 in November 1979.
‘The Eton Rifles‘ was the first of four successive truly classic singles from the band, and by the time they were ready to release ‘Sound Affects‘ in 1980, a first UK no.1 single had been achieved with ‘Going Underground‘; Paul Weller was well on his way to being considered one of the most talented and important songwriters of his generation.
Fittingly then, ‘Sound Affects‘ confirms Weller as one of the best social commentators of his time – whether as observer or participant. The themes running through the record, epitomised in the brilliant single ‘That’s Entertainment‘, open a window onto British life at the time, helping to make The Jam an important part of the lives of a whole generation.
‘Sound Affects‘ was another genuine classic, and again displayed Weller’s ever increasing move away from traditional British rock which would become still more apparent on their next, and last, album ‘The Gift‘.
Musically diverse, there are still moments of traditional Jam on tracks such as ‘But I’m Different Now‘ and ‘Set The House Ablaze‘, but with influences from an ever growing list of acts and genres, from emerging new wave bands such as Joy Division to Michael Jackson’s seminal ‘Off The Wall‘, the record also continues to reveal a progression in writing, especially on ‘Monday’ and ‘Boy About Town’.
The make-up of ‘The Gift‘, funk, soul and jazz throughout, is a clear indication of where Weller would be going in the future, while the mixed reaction from fans and critics alike showed that he would indeed need to move away from the constraints of The Jam to fully realise his future plans.
Despite the lukewarm response, the record contains moments of brilliance, at a time when The Jam were at their commercial peak. Weller’s knack for classic singles was still in evidence; the double A-side ‘Precious/Town Called Malice‘ becoming their third UK no.1 in January 1982. It was soon after the album’s release when Weller broke the news to his stunned bandmates of his intention to leave the group following the completion of their touring that year. After a final show in Brighton, and with The Jam at no.1 with ‘Beat Surrender‘, Paul stayed true to his word and walked away from the biggest thing in British music at the time.
The Style Council: (l-r) Mick Talbot, Dee C. Lee, Steve White, Paul Weller
While Bruce Foxton and Rick Buckler were left wondering what to do with the rest of their lives, Weller’s vision for his own future was already being realised. Before The Jam had even officially disbanded he was on the phone to keyboardist Mick Talbot and, in search of a soulful female voice for his new project, singer Dee C. Lee. The new direction was immediately apparent when The Style Council released their first single ‘Speak Like a Child‘ in 1983. Weller was out to challenge the misconceptions which had surrounded him during his time in The Jam. The 1984 second album ‘Cafe Bleu‘ brought further re-invention, featuring instrumentals and Weller taking lead vocals on just a handful of tracks.
By the end of 1984, Weller was immersing himself in the political and social issues of eighties Britain, the 1985 album ‘Our Favourite Shop‘ packed with personal views on the contrasting left/right ideals of the period.
In the grandest tradition of The Jam, it gives a real insight into the struggles with unemployment suffered by so many in the UK at the time; despite now being one of the most successful musicians in history, Weller was still able to associate himself with the people he had grown up with, and the LP fittingly became The Style Council’s only UK No.1 in May ’85.
Weller with politicians Livingstone & Kinnock
However, Weller’s association with the doomed Red Wedge initiative – a tour initiated by a selection of acts of in support of the Labour Party – was a step too far which pushed the band deeply into a troubled world of politics at a time of high tension, not only in the UK but in many part of the world.
As a disenfranchised left fought with the electorate’s right, the group courted criticism as the focus centred on politics, and many people began to lose interest in what The Style Council might still have had to offer.
Much of what Paul Weller had envisioned for the group had been achieved, and some new ideas now being pursued were becoming ever more ill-judged (the less said about Jerusalem the better). In total contrast to The Jam, The Style Council were beginning to out stay their welcome. Reviews, which had always been mixed from a gang of critics uneasy with Paul’s change of image, became more vitriolic, and when sales also started to decline The Style Council’s days were inevitably coming to an end.
Towards the end, Weller’s new obsession was the late 80s house scene which was sweeping through Britain and becoming a significant youth movement. Yet his desire to explore this new genre only brought more cynicism. As always, he began to let this new love come through in his songwriting, but this time it provoked an angry response from fans. When their label Polydor also rejected the new dance inspired material in 1989, the game was finally up for The Style Council. Unlike The Jam, it had been a hugely disappointing conclusion, somewhat out of Weller’s control.
An end which would take him years to recover from.
The nature of the demise of The Style Council hit Weller hard, and ushered in a low point in his career. The final years of his second band, particularly the failed move into dance music, had made Weller a deeply unfashionable character, his heyday with The Jam and early Style Council a distant memory.
This period did though provide time to start a family. Weller had married bandmate Dee C. Lee in 1988, and his first real break from music since he first hit the London scene with The Jam over a decade earlier meant that while his professional life seemed to be at a stand-still, his personal life was stronger than ever.
Weller’s huge passion for music would never fade however, and it wasn’t long before he was back on stage finding his way once more as a performer. The first real signs re-emergence came quickly with the 1992 debut solo record, which presents a musician growing in confidence once again, and a sound which is an obvious sign of a musician falling back in love with the influences of his youth.
Weller with Noel Gallagher
Paul returned a year later ‘Wild Wood’, with his writing more prolific than ever, oozing with self-assurance and belief, and containing some his best work. As in 1978, Weller had again emphatically proved his critics wrong, and seemingly out of nowhere had produced his best album in a decade. It was perfect timing as Oasis lead a clutch of new Britpop bands hailing his influence on a whole generation of musicians. Weller was back as one of the biggest stars in Britain, still brimming with new ideas.
Hot on the heels of the success of ‘Wild Wood’, with Britpop now gripping Britain, Weller was back with his third solo effort ‘Stanley Road‘. Easily rising to the marker laid down in 1995 by some classic releases such as Oasis‘ ‘(What’s The Story) Morning Glory?’, Pulp’s ‘Different Class‘ and Manic Street Preachers’ ‘Everything Must Go’, ‘Stanley Road‘ retains the assured, relaxed mood of its predecessor, and is a brilliantly consistent collection of songs as Weller is heard reflecting on childhood and his upbringing in Woking.
As ever, memorable singles were ready to go; ‘The Changingman‘ and ‘You Do Something To Me‘ provided consecutive Top 10 hits in ‘95, while ‘Broken Stones‘ captures everything that was great about his songwriting at the time; calm, reflective, underpinned with real conviction. It is easily one of the best songs he has ever written. The album itself was his first no.1 since 1985 and his career, now in its third decade, was as bright as it had ever been.
Seven more solo albums have followed ‘Stanley Road’, and Weller’s most recent album, ‘Wake up The Nation’, was as well as received as anything since 1995. With the respect of both his peers and a whole new generation of musicians and fans now unquestioned, Paul Weller is regarded as one of the most important songwriters of the last century, and comfortably sits alongside those heroes whose path he dreamed of following as a child.
Such a long and varied career makes it easy to label Paul Weller with many titles and descriptions but the most appropriate, and the one which sums him up best, is fittingly the one he is best known by:
The Modfather.
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In 1960, which actress received the first star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in Los Angeles? | History of the Walk of Fame | Hollywood Walk of Fame
History of the Walk of Fame
History of the Walk of Fame
The stars on the world-famous
Hollywood Walk of Fame
are located on both sides of
Hollywood Boulevard and Vine Street.
The Hollywood Walk of Fame is an internationally-recognized Hollywood icon. With about 24 induction ceremonies annually broadcast around the world, the constant reinforcement provided to the public has made the Walk of Fame a top visitor attraction. The Hollywood Walk of Fame is undoubtedly one of the most successful marketing ideas ever produced. Unfortunately, there is a lot of inaccurate information circulating about the history of the Walk. We present this brief history to set the record straight.
The man credited with the idea for creating a Walk of Fame, was E. M. Stuart, who served in 1953 as the volunteer president of the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce. In that year, according to a Chamber press release he proposed the Walk as a means to "maintain the glory of a community whose name means glamour and excitement in the four corners of the world." He appointed a committee to begin fleshing out the idea and the architectural firm of Periera and Luckman was employed to develop some specific proposals. Where the original idea came from is not certain; however, the ceiling of the dining room of the historic Hollywood Hotel once had stars painted on the ceiling with the names of celebrities and that may have been a precursor of the idea to place stars in the sidewalks.
It was not until 1955 that the basic tenets of the proposal were agreed upon, and in that year, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce proceeded to secure the necessary signatures to present to the City for further action in the formation of an assessment district. These plans were crystallized and submitted to the Los Angeles City Council in January of 1956. The Council embraced the idea and instructed the Board of Public Works to prepare the engineering specifications and to create the necessary assessment district to pay for the improvements.
As plans progressed, various concepts were reviewed. In February of 1956, a proposed rendering of a star was unveiled that included a caricature of the honoree, with a proposal for brown and blue sidewalks. It was later determined that caricatures would be too difficult to develop and the colors of the sidewalk were changed to black and coral. It is said that Hollywood businessman C.E. Toberman nixed the idea of the brown and blue sidewalks because they did not complement a new building he was erecting on the Boulevard.
The Chamber established the Hollywood Improvement Association to work with the City in pursuing the idea. The man who was selected to chair the effort was Harry Sugarman, a prominent businessman whose family had been film exhibitors and owned one of California's oldest theatres. He saw the project through to completion.
While the City worked on creation of the assessment district, the Improvement Association moved forward between May 1956 and the fall of 1957 in selecting the honorees to be initially placed in the Walk. Four committees were established to represent the four different aspects of the entertainment industry at that time - motion picture, television, recording and radio. The committees included some of the most prominent names in entertainment. Members of the Motion Picture Selection Committee included Cecil B. DeMille, Samuel Goldwyn, Jesse Lasky, Walt Disney, Hal Roach, Mack Sennett and Walter Lantz, among others. Once the effort began, suggestions began pouring in to the Chamber offices - as many as 150 names a week were submitted. The selection process was not without controversy. One of those whose name was not approved for inclusion in the initial phase of the Walk of Fame was Charlie Chaplin.
A press release issued in 1961 by the Chamber, addressed the controversies over the selection process: "The names in the Walk of Fame have been subject to the most continuous criticism and abuse. These are divided into two classes: those who think the wrong names are included, and those who think their own or some favorite's name was omitted."
Meanwhile, the City was finalizing plans for the assessment district. The cost to build the Walk, including new street lighting and street trees, was determined to be $1.25-million. This worked out to $85 per front foot to be paid by the adjacent property owners.
On August 15, 1958, the Chamber and City unveiled eight stars on Hollywood Blvd. at Highland Avenue to create excitement and to demonstrate what the Walk would look like. The eight honorees included: Olive Borden, Ronald Colman, Louise Fazenda, Preston Foster, Burt Lancaster, Edward Sedgwick, Ernest Torrence, and Joanne Woodward. Construction on the Walk was expected to begin shortly thereafter. However, two lawsuits were filed that delayed construction. The first was by property owners opposed to the assessment district, and the second was filed by Charlie Chaplin, Jr., seeking $400,000 in damages for the exclusion of his father from the Walk. In October 1959, Judge Fletcher Bowron ruled that the assessment was legal. Shortly thereafter, the court ruled that Chaplin had no case and dismissed the suit. The way was finally clear for construction to begin.
On February 8, 1960, construction actually began on the long-planned Walk. The first star to be laid in the new Walk was that of Stanley Kramer on March 28, 1960, near the intersection of Hollywood and Gower. By that fall, work had progressed far enough that it was decided to dedicate the Walk on November 23, 1960, in conjunction with the Hollywood Christmas Parade. E.M. Stuart, as the originator of the idea, was appointed chair of the Completion Committee and planned the ceremony to mark completion of the project. The job was not actually completed until spring 1961, when it was finally accepted by the Board of Public Works, with the first 1,558 stars.
Shortly after completion, it was recognized that in order to continue the original intent of the program for the addition of more names in the vacant stars, a mechanism had to be created. On May 18, 1962, the Los Angeles City Council approved an ordinance that specified the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce should be the agent to advise the City in all matters pertaining to the addition of other names. The Chamber faced three tasks in moving forward: (1) to establish a set of rules to determine the qualifications of personalities to be eligible for addition to the Walk of Fame, (2) to work out a procedure to process candidates, and (3) to develop a plan for the financing of the costs of the addition of approved names. The task took several years, and it was not until December 11, 1968, that another star was added. Actor/comedian Danny Thomas hosted the momentous star unveiling for producer/studio executive Richard D. Zanuck in front of the world-famous Grauman's Chinese Theatre. From this time forward, star ceremonies were held on a fairly regular basis. In 1972, Charlie Chaplin was finally awarded a star on the Walk of Fame. By May 21, 1975, when Carol Burnett received her honors, a total of 99 stars had been added to the original Walk.
In 1978, the Cultural Heritage Board of the City of Los Angeles designated the Hollywood Walk of Fame as Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument #194. However, all was not well with Hollywood and the Walk of Fame. By this period, the community of Hollywood had gone into a downward spiral of urban decay. The Chamber committee was having difficulty, under the circumstances, of sustaining the Walk of Fame at the same level as originally conceived. In 1980, the Chamber presented a star to entertainer Johnny Grant. Johnny became enthused about the honor and involved himself in creating a very memorable star ceremony. The Chamber was so impressed with his efforts, that they approached him about chairing the Walk of Fame Committee, which he accepted. From then, until his death in January 2008, Johnny's name became synonymous with the Walk of Fame. His strong leadership built the Walk into an international icon. Under his leadership, a fifth category of "Live Theatre" was added in 1984 to allow persons who excelled in all types of live performance to be considered for stars. He also solved the problem of running out of space to add stars. When constructed, the Walk was designed to accommodate 2,518 stars. By the 1990s, space in the most popular areas was becoming difficult to find. To solve the problem, Johnny approved the creation of a second row of stars on the sidewalk, which would alternate with the existing stars. For more about Hollywood's beloved honorary mayor Johnny Grant, go to: www.johnnygrant.com .
On February 1, 1994 (which was Hollywood's birthday anniversary), the Walk of Fame was extended one block to the west from Sycamore to LaBrea on Hollywood Blvd. as part of a revitalization project by the Los Angeles Community Redevelopment Agency. Thirty stars were added to the block to create an instant attraction. At this time, Sophia Loren was honored with the 2,000th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Today, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce continues to add stars to the Walk of Fame as the representative of the City of Los Angeles. An average of two stars are added to the Walk on a monthly basis. The Walk is a tribute to all of those who worked so hard to develop the concept and to maintain this world-class tourist attraction.
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What is the name of the full-dress fur hat worn by hussars and footguard regiments of the British Army? | Hollywood Walk of Fame | Moviepedia | Fandom powered by Wikia
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A band plays on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
The Hollywood Walk of Fame is a famous sidewalk along Hollywood Boulevard and Vine Street in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, United States, which is embedded with more than 2,000 five-pointed stars featuring the names of celebrities honored by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce for their contributions to the entertainment industry.
The first star, awarded on February 9, 1960 , went to Joanne Woodward . On January 16, 2007, Donald Trump was honored [1] , and his became the 2,327th star on the walk.
Contents
Edit
The Walk of Fame runs east to west on Hollywood Boulevard from Gower Street to La Brea Avenue, and north to south on Vine Street between Yucca Street and Sunset Boulevard. Locations of specific stars are permanent, except when occasionally relocated for nearby construction or other reasons.
Each star consists of gold comprising a pink five-pointed star rimmed with bronze and inlaid into a charcoal square. Inside the pink star is the name of the honoree inlaid in bronze, below which is a round bronze emblem indicating the category for which the honoree received the star. The emblems are:
motion picture camera for contribution to the film industry;
television set for contribution to the broadcast television industry;
phonograph record for contribution to the recording industry;
radio microphone for contribution to the broadcast radio industry; and,
twin comedy/tragedy masks for contribution to live theater.
However, Disneyland's star has an emblem of a building.
Nominations are submitted annually by May 31, and the Walk of Fame committee meets the following month to pick the next year's group of honorees. Star ceremonies are open to the public and are led by Johnny Grant, Hollywood's Honorary Mayor.
History
Edit
The Walk of Fame was created in 1958 by southern Californian artist Oliver Weismuller, who was hired by the city to give Hollywood a "face lift". Many honorees received multiple stars during the initial phase of installation for contributions to separate categories; however, the practice in recent decades has been to honor individuals not yet represented, with only a handful of previous honorees being awarded additional stars. In 1978, the City of Los Angeles designated the Walk of Fame as a Cultural/Historic Landmark.
The Walk of Fame began with 2,500 blank stars. A total of 1,558 stars were awarded during its first sixteen months. Since then, about two stars have been added per month. By 1994, more than 2,000 of the original stars were filled, and additional stars extended the Walk west past Sycamore to La Brea Avenue, where it now ends at the Silver Four Ladies of Hollywood Gazebo (with stars honoring The Beatles and Elvis Presley).
Maintenance
Edit
The Walk of Fame is maintained by the self-financing Hollywood Historic Trust. In order for a person to get a star on the Walk of Fame, he or she must agree to attend a presentation ceremony within five years of selection, and a $25,000 fee must be paid to the Trust for costs such as security at the star ceremony; a 2003 FOX News story noted that the fee is typically paid by sponsors such as movie studios and record companies, as part of the publicity for a release with which the honoree is involved. On other occasions, the fee is paid by a fan club or the nominating person or organization.
However, controversy and mystery surrounds the way the "Stars" are nominated and approved, as discussed in a 2001 ABC News story that interviewed honorary Hollywood mayor Johnny Grant.
Stolen stars
Edit
Four stars have been stolen from the Walk of Fame. Those of Jimmy Stewart and Kirk Douglas , which had been removed during a construction project, were stolen from the site on Vine Street. The culprit was a contractor who was later caught with the two stars, damaged and unusable, but not until after they had been replaced. One of Gene Autry's stars was also taken from another construction project. It was later found in Iowa. On November 27, 2005, thieves sawed Gregory Peck's star out of the sidewalk near Gower; the star has been replaced as of September 2006 but the thieves have not been caught.
Cameras are being placed in the walk district to catch thieves.
Trivia
Edit
Gene Autry is the only person to have been honored with all five possible stars, for his contribution in each of the five categories. The motion picture star is located on 6644 Hollywood Blvd., the radio star is located on 6520 Hollywood Blvd., the recording star is located on 6384 Hollywood Blvd., the TV star is located on 6667 Hollywood Blvd., and the live theater star is located on 7000 Hollywood Blvd.
At Hollywood and Vine , a special "round star" on each of the four corners commemorates the Apollo 11 astronauts. Each astronaut (Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins], and Edwin Aldrin) has a star and there is a joint star for NASA's entire Apollo 11 mission team.
In 2005, companies became eligible for Walk-of-Fame-type stars; the first recipient was Disneyland, in honor of its 50th anniversary. Company awards are on private property near the Walk, and not part of the Walk itself. Companies must have a strong Hollywood presence and be at least fifty years old to qualify for this award. Entertainment industry publications Variety and The Hollywood Reporter are among the planned recipients.
There are two film actors named Harrison Ford with stars. The first Harrison Ford was a silent film actor in the 1910s–20s, whose star is in front of the Musso & Frank restaurant at 6665 Hollywood Blvd. The second is the present-day Harrison Ford , whose star can be found in front of the Kodak Theater at 6801 Hollywood Blvd.
Fictional characters that have stars include Bugs Bunny], Mickey Mouse], Woody Woodpecker, Winnie the Pooh, Donald Duck, Godzilla, Kermit the Frog, Lassie], The Rugrats, The Simpsons, and Snow White .
Of the entire cast of the original Star Trek TV series, only Walter Koenig ("Pavel Chekov") does not have a star along the Walk of Fame.
Dan Haggerty who starred in The Life and Times of Grizzly Adams is the only person to have his star removed from the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It was actually meant to honor another actor, the late Don Haggerty but the committee made an error in spelling. Eventually Dan received a legitimate star, now located in front of Grauman's Chinese Theatre.
When Dick Van Dyke received his star on February 25, 1993, there was a typo in his name. Workers installing the star mistakenly spelled his surname "Vandyke" with no space. Emcee Johnny Grant saved the situation by producing a Sharpie pen and a line was drawn directly on the star between "Van" and "dyke". The wording on the star was later corrected.
In David Lynch 's latest film, INLAND EMPIRE, Laura Dern vomits blood on the Walk of Fame.
List of stars
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Who is the voice of chief mechanic ‘Big Chris’ in the children’s UK television series ‘Roary the Racing Car’? | Roary to zoom onto TV screens (From Echo)
Roary to zoom onto TV screens
/ Paul Offord
BOB the Builder can hang up his hard hat. Roary the Racing Car is ready to zoom onto television screens.
Basildon man Keith Chapman, 47, who created Bob the Builder, can't wait for kids to see his latest show.
Roary the Racing Car will be screened for the first time at 7.15am on Monday on Channel Five, then every Monday morning for the next 13 weeks.
Mr Chapman said: "Roary is going to be as big as Bob.
"It's a story about a young boy who makes mistakes as he rushes through life, but Roary happens to be a racing car living with his racing car friends."
Other characters include chief mechanic Big Chris, whose voice is provided by funny man Peter Kay, chief marshall of the race track Marsha, an Italian prima donna Formula One car called Maxi, an American Indianapolis saloon car called Tin Top and an easy-going 4X4 called Plugger.
The series is narrated by driving legend Sir Stirling Moss.
Mr Chapman said: "This is the most advanced animation we've ever used - a mixture of stop- frame photography and computer generated images, to give the racing scenes speed and drama. "We've already had letters from children, asking where they can buy Roary toys and books, which is pretty amazing considering it hasn't been on telly yet."
For a preview, log onto www.roarytheracingcar.com
| Peter Kay |
What was discovered in the American River in California in 1848 by carpenter and sawmill operator James W Marshall? | Sir Stirling, the childrens TV star | stirlingmoss.com
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Sir Stirling, the childrens TV star
Never one to stand still Stirling is now forging a new career as a voice over artist. Ed Forster of Motorsport magazine interviews Stirling about his staring role in the smash hit children’s TV show Roary the Racing Car.
For those of you who don’t have children under the age of six, you may not have heard of Roary the Racing Car, a children’s television programme. I must admit, neither had I, until I was approached by the company that makes it to run a competition on the website. Since then I’ve been amazed at just how popular it is. We’ve also been running a competition for a trip to Daytona worth thousands of pounds and already, two weeks in, Roary the Racing Car prizes are proving more popular than that!
With the entries mounting up I decided to investigate and, running the risk of being found by my sister watching children’s TV early in the morning, I caught my first glimpse of Roary the Racing Car. Of course it’s aimed at children but as Sir Stirling Moss, narrator of the programme set at ‘Silverhatch circuit’, says: “Adults can watch it and it isn’t stupid, I think that’s one of the great things. We laugh and that’s half the battle.”
Stirling was originally approached to play one of the characters but declined, saying that he wasn’t an actor, and as a result he ended up narrating the show. “I got involved because the makers came to me and said, ‘look, you’re well known among older people, but the really young people don’t necessarily know your name,’” he explains. “Usually when kids listen to things, they listen with their grandparents early in the morning. The grandfather is likely to say, ‘oh, I remember Stirling Moss’, and then those children will learn about me even though they’re only three or four years old.
“I never expected it to be such a huge success, it’s absolutely amazing. I find it quite fascinating what they’ve done – the whole promotion, it’s not just the show but how the show’s used.”
Roary the Racing Car is now aired in 110 countries worldwide, with Stirling’s voice used in all the English-speaking versions (apart from the US, where Indy 500 winner and NASCAR driver Sam Hornish Jr introduces each episode). And doesn’t look like slowing down. Stirling is about to go back into the studio to record another 13 episodes for series two and admits that he’s better now at the voiceover than he was when he started – three- to four-hour stints in the studio have been cut to a slick one hour. “Well now, you see, I use a lot of commas [to punctuate my speech],” he explains. “If there are two or three lines which normally have one comma, I’ll put in five purely to help me. It’s an interesting business.” Not one to be too self-congratulatory, the Grand Prix hero shies away when asked whether he’s become a bit of a pro: “Oh, I wouldn’t say that…”
(Sir Stirling Moss with Peter Kay who does the voiceover for Big Chris, Roary’s mechanic)
Don’t be fooled into thinking that they can churn these episodes out of the studio. It takes a whole day to record an 11-second piece and the puppets are moved 26 times just to finish a one-second shot, meaning that every episode is up to scratch. So why does Stirling continue to spend hours in a studio rather than at a race track? Well, it’s hard not to fall in love with the show and the CGI world is a fascinating one in which to get involved. “Obviously financially it’s a good thing to do, as with anything that pays,” admits Stirling, “but also there are nice people in it and it’s an extremely interesting concept.
(Keith Chapman who was the originator of Bob The Builder, Fifi and the Flowertots and co-creator of Roary the Racing Car)
“I’ve had people come up and ask for my autograph saying ‘my son knows you’, and when I speak to them they recognise the voice.” What’s more, on a recent trip to Number 10 none other than newsreader John Simpson approached Stirling saying, ‘my grandson loves you’!
All this is far removed from what Stirling recalls from his childhood. “I remember very well at junior school, which was from six up to 13, we all had Dinky toys. God knows why as it was a hard, muddy area, but we dragged them all over the place. We didn’t race them particularly, but yes, they were the ones…”
Times change, but it looks like Sir Stirling is changing with them.
| i don't know |
In March 2012, a Florida law firm sacked 14 employees for wearing what colour shirts on a Friday, because employers thought they were making a protest? | Who Knew Wearing Orange Shirts To Work Is A Fireable Offense? – Consumerist
( frankieleon )
Down in Florida, they love their oranges. Not just the citrus fruit, but at one law firm, 14 employees loved the color enough to all wear it to work one day. Too bad management had a bee in its bonnet over the color-coordinating and fired them all for donning orange en masse.
ABC News says the group of employees claim they had established a tradition of celebrating payday Friday with a happy hour outing, and wore the orange shirts to indicate they were a group while out celebrating.
The law firm where they worked wasn’t happy with the outfit choice, claiming the workers were wearing the shirts as a form of protest. Management called them into a conference room and then fired the lot.
Florida and other states are “at will” employment states, which means anyone can be fired for any legal reason whatsoever — even if your employer just doesn’t like the color of your shirt. The only exception is wearing something to protest working conditions.
Thank my lucky stars cerulean is okay by the bosses. It’s my favorite.
*Thanks to Kim for the tip!
| Orange |
Bess Wallace was the wife of which US President? | 26 September 2014 News Archive | Daily Mail Online | Daily Mail Online
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| i don't know |
The latissimus muscle is in which part of the human body? | What are the lats? - Parts of the Muscular System - Sharecare
Parts of the Muscular System
What are the lats?
A Dr. Mike Clark, DPT , Fitness, answered
Located at the low back, the latissimus dorsi muscle runs from the low back and hips to the top of the upper arm (humerus). It helps internally rotate the arm, extend the shoulder, and bring the upper arm down to the side.
A Rick Olderman , Physical Therapy, answered
The latissimus dorsi muscle originates on the lower thoracic and lumbar vertebrae as well as iliac crest. It attaches to the inferior angle of the scapula as it travels up to insert on the humerus. Along with contributing to excessive internal rotation of the arm or scapular abduction, the latissimus dorsi also contributes to extension problems when tight or when the abdominals are weak.
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A National Academy of Sports Medicine answered
Lats is the abbreviated term for the latissimus dorsi, a large muscle located on the back side of the body. The lats get their name based on their location, which is the lateral (side) and dorsal (back) part of the human body. The lats attach to the pelvis, lower and mid back, and inside of the upper arm. They are responsible for adducting the shoulder, which brings the arms closer to the sides of the body, extending the shoulder which brings the arms behind the body, and internally rotating the shoulder which turns the arms in towards the body. The lats are the only upper-body muscles that connect to the pelvis, effectively creating a muscular link between the the upper and lower body.
| Human back |
What is the title of the 2006 follow-up novel to ‘The Queen and I’ by British author Sue Townsend? | What is the largest muscle in the human body? | eNotes
What is the largest muscle in the human body?
dano7744 | College Teacher | (Level 2) Educator
Posted on
May 22, 2010 at 10:56 AM
The gluteal muscles are largest. The gluteus minimus and maximus comprise this group. They are your buttocks. A very close second is the bilateral latissimus dorsi muscles which are your "lats". They run more than half way up your back and wrap around laterally (the sides). They connect distally in the hip or coxal area. The gluteals are indeed much thicker and have more mass. Another large muscle group is the adductor group on the anterior thigh and also the quadriceps group which is also on your anterior thigh(front thigh). As you can imagine, the muscles of the legs are very strong inpart because they help to support your weight. The masseter muscles of the bilateral jaws are also very strong, and the strongest of all.
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discussion | College Teacher | (Level 1) Assistant Educator
Posted on
May 18, 2010 at 1:18 AM
According to most online sources, the gluteus maximus or buttock muscle is the biggest of the 639 named muscles in the human body.
The longest muscle in the human body is the sartorius. This narrow muscle of the thigh passes obliquely across the front of the thigh and helps rotate the leg to the position assumed in sitting cross-legged.
The strongest muscle depends on how you measure strength. A good case could be made for the heart!
Information from ehow.com:
In terms of absolute force, the strongest muscle in the body is the masseter, the prime mover of the jaw for chewing. It can create force of 55 lbs. on the incisors or 200 lbs. on the molars.
The hardest-working muscle in the body is the heart. It pumps 2 oz. blood at every heartbeat, at least 2,500 gallons daily.
The muscle that can pull with the greatest force is the soleus, underneath the calf muscle. It is this muscle that keeps us from falling backward while standing up, and it is essential to running, walking and dancing.
The largest muscle in the body is also one of the strongest--the gluteus maximus. This large muscle in the buttocks keeps us standing upright and fights against gravity when we walk up stairs.
The most flexible muscle is the tongue, which can take many shapes and also is always moving, even in sleep.
The most active of muscles is the eye muscles. Muscles of the eye are constantly moving. In an hour's worth of reading, they can move 10,000 times. Unlike the heart, however, eye muscles can get fatigued easily.
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August 2, 2012 at 7:03 AM
The gluteus muscle is the largest muscle in the human body. It consists of gluteus maximus and gluteus minimus. it is called asbuttockmuscles.
Hip region is the most important region in the human structure because human stands on both legs and when he stands this buttock region gives support to the human structure. Also, above the hip region there are so many internal organs (including respiratory, digestive system) which are very important for the human life,to protect these organs and to support them the muscle in the buttock should be very thick and large
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Who are the title characters in the Shakespeare play ‘The Two Gentlemen of Verona’? | SparkNotes: The Two Gentlemen of Verona: Characters
The Two Gentlemen of Verona
William Shakespeare
Summary
Act I, scene i
Proteus - Valentine's supposed best friend and one of the title gentleman of Verona, though he behaves in a most ungentlemanly fashion. He is Julia's sweetheart at the beginning of the play, but when he joins Valentine at the Duke's palace, he falls in love with Silvia and attempts to steal her away from Valentine and Thurio.
Valentine - The other title gentlemen of Verona. He is Proteus' best friend, and Silvia's love. Banished to the forest after Proteus betrays his plan to elope with Silvia to the Duke, Valentine becomes king of the outlaws.
Julia - Proteus' beloved, and mistress to the servant Lucetta. Desiring to travel to Milan to visit Proteus, Julia disguises herself as a high-class male page in order to avoid lecherous advances along the journey. Calling herself Sebastian, she does Proteus' bidding, delivering the ring she had earlier given him to his new beloved, Silvia.
Silvia - Daughter to the Duke and beloved of Valentine, also sought after by Proteus and Thurio. Silvia commiserates with Sebastian over the wrong that Proteus has done to Julia. She escapes her father's palace with the help of Sir Eglamour, who abandons her at the sight of the outlaws.
Duke of Milan - Silvia's father, the Duke wants her to marry the boorish but wealthy suitor Sir Thurio. Upon hearing of Valentine's plot to elope with Silvia, the Duke banishes Valentine.
Lucetta - Julia's servant, who considers love from a practical point of view. Lucetta helps Julia disguise herself as a man.
Launce - Proteus' humorous servant, and master to a poorly-trained mutt named Crab. His devotion to his dog knows no bounds. He falls in love with an ugly but wealthy maid.
Speed - Valentine's page, though at the beginning of the play he does Proteus' bidding as well. He is friendly with Launce.
Thurio - A foolish rival to Valentine for Silvia's hand. Thurio is very rich, but does not make for pleasant company.
Sir Eglamour - The gentleman upon whom Silvia calls to help her escape from the Duke's court, in order to find her love, Valentine, and to avoid marrying Thurio.
Antonio - Father to Proteus and master to the servant Panthino.
Host - Houses Julia while she searches for Proteus.
Outlaws - When Valentine is banished from Milan, the outlaws intercept him during his journey to Mantua and make him the king of their crew of gentlemen bandits.
Crab - Launce's dog.
| The Two Gentlemen of Verona |
What is the name of the drunken tinker in and for who the play ‘The Taming of the Shrew’, by William Shakespeare, is performed? | Two Gentlemen of Verona: Entire Play
Two Gentlemen of Verona
SCENE I. Verona. An open place.
Enter VALENTINE and PROTEUS
SCENE II. The same. Garden of JULIA's house.
Enter JULlA and LUCETTA
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Lady Rosaline, Lady Maria and Lady Katherine are all characters in which Shakespeare play? | The character of Rosaline in Love's Labor's Lost from LitCharts | The creators of SparkNotes
Boyet
One of the princess’ ladies who comes with her on the visit to Ferdinand. She is able to hold her own in witty back-and-forths with Berowne, who falls in love with her. At the end of the play, she tells Berowne to spend a year at a hospital, trying to make the sick laugh, before continuing to woo her.
Rosaline Quotes in Love's Labor's Lost
The Love's Labor's Lost quotes below are all either spoken by Rosaline or refer to Rosaline. For each quote, you can also see the other characters and themes related to it (each theme is indicated by its own dot and icon, like this one:
). Note: all page and citation info for the quotes below refers to the Simon & Schuster edition of Love's Labor's Lost published in 2005.
Act 3, Scene 1 Quotes
And I forsooth in Love! I that have been love’s whip,
A very beadle to a humorous sigh,
A critic, nay, a nightwatch constable,
A domineering pedant o’er the boy,
Than whom no mortal so magnificent.
This wimpled, whining, purblind, wayward boy,
This Signior Junior, giant dwarf, Dan Cupid,
Regent of love rhymes, lord of folded arms,
Th’annointed sovereign of sighs and groans,
Liege of all loiterers and malcontents,
Dread prince of plackets, king of codpieces,
Sole imperator and great general
Of trotting paritors—O my little heart!
Am I to be a corporal of his field
And wear his colors like a tumbler’s hoop!
What? I love, I sue, I seek a wife?
. . . It is a plague
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Rosaline Character Timeline in Love's Labor's Lost
The timeline below shows where the character Rosaline appears in Love's Labor's Lost. The colored dots and icons indicate which themes are associated with that appearance.
Act 2, Scene 1
The princess of France enters with her attendants: Boyet, Katherine, Rosaline, and Maria. Complimenting her beauty, Boyet reminds the princess to be charming toward Ferdinand, as... (full context)
...and “glorious in arms.” Katherine says that Dumaine is “a well-accomplished youth” with much wit. Rosaline tells the princess about Berowne, whom she describes as skilled with words, witty, and merry.... (full context)
...wants to welcome her as a good host, but cannot violate his own oath. Meanwhile, Rosaline and Berowne flirt with each other, having recognized each other from a dance. They trade... (full context)
...is “denied fair harbour in my house,” then leaves. Berowne trades more witty quips with Rosaline, and Dumaine then asks Boyet what Katherine’s name is, calling her “a gallant lady,” before... (full context)
...love with her, as evidenced by the way he spoke to and looked at her. Rosaline calls Boyet a “love-monger” and Maria calls him “Cupid’s grandfather.” (full context)
Act 3, Scene 1
...says he hasn’t even told him what the favor is yet. He tells Costard about Rosaline and asks him to deliver her a letter. (full context)
Act 4, Scene 1
...with a head. Costard tells the princess that he has a letter from Berowne for Rosaline. Boyet takes the letter and sees that it is addressed to Jacquenetta. (full context)
The princess tells Costard that he has mixed up his letters. Everyone but Maria, Rosaline, Boyet, and Costard leaves. Boyet and Rosaline joke about hunting: she says that she is... (full context)
Rosaline and Boyet sing part of a song together, and then Rosaline leaves. Maria says that... (full context)
Act 4, Scene 2
...letter, which is a poem praising someone’s beauty. It is the letter from Berowne to Rosaline. (full context)
...says that though he will break his oath to Ferdinand, he will be faithful to Rosaline. He says that if the point of the oath is knowledge, he will gain enough... (full context)
...it. He reads the top of the letter and sees that it is addressed to Rosaline, from Berowne. He tells Jacquenetta to bring the letter to Ferdinand, and she and Costard... (full context)
Act 4, Scene 3
Alone, Berowne considers his love for Rosaline, saying, “it kills me.” He swears he will not love her, but then remembers her... (full context)
...asks Ferdinand and the others to break it with him. He describes his love for Rosaline and how beautiful she is. The king says that Rosaline is nothing but “an attending... (full context)
Ferdinand criticizes Rosaline’s dark complexion, saying “black is the badge of hell.” Berowne maintains his opinion of her... (full context)
Act 5, Scene 2
The princess, Katherine, Rosaline, and Maria all examine the gifts they have received from their respective admirers. From Ferdinand,... (full context)
After a playfully witty exchange between Rosaline and Katherine, conversation turns again to the group’s love gifts. Rosaline has received a love... (full context)
...that Berowne has composed, but they turn their backs to the men. Mote leaves, and Rosaline has Boyet ask Berowne what the men’s intentions are. Berowne says that he and his... (full context)
Berowne evades the question and trades some witty quips back and forth with Rosaline. Ferdinand and his men play some music and ask the ladies to dance, but they... (full context)
The princess wonders what they should do if Ferdinand and his men return undisguised. Rosaline suggests that they tease them by talking about a group of foolish Russians who were... (full context)
...they were just visited by “a mess of Russians.” Ferdinand tries to act surprised, and Rosaline describes the Russians as fools. (full context)
Berowne says that Rosaline sees wise things as foolish, and she replies that this means he must be very... (full context)
...the Russian disguise and promises to use no more deception, avowing his sincere love for Rosaline. Ferdinand asks the princess how he can make up for his “rude transgression,” and she... (full context)
...be available for his courtship. Maria similarly tells Longaville to wait a year. Berowne asks Rosaline what her response to his suit is, and she gives a slightly longer answer. (full context)
Rosaline tells Berowne that she has heard of his reputation for wit. She tells him that... (full context)
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Fredericksen, Erik. "Love's Labor's Lost Characters: Rosaline." LitCharts. LitCharts LLC, 3 Mar 2014. Web. 17 Jan 2017.
Fredericksen, Erik. "Love's Labor's Lost Characters: Rosaline." LitCharts. LitCharts LLC, 3 Mar 2014. Web. 17 Jan 2017.
Fredericksen, Erik. "Love's Labor's Lost Characters: Rosaline." LitCharts LLC, March 3, 2014. Retrieved January 17, 2017. http://example.org/lit/love-s-labor-s-lost/characters/rosaline.
Fredericksen, Erik. "Love's Labor's Lost Characters: Rosaline." LitCharts LLC, March 3, 2014. Retrieved January 17, 2017. http://example.org/lit/love-s-labor-s-lost/characters/rosaline.
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| Love's Labour's Lost |
In the opening scene of which Shakespeare play does Hermia refuse to marry Demetrius, who her father has chosen for her, because she wishes to marry Lysander? | Theater Review Comedy gained in ‘Love’s Labour’s Lost’ at Pa. Shakespeare Festival | East Penn Press
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PHOTO BY LEE A. BUTZTempting the king and his friends away from their studies are the Princess of France and her court in Shakespeare’s “Love’s Labour’s Lost” on stage at the Pennsylvania Shakespeare Festival through Aug. 7 on the Center Valley campus of DeSales University. From left: Emmy nominee Marnie Schulenburg as the Princess and Mattie Hawkinson as Lady Rosaline.
PHOTO BY LEE A. BUTZDancing in disguise: The cast of Shakespeare’s “Love’s Labour’s Lost” arrived with their lines learned and directed and costumed themselves, similar to the way Shakespeare’s company likely did. The Pennsylvania Shakespeare Festival production runs through Aug. 7 on the Center Valley campus of DeSales University.
Theater Review Comedy gained in ‘Love’s Labour’s Lost’ at Pa. Shakespeare Festival
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Which Shakespeare play is set in the port of Messina, on the island of Sicily? | Where and when does Shakespeare's Much Ado About Nothing take place? | eNotes
Where and when does Shakespeare's Much Ado About Nothing take place?
Tamara K. H. | Middle School Teacher | (Level 3) Educator Emeritus
Posted on
July 12, 2012 at 1:23 AM
The play is set in the city of Messina on the Island of Sicily. Sicily belonged to the Crown of Aragon, a Spanish dynasty that was the most powerful in the 14th and 15th centuries. The Crown of Aragon was abolished as late as 1716 after the War of Spanish Succession (1702-1713).
The wars mentioned in the play most likely refer to the Spanish Wars, which was a challenge between Spain and France for parts of Italy. The wars started in 1494 due to France's invasion of Italy and finally ended in 1559 when Philip II, King of Aragon, gained complete domination of the Two Sicilies, including Messina, and Milan. We do not know which war of the Spanish Wars the play is referring to; however, the play could most likely be referring to the final campaigns of the wars that secured Sicily under the Crown of Aragon, such as the battle of St. Quentin in which Spain defeated the French in 1557, or any of the final two battles in 1558 that led to the Treaty of Cateau-Camresis in 1559.
Hence, we know that the play is set in Messina under the rule of the Spanish dynasty, the Crown of Aragon, and refers to the Spanish Wars. However, we don't know the exact years in which the play is set. Nevertheless, since Prince Don Pedro and his company have just returned from a very successful war with very few causalities, we can assume that the play may be referring to the later more successful battles. We learn in the first scene that the war was successful and that very few men died when the messenger declares, "But few of any sort, and none of name," after being asked how many men have been lost (I.i.5-6). Thus, we may be able to assume that the time period in which the play is set is the last three successful battles beginning in 1557 and culminating in complete Spanish rule over Sicily in 1559.
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| Much Ado About Nothing |
Who is Rosalind disguised as in the Shakespeare play ‘As You Like It’? | Why did Shakespeare choose to set Much Ado About Nothing in Messina? | eNotes
Why did Shakespeare choose to set Much Ado About Nothing in Messina?
Tamara K. H. | Middle School Teacher | (Level 3) Educator Emeritus
Posted on
July 15, 2012 at 6:14 AM
It is speculated that when Shakespeare set Much Ado About Nothing in Messina, he was actually thinking of Venice, which was one of the most corrupt cities of his time period ( "The Artificiality of Messinian Society," eNotes ). Venice was extremely wealthy as they had a monopoly over trade in China due to the success of the Venetian explorer, Marco Polo, who opened trade routes between Beijing and Europe. Due to the city's wealth, the city's wealthy families were constantly competing with each other for grander palaces and more power. The city's wealthy also ruled the government. Venice was called a republic, however, the Great Council ruled the city, which consisted of the wealthiest and most influential families of Venice. The Great Council selected all public officials, including the Senate body, who elected the Council of Ten. The Council of Ten where the highest administrators and made decisions for the city in secret ( "Venice During the Renaissance" ). Hence, since Venice was really a wealthy totalitarian city who passed itself off as a republic, we can see that Venice was extremely corrupt and embodied the theme of appearances vs. reality that dominates Shakespeare's play.
Dogberry actually expresses this theme very well when he lists his attributes, which are his position of power, his wealth, and his beauty, which we see in his lines:
I am a wise fellow; and which is more, an officer; and which is more, a householder, and which is more, as pretty a piece of flesh as any is in Messina, and one that knows the law, go to! and a rich fellow enough, go to! ... and one that hath two gowns and everything handsome about him. (IV.ii.73-78)
In this passage, Dogberry places more importance in owning a house then being an officer; he then follows this with placing his handsome looks as being more important than either the house he owns or his position as a law enforcer. He finally culminates his argument by referring again to his wealth and again to his looks, showing us that what is really important to Dogberry, as well as to the citizens of Messina are wealth and looks, or appearances, rather than reality.
It has also been pointed out that Elizabethans viewing the play would have recognized the corruption of Venice that is being alluded to through the corruption of the citizens of Messina ( "The Artificiality of Messinian Society," eNotes ). One way in which Messina differs from Venice is that the citizens in the play turn out all right in the end. All characters realize their faults, such as excessive pride and gullibility, and make amends, restoring the innocent, slandered Hero to life. We don't know for sure why Shakespeare chose to set the play in Messina when he may have actually been representing Venice; however, it can be said that Shakespeare did not see that as satisfactory an ending could plausibly take place in Venice, therefore, he chose another wealthy Italian port that had its own share of corruption.
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What is the name of Hamlet’s best friend in the Shakespeare play ‘Hamlet’? | No Fear Shakespeare: Hamlet: Characters
No Fear Shakespeare
Act 1, Scene 1
Hamlet
The prince of Denmark, and a student at the University of Wittenberg. At the beginning of the play, Hamlet’s father, King Hamlet, has recently died, and his mother, Queen Gertrude, has married the new king, Hamlet’s uncle Claudius. Hamlet is melancholy, bitter, and cynical, full of hatred for his uncle and disgust at his mother for marrying him. When the ghost of Hamlet’s father appears and claims to have been murdered by Claudius, Hamlet becomes obsessed with avenging his father’s death but keeps thinking of reasons why he should wait before killing Claudius—then chastizes himself for failing to act boldly. Hamlet is a character of contradictions. He admires characters like Fortinbras and the Player King, who behave passionately and even violently for no good reason, but is himself thoughtful, reflective, and philosophical. At times Hamlet is indecisive and hesitant, but at other times he is prone to rash and impulsive acts of violence.
Claudius
The king of Denmark, Hamlet’s uncle. The villain of the play, Claudius is a calculating, ambitious politician, adept at manipulating others for his own ends and willing to execute, assassinate, or murder to stay in power. He doesn’t understand Hamlet or Hamlet’s motives, but he is quick to perceive Hamlet as a threat and take decisive action against him. Claudius does occasionally show signs of remorse and human feeling—his affection for Gertrude, for instance, seems sincere.
Gertrude
The queen of Denmark, Hamlet’s mother, recently married to Claudius. We never get to observe Gertrude on her own, so we know much more about how Hamlet feels about her than about how she sees herself. She seems clearly to love Hamlet, but Hamlet sees her as a weak, even depraved, woman motivated wholly by lust. Hamlet has such strong feelings about her sex life that he becomes momentarily distracted from his revenge quest, urging her toward a life of chastity.
Polonius
The Lord Chamberlain of Claudius’s court, and the father of Laertes and Ophelia. Polonius has good intentions, but he tends to be somewhat conniving and underhanded. He frequently leaps to the wrong conclusions, and his speeches are comically pompous and long-winded. He is completely incapable of figuring out what Hamlet is up to.
Horatio
Hamlet’s close friend, who studied with the prince at the University of Wittenberg. Hamlet trusts Horatio above any of the other characters, valuing him for his even temper and equanimity—qualities that Hamlet seems to despise in himself. Horatio is loyal and helpful to Hamlet throughout the play. After Hamlet’s death, Horatio remains alive to tell Hamlet’s story.
Ophelia
Polonius’s daughter, a beautiful young woman with whom Hamlet has been in love. A sweet and innocent young girl, Ophelia dutifully strives to obey her father and her brother, Laertes, allowing Polonius to use her in his scheme to spy on Hamlet. When her father dies, her sanity unravels, and in her madness she paints a scathing picture of young men as sexually exploitative and unfaithful, and her mad speeches about flowers conceal implied condemnations of Claudius and Gertrude.
Laertes
Polonius’s son and Ophelia’s brother, a young man who spends much of the play in France. Passionate and quick to action, Laertes is a foil for the reflective and agonized Hamlet.
Fortinbras
The young prince of Norway, whose father the king (also named Fortinbras) was killed by Hamlet’s father (also named Hamlet). Now Fortinbras wishes to attack Denmark to avenge his father’s honor, making him another foil for Prince Hamlet. Hamlet admires Fortinbras for his willingness to fight for no good reason.
The Ghost
The specter of Hamlet’s recently deceased father. The ghost, who claims to have been murdered by Claudius, calls upon Hamlet to avenge him. However, it is not entirely certain whether the ghost is what it appears to be. Hamlet speculates that the ghost might be a devil sent to deceive him and tempt him into murder, and the question of what the ghost is or where it comes from is never definitively resolved.
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern
Two slightly bumbling courtiers, former friends of Hamlet from Wittenberg, who are summoned by Claudius and Gertrude to discover the cause of Hamlet’s strange behavior.
Osric
The foolish courtier who summons Hamlet to his duel with Laertes. His speeches are pretentious and difficult to understand.
Voltimand and Cornelius
Courtiers whom Claudius sends to Norway to persuade the king to prevent Fortinbras from attacking.
Marcellus and Barnardo
The officers who first see the ghost walking the ramparts of Elsinore and who summon Horatio to witness it. Marcellus is present when Hamlet first encounters the ghost.
Francisco
A soldier and guardsman at Elsinore.
Reynaldo
| Horatio |
Which Shakespeare play is also known under the title ‘What You Will’? | Hamlet Summary
Hamlet Summary
Hamlet en Español
How It All Goes Down
Welcome to Elsinore, Denmark, land of a recently deceased King who likes to chill out in ghost form at night on the castle battlements. He has reason to be upset, though, since the new King Claudius, husband of Queen Gertrude, happens to be his own brother. (Must make family holidays complicated.) Claudius has problems, too: Norway's Prince Fortinbras has war on the brain, and his new stepson, Hamlet, is being a bit of a PITA about things, mostly because his mother (Gertrude) waited about two seconds to get married after his father died.
Hamlet's bud Horatio tells Hamlet about the ghost and arranges a meeting. The ghost claims to be his father's spirit, proving it by telling Hamlet that Claudius is the man who murdered his father by pouring poison in his ear while he (Old Hamlet) was snoozing in his garden—and then ordering his son to take revenge. Great, Dad.
Game on. Hamlet's master plan involves him putting on an "antic disposition" (acting like a madman, or a clown). Sure enough, the next time we hear about Hamlet, his girlfriend Ophelia declares that Hamlet is crazy. Polonius brings the news to the King, and they decide to spy on the youngsters to figure out if Ophelia is the source of Hamlet's "madness." Meanwhile, some Danish ambassadors return from Norway with the good news that there isn't going to be a war, after all.
Enter Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two childhood pals of Hamlet and Horatio. The King and Queen have called them to Elsinore to spy on Hamlet and find out why he's gone mad. While the duo fails to do this, some players (actors) come into town. Hamlet commissions them to perform a play in which a king is murdered in the same way Claudius murdered Hamlet's father. Hamlet plans to watch Claudius' reaction to see if the ghost is telling the truth.
The plan's in motion, and Hamlet delivers the big "to be or not to be" speech about suicide. Instead, he decides to act all creepy and gross with Ophelia before watching Claudius all but stand up and shout that he's guilty. Hamlet decides to kill him, obviously, but then … doesn't. Instead, he ends up accidentally killing Polonius, Ophelia's dad. In front of his mom. Claudius sends Hamlet off to England, but on the way, Hamlet sees Prince Fortinbras of Norway marching across the land to fight for some lost territories. That's all the inspiration he needs to head back to Denmark to kill Claudius.
Back at the castle, Ophelia has cracked. Meanwhile, her bro Laertes is super pissed at Hamlet (crazy sister; dead father), so Claudius convinces him to stage a "friendly" duel and kill the Prince by using a sharpened rather than a blunt sword. With some poison as backup.
The next thing we know, Ophelia is dead, possibly by suicide, which means she doesn't even get a nice burial. There's a big scene between Hamlet and Laertes when Hamlet randomly stumbles on this funeral, and then Hamlet gets Horatio up to speed on his return: on the boat to England, Hamlet opened the letter that his companions Rosencrantz and Guildenstern were carrying and found that it carried instructions to have him (Hamlet) killed. Naturally, Hamlet altered the letter to say "Please kill Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, thanks," and escaped on a pirate ship back to Denmark.
Hope you brought your rain gear, because this last scene is going to be a bloodbath. During the friendly duel between Hamlet and Laertes, everything goes according to Claudius' evil plan until, uh oh, Gertrude drinks the poisoned wine. Meanwhile, Laertes cuts Hamlet with the poisoned sword, and Hamlet, ending up with Laertes' sword, wounds him back. Dying, Laertes yells out, "It's all Claudius' fault!" So, Hamlet stabs Claudius with the poisoned sword and makes him drink the poisoned wine. Bloodbath complete.
Well, except that Horatio's feeling left out and wants to kill himself too but Hamlet says that it's his job to tell Hamlet's story. Just then, Fortinbras of Norway walks in, steps over the blood and guts and bodies strewn out all over the floor, and then helps himself to the Danish throne. At least someone gets a happy ending!
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In the Shakespeare play ‘Othello’, what was Othello’s first gift to Desdemona? | Chicago Shakespeare Theater: Othello
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The Story
In the city street shadows, two men discuss the night’s intel: Othello, a hired general in the Venetian army—and a Moor—has eloped with a young aristocrat of Venice, named Desdemona. Iago, the soldier, reassures Roderigo that all hope of winning the young woman’s heart is not yet lost; and that he, too, harbors reasons for hating the Moor, who has promoted over him Cassio, a young and privileged officer. Iago and Roderigo yell from the street below the news of Desdemona’s elopement to awaken her father Brabantio, who immediately seeks the full justice of Venetian law. But this night the Duke and senators are intent upon more pressing affairs of state: the Turks threaten Venetian interests in Cyprus, and the Moor’s service is required. Othello prepares to deploy to Cyprus and, with the Duke’s permission, Desdemona will join him there, attended by Iago’s wife Emilia.
Now Iago conceives his plan: he will make the general believe that his new lieutenant is Desdemona’s lover. And so begins his work. First ensnaring Cassio in a drunken brawl, Iago looks on as Othello predictably dismisses the officer from his service. Iago urges Cassio to seek Desdemona’s aid in recovering the general’s favor—while suggesting to Othello that her interest in a man’s misfortunes might signal a wife’s infidelity. Demanding proof, Othello is convinced when his first gift to Desdemona—an embroidered handkerchief belonging once to his mother—is misplaced and now passes, with guidance, to Cassio, then into the possession of a Cypriot prostitute named Bianca.
For his great service to the general, Iago is appointed Othello’s new lieutenant. Desdemona, stunned by her husband’s accusations, pleads with him—first for compassion, then for her life. And as Emilia comes to understand her own husband, two women become caught inextricably in the crossfire.
| Handkerchief |
In the Shakespeare play ‘Macbeth’, which character carries Macbeth’s head on stage? | How does Shakespeare use language and stagecraft to show Othello's changing feelings towards Dedemona throughout Othello - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com
How does Shakespeare use language and stagecraft to show Othello's changing feelings towards Dedemona throughout Othello
Extracts from this document...
Introduction
How does Shakespeare use language and stagecraft to reflect Othello's feelings towards Desdemona throughout Othello? (Focussing on Act 2 Scene 1, Act 3, Scene3, and Act 5 Scene 2) Othello was written by Shakespeare in the year 1603. It was first performed in court, but not published until 1622. William Shakespeare took ideas from Giraldi Cinthio's Hecca Tommithi - an Italian collection of 100 stories which were popular at the time, and studied by many playwrights and scholars. The play is about love, jealousy, deceit, racism and lies, and is one of Shakespeare's tragedies. Othello is set in two places- the first act in Venice and the rest of the play at a sea port in Cypress. Venice was a powerful city, with a wealthy, law-abiding and formal society. In contrast, Cypress was rowdy, not law-abiding, and constantly fighting. It is an island, which was attacked in 1570 by the Turks, having belonged to Italy for more than 100 years. Women were thought of as stupid, silly, and objects only for having children, doing as they were told, and less intelligent. A wife was bought for a dowry, and parents would sell off their daughters to gain influence or money. Desdemona was Othello's wife - they have been secretly married before the beginning of the play. She is the daughter of Venetian senator Barbanzio, and typically pure and meek, while being determined and self possessed. Othello believes her to be perfect and devoted to him, until Iago tricks him into thinking that she had been unfaithful. Distraught, Othello murders her. Emilia was Iago's wife, and Desdemona's assistant. She is very attached to her mistress, and distrustful of her husband. She is a very cynical character. Act 2 Scene 1 Shakespeare has used many exclamation marks (!) to show the characters' strong emotions. "O my fair warrior! My dear Othello" This stagecraft allows the actor to express the character's strong emotions and emphasise stronger words by speaking loudly and strongly. ...read more.
Middle
He says: "I think my wife be honest, and I think she is not; I think thou art just, and think thou art not. I'll have some proof." He again demands proof, but admits he cannot be sure who is right and who to trust. He needs to see proof. Iago says that the only proof he could see would be to: "Grossly gape on... behold her topped" He asks if he really wants to see proof, if it would be watching Desdemona with Cassio on top of her. But Iago then gives him proof - that he heard Cassio talking in his sleep about Desdemona, and saw him use her special handkerchief - the one she had been given as a first gift from Othello and had dropped earlier - to wipe his beard with. Othello goes mad, and curses her, calling for revenge. Then, he makes Iago his lieutenant. Act 5, Scene 2 This is the "death scene" - where Othello kills Desdemona. It is the end of their relationship, and Othello has decided that she is unfaithful, and this is his revenge. In a soliloquy at the beginning of the scene, Othello says "I'll not shed her blood nor sear that whiter skin of hers than snow" He still loves her, and thinks her beautiful. He doesn't want to spoil her perfection - he still wants her to look the same, showing that he still loves her, or he may just not want her to change from the Desdemona he loved to what he could think of as Cassio's Desdemona - ruined. If she still looks the same, he could still think of her as the same as she was before, and not be tortured by memories of her ruined body. "If I quench thee, thou flaming minister, I can again thy former light restore... I cannot give it vital growth again" He says that while he can easily relight a candle - the metaphor "thou flaming minister" - he cannot restore Desdemona once he has killed her. ...read more.
Conclusion
At the beginning of the play, Othello and Desdemona's love is strong and emotional - they are recently wed, and still feel a passionate and strong love for each other. By scene three, Othello is beginning to doubt Desdemona's love and faithfulness, having begun to believe Iago's claims that she is unchaste and loves Cassio. In the last scene, when Othello kills Desdemona, he believes Iago, but still feels some love for his wife. He sees her death as a necessity, but also a sacrifice, showing that he no longer believes their love can continue, nor that his love was ever returned. Only after he kills her does he realise his mistake and how Iago was controlling him and his emotions, and kills himself. Strong, emotive language is used to show his feelings towards Desdemona - first of love, then confusion. His feelings were always strong, and moments of strong emotions were often shown by shortening sentences, short and sharp words, and punctuation such as exclamation marks, which showed Othello's shortness of breath and passion, and builds up tension and excitement. It also showed the actor how to emphasise certain words or emotions, and told the audience what the character was feeling. When Othello speaks to other characters in the play, he speaks in calm, measured blank verse; but when he speaks to or about Desdemona near the beginning of the play, he often uses more poetic, rhyming speech, which shows his love for her. However, when he is angry, for example in Act 5, scene 2, he switches to a rougher voice, which would often be used by Shakespeare for less educated or lower characters in plays. This shows how Iago has been affecting him - making him more the angry, possessive lover than the clear-thinking General. Throughout the play, Shakespeare uses strong, emotive language, and stagecraft such as exclamation marks and other punctuation and a variety of sentence lengths and speech styles. This helps to show Othello's feelings towards Desdemona and how they change throughout the play, from loving to possessive and angry. ?? ?? ?? ?? Kate Prescott ...read more.
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The plot of Robert Greene’s prose romance ‘Pandosto: The Triumph of Time’ is said to be the inspiration for which Shakespeare play? | Learn and talk about Pandosto, 1588 books, Romance (genre), Works by Robert Greene
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Pandosto: The Triumph of Time is a prose romance written by the English author Robert Greene , first published in 1588. [1] A later edition of 1607 was re-titled Dorastus and Fawnia. [2] Popular during the time of William Shakespeare , the work's plot was an inspiration for that of Shakespeare's play The Winter's Tale . Greene, in turn, may have based the work on The Clerk's Tale, one of The Canterbury Tales of Chaucer . [3] Edward Chaney suggested that Robert Greene when writing Pandosto may have had in mind the Earl of Oxford's suspicions about the paternity of his daughter (granddaughter of Lord Burghley) when he returned in 1576 from his continental tour that may have included Sicily. [4]
Greene's story contains darker elements that Shakespeare lightened for his comic purposes. In Greene's tale, Pandosto, King of Bohemia, accuses his wife Bellaria of adultery committed with his childhood friend, the King of Sicilia. His pursuit of this unfounded charge leads him to send his infant daughter out to sea to die and causes the death of his son and his wife. His daughter drifts to Sicilia and is saved and raised by a shepherd. Dorastus, the Prince of Sicilia, falls in love with Fawnia, unaware that she is a Princess, and they run away to marry. They land in Bohemia, where Pandosto unwittingly falls in love with his daughter Fawnia. At the end of the story, after Fawnia's identity is revealed, Pandosto commits suicide out of grief for the troubles he caused his family. Shakespeare reversed the two kingdoms of Sicilia and Bohemia and added side characters like Paulina and Antigonus. Also he introduced Autolycus and the Clown. He also removed the suicide and added a resurrection scene, bringing the queen back to life using either magic or a death trick, depending on perception.
Shakespeare was not the only playwright to adapt Pandosto; the French dramatist Alexandre Hardy produced his own version, titled Pandoste, around 1625. Hardy's play has not survived, though sketches of its scenery by Laurent Mahelot still exist. Mahelot's stage design followed the principle of "multiple setting," or décor simultané, in which a single stage set served for all of a play's scenes. [5]
The poet Francis Sabie had paraphrased the work for a poem in two parts, and given the publication right to Robert Jones. The original titles, altered for 1607 edition, were The Fishermans Tale: Of the famous Actes, Life, and Loue of Cassander, a Grecian Knight, 1595. and Flora's Fortune. The second part and finishing of the Fisher-mans Tale. [2]
| The Winter's Tale |
Who wrote the majority of the books of the New Testament of the Bible? | Full text of "Robert Greene"
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COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY STUDIES IN ENGLISH AND COMPARATIVE LITERATURE ROBERT GREENE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS SALES AGENTS NEW YORK: LEMCKE & BUECHNER 30-32 WEST 27TH STREET LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD AMEN CORNER, E.G. EGBERT GREENE BY JOHN CLARK JORDAN, PH.D. Beta got* COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 1915 AU rights reserved Copyright, 1915 BY COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS Printed from type, September, 1915 PR THE-PLIMPTON-PRES8 NORWOOD-MA88-U-D-A TO MY GRANDFATHER JOHN DOWNEY This Monograph has been approved by the Depart ment of English and Comparative Literature in Columbia University as a contribution to knowledge worthy of publication. A. H. THORNDIKE, Executive Officer. PREFACE ROBERT GREENE has been written about profusely. "More time and trouble have been bestowed than one cares to remember," complained the late Mr. Collins as he laid down his editor's pen. So much, indeed, has been done, so various have been the researches as to Greene's sources, his literary relationships, his friendships and his quarrels, his sinning and repenting, that one who desires to study him must go over a vast amount of material. There is the fur ther difficulty that a few sensational remarks in Greene's writings have been given such emphasis as to withdraw at tention from certain other aspects of his works and to obscure what is of more importance. I have tried to present a com prehensive treatment, based upon the investigations of pre vious writers and developed by what I have been able to add of my own. In the personality of Greene, and in the nature of his activity, there is considerable to stir the imagination, and to invite criticism and evaluation. These two elements, the human and the literary significance of Greene's work, I have, therefore, sought to bear in mind. Thus submitting Greene to analysis, I have found the outlines of his character as a man of letters to be rather sharply drawn. Sharply enough, I think, to be permanent. New facts will be added, new sources discovered. But these will only help to make the portrait a little more distinct. They will not, I believe, change our fundamental idea of the man or of his attitude toward literature. To those scholars who have made my work possible I acknowledge my indebtedness. Especially have I benefited ix X PREFACE from the labors of Dr. Samuel Lee Wolff, whose contribu tions to the knowledge and understanding of Greene have been of great value. To the librarians of Columbia Univer sity, and to Miss Jennie Craig and her assistant, Miss Olive Paine, of the English Seminar Library of the University of Illinois, I give my thanks for generous help. To my wife I owe much for criticism and for preparation of the manuscript for the press. It is a pleasure to express my appreciation for the obliga tions I am under to the Department of English and Com parative Literature at Columbia University: to Professor G. P. Krapp; to Professor J. B. Fletcher, who has offered many valuable suggestions. To Professor A. H. Thorndike, in whose mind my work had its inception, and whose counsel and letters have aided me greatly, I feel sincere gratitude. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 9 III. SERO SED SERIO 53 IV. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 82 V. THE POETRY 127 VI. CHRONOLOGY OF THE NON-DRAMATIC WORK . . . 164 VII. THE PLAYS 174 VIII. CONCLUSION 201 APPENDICES I. TABULATION OF THE FRAMEWORK TALES .... 207 II. MISCONCEPTIONS CONCERNING GREENE 211 III. EARLY ALLUSIONS TO GREENE 215 BIBLIOGRAPHY 221 INDEX . 227 EGBERT GREENE: A STUDY CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ROBERT GREENE was baptized in Norwich 1 on July 11, 15S> He died in London, September 3, 1592. Of the life that extended between these dates there is little of actual record. On November 26, 1575, Greene was matriculated as a sizar at St. John's Cambridge. From that college he received his primary degree in 1578. 3 In 1583, July 7, he was at Clare Hall, 4 where he was granted the degree of Mas ter of Arts. Sometime in 1585 or '86 he was married. Oxford conferred a degree in July, 1588; so that he was henceforth the Academiae Utriusque Magister in Artibus of which he was so vain. The facts which I have enumerated, NOTE All references unless otherwise stated are to Grosart's edition to the Complete Works of Robert Greene, 15 vols. 8vo. 1881-3. Huth Library Series. 1 Greene himself speaks of the "Cittie of Norwitch, where I was bred and borne," (Repentance, Vol. XII., p. 171) and he sometimes added Norfoldensis to his name. See Epistle Dedicatory to Lodge's Euphues, his Shadowe, signed "Rob. Greene Norfolciensis." (Lodge's Complete Works, Vol. II. Printed for Hunterian Club, 1883); also Epistle Dedi catory to A Maiden's Dreame, signed "R. Greene, Nordovicensis." Vol. XIV., p. 300. * Register of St. George, Tombland. See J. C. Collins' edition of Greene's Plays and Poems, 1905, Vol. I., p. 12. 1 University Register. 4 "From my Studie in Clarehall the vij of Julie." The Epistle to the second part of MamiUia. Vol. II., p. 143. 1 2 ROBERT GREENE together with the records on the Stationers' Register and the title-pages of his works, are all that we have that can be dated. Greene talked about himself; others talked about him. And so, while his life can never be known exactly or in de tail, his comings and goings, the events of his existence in the capital, the man that he was can be perceived with more vividness than can most of his fellows. From his own works, 5 and from the bitter controversy which arose after his death, with the harsh words that passed back and forth between Harvey and Nashe, 6 we can learn much of how Greene looked and acted. "A jolly long red peake, like the spire of a steeple," says Nashe, 7 "hee cherisht continually without cutting, whereat a man might hang a Jewell, it was so sharp and pendant." . . . "A very faire Cloake," he had, "with sleeves, of ... greene; it would serve you as fine as may bee" this to Gabriel Harvey, the ropemaker's son "if you bee wise, play the good husband and listen after it, you may buy it ten shillings better cheape than it cost him. By S. Silver, . . . theres a great many ropes go to ten shillings. If you want a greasy pair of silk stockings also, to show your selfe at the Court, they are there to be had too amongst his moveables." "Hee inherited more vertues than vices," says Nashe again. "Debt and deadly sinne, who is not subject to? with any notorious crime I never knew him tainted." ... "A good fellowe he was;" considerable of a drinker. "Hee made no account of winning credite by his workes, ... his 6 The Repentance and various of the Prefaces. 6 In his Introduction to the Works of Thomas Nashe, Vol. V., Mr. Ronald B. McKerrow has a most excellent account of this quarrel. The subject is there treated exhaustively and finally. 7 Foure Letters Confuted. Ed. McKerrow, Vol. I., p. 287. INTRODUCTION 3 only care was to have a spel in his purse to conjure up a good cuppe of wine with at all times." . . . "Why should art answer for the infirmities of maners? Hee had his faultes, and thou thy follyes." The young Bohemians lived hard in those days. And they died hard. Greene was only thirty-four when he went to that "fatall banquet of Rhenish wine and pickled hearing (if thou wilt needs have it so)." 8 All through the month of August Greene was ill, at first taking no alarm. He got his Blacke Bookes Messenger ready for the press, and told his plans for the Blacke Booke itself. 9 Then gradually, as the days wore on, he came to realize that he could never be well. He was greatly troubled in his mind. If he could only pray, he would be happy. But there was a voice ringing in his ears, "Robin Greene, thou art damned." He tried to find comfort in the hope of God's mercy, and be pacified. But the battle went on. Sometimes he hoped, sometimes he feared. "There was one theef saved and no more, there fore presume not; and there was one saved, and therefore despair not." The last night came. " He walked to his chaire and back againe the night before he departed," writes the printer of the Repentance, 10 "and then (being feeble) laying him downe on his bed, about nine of the clocke at night, a friende of his tolde him, that his Wife had sent him commendations, and that shee was in good health: whereat hee greatly rejoiced, confessed that he had mightily wronged her, and wished that hee might see her before he departed. Whereupon (feeling his time was but short) hee tooke pen and hike, & wrote her a Letter to this effect. "Sweet Wife, as ever there was any good will or friendship betweene thee and mee see this bearer (my Host) satisfied of 8 Gabriel would have it so, and the banquet is immortal. Vol. XI., p. 5. 10 Vol. XII., p. 185. 4 EGBERT GREENE his debt: I owe him tenne pound, and but for him I had perished in the streetes. Forget and forgive my wronges done unto thee, and Almighty God have mercie on my soule. Farewell till we meet in heaven, for on earth thou shalt never see me more. This 2 of September. 1592 Written by thy dying Husband. ROBERT GREENE. " u Greene ended his days in poverty. 12 His friends deserted him, and he was left alone. He would indeed have died in the streets had not the shoemaker of Dowgate and his wife taken care of him, a task in which they were assisted by the mother of Greene 's illegitimate son. Such was the manner of his death on the third of Septem ber. Mrs. Isam crowned him with a garland of bay leaves, and on the following day they buried him. 13 "Oh Robin Greene, and unfortunate because thou art Robin!" Greene would have said of one of the unhappy creatures of his imagination. Let us say it of him; there is none it fits better. With all its sadness with all its morbidness and senti- mentalism, some would say Greene's death was not a tragedy. It does not arouse profound emotion. No manner of death could do that for him. His life had not been big 11 This letter is given by Harvey in practically the same form in his Foure Letters, and certaine Sonnets: Especially touching Robert Greene, and other parties, by him abused. Harvey's Works. Ed. Grosart. Vol. I., p. 171. 12 Nashe denies this: "For the lowsie circumstance of his poverty before his death, and sending that miserable writte to his wife, it cannot be but thou lyest, learned Gabriell." Ed. McKerrow. Vol. I., p. 287. 13 Greene was buried in the New Churchyard, near Bedlam. INTRODUCTION 5 enough. His character had been too much of the surface, rather than of the depth. He had lived for the day that was passing, nor heeded that eternity would come. We need not revile him as base, believing the words that he ut tered in his despair or remembering only his ill-starred an tagonism to a greater, but a fellow, dramatist; we need not apologize for his shortcomings, in order to say that Greene was not of the strong. He was weak; he was superficial. But we can feel a genuine sympathy for him, and a regret that his life should have ended so miserably. There is a statement of his, made on his deathbed, which represents pretty well the life of the man in its activities and its remorse. It shall serve us here to introduce the purpose of this volume. "Many things I have wrote to get money." 14 Greene was a man of letters, and as such I shall try to pre sent him. Whatever literary form he took up, it was for exploitation; whatever he dropped, it was because the material or the demand was exhausted. He did what no man before him in England had done so extensively: he wrote to sell. "Povertie is the father of innumerable infirmities." That was Greene's view of the task. We of today can scarcely appreciate the difficulty. Literature is inseparably linked with the material conditions which make it possible. In the success of our modern professional writers, we forget that this relation has always existed, that it was a new thing in the reign of Elizabeth for a man to place his "chiefest stay of living " in an inkhorn and a pen. Greene, however, did so for several years. We have thirteen volumes of his work as the product of his industry. What shall we say of them and of him? In 1599 one Fastidious Brisk, coxcomb and gallant, was boasting of the elegance of his mistress' language, " Greenes Vision. Vol. XII., p. 195. 6 ROBERT GREENE "Oh, it flows from her like nectar, ... she does observe as pure a phrase, and use as choice figures in her ordinary conferences, as any be in the Arcadia." From Carlo, the jester, Fastidious got this rebuff, "Or rather from Greene's works, whence she may steal with more security." 15 Whether or not Carlo's sly reflection upon the culture of Fastidious' lady was meant as a disparagement upon the works of Greene, it does suggest that character istic which impresses most of Greene's readers, namely, his productivity as compared with his contemporaries. ' For Greene was the most prolific of all the Elizabethan writers. He was the most versatile, too. No other man in the Elizabethan period attempted so many; different kinds of work. Greene did all that the rest did, and more. Drama, poetry, framework tales, romances, social pamphlets, trea tises, prodigal-son stories, repentances, all these flowed i from his pen with a rapidity that is amazing. "In a night & a day would he have yarkt up a pamphlet as well as in 1 seaven yeare," his friend Nashe tells us, "and glad was that Printer that might bee so blest to paye him deare for the very dregs of his wit." Greene wrote only twelve years, and he had but come into his prime when he died. Yet the range of his activity was far greater than many another man attains to in a lifetime. I am not saying that, although Greene excelled his contemporaries in the matter of versa tility, he at the same time excelled them individually in any ^one type of work. He wrote no romance worthy to rank with the Arcadia; he composed nothing which in charm of style is to be compared with Lodge's Rosalynde. But it is not to be denied that Greene did have ease in writing, and " Every Man Out of His Humour. Act III. Sc. I . INTRODUCTION 7 that he turned his hand to various tasks with about the same degree of proficiency. Fertility and versatility are Greene's most obvious dis tinctions. He manifests, along with these, a third. In spite of his artificiality of style, his shallowness of characteri zation, his inconsistencies of plot, his lack of seriousness, which are real defects, Greene exhibited a freedom of liter ary art; and although he never, even to the end of his career, ceased to shout morality from his title-pages, yet in practice he came to have an almost complete enfranchise ment from the traditions of the earlier didactic writers. If I may be permitted to restate the idea, I mean that notwith standing the conventions of Elizabethan literature in all its forms, which influenced no author more than him, Greene developed an understanding of the fact that art to be suc cessful must not be wholly for man's sake; that it must be \ partly for art's sake as well. Closely related to this achievement is growth toward con sciousness of method. Greene's work is full of crudities, and some of it is not interesting. Emphasis is often misplaced, being upon speech rather than upon action. The first half of a novel is unduly elaborated at the expense of the latter, and episodes in the course of the main action are frequently too extended. But beneath the surface, the careful reader can perceive in Greene a definiteness of plan. The overemphasized story of Valericus' rejection of Cas- tania 16 may be used as an illustration. Though it exempli fies all the faults just enumerated, it was meant, however incompetently done to explain Valericus' later betrayal of Castania. A lady of high degree is in love with a stranger who has come to the court. For the progress of the story it is necessary that the duke, her father, hear of the love-affair. No friend will betray them; an enemy 16 Carde of Fancie, Vol. IV. 8 ROBERT GREENE must do it. But Castania and Gwydonius are both in high esteem. A rejected lover is the only enemy possible; He must be provided early in the narrative, for he cannot be deus ex machina. That is Greene's plan. Valericus' suit is too long drawn out. He might have been trans formed from a lover into an enemy with much more de spatch. We do not care to listen to all his speeches or to read all his letters. The device is not well handled, looked at from our point of view. But that there is a device at all is reason for commendation. It is out of the above four characteristics that our interest in Greene arises, and our problems too. His talent, revealing itself in these various ways, representing multiform activi ties in one body of work, and summing up and expressing the ideas and conventions of the age, gives him his place as a man of letters and entitles him to a consideration in any study of the literary activities of his time. Greene was not great, but a man does not have to be great to be worthy of study. To the student and critic, then, there comes the task of evaluating the product of Greene's talent. He must de scribe, explain, and judge the work which Greene has left; and he must show the influences which produced it, point out the significance to be attached to it, and portray so far as possible the personality back of it. CHAPTER II OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM THE motto which I have given as the name of this chapter, Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci, occurs upon the title-page of several of Greene's works. There are other mottoes upon other works : Sero sed serio, and Nascimur pro patria. These three mottoes taken together represent the entire output of Greene's prose. They indicate, too, in this order of enumeration, the course of Greene's development. Yet different as are the purposes which they indicate, and as are the contents of the pamphlets to which they are pre fixed, they are the product of the same writer, and they grew out of the same literary past. The outlines of Greene's activity coincide for the most part with the three stages of development of which Professor Atkins speaks in his chapter on Elizabethan prose fiction hi the Cambridge History of English Literature, 1 a threefold chronological division. Professor Atkins calls attention to the fiction of which the fundamental nature is akin to that of the moral treatise, and of which he chooses the work of Lyly as the chief example. Then, without implying any development in the evolutionary sense that one form arose out of the other, he proceeds to speak of the new type that appeared after 1584 and continued to exist side by side with the first, an essentially romantic fiction represented by the the Arcadia of Sidney. And finally he characterizes the fiction of the last decade of the century as realistic, centering in the life of the people rather than of the court, and Vol. III., Chap. XVI. 9 10 ROBERT GREENE finding exponents in such men as Deloney and, a little later, Rowlands and Dekker. In the ten or twelve years which his career embraced, Greene saw English fiction in all three of these stages. He saw it pass from under the sway of Lyly and his courtly yet didactic Euphues, through the immediate vogue of the romances (though romance was not by any means dead), into the phase of realism, the interest in the affairs of contemporary life. In all three movements Greene had a share. Like most other novelists then and since, Greene was an imitator and a follower of convention. But his part was at the same time active. Not only did he do what he saw others doing before him and around him; he also contributed. He was a student of the times. Where there was a demand he tried to satisfy it. Where there was none he endeavored to create it. He merged his own line of interest, as it were, with the larger interest of the age; and he both derived his inspiration from that interest, and added something from himself to make it what it was and what it should become. Just how he did these things, and how he was associated with the three movements, it will be the purpose of this and suc ceeding chapters to make clear. At the time when Greene began to write, Elizabethan fic tion was still in the first of these three stages of creative endeavor. It had passed through the period of translation that accompanied the first workings of the Renaissance in fluence in every form of English literature, poetry and drama as well as fiction, and that always preceded the period of original production in those various forms. It had, too, only a short time before, been well started in the way to original work by the Euphues of Lyly. The history of this period of translation need not detain us long. It is necessary to state only two facts: namely, that the era of translation sufficed for the introduction of OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 11 certain new materials, and that it accomplished certain results as to style and method. Both of these facts are, however, of importance in a consideration of the subsequent development of Elizabethan novels. The introduction of new ideas manifested itself, in the first place, in the influence that arose from the translation of various continental works of which Guevara's El Relox de Principes (by Berners, 1534; and by North, 1557) and Cas- tiglione's II Cortegiano (by Thomas Hoby, 1561) 2 were the most significant. The result of such translations as these was the quickening of an already present, but older, interest in the kind of literature represented by Elyot's Governor (1531) and Ascham's Schoolmaster (published 1570), and nu merous other treatises intended for instruction in letters and in forms of refinement, into a genuine and eager desire for the more cultivated manners and thoughts of social life. In the second place, along with the influence of these native and infused ideas represented by these moral treatises must be considered that which arose from the translations of novels. Although the collections of Painter, Fenton, Pettie, and the rest, 3 may at first appear to be translations of continental stories, both Renaissance and classical, the fundamental pur pose of them was not unlike that of the moral treatises them selves. For under the form of a story of love or fortune the translator proclaimed his moral purpose. 4 It may be that 8 The translation was frequently reprinted. There was also a Latin translation in 1571 by Bartholomew Clerke which was almost as popu lar as the English one. Painter, 1566; Fenton, 1567; Fortesque, 1571; Pettie, 1576; Whetstone, 1576; Riche, 1581; etc. 4 Painter, for example, prefixed a long discourse, sometimes running to the length of a couple of dry, uninteresting pages, to each of the novels he translated. Those discourses were meant to be somewhat in the nature of an argument, but they were designed also to point out the exceedingly great value, and the moral, of the story about to be 12 ROBERT GREENE these professions of a moral purpose are not to be taken too seriously. 6 At the same time, it cannot be denied that such collections, of which the ostensible aim was edification, did, under the guise of the narrative form, do much to set forth new ideas on such subjects as love, friendship, and fortune; to enlarge the sphere of emotion; and to combine with the influence of the treatises to broaden the standard of culture in accordance with the ideals of the more advanced peoples on the continent. The new ideas of culture which books like II Cortegiano represented, and the new and passionate phases of life to be found expressed in the Italian novelle, not only, as I have suggested, broadened the intellectual and emotional experi ence of English writers, but gave to those writers valuable lessons in style and method of composition. Beginning with what were literally transcriptions, so far as invention was concerned, the translators themselves came, by 1580, to have a considerable independence. 6 Along with the process of translation there went the process of adaptation; and both related. Fenton, not content with torturing his tales out of all resem blance to fiction by means of his discoursive sermonizing within the tales themselves, added, to that, copious remarks along his margins. 6 In the case of Pettie they are not to be taken seriously at all. 6 In 1573 George Gascoigne, pretending to translate from an Ital ian author, Bartello by name, wrote The Adventures of Master F. J., the first of the English novels. Certain of Pettie's tales (A Petite Pallace of Pettie his Pleasure, 1576. Ed. Gollancz, The King's Classics Series. Tereus and Progne, Vol. I. Scttla and Minos, Vol. II.) are not by. any means slavish followings of their originals. Barnabe Riche, in a collec tion of eight tales was himself the author of five of them. (Riche his Farewell to Militarie Profession, 1581. Shak. Soc. Pub., Vol. XVI.) "To the Readers in generall: . . . The histories . . . are eight in number, whereof the first, the seconde, the fift, the seventh and eight, are tales that are but forged onely for delight, neither credible to be beleved, not hurtfull to be perused. The third, the fourth, and the sixt, are Italian histories." OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 13 of these resulted in original production. The significance of all three is in the fact that, while the English writers were thus following models, they were at the same time acquiring a knowledge of prose style. Their independence was far from complete, but the knowledge which they got was at least valuable hi the production of such stories as satisfied the instinct for edification, both moral and cultural. So much, then, had been accomplished when, following out the tradition of narrative form for didactic purpose, Lyly wrote his Euphues, the novel with which the first stage of the development of Elizabethan prose fiction was inaugurated. Euphues, it is well to recall for purposes of comparison a little later, is the story of a young Athenian who comes to Naples. There he is given some sound advice on the subject of conduct. Presently he meets Philautus, with whom he is soon on intimate terms of friendship. Philautus introduces him to Lucilla, his betrothed. Euphues and Lucilla fall in love and the friendship with Philautus is broken. It is not long, however, before Lucilla deserts Euphues for one Curio, just as she had deserted Philautus for Euphues. Then Euphues, a wiser man, having renewed his friendship with Philautus, betakes himself to Greece, becomes a hermit, and sends forth letters upon various subjects to his various friends. Lyly intended to write a treatise. His real purpose, as Mr. Bond says, 7 "was to string together moral reflections on grave subjects, the gathered results of various reading." Lyly was concerned with the inculcation of ideas. Matters of education, friendship, religion, love-making, conduct, travel, and so forth, he discussed with the seriousness that pertains to questions of real moment. These things were vital to him, and indispensable. From sources here and there, from 7 The Complete Works of John Lyly. Ed. by R. W. Bond. Clarendon Press, 1902. Introductory Essay to Euphuea. Vol. I, p. 159. 14 ROBERT GREENE Cicero, Plutarch, Erasmus, Guevara, from his own thought, too, he collected opinions and discourses on social affairs. Some of these he translated just as he found them; some he adapted to suit his purpose. The Anatomy of Wyt is, there fore, " rather an essay in philosophy than in fiction proper." But it is not wholly so. The compilation thus made Lyly cast into narrative form. As such it has serious defects, want of action, poverty of imagination, lack of human interest. In spite of its imperfections as narrative, however, in spite, one might say, of the very didacticism which called it forth Euphues is a novel, an excellent " prototype of the novel with a purpose." Of the style of the celebrated work we shall not speak, its structural and ornamental devices anthitheses, rhetorical questions, alliterations, puns; historical and mythological allusions, similes from natural and unnatural history, prov erbs, set discourses, soliloquies, " passions," asides to the reader, letters, misogynist tirades. All this is too well known on its own account to make necessary anything more than the mention of it as the conscious effort to please men desiring to "heare finer speach then the language would allow." There can, indeed, be only one purpose in calling attention to Lyly's work at all, the purpose, namely, of taking advantage of its familiarity to the reader as a means of summing up more dis tinctly, perhaps, than would otherwise be possible, the state of the novel when Greene put forth his first production. (A) MAMILLIA The First Part of Mamillia (lie. 1580), the earliest extant work from Greene's pen, is the only one of his novels (together with the Anatomic of Lovers Flatteries appended to the Second Part, 1583; and a few elements in the Second Part itself) of which the form was cast in the mold set by Lyly. But though Greene only once chose Euphues as the model for his OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 15 own work, there is no doubt that he wrote Mamillia with Lyly's novel, and Lyly's success, in mind. Mamillia has come from the court of Venice to be at her father's house in Padua. She receives a letter from a friend at court as to matters of conduct. At her father's house, one Pharicles sees her, falls in love with her, and wins her affection. Shortly afterward Pharicles sees Publia, woos, and wins her. Thus treacherously engaged to both ladies at once, and fearing the outcome of such faithlessness, he decides to leave the country. He does so, leaving behind two faithful women, both of whom, in spite of his fickleness, remain constant in their affection. Publia in the Second Part enters a convent; Mamillia a radical departure from Euphues marries Pharicles. The plot of Mamillia differs in many respects from that of Euphues; still the general plan is much the same. Corre sponding to Euphues' departure from Athens, we have Mamillia's departure from the court to her father's house. The fundamental theme of infidelity is the same with sexes reversed. This reversal is often carried out in details. Euphues goes from home to gain worldly experience. Mamillia is away from home in the midst of temptations, and goes home in order to avoid them. When Euphues arrives in Naples, he is offered advice, which he haughtily rejects. Mamillia is offered advice, which she accepts and earnestly tries to follow. The reversal is carried, also, to the main characters. In Euphues there are two faithful male, and one faithless female, characters; in Mamillia there are two faithful female, and one faithless male, characters. Corresponding to the fact that Euphues met Lucilla through Philautus' introduction is the fact that it was Mamillia who introduced Pharicles to Publia. Corresponding to the quarrel between Euphues and Philautus when Euphues falls in love with Lucilla, there is the falling out between Mamillia and Publia when Pharicles and Publia fall in love. Corresponding 16 ROBERT GREENE to Euphues' secluding himself at Silexedra is Publia's entrance into a convent. And corresponding to Euphues' letters, are the letters of Mamillia to her friend, the Lady Modesta. This definite parallelism is sufficient to show what I mean in saying that Mamillia is planned upon Euphues. 3 Not in form only, but also in purpose, was Greene's first novel written in very obvious emulation of Lyly. Although he did not follow the exact type again, Greene began to write in accordance with the prominent tradition of the time; and this tradition involved not only the form of Euphues, but its aim as well. Lyly's purpose was primarily didactic. His method, ostensibly that of narrative, has some of the interest which arises from pure narrative. The under lying principle, however, is of another kind. Lyly was too close to the older school of Painter and Fenton, too thor oughly imbued with the newly acquired ideas of the Renaissance, to be able to project a work of fiction which should be free from the encumbering didacticism of the treatise. I do not mean that he should have been wholly free from it. The contrast is not between didacticism and entertainment pure and simple, but between a crude didac ticism which comes from a failure to assimilate ideas suffi ciently to secure a true perspective, and an artistic criticism of life. A notable work of fiction can never be mere enter tainment. But Lyly was so filled with the significance of the new culture, and of the refinement and polish of expres sion, that he mistook these subordinate for the prominent elements. His purpose was not first to create a novel in our modern sense of the word, with its artistic proportion 8 Another very close following of Euphues is the opening part of Lodge's Euphues Shadow, 1592. (The Complete Works of Thomas Lodge. Ed. by Gosse, Vol. II.) The latter part of Lodge's story is entirely different, but the opening situation is identical with that of Euphues. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 17 both of pleasure and of criticism, but to open new matters of polite thought, manners, conversation, to the minds of the English court. Greene, although he omits Lyly's element of satire, also was aiming at edification. He was carrying on in Mamillia the tradition of the treatise. As well as Lyly, he perceived the value of refinement in thought, of elegance in expression, and of a consciousness of endeavor to make culture a part of the life and speech of the English people. That end he saw accomplished by Lyly; and he tried, upon the model of his predecessor, to bring about the same result. His method was narration; his end, instruction. He has given us therefore a novel which is not, on the whole, unlike Euphues. 9 This is not saying that we are to attach to Mamillia the same significance that we give to Lyly's work. Although, as Mr. Bond 10 admirably points out, Lyly found at hand practically all the elements, both of style and content, which he combined to produce Euphues, he is nevertheless to be given credit as a pioneer in that he first created what is worthy to be regarded seriously as a work of fiction. In this sense, Lyly's novel is more important than Greene's. It is the more important, too, on its intrinsic merits. There is in it a somewhat firmer handling of the materials, a deeper 9 In view of such a purpose and such a production, we can hardly agree with the statement of Mr. Gosse when he said, in speaking of Mamittia, "It is to Greene to whom the credit is due of first writing a book wholly devoted to fictitious adventure in prose." (Hunterian Club. The Complete Works of Thomas Lodge. Ed. by Edmund Gosse, 1883. Introduction, Vol. I., p. 11.) To characterize Mamillia the First Part at least as "fictitious adventure" and thus to distinguish it from Euphues, is, it seems to me, utterly to misinterpret the nature of the work. 10 The Complete Works of John Lyly. Ed. by R. Warwick Bond, Clarendon Press. 1902. 18 ROBERT GREENE understanding of motive, a more effective grasp upon the meaning of character. Not only this, perhaps because of this, it is more mature, more steady in its aim and in its method. We are not, however, to be blind to the importance of Greene's work, nor to discount it too much from the fact that it is directly a copy, tyamillia has most of the imper fections of the time, infinite niceties of Euphuistic phrasing, tendency to clog the narrative with pedantic speeches and conversations, shallowness of characterization. But super ficial as it is, it is not ineffective. Publia, Mamillia, and Pharicles are more than just the inverse portraits of Phi- lautus, Euphues, and Lucilla. For all that Pharicles' trouble of mind over his inconstancy is not, upon examination, very convincing, it will endure a cursory reading. 11 And if the narrative element is slight (it must be remembered that we are discussing the First Part only; the Second Part belongs with the romances), it has at the same time a certain degree of rapidity. Pharicles meets Publia immediately upon his acceptance by Mamillia. The whole situation indeed is more cleverly conceived than in Lyly. Philautus takes Euphues to Lucilla for the purpose of introducing him to her. The introduction is, obviously, to make oppor tunity to reveal Lucilla's fickleness. In Greene, on the other hand, the introduction is manifestly accidental. Pharicles is walking with Mamillia for the sake of urging his suit. It happens that she is going to Publia's house. Pharicles goes along. Inasmuch as Mamillia has just granted her love by the time they arrive, we are dumbfounded at Pharicles' sud den passion for Publia. The events that follow, too, occur in quick succession; almost before we know it, Pharicles is betrothed to both, and off and away to Sicily. 11 Dr. Wolff (Eng. St., Vol. 37, p. 358) thinks that Mamillia contains some of Greene's best characterization. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 19 The apparent fortuitousness of Pharicles' meeting with Publia illustrates what I think is Greene's advance over Lyly. It shows, on Greene's part, a realization of what narrative, as distinct from treatise, demands. Euphues is a treatise which came near being a story; Mamillia is a story which retains much of the treatise. Although he was striving to imitate Lyly, Greene's nature led him to a slightly different result. He put into a minor relation the very things for the sake of which, perhaps, he wrote the book, and elevated those which his fundamental interest in events inevitably made prominent. Even in his first pro duction, when his purpose was to teach, he developed the ability, which he was later to develop more consciously, of producing work with real narrative art. Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci. Lyly, it may be said, had stressed the utile. Greene found the value of the dulci. Such a discovery in those days was no small thing for a lad of twenty. (B) THE FRAME-WORK TALES It was one of Greene's most deep-rooted characteristics to write what he thought he would have a market for. All through his life he was doing that. "After I had by degrees proceeded Maister of Arts," we are told, " . . . I became ... a penner of Love Pamphlets . . . who for that trade growne so ordinary about London as Robin Greene." 12 The statement comes from the supersensi- tive brain of a dying man, but the truth of it applies elsewhere to Greene's work. Literature was a trade to him, an activity to be followed shrewdly in order to be followed successfully. Fiction, in 1580, was didactic. Greene would therefore be didactic. Euphues was very popular. Greene would 11 Repentance, Vol. XII., p. 17-23. 20 ROBERT GREENE write a novel like it. Such seems to have been the origin of Mamillia. It was none of Greene's intention, when he began, to do more than disguise the similarity between his pamphlet and its model. Every one still felt the need of being didactic, or at least of pretending to be so, 13 and Greene meant to follow fashion and be as didactic as the rest. 14 Incidentally he discovered the power of ordering events in a way to give real narrative interest. The story did not exactly run away with him; but it broke loose. There is in Greene's work a balancing between two pur poses. His desire always to be in fashion brought about these results, one coming from his conscious aim to instruct, the other developing as a by-product into a freedom of art. Mamillia marks the first stage. The romances mark the last. Between the two, both in time and in relationship, are the frame-work tales which form the subject of this di vision of the chapter. To the composition of the frame-work tales the Italian Renaissance contributed the two elements which character ize this branch of Greene's work. There was the influence which came from the Dialogues, like Bembo's Gli Asolani and Castiglione's II Cortegiano; and which, we saw earlier in the chapter, was already felt in England even before the 13 See an example in the Adventures of Master F. J., which Gascoigne concludes in these words: "Thus we see that where wicked lust doeth beare the name of love, it doth not onely infecte the lyght- minded, but it maye also become confusion to others which are vowed to constancie. And to that end I have recyted this Fable, which may serue as ensample to warne the youthfull reader from attempting the lyke worthless enterprise." (Gascoigne. Ed. W. C. Hazlitt. Rox- burghe Library, 1869. Vol. I., p. 486.) 14 "I will take in hand to discourse of, (Obedience) that both we may beguyle the night with prattle, and profite our mynds by some good and vertuous precepts." Penelopes Web, p. 162. A character istic statement of Greene. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 21 time of Greene. In the Dialogue of this type, the purpose was cultural; the center of interest was on what was said rather than upon what was done, upon polite conversation, discussions upon questions of morality, love, fortune, and so forth ; and the emphasis was about equally divided between the frame-work and the included matter. There was, too, the influence of the frame-work tale proper, of the kind repre sented by Boccaccio's Decameron. Works of this sort tended to minimize the importance of the frame-work and to throw the emphasis upon the included stories. The purpose was that of entertainment more than of culture. We may begin with Morando, the Tritameron of Love. Morando resembles the treatise in its purpose. Perhaps it should not even be called a novel at all. The Lady Panthia, accompanied by her three daughters and three young gentle men, is spending three days at the house of Morando. On each day a discussion occurs: 15 first, Love doth much, but money doth all; second, Whether or not it is good to love; third, Whether women or men are more subject to love. Hence the title after the fashion of the Decameron and the Heptameron the " Tritameron " of Love. Each ques-' tion is debated by one of the young couples. Considerable opportunity is offered for a certain brilliancy of conversation and repartee; and while there is no action, there is some inter est in the development of the characters. By the time the three days' discussion is over, one of the young men has fallen in love with one of the young ladies. Then all go to Panthia's house in town, from where, if Greene hears what 18 Morando and several other novels of the group are thus examples of the dubii, or discussions particularly of the more subtle questions of love, which constituted for many decades a very popular amusement in polite circles. They dealt with just such topics as are proposed in Morando, and were very widespread in the literature of the Renais sance, not only in Italy but elsewhere. 22 ROBERT GREENE success Silvestro had, he will let us have news. Greene heard as he always did in such cases of Silvestro's success, and so had plenty of reason to publish the Second Part. This second part carries on the love affair to its happy conclusion. Thus the story forms a setting in which are embedded some further discourses, this time not upon love, but upon fortune and upon friendship. 16 Even so brief an analysis will serve to show the nature of the work. It can be seen at once that the Tritameron has more story than is to be found in the treatises proper, but is yet distinctly akin to them. The purpose of it is not narrative primarily, but didactic, designed to give expres sion to, and to infuse into the English mind, certain thoughts upon cultural subjects, however conventional those thoughts and purposes might be or might become. Of all the group, Morando takes the extreme place in the direction of cultural intention. Next to it are the pam- 16 Mr. Hart (Notes and Queries. 10th Ser. No. 5, pp. 343, 443, 444.) has pointed out that these discourses are not original with Greene. They were extracted by him from Primaudaye's Academy. Primaudaye was born about 1545 of a family of Anjou, and was a man of consider able renown in his own time. His works were chiefly of a religious nature. The Academy was translated in 1586 by Thomas Bowes as the "Platonical Academy & Schoole of Moral Philosophy" Greene frequently made use of Bowes' translation. The discourse on Friend ship (Vol. III., pp. 146-60) is taken from Primaudaye, Chap. XIII, "Of Friendship and a Friend." Ten lines of Primaudaye are lifted bodily. "First we say with Socrates that ... (12 lines skipped) . . . Friendship is a communion," etc. The discourse of Peratio upon Fortune (pp. 128-39) is from Primaudaye, Chap. XLIV. Greene omits Primaudaye's account of Tamburlaine. The discussion on marriage (pp. 164-6) is, incidentally, from Primaudaye, Chap. XLV. The sexes are changed, for whereas Primaudaye writes against women, Greene is arguing for them. After 1586 many of Greene's writings show large verbal borrowings from Primaudaye. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 23 phlets which make up Greene's largest body of work. These are the frame-work tales which have stories within them selves in illustration of the ideas brought out in the discussion. Closest to Morando in didactic elements is Farewell to Follie. 11 Signior Farnese goes, with his wife and three daughters and four young gentlemen, into the country. There they discuss Follie in a series of discourses and illus trative tales. From the fact that the three forms of Follie talked of are Pride, Lust, and Gluttony, and from the fact that there are seven young people in the company, it is surely not unreasonable to suppose with Professor Morley 18 that Greene had in mind to make the Farewell to Follie a treatise on the seven deadly sins. 19 The title-page of the Censure to Philautus is undoubtedly the best comment upon that work: "Euphues his censure to Philautus. Wherein is presented a philo- sophicall combat betweene Hector and Achylles, discovering in foure discourses, interlaced with diverse delightfull Tragedies, The vertues necessary to be incident in every gentleman: had in question at the 17 This pamphlet is often spoken of in connection with the so-called repentance novels. The only way in which it can be so connected with them (the way in which it usually is connected with the repent ances) is by the prefaces. The prefaces, however, have nothing to do with the work itself, unless the anatomizing of folly be called "re pentance." So far as the work itself is concerned, it does in reality belong with the treatise-narrative group. 18 English Writers, Vol. X., pp. 94-5. w Mr. Hart (Notes and Queries, Ser. 10, No. 5) cites twenty or more passages taken directly from Primaudaye. Among the most important of these are the passages on marriage (Vol. IX., pp. 327-8) which are taken from Primaudaye (Chap. XLV.) and the Tale of Cosimo (Vol. IX., p. 298) which Greene develops into a story from the headings of the tale of Menon in Primaudaye (Chap. XL VII.) In no other work does Greene borrow so extensively from Primaudaye. In Farewell to Follie he also made use of Laneham's Letter (1575). Passage (Vol. IX., p. 265) is taken from Laneham (Burn's reprint, 1821, p. 29, corrected by Furnivall in Ballad Society, p. 22. 1871). 24 ROBERT GREENE siege of Troy betwixt sondry Grecian and Trojan Lords: especially debated to discour the perfection of a souldier. Containing mirth to purge melancholy, holsome precepts to profit maners, neither unsauorie to youth for delight, nor offensive to age for scurrilitie. Ea habentur optima quae & lucunda, honesta, & utilia." The purpose, as can be seen, is similar to that of Castig- lione's work, in this case to set forth the qualities of the perfect soldier. The emphasis is only apparently upon the didactic; really the narrative elements were more im portant in Greene's own mind. For one-fifth of the novel is given to the frame-work and the background the meetings of the Greeks and Trojans, both soldiers and women, in a time of truce; and the consequent talking back and forth, 20 with the final decision on the part of the men to " discover" an ideal member of their own profession. One-fifth is devoted to the set speeches such as were found in the Tritameron of Love, in this instance on Wisdom, Fortitude, and Liberality, the three essentials of perfection in arms. And three-fifths are consumed in the relating of the "delightfull Tragedies.' 721 20 Professor Herford (New Shak. Soc. Ser. 1, Ft. 2, p. 186) thinks there is some relation between Greene's conception of Cressida, as she is shown to us here, and Shakespeare's. Greene's, he says, more nearly approaches Shakespeare's manner than any other version in its conception of the heroine. Greene speaks of Cressida who was "tickled a little with a self e conceit of her owne wit" (Vol. VI., p. 166) a sug gestion of the pert, impudent, ingenious Cressida of Shakespeare. I think we can agree that there is this similarity between the two Cressidas. But I do not believe we can go so far as to say with Grosart (Englische Studien 22:403) that "Shakespeare's treatment of 'Troy's tale divine' in Troilus and Cressida is drawn from Euphues his Censure." 21 How definitely Greene meant to convey the impression that he was writing a treatise can be seen by his own remark in his preface where, attributing the work to Euphues, he speaks of it as a work "wherein under the shadow of a philosophicall combat betweene Hector OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 25 Belonging with the Censure to Philautus and yet going a step farther toward an openly expressed delight in the story elements are Penelopes Web, dating from the same year (1587), expressly a "Christall Myrror of faeminine per fection" intended to set forth the virtues of womankind in the same way that the Censure sets forth the idea of the perfect soldier; 22 Alcida in which the principal character is an old woman who tells the stories of her three daughters, revealing three vanities, Pride, Inconstancy, and Proneness to Gossip, the "discourse" confirmed with " diverse merry and delightfull Histories"; u Planetomachia, a discussion with and Achilles, imitating Tullies orator, Platoes common wealth, Bal- desars courtier, he aymeth at the exquisite portraiture of a perfect martialist." Vol. VI., p. 152. M A part of the title-page reads: "In three several discourses also are three especiall vertues, necessary to be incident in every vertuous woman, pithely discussed: namely Obedience, Chastitie, and Sylence: Interlaced with three severall and Comicall Histories. By Robert Greene, Maister of Arts in Cambridge." Penelopes Web has borrowings from Primaudaye's Academy. (Hart, Notes and Queries. 10th Ser. No. 5.) 23 Brie (Englische Studien, 42: 217 ff.) attempts to determine the date of Lyly's Love's Metamorphosis on the ground of its connection with Alcida. Without raising the question of the date of Lyly's play, I fail to see any such intimate relationship between the novel and the play as in any way to think the former the source of the latter. Both involve metamorphoses, to be sure, but the similarity scarcely goes beyond that point. 14 Storojenko (Grosart's Greene, Vol. I., p. 95) is puzzled as to what should have caused Greene "to change his front so suddenly, and to send the shafts of his wit against the very sex which he had always so highly lauded." Storojenko is linking together Nashe's epithet, "Homer of women," (Nashe's Works, Ed. McKerrow, Vol. I., p. 12) and Greene's own words in Mamillia (Vol. II., pp. 106-7) where Greene sets himself up against the slanderers of women. To be puzzled about a seeming change of front is to take Greene too seriously. In the first place, speeches against women are to be found in Mamillia itself (Vol. II., pp. 54, 221-2), and in other works of Greene. In the second 26 ROBERT GREENE an elaborate preface on the influence of the planets, 25 con taining two tales by Saturn and Venus, each divinity to prove that the influence of the other is the more malignant in the actions of men, a theme similar to that of Lyly's Woman in the Moon. There are two more novels in the group, Perymedes and Orpharion. These are at the opposite extreme from Mo- rando. For while there is a semblance of a purpose for having a frame-work in the case of Perymedes to set forth a pic ture of contented lowly life; in Orpharion to show a cure for love the stories which make up the novels are told for their own sake. This, in spite of the fact that Greene in all solemnity declares that Perymedes illustrates "a golden methode how to use the minde in pleasant and profitable exercise;" and that in Orpharion "as in a Diateheron, the branches of Vertue, ascending and descending by degrees: are counited in the glorious praise of women-kind." In form, Greene's Vision is a frame-work pamphlet. But the tales are really incidental both in proportion and in inter est, although one of them, the Tale of Tompkins, is among the most skilful of Greene's stories. The Vision, being an account of a religious experience, may therefore be dis place, it is not known that Nashe is referring to Greene at all (Nashe, Ed. McKerrow, Vol. IV., p. 14). And in the third place, Alcida is not necessarily a misogynic pamphlet. It is not against women in general. It is merely against certain faults in women's natures simply a didactic narrative. 25 This preface is not original with Greene. He gets it from Pontano's dialogue called Aegidius (Prose Works, Venice, 1519, Vol. II.). "At the beginning of Planetomachia, Greene takes over nearly verbatim, in the original Latin, seven pages of this dialogue (beginning at page 168), substituting his own name " Robertus Grenus" and that of his friend "Fransiscus Handus," for the names of Pardus and Fransiscus Pudericus respectively, wherever these occur in the original." (S. L. Wolff. Eng. St. Vol. 37, p. 333, note 1.) OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 27 cussed in the next chapter among the repentance pamphlets. Strictly speaking, two others of Greene's novels, Never too Late, with its sequel, Francescos Fortunes, and Arbasto, belong with this group. But for the reason that these two novels contain only one tale each, and that in both novels the included tales so put the frame-work out of mind as to make it entirely negligible, they are best considered in the groups where they properly belong, the latter with the romances, the former with the prodigal-son stories. The interest of these pamphlets for the modern reader is, in most cases, in the tales. It is the interest which arises from the narrative rather than from the didactic elements. This probably was less true to Greene's contemporaries. Although the frame-work is not entirely without significance even for us, to them it was, no doubt, the more vital part. For Greene imbued it with considerable of the spirit of Renaissance thought, and he conveyed through it to his readers much that was essentially cultural hi content and in aim. He was, then, not merely the writer of didactic frame-works embellished with incidental tales; he was an apostle of the new learning and all that it represented. He was journalistic, he made his living by putting out these pamphlets. But such considerations do not alter the fact that he did much, along with earning his bread, to familiarize his readers with ideas of refinement in conversation and life, with precepts of morality, with questions of sentiment and passion, with discourses on the virtues and vices of mankind. 26 There are in all more than twenty of the included tales. 16 For a full discussion of this subject of Greene as an introducer of Italian culture see Dr. S. L. Wolff's article (published in Englische Studien, 1906-7, Vol. 37) entitled, "Robert Greene and the Italian Renaissance." Dr. Wolff discusses the influence of the Renaissance upon Greene as being of two kinds; that which Greene assimilated in such a way as to treat imaginatively in his own work, such as plots 28 ROBERT GREENE The tabulation of them in chronological order will show in the most concrete way possible the range of subject and genre. 27 Such a tabulation, however, shows nothing of the structure or of the excellence of Greene's work. It may be well, then, to illustrate Greene's narrative art. We may take the story of Tompkins the Wheelwright, for example, Chaucer's Tale in Greenes Vision (Vol. XII.). This tale belongs to the old fabliau type, which is in itself well freed from ethical purpose. It is not the aim of the type to portray character, except incidentally, or to bear in struction. The good fabliau is primarily narrative, consist ing always of a well-knit story. It is clear even when it is elaborate. Its method is straightforward, ever selecting the significant detail necessary to forward the action. It is compact, unadorned, effective. Near Cambridge lived a wheelwright named Tompkins. He fell in love with a dairymaid who sold cream in Cam bridge. Her name was Kate. She loved him too, and her father consented to the marriage. Kate continued to sell her cream. Tompkins became jealous of the scholars at Cambridge and finally became jealous of everybody. Kate perceived his jealousy and was grieved. She was friendly with a scholar whom she asked to rid her husband of jealousy. They devised a plan. On Friday Tompkins took his wife to her father's while he went to Cambridge. He met a scholar who asked him where he lived. He said at Grandchester. Scholar asked if he knew Tompkins, the wheelwright. Tompkins said and motifs; and that which he used but did not so assimilate ideas about science, literature, education, politics, society, which became a part of his mental content and changed his views of life, and adventi tious material which enlarged his stock of information and furnished literary ornament. 27 See Appendix I. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 29 he was his neighbor. Scholar said that Tompkins was the most famous cuckold in the country, and offered to prove the statement the next day when Kate was in town. Tomp kins was to meet the scholar at an inn. The next day Tompkins bade his wife go to market, for he was ill, he said. Then he went to Cambridge to the inn. He met the scholar, and they went to a chamber window. Tompkins saw his wife sitting on a scholar's lap eating cherries. Then he and the scholar drank together. Tompkins was given a sleeping potion, and they all made merry, while Tompkins slept. Late at night they carried Tompkins home. About midnight he awoke and began to rail at his wife. Then he saw that he was at home in bed, and he could not understand it. He said that he had seen his wife on a scholar's lap, eating cherries. They persuaded him that he had been very ill, and that it was all mere fancy. Thus was Tompkins cured of his jealousy. The Tale of the Farmer Bridegroom in Groatsworth of Wit belongs in the class with that of Tompkins. Not all of Greene's tales, however, rank with these two. Some of them are poorly done and dull; indeed the fact cannot be overlooked that, however popular in its day, much of Greene's work is commonplace to us. But every man has the right to be measured by his highest attainments. In the final consideration there is this quality which demands recognition. When he is at his best, Greene is able to tell a story well. He has an understanding of what a plot is, and he makes his narrative move. Most of Greene's work is of course impeded by Euphuistic ornament and didactic talk, but the story is usually well conceived and developed. Entirely different is the tale of Valdracko, Venus' Trage- die in Plajwtomachia. Valdracko, Duke of Ferrara, was a crabbed man. Though he was just and politic as a ruler, he 30 ROBERT GREENE was not liked privately. He trusted no one. Valdracko had a daughter called Pasylla, who was loved by Rodento, son of II Conte Coelio, Valdracko's bitter enemy. (The love affair is long drawn out.) One day Valdracko went to his daughter's room to speak to her. She was not there, but he found one of Rodento's letters and Pasylla's answer to it. He made up his mind to be avenged on the family of Coelio. There was a great meeting of the nobles of Ferrara. Val dracko asked Coelio to stay after the meeting, and made proffer of reconciliation. The proffer was accepted, to the joy of the Senate, and Valdracko took Coelio home with him to dinner. He called his daughter to him and told her of his plan for her to marry Rodento. Pasylla said she was willing, Rodento was sent for, and the marriage was arranged for the next spring. Meantime Valdracko decided to hire a ruffian to murder Coelio. Within a few days the ruffian had killed Coelio with a pistol. But he was captured, and brought before the Senate. Valdracko, pretending great sorrow at his friend's death, ordered the man's tongue cut out. Pasylla and Ro dento were greatly grieved at Coelio's death. Valdracko had the murderer put to death in torment. Soon after, Rodento and Pasylla were married with much ceremony, and Valdracko spent great sums of money upon the marriage feast. After five months Valdracko began thinking how he might be rid of Rodento. He went to a house of his three miles from Ferrara, from where he sent a letter to his cup-bearer to poison Rodento, promising great reward. The cup bearer carried out the orders the next morning. Within four hours Rodento died. Pasylla was greatly grieved. The cup-bearer had pangs of conscience. He gave her her father's letter, and died. When Valdracko came home he pretended sorrow for Rodento's death, but Pasylla had vowed revenge. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 31 When he had gone to sleep, she went to his chamber and bound him to his bed. She awakened him and killed him with a sword. She- took pen and ink and wrote out the story; then she killed herself with the same sword. This tale is distinctly a product of the Italian Renaissance. It might well be and may be, for all anybody knows a translation of one of the novelle. The story is full of Italian incidents and motifs: 28 murders, revenge, treachery. It has in it passion of love and hate, intensity of movement. That the action is somewhat slow in starting must be admitted, being delayed by the conventionality of the process of young people's falling in love. But once set going the trend of events is sure, the movement steady toward the tragic end. The principal characters are of course Valdracko and Pa- sylla, the father and his beautiful daughter. About Pasylla there is nothing of particular import. She is passionate and faithful in her love; and she is unflinching in her revenge. But Greene does not present her differentiated from the type of beautiful heroines who can, on occasion, show a ferocious fortitude the gentle lady murderers so common in the literature of the Renaissance. Nor does he imbue her with a personality so distinct as to arouse in us genuine sympathy for her revenge or for her death. Valdracko, too, is only a type. But he is a type which comes very near to being a character. He is a man impla- 88 "The story of Valdracko, in Planetomachia, is full of Italian motifs. That of the old woman go-between who transmits to the lover what is ostensibly his own love letter disdainfully returned, but what is really an encouraging reply, may well have come from Boccaccio's story of the confessor as go-between Decani. III., 3 (not noticed by Koep- pel). There is, too, a typical Italian poisoning, and a general family slaughter father killing son-in-law, daughter killing father and her self which recalls Cinthio's tragedy of Orbecche, or his narrative version of the same story in Hecatomm. II., 2." (Wolff, Eng. Stud., Vol. 37, p. 346, note 1.) 32 ROBERT GREENE cable in his hatred. There is no sacrifice too great, be it his own daughter. There is no treachery too violent. Greene has presented us with a unified conception. Valdracko is consistently portrayed with one exception. We cannot understand the depth of his motive as co-ordinate with the terribleness of his actions. We cannot feel that Valdracko moves wholly from within. To the extent that he is moved by his creator he falls short of real personality. We are here making one of our most serious criticisms upon Greene's art in fiction. Greene gets hold, to a remark able degree, of the nature of narrative so far as the choice and arrangement of events is concerned. His sense for action is strong. His ability in characterization, on the other hand, is not so well developed. He seldom presents more than types. Although his presentation is often a refinement upon that of his predecessors, and although he succeeds in idealiz ing certain kinds of personality, his characterization is always, in his novels, inadequate. Greene has not enough insight into the depths of human -nature to gain a full conception of the sources of action. He does not relate sufficiently a motive for conduct, and the conduct itself. This is a serious criticism. But to say so, is not also to say that it is a severe one. We must remember that in 1585 Shakespeare had not begun to write, that Marlowe had pro duced nothing, that Kyd had not even written the Spanish Tragedy. Greene had few models in English Literature, 29 for no one had yet opened the eyes of English men of letters to a realization of what it was possible to do in the creation of character when creative power was at its highest. Greene's supreme achievement is Valdracko, which, we have said, falls short. Greene had not intensity enough of imagi- 29 Sidney's Arcadia with its minute and keen analysis of character was written before 1585, but there is no way of knowing whether Greene had read it. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 33 nation to raise him above the sphere of type into the sphere of personality; so the story of Valdracko remains a tale, not a tragedy. But the wonder is not that Greene failed. In conclusion, my discussion of the frame- work tales may require a word of explanation. Greene's career in fiction, chronologically, was from the treatise to the romance, from the uiile to the dulci, through the frame-work tales, which were both. In view of that general development I have taken up the frame-work tale as a progression from the one extreme to the other. It must be remembered that I have done so only for the sake of classification and clearness. The order here is not at all that in which they were written. We can easily be led astray by the evolutionary idea in the case of a man like Greene whose work in fiction as a whole does, at first sight, seem to have been the result of a con scious development. For we have first Mamillia, the didac tic treatise; then about 1586 and '87 a series of frame- work tales; and finally in 1588 and '89 a group of romances, narra tives pure and simple. The division, however, is by no means exact. Greene's second work, for instance, was a romance. And so was his third, and his fourth this last in a prodigal- son frame-work. Moreover, after he had left romances, and had turned to another form of writing, Greene appeared with one of the most didactic of his frame-work tales. Such con siderations prevent any belief that Green's novels represent a real progression in his mind. The development, if there had been one, would have been in accordance with Greene's natural ability. His real power, if he had only known it, was in narrative. But as I shall have occasion to state later, Greene did not fully realize wherein his talent lay. He developed technique, methods of meeting definite problems of literary presentation and ex pression. In this sense there is distinct progress in his work. Of the difference, however, between the two elements of the 34 ROBERT GREENE frame-work tale he seems to have been unaware. The cul tural element of the frame-work was quite as significant as the included tale. He felt no need there isn't much, for that matter, for drawing a distinction between didacti cism, which was his crude but only criticism of life, and the capability of giving pleasure which a work of art must have. We cannot, therefore, regard this division of Greene's work as more than a miscellaneous collection of pamphlets, most of them fortuitously centered around the year 1587. To him they were not in any way a link between the treatise and the artistic narrative. (C) THE ROMANCES From these frame-work tales, we pass to the next group of Greene's novels. This is the group which belongs to the ro mantic fiction that was prominent for several years during Greene's career. It is true that we most often associate the idea of this romantic fiction with that of Sidney's Arcadia. But the Arcadia is only one of the class of Elizabethan ro mances, which, influenced by various models, such as Italian and Spanish pastorals, were inspired chiefly by the translation of the Greek Romances. 30 The nature of the Greek Romances we need not take up at length, with their emphasis upon the picturesque, the rhe torical, the fanciful, the diversified, rather than the unified, expression of life. For the Greek Romancer we know that life moves not as a whole, governed by physical and moral law, and that, for him, events follow events not in relation of causation but of chance. The activities of life are unmoti- vated. There is no interaction between environment and 80 In the discussion of Greene's relation to Greek Romance, I am much indebted to Dr. S. L. Wolff who has treated this subject with thoroughness in his The Greek Romances in Elizabethan Fiction. Colum bia University Press, 1912. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 35 human destiny, nor indeed between human character and human conduct. Sentiment is mere sentimentality; nature is mere spectacle. The dissociation of the ideas of cause and result leaves to Fortune the direction of human activity. To their incalculableness, the interest in events is due ; and so the "paradoxical, the bizarre, the inconsistent, the self- contradictory these were the stock in trade with the writers of Greek Romance." Such interests manifest themselves in style antithesis, alliteration, parallelism, tendency to psychologize, elaborate pictures, trial-scenes, and debates; and they lead at once to a superabundance of episodic ma terial. The subordination of plot and character, both often lost in digressions, elevates the significance of Fortune and of sentiment, against the first of which many a tirade is directed, and upon the second of which much energy of analysis is expanded. Concerning the accessibility, too, of these romances to Greene, only a word is needed. The ^Ethiopian History of Heliodorus was current in Underdowne's translation even be fore Lyly wrote his Euphues. Angel Day published a ver sion of the Daphnis and Chloe of Longus in 1587 which at once had its effect upon Greene. The first translation in English of Achilles Tatius' Clitophon and Leucippe was not made until 1597. That translation was too late to have any effect upon Elizabethan fiction, but there were versions of the romance in Latin, Italian, 31 and French, which were well known in England before the time of Greene. In speaking of the influence of the Greek Romances upon any one man in the Elizabethan period, however, it does not Joseph de Perott (Mod. Lang. Notes, Vol. XXIX., No. 2, p. 63, Feb. 1914) believes that Greene used an Italian version of Achilles Tatius, as follows: Di Achitti Tatic Attessandrino deWamar di Leudppe et di Clitophonte libri otto Tradotti in volgare da Francesco Angela Coccio. In Venetia, Appresso da Domenico, & Gio BattistaGuerra, fratelli, 1563. 36 ROBERT GREENE seem to me that we must necessarily assume that all this influence came directly from the original romances. A particular author, Greene for instance, may not have taken, and probably did not take, every incident which is common to his works and to the Greek Romances straight from the Romances themselves. This influence was widespread throughout the literature of the continent; and by the time that Greene began to write, many of the most typical of the structural elements of Greek Romance had become a part of the flesh and bone of Elizabethan fiction. In many instances, moreover, the in fluence of mediaeval romance must be taken into account in discussing the directness with which any particular element came into Elizabethan fiction. These novels of Greene which show predominantly the influence of the Greek Romances have in them nothing which savors of the treatise. They may, as does Pandosto, "dis- cour the triumph of time;" or, as Menaphon, "decipher the variable effects of Fortune, the wonders of Loue, the triumphs of inconstant time. " But, although they were, according to their title-pages, printed for purposes of morality, they are fiction pure and simple, fiction of love, adventure, jealousy, separation, reunion of kindred, motivated largely by the caprice of Fortune and the wilfulness of man. The tendency of Greek Romance to minimize character and motive, and to make Fortune become the basis of plot, was one which fitted in well with Greene's nature, for Greene had an eye to the narrative effect. In following out their influ ence he was free to give sway to his native interest in events, and he was at the same time relieved from any considerable problems of characterization. Fortune took all the responsibility to keep the story moving; she became the center around which were grouped various people and actions. In this class of romantic fiction, we should include first of OMNE TUL1T PUNCTUM 37 all the Second Part of Mamillia. The First Part, as we have seen, belongs to the didactic type of Euphues. The Second Part is essentially romantic. After Pharicles has left Padua, the two faithful women constant still, he goes to Sicily. He grows into favor at the court, has various experi ences, is denounced as a traitor by a courtezan of the place whom he has spurned, is cast into prison, condemned to die, and finally is rescued by Mamillia, the only character of the action of the First Part, besides Pharicles, who has any defi nite place in the action of the Second Part. Throughout the Second Part, there are many elements, to be sure, which come from Euphues, but the principal narrative is that of the romantic kind. The Second Part of Mamillia was published in 1583. The following year Greene published two novels which are of this same type. One of them is Arbasto, the story which an old man living alone in a cell tells to a stranger. He had been a prince, he said. When he was on an expedition of war, he had fallen in love with his enemy's daughter. The princess did not return his affection; but her sister, whom the prince disregarded, fell in love with him. Because this sister re leased him from her father's prison, he dissembled love and took her with him to his own country. Later discovering that his love was only dissimulation, she died of grief. The haughty princess then took it into her head to love, but the prince spurned her as violently as he had formerly loved her. The nobles revolted to avenge his wife's death, and drove him from his throne. So he lives in his cell, throwing the blame for the whole affair upon Fortune, whom he spites by his contentment with a lowly lot. The Carde of Fancie be longs with this romantic group, but it is discussed elsewhere on account of its relation to the prodigal-son stories. 12 We come then to Pandosto, 1588. The germ of this ro- Chap. III., p. 66. 38 ROBERT GREENE 'mance probably goes back to an incident in the history of Poland and Bohemia. 33 A fourteenth century king, Siemo- witsch, or Ziemowit, becoming suspicious of his Bohemian wife, put her into prison, where she bore a son. The queen was then strangled, and the son was sent away. The child was brought up by a peasant woman, and was finally restored to his father, who died deeply repentant in 1381. The story, it is thought, was carried to England at the time when Ann of Bohemia was married to Richard II. Pandosto, in the general outline, follows the historical inci dent, except that it is a daughter, not a son, who is born in the prison. We do not know in what form the story came to Greene. It may have been in something of the shape that we have it from his pen, in which case the work may be only a retelling. Greene's romance, however, is distinctly of the Greek type. The historical elements easily fitted in with such a method of treatment. The nucleus was there. All that was needed was to gather about it an abundance of Greek structural elements. That is what Greene did. He worked out, for example, quite in the method of Heliodorus, an elaborate trial-scene and the use of the oracle for the vindication of chastity. He borrowed from Longus the description of Fawnia's life among the shepherds after she was committed to the destiny of the sea, the details of the Shepherd's finding her, her rural life, and her later disclosure to her father. There was added, too, the romantic story of the love of Fawnia and Dorastus, 34 son 33 See Eng. Stud, for 1878, 1888, where the source of Pandosto is discussed by Caro. Also Herford, Eversley Shakespeare, Vol. IV., p. 265. 34 De Perott (Englische Studien, 1908, p. 308) in an article, Robert Greenes Entlehnung cms dem Ritterspiegel, directs attention to what he calls a borrowing (Pandosto Shak. Library. Vol. IV., p. 45, line 13 p. 49, line 14) from Le Chevalier du Solid, Vol. III., ff. 308-9). I fail to see any resemblance worthy to be called a "borrowing." The situa tion is one which might be found in any pastoral romance. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 39 to the Egistus who had been the object of Pandosto's sus picions, and to the shores of whose kingdom Fortune brought the little outcast and her boat. He made this love the means of Fawnia's return, for he employed the structural device whereby the shipwreck of the eloping lovers brought Fawnia again home. 35 It is highly characteristic of Greene that Pandosto is his first pastoral. While pastoralism had already made, and was making, itself felt in England, Greene had not introduced it into his works. There was no particular, no immediate, de mand for it. Arbasto and the Garde of Fande, written earlier, are both free from the elements of shepherd's life. But in 1587 Angel Day's version of Daphnis and Chloe appeared, a work so distinctly pastoral as to direct Greene's energies to an attempt at something of the same kind. There is no doubt, therefore, that Angel Day is responsible for Pandosto and Menaphon, its successor of the following year. 36 In Menaphon, pastoralism is of much more importance than in Pandosto. The romance does not open with pastoral elements, to be sure, for the first part of it is devoted to telling of the pestilence in Arcadia, and of the ambiguous oracle. The purpose is of course to hurl us in medias res, but it is not realized. Without making his plan entirely clear, Greene leaves the opening situation and goes to another, the situation with which the line of action he is to develop really begins. Menaphon, a shepherd, walking by the sea-shore, saw pieces bfa wreck floating near, and on the shore an old man, and a woman with a child. He asked them who they were, 86 For a more complete account of Greene's borrowings from Greek Romance see Wolff, p. 446 seq. In the same work see also a comparison of Pandosto and the Winter's Tale, pp. 451-2. 34 "Greene's borrowings indicate clearly that he used a translation by Angel Day, for he takes from it several details not to be found in either the Greek or French version." Wolff, Greek Romances, p. 447. 40 ROBEKT GREENE and offered to help them. Sephestia called herself Samela of Cyprus, wife of a poor gentleman now dead; the old man was her servant. Menaphon took them home, and immediately fell in love with the beautiful stranger. Then the story goes on with Sephestia's life among the shepherds and shepherd esses, their courtships and petty fallings out, their songs and jigs. One Melicertus hears of Samela and confesses his love. Both are troubled; for to each the other resembles the sup posedly dead husband or wife. Meantime the child Pleusi- dippus is carried away by pirates to Thessaly, where he grows up as heir to the throne. Hearing of the Arcadian Samela, he comes to present himself as a suitor. Democles, the king, also comes to woo. Now, Democles is Samela's (Sephestia's) father. And Melicertus is Maximus, her husband, with whom she was forced to flee from the court to escape her father's wrath, but from whom she was separated by ship wreck. The plot is, then, that of a husband wooing his wife, a son wooing his mother, a father wooing his daughter, all of them royalty in disguise. Complications arise; blood is about to be shed. Then an old woman steps forth and ex plains the fulfilment of the ambiguous prophecy. The story as it stands is considerable of a mixture from several sources. The central idea, we may suppose, Greene got from Warner's tale of Argentile and Curan in Albion's England* 7 At least he probably got from that tale the idea of royal persons meeting in the disguise of the shepherd life, and failing to recognize each other. Even in this point the similarity is not particularly close, except that in Warner's tale and in Menaphon, the lover (Curan in Warner; Melicer- 37 1586, Bk. IV., ch. 20. In Chalmer's English Poets, 1810, Vol. IV., pp. 498-658. See J. Q. Adams, Greene's "Menaphon" and "The Thra- cian Wonder," Mod. Phil. III., pp. 317-8; also Wolff's Greek Romances, p. 442. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 41 tus in Greene) confesses to a former love affair and describes his former mistress (who is of course identical with the new). From Sidney's Arcadia Greene imitated various elements, particularly the wooing of Sephestia by both father and son. From the Greek Romances he incorporated certain structural and verbal parallels. 38 With all these borrowings, and with all the inconsistencies of plot and character, the story of Menaphon is still Greene's. For there is something more to it than plot and character and borrowings. In structure it is far from being the best of Greene's works. Its companion-piece, Pandosto, surpasses it in this regard. But I believe that when most of the few present-day readers of Greene's romances agree in pro nouncing it his most charming novel they are right in their judgment. It is as near the essence of the dulci as Greene ever got. Menaphon is not equal to Lodge's Rosalynde; and it had not, moreover, the good fortune to be turned into a Shake spearian play. But it is, nevertheless, a sweet story. There is about it an atmosphere quite its own, the idyllic pastoral setting, and the songs, the country loves, the dances, the tending of flocks, the piping in the shade of the hawthorn. There is the sunshine of the anywhere-nowhere Arcadia, the idealization of existence, the freedom of movement that comes from life not lived within the bounds of the troubled world. "Whiles thus Arcadia rested in a silent quiet, Menaphon the Kings Shepheard, a man of high account among the swaines of Arcadia, loued of the Nymphes, as the paragon of all their countrey youngsters, walking solitarie downe to the shore, to see if anie of his ewes and lambes were straggled downe to the strond to brouse on sea iuie, wherfore they take * See Wolff, Greek Romances, for a discussion of these parallels of structure and phrase. 42 ROBERT GREENE speciall delight to feede; he found his flockes grazing upon the Promontorie Mountaines hardlie: wheron resting him- selfe on a hill that ouer-peered the great Mediterraneum, noting how Phoebus fetched his Laualtos on the purple Plaines of Neptunus, as if he had meant to haue courted Thetis in the royaltie of his roabes. . . . Menaphon looking ouer the champion of Arcadie to see if the Continent were as full of smiles, as the seas were of fauours, sawe' the shrubbes as in a dreame with delightfull harmonie, and the birdes that chaunted on their braunches not disturbed with the least breath of a fauourable Zephirus. Seeing thus the accord of the Land and Sea, casting a fresh gaze on the water Nimphs, he began to consider how Venus was feigned by the poets to spring of the froathe of the Seas; which draue him straight into a deepe coniecture of the inconstancie of Loue : Some say Loue Foolish Loue Doth rule and gouerne all the Gods, I say Loue, Inconstant Loue, Sets mens senses farre at ods." There are cares in this land of Arcadia, hearts sore with unrequited love. And there are wars and rumors of wars, languishing in prisons, shipwreck, separation of kindred. But all these will pass away, we know; the lost will be found, hard hearts will melt, and happiness will come to her own. The story is romantic and unreal; it could never have hap pened. But that doesn't make any difference. There is a charm to it for one who can disentangle himself for a moment from the crowding business of the day to go back to the golden times, even don a Watteau coat and hat to sport with jolly shepherds, make love to the beautiful shepherdesses, and, more than all, enjoy "The sweet content that country life affords." OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 43 Philomela need not be summarized in full. The romance is the story of a jealous husband who falsely accuses his wife of inconstancy, and has her banished. She goes to a distant land and lives humbly. Then the slaves who have borne false witness confess their wrong-doing. The jealous hus band is himself banished. He sets out to find his wife, and comes at length to the place in which she lives. Tired of his vain search, he assumes the responsibility for the murder of the Duke's son, who is thought to have been killed. The wife hears of the self-accusation, and to save her husband declares herself to be the murderer. Then the Duke's son appears and the man and his wife are happy in their reunion so happy that the man dies of joy. 39 There is one romance left, Ciceronis Amor, or Tullies Love. Next to Pandosto, this was Greene's most popular novel. It is a story of love, with pastoral elements intermingled (rather, we should say, dragged in). Greene speaks of it as his attempt "to counterfeit Tullies phrase," and as his "indeauor to pen doune the loves of Cicero, which Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos, forgot in their writings." In all these romances, it is ever necessary to bear in mind Greene's attitude toward Fortune. His inability to ground a plot in motives which have their sources within the springs of personality made him perceive the value, and the necessity, of Fortune as a narrative element. Greene's attitude never developed into a cult. Fortune, mysterious and incalculable, was to some people rather more real then than now. She was a personality whose whims determined much of the lot of man. She was one of the forces of the universe, sharing with man himself the responsibility for the management of the world. Such a view, I say, Greene did not acquire. He had not enough imagination to acquire 39 Greene's novel furnished one of the plots in Davenport's City Nightcap. 1624. 44 ROBERT GREENE it. A conception like that would have necessitated the ability to grasp character which was the very thing that Greene lacked. But although he did not rise high in his conception of Fortune, he was able to get from her that which he needed for the success of his narrative. What he wanted was some thing which would help him get his characters about, move them from one situation into another, without having to justify those activities. .Fortune could do that. One turn of her wheel would be enough to change the face of things completely. We should have a new and interesting com plication, and no explanation would be necessary as to how it came about. Fortune became, therefore, a word ever on Greene's lips. It represented an idea to be played with, talked about, bandied here and there, given all manner of attributes; most important of all, Fortune became an actual motive power in a line of action. 40 But wherever used, she was primarily a narrative element, a servant to Greene's story-telling instinct. In this capacity Fortune is the source at once of Greene's strength and of his weakness : of strength, in that his use of Fortune enables him to present interesting and (forgetting for the moment the long speeches which are for the most part the fault of the age, not of Greene) rapid narrative; of weakness, in that Fortune relieved him of what would by nature have been to him a difficult task, the creation of genuine characters. Recognizing the place which Fortune holds, we can under stand the work that Greene has constructed on that basis. His incompetence to seize hold upon the fundamental nature of a character and to define the principles upon which 40 Dr. Wolff (Greek Romances, p. 392) summarizes Greene's concep tion of Fortune as having three phases: that in which she is purely an abstraction, that in which she is a quasi-personality, that in which she is a mistress of plot. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 45 that character acts, his leaving the conduct of affairs pretty much in Fortune's hands results, as we should well expect, in many inconsistencies of plot and character. Consistency is no virtue if there is no relation between whaf a man is and what a man does. We are not aware of defects unless we have an ideal of perfection. So far as consistency was concerned, Greene had no such ideal. The result of this disregard for making a story plausible is easily made apparent. The situation in Menaphon, for example, of father, husband, and son, all in love with Samela is in itself ridiculous. The total ignoring of the elapsed twenty years is unpardonable if we stop to think of it. When we stop to think of it, too, Arbasto is nothing but the tale of a whining old man. And we become almost impatient with Greene that he should permit the quondam king the outrageous privilege of heaping the blame for his misfortune anywhere but on his own wilful head. The point about the whole matter, however, is that we do not stop to think. Realizing that Pandosto or Menaphon or whatever romance it is we take up, is so largely the result merely of what "happened/' we move along with the action, never pausing to analyze or to question. Inconsistencies do not seem to have bothered Greene; and so long as he makes no attempt to smooth them over we are hardly aware that they exist. Now that the account of the various kinds of Greene's fiction is completed, it remains to speak of some general topics which pertain to his fiction as a whole. In this connection there are qualities of style which we may take up first. When we speak of Greene's style, both as to its own characteristics and as to the influences which produced it, we naturally think first of John Lyly and his Euphues. Rightly so, for Lyly's novel was predominant when Greene's first one was published, and continued to be so for a number of years. As a matter of fact, however, Lyly's manner of 46 ROBERT GREENE writing was not originated by him, nor was it peculiar to him. Various scholars, notably Mr. Bond, have set forth Lyly's relations with his predecessors, and have shown that there were at hand practically all the elements which Lyly employed. Greene, therefore, in following Lyly was in reality carrying on the tradition of the English novel as established by Gascoigne and as used by Pettie, Whetstone, Riche, and the rest of the earlier writers of fiction. Greene was not far from the beginning of this line of development. But even by this time, although fiction was still tentative in its forms (it is always tentative, so far as that is concerned), it had taken on certain fixed modes of expression. The conventionality of Elizabethan poetry both in form and in content has long been recognized. Elizabethan fiction underwent the same sort of process, so that not only form, but thought as well, and the manner of expressing it, became to a large degree stereotyped and impersonal. So advanced a state of conventionality was fortunate from Greene's point of view. It made unnecessary any large amount of originality with regard to the treatment of any particular situation. The method of handling a courtship, for example, was to be found ready at hand. But the result of the taking over by Greene of these elements of novel construction was, from the manner in which he used these elements, that of carrying the process still further. That is, Greene seldom rises above the convention itself to make of it a genuine means of character protrayal or an integral part in the motivation of a plot. We have, therefore, in his novels an almost endless succession of similar situations treated in a similar fashion, a great many of which might be transferred from one novel to another, with no harm done, or benefit either. It was to Greene's detriment that he did to so great an extent become a follower of convention. He was impeded OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 47 rather than helped by his conformity to fashion. The quality of his work, which, we have before had occasion to state, is his characteristic and most complete attainment, is the straightforwardness and swiftness of his narrative. If he had left himself free to the guidance of his own natural talent, his results would have in them more of permanent value. Had he broken away from tradition more fully and worked in the vein represented by the tale of Tompkins the Wheelwright or by some of his short stories in the conny- catching pamphlets, 41 he would, however much he was catering to the taste of his time in conforming to fashion, have done a more effectual service in the development of a simple narrative style. It is apparent that Greene did not himself understand wherein his ability lay. He has cluttered his stories up with all sorts of decorative tinsel: letters, "passions," speeches for every kind of situation, formal discourses, misogynist tirades, declarations of love and their answers, digressions and asides to the reader, proverbial philosophy, quotations from all the tongues, stock illustrations, classical and natural history allusions, commonplaces in Elizabethan fiction too familiar to need illustration. Indeed it requires on the part of the modern reader as full a recognition as he is able to give of the fact that after all Greene is not wholly responsible for the presence of these features in his work to prevent a failure to perceive its real merit, and a condemnation of it wholesale to the literary bone-yard. But the worst is, granting that such things were fashionable and so to be indulged in, that Greene seems to have delighted in this elegance of phrase and encumbering ornament. Greene seems not to have understood that he was thus ever striving, as it were, to get away from what his nature would have him do. At the same time he did make progress See Chapter IV. 48 ROBERT GREENE in his style. Pandosto is more direct than the Carde of Fancie. Throughout Greene's career there is perceptible a slow but steady turning away from the ornate and artificial to the more natural kind of fiction. This turning is due partly, of course, to the turning of the age in that direction. But it is also due to Greene's own development, a development of which he was to some extent conscious. In Menaphon there is a passage 42 which shows that "literary style" was to Greene something which could be put on and taken off at will. This consciousness is further evidenced by the admirable simplicity of the social pamphlets, and by the abrupt change in the tone of the last few pages of the Groatsworth of Wit. Greene possessed, when he forgot himself and was really concerned with what he said rather than with how he said it, a straightforwardness wholly unexpected in a writer living before Bacon. This directness is especially notice able, as I said, in the social pamphlets. But it is discernible in the fiction, too. Illustrations can be found near the end of many of the novels. Like most of his predecessors, Greene was more interested in getting a story under way than he was in its conclusion. Perhaps it would be more nearly correct to say that he expended more energy of elaboration upon the first half than upon the latter. The result of such a process is that the opening of a story is often stilted in its method. Too much emphasis is placed upon speech, talking back and forth and writing letters; the movement 42 "Samela made this replie, because she heard him so superfine as if Ephoebus had learned him to refine his mother tongue, wherefore thought he had done it of an inkhorne desire to be eloquent; and Melicertus thinking that Samela had learned with Lucilla in Athens to anatomize wit, and speake none but Similes, imagined she smoothed her talke to be thought like Sapho, Phaos Paramour. Thus deceived either in others suppositions, Samela followed her sute thus." Vol. IV., p. 82. OMNE TULIT PUNCTUM 49 is slow and tedious, exasperating at times. Then suddenly, as if all at once realizing that he has enough written to make a salable pamphlet, Greene takes himself in hand, dis penses with his artificiality, winds up his action, dismisses his characters and lo! the story is done. There is a certain precipitousness about such a performance, one must admit. You don't always keep up with it, and you don't always understand just what has happened. Perhaps the haste is just as bad technique as the slowness. My point here is that Greene can be direct; that he has, underneath the as sumed literary form of expression, another more simple form. Throughout the whole of my discussion of Greene's novels I have repeatedly dwelt upon what seems to me to be Greene's real ability, that of narration with an aim at artistic narrative effect. I have, too, told what seems to me to be his defects in characterization, his inability to infuse life into his men and women. In view of what has been observed above in regard to Greene's over-emphasis upon the first half of a story, this element of characterization deserves just a word more. Greene constantly threw stones in the way of his own narrations. There is no doubt that he did so deliberately, subservient to custom, and pleased with his results. I think there is another reason, though, which helps to account for these obstructions. Inheritances they were, "passions," speeches, letters, and so on, coming from various literary sources. There was no other phase of Elizabethan fiction which became more stereotyped in its form of expression. But these elements, found most excess ively in the first part of the story, are indicative of some thing else than just convention. They manifest an interest in characterization. The "passions," for example, which are scattered broad cast throughout Elizabethan novels are attempts at char- 50 ROBERT GREENE acter analysis. They aim to set forth the mental states in which people find themselves under definite conditions. The psychology upon which they are based is generally unsound and artificial. The emotions that these people undergo, the thoughts that they utter, are not true to life. But the faults do not alter the necessity of our under standing the aim of this psychologizing. With all its imperfection it shows an inclination toward character study. There was, clearly, on the part of the Elizabethan novelists a growing interest not only in the art of telling a story effective for the events in it, but also in making the people whom those events concern appear as genuinely human as possible. Greene was a participant in this move ment toward fuller characterization. The fact that he did not succeed must not lessen our recognition of the fact that he tried. Looked at from this point of view, there is perhaps a little more sympathy to be felt with the feeble efforts which Greene and the rest of them made. These men were con forming to fashion, they were over-elaborate and affected; but they were at the same time using the only methods they knew of presenting character. They had not yet learned the art of letting characters reveal their own person alities in natural conversation, nor had they learned that we may come to know people not only by what they do and say but also by their reactions toward other people, and by the reactions of other people toward them. With the various people whom Greene endeavored to present we need not deal at length. It may be well to take up two of them in order to bring out the two prominent facts about Greene's characterization. Of all of Greene's characters Sephestia is probably the best known. She is the victim of distressing and cruel circumstances, but she embodies all the qualities of an OMNE TUL1T PUNCTUM 51 ideal heroine. She is beautiful, kind, faithful, resourceful, patient, charming. When she sings her lullaby to her sleeping babe, when she mourns her fate, when she moves among the scenes of pastoral life, or when in prison she spurns the love of a king, always she has our interest and our sympathy. Our feeling for her is not, however, that which comes from depth or clearness in her por trayal. It is derived rather from a certain refinement of atmosphere which surrounds her, from the delicacy of the lines with which she is depicted. I introduce Sephestia here because this refinement and delicacy which I mention in connection with her compose one of Greene's salient characteristics, one of the things we often think of in relation to him. Indeed, the significant fact about Greene's women lies not so much in an added depth of portraiture over what his predecessors had accomplished, as in giving to them a new interest by a process of idealization. Greene's women are not, that is, so much more genuinely human, nor do they necessarily act from so much more definitely conceived motives than those of his predecessors. But they do possess the charm which arises from a delicacy of presentation and from a refinement of attitude toward them as heroines. The other character I wish to speak of is Arbasto, who illustrates in an extraordinary degree another phase of Greene's characters. Arbasto is an old man who lives in a cell and mourns. The experience of life has been un happy for him, for he has been banished from his kingdom. Fortune is to blame. The association of Fortune with the affairs of men which Arbasto makes, and which Greene lets pass unchallenged, leads to an understanding of what the trouble is. Greene got many ideas from the Italian Renais sance, plots and motives, and types of characters. But there was one conception which he did not get hold of 52 ROBERT GREENE in a way to make it effective. That was the conception of the force of personality. I spoke of this failure in connection with the discussion of Valdracko, but it is apparent in all of Greene's works. Greene's interest in characterization was not enough to counterbalance the lack of a sweeping imagination such as Marlowe had, and such as is necessary to transform puppets into living heroes. And so, whether the ruling passion be revenge, jealousy, ambition, what not, there is always a littleness about Greene's portrayal, a dissatisfaction with the result obtained. No one of these characters has strength to dominate the situation in which he is placed. Fortune, not personality, is the moving power. One is inclined to come away from a close study of Greene's novels with too grave an impression of him. We may inquire what he was like as an author, what his methods were, what influences affected him. But we must remember that Greene wrote rapidly, that he was primarily a jour nalist. He copied, adapted, created. He may have been conscious in his art. There is no way of knowing, for consciousness of effort and utilitarianism of purpose are not mutually exclusive ideals. We must be careful, however, not to regard as necessarily deliberate art what may be only shrewdness. I am convinced that there is no more fundamental element in a true conception of Greene than a realization of the fact that he is best appre ciated when studied with an attitude that does not take him too seriously. We must not, in other words, over look the journalist in our study of the artist. SERO SED 8ERIO 69 Fortunes, "and after that my Farewell to Follie, and then adieu to all amorous Pamphlets." 21 The Never too Late is thus apparently one of the amorous pamphlets. At the be ginning of the promised sequel, we are told that if the work had not been promised it would never have been written. But here it is. Henceforth we are to look for Greene's pen in "more deeper matters." ** By the end of the book (p. 229) Greene has evidently forgotten his reluctance, for we find there that if he has further news he will send us tidings in another book. Such a statement seems to invalidate that of the preface. But of course the first statement is meaning less. Lyly had said the same thing, "I hope you will rather pardon for the rudeness hi that it is the first, & protect it the more willingly if it offend in that it shalbe the laste," 23 while he was definitely promising a second part. 24 While we are waiting for the Farewell to Follie, out comes the Mourning Garment, as "the first fruites of my new la bours, and the last farewell to my fond desires," 26 which was licensed Nov. 2, 1590. Now if the Mourning Garment is the first-fruits of a new life, one wants to know what the Never too Late and Francescos Fortunes were, for they were just like it. Yet Greene has deplored these as wanton. The impression we get is that Greene had not made up his mind in regard to this matter. Perhaps the statements are not unlike those we are accustomed to hear in our day of the farewell tours of prima donnas and once famous actresses. Finally in 1591, as the "ultimum vale" to youthful vani ties, appeared the long-heralded Farewell to Follie, Greene's "many yeeres (he was then thirty-three) having bitten me Vol. VIII., p. 109. Vol. VIIL, p. 118. Lyly. Ed. Bond. Vol. I., p. 180. * 4 "You shall in the seconde part heare what newes he bringeth." p. 323. Vol. VIIL, p. 22. 70 ROBERT GREENE with experience, and age growing on bidding mee Petere graviora." 2 * But even here Greene cannot look upon his past work as wholly bad, including the three " repent ance" pamphlets. His works were "mixed with such morall principles," he consoles himself, "that the precepts of vertue seemed to crave pardon." 27 Of course they could not be so bad as to hinder their sale! Greene prefixes to the Farewell to Follie the repentant motto. It is quite as solemnly pronounced Sero sed serio as the rest. But this pamphlet has nothing of repentance in it. It is nothing but a frame-work tale of the Omne tulit punctum sort. 28 All of this disbelief that Greene meant anything serious by his professions of repentance at least that his purpose in talking about repentance was largely mercenary in cludes skepticism in regard to the experiences related in the Vision. All we know about the religious disturbance which is supposed to have occurred in 1590 is to be found in this one pamphlet. Whether or not Greene had such a disturb ance of mind, no one, I suppose, can ever actually know. I am inclined to believe that he had not, and to say with Pro fessor Greg 29 that there is "a strong suspicion that Greene . . . adopted the machinery of repentance by way of ex plaining and advertising a change of style." The Cobbler of Canterbury, which was the cause of all the trouble, was pub lished sometime in 1590; we cannot tell just when. Now Greene's Orpharion was licensed January 9. There would hardly have been time before that for Greene to have been burdened with the authorship of the Cobbler of Canterbury and to have had the repentance. But the Orpharion written before the Cobbler concludes thus: "Yet could I not hie so fast, but ere I got home I was overtaken with re- 26 Vol. VIII., p. 228. 28 See Chap. II. 27 Vol. VIII., p. 227. Mod. Lang. Rev. Vol. I., p. 241. SERO SED SERIO 71 pentance." 30 I do not know how to understand this last sentence if it is not an announcement of the forthcoming series of pamphlets, and if it does not mean that Greene was planning the series even before the events supposed to have happened in the Vision had occurred. 81 Especially since Never too Late, the first of the series, written before the events described in the Vision, bears Omne tulit punctum on its title-page. Francescos Fortunes, the sequel, is designated as Sero sed serio. There is danger, one must admit, of going too far to the other extreme: but in view of the evidence at hand I see nothing sincere about the whole affair. Misplacing of attention away from the real nature of what Greene was doing and the consequent searching for autobio graphical materials have obscured the significance of Greene's work. That significance, I take it, is the fact that Greene was able to treat the prodigal story in an imaginative way. The three novels which I have grouped together, from their common theme, manifest the same general qualities as are shown in Greene's earlier works. The story was al ready formed. In itself it was good; and it had, besides, definiteness of treatment from its use in the Latin plays. But it did not suffer in Greene's hands. The ability for telling a story which Greene had already acquired was enough to sustain interest even in so familiar a theme as that of the prodigal son. In characterization these novels are thoroughly in accord with Greene's failure to create living people. The prodigals who set off on the journey are all just alike. Phila- dor, Roberto, Francesco, Gwydonius, their places might be changed, and no one would be the wiser. Infida and Lamilia are different only in their names. 32 * Vol. XII., p. 94. 31 See Chapter on Chronology of Greene's Non-Dramatic Work. 32 On the subject of the courtezans in these prodigal stories a word is needed. Storojenko and others since his time have alluded to the 72 ROBERT GREENE Like the romantic pastoral the story of the prodigal son offered no clearly recognized outlines to the novelist. It had been worked out in the drama into more or less definite form as represented by the Acolastus and the Studentes. But quite as much as other types of fiction this one was yet in the formative stage. There was a general scheme; there were suggestions, incentives; yet there was no fixed tradition as to the method of narrative treatment. Greene took freely of what he found at hand; he was imi tative, rather than original, in that respect. But when all is said and done, he was an early, not a late, borrower. The writing of three or four novels on the prodigal motives, even though there was no great difference between them, was therefore a noteworthy achievement. How im aginative an achievement is well attested by our lack of per ception hitherto that Greene was in reality presenting us with a type of fiction, and by our failure not only to discover unity within the group but to understand the type as well. The three prodigal-son pamphlets, the Farewell to Follie, and the Vision are, then, intrinsically products of Greene's literary imagination. But the Repentance and the concluding pages of the Groatsworth of Wit give an impression of greater sincerity. Both of them come from the month of the fatal ill ness. Both were published after Greene's death, Groatsworth of Wit on September 20, and the Repentance on October 6. The last pages of Groatsworth of Wit are undoubtedly the bitterness of Greene's later attitude toward women as compared to the earlier attitude shown in Mariana, Sephestia, and the other heroines of the romances. I had occasion to speak of this alleged change of front in connection with Alcida (Chap. II., p. 25); and I repeat what I said there. I see nothing which indicates an added bitterness in Greene's mind. Just as repentance is a part of the material in a prodigal-son story, so is a courtezan an indispensable accessory. SERO BED SERIO 73 most famous of Greene's writings. They contain, indeed, some lines to be numbered among the most famous lines in the English language: "Yes trust them not: for there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tygers heart wrapt in a Players hide, supposes he is as well able to bumbast out a blanke verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes fac totum, is in his owne conceit the onely Shak-scene in a countrie." In addition to the celebrated allusion, the rest of Greene's words are of value. Roberto, the hero of what has up to this point been a prodi gal-son story, has reached the bottom of his despair. He recalls his father's precepts and knows that it is too late to buy the wit he so negligently forgot to buy. His emotions overcome him. "Heere (Gentlmen) breake I off Robertas speech; whose life in most parts agreeing with mine, found one selfe punishment as I have done." It would help us to understand the Groatsworth of Wit if we could know just when it was written. But we do not know. It seems reason able, however, to suppose that it was begun before Greene had realized the seriousness of his disease. "Greene though able inough to write, yet deeplyer searched with sicknesse than ever heretofore, sends you his Swanne-like song, for he feares that he shall never againe carroll to you woonted love layes [we thought he had given that up two years ago], never discover to you youths pleasures. . . . This is ... I feare me the last I shall write." He apologizes for the condition of the story as an "Enbrion without shape." Then he proceeds with his tale only thirty-four pages, when he breaks down. His illness has probably become much worse. He is sure that death is upon him. " Though no man be by me to doe me good, yet ere I die, I will by my repent ance indevor to doe all men good." His tendency toward sentimentalism grows into morbidness. He condemns him- 74 ROBERT GREENE self, his past life which had no doubt been wild enough and his works without distinction. "Ah Gentlemen, that live to reade my broken and confused lines, looke not I should (as I was woont) delight you with vain fantasies, but gather my follies altogether, and . . . cast them into the fire. . . . O that the teares of a miserable man . . . might wash their memorie out with me death. . . . But sith they cannot let this my last worke witness against them with me, how I detest them. Blacke is the remem brance of my blacke works, blacker then night, blacker then death, blacker then hell." We cannot take such words at their face value, as they pertain either to Greene's works or to his deeds. Gabriel Harvey did indeed give Greene a pretty black reputation: "I was altogether unacquainted with the man, never once saluted him by name: but who in London hath not heard of his dissolute, and licentious living; his fonde disguisinge of a Master of Arte with ruffianly haire, unseemly apparell, and more unseemelye Company: . . . his apeish counterfeiting of every ridiculous and absurd toy: ... his monstrous swearinge and horrible forswearinge: ... his continuall shifting of lodgings: ... his keping of the foresaid Balls sister, a sorry ragged queane, of whome hee had his base sonne, 7n- fortunatus Greene: his forsaking of his owne wife, too honest for such a husband: particulars are infinite. ..' . . He never envyed me so much, as I pittied him from my heart: especially when his hostisse Isam with teares in her eies, & sighes from a deeper fountaine, (for she loved him derely) tould me of his lamentable begging of a penny pott of Malmsey; and, sir reverence how lowsy he, and the mother of Infortunatus were . . . and how he was faine poore soule, to borrow her husbandes shirte, whiles his owne was a washing: and how his dublet, and hose, and sword were sold for three shillings: and beside the charges of his winding sheete, which was foure shillinges: and the charges of hys buriall yesterday, in the New-churchyard neere Bedlam, was six shillinges, and four pence; how deeply hee was indebted to her poore husbande: as appeared by hys own bonde of tenne poundes: which the good woman kindly shewed me." 33 33 Harvey's Works. Ed. Grosart, Vol. I., pp. 168-71. SERO SED SERIO 75 But Harvey was an enemy. Perhaps Nashe was more nearly right. "Debt and deadly sinne, who is not subject to? With any notori ous crime I never knew him tainted." Greene had lived hard. There is unquestionably much truth in the picture that Harvey paints of Greene's last days and of his ignoble death. But so were they all wild. Greene was probably no better, no worse, than the rest. These young University Wits were somewhat beyond the pale of substantial citizenship, anyway. Whatever his life had been, Greene's dying words are not literally true. They represent him as a man depraved; and Greene was not that. But they reveal clearly the state of mind in which he was, a sensitive being, friendless and in poverty, sick unto death, with conscience torturing him into anguish through memories of a wasted life. As for his works, Greene need not have been so troubled about them. 34 After this self -vituperation Greene writes a letter "to those Gentlemen his Quondam acquaintance, that spend their wits in making plaies," with the address to Marlowe, Nashe, 38 84 "Justice demands the acknowledgment that Greene's imagina tion is entire and undefiled: in all these tales I cannot recall a single sneaking allusion or prurient image or lascivious detail." S. L. Wolff, Eng. St., Vol. 37, p. 350. Such statements are common among Greene's critics. Without depreciating the purity of Greene's writings, I think we have been inclined to underestimate that of some other writers of fiction. I fail to see that Greene stands out in striking distinction to Lyly, Lodge, Sidney, or several others that might be mentioned. * Upon the identification of "young Juvenall" much energy has been expended "that by ting Satyrist, that lastlie with mee together writ a Comedie." For summary of various contentions see McKerrow's edition of Nashe, Vol. V., p. 143. Also Gayley's Representative English Comedies, p. 424, seq., where "A Knack to Know a Knave" is offered AS a solution for the unknown "Comedie." 76 ROBERT GREENE and Peele, and the attack on Shakespeare; a fable of the grasshopper and the ant; and finally a letter to his wife, committing to her the charge of their son. All three reiterate the repentance for sin. "Well, my hand is tired, and I am forst to leave where I would begin; for a whole booke could not containe these wrongs, which I am forst to knit up in some few lines of words." The Repentance was published after the Groatsworth of Wit. This pamphlet, like the former, "dooth lay open the graceles endevours of my selfe." It is divided into two parts : the first being the Repentance; the second, the Life and Death. We have the same upbraidings and self-accusa tions. "I was the mirrour of mischief e, and the very pat- terne of all prejudiciall actions." Greene was, too, he says, "a meere Atheist," and a despiser of death. "Tush, what better is he that dies hi his bed than he that endes his life at Tyburne, all owe God a death: if I may have my desire while I live, I am satisfied, let me shift after death as I may." And again, "Hell (quoth I) what talke you of hell to me? I know if I once come there, I shall have the company of better men than my selfe, I shal also meete with some madde knaves in that place, & so long as I shall not sit there alone, my care is the lesse." So the young blasphemer goes on. 36 All this was to change: the day of judgment came. With it came much grief. The second part deals very briefly with a few events of Greene's life, his parents "in the Cittie of Norwitch," his * "There was no cryme so barbarous, no murther so bloudy, no oath so blasphemous, no vice so execrable, but that I could readely recite where I learned it, and by roate repeate the peculiar crime of everye particular Country, Citie, Towne, Village, House, or Chamber." Lyly, Euphues and His England. Ed. Bond. Vol. II., p. 24. SERO SED SERIO 77 early schooling, his dissipation at Cambridge, his travel abroad, 87 his going to London, his marriage to "a gentle- 17 There has never been any doubt expressed as to the actuality of this trip, and I do not know that there is necessity for expressing any such doubt here. It is interesting to note, however, that there is in Greene's writings not a single reference (with perhaps one possible exception) which can be cited as indicating that Greene had any direct, first-hand knowledge of the Continent. Even in a case like that in his Never too Late (1590) in which an opportunity seems to have been created expressly for descriptions of continental scenes, Greene gives only the vaguest of generalities. The passage referred to (Vol. VIII., p. 20-32) is rather interesting in this connection. The palmer, "My native home is England, the ende of my journey is Venice, where I meane to visit an olde friend of mine, an Englishman." Then follows, "Sir (quoth I) if I might with many questions be not offensive, I would faine be inquisitive to knowe, as you have passed along France, Germanic, the Rine, and part of Italic, what you have noticed worthie of memorie." To this the palmer answers, "After I had cut from Dover to Calice, I remembred what olde Homer writte of Ulysses, that he coveted, not onely to see strange Countries but with a deepe insight to have a view into the manners of men: so I thought as I passed through Paris, not onely to please mine eie, with the curious Architecture of the building, but with the diverse disposition of the inhabitantes." The palmer proceeds to speak of the court and the subserviency of the French courtiers, and of the amorousness of the French gentlemen. He then turns to the Germans. But "Nay stay sir (quoth I) before you passe the Alpes, give me leave to holde you an houre still in Lions." This leads to the palmer's discourse on the French gentlewomen. After this is finished, he speaks briefly of a few characteristics of the Germans. But he did not become interested in the German customs, and so "sicco pede past them over, so that I travelled up as farre as Vienna, where I saw a thing worthie of memorie": not the description of any definite scene or observation of national customs, as we might expect, but a hermit in a cell! a hermit who spoke most edifyingly in "rough hie Dutch verses"! From the hermit's cell, says the palmer, he went "to Vienna, and from thence coasted up into the borders of Italy." This passage from Never too Late is the only instance of its kind in Greene's works. It seems to have been written especially to reveal 78 ROBERT GREENE mans daughter of good account, with whom I lived for a while : but for as much as she would persuade me from my wilful wickedness, after I had a child by her, I cast her off, having spent up the marriage money which I obtained by her. Then I left her at six or seven, who went into Lincolnshire, and I to London." There is, too, an account of a religious experience (not the one told of in the Vision; this one was sometime before 1585 or '86. See Vol. XII., p. 177) which occurred in Norwich, when Greene heard the words of a minister in Saint Andrew's Church. As to the authenticity of this pamphlet there can be no doubt. 38 The problem involved is quite a different one. It is the problem of interpretation. Can we, or can we not, accept the repentance set forth here (and in the Groatsworth of Wit) as sincere? I believe that we can. Greene foisted an intimate knowledge of the Continent. Instead it contains only indefinite statements, and those the most commonplace or insignificant, such as might easily have been gleaned from books. Judging from the works alone, one might well doubt the reality of the Italian journey. We must remember, however, that Greene did not in any of his novels make use of the element of background. The ab sence of specific continental allusions in those stories of which the scenes are laid on the Continent is therefore no more noticeable than the absence of similar allusions in the few stories whose scene is England. In none of his novels did he develop the element of background to the extent that he did, for example, in Friar Bacon. The Repentance speaks of Greene's having been in Italy and Spain (p. 172). The Notable Discovery has this passage: "I have smyled with the Italian ... I have eaten Spanishe mirabolanes . . . . Fraunce, Germanic, Poland, Denmarke, I knowe them all, yet not .affected to any in the fourme of my life." Vol. X., p. 6. This pas sage resembles one in Euphues and his England. Ed. Bond. Vol. II., p. 24. "If I met with one of Creete, I was ready to lye with him. ... If with a Grecian, I could dissemble. ... I could court it with the Italian, carous it with the Dutch-man," etc., to Egypt and Turkey. 38 See Collins' edition of Greene. Vol. I., Introduction, pp. 50-53. SERO SED SERIO 79 upon us a series of prodigal stories under pretext of "reformed passions." In spite of that, I think the final repentance is genuine. When a man comes to die, it is a different matter. Greene was stricken with remorse. That, to be sure, was mostly because he was also stricken with fear. He was terrified to his inmost soul. But the cause of remorse does not alter its reality. "After he had pend the former discourse (then lying sore sicke of a surfeit which hee had taken with drinking) hee continued most patient and penitent; yea he did with teares forsake the world, renounced swear ing, and desired foregiveness of God and the worlde for all his offences: so that during all the time of his sicknesse (which was about a moneths space) hee was never heard to sweare, rave, or blaspheme the name of God as he was accustomed to do before that time." * When he wrote the paragraph quoted above, Cuthbert Burbie, the enterprising young publisher, no doubt had an eye to the edifying effect of such a complete repentance. At least his details do not agree with Gabriel Harvey's, whose account of Greene's death is most sordid. The truth, it may be, lies between the two. It is, after all, only a human picture as we think of Greene, conscience-smitten for his sins, renouncing his blasphemy and swearing, asking forgiveness of God and the world; at the same time, begging piteously for "a penny pot of Malmesy" at the hand of Mistress Isam. Numquam sera est ad bonos mores via. It may be. But for Greene the day never came. Greene had the two ele ments in him of the flesh and the spirit, and he could never reconcile them. "This good motion lasted not long in mee," is his own comment of the experience at Norwich. A frank confession, and very true, the confession of a weak will in terms of the excuse for the return to wrong-doing. The impression was vivid while it lasted. So was the final Vol. XII., p. 184. 80 ROBERT GREENE repentance. Only then, there was no chance for Greene to lose it. In concluding this chapter, perhaps we can relieve the darkness a little by a characteristic, and almost humorous, statement of Greene's. Here he is on his death-bed, poor fellow, trying to pray and condemning himself more severely than any other man who would be charitable could con demn him. "I was the child of perdition," is his judgment upon himself, and the punishment which will come is just and deserved. For his life has been bad and his pamphlets wanton. "But I thanke God," he says, the old journalism instinct reviving, the pride in work accomplished, the desire to advertise his wares "that he put it in my head to lay open the most horrible coosenages of the common Conny- catchers, Cooseners, and Crosbiters, which I have indif ferently handled in those my several discourses already imprinted." 40 We may summarize this chapter briefly. Its subject Sero sed serio is applicable to all the works herein discussed. But those works are of two kinds. Never too Late and Francescos Fortunes, Mourning Garment, Groatsworth of Wit, are prodigal-son stories; Farewell to Follie is a didactic narrative of the frame-work kind. Greene's Vision is an account of the repentance which inaugurated the series. All of these works I have not considered as different in any respect from the writings prepared before 1590. In the second class are the last few pages of Groatsworth of. Wit and the Repentance. It is not unlike calling an actor before the final curtain just after we have seen him die in the tragedy, to continue a discussion of Greene's works after we have witnessed the death-scene. But the actor, even if we are a little startled Vol. XII., p. 178. SERO SED SERIO 81 to realize it, is just as much alive as ever. So for our pur poses, Greene is still alive and writing. In the latter half of 1590 he began that division of his works which deals in one way or another with repentance. By the end of the next year he had adopted a new motto " We are born for the good of our country." CHAPTER IV NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA IN 1591 Greene began a series of social pamphlets which, at very short intervals, continued to appear for several months. The first of these, A Notable Discovery of Coosnage, was licensed December 13. In that year also, and licensed the same day, appeared another, The Second Part of Conny- catching, with still a Thirde and last Part, entered on the Stationers' Register, February 7, 1592. Later were published the Disputation Betweene a Hee and a Shee Conny-Catcher, the Quippe for an Upstart Courtier, July 21, and the Blacke Bookes Messenger, August 21. This list should include, too, The Defence of Conny Catching, April 21, concerning the authorship of which there has been some discussion. These pamphlets may, on account of their differences in social significance and depth, be divided into two groups; one group containing the Disputation and the Quippe, the other containing the rest of the works enumerated above. Of the pamphlets which constitute the second, and larger, group, the three parts of conny-catching belong together. Rather, it should be said that the Notable Discovery and the Second Part belong together, and that the Thirde Part is really only a sort of appendix. The Notable Discovery of Coosnage, the first of the series, opens with an epistle of eight pages "To the Reader," in the course of which Greene tells of his plan to expose the deceits practised upon "yong gentlemen, Marchants, Appren- tises, Farmers, and plain Countreymen" by the conny- catchers, the sly confidence men of the Capital. There are 82 NA8CIMUR PRO PATRIA 83 two chief abuses in London: the art of conny-catching, deceit at cards; and the art of cross-biting, or the extortion of money from victims by the pretended (or real) husbands of the courtezans. Greene gives a brief account of the origin of card-playing, speaks of the evils done to innocent persons by the cheaters at cards, and develops his Epistle with an explanation of the old Barnard's Law, 1 or the process of cheating at cards. The body of the pamphlet consists of setting forth the art of conny-catching (a retelling in different terms of the Barnard's Law) illustrated by two tales; and of the manner in which the city harlots aid in " cros-biting " the silly connies, together with the story of a victim who turned the tables. The exposure of these two vices was not quite enough to fill up the pamphlet. In conclusion, then, there is the exposure of a deceit in no way related to the other two, the evil practices of the sellers of coals, illustrated by two tales. The Second Part contains the "discovery of certaine wondrous coosenages, either superficiallie past over or utterlie untoucht in the first." 2 It reveals the Prigging Law (horse-stealing), the Vincents Law (deceit at bowling), a discussion of the Nip (who cuts purses) and the Foist (who steals with his hand) , the Lifting Law (larceny) , the Courbing Law (hooking linen out of windows), and the Blacke Arte (picking of locks). The pamphlet contains nine tales. The Thirds Part consists entirely of tales of deceit, the tales being ten in number. Greene sets forth the purpose of these works with con siderable ostentation. His title-pages are no longer bespread with the Omne tidit punctum of the romances, or the Sero sed serio which announced the repentance of the prodigal 1 "There was before this many yeeres agoe a practise put in use by such shifting companions, which was called the Barnard's Law." Vol. X., p. 9. J Title-page to the Second Part, Vol. X. 84 ROBERT GREENE son. There is instead the patriotic but not for that reason, the less shrewd Nascimur pro patria. Not con tent with printing the motto on the title-page, twice within the Notable Discovery itself Greene wishes a most unhappy end to these "base and dishonest caterpillars." He bids us farewell, shouting as he goes, vauntingly, loudly that all may hear, his new found battle-cry. 3 The statement of the patriotism which inspired the social pamphlets is repeated in the preface to the reader, "those mad fellowes I learned at last to loath, by their owne graceless villinies, and what I saw in them to their confusion, I can forewarne in others to my countries commodity." 4 It may be very true as Dr. Wolff 5 says of such statements as these that Greene "believed that he was rendering a public service," and that he was carrying on the ideal of the human ists that it is the business of a writer to serve the State. But I do not think that we do well to say much about the humanitarian purpose of these, or any other of Greene's works. In the case of his fiction, Greene was quite as much even more interested in the production of what would sell as of what would edify. The two aims may have hap pened sometimes to coincide. But the fact that Greene tells us, and insists, that he means to edify cannot hinder our notion that at heart he was first of all a pamphleteer for profit. So with these social tracts. Greene may have been patriotic. There is no incompatibility, necessarily, between patriotism and journalistic instinct. What I am saying, and here I agree most fully with Mr. W. W. Greg, 6 is that the 3 Vol. X., pp. 36, 50. 4 Vol. X., p. 6. Also p. 69, "no pains nor danger too great that groweth to the benefit of my countrie;" p. 97, "so I may profit my countrimen." Also Preface to the Third Part. 5 Eng. Stud., p. 337, Vol. 37. 8 Modern Lang. Rev., April, 1906, Vol. I., p. 241. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 85 avowed intention for writing the conny-catching pamphlets is not to be regarded too seriously. 7 The relation between the Notable Discovery and the Second Part will illustrate my statement. In the first, as we have seen, Greene tells us of his plan to expose the wicked arts of conny-catching and of cross-biting. In the second, he carries on the exposure of other cheating practices, most of which are announced in the Notable Discovery (p. 51). But there are too, in this Second Part, references which have nothing to do with the exposures. These are the references to Greene himself and to the first pamphlet. The trade, Greene says, is "greatlie impoverished by the late editions of their secret villanies" (p. 88). A prospective conny avoids the snare with "Maisters, I bought a booke of late for a groate that warnes me of Card-playing. ... I have forsworne cards ever since I read it" (p. 89). Not long afterward, a man who had been cozened chanced to come to Greene's chamber, "where he found a book of Cony-catching new come out of the presse. . . . Sir, said he, If I had scene this booke but two dayes since, it had saved me nine pound in my purse " (p. 96). Greene answers the objection "that some inferred against me, which was, that I shewed no eloquent phrases, nor fine figurative conveiance in my first booke as I have done in other of my workes" (p. 71). 8 And finally he refers to the 7 Harman tells us on the title-page of his Caveat or Warning, for Commen Cursetors (1566? 1567) that he is writing "for the utilitie and proffyt of his naturall Countrey." And again he says in his epistle "To the Reader" that "faithfullye for the proffyt and benyfyt of my countrey I have don it." (The Rogues and Vagabonds of Shakespeare 1 8 Youth, Ed. by Viles and Furnivall. Shakespeare Library 1907.) Greene has several similarities to Harman. In the failure to use "eloquent phrases" Greene resembles Harman when he wrote the Caveat. "Although, good Reader, I wright in plain termes and not so playnly as truely concerning the matter, 86 ROBERT GREENE threats that have come to him from the conny-catchers that they will "cut off my right hand, for penning doune their abhominable practises: but alas for them, poore snakes, words are wind, & looks but glances: every thunderclap hath not a bolt, nor every Conny-catchers oath an execution. I live still, & I live to display their villanies" (p. 70) . 9 All these references to the first pamphlet sound perfectly natural, appearing as they do in the second; and we are really led to believe that Greene's works were making con siderable of a stir and that he himself was manifesting much bravery to continue in such dangerous revelations of the underworld. But our belief in the genuineness of the whole performance is considerably shattered when we remember that in all probability the Notable Discovery and the Second Part were published at the same time, 10 and that the refer- meaning honestly to all men, and wyshe them as much good as to myne owne harte; yet, as there hathe been, so there is no we, and hereafter wylbe, curyous heds to finde fauttes: well, this delycat age shall have his tyrne on the other syde. Eloquence have I none; I never was acquainted with the muses; I never tasted of Helycon. But accordinge to my plaine order, I have set forth this worke, simplye and truelye, with such usual words and termes as is amongst us wel known and frequented." (Ed. Viles and Furnivall, 1907, pp. 27-8.) Greene's reason for the simple style is different from Harman's. Whereas Harman declared himself unable to use any other, Greene had already manifested repeatedly his ability to do so. His reply to the objection made against him is that he thinks a "certaine decorum is to bee kept in everie thing, and not to applie a high stile in a base subject: . . . Therefore humbly I crave pardon and desire I may write basely of such base wretches." (Vol. X., p. 71.) 9 Cf. Harman, p. 22. "Now, me thinketh, I se how these pevysh, perverse, and pestilent people begyn to freat, fume, sweare, and stare at this my booke, their lyfe being laid open and apparantly poynted out, that their confusion and end draweth one a pase." 10 Both works were licensed 13 Dec., 1591. Both bear the date 1591 on their title-pages. And they were put out by different publishers. It is only reasonable, then, to suppose that both were written about NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 87 ences to the former are, therefore, most likely pure fictions. This theory is borne out by the mention near the end of the Notable Discovery 11 of several of the "laws" exposed in the Second Part, as if the Second Part were already planned but there was found to be room for "legering" (cheating with coal) in the Notable Discovery and further by Greene's manner of speaking of the threats and the conny-catchers. In the epistle "To the Reader" of the Notable Discovery Greene "foresees" the danger that will come to him from his exposures. "Yet Gentlemen am I sore threatened by the hacksters of that filthie facultie, that if I set their practises in print, they will cut off that hande that writes the Pamphlet," 12 a statement in no wise different from that in the Second Part as follows: "I know I shall have many braves uttered against me for this invective." 13 Greene, viewed in this light, is not, then, a patriotic champion ready to die for a cause. He is a self-advertising the same time, inasmuch as by 7 Feb., 1592, Greene had the Thirdeand last Part on the market. 11 Vol. X., p. 51. "I omitted divers other divelish vices; as the nature of the lift, the black art &." Vol. X., p. 12. 11 Vol. X., p. 97. Again like Harman. See above, note 9. See also Audeley, The Fraternity e of Vacabondes. Ed. Viles and Furnivall, p. 2. "But if my fellowes do know (sayd he) That thus I dyd, they would kyll me." The Printer to the Reader. Greene has another point of similarity to Harman. Harman unites, he says, for the benefit of the thieves as well as of the country. He hopes that "in the world to com they may save their Soules" so that his writing "shall do them more good than they could have devised for them selves." (p. 22). Greene puts it thus: "Were it not that I hope for their amendment, I would in a schedule set doune the names of such coosening cunny-catchers." Vol. X., p. 12. 88 ROBERT GREENE journalist. 14 This is not at all to be severe on him, or even disparaging. What it means is that our conception of Greene must be less serious. Although the conny-catching pamphlets do lose some of their sociological value, their inter est is not lessened. Instead of regarding their author as an ardent defender of the common weal, we are to enjoy him as a literary artificer. Two smaller pamphlets a First and a Second Part sold to two publishers would bring more than a larger pamphlet put out by one man. There is no doubt that the seriousness with which Greene's conny-catching pamphlets have been regarded has come partly at least from certain statements of his in the earlier works, statements which have been interpreted as meaning that Greene had long contemplated the writing of these disclosures. 15 The whole question of the understand ing of these passages is, of course, bound up with the ques tion of the 1590 religious experience spoken of in the Vision. That question cannot be taken up here. 16 But so far as these passages and the conny-catching pamphlets are concerned, I can see no reason for thinking that there is any definite relation between them. In the first place, the promise of "deeper matters " does not, perhaps, mean anything more than a conventional phrase. 17 14 The putting out of the conny-catching pamphlets with their dis play of patriotism is not the first time in Greene's life that he adapted himself to the occasion. In 1585 when he put out the Planetomachia he was "Student in Phisicke." In 1589, when any pamphlet with "Spanish" in its title would sell, Greene was on hand with his Spanish Masquerade under the pretext of adventuring "to discover my con science in Religion." JlH 16 See Greene, ed. Dickinson, Mermaid Series, 1909, Introduction, p. xxvii. 16 See pp. 70-71. $3j " See above, pp. 69-72. Also A Petite Pallace of Pettie His Pleasure, Ed. by Gollancz, p. 7. "Thus have I sent you in that book some fruits of my former folly, and in this letter the profession of my present faith. ... I mean ... the next Spring to go on pilgrimage." NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 89 In the second place, it does not seem reasonable to think that if Greene had had definitely in mind the task of writing exposures he would have continued putting out pamphlets for which he had to, or at least did, apologize. It is possible, to be sure, that the prodigal stories sold better than he anticipated, and that he was keeping the conny-catching pamphlets in reserve. But it does not seem likely, from what we know of Greene, that he would have waited for a year and a half (from the middle of 1590 when he first promised to do serious writing until the end of 1591) to put into effect an idea which had suggested to him a new line of work. Another consideration which causes me to think that the conny-catching pamphlets were written as a journalistic venture purely, and not that they were written because Greene had definite information to convey in regard to the dangerous practices of the metropolis is the fact that the inspiration of conny-catching, apparently, (and the material, certainly) came from a little pamphlet published in England a good many years before. This pamphlet was the Manifest Detection of Dyce Play (1552), from which, to be brief, Greene got all he knew about cheating at cards. In his Epistle to the Reader, Greene copies verbatim two pages from the earlier pamphlet, the very important passage, that is, in which the modus operandi of the Barnard's Law is ex plained. 18 This old Barnard's Law of the Manifest Detec- 19 Barnard's Law: Four persons are required, the Taker-up, the Verser, the Barnard, and the Rutter. The Taker-up makes the acquaintance of the victim and draws him to a tavern. With him goes the Verser, who hath "the countenaunce of a landed man." They all sit down. In comes the Barnard, like an old farmer. The Barnard teaches the Verser a "new" card game he has just learned. They begin to play for money. If the victim "smoake them" and starts away, the Rutter creates a disturbance. A crowd gathers, and the Barnard steals away with all the money. 90 ROBERT GREENE tion constitutes without change, except in very minor details, 19 Greene's art of conny-catching in the Notable Dis covery, and forms the basis of the long and " pleasant tale of the connie-catchers" 20 in the Second Part. Mum-chance, the only game mentioned in Greene, is, in other words, copied from a pamphlet forty years old. From the Manifest Detection, Greene copies also the passage 21 regarding the use of the word "law" among the members of the underworld and the passage 22 in which a conny-catcher refuses conversion on the ground that no man can live honestly. Such borrowings as these, in addi tion to that spoken of above, show very definitely where the impulse to write conny-catching pamphlets came from, 19 The principal change is in the names of the persons taking part. The following extract from Rowlands is of considerable interest in this connection as showing that the names for these parties either were numerous at any one time or changed from year to year: "There hath beene of late daies published two merrie and pithie Pamphlets of the arte of Conicatching: wherin the Author hath sufficiently expressed his experience, as also his loue to his Countrie. Neuerthe- lesse with the Authors leaue, I will ouerlooke some lawe tearmes ex pressed in the first part of Conicatching: whereunto, as the Author saith, is necessarilie required three parties: The setter, the Verser and the Barnacle. Indeed I haue heard some retainers to this ancient trade dispute of his proceedings in this case and by them in a full Synode of quart pots it was thorowlie examined and concluded, that there were no such names as he hath set downe, nor anie cheating Arte so christened as Conicatching. . . . But all this breakes no square, so long as we concurre in eodem subiecto." Greenes Ghost haunting Coni- catchers, 1602. Rowlands' Works, Vol. I., p. 7. Hunterian Club. 20 Vol. X., p. 91. I do not accept Mr. Aydelotte's discussion of Greene's borrowing. "In so far as Greene has a literary original for his conny-catching books, it is this pamphlet." (p. 120). . . . "These plagiarisms are all in comparatively unimportant passages" (p. 125). Oxford Historical and Literary Studies, Vol. I., Elizabethan Rogues and Vagabonds. By Frank Aydelotte. 21 Vol. X., p. 33. 22 Vol. X., pp. 34-5. NA8CIMUR PRO PATRIA 91 and make me disinclined to believe that they were the outcome of any long premeditation. 23 In connection with the question of the attitude which we are to take toward these pamphlets of Greene's there is still another point to be borne in mind. That is his boast of the accuracy, and directness of the sources, of his informa tion. We may hear Greene's own words: "Though I haue not practised their deceits, yet conuersing by fortune, and talking uppon purpose with such copes-mates, hath geuen mee light into their conceipts, and I can decipher their qualities, though 1 utterly mislike of their practises." 24 For such insistence upon the truth of his writing Greene may very well have gotten the hint from a work like Har- man's Caveat or from Lodge's Alarum against Usurers, of which the authors say that what they write is direct, the information of the former obtained from the beggars with whom he talked at his gate, 25 that of the latter from personal observation or the testimony of victims. 28 Whether these ** The haphazard manner in which the Second Part is put together is another indication of haste. M Vol. X., p. 6. M "I . . . have kepte a house these twenty yeares, where unto poverty dayley hath and doth repayre, not without some relief e, as my poore callinge and habylytie maye and doth extende: I have of late yeares gathered a great suspition that all should not be well. ... I, havinge more occation, through sicknes, to tary and remayne at home then I have bene accustomed, do, by my there abydinge, talke and confere dayly with many of these wyly wanderers ... by whom I have gathered and understand their depe dissimulation." Ed. Viles and Furnivall, p. 20. 18 " What is sette downe heere, eyther as an eye witnesse I will avowe, or informed even by those Gentlemen, who have swallowed the Gudgen." Lodge. Hunterian Club. Vol. I. There are many points of similarity between Lodge's Alarum against Usurers and such works as the Manifest Detection and Greene's conny- catching pamphlets, particularly in the manner in which a victim is first approached. 92 ROBERT GREENE two men are truthful it is not for us to inquire. My belief in regard to Greene is that he, taking his attitude from them and pretending to be a personal observer, is not necessarily so, from anything that Greene's pamphlets indicate. When one examines closely, one finds that there is really very little in Greene's first three social pamphlets which is in the nature of information, and that there is a gradual progression in the amount of the narrative portion through out the series. The Notable Discovery has a comparatively small number of tales, the Second Part increases the number, and the Thirde Part consists entirely of stories, with no new "laws" added whatever. The increase in the number of included tales is an indication that in his conny-catching pamphlets Greene has done the same thing that he did in many of his earlier works. Just as in Perymedes, for example, where he starts out, avowedly, to show us how to spend our time in quiet, but where he becomes more interested in his illustrative stories than in his frame-work and develops them for their own fiction's sake, so here in, these pamphlets he grows to be interested in telling snappy tales which are justified by their own vivacity and narrative excellence. Harman, for all his sociological insight, enjoyed telling the few tales he has included, 27 and he told them well. It was characteristic of the whole type of pamphleting to include tales. 28 But Greene carries the idea farther than it had been carried before and farther than it was carried after. That is, in a sense, the conny-catching pamphlets come in his hands to be a series of frame-work tales. To say this is putting it too strongly, of course. Greene 27 Especially those on pp. 37, 42, 61, 68, of his Caveat, Ed. Viles and Furnivall. 28 See Lodge's Alarum against Usurers and the works of Rowlands and Dekker. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 93 did have a certain body of information to convey. But that information does not seem, of necessity, to have been obtained from direct knowledge. Indeed, it does not seem to have been obtained so at all. If Greene were as well acquainted with the vices of London as he would have us believe, we are at a loss to understand why it is that he knows only one "cheating law," and why he should have copied that one law verbatim in on,e portion of his pamphlet and have merely varied it slightly in others. And again, one is at a loss to understand such passages as those in the foot-note 29 if they do not mean that Greene had no definite information upon that particular matter. That is, a man who 29 "Were it not I hope of their amendment I would in a schedule set downe the names of such coosening cunny-catchers." Vol. X., p. 12. This setting forth of names was something which Greene was ever threatening but which he never performed, even when he knew that his recovery was hopeless. The nearest he comes to it is the mention by name of Lawrence Pickering of Kent street, brother-in-law to Bull the hangman, in whose house the crew is accustomed to meet weekly. (Harman describes the weekly meeting.) But as a matter of fact, there is no guarantee that Lawrence Pickering (the pickpocket) is not a fictitious being "by chance fel among cony-catchers, whose names I omit, because I hope of their amendment." p. 31. "Pardon me Gentlemen for although no man could better than myself discover this lawe and his tearmes, and the name of their cheats, Barddice, Flats, Forgers, Langrets, Gourds, Demies, and many other, with their nature, and the crosses and contraries to them upon advantage, yet for some special! reasons, herein I will be silent." These "tearmes" are mentioned, but not explained, in the Manifest Detection, pp. 27-8 "they will straight spotte him (the horse) by sundry pollicies, . . . which secretes I omit, least I shoulde give too great a light to other to practise such lewd villanies." p. 77. "for every sundry fashion thay have a sundry term, but I am ignorant of their woords of art, and therefore I omit them." p. 128. See other similar statements, Vol. X., pp. 91, 145, 164. 172. 94 ROBERT GREENE can explain nine laws from his own observation surely cannot be expected to fail on the tenth. Greene's statement of accuracy, "I have seen, but I did not participate/' implies that, though he may never have actually helped in conny-catching, Greene knew the lowest classes of society and led a wicked life with those companions who, he says, "came still to my lodging, and then would continue quaffing, carousing, and surfeting with me all the day long." 30 But the statement seems to imply also that this acquaintance is the basis for the disclosures about to be made. I am not going to deny, in any way, that Greene's life was not praiseworthy and that he did not asso ciate with such persons as those of whom he speaks. I am making no attempt to build up Greene's shattered reputation. I am only asking whether, after all, we should not deprive him, in connection with these conny-catching pamphlets, of the title he lays claim to as "comrade of the disreputable," and confer upon him another, that of being a "literary liar." In short, may the "accuracy" have been manufac tured for the sake of the verisimilitude it then, and has since, afforded? "I have shotte," Greene confesses in one of his latest writings, "at many abuses, over shotte myself e in describing of some: where truth failed my invention hath stood my friend." 31 What I have said about Greene thus far in the present chapter has been mostly negative, in the way of discarding certain views which have been held with regard to him. Greene claims, and has been considered, to be original, to be serious, to be patriotic. I fail to see wherein we can justifiably concede any one of these epithets. This portion of his work which we have been discussing, I am aware, is usually thought of however little we may 50 Vol. XII., p. 178. Greenes Vision, To the Gentlemen Readers. Vol. XII., pp. 195-6. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 95 agree to Greene's own description of the rest of it as the offspring of Follie as his most genuine, most earnest prod uct. I formerly held this opinion. "Once into the thing," I wrote, "Greene goes to work with zest. For the first time, perhaps, in his life, he is really in earnest. All his faculties are awakened, and he enjoys the conflict he has on his hands." But there is this fact about a continued study of Greene. The more one knows of him, the less one finds that is sincere, that comes from depth of character, from bigness of attitude toward life, from definiteness of personality at all, the less one finds that is in reality Greene's; the more one finds that is only a new expression (and often not very new either) of some one else's thought and plan and purpose. The becoming aware of the state of things cannot, how ever, be called exactly a disillusionment. For it is not disillusionment, even when one by one the attributions to Greene's own originality grow smaller and smaller, as scholars investigate the sources of his work and as we cease to be surprised when we learn that a pamphlet or a plot we thought to be his is only a copy or an imitation of another's. It is very necessary, though, if such a process as that I speak of is not to result in utter disregard for Greene, to formulate our conception of him in a way such as will enable us to look beyond the mere borrowing and imitating and to unify these various activities of his and make them, for all their superficiality, have some significance. If we cannot judge him on the basis of a sober litterateur, for the reason that he is, on that basis, unstable, intangible, we can at least estimate him as a man of letters who sometimes rose almost to the plane of artistic writing, who sometimes fell to the plane of cheap journalism. In this second class I should place the pamphlets we have been discussing. In fact, I should say that in none of his other work is Greene 96 ROBERT GREENE so much the charlatan as in these social pamphlets of the first group. We have seen Greene's methods and his attitude as they are revealed in the three parts of conny-catching. It is time now to turn to the later works. On April 21, 1592, there was entered on the Stationers' Register "The Defense of Conny Catching, or A Confuta tion of Those two injurious Pamphlets published by R. G. against the practitioners of many nimble-witted and mys- ticall Sciences. By Cuthbert Cunny-catcher." The author pretends to be a "Licentiate in Whittington Colledge," 32 and promises to tell what he has learned in that place and in his subsequent travels about England. He is very angry, he says, that Greene should have omitted entirely the many grosser evils which abound in London, and he is going to undertake the task with which he thinks Greene should have been occupied. Of real exposition, however, there is very little in the book. Cuthbert Cunny-catcher seems to have been unin terested in his subject itself, or else to have had little direct information to convey. What knowledge he had, he gives indirectly. The bulk of the material is comprised in six stories, clever in themselves, and not different from those 32 The author of the Defence took the idea from Greene's mention of Whittington College in the Preface to the Last Part. "In the time of king Henrie the fourth, . . . lived a worthie Gentleman . . . called sir Richard Whittington, the founder of Whittington Colledge in London." Vol. X., pp. 139-40. From a gloss in the margin, "Newgate builded by one Whittington," it is clear that he means the Newgate prison rebuilt by Whittington's executors, and not the Whittington College proper also established by his directions, which Greene had in mind in the Last Part. (Founded 1424; suppressed 1548) For article on Whittington see the Dictionary of Nat. Biog. Whittington was the subject of popular tradition, which may account for the mention of him here. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 97 of the three parts of conny-catching. Indeed, taken out of the frame-work in which they occur, or found in any of the other pamphlets known to be Greene's, these six tales would pass readily for Greene's own. One of them, the tale of Will Sommers, is an adaptation of the old story of the division of a nut among the disputants for it, telling how the fool as arbitrator divides the nut-shell between two lawyers, and bestows the kernel upon a friend of his, the " Yoeman of the Pantry." Another is a tale of a usurer and of how the wife of his victim secured her revenge; one of a miller and a boy who discovers his trickery; a fourth, of a false tailor whose deceit is revealed by pretended necromancy. The remaining two deal with marriage, one showing how a pauper's son under disguise manages to marry a rich man's daughter; the other being the story of a man in England who has sixteen wives, and of the means by which he meets his punishment at the hands of two of them. The story of Will Sommers, the fool, is insignificant. That of the pauper's son is good until near the end. There the story is stopped rather than finished, so that the conclu sion is far from satisfactory. 33 The other four tales are of some merit. They are told with the firmness and directness which characterize the good examples of the novelle, and they carry the reader with them whether in the spirit of comedy, as in the stories of the miller and of the tailor; or of revenge, as in the stories of the usurer and of the man with the many wives. All four are genuinely interesting; all four are told with skill. For all that the pamphlet is made up principally of these n At the discovery of her new husband's estate, the "wife began to weepe, all was dasht, and what she thought God knowes." . . . But they could not change matters; so "for al that he had the wench." Vol. XL, p. 84. 98 ROBERT GREENE six stories, the Defence of Conny-catching is, however, osten sibly an attack upon Greene. The author brings a severe charge, that Greene might have been better employed with exposing these great and far-reaching vices than with writing against the "poore conny-catchers " who are, when the worst is said, only as gnats compared to elephants. Cuthbert is, therefore, to champion his fraternity against the common enemy. He is not a particularly valiant defender. His attack is by no means venomous. The method which he uses is that of shouting abusive language 34 and of hurling taunts at Greene because he did not include these very important exposures in his books. 35 The ardor he displays is assumed, not genuine. In fact, this very quality of non-abusiveness (clearly perceivable, even beneath the show of invincible hatred), has linked Greene's own name with the pamphlet under the view that Greene and Cuthbert Cunny-catcher are one and the same person. Dr. Grosart has included this pamphlet in his collection of Greene's works, 36 but he does not believe that Greene is the author of it. He is positive in his belief. "The most super ficial reading of the clever 'Defence'" he says, "would have shown that it is against not by Greene." 37 If the reading were superficial enough, we may grant that the 34 As for example: "I meane to have a bout with this R. G. and to give him such a veny, that he shalbe afrayd heereafter to disparage that mysticall science of conny-catching." p. 47. "I cannot but wonder maister R. G. what Poeticall fury made you so fantasticke, to write against conny-catchers? Was your brain so barren that you had no other subject?" p. 49. 36 "Why write you not of these Conny-catchers maister R. G.?" p. 52. "Was not this Miller a Conny-catcher maister R. G.?" p. 68. "I pray you call you not these fine witted fellowes Conny-catchers Maister R. G.?" p. 75. Vol. XI., pp. 3-104. Vol. XI., p. 40. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 99 Defence might be so understood. But as I have intimated, the combativeness is very slight indeed. To the support of Grosart comes Prof. H. C. Hart in his notes on "Robert Greene's Prose Works." 88 Professor Hart does not believe the attack upon Greene to be in any way more than sheer pretence. But he maintains that Greene is not the author of the Defence on grounds which he believes to be sufficient evidence for a decision. With the exception of Professor Hart's notes the question of authorship has received no discussion. It may be worth while, therefore, to deal with the problem here, for I do not agree with Professor Hart that the case has been definitely settled against Greene. Professor Hart notices in the first place that the Defence is written against " those two injurious Pamphlets," when there are in reality "the three parts of Connie Catching and the Disputation." He believes that the writer of the Defence lumps the first three as one, counting the Disputation as the second. Without saying so, he lets us infer that he considers this discrepancy as an objection to Greene's authorship. I do not see how the reference to the "two" pamphlets rather than to three or four has anything to do with the question of authorship. But even if it has, I cannot agree to this disposition of the pamphlets. The Disputation is not entered on the Stationers' Register, but there is no reason for believing that it was necessarily written before April 21, the date of the Defence, and not between that date and July 21, the date of the Quippe. This makes the Disputation and the Quippe contiguous in date as they are, indeed, in significance, and leaves then only three pamphlets appearing before the Defence. But even with these three, there is no difficulty in explaining the two on the title-page of the Defence. Only the first two parts contain exposures of deceits. The Last Part is made up wholly of stories. " Notes and Queries. 10th Ser. V., p. 84, Feb. 3, 1906. 100 ROBERT GREENE There was thus no reason for including the Last Part among the " injurious pamphlets published by R. G." Professor Hart's objection is, therefore, without value until the date of the Disputation is established. 39 If the Defence is really by Greene, Professor Hart expects to find some mention of it in Greene's later works. He does not give the basis for his expectation. Again I find no per ceivable relation between Greene's failure to mention the Defence in his subsequent works and Professor Hart's state ment that he did not write it. The Quippe contains no men tion of the Disputation, which certainly preceded it. 40 Nor does The Blacke Bookes Messenger, the last of them all, mention either the Disputation or the Quippe. Why should Greene's later work, then, be expected to mention the Defence? And what justification have we for saying that the failure to do so is an adequate basis of decision? So far as Professor Hart's next point is concerned, that of the celebrated reference to Greene's having sold the play of Orlando Furioso to the Lord Admiral's men while the Queen's players, to whom he had sold it earlier, were in the country, the failure on Greene's part to refute the charge cannot, it seems to me, be taken to prove that Greene did not write the Defence. "No doubt," says Professor Hart, "every one knew it, and it was useless to attempt to do so." 39 In the Disputation Greene mentions only the first of the series. "R. G. hath so amply pend them doune in the first part of Conny- catching " (Vol. X., p. 206). Also, "since the setting out of my booke" (p. 236). Samuel Rowlands mentions only two: "There hath beene of late daies published two merrie and pithie Pamphlets of the arte of Coni- catching." Greenes Ghost Haunting Conicatchers. 1602. Hunterian Club, p. 7. 40 The Quippe was licensed July 21. Greene's activities and his illness during the month of August make it impossible that the Disputation followed the Quippe. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 101 It is quite as reasonable to believe that the play was not re sold at all. We have only Cuthbert Conny-catcher's word for it. May not the reference be merely another of the kind used in the Second Part to give an air of verisimili tude to the attack? The final objection to Greene's authorship is a list of words and phrases to be found nowhere else but in the Quippe. The presence of the words in the Quippe cannot, of course, be taken as a final argument either for or against Greene's authorship of the Defence. If Greene had wanted the words in the Quippe, he would have taken them whether the Defence were his own or belonged to some one else. But as for the Defence, Professor Hart concludes on the basis of this word list that Greene did not write it, saying that "it was written by some confederate or friend jointly perhaps." This word list is of considerable importance. The presence of many of the words in the Quippe, however, detracts from its decisiveness. Greene's habit of miscellaneous appro priations makes his vocabulary variable. How are we to tell whether this pamphlet of the Defence was written "by some confederate or friend" whose identity is unknown, or by Greene himself, who interspersed it with words picked up from some unknown source? It is not necessary to look for these strange words in Greene's works before April 21, 1592. And when we come to examine the later ones, we actually do find many of the words repeated in the Quippe. Professor Hart admits that the Defence is not in reality, as Dr. Grosart said it was, against Greene, and that the attack is only a pretence. He thinks that perhaps Greene had a hand in the production of it. Having gone so far in the acknowledgment of Greene's authorship, I do not see why we cannot go the rest of the way, at least tentatively. 102 ROBERT GREENE There are no objections which can be held with certainty. And there are considerations which I believe make it more reasonable than not to regard Greene as the author. There is a statement in the Second Part which favors the idea of Greene's authorship. "... they in their huffes report that they have got one ( ) I will not bewray his name, but a scholler they say he is, to make an invective against me." Now the Second Part was published in 1591, at the same time as the Notable Discovery* 1 It looks a little strange, there fore, if Greene was not himself contemplating the writing of the Defence, that he should have known, in the week or two before his pamphlets had had time to create any appre ciable effect, that the conny-catchers had employed a scholar 42 to come to their defence. Nor does it seem at all far-fetched to presume that Greene is taking the oppor tunity to advertise the Defence just as he advertised a great many of his works before and after, and just as we shall presently find the author of the Defence doing. 43 41 See p. 85 seq. 42 In the Defence Cuthbert speaks of Greene as a scholar. " I began to enquire what this R. G. should bee. At last I learned that hee was a scholler, and a Maister of Artes." p. 47. Greene was proud of being a "scholler" and of his "Utriusq. Academiae in Artibus Magister." One can easily infer that if Greene is announcing an anonymous work by himself, he would very naturally proclaim it to be by a "scholler." 43 This idea of advertisements and continuations appealed to Greene's journalistic instinct. After Pharicles departed from Padua at the end of the First Part of Mamillia, "as soone as I shal either hear, or learn of his aboad," says Greene, "looke for newes by a speedy Post." The "newes" came, and with it came the Second Part of Mamillia. It is one of the interesting things to note in connection with this idea of continuations that, at the end of the Second Part, Greene promises still a Third, a promise not fulfilled, so far as we know. ("Whether Pharicles proved as inconstant a husband as a faithless wooer, I knowe NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 103 A second consideration that connects Greene and the au thorship is that of certain similarities between the Defence and Greene's acknowledged works. One of these is the identity in tone between the reference to the Notable Discovery and the Second Part in the Defence, and the references to the Notable Discovery in the Second Part. 44 A second similarity is that existing between a passage in the Defence and one in the Disputation; 4 * still a third is that between the Defence not: but if it be my hap to heare, looke for newes as speedilie as may be.") Other novels by Greene have this same promise of continuation, sometimes fulfilled, sometimes not: Morando, Vol. III., p. 109; Pen elopes Web, Vol. V., p. 233 (but it is not known what Greene means by his reference to the "Paraphrase"); Perymedes, Vol. VII., p. 85; Never too Late, Vol. VIII., p. 109; Francescos Fortunes, Vol. VIII., p. 229, promises further news of the palmer; Farewell to Follie, Vol. IX., p. 348, is sometimes understood to imply a continuation. The instinct for journalism which prompted these continuations was also manifested in the promise of other works soon to appear. Thus in the Preface to Perymedes, Greene speaks of Orpharion to make us merry with at the next term (Vol. VII., p. 9). At the end of Never too Late (Vol. VIII., p. 109) he promises not only a continuation in Francescos Fortunes, but also alludes to his Farewell to Follie. The Disputation definitely promises the Blacke Booke, Vol. X., pp. 225, 236. 44 For example these passages: 1. "Yet I have for 3. pence bought a little Pamphlet, that hath taught me to smoke such a couple of knaves as you be." Defence, p. 45. 2. "Maisters, I boughte a booke for a groate that warnes me of Card-play." Second Part, p. 89. See also Defence, p. 47. 46 1. "I got one of those bookes . . . wherein I found our art so perfectly anatomized, as if he had bene practitioner in our facultie forty winters before." Defence, pp. 45-6. 2. "I need not describe the lawes of villanie, because R. G. hath so amply pend them downe in the first part of Conny- catching, that though I be one of the facultie, yet I cannot discover more than hee hath layde open." Disputation t p. 206. 104 ROBERT GREENE and The Blacke Bookes Messenger. 46 And lastly there is the resemblance between one of the stories in the Defence and the story of Valdracko in Planetomachia. The likeness may be purely coincidental. At any rate, Pasylla's tying her father to his bed is repeated in the story of the man with the sixteen wives, two of whom tie him to his bed in the same way. The next indication of Greene's authorship of the Defence is in the method of its conclusion. The idea of advertising a following pamphlet is carried out. "It is informed us," says Cuthbert, "that you are in hand withe a booke named The repentance of a Conny-catcher." This work is the same as that mentioned in the preface to The Blacke Bookes Messenger which Greene had intended to publish along with the life and death of Ned Browne, and which he still intended to put forth. 47 In another respect the conclusion to the Defence is interesting. It is marked by a strikingly paradoxical tone. Throughout the work, the author has been professedly Greene's bitter enemy. At the end he urges Greene most heartily to publish this repentance he has in mind. "If you doe so, ye shal do not onely a chari table, but a meritorious deed." And he threatens that if Greene fails to do so, he will have the "crue of Conny- catchers sweare themselves your professed enemies for ever." 44 The passages are about the Conny-catchers' pretended acquaint ance with the Continent, whereas they have never been out of England. They are too long to transcribe. See Defence, pp. 74-5, and Blacke Bookes Messenger, pp. 24-7. 47 "I had thought to have joyned with this Treatise, a pithy discourse of the Repentance of a Conny-catcher lately executed out of Newgate, yet forasmuch as the Methodeof the one is so far differing from the other, I altered my opinion, and the rather for that the one died resolute and desperate, the other penitent and passionate. For the Conny-catchers repentance which shall shortly be published, it containes a passion of great importance." NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 105 It may be said in connection with the Defence as a whole that if Greene wished to write another conny-catching pamphlet he would scarcely have gone to all this trouble of posing as his own enemy, and that he would have put out a Fourth Part or something of that nature. Yet we have only to remember that in the Disputation, which we shall discuss presently, Greene actually does write from the point of view of those whom he is attacking. For in the Dis putation, Lawrence and Nan are quite as bitter against the "scholler" R. G. as ever Cuthbert Conny-catcher was. In concluding this matter I should like to call attention to what is apparently a step in the Greene-Harvey-Nashe quarrel. 48 The quarrel was already on its way when Richard Harvey in 1590 published his Lamb of God in which he attacked Nashe as being impudent. Then, as Mr. Mc- Kerrow says, "some two years seem to have elapsed before any attempt was made by the writers criticised to reply." 49 There is no explanation for this long silence. "But there seems to be nothing," Mr. McKerrow adds, "in any of Greene's works at least, before the Quip, which can be interpreted as a hit at him. It is possible that there were intermediate links in the quarrel, of which we know nothing." It is one of these intermediate links that is to be found in the Defence. "Wert not a merry jeast to have a bout againe Maister R. G. with your poetical Brethren: amongst the which one learned Hypocrite, that could brooke no abuses in the Commonwealth, was so zealous that he began to put an English she Saint in the Legend, for the holinesse of her life: and forgot not so much as her dogge, as Tobies was remem- bred, that wagged tayle at the sight of his olde Mistresse. This pure Martinist (if he were not worse) had a combat betweene the flesh 48 Mr. McKerrow, in his edition of Nashe (London 1904-10) has traced out in detail (Vol. V., pp. 65-110) the account of this whole wretched affair. McKerrow's Nashe, Vol. V., p. 77. 106 ROBEKT GREENE and the spirite, that he must needes have a wife, which he cunningly conny-catcht in this manner. A pleasant Tale how a holy brother Conny-catcht for a Wife. 60 The story which follows of the pauper's son who married the rich man's daughter is no doubt fictitious. But the story and the passage I have quoted were meant in all probability as a slur upon the Harveys, Richard in particular. That this inference is well grounded is shown by two similar references to Richard Harvey in subsequent pamphlets: 1. "The best is, the persons abused, are not altogether unknowen, they have not so evell a neighbor, that ever reade, or hearde those opprobrious villainies (it is too-mild a name, for my brother Richardes most abhominable Legend, who frameth himselfe to live as chastely as the leawde writer affected to live beastly) but hath presentlie broken out into some such earnest, or more passionate speeches: o pestilent knavery, who ever heard such arrant forgeries, and ranke lies?" Thirde Letter, September 8 and 9, 1592. Harvey, Ed. Grosart, Vol. I., p. 186. 2. "It was not for nothing brother Richard, that Greene told you you kist your Parishioners wives with holy kisses, for you that wil talk ... in a Theological Treatise, and in the Pulpit, I am afraide in a privater place you will practise as much as you speake. . . . Farewell uncleane Vicar, and God make thee an honest man." Foure Letters Confuted, January 12, 1593. Nashe, Ed. McKerrow. Vol. I., p. 273. The passage to which Nashe refers is no doubt the lost passage in the Quippe, 51 in which Greene attacked all the Harveys at once. It is clear at any rate, that Greene did accuse Richard Harvey of loose living. My conviction is that we have here in the Defence, three months before the publication of the Quippe, the same kind of attack (or perhaps the same attack) as that which Nashe has in mind. I do not wish to be understood, in passing from the Defence to the last pamphlet of the first group, as thinking 60 Vol. XI., p. 79. Nashe, Vol. V., p. 77. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 107 that the intrinsic importance of the Defence is entirely proportional to the length of the discussion bestowed upon it. But tedious as it is, such a discussion is not without value as emphasizing what I believe is the method back of all of these social pamphlets of Greene's. The very fact that there is a problem of authorship connected with the Defence only urges the more strongly the idea that Greene's work is not the product of a serious, patriotic purpose to convey definite, accurate information. Rather we owe the existence of the pamphlets to Greene's necessity. Nashe tells us that "in a night and a day" Greene would have "yarkt up a Pamphlet as well as in seavenyeare" . . . and this too because "his only care was to have a spel in his purse to conjure up a good cuppe of wine with at all times." 62 Nashe knew Greene pretty well. The Blacke Bookes Messenger is the last number of the first group. It was licensed August 21, 1592, and was published as a substitute, or messenger, for the Blacke Book itself which was announced in the Disputation. 63 Greene's illness prevented his preparing the Blacke Book, which from his account of it in the Disputation was to have contained a full list of the vices and the names of all the wrong-doers in the Capital. The Blacke Bookes Messenger was written before Greene's fatal illness came upon him, and was sent "as a Fayring" until such time as Greene should have recovered. In this work Greene lays open "the Life and Death of Ned Browne, one of the most notable Cutpurses, Cros- biters, and Conny-catchers, that ever lived in England." The pamphlet is in the first person and represents Ned Browne "standing in a great bay windowe with a halter about his necke ready to be hanged." Ned Browne is brazen " Nashe, Vol. I., p. 287. M Vol. X., pp. 225, 236. 108 ROBERT GREENE in the face of death. He tells his listeners that they need not expect to hear a repentance, for he will be resolute to the end. We have an account of Ned's childhood and of the virtues of his parents. We are told of how he was always a dis obedient son, and of how he early started on the way to villainy, disregarding the advice of his parents, blaspheming God, and following after the wickedness of the world. The pamphlet, only thirty-seven pages in all, contains five tales occupying twelve pages by which Ned illustrates the course of his life. Now he deceives a maltman, now he outwits a priest, now he kisses a gentlewoman and cuts her purse, now he lets fall a key, and lastly he tells how his wife was once cross-bitten in her own art. Between the tales Ned mentions various of his exploits, how he robbed a church, for example. Having finished his autobiography, he springs out of the window and dies. After he is buried, a company of wolves come in the night-time, tear him out of his grave, and eat him up. Greene evidently forgets all about Ned's determination to persevere in the attitude of non-repentance which he uttered so boldly on the opening page of the book. For the cutpurse, the worst that ever lived in England, preaches a vehement and orthodox sermon just before he leaps from the window. 64 All his defiance is gone. He would have us trust not in our wits, in our strength. We are to follow the good counsel of our friends, harken to God's ministers, scoff not at the magistrates, beware of strange women, who are the Sirens which draw us on to destruction. What a show we have! Ned Browne is only a pup pet, a mechanical figure dressed up, with a halter about his neck. There he stands, totally without life, a ven- 64 In Painter's tale, the Countess of Celant "miserably and repent antly died," and asked the people to pray for her. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 109 triloquist's doll whose mouth is pulled open and shut by strings. When the speech is over, Ned is pitched out. But nobody cares. It was only an entertainment any how. The quality of entertainment is characteristic not only of The Blacke Bookes Messenger but of the whole series. We have already pointed out that there is in the first three pamphlets a diminution in the amount of information to be conveyed, and an increase in the amount of illustration, so that the Last Part contains nothing else. The Defence and The Blacke Bookes Messenger continue in the same kind of development, both in the inclusion of tales and in the fiction of the frame-work too. "Obviously," as Professor Chandler aptly remarks, "in these pamphlets Greene was progressing from an account of rogues* tricks to the more interesting business of using rogues as anti-heroes in fic tion." 65 Greene, the exposer of social vices, that is, had little to say; Greene, the teller of tales, had much. It does not follow, as one might think, that to speak of Greene's conny-catching pamphlets as the product of his tastes, and necessity for journalistic activity, is to deprive them of their importance. Indeed, so speaking of them only calls our attention to the real interest, which is not sociological but dependent upon the illustrative tales as examples of Eliza bethan narrative art. The stories are somewhat allied to the stories of the jest- books so common before and after the time of Greene. 66 This relation is especially true in connection with the emphasis upon the trick, the performance of a clever deed. But Greene's collections are different from these. They have not the unity to be found in a jest-book like the contemporary Merrie 66 The Literature of Roguery, by F. W. Chandler. Vol. I., p. 98. 68 See Chandler, Literature of Roguery, Vol. I., p. 59. Also Cambridge History of English Literature, Vol. III., for bibliography. 110 ROBERT GREENE Conceited Jests of George Peelef 1 wherein we gain some definiteness of conception of the roguish hero; nor do they have the anecdotic quality of the earlier collections like the C. Mery Talys (1526). There is not in Greene's stories the personal element of the former, in that Greene's men and women are almost as uncharacterized as the absence of their names indicates; and yet we are made aware that the crudity, or undevelopedness, of the latter has disappeared under a method of artistic handling. We are not presented to people in whom we are interested for their own sakes. At the same time our attention is not centered wholly upon the event. I think the reason for this is the very thing that Professor Chandler speaks of, the using of rogues as anti- heroes. So that we do not have from Greene a collection of jests, but genuine fictitious narrative of such merit as to mark a step in the employment of the anti-heroic as a subject for artistic treatment. Although Greene made some advance over the jest-book by giving the significance of a literary form to his work, he did not produce anything which should be called pica resque romance. The tales, for the most part, are complete in themselves, and have no bearing upon any of the tales before or after them. There is no conception of unity in Greene's mind, no desire to paint a roguish person. Not withstanding the fact that there is present in many of the tales much of the subtlety in the formulation of the trick and much of the adroitness in extrication from difficult places, there is not the breadth of view nor the extensiveness of interest which characterizes the genuine picaresque. The confession of Ned Browne is no exception. The tales, then, are individual units embedded in a frame work either expository like the first two parts of conny- 67 Entered in the Stationers' Register December 14, 1605. Works of George Peele, ed. Bullen. Vol. II. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 111 catching and the Defence, or fictitious biography like that of Ned Browne. Or the tale may have no frame-work at all, like those of the Thirde Part. However found, each must be judged as a unit on its own basis. There are about thirty-five of the tales scattered through out the pamphlets. Many of them are very short, although a number run to the length of six or eight pages, or even a little more. Some are genuinely amusing, and some are very clever. One or two not in themselves humorous at all are told with such forced gusto that it is the artificial gaiety we smile at rather than the narratives. Some of them are slight, and more than one needs Greene's parting "Let each take heede of dealing with any such kinde of people," or his "Let this give them warning to beware of any such unprofitable guests" to apologize for its lack of weight and to justify its inclusion in the series. The truth is, that Greene is sometimes compelled to do his manufacturing out of scant material. Many of the tales are good reading. The brevity of them necessitates directness and clearness. They are unified in idea and in treatment, for they are by their nature limited to the telling of one event. In style they are simple. For tunately Greene conceived the proper language in which to write of such base subjects to be itself "base" and devoid of refinement. Of the thirty-five stories as a group, the impression one gets is that Greene has accomplished satis factorily the end he had in mind, "Let this suffice, and now I will recreate your wits with a merry Tale or two." Here is one of them: "How a cunning knave got a Tranche well stuffed with linnen and cer- taine parcetts of plate out of a Citizens house, and how the Master of the house holpe the deceiver to carry away his owne goods. Within the Cittie of London dwelleth a worthy man who hath very great dealing in his trade, and his shop very well 112 ROBERT GREENE frequented with Customers: had such a shrewd mischaunce of late by a Conny catcher, as may well serve for an example to others leste they have the like. A cunning villaine, that had long time haunted this Cittizens house, and gotten many a cheat which he carried awaye safely : made it his custome when he wanted money to helpe him selfe ever where he had sped so often: divers thinges he had which were never mist, especially such as appertained to the Citizens trade, but when anye were found wanting they could not devise which way they were gone, so pollitiquely this fellow alwayes behaved him selfe: well knew he what times of greatest business this Cittizen had in his trade, and when the shop is most stored with Chapmen: then would he step up the staires (for there was and is another door to the house besides that which entreth into the shop) and what was next hand came ever away with. One time above the rest in an evening about Candlemas, when daylight shuts in about six of the clock, he watched to do some feate in the house, and seeing the mistresse goe foorth with her maid, the good- man and his folkes very busie in the shop: up the staires he goes as he was wonte to doo, and lifting up the latch of the hall portall doore, saw nobody neere to trouble him: when stepping into the next chamber, where the Citizen and his wife usually lay, at the beds feete there stood a hansome truncke, wherein was very good linnen, a faire guilt salte, two silver french bowles for wine, two silver drinking pots, a stone Jugge covered with silver, and a dosen of silver spoons. This truncke he brings to the staires head, and making fast the doore againe, drawes it downe the steppes so softlye as he could, for it was so bigge and heavy, as he could not easily carry it: having it out at the doore, unseene of any neighbour or anybody else, he stood strugling with it to lift it up on the stall, which by reason of the weight trobled him very much. The goodman comming foorth of his shop, NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 113 to bid a customer or two far well made the fellowe afraide he should now be taken for all togither: but calling his wittes together to escape if he could, he stood gazing up at the signe belonging to the house, as though he were desirous to knowe what sign it was: which the Cittizen perceiving, came to him and asked him what he sought for? I looke for the sign of the blew bell sir, quoth the fellowe, where a gentleman having taken a chamber for this tearme time, hath sent me hether with this his Troncke of apparell: quoth the Citizen, I know no such sign in this streete, but in the next (naming it) there is such a one indeede, and there dwelleth one that letteth foorthe chambers to gentlemen. Truely sir quoth the fellowe, thats the house I should go to, I pray you sir lend me your hand but to helpe the Trunke on my back, for I thinking to ease me a while upon your stall, set it shorte, and now I can hardly get it up againe. The Citizen not knowing his owne Trunke, but indeede never thinking on any such notable deceite: helpes him up with the Truncke, and so sends him away roundly with his owne goods. When the Truncke was mist, I leave to your conceits what householde greefe there was on all sides, espe- ciallye the goodman himselfe, who remembering how hee helpt the fellow with a Truncke, perceived that heereby hee had beguyled himselfe, and loste more then in haste hee should recover againe. How this may admonish others, I leave to the judgement of the indifferent opinion, that see when honest meaning is craftilye beleagerd, as good fore sight must be used to prevent such daungers." The story is typical for it illustrates the characteristics I have enumerated above. It is short, it is clever, it is simple, and, moreover, it is interesting. I believe that its effectiveness is the result of a conscious effort. Greene wrote these tales with a long experience back of him. Starting out as the ape of Euphues when a boy of twenty, to enter the 114 ROBERT GREENE perilous career of a man of letters in Elizabethan London, a man of his versatility and quickness would naturally de velop independence and consciousness of method. This tale which I have printed in full shows such consciousness. There is careful but rapid sketching of the setting and of the conditions which make possible the event about to be related. There is just enough character drawing to show us the unsuspecting citizen and the cunning thief, and to get us ready for their respective actions when the unexpected moment of meeting arrives. There is concreteness of de tail the contents of the trunk are given, which make it so desirable a prize. The dialogue is good. There is sus pense, What will the thief do when he finds himself dis covered? There is admirable climax when Mr. Goodman helps the conny-catcher on with his trunk. In its way, the piece is excellent. And it contains less than seven hundred words. An understanding of this narrative importance of the social pamphlets of the first group associates Greene at once with the writer of fiction as we have seen him in con nection with his novels. What we said of him there applies even more strongly here. Greene is at his best when he is concerned with the development of events, and when he is not encumbered with the task of presenting character. In the illustrative tales of the conny-catching pamphlets all the conditions for success for a man like Greene are inherent in the nature of the material. A rogue is pretty much a rogue anywhere. It is not his character as an individual that we are interested in; it is what his character leads him, and enables him, to do. So that Greene is left, in the writ ing of these tales, to follow out his own natural inclination in presenting action and clever situation rather than person ality. His results are often worthy of high praise. The pamphlets of Greene's first group are superficial as NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 115 exposures of deceits, and light in their aim. Their greatest merit is not in their sociological value, but rather in their qualities to afford entertainment. The two pamphlets of the second group 68 are differentiated from those of the first by their keener insight into certain social forces and by their greater understanding of Elizabethan society, one of them manifesting an intelligence of the element of sex as an active power toward crime, the other furnishing a knowl edge of social estates at once extensive and deep. These two pamphlets were not, it is probable, thus differ entiated in Greene's own mind. Professor Collins, speaking of the significance of one of them, noted that significance as " being the more effective, as it is obviously neither intended nor perceived by the writer." 69 I believe that what Pro fessor Collins said is true. Greene apparently did not regard these two pamphlets as unlike the Notable Dis covery or The Blacke Bookes Messenger, and apparently he did not publish them for any different purpose. The "Reade, laugh, and learne" on the title-page of the Dispu tation would indicate as much. But although Greene was not aiming at the production of anything different and was not, it may be, aware of the greater significance of the two pam phlets, the difference does exist, as -I shall try to make clear. Of the two, the Disputation is the nearer to the pamphlets of the first group. We can, therefore, take it up first. 88 A DISPUTATION Betweene a Hee Conny-catcher, and a Shee Conny-catcher, whether a Theefe or a Whoore, is most hurtfull in Cousonage, to the Common- wealth. DISCOVERING THE SECRET VILLAnies of alluring Strumpets. With the Conversion of an English Courtizen, reformed this present yeare. 1592. Reade, laugh, and learne. Nascimur pro patria. A QUIP FOR AN UPstart Courtier: Or, a quaint dispute between Veluet breeches and Cloth-breeches. Wherein is plainely set downe the disorders in all Estates and Trades. 88 Collins' Edition of Greene. General Introduction. Vol. I., p. 31. 116 ROBERT GREENE This work is in two parts of about equal length, some forty pages each. The first part, from which the pamphlet derives its name, consists essentially of a dialogue between a thief and a courtezan, who happen to meet, and who, after they have conversed a few minutes on the street, go to a tavern, take a room, and order supper. While the meal is preparing, they debate their respective abilities at cozenage. 60 Nan wins, and Lawrence pays for the supper. The dialogue is interspersed with four or five tales. There are similarities to the other pamphlets which tend to identify the Disputation with them. For the Disputation is full of references to Greene himself, advertisements of the Blacke Booke soon to appear, and of the Conny-catching pamphlets already published. There are the same boasts of patriotism and of bravery despite the threats which have come; there is a stirring account of how, while he was at supper one night in St. John's Head within Ludgate in the company of a certain gentleman, some "fourteene or fif- teene of them met, and thought to have made that the fatal night of my overthrowe"; but the citizens came to his aid and he escaped, though the gentleman who was with him was sore hurt. There is the same pride in the effect iveness of the exposures, "I cannot deny but they beginne to waste away about London. ... I will plague them to the extreamitie: let them doe what they dare with their bilbowe blades, I feare them not." 61 Throughout the first half of the pamphlet there is, in short, such stir and noise 60 Professor Collins was mistaken in thinking that this "dialogue is carried on in bed." Vol. I., p. 31. He mis-read Nan's remark "Lye a little further & give mee some roome," (Vol. X., p. 205) and did not perceive that Nan was only rebuking Lawrence. "What Lawrence," she went on, "your toong is too lavish." Nan's proposal "Let us to the Taverne," occurs within five lines of the remark which led Professor Collins astray. 61 Vol. X., p. 236. NA8CIMUR PRO P ATRIA 117 and clatter, such raising of the dust, no wonder we are deafened and blinded. With all this palaver about us, no wonder we lose ourselves and take Greene for what he is striving his utmost to impress upon us that he is. But in such respects as these Greene is still the quack. In other respects, however, the Disputation is different from the pamphlets I have just associated it with. It is more vital. In the first place, it is genuinely humorous. The whole affair of these conny-catchers is humorous, to be sure, if regarded from the point of view I have tried to set forth. We cannot but laugh at Greene for the face he puts on. And there are humorous passages in some of the pamphlets, too. But the humor of the Disputation is all its own. It is not the humor evoked by the confession of Ned Browne, the laughter aroused from hearing the speech of a wooden doll, even though the wooden doll be put to death at the end with a string about its neck. It is not the knowing smile in which Greene indulges over some of the more simple tales which he thinks funny; it is not the keen appreciative delight over a cleverly turned trick; nor the sympathy we bestow upon the rascal when we know well enough that we should be sad for the victim. And it is not the flippant, saucy humor of the oft-repeated, "Was not this a pretty conny-catching, Maister R. G.?" The humor of the Disputation is none of these. It is deeper; grim, but not cynical. It comes partly from the situation, and partly from Greene's method of treatment. It is uncon scious, unaffected. Nan and Lawrence talk naturally, never thinking for a moment that they are being overheard. Our enjoyment of their conversation is that of an eavesdropper. We have no business to be there, but we have not the will to go away. Nan and Lawrence have been so complaisant in their views of life, in the shrewdness of their wits, that we delight to see them wriggle under the sting of their 118 ROBERT GREENE recent exposure. We rejoice in their discomfiture, and their bitterness. A primitive sort of humor, no doubt, to laugh at another's pain, but nevertheless universal, and never theless effective. In the second place, Greene somehow got a hold, in this little pamphlet of his, of one of the most fundamental forces in the whole world of wrong-doing. He reveals, by the dialogue between the thief and the courtezan, the power of sex. In villainy, Lawrence is supreme. But Nan is greater than he; for most of his arts are at her command. She can nip purses with the best. She can steal, cheat, lie. She can equal him at his own trade. And then she can do more. Her strength is threefold. Evil she can do for herself; she can entice her victims to her and destroy them herself; she can demand tribute from those who would retain her favor. For hers is the allurement of the strumpet. ". . . why the Lawrence what say you to me? haue I not prooued that in foysting and nipping we excell you, that there is none so great inconuenience in the Common wealth, as growes from whores, first for the corrupting of youth, infecting of age, for breeding of brawles, whereof ensues murther, in so much that the mine of many men come from us, and the fall of many youthes of good hope, if they were not seduced by us, doe proclaime at Tyborne, that wee be the meanes of their miserie: you men theeues touch the bodie and wealth, but we ruine the soule, and indanger that which is more pretious then the worldes treasure: you make worke onely for the gallowes, we both for the gallowes and the diuel, I and for the Surgian too, that some Hues like loathsome laizers, and die with the French Marbles. Whereupon I conclude that I haue wonne the supper. Law. I confesse it Nan, for thou has tolde mee such wondrous villainies, as I thought neuer could haue been in NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 119 women, I meane of your profession; why you are Croco diles when you weepe, Basilisks when you smile, Serpents when you deuise, and diuels cheefest breakers to bring the world to destruction. And so Nan lets sit downe to our meate and be merry." "Vivid" and " graphic" are the words which have been applied to this dialogue. 62 Vivid and graphic it is. But it does not stop there. It is true, true, that is, in the largest sense. In this pamphlet we cannot quibble over details; we cannot inquire whether this statement or that has foundation in the facts of Elizabethan times, whether the picture it pre sents is accurate or not. We cannot judge this pamphlet as we judged the pamphlets of the first group. Fot this one is based upon a universal principle of truth. Whoever Nan and Lawrence may be creations of Greene's own imagina tion they are a man and woman at any time and in any place. Be the woman a conny-catcher, she is Nan; be she an Egyptian queen, she is Cleopatra; be she a sorceress, she is Circe. And the man, he is any man who does not like Ulysses bind himself to the mast. The second part of the pamphlet is, I think, of less social significance than the first. It is concerned with the story of an English courtezan who is converted from her life of sin to one of virtue. The reformation is brought about by a young man who, going with the beautiful courtezan into a very dark room, reminds her that even there God can see them. He pleads with her to change her life. She does so. Then he takes her from the house of shame and she becomes his wife. "Not a fiction, but a truth of one that yet lives," Greene tells us, is this wonderful "life of a Curtszin" whose reformation took place "this present yeare. 1592." One need not believe, in spite of Greene's declaration, Collins. General Introduction. Vol. I., p. 32. 120 ROBERT GREENE that we have the account of a real person. Within this story there is a second story of similar nature, "a pleasant discourse, how a wife wanton by her husbands gentle warn ing, became to be a modest Matron," which, I have pointed out before, Greene took from Gascoigne's Adventures of Master F. J. (1573) , 63 the story of how a man won back his faithless wife from his faithless friend by paying her as a courtesan, and by his kindly manner. Whether Greene had some similar source for the story of the English courtezan is not known. The method of the young man in taking the woman to the darkest room in the house is somewhat similar to that which the wife of the usurer's victim in the Defence M used in getting the usurer into a remote room. In that room she confined him. In this present story the young man pleads with the sinful woman. The aims of the two were different, perhaps too much so for us to say that one story influenced the other. But whether a source will ever be discovered or not, the identity of the woman and the origin of her story have no relation to the significance of her con version. That significance is dependent upon Greene's im aginative treatment. I have throughout this chapter looked upon Greene lightly, and I have placed little faith in his words or in his purposes. Even the dying words of Ned Browne, the cut- purse, I have regarded mostly as clap-trap. The story of the courtezan is apparently like that of Ned Browne, but in reality I believe the two are different. I cannot see that it is a mistake to perceive more sincerity in the prayer of the young man and in the woman's turning from sin than is to be found in most of Greene's work. Such passages are very few with him, in which we get genuine emotion and sincerity 63 Gascoigne, Ed. W. C. Hazlitt, Vol. I., p. 473. Modern Language Notes. Vol. 30, No. 2, p. 61. " Vol. XI., p. 58. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 121 of expression. When we do come upon one which seems to be sound, we pause suspicious. We hesitate; we fear that it may turn out mere sentimentality and that our feel ings may be trifled with. The reformation of the courtezan, however, appears real. I mean not that the story of it the manner in which it is brought about is affecting, but that the emotion which the account of it arouses is real. Here, for one of the rare times in Greene, one may let one self go and not feel that one is mawkish, too easily moved, unperceptive. In the two respects that I have indicated, one in the recognition of an important sociological factor in crime, the other in the expression of a true emotion, the Disputa tion is worthy to be separated from the larger and less pro found group of Greene's social pamphlets. The Quippe for an Upstart Courtier also has this same depth of interest. In the Quippe we are no longer concerned with the conny- catchers and the harlots. In it Greene does not deal with one class only, but with some sixty professions and trades, from the knight down to the lowest and humblest workman, all of which are passed in review, commented upon, and branded as good or bad. Greene's method is as follows. One day in the Spring, he is in the fields gathering flowers. There are many people around. Suddenly they all dis appear and Greene is left alone. In a few moments he sees coming toward him a pair of gorgeous velvet breeches : from the opposite direction appears a pair of plain cloth ones. These two, representing pride and lowliness, debate their right to hold the realm of Britain. They can reach no agreement. A jury is proposed, the selection of which fills the important part of the pamphlet. Finally, however, the twenty-four men are chosen, with the knight at their head. The jury debates briefly and renders its decision that cloth breeches is the older and rightful possessor of the land. 122 ROBERT GREENE Greene got the plan and many details, sometimes verbal borrowings and paraphrases, from a poem written a number of years before. This was The Debate between Pride and Lowliness by one F. T., 65 the relation between which and Greene's tract was first pointed out by Mr. J. Payne Collier in 1841. Of this poem "the most remarkable circumstance," Collier says, 66 is that Greene " stole the whole substance of it, and, putting it into prose, published it in 1592, in his own name, and as his own work." Storojenko does well to object to Collier's statement. 67 It is indeed true, as he says, that while the work is by no means entirely original Greene did much more than transform dull poetry into interesting prose. Greene took the plan and the purpose of the old debate; but he omitted and he added. He did not in any sense permit himself to be a slave to his original. The result is that Greene's pamphlet is much better than the poem on which it is based. Instead of the eighty pages of stiff unreadable quatrains with their awkward versifica tion and their lack of emphasis, Greene gives us sprightly prose which is as free from monotony as the method of the work would well allow. The plan, in itself, is not conducive to the production of enthusiasm. Sixty orders are to be brought into view, talked about, and gotten rid of. That is a tremendous task. And those sixty orders must be dis cussed with sufficient distinctness to warrant the selection of twenty-four of them to serve as a jury. There are indi cations that Greene realized the enormity of the under taking and that he planned definitely to meet it. In the first place he lets the debate between velvet breeches and 65 Formerly thought to be Francis Thynne, but shown not to be by Furnivall in his Preface to the Animadversions of Thynne, Chaucer Society, 1876, p. cxxviii. 66 Shak. Soc. Pub. Vol. XVII. Introduction, p. v. 87 Grosart's Edition of Greene's Works, Vol. I., p. 143. NASCIMUR PRO PATRIA 123 cloth breeches rise to a high pitch before he proposes the settlement by jury. Then he does not tell us whether the case is to "be tried by a verdict of twelve or four and twenty." If only twelve, we think, it will not take long. The jury is hard to select. First comes a tailor in velvet and satin, pert, as dapper as a bridegroom. Greene invites him to be of the jury. "Not so," quoth cloth breeches, "I challenge him." "And why?" quoth I. Whereupon cloth breeches lays bare the vanity of tailors, their deceits and dishonesties, their catering to pride, their disregard for simplicity of fashion, and so on. Then the tailor steps aside. He will not do. Presently comes a broker. He is refused. Then a barber, a physician, an apothecary, a lawyer. All are open to some criticism. Finally the twelfth man is accepted, a rope- maker. 68 We are relieved. One man has been chosen. But alas! the next three are refused for their villainy. We give up in despair. Now for a stroke of luck. Three men arrive together, the knight, the esquire, the gentleman. They must be of the jury, and we have four. Here is the best news of all. "Ther came a troope of men in apparell seeming poore honest Citizens, in all they were eight." They were content to serve. Nobody had serious objections, and so they took their places with the other four. We are quite as glad as Greene that "there were so many accepted of at once, and hoped that now quickly the jury would be ful." In a moment the thirteenth man is chosen. Apparently things are going well. We shall soon be through. Then nine in succession are refused! * This was the celebrated passage from which the Greene-Harvey- Nashe quarrel immediately arose. 124 ROBERT GREENE Well, the jury is finally chosen. But that is not the point. What I wish to emphasize is that Greene made a conscious effort to counteract a fundamental difficulty. If he was going to succeed in presenting sixty orders in a salable pamphlet he had to do something more than enu merate; and what Greene accomplished was considerably more than enumeration. He came to the writing of the Quippe with a twelve years' experience as a man who had made his living with a pen. He had been obliged, as never an Englishman before him, to learn the art of successful composition, and he had come to a realization of the fact that the manner of expression counted much. Greene brings before us, then, the sixty orders; but his method is one which has interest in itself. He manages to shift our attention away from the monotony of counting off trades men to the more human and interesting task of being sorry for ourselves that the selection of a jury for this ridiculous quarrel should take so long. Founded though it is upon the work of another, the Quippe marks the highest point in the development of Greene's prose style. Notwithstanding that the first part of the piece is not closely related to the rest of it, and that these opening pages are marked distinctly by the artificialities of Euphuism, the body of the tract is well written and thoroughly mature. It has the simplicity which characterizes the other social pamphlets; and it has also a dignity which they lack. It has humor not so much as the Disputation and clear ness of outline. The sentences are firmly constructed, and contrast with the straggling ungrammatical creations of the earlier works. There is vigor and strength and stability. In addition to the qualities which arise from the style, the Quippe made improvement over the Debate in the trans formation of the abstractions of personality. The butcher, the baker, the bellows-mender, the goldsmith, the cook, NA8CIMUR PRO PATRIA 125 all these, as types, belong of course to the genre of character- writing. Greene's (rather F. TVs) idea of presenting them is, therefore, by no means new. And Greene's attitude toward these personages is not unique either, for they are in his work still representatives of a type. This is necessarily so; else they would have no place in a work of this kind any more than the Knight or the Lady Prioress would have in the company of the immortal pilgrims if they did not personify definite social classes. But types as they are, Greene has made over the bloodless and boneless unrealities of the poem, and has given them a degree of reality. They are not abstract types, but semi-living types, if it be not a paradox to say so. They are the product, not of an exposi tory, but of a dramatic mood. It cannot be maintained that Greene has secured total freedom from the method of his predecessor. But he has done much. He has secured for the types of which he writes the attention which we pay to personality rather than to a discussion of estates and con ditions of life. It is entirely in accord with Greene's nature that he should not have succeeded in endowing the people in the Quippe with complete individuality. Had he been Chaucer he could have done so. But Greene was not, as we saw in his fic tion, able to progress to a sharp presentation of character. His talent lay in the direction of the ordering of events. The Quippe is another illustration of this fact. I endeav ored to show how Greene made definite provision for his reader's interest in his narrative. But he did not, and could not, make the same provision in the way of character. So far as the Quippe is story, therefore, it is successful. So far as it is presentation of character, it is not wholly so. Defective in the element of characterization the Quippe is, despite the vast amount of improvement which Greene made. But after all, I do not believe that the greatest 126 ROBERT GREENE importance of the pamphlet attaches to its quality either as narrative or as study of character. The real significance I take to be the firmness of its grasp upon an understanding of social values. In turning from the underworld of London Greene was broadening his view of society. He was dealing not with the problems of a particular time and place, but rather with the universal struggle between haughtiness on the one hand which leads to tyranny, and lowliness on the other which leads to the development of a substantial common wealth and the establishment of democratic ideals. Satires of the estates compose an established literary tradition. Greene is carrying on this tradition of the satire, of course. Perhaps he meant only satire, an expo sure, in this quaint dispute and in the judgment of the classes of society who are to make up the jury, of the traits of good and bad, of uplifting and degenerating, which con stitute everywhere the society of men. There is no way of knowing whether Greene meant anything else than just that. CHAPTER V THE POETRY IF we exclude the lost ballad, of which we know nothing but the title, 1 Greene's career as a poet extends over nine years, from the time of the Second Part of Mamillia in 1583 down until his death. In this period of time Greene ran the number of his poems up to almost ninety. His poems, with few exceptions, are lyrics; and all but one are found embedded, either incidentally or integrally, in the romances upon which he was engaged. Greene was not unique, of course, in his mingling of prose and poetry. There were plenty of examples in the work of the Italian writers, notably of Sannazaro. His immediate predecessors in the field of English prose fiction Painter, Fenton, Gascoigne, for instance had employed the method. And Greene's own contemporaries were doing the same thing, men like Riche and Lodge, and above all, Sir Philip Sidney. For the most part, Greene's poems, like those of the other writers, bear little relation to the romances in which they occur. They are inserted, often on the flimsiest pos sible excuse, to afford their author a means of publication for what are not infrequently experimental effusions, and 1 Edward White: Vicesimo die Marcii (1581) Lycenced unto him under th(e) (h)andes of the Bishop of London and the wardens, A Ballad Intituled, youthe seinge all his wais so Troublesome abandon ing vertue and learninge to vyce, Recalleth his former follies with an inwarde Repentaunce By Greene. Stationers' Register, Arber Vol. II., p. 391. 127 128 ROBERT GREENE what are in any event only poetical by-products which would otherwise have had no chance of circulation. Sometimes a passage is put into poetry, and so introduced, which might just as well, as prose, have formed a part of the romance, or have been omitted altogether. How far this habit is carried can be seen in the Description of Maesia. 2 "She was passing fair," says Greene, "for this I remember was her description. " And the poem of eighteen lines which follows is not merely incidental, but obviously dragged in. Certain poems are, however, by Greene's own statement, meant to be incidental. One of the best-known poems, his Sonetto in Menaphon, What thing is Love? 3 is so intro duced: "Since we have talkte of Love so long, you shall give me leave to shewe my opinion of that foolish fancie thus." More frequently, though, than for any other reason, the poems, be they of ever so little importance to the develop ment of the story, are put forward on the pretext that they are expressions of mental states of various characters. And so we have Doralicia, who "to rid hir selfe therefore from these dumpes, took hir Lute, whereupon she played thys dittie"; 4 Barmenissa, who "was overcharged with melan choly: to avoyde the which . . . she warbled out this Madrygale"; 6 Isabel, who "cald for pen and inck and wrote this mournfull Sonnet"; 6 and many another dis tressed heroine or repentant hero. In many cases, to be sure, there does exist a definite, and often a necessary, connection between the poem and the novel. Occasion for Arion's discourse upon the nature of 2 Farewell to Follie, Vol. IX., p. 266. 3 Vol. VI., p. 140. Mr. Crawford (Notes and Queries. Ser. 10. No. 9. May 2, 1908) points out that Allot in England's Parnassus wrongly ascribes this poem to the Earl of Oxford. 4 Arbasto, Vol. III., p. 248. 6 Penelopes Web, Vol. V., p. 179. 6 Never too Late, Vol. VIII., p. 157. THE POETRY 129 women was given by the song of Arion. 7 Eurimachus' Madrigal was overheard by the mistress, who stepped to the lover and "drave him . . . abruptly from his pas sions." 8 Under the story of the fly which would perch beside the eagle, Menaphon pleaded his love. 9 Melicertus fell in love with Samela after he heard Boron's song in description of her. 10 Mullidor sent his Madrigal to his lady, in a letter. 11 And lastly, Infida and Lamilia sang their courtezan's songs, deliberately to allure and retain their victims. 12 There are numerous other poems which have this same relation to plot development. For all these the modern reader feels the justification. But on the whole, the impression of Greene's poetry, so far as its place in his romances is con cerned, is that it has no particular reason for existence. The question of its intrinsic value is another matter. Whether or not it has merit, it must be considered on its own basis and not on that of its pretended relationship. II The themes of Greene's poems connect him with more than one poetic movement. He was in several ways the descendant of the poets who had preceded him during the last thirty years, for few indeed are the subjects employed by them which do not find a place in his work. At the same time, he was strongly affected by the newer influences which kept coming in from Italy and France, and which did much to change the character of English poetry during this period. As a result, Greene is, in this division of his work, as in 7 Orpharion, Vol XII., p. 65. Alcida, Vol. IX., p. 99. Menaphon, Vol. VI., p. 59. l 76., p. 65. 11 Francescos Fortunes, Vol. VIII., p. 217. Never too Late, Vol. VIII., p. 75. Groatsworth of Wit, Vol. XII., p. 113. 130 ROBERT GREENE everything else that he did, a fairly accurate mirror of the literary activity of the age. Like the other Elizabethan lyrists, Greene sang mostly of love. Love is his prevailing theme, and he treats it in various ways. "What thing is Love?" he asks. It is a power divine, a discord, a desire, a peace. 13 Love has no law. 14 Life without love is lost, just as sheep die without their food. 15 Greene praises chastity 16 and constancy 17 in love, and he writes of lightness 18 and jealousy 19 in affection. Six poems preach definitely the warning to beware of love. Three have their basis in the Eros motiv. After the manner of Petrarchists, Greene deals with the pangs of the lover. At least six of his poems are on this theme. But there is in none of them that exquisite restlessness and analytic subtlety shown by Wyatt and the other poets of the early Miscellanies, and by the Sonneteers. Greene, besides reflecting the interest of his time in the poetry of love, reflects also its interest in the pastoral devel opment which had been strengthening for some time, and which, given decided impetus by the Shepherd's Calendar, first gained real importance in the decade following upon 1580. This element of pastoralism Greene uses in several ways: whether for adornment as when Menaphon sang "When ewes brought home with evening Sunne Wend to their foldes. and to their holdes, The shepheards trudge when light of daye is done," 20 13 Menaphon, Vol. VI., p. 140. " 76., p. 87. 16 Never too Late, Vol. VIII., p. 50. " Philomela, Vol. XI., pp. 123, 178. 17 76., p. 149; also Alcida, Vol. IX., p. 87. Alcida, Vol. IX., p. 87. Orpharion, Vol. XII., p. 21. 19 Ciceronis Amor, Vol. VII., p. 123. 20 Menaphon, Vol. VI., p. 59. THE POETRY 131 in introduction to his plea for love; or whether as a medium by which to extol love's sweetness, "If countrie loves such sweet desires do gaine, What Lady would not love a Shepheard Swaine?" 21 Pastoralism in Greene's poetry, however, found its chief expression in the seven poems which recount the stories of shepherds' loves. In the case of Boron's Jigge, 22 the poem, to be sure, is mostly jingle, with only a few lines of narra tive to make a slight story. Again when Doron and Car- mela join in an eclogue, 23 the story is of slight importance. The interest in this dialogue poem centers rather upon the rustic characters themselves and upon their speech, an interest which is not in any degree changed, whether we consider the poem as a serious attempt on Greene's part to imitate country talk or as fun-poking at country manners. "When Phillis kept sheepe along the westerne plaines," however, "and Condon did feed his flocks hard by," 24 we have as a result a poem in which the love-story is of some value. There is the conventional, but ever charming, beauty of the shepherdess which sets the shepherd's heart on fire. There is Coridon's leaving of his flocks to begin the wooing, his ineptitude in speech, and his declaration of love. There is Phyllis' coyness, and questioning, and eva sion, and final consent. And so "this love begun and ended both in one." In the Shepheards Ode, 26 too, we have re counted the love of this same youthful couple, or of another youthful couple with the same delightfully pastoral names. These are the stories of happy loves. The maiden is kind, and all ends well. But the event is not always Mourning Garment, Vol. IX., p. 143a. 22 Menaphon, Vol. VI., p. 69. 76., p. 137. 24 Perimedes, Vol. VII., p. 91. 26 Ciceronis Amor, Vol. VII., p. 180. 132 ROBERT GREENE thus. 26 Poor Tytirus "did sigh and see" . . . "where Galate his lover goes," Galate with the green chaplet on her head and the beautiful face, as fair as a maid's could be. But she said him nay and was off with a smile. And so was Tytirus turned to scorn the smiles and faces of woman kind, and to, "say to love, and women both, What I liked, now I do loath." Old Menalcus went even farther than disdain. He had loved, but all in vain. And so he had learned to repent, and, from his unhappy outcome, to stand as a warning to youth that it should beware of love. 27 One more pastoral theme Greene uses in this group of poems. I refer to the unhappy love of Rosamund and Alexis, to Rosamund's grief, lamentation, and death, the sad result of abandon ment by the faithless shepherd Alexis. 28 Greene has another pastoral poem, The Description of the Shepherd and his Wife, which may serve as a transition to the next group which we take up. This poem 29 is pas toral only in the sense that it deals with conventional country people. It does in reality belong to another type of poetry which Greene was fond of writing, namely, descriptions of persons. He describes both men and women, not because an idea of their appearance is neces sary in any connection, but merely because he delights to compose such descriptions for their own sake. Aside from this description of the shepherd, there are six poems which are pure descriptions of men. The most noticeable group is that found in Greene's Vision, in which we have three poems obviously planned together. These 26 Mourning Garment, Vol. IX., p. 201. 27 Never too Late, Vol. VIII., p. 17. 28 Mourning Garment, Vol. IX., p. 159. 29 76., p. 141. THE POETRY 133 are the descriptions of Chaucer, Gower, and Solomon, 80 very elaborate, with some attempt at characterization, but with more attention to outward detail of bodily appearance and garments. Another rather interesting poem on this theme is Infida's Song in Never too Late.* 1 Here we have a poem, written as a description of a man, which, except that it is sung by a courtezan to entice her lover, and that it contains what might easily be said to be adaptations to the sex of the singer, cannot in any way be distinguished from the conventional descriptions of women. There are the same cherry cheeks, vermilion lips, silver-white neck, and flaming eyes which fill the fond one's thoughts with "sweet desires"; there is the same appeal for mercy that may be found in any other Elizabethan song of the kind sung by a man. Indeed, we wonder whether there was any clear-cut difference as to how the descriptions should read, and whether all such descriptive poems were not made purely in accordance with a convention which would fit either men or women. We have at least seen such to be the case in Infida's Song. And besides, Solomon and the Palmer 32 both had amber locks as what Elizabethan beauty, save an occasional dark-haired maiden, had not? Whether all poets so conventionalized their ideas of hand some men we do not have any adequate way of knowing. For outside of Marlowe's celebrated description of Leander, these descriptions of men are rare in the poetry of the age. We have observed frequently that Greene is both a mirror and an experimenter. Perhaps in these descriptions he is showing us his experimental side. In his descriptions of women, however, Greene was by no means unique. Such poems were common enough in 80 Vol. XII., pp. 209, 210, 275. 31 Vol. VIII., p. 75. Never too Late, Vol. VIII., p. 13. 134 ROBERT GREENE Elizabethan poetry, as they are in all poetry. There were beginnings of them even in Totters Miscellany. Wyatt has a reference to " tresses of gold." 33 Surrey speaks of his mistress' " golden tresses" and "smilyng lokes." 34 Grim- aid 35 mentions his lady's eyes, head, foot, etc., even though he does not describe them. But in the poems of the uncer tain authors we find examples of elaborate description. 36 We find them also in Turberville 37 yellow hair, eyes like stars or sapphires, little mouth, coral lips, teeth white as whale bone, body blameless, arms rightly proportioned, and .hands well-shaped. And so on in the works of many of the mis cellaneous lyrists. 38 Thomas Watson has the same sort of description in his Passionate Century of Love. Watson's lady, too, is of the golden-haired, blue-eyed, fair-skinned type, whose cheeks are of lilies and roses. 39 As Professor Erskine remarks, "the important thing about it (this method of description) is that the picture immediately became con ventionalized with the Elizabethan poets, and it is the ideal of beauty for the whole period." 40 Slavishly, almost, Greene conforms to this ideal in his 33 Arber's Reprint, p. 68. 34 Ib., p. 12. 36 76., p. 98. * Ib., p. 214; p. 270. " Ed. Chambers, Vol. II., p. 644; p. 648. 38 "If I should undertake to wryte in prayse of a gentlewoman, I would neither prayse her chrystal eye, nor her cherrie lippe, . . . For these things are trita and obvia." Gascoigne. Notes of Instruction, 1575. Gregory Smith, Elizabethan Critical Essays. 1904. Vol. I., p. 48. 39 Hecatompathia. Spenser Society, 1869, p. 21, "This passion of love is lively expressed by the Authour, in that he lavishlie praiseth the person and beautifull ornaments of his love, one after another as they lie in order. He partly imitateth here in Aeneas Silvius, who setteth downe the like in describing Lucretia the love of Euryalus; and partly he followeth Ariosto Canto 7, where he describeth Alcina; and partly borroweth from some others where they describe the famous Helen of Greece" 40 The Elizabethan Lyric. 1905. p. 91. THE POETRY 135 poems. 41 His women look just alike, created, as they are, all of them thoroughly in accordance with the accepted model. But on this set convention, Greene rings all possible changes, with variations in simile and mythological adorn ment. Now my lady's lips are ruby red, now roses over- washed with dew; her cheeks are lilies steeped in wine, or strewn with roses red and white; or "Lilly cheekes whereon beside Buds of Roses shew their pride." Her stature is like tall cedar trees, 43 her pace like princely Juno's, she is fairer than Diana, or Thetis, or Venus. And so on, ad infinitum, in the fifteen or twenty poems on this theme. 44 But her locks are always golden, and her eyes are always as sapphires or as twinkling stars. There are in Greene's work none of those somewhat rare exceptions to this blonde ideal, exceptions which eulogize dark-complexioned women, such as Sidney praises in Astrophel and Stella, 46 and such as reach their best-known delineation in the "dark 41 There is a passage in his prose works which indicates very clearly how fully Greene recognized this type of beauty as wholly conventional. Young men, he says, "worke their own woe, penning downe ditties, songs, sonnets, madrigals, and such like, shadowed over with the pensell of flatterie, where from the fictions of poets they fetche the type and figure of their f ayned affection : first, decyphering hir beauty to bee more than superlative, comparing hir face unto Venus, hir haire unto golde, hir eyes unto starres," etc. Vol. IX., p. 292. Vol. VIII., p. 62. * Vol. III., p. 123. Greene had a habit of repeating himself. This description of Silvestro's Lady is used again, with some variations and omissions, as the description of Maesia in Farewell to Follie, Vol. IX., p. 266. 44 An interesting example of this variation of description is to be found in the singing match (the only real example of this type of poetry in Greene) between Menaphon and Melicertus, both singers aiming to set forth the beauties of the same woman. 46 Sonnet No. 7. 136 ROBERT GREENE lady" of the Shakespeare Sonnets, exceptions which Sir Sidney Lee maintains 46 are distinctively the reflection of French influence from men like Amadis Jamyn. These poems in praise of women's charms, which connect Greene with the newer movements in English poetry, lead easily to another of his themes, which connects him definitely with the older school in a tradition which extends back into the Middle Ages. Greene's first extant poem belongs to this class the satires on women. His interest in this theme, however, seems to have been slight. He has only four poems on it: one attacking particularly women's following of fashion, and their desire for fine clothes; 47 one on the curse of women's beauty; 48 one on their pride in their beauty; 49 and the last one on the censure of their "blab bing." 50 As a variation to the satires on women, there are a couple of poems against courtezans. 51 Another interest which connects Greene with the past is his group of poems on gnomic themes. The gnomic poems belong to the latter half of his career, none being earlier than 1587. After this date, he wrote on various subjects, jealousy, the shortness of life, the triumph of truth, ambition, discontent, gluttony, wit, and fortune. We have seen how strongly Greene was dominated in his romances by the idea of Fortune, and so we are surprised to find only two poems on this theme both of them on the despising of Fortune's power. Fortune's anger was thought to strike most violently in lofty places. The lowly life was therefore considered safest; and he who was contented with his humble lot thus held the power of Fortune in despite. This theme of contentment was common enough among the Elizabethan poets. Greene 46 The French Renaissance in England. 1910. p. 273. 47 Vol. II., p. 249. Vol. IX., p. 24. 49 Vol. IX., p. 25. 60 76., p. 88. 61 Vol. X., p. 200. Vol. XII , p. 129. THE POETRY 137 wrote three poems on it, 52 among them his perhaps most celebrated song, "Sweet are the thoughts that savour of content, The quiet mind is better than a crowne." We pass now to another group of poems, the Anac reontics. In 1554 there was published in France, by Henri Estienne, an edition of the poems of Anacreon, or rather of the poems thought to be his. This edition had great influence upon the poets of the Pleiade. It was almost immediately translated in full by Remy Belleau, and was to be seen thenceforth in many forms translations, adapta tions, imitations by various of Belleau's colleagues. The Anacreontic vein, and to some extent, that of the Greek Anthology with which they were already familiar, the French poets shortly assimilated. And through the work of these men (and possibly through the original tongue as well) the Anacreontic poems became influential in England. We find Greene a sharer in this movement, nowhere more clearly than in a direct translation from the Pseudo- Anacreon itself. This is the celebrated Number Thirty One, which he translates as " Cupid abroade was lated in the night." This poem was one evidently which appealed to him, for he used it, with very slight changes, in two different novels. 58 Needless to say, after the manner of other Elizabethan poets, he nowhere indicates either the source of the poem itself or the fact that he is reproducing his own translation. 54 M Vol. V., p. 179; Vol. VIII., p. 29; Vol. IX., p. 279. Alcida, Vol. IX., p. 99; Orpharion, Vol. XII., p. 73. M Greene's translation is printed also in Davison's Poetical Rhapsody (Ed. Bullen, 1891. Vol. II., p. 86) where there are translations of three of Anacreon's Odes by A. W. Two of these three are translated "other wise," the second by Thomas Spelman (or Spilman) and the third by Greene. 138 HOBERT GREENE Of the other poems of the group, it cannot be said whether they are original with Greene or not. Perhaps he is again trying his hand at experimentation; at least no originals, either Greek or French, are known. Whether original or copied, some of these poems are in Greene's lightest style, and mark him clearly as distinct from the older poets of the Miscellanies. Mars in a rage at Venus moves against her in arms. 55 Cupid is afraid for his mother's life. She bids him be not afraid. Trimming her hair, making herself beautiful, carrying a fan of silver feathers, she goes in a coach of ebony past the place where Mars is standing. She frowns. In fear Mars throws his armor down and vows repentance. Venus becomes gracious. Thus can woman's looks subdue the greatest god in arms. All this in twenty- four lines of a degree of polish unknown before the time of Greene, and known only to a few of his contemporaries, such as Lyly, Peele, or Spenser. In another song of Greene's we have the same delicacy of execution, but the delicacy is mingled with a suggestive sensualness which somewhat mars the poem, ". . . then though I wanton it awry, And play the wag: from Adon this I get, I am but young and may be wanton yet." M One other only of these poems need be spoken of, the song in Ciceronis Amor, 57 "Fond faining Poets make of Love a god," worth notice as reflecting the then prevalent poetizing about the nature of Cupid and the extent of his power. Greene says he is no god, as many foolish poets think, and proves him "but a boy not past the rod." 58 Vol. VII., p. 133. 56 Vol. VII., p. 88. B7 Vol. VII., p. 136. 68 A similar conception is to be found in Thomas Watson's Tears of Fancie, 1593. Sonnet I. "I helde him (Cupid) as a boy not past the rod." Another playful disbelief in the divinity of Cupid is expressed by THE POETRY 139 There is one group of poems left, a rather large group of repentance poems. Dyce, and Grosart especially, have emphasized the repentant note in Greene's work as a char acteristic of him, and have attempted to establish a canon thereby by which to judge certain works, the authorship of which has been discussed in connection with Greene's name. It is natural, perhaps, in view of the prodigal-son romances, to emphasize this side of Greene's activity. But it may be seriously doubted whether there is more than a reflection of the general tendency toward this sort of poetic theme, and whether Greene is not merely doing the thing which had begun long before his time, and which con tinued long after. At least many examples of repentant poems can be found among the poets of the age, some of which show a degree of real religious feeling, but more of which reveal, as Greene's most often do, only the con ventional repentant ideas, sorrow for the sins of youth, and so forth. The one of Greene's poems which really contains what has been called the "characteristic" repentant note of which Grosart spoke so often is the group of verses hi the Groatsworth of Wit, "Deceyving world that with alluring toys, Hast made my life the subject of thy scorne, O that a yeere were graunted me to live, And for that yeare my former wit restorde, What rules of life, what counsell would I give? How should my sinne with sorrow be deplorde? But I must die of every man abhorde, Time loosely spent will not againe be woone, My time is loosely spent, and I undone." w Thomas Howell in his Devises, 1581 (Ed. Raleigh, 1906, p. 69). Howell says that Cupid is no god at all, but a devil. w Vol. XII , p. 137. 140 ROBERT GREENE These verses are seemingly autobiographical. At least they are as autobiographical as the novel in which they were printed. But whether or not they express repentance for an actual past line of conduct, they certainly do convey a considerable amount of genuine feeling from a real or an imagined experience. The rest of Greene's repentant poems are, I think, purely conventional. In a few cases he mingles the conventional repentance with the conventional description of a woman, the beauty of the woman being the cause of the manner of life for which repentance later on is necessary. Francesco is thinking of Isabel, 60 his wife, and of how he has gone astray with Infida. His wanton eyes drew him to gaze on beauty; he saw her charms her milk-white brow, her face like silver tainted with vermilion, her golden hair, and these beauties entrapped him to sin. By these he slipped from virtue's path. Now despair and sorrow overcome him. "Wo worth the faults and follies of mine eie." In the song which the country swain sings "at the return of Philador" we have a repentant poem intermingled with narrative elements. There is an elaborate description of evening 61 and of old Menalcus who sits mourning. He is bewailing his past. He had fed sheep, secure from Fortune's ire. Then he had become ambitious and had gone to the city, where he followed in evil ways. In conclusion he has repented of his wickedness, and has come back to the country to sing, "... therefore farewell the follies of my youth." 62 60 Vol. VIII., p. 92. 61 There are several other instances of elaborate settings. In Never too Late (Vol. VIII., p. 50) the scene is a riverside, there are flowers. It is April. A lady enters, sits down, and begins to speak. In the same novel (p. 68) a poem opens with Nature quiet, the sky clear, the air still, the birds singing. In Philomela (Vol. XI., p. 133) the time is winter, there are frosts, and leafless trees. A shepherd is sighing. 62 In the Paradise of Daintie Devises (Ed. Brydges and Haslewood, THE POETRY 141 In Francescos Fortunes occurs M a series of repentant stanzas. There is a stanza for each sign of the zodiac, dealing with the season (and often with country life), and ending with the statement that the seasons will call repentance to mind. The lines are written on the wall as a "testament" to serve Francesco as a remembrancer of his follies, and, in spite of their monotony of style, have a dignity and effectiveness of movement which one would not expect in a poem of this kind. Another repentant poem is the dialogue between the grass hopper and the ant, 64 entirely along the lines of the fable, the spendthrift and repentant grasshopper, and the frugal, inhospitable, unforgiving ant. Greene is like the grass hopper. Too late he has realized that night, and that winter, would come. There remains a final group of three or four miscellaneous poems which cannot be classed with any of the groups spoken of above. One of these is an Epitaph 65 on the heroine of a romance, one an oracle, 66 one a hermit's exordium, 67 a curious poem on the power of the Bible to overcome Satan. The last one is among the best-known of Greene's poems, Sephestia's Lullaby, the "Weepe not my wanton smile upon my knee, When thou art olde there griefe inough for thee." Lullabies are comparatively rare in Elizabethan poetry, so rare that one does not expect to find an example, so exquisite an example, among the poems of Greene. The British Bibliographer, Vol. III., p. 97), M. Hunnis has a poem with a similar refrain, "Good Lord with mercie doe forgive the follies of my youth," merely an illustration of a common theme and a common phraseology. M Vol. VIII., p. 223. " Vol. XII., p. 146. Vol. IV., p. 264. Vol. VI., p. 34. 7 Vol. VII., p. 29. 142 ROBERT GREENE All the poems so far spoken of were written in connection with the romances. We turn now to the one poem from Greene's pen which was not so written, A Maiden's Dreame, printed in 1591, "upon the Death of the right Honorable Sir Christopher Hatton Knight, late Lord Chancellor of Eng land," 69 who died on November twentieth of that year. It is an example of the dream, or vision, poetry so common in our earlier literature. A maiden falls asleep and dreams. She seems to be near a spring, about which are sundry god desses. A knight lies there dead, clad all in armor. Over the body of the knight each of the goddesses utters her complaint, Justice, Prudence, Fortitude, Temperance, Bountie, Hospitalitie, Religion. All these grieve bitterly. More than anything else it is their uncontrolled passion which mars the poem. The oft-repetitions of the ending of each complaint, "At this her sighes and sorrowes were so sore: And so she wept that she could speak no more," become, far from effective, after a while even ridiculous. There is another poem not found in a novel which has been associated with Greene's name. This is A Most Rare and Excellent Dreame, Learnedly Set Downe by a Woorthy Gentleman, a Brave Schollar, and M. of Artes in Both Univer sities, printed in the Phoenix Nest, 1593. 70 As Mr. Child suggests, 71 this may be the work of Greene. We know that <* Vol. XIV., p. 301. 69 "This poem had long disappeared, and was not known to be in existence till 1845, when it was discovered by Mr. James P. Reardon, who sent a transcript of it to the Council of the Shakespeare Society, among whose papers it was printed (Vol. II., pp. 127-45)." Collins, Introduction to A Maidens Dreame. Plays and Poems of Robert Greene. 1905. Vol. II., p. 219. 70 Collier's Reprint, p. 45. 71 Cambridge History of English Literature, Vol. IV., p. 135. THE POETRY 143 certain papers of Greene's were in the hands of printers after his death in the previous year. The "M. of Artes in Both Universities" sounds like Greene, surely. And there is nothing in the poem which is contrary to Greene's genius. Still there were other "Masters of Artes in Both Universities," there were other poets who wrote poems of the type of the Excellent Dreame. There was so much that was conventional in poems of the kind, and there is so little in this poem except its rather unusual length to dis tinguish it from a hundred other poems on the same theme, that I do not believe that we can say definitely either that it is or that it is 'not the work of Greene. The poem opens with an extended discussion on the cause of dreams, after the mediaeval manner. Then follows the visit of a lady to her sleeping lover. The lover (in the first person) describes her beauties and tells of his restless and hopeless state. The lady and he discuss the subject of love at some length. She is firm in her denials, and he faints away in a swoon. Thereupon she, fearing that he is dead, relents; and the lover comes back to life and the waking state. We may now summarize briefly. Throughout, we have seen in Greene a mirror of the poetical interests of the time. It is true that there are many of its phases which are not represented in his work. He has not the vaunt of immor tality which so obsessed the poets of the Pleiade, and which came to be characteristic of the English sonneteers of the following decade. There are many themes at which he does not try his hand. He has no poems which are plays on words, no epistles between personages of classical history, no songs to Spring, no wedding songs, no poems in praise of virginity, or on the theme of "try before you trust," no tributes to deceased friends, no epitaphs. These and other themes find no representative in Greene's volumes. But in 144 ROBERT GREENE spite of these omissions, Greene's poetry does to a very con siderable degree coincide with the main currents of endeavor. We have noted his love poems, with their variations of theme, his pastoralism, his descriptions of people, his satires on women, his gnomic verse, his Anacreontic, and repentant, poems. All of these together identify him with the past, the present, and the future of his time. Sometimes in his choice of themes he is continuing a tradition which comes down from the Middle Ages, sometimes he is pushing his way forward in experimentation. Most often he is simply doing what he sees others doing, a follower of fashion. Ill Greene is typical of the period, both in his use of metres already developed and in his love of making experiments in verse forms. Most of the poetical measures attracted his attention. These he sometimes employed just as he found them at hand. Often, however, he employed them as the bases of experimentation which, more frequently than in any other way, took on the shape of new combinations of old forms. Greene's favorite metre, and it was the favorite metre of most of the poets who wrote between the time of the decay of the poulter's measure and that of the revival of the sonnet, was the six-line iambic pentameter stanza riming ababcc. About twenty-five of his poems, or more than a hundred stanzas, have this structure. He uses it, without discrimination as to theme, for all conceivable subjects: love songs, songs of contentment, Anacreontics, pastorals, repentances, or gnomic verses. More often than not, the metre is used in its ordinary, simple form. This six-line stanza is also used in other ways. In several poems the concluding couplet of the stanza takes on the THE POETRY 145 nature of a refrain and is used in the same form, or in an appropriate variant form as the individual stanza may re quire, throughout the poem. In one case, 72 the sixth line only is so used. In the Song of Arion, 73 there are three stanzas of this form, plus a concluding stanza of two heroic couplets. Lamilia's Song in the Groatsworth of Wit 74 con sists of two stanzas. The first four lines of each are in con formity to the type, but the couplet at the end, very slightly in the nature of a refrain, is of hexameters instead of the regular pentameters. The poem is made somewhat more elaborate, too, by the use of a light-tripping refrain, thrice used, before the first stanza, after the second, and between the two. This refrain is a quatrain, abab, a being feminine, and each foot consisting of an iambic and an anapestic: "Fie, fie on blind fancie, It hinders youths joy: Fayre Virgins learne by me, To count love a toy." Finally in the fable of the grasshopper and the ant, 75 we have three stanzas of this metre, intermingled with quatrains and prose. The ababcc stanza was in use in both pentameter and tetrameter forms. Greene nowhere uses the tetrameter form in its strict application. But he does write a variant tetrameter stanza 76 in which the first and third lines do not rime, as one expects, so that we have the scheme, xbybcc. Greene's next most important metre is the tetrameter couplet. This metre he uses in fifteen poems, and in doing so is following a fashion by no means so common as that of 72 Franceses Roundelay, Vol., VIII p. 92. Vol. XII., p. 65. 74 Vol. XII., p. 113. 76 Vol. XII., p. 147. Vol. III., p. 180; Vol. IV., p. 264. 146 ROBERT GREENE the stanza just spoken of. The use of the form itself was comparatively rare before Greene's time, and the employ ment of trochaics in that form was even rarer. In fact the use of any foot but the iambic was unusual. 77 Tusser, to be sure, regularly used the tetrameter couplet in anapests, sometimes combining seven such couplets to make a " son net." 78 But Tusser's work is sporadic rather than typical. In the Paradise of Dayntie Devises the tetrameter couplet is used, 79 but here it is in iambics. And the tetrameter couplet was used to a considerable extent by Turberville. 80 In Turberville, however, as in the older poets where the form is occasionally found, the foot is almost invariably iambic. It is not until we come to the work of Greene and Nicholas Breton that we find the trochee a staple element in verse construction, thenceforth common enough, in the seven syllable, or truncated four-accent line, with many a later song writer. Indeed it may perhaps be said that this couplet, in the poetry of Greene, Breton, Shakespeare, Barnfield, Browne, and Wither, supplanted the ababcc form just as that itself had taken the place of the poulter's measure and the fourteener as the popular verse form. Professor Schelling thinks it reasonable to regard the English trochaic measures "not so much as attempts to follow a foreign metrical system, as a continuance of the original freedom of English verse as to the distribution of 77 Gascoigne: "Note you that commonly now a dayes in English rimes (for I dare not call them English verses) we use none other order but a foote of two sillables, wherof the first is depressed or made short, and the second is elevate or made long; and that sound or scanning continueth throughout the verse." Certayne Notes of Instruction. Elizabethan Critical Essays. Ed. Gregory Smith, 1904. Vol. 1., p. 50. 78 British Bibliographer, ed. Brydges and Haslewood, Vol. III., p. 20. 79 76. The perfect tryall of a faythfull freend. Yloop. 8 Ed. Chambers, Vol. II. THE POETRY 147 syllables." 81 And he proceeds to state that "most English trochaics show a tendency to revert back to the more usual iambic system by the addition of an initial unaccented syllable." In illustration of the tendency, he cites Greene's Ode, 82 a poem of thirty-six lines, of which ten are, as he says, iambic, the rest trochaic. In this particular case, the illus tration bears out the statement. 83 But unless we expand with an unusual looseness the meaning of the word tendency I cannot believe that the statement of Professor Schelling is of great significance, so far as Greene is concerned. To be sure, several of his poems are about evenly divided as to iambic and trochaic feet. On the other hand, we must acknowledge that Greene's feeling for trochees is pretty well developed when we find him writing a poem of thirty- eight lines 84 of which practically one hundred per cent are in strict conformity to rule, and when we find ten other poems in which the per cent of trochees is equal to ninety or above. The next in importance of Greene's metres is his blank verse. He has ten poems in this metre, about 225 lines. It cannot be said that he used blank verse to any great advantage (I am not referring to the dramas at all), or that he had any conception of its possibilities. He very seldom ends a thought elsewhere than at the end of a line, and he makes nothing of the caesura as an element of artistic con struction. His blank verse has more of the qualities of the heroic couplet than of blank verse proper, except that it does not rime. Very often indeed, he intermingles heroic 81 Elizabethan Lyrics, ed. Schelling, 1895. Introduction, p. xl. 81 Vol XL, p. 123. M An even better illustration might have been the poem (Vol. IX., p. 201) of eighty-eight lines in which twenty-five per cent only are trochaic; or the description of Chaucer (Vol. XII., p. 209) of which only one-fifth is in this measure. 84 Vol. VIII., p. 13. 148 ROBERT GREENE couplets in his blank verse; and nearly all of his blank verse poems have one or more couplets at the end. Like his trochaic tetrameter couplet, Greene's blank verse is of some interest in the history of English prosody. The use of blank verse in Tottel's Miscellany, by Surrey and Grimald, has often been spoken of, as has the blank verse of Gascoigne's Steel Glas (1576). 85 But outside of these instances and of the drama, blank verse was very rare in the sixteenth century. It was especially rare in the use to which Greene put it. As a matter of fact, blank verse lyrics are so seldom to be met with in the history of English poetry in any of its periods as to make even the rather insignificant ones of Greene worth a casual mention. Nine of Greene's poems are in quatrains. Five of these are iambic pentameter, riming abab. One of these abab quatrains 86 is a little irregular in having after each two lines a short line of five or six syllables. Three poems are in iambic pentameter quatrains, but these rime abba. One other poem 87 is not really a quatrain at all, being merely fourteeners printed as broken lines, as was the custom of the day. 88 Of the heroic couplet there is very little use in Greene's poetry. He has but one poem in that kind of couplets, and it is very short only six lines. 89 We have seen, 86 One might perhaps mention the blank verse of Spenser's earlier translation of the Visions of Bellay (Grosart, Vol. III., p. 231). These Spenser later rewrote. Vol. VI., p. 65. 87 Vol. III., p. 248. 88 The absence from Greene's poetry of fourteeners, with this one exception, and of the poulter's measure altogether, is interesting as showing to what extent these metres had decreased in popularity as lyric forms. From being the almost universal measures of the sixties and seventies, they have become by Greene's time almost archaic. 89 Vol. X., p. 200. THE POETRY 149 however, that Greene almost always used pentameter couplets in connection with his blank verse. Various other metres were used by Greene at different times. These may be dismissed somewhat briefly, before we come to the elaborate stanzas which he was so fond of using. One of these metres is the rime royal, in which Greene's longest poem is written. 90 Another use to which Greene put the rime royal is the combination of two such stanzas to make what he called a "sonnet." 91 It is hard to say whether Greene meant these to be sonnets or not. The fact, however, that in the short poems the stanzas of rime royal always occur hi groups of two or four may, even though the stanzas are printed separated, indicate that Greene had in his mind a poem to consist of fourteen lines or a multiple of fourteen lines, no matter of what those fourteen lines might consist. Of the sonnet proper Greene makes practically no use. In view of the excessive amount of sonneteering which had already begun before his death this absence is interesting. There are only three real sonnets, if a sonnet may be de nned as merely a one-stanza poem of fourteen lines, and no two of these are alike. One of them follows 92 the rime scheme abbaaccadeedff, with the division in thought into the octave and sestette, but not into the smaller divisions of quatrain and triplet. Another 93 consists of three abba quatrains (all different) with a concluding couplet. Still a third M if it be Greene's is of the regular Shakesperiantype. 90 A Maidens Dreame. Whether or not the Rare and Excelent Dreame of the Phoenix Nest is Greene's, it also is in rime royal. M For example, Vol. XI., p. 142; Vol. XII., p. 137. M Vol. XII., p. 129. Vol. VIII., p. 169. 4 Collins' ed. Vol. II., p. 248. None of the earlier editions of Menaphon contain this poem entitled, "Dorastus (in Love-passion) writes these lines in Praise of his loving and best-beloved Fawnia." Although Collins and Dyce reprint it from editions of the late seven- 150 EGBERT GREENE Ten-line sonnets were not uncommon during the period; Greene has two of them, Shakesperian sonnets with one of the quatrains left out. One of these ten-line sonnets forms the second stanza of the third poem just mentioned above. The ottava rima has one example, the repentance poem spoken of above, which devotes a stanza to each of the signs of the zodiac. Another poem 95 seems to consist of two ten-stress couplets with lines divided to make eight five- stress lines, plus two five-stress couplets, twelve lines in all. The last of these isolated metres is in Menaphon's Song to Pesana. 96 Here we have a poem of twelve lines of which the simplest analysis seems to be that it consists of iambic pentameter couplets, each line followed (thus breaking up the couplet) by a short line of five or six syllables, and the short lines also riming. Thus: U-|U-|0-|U-|0- a <j - j <J - | O b 0_|U_|0-|U-|U- a U - | O - | U b In the experiments with classical metres Greene took little part. He attempted a couple of poems 97 in Latin, one in the Sapphic, and one in the elegiac, measure. But with neither of these, nor with any other stanzaic measure did he work in English. His sole experimentation was con fined to the writing of English hexameters. In the four poems which he wrote in this measure, 98 Greene in no way teenth century, it seems reasonable at least to retain some doubt as to its authenticity. Vol. III., p. 125. M Vol. VI., p. 105. 7 Vol. VII., p. 125; ib., p. 145. s Vol. II., p. 219; Vol. IX., p. 151; 76., p. 159; Ib.., p. 293. THE POETRY 151 followed the laws of Roman verse construction. Instead he preserved the customary English accents, and made them coincide with the metrical stress. It is not surprising to find that the classical metres made small appeal to Greene whose real poetic ability lay in fanciful and sentimental songs in short-lined, and, we shall soon see, in capriciously elaborate measures. With a talent of such a nature he would have felt himself bound down by the restrictions of the Latin models, and so it is true that "he could never have cultivated the classic metres with any considerable result." " In two of his poems Greene revives an old-time custom of intermingling French and English. One of these poems 100 consists of nine stanzas, each of two lines of English and four lines of French, the French portion being the same in all the stanzas. Sweet Adon', darst not glaunce thine eye, N'oserez vous, mon bel amyf Upon thy Venus that must die, Je vous en prie, pitie me: N'oserez vous, mon bel, mon bel, N'oserez vous, mon bel amyf Greene's second poem of this kind is one of seventeen lines divided into three parts. 101 These parts are all extremely irregular, and contain, between them all, six lines of French. We now come to the numerous elaborated stanzas which Greene employed. These may perhaps be best taken up singly in the order in which they occur in the novels. The first of these, and one of the most complicated stanzas not 99 8. L. Wolff, Englische Studien, Vol. 37, p. 334. 100 Mr. Alfred Noyes has a poem in this same stanza form, ("Our Lady of the Sea." Oxford Book of Victorian Verse, p. 935) except that his stanza consists of eight lines, the additional number being caused by the insertion of two lines just before the last two lines of French. Vol. VIII., p. 217. 152 ROBERT GREENE only in Greene's work but in the whole period, is in Mena- phon's Song. 102 The poem is one of two stanzas of fourteen lines each. This stanza Professor Erskine 103 resolves into the equivalent of Sidney's ten-line epigrammatic form, which is the Shakespearian sonnet minus one quatrain, by saying that it is composed "of two quatrains in tetrapodies, followed by a pentapody couplet"; and that, of the stanza thus resolved into ten lines, the first, third, fifth, and seventh lines "are broken by a syncopated foot at the second accent." The explanation seems even more complicated than the stanza. Perhaps it would be better to take the stanza just as it is, and simply say that it consists of a group of four triplets and one couplet. Each triplet consists of two truncated two-stress trochaic feet plus a third line of iambic tetrameter. The rime of the short lines is uniform throughout; the longer lines rime in pairs, the first two going together, and the last two. The couplet at the end is heroic and has still a third rime. The scheme is thus aab aab aac aac dd. Lodge in his Rosalynde, 1590, in Montanus' Sonnet, imi tates this stanza of Greene's. He omits, however, the con cluding couplet, his two-stress lines do not all end in the same word most frequently they do not rime at all, and the long lines rime in alternation. In Tarlton's News out of Purgatory, issued anonymously in 1590, we have another variation of Greene's stanza. Whether this 104 poem is, or is not, meant to be a parody on Lodge's poem, as Mr. Bullen suggests, 105 is not of interest here, but the metre as 102 Vol. VI., p. 41. 103 The Elizabethan Lyric, p. 238. 104 Ronsards Description of his Mistris, which he Weres in his Hands in Purgatory. io6 Lyrics from the Dramatists of the Elizabethan Age. Ed. Bullen. 1901, p. 287. THE POETRY 153 worked out in that poem deserves notice. The stanza there is reduced to eight lines, two triplets and an iambic tet rameter (instead of pentameter) concluding couplet. The short lines of the triplets do not rime, the long ones do. The second of Greene's elaborate stanzas is to be seen in Sephestia's Song to her Child. 106 This is a stanza of eight lines riming in couplets, the fourth couplet ending in the same word and employing nearly the same phraseology in all three stanzas. The couplets are truncated trochaic tetrameter, and a certain syncopated effect is produced by the frequent, but irregular, omission of the unaccented syllable in the second trochee. The song has a refrain, used, as Elizabethan refrains almost always are, before the first, after the last, and between all of the middle stanzas. This refrain is a couplet of four-stress lines made up of ten syllables, and is interesting both for the use of the dactyls and the lightness of movement produced by the six un accented syllables. Thus: "Weepe not my wanton smile upon thy knee, When thou art olde thers griefe inough for thee." In Menaphon's Roundelay 107 we again have a stanza of ten lines. It seems to consist of two quatrains plus a concluding heroic couplet. Of these quatrains, the first rimes abba, and has the first and fourth in five-stress, and the second and third in two-stress. The second quatrain rimes cdcd, having the second and fourth in five-stress, and the first and third in two-stress. The measure throughout is iambic, except for an occasional trochee at the beginning of a line. The complicated six-line stanza used in Boron's Jigge 108 consists of a tetrapody iambic couplet, the two lines of which are separated by a couplet of two-stress dactylic lines; the 10 Vol. VI., p. 43. 107 Vol. VI., p. 59. 1M Vol. VI., p. 69. 154 ROBERT GREENE whole is followed by a two-stress anapestic couplet. The rime scheme is thus abbacc, and the rime bb occurs in all the stanzas. Greene calls this song a roundelay; rightly so, in as much as a roundelay is a " light poem, originally a shepherd's dance, in which an idea or phrase is repeated, often as a verse, or stanzaic refrain." 109 Another variety of six-line stanza is that consisting funda mentally of an abab iambic pentameter quatrain followed by two iambic trimeter lines, unrimed. There are four stanzas, and the trimeter lines after the first quatrain rime with those after the second quatrain in cdcd fashion. Those after the third quatrain rime with the lines after the fourth. A curious stanza 110 is that made up of nine lines and riming abc abc ddb. All the lines are iambic pentameter except dd which are dimeter. On three different occasions 111 Greene made use of an eight-line stanza. This stanza consists of four pentameter lines with the second and fourth riming, but with the first and third unrimed. Following these four lines are two one- stress iambic lines unrimed. The stanza is completed by a heroic couplet. Radagon's Sonnet in Francescos Fortunes 112 consists of ten- line stanzas. The stanzas are made up of two iambic pen- tapody quatrains each followed by an iambic dimeter line. All the dimeter lines have the same rime. The two quatrains of each stanza exchange rimes, the first being abba, the second being baab. One of the most elaborately complicated metres is an eight-line stanza consisting of one-, two- and five-stress lines, all of which are iambic. The first, third, fifth, and 109 Schelling, Elizabethan Lyrics. Introduction, p. liii. 110 Vol. VIII., p. 157. 111 Vol. VIII., p. 175; Vol. IX., p. 214; Vol. XII., p. 242. 112 Vol. VIII., p. 200. THE POETRY 155 eighth are pentameter; the second and fourth are dimeter; and the sixth and seventh are one-stress. The first two pentameters rime with each other; and the last two. The dimeters rime with each other; the one-stress lines have no rime, either with themselves or with anything else in the stanza. The last of Greene's elaborate metres 111 is one of six lines. It consists of two tetrapody couplets (about half trochaic, half iambic) with a dimeter trochaic couplet between them. This tendency toward the elaborate stanza, which we have been discussing at perhaps tedious length, was a late development in Greene's career. The lyrics in the earlier romances are simple in form, being for the most part in the ababcc stanza, in blank verse, or in quatrain. In Mena- phon and Francescos Fortunes (1589 and 1590), however, his fancy for experiment ran wild, and he produced multi tudinous effects with long and short lines, and combinations of long and short lines, employing in the process all varieties, and combinations of varieties, of poetic feet. This keen interest in experimentation which Greene mani fests is a very striking characteristic of his time. All the poets show this interest, Breton, Sidney, Lodge. But in no one of them, Sidney perhaps excepted, is there greater fertility in the production of new and unique effects. IV Greene's poetry is best appreciated when it is recollected in tranquillity. Under such conditions that portion which has no especial interest drops out of mind; and the memory, thus rid of its impedimenta, not only retains with vividness 111 Vol. VIII., p. 212. 156 ROBERT GREENE certain individual poems, but creates for itself a unity of impression which arises from the contemplation of the ensemble. Not all poets demand this remoteness, for what the reader gets from them is something immediate which comes directly from contact with their works. But with a man like Greene, it is better to remove oneself to a little distance in order to obtain from him the pleasure which it is his to give. There is no message in Greene's poems, no criticism of life, no truth and high seriousness. Greene as a poet is not great any more than he is great as a dramatist or as a writer of romance. But he is, when he is at his best, grace ful and charming. There is an atmosphere about some of his poems, a fragrance which lingers and becomes the more fragrant from being remembered. Greene is not a personal singer. Except as no artist can fail to manifest somewhat of his individuality, these songs are not an expression of Greene himself. They are largely conventional, poetical exercises rather than an outpouring of lyric emotion. The origin of them is in an impulse of art rather than of feeling. It is not a song of himself that Greene sings, nor is he giving the record of any emotional experience. Not for this reason, then, can we cherish his poems. The quality which pervades the poetry is the same as that which gives the charm to Menaphon. Greene's was a sensitive nature. It took over much of sentiment and of the manner of expression from the whole movement of the Renaissance; it caught the spirit of that age so full at once of activity and of romantic thought. All of these it used; but it idealized them. It imparted a spirit of freshness and refinement, an elevation which was at the same time beautiful and idyllic. So it was in the poetry. Greene sang because others were singing and he sang much the THE POETRY 157 same things. But he did it with a sweetness of voice and a delicacy of understanding, whether he piped his songs in Arcadia, or trilled and carolled the pangs of love, or exe cuted graceful turns of melody. Always, in those poems which we remember, there is charm. I shall not attempt here to make a representative selec tion from Greene. The poems we choose are not always representative. Here and there, we take from out a poet's work a little phrase, a line, a stanza, or refrain, often iso lated somewhat meaningless even, as it stands alone. But we remember it. And we wrap up in it very often the whole significance of that poet's life. It has, like Brown ing's star, opened its soul to us and therefore we love it. THE SHEPHEARDS WIVES SONG Ah what is love? It is a pretty thing, As sweet unto a shepheard as a king, And sweeter too: For kings have cares that waite upon a Crowne, And cares can make the sweetest love to frowne: Ah then, ah then, If countrie loves such sweet desires do gaine, What Lady would not love a Shepheard Swaine? His flockes are foulded, he comes home at night, As merry as a king in his delight, And merrier too: For kings bethinke them what the state require, Where Shepheards carelesse Carroll by the fire. Ah then, ah then, If countrie loves such sweet desires gaine What Lady would not love a Shepheard Swaine. 158 ROBERT GREENE MAESIA'S SONG Sweet are the thoughts that savour of content, the quiet mind is richer than a crowne, Sweet are the nights in carelesse slumber spent, the poore estate scorne fortunes angrie frowne, Such sweet content, such minds, such sleep, such blis beggers injoy when Princes oft do mis. The homely house that harbors quiet rest, the cottage that affoords no pride nor care, The meane that grees with Countrie musick best, the sweet consort of mirth and musicks fare, Obscured life sets downe a type of blis, a minde content both crowne and kingdome is. PHILOMELAS ODE Sitting by a River's side, Where a silent streame did glide, Muse I did of many things, That the mind in quiet brings. . . . LAMILIAS SONG Fie, fie on blind fancie, It hinders youths joy: Fayre Virgins learne by me, To count love a toy. SONNET Cupid abroade was lated in the night, His winges were wet with ranging in the raine, Harbour he sought, to mee hee tooke his flight, To dry his plumes I heard the boy complaine. THE POETRY 159 I opte the doore, and graunted his desire, I rose my selfe and made the wagge a fire. Looking more narrow by the fiers flame, I spied his quiver hanging by his back: Doubting the boy might my misfortune frame, I would have gone for feare of further wrack. But what I drad, did mee poore wretch betide: For forth he drew an arrow from his side. He pierst the quick, and I began to start, A pleasing wound but that it was too hie, His shaft procurde a sharpe yet sugred smart, Away he flewe, for why his wings were dry. But left the arrow sticking in my breast: That sore I greevde I welcomd such a guest. INFIDAS SONG Sweet Adon', darst not glaunce thine eye. N'oserez vous, mon bel amyf Upon thy Venus that must die, Je vous en prie, pitie me : N'oserez vous, mon bel, mon bel, N'oserez vous, mon bel amyf SEPHESTIAS SONG TO HER CHILDE Weepe not my wanton smile upon my knee, When thou art olde ther's griefe inough for thee. Mothers wagge, pretie boy, Fathers sorrow, fathers joy. When thy father first did see Such a boy by him and mee, 160 ROBERT GREENE He was glad, I was woe, Fortune changde made him so, When he left his pretie boy, Last his sorrowe first his joy. Weepe not my wanton smile upon my knee : When thou arte olde ther's griefe inough for thee. PHILOMELAES SECOND OADE Fields were bare, and trees unclad, Flowers withered, byrdes were sad : When I saw a shepheard fold, Sheepe in Coate to shunne the cold: Himselfe sitting on the grasse, That with frost withered was : Sighing deepely, thus gan say, Love is folly when astray: . . . Thence growes jarres thus I find Love is folly, if unkind; Yet doe men most desire To be heated with this fire: Whose flame is so pleasing hot, That they burne, yet f eele it not : . . . Here he paused and did stay, Sighed and rose and went away. DORONS JIGGE ... I gan to woo This sweete little one, This bonny pretie one. I wooed hard a day or two, Till she bad: Be not sad, THE POETRY 161 Wooe no more I am thine owne, Thy dearest little one, Thy truest pretie one: Thus was faith and firme love showne, As behooves Shepheards loves. MENAPHONS SONG Some say Love Foolish Love Doth rule and governe all the Gods, I say Love, Inconstant Love Sets mens senses farre at ods. Some sweare Love Smooth 'd face Love Is sweetest sweete that men can have : I say Love, Sower Love Makes vertue yeeld as beauties slave. A bitter sweete, a follie worst of all That forceth wisedome to be follies thrall. BORONS ECOLOGUE JOYND WITH CARMELAS Carmela Ah Doron, ah my heart, thou art as white, As is my mothers Calfe or brinded Cow, Thine eyes are like the glow-worms in the night, Thine haires resemble thickest of the snow. 162 ROBERT GREENE Doron Carmela deare, even as the golden ball That Venus got, such are thy goodly eyes, When cherries juice is jumbled therewithall, Thy breath is like the steeme of apple pies. Thy lippes resemble two Cowcumbers faire, Thy teeth like to the tuskes of fattest swine, Thy speach is like the thunder in the aire : Would God thy toes, thy lippes and all were mine. Carmela I thanke you Doron, and will thinke on you, I love you Doron, and will winke on you. I seale your charter pattent with my thummes, Come kisse and part for feare my mother comes. The reader familiar with Elizabethan poetry will recog nize much that is conventional. He will perceive readily that Greene is the child of his time. They were all a family of poets, Greene, Breton, Lodge, Barnfield. Shakespeare was only a more gifted brother. But such a reader, or one who is not so aware of Greene's likeness to his fellows, cannot fail to see the delicacy with which these poems are executed. We have here only eleven of the ninety, it is true, and not all of those a selection in miniature. It contains, nevertheless, the best of Greene as a poet, and small as it is, it makes up the most pleasing part of his works. Greene is often insincere; he is interested in literature for what it yields him. These lyrics he wrote because they were the fashion. But of songs imbedded in a romance or tale of any sort we do not expect much. We judge them for their THE POETRY 163 beauty, and are satisfied if they give us pretty sentiment or musical verses. We come to them disinterestedly. Perhaps we do not quite, with Carlyle, make our claim a zero and get infinity for our quotient. But when we get pleasure, the pleasure is gain. The selection reveals, too, a phase of Greene as a man. It shows the more tender, graceful side of his nature. There is nothing garish about it. Greene's taste in discrimination between the fanciful and the ultra-fanciful was not always sure. His fondness for fine clothes and his manner of wear ing his beard are characteristics which appear in his writings. There is manifested a feeling for the artistic; at the same time, there is no limit before which to stop. If he is writing a romance, he has it romantic to excess; a didactic pamphlet, he forces ideas upon us at every turn. In his poetry, taken altogether, the same defect is present. But with the poetry something which is impossible with the prose works we can cut away the parts which are bad, and leave that which is good discernible and clear. Reduced thus to minute compass, sublimated, what is either dull or fan tastic in the mass becomes pure and undefiled. It can be recognized as the product of a genuinely artistic imagination. Greene has not the honor of a place in the Golden Treasury. CHAPTER VI CHRONOLOGY OF GREENE'S NON-DRAMATIC WORKS FOB most of Greene's works a statement of the date is an easy matter. In connection with a few of them there are difficult problems. The first novel which we have from Greene's pen is Mamillia, a Mirrour or looking-glasse for the Ladies of Eng- lande. This work is by "Robert Greene, Graduate in Cambridge," and it was "Imprinted at London for Thomas Woodcocke, 1583." Of this 1583 edition, one of two things must be true. Either it was not the first edition, or the work was delayed in publication. That it was written earlier is clear from an entry in the Stationers' Register (Arber, II., 378) as follows: 3rd October, 1580. Thomas Woodcock: Lycenced unto him "Manilla," a lookinge glasse for ye ladies of England. If the year 1580 saw an edition, all copies have been lost. On the other hand, there is no satisfactory explanation for the three years' delay of publication, especially when we remember that it was licensed in 1580 to the very man for whom it was printed in 1583. Mamillia: the second part of the triumph of Pallas offers a similar problem. It is dated "From my Studie in Clare- hall the vij of lulie," presumably in 1583. Two months later it was entered on the Register (II., p. 428) : 6 September, 1583. Master Ponsonbye: Licenced to him under Master Watkins hande a booke entituled "Mamilia, The seconde parte of the tryumphe of Pallas wherein with perpetuall fame the constancie of gentlewomen is Canonized." 164 CHRONOLOGY OF THE NON-DRAMATIC WORKS 165 The title-page declares it to be "by Robert Greene, Maister of Arts, in Cambridge," and to have been printed at London by "Th. C. for William Ponsonbie." The date, surprisingly, is 1593. We have here a difference of ten years, a difference as strangely unaccountable as that of the First Part, for the Second Part, too, was both licensed by, and printed for, the same man. Various theories have been propounded, among them those of Bernhardi, 1 as an explanation of these facts; but the wisest course seems to be that of saying merely that there is no explanation. Of the Myrrour of Modestie there is nothing to state except that there was apparently only one edition, that "Imprinted at London by Roger Warde" 1584, and that there is no entry of the pamphlet in the Stationers' Register. The year 1584 saw the production of four other works. The first of these was Greenes Carde of Fancie. Of this work the earliest known edition is that of 1587. I think there can be no doubt, however, that the pamphlet published in 1587 by Ponsonby is to be identified with that entered by him on April 11, 1584, that "yt is granted unto him that if he gett the card of phantasie lawfullie allowed unto him, that then he shall enioye yt as his own copie." As regards Arbasto, in spite of the fact that Grosart found in the S. R. no early notice of it, the pamphlet was, nevertheless, entered therein on the thirteenth of August, 1584. 2 It was published that same year by Jackson, and it is the first of Greene's works to bear on its title-page his celebrated motto, "Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci." 1 Robert Greenes Leben und Schriften. Eine historisch-kritische Studie. Leipzig. 1874. * Hugh Jackson: Receaved of him for printinge a booke intituled Arbasto the Anatomie of fortune . . . vj d. 166 ROBERT GREENE Concerning Morando, the Tritameron of Love, there is some doubt as to the date of its first appearance. There is an entry in the S. R. by Edward White for August 8, 1586; but this entry, it is more than likely, refers to an edition in two parts (the only edition of which we have any knowl edge) by the same publisher in 1587. Grosart (Vol. III., p. 44) mentions a "Part 1st, of 1584, in the Bodleian," and it is probable that there was such an edition. For as Storojenko (Gros. Vol. I., p. 75) points out, the Earl of Arundel, to whom the work is dedicated, "was committed to the Tower for high treason in the following year" 3 and he remained in the Tower for the rest of his life. It is not likely that Greene would have dedicated a pamphlet to him after that event. One work only dates from 1585. This is the Planetomachia: or the first parte of the generall opposition of the seven Planets. It was imprinted for Thomas Cadman. After 1585 we have no new work of Greene until 1587. But for June 11 of that year, the S. R. has an entry: Edward Aggas: Received of him for Grene his farewell to follie . . . vj d. No copy of an edition of 1587 has come down to us. The earliest that we have is of the edition of 1591, printed by Thomas Scarlet, and giving as Greene's title, "Utriusque Academiae in Artibus magister." Now there is no reason for believing that an edition of 1587 was ever made. That it was written then in some form or other, is possibly true. 4 y April 25, 1585. See D. N. B. for Philip Howard, Earl of Arundel. Arundel had become a Catholic in September of the preceding year. 4 The fact that the Farewell to Follie is, as we have seen (p. 23) related definitely to that large group of didactic and quasi-didactic frame-work tales which were so abundant in Greene's work about 1587, and the fact that it, of all of Greene's work, shows the largest amount CHRONOLOGY OF THE NON-DRAMATIC WORKS 167 It is also true that it may have been published later in the form in which it was originally written. There is no way of knowing about that. But, it is evident that the prefatory addresses at least, as we now have them, were not written before the end of 1590. The statement, "I presented you alate with my mourning garment" 6 fixes November 2, 1590, as the earliest date, for that was the date on which the Mourn ing Garment was licensed. 6 Of the Farewell to Follie, Edward Aggas either was, or was to have been, the publisher. He actually was the publisher of Penelopes Web which was prepared about this time and which may, of course, as Simpson suggests, 7 have been substituted for the Farewell to Follie. Penelopes Web was licensed June 26, 1587, and was printed that year. Three months later, on September 18, Euphues his Censure to Philautus was licensed to Edward White, and this book too was published in 1587. On March 29, 1588, there was allowed unto this same publisher, Edward White, the pamphlet "intytuled Perymedes the black smith; and on December 9, Alcida Greenes Meta morphosis was entered by John Wolf. Whether for Edward White is not known, for the earliest edition we possess is that printed by George Purslowe in 161 7. 8 Sometime between of borrowing from Primaudaye's Academy (translated 1586) may put probability upon the year 1587, as the date of composition. * Vol. IX., p. 230. References to Tomliuclin (Tamberlaine [?] pub. 1590) and to Martin Marprelate are taken by Simpson (School of Shakespeare, Vol. II., p. 349) as further evidence that 1591 is the date of the first edition. 7 School of Shakespeare. Vol. II., p. 350. 8 There can be no doubt that there was an earlier edition than that of 1617. The piece is mentioned among Greene's most popular works by R. B. the author of "Greene his funeralles" which was licensed to John Danter February 1, 1594. I fail to see any force to Storo- jenko's argument that the book was not published at once after Decem- 168 ROBERT GREENE March 29 and December 9, 1588, it is most likely that Pandosto should be placed. This celebrated pamphlet was printed by Thomas Orwin for Thomas Cadman in 1588. There is no entry of Pandosto in the S. R. On February 1, of the next year, was licensed the Spanish Masquerade, the first of Greene's extant works which was not a novel. It was reprinted the same year. Thomas Orwin also printed, this time for Sampson Clarke, Menaphon, of which the entry in the S. R. was made August 23, 1589. During this same year Ciceronis Amor also was printed, 9 although there was no entry of it in the S. R. The earliest novel of 1590 is Orpharion, which was licensed on January 9. 10 This work must have been planned and pos sibly written nearly a year before the date of licensing, 11 for Greene mentions it in his preface to Perymedes, March 29, 1588, when he speaks of "Orpharion, which I promise to make you merry with the next tearme." In the preface to theOrpha- rion itself he apologizes for the long delay, when he says, "I have long promised my Orpharion ... at last it is leapt into the Stacioners Shoppe, but not from my Study . . . the Printer had it long since : marry whether his presse were out of tune, Paper deere, or some other secret delay drive it off, it hath line this twelve months in the suds." The earliest edition of which we have an example is that of 1599. On April 15, the Royal Exchange was licensed. This work contained "sundry aphorisms of Phylosophie," and was "Fyrst written in Italian and dedicated to the Signorie of ber 9, 1588. Storojenko argues that it must have been published after Nashe's Anatomie of Absurditie, else, Alcida being against women, Nashe could not have spoken of Greene as the "Homer of Women." (Gros. Vol. I., p. 95.) 9 For Thomas Newman and John Winington. 10 Not licensed in 1589 as Grosart (Vol. XII., p. 3) thought. 11 Licensed by Edward White. CHRONOLOGY OF THE NON-DRAMATIC WORKS 169 Venice, nowe translated into English and offered to the Cittie of London." The author of La Burza Reale is unknown. With regard to the other works of 1590, the situation is complicated. The only date that we can fix is that of the li censing of Greene's Mourning Garment on November 2, 1590. That two other novels belong to this same year, is shown by their title-pages; the Never too Late and the Francescos Fortunes: or the second part of Greenes never too late. But it is not certain to what part of the year to assign them, for there are no entries in the S. R. There is a complica tion, too, which arises from the uncertainty of the date of Greene's Vision, which may, or more likely may not, belong to this same year. The title-page of the Vision (which was undoubtedly one of the many papers which Chettle, in Kind-harts Dream, tells us were left in booksellers' hands) states that it was "Written at the instant of his death." Thomas Newman, the pub lisher, in his dedicatory address tells us that "it was one of the last works of a wel known Author," and assures us that although "manie have published repentaunces under his name," yet there are "none more unfeigned than this, being euerie word his owner his own phrase, his own method." Greene's address to the Gentlemen Readers is, I think, clearly a genuine statement from his own pen, and may, it seems to me, be considered as having been among the latest of Greene's writings. There is no reason, that I can see, for the doubt expressed by Mr. Collins as to this fact; 12 nor for not thinking that the Vision was prepared for publication 11 "It would be interesting to be able to determine whether the Address to the Gentlemen Readers was written, as it may have been, by himself at the instant of bis death, or whether it was written in 1590 under the stress of a severe illness when he thought himself on tbe point of death, or whether, finally, it was a forgery of the pub lisher." (Collins, Vol. I., General Introduction, p. 26, note 2.) 170 - ROBERT GREENE very shortly before Greene's death in an attempt to relieve if possible the dire poverty of those last days. The saying, however, that the work was prepared for publication late in August, 1592, is not saying that it was necessarily written then. Indeed, I am inclined to believe that it was not written then. The style is much less direct than that of the ending of the Groatwsorth of Wit and of the Repentance. Moreover, the pamphlet seems rather to be a frame-work tale for the two stories by "Chaucer" and by "Gower" than to partake of the nature of the other repentance pamphlets. Neither do the three poems which the work contains resemble the poems of the more serious novels. And so it does not seem unreasonable to suppose that it may have been written at any time between a date a few months subsequent to the date of the events to which it relates (the publication of the Cobbler of Canterbury in 1590 and the subsequent repentance for folly on Greene's part) and the time of Greene's last illness. That it may have been written as a frame-work tale and at the last moment made over into a repentant pamphlet is not an altogether impossible supposition. The Vision is of considerable importance in determining the order of the three novels, besides Orpharion, which date definitely from 1590, for it contains a reference to two of them: "Only this (father Gower) I must end my nunquam sera est, and for that I craue pardon: . . . looke as speedily as the presse will serue for my mourning garment." 13 Mr. Collins, on the basis of these references, places the composi tion of the Vision in the midst of the composition of the other two. As I have said, I do not see how all of it at least can be put there. "After I was burdened with the penning of the Cobbler of Canterbury" does not sound like a state ment immediately following the publication of that las- 13 Vol. XII., p. 274. CHRONOLOGY OF THE NON-DRAMATIC WORKS 171 civious pamphlet. And there is another consideration against the Vision's having been written just then. The events described in the Vision undoubtedly occurred in 1590. But never in 1590, nor until much later, was Greene personal in his writings. We think of him as having talked a great deal about himself, and the death-bed pamphlets are those we usually read first. But we must remember that by 1590 Greene had really said very little, and that it was not until August, 1592, that he wrote of himself personally in the Groatsworth of Wit and in the Repentance. We can hardly, therefore, place the Vision as early as 1590. This dating does not in any way conflict with the references to the Never too Late and the Mourning Garment. Greene in the Vision was looking back upon events as they occurred, and from that point of view did have those books still to finish. To come back now to the other novels. Greene evidently was writing the Never too Late when the events described in the Vision occurred, for he asked Father Gower for per mission to finish it before he took up the Mourning Garment. At the end of the Never too Late, however, Greene promises us a sequel: "As soone as may bee Gentlemen, looke for Francescos further fortunes, and after that my Farewell to Follie, and then adieu to all amorous Pamphlets." 14 The Francescos Fortunes soon followed, which with more show of protestation than of sincerity, perhaps, Greene says would not have gone to press "had it not been promised." 16 And then, before preparing the Farewell to Follie which had been promised at the end of Never too Late, Greene turned to write the Mourning Garment to which he makes reference in the Vision, and which he speaks of in the preface to the Farewell to Follie. 16 " Vol. VIII., p. 109. Vol. VIII., p. 118. Vol. IX., p. 230. 172 ROBERT GREENE So much then for the novels of 1590, with Orpharion first on January 9, and Mourning Garment last, on November 2. Between these two dates come Never too Late and Fran- cescos Fortunes. As for the Vision, it may belong anywhere from the latter half of 1590 on to 1592. In 1591 the Farewell to Follie was the only novel published. This pamphlet we have already discussed. On December 6, 1591, Greene published A Maidens Dreame, his only extant poem which is not part of a work of fiction. One week later, December 13, were entered the first of the conny-catching pamphlets: Edward White and Thomas Nelson: Entred . . . The arte of Connye hatching. William Wright: Entred for his copie to be printed always for him by John Wolf The second parte of Connye hatching. The Thirde and last Part was entered February 7, 1592, by Thomas Scarlet, for Cutberd Burbie. The Defence of Conny-Catching was licensed April 21. A Disputation Betweene a Hee and a Shee Conny-Catcher dates from about this time, a little later perhaps. Philomela was licensed July 1, 1592. Greene says it was written earlier. 17 From its dissimilarity to the realistic pamphlets among which it appears, and from its striking likeness to some of the earlier work, the romance may be, no doubt, placed, as Dr. Wolff says, 18 with the 1584-7 group or with the Pandosto-Menaphon group of 1588-9. It is rather characteristic of Greene that in addition^ to his apology for publishing a love pamphlet after the promises made in the Mourning Garment and the Farewell to Follie, he should change his motto from the Omne tulit, which he used on 17 "... which I had writen long since & kept charily." Vol. XI., p. 109. 18 Greek Romances, p. 405. CHRONOLOGY OF THE NON-DRAMATIC WORK 173 similar romances, to the Sero sed serio of the prodigal-son romances. On July 20, A Quippe for an Upstart Courtier appeared. The Blacke Books Messenger, or the Life and Death of Ned Browne, was entered August 21. The last novel from Greene's pen is the Groatsworth of Wit. When this was started there is no way of knowing. But the last part of it, surely, was written during Greene's last days when the seriousness of his illness was making itself felt. It was not published until after his death, having been licensed on September 20, 1592. The earliest known edition is that of 1596. The last date we have to mention is October 6, when the Repentance appeared. CHAPTER VII THE PLAYS (A) THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE PLAYS THERE is no doubt that The Comical History of Alphonsus, King of Arragon, 1 is the earliest play that has come to us from Greene's pen. Upon this fact scholars are agreed. In addition to the crudity of the play in regard to general style and mechanism, which show immaturity, there are Greene's own lines in the Prologue, "And this my hand, which used for to pen The praise of love and Cupid's peerless power, Will now begin to treat of bloody Mars, Of doughty deeds and valiant victories/' 2 1 The earliest examplar "as it hath been sundrie times acted" was printed by Thomas Creede, 1599; this is the only one of Greene's plays which has no motto. 2 This passage in Greene's prologue may be a challenge to Marlowe, or it may be an imitation of Marlowe's prologue to Tamburlaine: "From jigging veins of rhyming mother wits, And such conceits as clownage keeps in play, We'll lead you to the stately tent of war." Passages like Marlowe's and Greene's may, however, both be just following a fashion. Such passages were at least not unknown in poetry. In England's Helicon (Ed. Bullen, p. 240) there is "An Heroical Poem" which contains these lines: "My wanton Muse that whilom wont to sing Fair beauty's praise and Venus' sweet delight, Of late had changed the tenor of her string To higher tunes than serve for Cupid's fight. Shrill trumpet's sound, sharp swords, and lances strong, War, blood, and death were matter of her song." 174 THE PLAYS 175 which have been taken to mean that in Alphonsus Greene turned from novels to plays, inspired to do so, it is further agreed, by the success of Tamburlaine. But though Alphonsus is recognized as his earliest dramatic production, the date at which Greene began to write plays has been a matter of discussion. Especially so, since the appearance of the edition of Greene's plays 3 by the late Mr. Churton Collins, who argued for a much later date than any hitherto proposed. 4 Granting the relation between Alphonsus and Tamburlaine as that of copy and model, Mr. Collins, nevertheless, places Alphonsus as not earlier than 1591. Most important among his reasons for this date is the similarity between the pro logue to Alphonsus and Certain passages in Spenser's Com plaints (published 1591). In The Teares of the Muses, Spenser, through the mouth of Calliope, deplores the decay of poetry and the want of heroic themes. The Muse threatens eternal silence. Alphonsus as a hero satis fies Calliope, according to Greene's prologue, and she deter mines to break her silence. Greene's play is, therefore, a response to Spenser's Complaints. Certain parallels of In the heroical poems of Daniel and Drayton there are indications of this same kind of ostentatious introduction. Recognition of the prevalence of such passages as that of Greene's, while it casts a little doubt upon Greene's challenge to Marlowe, does not alter the relation between the two plays; nor does it in any way lessen the probability that Alphonsus is Greene's first play. 8 The Plays and Poems of Robert Greene, Ed. with Introductions and Notes, by J. Churton Collins. Clarendon Press, 1905. 4 The whole matter, it may be said, is very difficult. The problem of the dates and the authorship, too of Greene's plays is perhaps unsolvable, and it is to be doubted whether anything more definite than approximations can be reached. To the discussions of dates and authorship I have little to add. What I say, largely by way of sum mary, may be found in the writing of Gayley, Greg, Storojenko, and Collins. 176 ROBERT GREENE thought and diction bear out this same conclusion. Addi tional reasons Mr, Collins finds as follows: In none of his works before 1591 does Greene mention his plays, although he mentions his novels; Nashe says nothing of Greene's plays in the Preface to Menaphon (1589) ; nor do the com mendatory verses to Meiaphon (1589), to Perymedes (1588), to Alcida (1588), have ai;y such references. The possible objection that, since Taniburlaine was produced as early as 1587, 1591 would be a rather late date at which to be paro dying it, is answered by the statement that Tamburlaine had continued to be popular upon the stage and that additional prominence had been given to it by its publication in 1590. Such are, briefly, Mr. Collins' reasons for his choosing 1591 as the date of Alphonsus. Mr. W. W. Greg, reviewing Collins' work, 5 attacked the theory. Mr. Greg says that the question turns "upon the interpretation of an important but obscure passage in the Preface to Perymedes", dated 1588: "I keepe my old course, to palter up some thing in Prose, using mine old poesie still, Omne tulit punctum, although latelye two Gentle men Poets made two mad men of Rome beate it out of their paper bucklers: & had it in derision, for that I could not make my verses jet it upon the stage in tragicall buskins, everie worde filling the mouth like the faburden of Bo-Bell, daring God out of heaven with that Atheist Tamburlan, or blaspheming with the mad preest of the sonne." The full meaning of Greene's words cannot be known, but two interpretations may be given to the passage as a whole. One is to the effect that Greene is taunted for not having written plays; the other, to the effect that he has done so and failed. Collins, arguing for a late date for Alphonsus, believes the latter to be the more sensible interpretation. Greg agrees. 7 But he would place Alphonsus immediately 6 Modern Language Review, Vol. I. Vol. VII., p. 8. 7 This is the interpretation given by Mr. Gayley also. (Repre sentative English Comedies. Vol. I., p. 403.) THE PLAYS 177 after Tamburlaine, not later than 1588. As for the simi larities to Spenser, Mr. Greg considers them of little worth. " Supposing the parallels to have the least force, which it is difficult to grant, nothing follows, since, as Professor Collins himself admits, the poems in question circulated in MS. for several years before they issued from the press." 8 In addition to his refutation of Collins' statements, Greg brings forward another argument for the year 1587. It is this. Delphrigus and the King of the Fairies are men tioned as famous parts by the player who in Groatsworth of Wit induced Roberto to become a maker of plays. The detail in Groatsworth of Wit is, Mr. Greg thinks, a personal recollection, and indicates that these plays were popular when Greene began to write plays. Now Nashe, in the Preface to Menaphon speaks of the "company of taffety fools" who "might have antickt it untill this time up and downe the countrey with the King of Fairies, and dined every day at the pease porredge ordinary with Delphrigus." The plays, that is, were old in 1589. Hence Greg con cludes, in 1587 immediately after the success of Tambur laine Greene wrote his Alphonsus. On account of the closeness of the relationship between Alphonsus and Marlowe's play, 1587 or 1588 has been accepted by Fleay, Storojenko, Dickinson, Gayley, and Greg. Against the belief of these men, the argument of Professor Collins for a later date seems unconvincing. Greene's second play, it is almost generally believed, was A Looking Glasse for London and Englande. This play Gayley assigns to 1587. Storojenko and Grosart place it late in 1588 or early in 1589. Collins puts it in 1590 or 1591, as a part of Greene's "repentant" work. The state ment of Collins, in view of what has been said in an earlier chapter regarding Greene's repentance, need not detain us 8 Mod. Lang. Rev. Vol. I., p. 244. 178 ROBERT GREENE here. As for the others, they agree that 1589 may be safely considered as the latest possible date, on account of a pas sage at the end of Lodge's Scillaes Metamorphosis, "To write no more of that whence shame doth grow, Or tie my pen to penny-knaves delight, But live with fame and so for fame to write." 9 I can see no particular force to the argument. In the first place, inasmuch as the lines occur at the end of a poem and not of a play, I cannot see that Lodge is referring to plays particularly and not to all kinds of writing for penny-knaves' delight. In the second place Lodge is not to be taken too seriously. His statement is nothing more than the con ventional apology for the "trifle" therewith presented. 10 As for 1589, however, it is likely that the Looking Glasse was written before that date. About 1588 Lodge sailed with Captain Clarke to Tercera and the Canaries. He wrote some commendatory verses for Greene's Spanish Masquer ado (licensed February 1, 1589), and published his own Scillaes Metamorphosis on September 22. He and Greene may have collaborated during the summer, after Lodge's return. But Gayley's point is well taken that, since the play contains no reference to the Armada (and such a play might very naturally contain such references), Lodge and Greene produced it before Lodge left England in 1588. It does not seem necessary, however, to put the date as early as Gayley does, June, 1587, the time when Spain and the Pope joined forces in a treaty. The Looking Glasse was printed for Thomas Creede in 1594, j having been entered on the Stationers' Registers on March 5 )f that year. This play is mentioned in Henslowe's Diary 9 Lodge's works, Hunterian Club. Mr. Gosse inclines to place this poem as early as 1585 or 1586. 10 Similar to the utterances of Gascoigne and of Greene himself. THE PLAYS 179 among the performances of 1592: March 8, March 27, April 19, and June 7. The earliest impression of Orlando Furioso, "as it was playd before the Queenes Maiestie," was published in 1594, having been entered on December 7, 1593. The Queen's players left the court on December 26, 1591. The play must have been written before that date. Orlando was already an old play when it was performed in Henslowe's theater by the Admiral's and Lord Strange's men on February 21, 1592. If there is any truth in the passage in the Defence of Conny-Catching, "you sold Orland Fourioso to the Queens players for twenty nobles, and when they were in the country, sold the same play to Lord Admirals men, for as much more," it would indicate that the play had been resold early in 1592, and that it had belonged to the Queen's company until December 26, 1591. It is very likely that December 26, 1591, marks the latest date for composition. A passage within the play ll sets July 30, 1588, as the earliest. This passage, as Prof. Gay ley says, 12 is historically minute, referring to the departure of the Armada from Lisbon; it does not "savour of afterthought or actor's clap-trap," and it agrees with a later passage in the play which has to do with Orlando's defense of Angelica (lines 1485-6), "Yet for I see my Princesse is abusde, By new-come straglers from a forren coast." That the play was written after the defeat of the Armada seems clear. " Lines 82-85: Scene I. "And what I dare, let say the Portingale, And Spaniard tell, who, mann'd with mighty fleets, Came to subdue my islands to their kings, Filling our seas with stately argosies." 11 Rep. Eng. Com. p. 408. 180 ROBERT GREENE Between July 30, 1588, and December 28, 1591, the Queen's company acted at court ten times. 13 The performance of February 9, 1589 (being assigned also to the Admiral's men), is open to question, which leaves December 26, 1588, as the only date within the year that followed the Spanish defeat. This is a probable date for the performance, for references to the Armada would be likely to occur in a play to be per formed at court at such a time. There may be further ground for thinking that Orlando was acted before the spring of 1589 in that Peele may be alluding to Orlando in his Farewell, 14 written that year. The Honorable Historie of frier Bacon and frier Bongay, according to Gayley, 15 dates from the end of 1589 or the beginning of 1590, sometime within a year after the produc tion of Dr. Faustus. The play is the first entered in Hens- lowe's Diary, under the date February 19, 1592. It was not then a new play. The play of Faire Em is of considerable importance in the problem of dating Friar Bacon. Faire Em is obviously imitation of Greene's play. Greene reproaches its author 16 for having consumed "a whole yeare" in the process of writing. Whatever "a whole yeare" may mean, Friar Bacon precedes Faire Em by several months at least. Professor Gayley dates Faire Em 1590. It very likely followed the fresh editions of Yver's Printemps d'lver (the source) in 1588 and '89. It was written between November 2, 13 1588, Dec. 26; 1589, Feb. 9 (?), Dec. 26; 1590, Mar. 1, Dec. 26; 1591, Jan, 1, 3, 6, Feb. 14, Dec. 26. (Fleay, Hist, of Stage, pp. 76-80.) 14 See Collier, Memoirs of Alleyn; Fleay, Life of Shakespeare, p. 96; Gayley, Rep. Eng. Comedies, p. 409. 15 Rep. Eng. Comedies, p. 411. 16 O, tis a jollie matter when a man hath a familiar stile and can endite a whole yeare and never be beholding to art? but to bring Scripture to prove anything he says is no small piece of cunning." (Vol. IX., p. 233.) THE PLAYS 181 1590, and the middle of 1591, between the preface to Greene's Mourning Garment, which has only general refer ences to those who may reject his repentance, and the preface to Farewell to Follie, which contains the specific reference to the author of Faire Em. A year preceding would place Friar Bacon in the second half of 1589 or very early in 1590. Mr. Fleay 17 brings forward another argument to indicate 1589 as the date of Friar Bacon. Inasmuch as playwrights using dates in their plays always, Mr. Fleay says, used the almanac of the current year; and inasmuch as 1589 is the only possible year which fulfils these conditions, the earliest possible date is thus determined. Collins, it should be said, believes that Friar Bacon fol lowed, rather than preceded Faire Em, believing that Greene's play is an imitation of the anonymous one. He assigns it, therefore, to the end of 1591 or the beginning of 1592. The last of Greene's undoubted plays is James IV. This play was entered on the Stationers' Registers on May 14, 1594, but no copy earlier than that of 1598 is known. As to the date of its composition, Mr. Collins has nothing to say, further than that it is among Greene's latest dramatic work. It is probable that James IV. dates from the end of 1590 or the beginning of 1591, following upon the line of develop ment started in Friar Bacon. Mr. Gayley makes consid erable of what he thinks is a definite relationship between Dorothea's song in James IV. (Act I., lines 270-9) and some lines in Peele's Hunting of Cupid, which he dates as 1590. In the resemblance of Dorothea's song to Greene's lines and in the further resemblance to Greene's own song in Mourning Garment (November 2, 1590) I can see no argument 17 In Ward's O. E. D., cxliii-cxliv. 182 ROBERT GREENE of weight. "Ah, what is love?" was too common a theme to make reasoning upon its occurrence at all stable. There seems to be more foundation to Gayley's statements that the boast of Dorothea, "Shall never Frenchman say an English maid Of threats of forraine force will be afraid," contains a reference to Elizabeth's landing of troops in France in 1590 and 1591; and that the reference to the Irish wars may have come from the contemporary troubles in Fermanagh. On the whole, the conclusion that the play was presented at court on December 26, 1590, is not bad. The conclusions stated above are by no means certain. Long years ago Dyce prophesied that it would be impos sible to determine with exactness the date of any one of Greene's plays. Since Dyce's time, not enough definite information has been secured to prevent the fulfilment of the prophecy. To date Alphonsus 1587 or 1588; Looking Glasse the same years (more likely, 1588); Orlando 1588, December 26; Friar Bacon, 1589 or 1590; James IV., 1590, December 26, is to come as near the truth, however, as, at present, is possible. (B) ATTRIBUTIONS TO GREENE Aside from the problems of dates, the student of Greene's plays is confronted by the further problem of determina tions of authorship. With this problem, as with the other, I shall endeavor to state briefly what arguments have been advanced. Of the numerous plays which have at times been assigned to Greene it is necessary to mention the following: First and Second Parts of Henry VI., The Pinner of Wakefield, Selimus, and A Knack to Know a Knave. With regard to THE PLAYS 183 the Henry VI. plays the long-standing attribution of a share to Greene by Miss Lee 18 has been argued to be without foundation by the author of a recent discussion of the Henry VI. problem. 19 A Knack to Know a Knave has been proposed by Professor Gayley, 20 following a suggestion of Simpson, as a solution for the puzzling passage in Greene's Groatsworth of Wit. Greene, writing to Marlowe, says, "With thee I joyne young Juvenall, that by ting satirist, that lastly with mee together writ a comedie." The identi fication of "young Juvenall" and of the "Comedie" has caused much discussion, into the merits of which it is not necessary to enter. 21 Opposed to the theory favoring Lodge and the Looking Glasse, Professor Gayley believes that Nashe and a Knack to Know a Knave better fit the problem. With the exception of Collins, who somewhat arbitrarily favors Lodge, opinion has come to rest largely upon Nashe. But Gayley is alone in his proposed solution of the "comedie" in which Greene says he had a share. His argument is that the subject is not foreign to Nashe, that certain characters resemble two others in Summer's Last Will, that Greene had been engaged 18 Miss Jane Lee. The New Shakespeare Society Transactions. 1875-6, p. 219. "On the Authorship of the Second and Third Parts of Henry VI. and their Originals." 19 C. F. Tucker Brooke. "The Authorship of 2 and 3 Henry VI." The main points to Mr. Brooke's discussion are as follows: 1. The approach of the subject from the side of Shakespeare cannot yield results. 2. Marlowe is the author of the Contention and the True Tragedy. 3. Neither Greene nor Peele had any connection with the plays. 4. Shakespeare revised Contention and True Tragedy, deep ening the characters and changing many passages and lines. 20 Rep. Eng. Comedies. Vol. I., pp. 422-6. 21 A good summary may be found in McKerrow's Edition of Nashe 184 ROBERT GREENE in knave pamphlets, that it has certain parallels to Friar Bacon, that it is called a "comedie" while no authenticated play of Greene's is so called, that its date is in accord with Greene's statement, and that it was played by a company then acting three of Greene's known dramas. All these points are suggestive, even though not conclusive. The remaining two, Selimus and George-a-Greene, have more importance in this question of authorship. Dr. Grosart first " reclaimed" Selimus for Greene and included it among Greene's plays. This he did on the basis of ex ternal and internal evidence. The external evidence con sists in the fact that two passages from Selimus on Delaie and Damocles are attributed to Greene by Robert Allott in England's Parnassus (1600), a collection of quotations from the then extant poetry of England. The internal evidence has to do with the resemblance between certain lines in Selimus and Greene's song, " Sweet are the thoughts that savour of content"; with the fact that Greene promised a second part to Alphonsus, for which, in view of the failure of Alphonsus, Greene substituted Selimus', and finally that there are many resemblances between Alphonsus and Selimus. The most earnest upholder of Dr. Grosart is Mr. Hugo Gil bert, whose dissertation 22 argues strongly for Greene's author ship of Selimus. Gilbert believes in Allott's trustworthiness in England's Parnassus, in which he finds six passages from Selimus an increase over Dr. Grosart's two. Mr. Gilbert finds what he thinks are certain resemblances between the character of Bullithrumble in Selimus to the clowns in Greene's authenticated plays. He sees in Selimus the same praise of country life that is to be found in some of Greene's works. The natural history allusions, the archaisms, the ** Robert Greene's Selimus. Eine Litterarhistorische Untersuchung. Kiel, 1899. THE PLAYS 185 Machiavellian doctrine, the proper names, all occur in Greene's acknowledged work, and so all prove Greene's authorship of Selimus. Gilbert pointed out that the source of Selimus is to be found in Paulus Jovius' "Rerum Turcicarum commentarius ad Invictissimum Caesarem Carolum V. Imperatorem Augustum"; and he cites as proof that Greene knew Paulus Jovius passages in Farewell to Follie (p. 337) and Royal Exchange (p. 254). Professor Hart corrects Mr. Gilbert by showing that Greene got his plot for Selimus not from Paulus Jovius directly, but indirectly from Primaudaye's Academy. The belief that Selimus was written about 1587, and the fact that then was a time when Greene was borrow ing very extensively from Primaudaye, especially in the Farewell to Follie, Professor Hart regards as proof of Greene's authorship. Having set down the arguments advanced for Greene's authorship of this play, I now give those against it. The first is that of Dr. Wolff, 24 who doubts Greene's authorship on the ground of the characterization. This matter he thinks would alone be decisive, for Selimus, Acomat, Corcut, Bajazet, are characters so well rounded and individual as to seem beyond Greene's power. Professor Gayley declines to think Greene the author of Selimus. Allott, he says, is not trustworthy, for he assigns to Greene passages which do not belong to him two, for instance, which belong to Spenser. Professor Gayley fails to see in Selimus any traces of Greene's diction, sentiment, poetic quality, or rhythmical form. As a suggestion, he proposes Lodge's name in connection with Selimus, on the grounds of relationship to Civill War and Mucedorus. M Chap. LIX., p. 642. "Of the Education of a Prince in Good Manners and Conditions." * Eng. Stud., Vol. 37, p. 359, note. 186 ROBERT GREENE Collins does not print Selimus in his edition of Greene, inasmuch as he finds Grosart's arguments unsatisfactory. The latest word on the subject is that in the Cambridge History of English Literature, 25 of which the material is taken from an unpublished article by Mr. F. G. Hubbard. Mr. Hubbard pointed out (1) that the comic scene in Locrine which is paralleled in Selimus stands alone in the latter play, while in Locrine there is much low humor of the same kind in connection with the same characters; (2) that Locrine pre ceded Selimus because Locrine has many lines from Spenser's Complaints not found in Selimus; but that with one possible exception, Selimus has nothing from the Complaints not to be found in Locrine; (3) that, moreover, one of these bor rowed lines in Selimus is followed by five other lines not in the Complaints but in Locrine; that Locrine and Selimus are not by the same man, since Selimus has borrowings from the Faerie Queene while Locrine has none [Collins believed that Locrine and Selimus were written by the same man]; (5) that Locrine was not completed before 1591, when the Complaints were published [As a matter of fact the Complaints circulated widely before their publica tion]; (6) that a line near the end of Act V., "One mischief follows on another's neck," is apparently copied from Tan- cred and Gismond (published 1591, with preface dated August 8) a line not given in the earlier MS. version of the play; (7) that since Selimus is later than Locrine (which is later than August 8, 1591), and since Greene died September 3, 1592, the issue of Greene's authorship is brought within narrow limits. Such at length are the arguments for and against the attribution of Selimus to Greene. The only conclusion which can be justified, so far as I can see, is that the problem has not been, probably cannot be, settled. 25 Vol. V., p. 96. THE PLAYS 187 With regard to George-a-Greene, which has been included among Greene's plays by Dyce, Grosart, Collins, and Dick inson, the problem is quite as complex as that of Selimus. No one of these men is satisfied with the grounds on which he included the play, but no one is quite content to leave the play out. It may be well to state the situation. On the title-page of the 1599 edition are the following manuscript notes: Written by ... a minister who acted the piners pt in it himselfe. Teste W: Shakespeare. Ed. Juby saith that the play was made be Ro. Greene. These notes were made by different persons. The hand writing is of the style of the Elizabethan age. Upon the value of these memoranda the validity of the ascription of the play to Greene partly depends. And it can be said at once that, so far as that validity is concerned, all scholars are agreed that the notes are of decidedly questionable worth. In the first place it can only be assumed that they are the notes of contemporaries; and in the second place it can only be assumed that they are genuine. As Mr. Greg says, no one can judge without examining the original notes, and without being familiar with the Ireland and Collier forgeries. 26 The attribution of Georges-Greene to Greene on the basis of the notes is, therefore, made on very slender evidence. The other basis for belief or disbelief in Greene's author ship has been found within the play itself. The internal evidence has been variously interpreted. Mertins 27 thought the play was not by Greene. It lacks, Mertins says, the pompous style and classical references, the imaginative ele ments, the poetical diction, the Latin, French, and Italian phrasing, the unusual word compounds, the ornate epithets, * See Appendix II., where these notes enter into the discussion of whether or not Greene was at one time a minister. 27 Robert Greene and the Play of George-a-Greene. Breslau, 1885. 188 ROBERT GREENE so common in Greene's other plays. The grammatical forms are different from Greene's; the meter is unlike that of Greene's plays; as for the similarity between George- a-Greene and Friar Bacon, that may be due merely to the similarity in material. To most of Mertins' objections, Professor Collins agrees. Yet he believes the play to be Greene's, and he includes it in the edition of Greene's works. The play is built, he says, as Greene built plays; the types of character are like Greene's; there are similarities between this play and Friar Bacon and James IV. And so Professor Collins, "though the evidence ... is far from conclusive," thinks the play should be given to Greene because "there is no dramatist of those days known to us to whom it could be assigned with more probability." Professor Gayley 28 is non-committal. He finds in George- a-Greene the skilful plot, the popular material, such as Greene used in Friar Bacon. And he finds here and there a rhetorical style like Greene's. But he does not find "the curious imagery, the precious visualizing, the necromantic monstrous toys," nor the "conscious affectation of uncon scious art." The conversations, while sometimes like Greene's, are not on the whole equal to his "humorous indirection and his craft." Thus the matter stands. Henslowe records five performances of the play between December 29, 1593, and January 22, 1594. But the first entry is not marked as that of a new play. The title-page states that the play had been acted by the Sussex company, a company which is not known to have acted at that time any of Greene's unquestioned plays, although the Sussex men soon afterwards joined Greene's company in the production of Friar Bacon. 28 Rep. Eng. Com. p. 418. THE PLAYS 189 George-a-Greene was entered to Cuthbert Burbie on April 1, 1595. The earliest known copy is that in the library of the Duke of Devonshire, dated 1599, and uniform as to printer, publisher, year, vignette, and motto with Orlando Furioso. As to date, nothing is known. If the play is by Greene, it belongs undoubtedly just before or just after James IV. The only indication of date within the play is that in line 42 the Earl of Kendal says, "Lest I, like martial Tamburlaine, lay waste Their bordering countries." (C) GREENE AS A DRAMATIST It was following fashion which turned Greene to the writ ing of plays. Just as the popularity of Euphues started him off on the production of Mamillia, and as Daphnis and Chloe gave the impulse for Menaphon with its pastoralism, so the great success of Tamburlaine was sufficient to focus Greene's attention. Before the day of Marlowe and Kyd, great progress had been made in both tragedy and comedy; but the evolution, even after the building of the theaters, had been gradual. With the exception of Lyly no man stands out in sharp dis tinction from his fellows as having made this or another contribution to the art of play-writing. The plays written before 1585, for the most part, gave an impression of their impersonality. Not that they were authorless, but that they are today significant more as types and as mani festations of varied dramatic interests than as products of individual men possessed of individual personalities. It is not remarkable, therefore, that Greene, busy with the exploitation of prose narrative, and engrossed in the discovery of his own powers in the writing of fiction, and eager in his inculcation of new standards of refinement, 190 ROBERT GREENE should not have turned to the writing of plays before he did. Nor is it remarkable that he turned when he did. How ever closely engaged in one kind of activity, Greene was never so indifferent to contemporary literary movements as not to be aware at once of the entrance of a new force within the sphere of popular favor. And so it was that the plays of Kyd and Marlowe at once caught his eye. It has often been remarked that Greene's plays fall into two distinct classes, his failures and his successes. The explication of this one fact involves what is essential to an understanding of Greene as a dramatist. There is Alphonsus, which attempts the bloody deeds of Mars; and there is Friar Bacon, which invites refreshing drinks of milk in the dairy-house at Fressingfield. Both classes spring from very definite qualities of Greene's mind; and both are of necessity what they are. Greene's first play was a direct outgrowth from Tanibur- laine. Because of that fact, it was a failure. Tamburlaine is essentially a play dependent upon the character of its hero to sustain interest. The march of events, as the Scythian shepherd advances to his kingship of the world conquest following conquest, has no dramatic interest in itself as compared with the interest with which we behold the revela tion of character which those events show. The action of Tamburlaine, lacking in complexity and in unity, forms only a succession of gorgeous scenes bound together by a unity of characterization, and supported by the power of the im agination with which the hero is conceived. Indomitable ambition, unflinching will, unlimited self-confidence working themselves out to their desired end constitute the theme of the play, and give English literature the great prototype of Richard III., Macbeth, and Milton's Satan. Tamburlaine is a tremendous personality swept on by his lust for power. In his greatness, he is a hard character to imitate. THE PLAYS 191 Another characteristic of Marlowe's play made it dis tinctive. Abandoning rhyme, Marlowe chose blank verse, and in so doing was free to let his fancy run. He was able to infuse into the verse of the play something of the spirit of his protagonist. Thus form and matter harmonized, and combined to make the effect, the Marlowesque, full of vaunting thoughts proclaimed through sonorous and high- sounding language. The sublimity of Tamburlaine gave it power, the power which Greene felt, but could not copy. Alphonsus whether Alphonsus V., king of Aragon, Sicily, and Naples (died 1454) or Alphonsus I., king of Ara gon and Navarre (died 1134), is not quite clear is Tambur laine emasculated. So far as the arrangement of scenes is concerned, Greene's play is as good as Marlowe's. We learn of the young man's plans to regain his father's throne, of the successive steps in the realization of ambition, of Amurack's opposition to the conquest, of Alphonsus' fall ing in love with the Sultan's daughter. Throughout the play, incident follows incident naturally and effectively. The trouble with the play is not in the development of the action. It is rather in the fact that Greene was not able to grasp the conception of the forceful personality necessary to the success of a play which depended so largely upon that conception of character. The abundance of strength, the buoyancy of spirit, with which Tamburlaine compels interest, were not in Greene's power to portray. Tamburlaine was the very worst model Greene could have chosen. The weakness of Alphonsus is very apparent. The line of action, though developing naturally, falls into two parts. There is, in reality, the play of Alphonsus, followed by the play of Amurack the Turk. The lack of unity in action results in lack of unity of character. Alphonsus, nominally the hero, shares his prominence with his opponent. Indeed Amurack is given the more prominence. He has the same 192 ROBEKT GREENE elements which Alphonsus has; and in addition he is en grossed in his troubles with his wife and daughter, and he is involved in various kinds of magic incantations which give a clap-trap interest to his career. But the lack of unity in Alphonsus is of no great conse quence in view of the play's failure to convince. Even the faintness and the inconsistencies of characterization are ab sorbed in this fundamental defect. Marlowe's Tamburlaine gathers momentum as it goes, a huge ball rolling faster and faster, moved by an invisible force within. Alphonsus gathers no momentum at all. Always it is Greene, behind, pushing with all his might, and laboriously trying to move an immovable weight. He makes much noise, and you would think his exertions effective if it were not that the ball is ever in the same place. Greene's imagination could not encompass intense char acter. Neither could his poetic fancy attain the necessary height. Nowhere in the play is there a passage which so combines poetry and passion as any random passage in the work of Marlowe. "Slash off his head! as though Albinius' head Were then so easy to be slashed off: In faith, sir, no; when you are dead and gone, I hope to flourish like the pleasant spring." ACT II., Sc. 2. "As for this carping girl, Iphigena, Take her with thee to bear thee company, And in my land I rede be seen no more, For if you do, you both shall die therefore." ACT II., Sc. 2. "Pagan, I say thou greatly art deceiv'd: I clap up fortune in a cage of gold, To make her turn her wheel as I think best; And as for Mars whom you do say will change, He moping sits behind the kitchen-door, Prest at command of every scullion's mouth, THE PLAYS 193 Who dares not stir, nor once to move a whit, For fear Alphonsus then should stomach it." ACT IV., Sc. 3. Some critics have said that Alphonsus is not an imita tion at all that it was not meant as imitation, but as parody. Marlowe had had one hero. Greene would have two. Tamburlaine had met with no opposition. In the parody, let there be two conquering boastful heroes bump ing their heads together and endeavoring to beat each other's brains out. Or, say, it would be as if one should turn from admiring a fine specimen of a cock, alone in his splendor, to the spectacle of that same fowl with bloody head and ruffled feathers, engaged in the most ridiculous of contests, a rooster fight. I do not believe that Alphonsus is a parody. A parody is either humorous or satirical. Now Alphonsus is not obvi ously humorous. And it is not satirical. To interpret it as such is to misunderstand Greene. Even the Quippe for an Upstart Courtier is not satirical, abundant as its possi bilities for satire are. Alphonsus is a bad play, but not because it is poor satire. There is a better explanation. Experimenter though he was, Greene was no critic. He seems never to have learned what he could not do. In the mass of his work there is good and bad mingled all together. When Greene took up his pen it was with no discrimination. . His instinct, not his judgment, is to thank for what is good. His misdirected effort is to blame for what is bad. Alphonsus was the outcome of misapplied energy. There was no par ody about it. Tamburlaine was popular. Greene, with the impulse derived from his ever wishing to follow a leader, attempted a play of the same kind, and produced one of the worst of the many bad Elizabethan dramas. Orlando Furioso is the dramatization of the incident in Ariosto's Romance in which Orlando goes mad through love 194 ROBERT GREENE of Angelica and through jealousy of his supposedly success ful rival. At the palace of Marsilius, emperor of Africa, various suitors are urging their suit for the hand of Angelica. Orlando is successful. Sacripant desires Angelica and plots to secure her. He bids his servant carve the names of Angelica and Medor on the trees. Orlando, believing the treachery of Angelica, goes mad, and creates the famous scenes of entering upon the stage "with a leg on his neck" and of ranging through the woods saying "Woods, trees, leaves; leaves, trees, woods." Angelica is banished for her supposed unfaithfulness. In the woods she meets Orlando, who does not recognize her. After a time Melissa, an enchantress, restores Orlando's wits. There is much fighting "they fight a good while, and then breathe," Angelica is restored to her home, and everything ends well. This play has been interpreted as a parody on The Spanish Tragedy. Greene, it is said, was satirizing the use of mad ness on the stage, an element in the drama made very popu lar by Kyd's play. The mad Orlando wandering through the forest is a burlesque on the raving Hieronimo. And "woods, trees, leaves" is only ridicule of the Grand Mar shal's discovery of his dead son's body, and other similar scenes. Orlando is universally regarded as a poor play; some are inclined to regard its badness as intentional. I do not agree to any interpretation which regards the play as a parody. I think that it is a failure; and a failure for the same reason that Alphonsus is. To portray insanity well on the stage is a great imaginative achievement, as King Lear proves. The imagination required is of a different kind, from that required to produce Tamburlaine. Less sweeping but none the less intense. Intensity, keen insight without his being aware of the deficiency were what Greene lacked. Orlando Furioso is an imitation just as Alphonsus is. Both THE PLAYS 195 plays were meant to be heroic. Both are unpardonable fail ures. It is hard upon Greene to say so. But there is no justice in trying to excuse failure under the name of parody. Better to say at once that Greene was trying to do what could not do. Friar Bacon was written in emulation of Dr. Faustus. The play is both a failure and a success. Inevitably so: it is a combination of two elements. There is the story of Bacon and the brazen head which he had constructed how he had pursued learning and had become a powerful magician, how he had made the head which should enable him to encircle England with a wall of brass, how Miles, the dull servant, was set to watch, how the devil came and marred all. There is also the story of Margaret, the maid of Fressingfield, with whom Prince Edward fell in love but whom he relinquished in favor of his friend who had been sent to woo for him. This second story is a development of the hint in the old Friar Bacon ballad of the maid who had two suitors, and who preferred the lowly one to the one of high degree. With regard to Friar Bacon himself, Greene was endeav oring to copy the figure of Faustus, all-wise, all-powerful magician. He did not succeed. There is nothing sublime about Bacon, nothing dignified. His sorcery is nothing but clap-trap; his contests with Vandermast only stage show, poor spectacle at that. Even the brazen head, as manifes tation of Bacon's power, is foolish, however much a source of comedy it may be when seen through the eyes of Miles. Friar Bacon bears the same relation to Dr. Faustus that Alphonsus bears to Tamburlaine. Friar Bacon, Alphonsus, Orlando, all demand greatness of imagination; and Greene had no greatness to bestow. All three are, therefore, not so much characters which are true but only faintly por trayed, as they are mechanical figures poorly constructed. 196 ROBERT GREENE If Friar Bacon were just a play with a conjurer as hero (as Greene meant it to be), it would belong with Alphonsus and Orlando among the things that would better not have been. It is, however, successful. Greene found in the old \ ballad upon which he based his play the hint of a story j which he developed. It is this story, originally incidental, which differentiates Friar Bacon from the plays that had preceded it. For the story and the character of Margaret and her lover predominate over the story and character of Friar Bacon. In the success of the love story, and in the fusing of it with the story of Bacon, the weakness of the magician is unheeded. Emphasizing the love story as he did, Greene became for the first time original in the drama. Marlowe had been his model in the earlier plays, and Marlowe had provided the starting-point for Friar Bacon. But Friar Bacon the Friar Bacon we remember belongs to Greene alone. For the very reason that there is nothing of Marlowe in it, it is in a new class. Greene could not copy Marlowe, but he could write plays of his own, plays distinctively his own. James IV. is a continuation of the work begun in Friar Bacon. It is a dramatization of a tale in Cinthio's Heca- tommithi (3:1), made with considerable skill and some changes from the source. 29 James IV. of Scotland is mar ried to Dorothea, the daughter of the king of England. He immediately confesses his love for the Countess Ida, a confession overheard by Ateukin. Ateukin devises plots. 29 The greatest change is in the opening of the play. The long process of the development of the false love is dispensed with, and in the opening of the play James is shown to be in love with Ida at the time of his marriage with Dorothea. In the play Ateukin overhears the king's statement of love rather than hears of it, through some one else as in the novel. Greene's changes, on the whole, make for con densation and dramatic effectiveness. THE PLAYS 197 Dorothea is at length persuaded of her husband's faith lessness and flees in disguise, accompanied by her dwarf, Nano. James hires an assassin who attempts to put Doro thea to death. The king of England arrives with an army. James is defeated. Dorothea comes from her disguise. James is sorry for his misdeeds and everything ends happily. This play, too, is free from the influence of Marlowe, and like Friar Bacon it is successful. Failure and success, then, were Greene's results. The cause for the failure has been shown to be Greene's lack of an intense imagination and of an elevation of style which could enable him to follow the model created by Marlowe. It remains to analyze the cause of Greene's success in the plays in which he displayed his originality. A study of Greene as a dramatist is analogous to a study of him as a novelist. Alphonsus and Orlando Furioso corre spond to the tales of Valdracko and Arbasto; Friar Bacon and James IV. correspond to Menaphon and Pandosto the former failures, and the latter successes. The qualities which make Friar Bacon and James IV. good plays are, therefore, the same qualities which make Menaphon and Pandosto good novels. The success in all cases is due to the charm with which the story is told. Whether in novel or in play, when Greene had a theme centering around a heroine rather than around a hero, he was at his best. Greene was not effeminate. But he did have a delicacy about him, a refinement, which somehow was displayed in two charming ways. In the first place, his imagination when dealing with women characters was able to bring forth creatures for whom his reader can feel genuine interest and sympathy. I do not mean that Greene created great women characters; but he did create wholesome women. In the second place, Greene could blow through his pages the freshness of the out-of-doors. 198 ROBERT GREENE Medea, Iphigena, Melissa, Angelica, all these are worth less figures. But three of the women in Greene's plays are of importance. These are Margaret, Ida, and Dorothea. Ida is the least fully protrayed. But she is a fine character. Whether at the court or on her porch in the country she is the same, firm in her morality to resist the love of the king, bright, clean-minded, calm, serious. Dorothea is descended from the type of faithful women who are true in the face of all disaster. When she is told of her husband's falseness, she refuses to believe. She even maintains that the letter is forged which contains the order for her assassination. But Dorothea is not an abstraction of faithfulness. She is human in her faith, she is virtuous, she is lovely. Trem blingly she sets off in disguise to avoid danger. Affectionate toward the little Nano who accompanies her in her distress, ready to forgive wrong before forgiveness is asked, beloved by all who surround her, she is an admirable woman. Margaret is Greene's best character; and she is charming indeed. Margaret is a lodge-keeper's daughter, young, vivacious, witty, beautiful. She is clearly portrayed. She arouses interest as she goes about her work, as she gives the prince a drink from her dairy, as she goes with the young country folk to the fair, as she talks with Lacy and falls in love with the dashing courtier. She is faithful to the man of her choice even though her other suitor is the king's own son. When Lacy's letter comes, telling that he no longer loves her, she decides to be a nun; and if you do not know that so beautiful a play must perforce end happily, you would feel sorry for her as she makes her adieu, "Now farewell, world, the engine of all woe! Farewell to friends and father! welcome Christ! Adieu to dainty robes! this base attire Better befits an humble mind to God Than all the show of rich habiliments. THE PLAYS 199 Farewell, O love, and, with fond love, farewell, Sweet Lacy, whom I loved once so dear! " Strangely inconsistent is her renouncing of the convent when she learns that Lacy has but tried her love. Yet happily so. And beautiful is her joy in the new clothes with which she decks herself for her marriage, to go off to the court to live. Pure, unspoiled, fresh, Margaret is a rare creation. Lovely as those heroines are, and important as they are in the development of Elizabethan drama, the figure of Nano is, Professor Woodberry thinks, the real connecting link between Greene and Shakespeare. Certainly there is much about the dwarf which is of interest. He does stand in a very striking way between the Vice of the moralities and early comedies on the one hand, and Launce and Touch stone on the other. Yet he is significant for his own sake. Nano is the product of the same imagination which pro duced the delightful women. He is delicately drawn. His little body, his lightness of foot, his sprightliness, his wit, his loyalty to his mistress, make him a lovable personality. Yet personality is scarcely the correct word. Our affection for Nano is not that for a fellow human being. It is rather that given to a pet or a living big doll. " What wouldn't one give to have him in a box and take him out to talk!" as Mrs. Carlyle might say. The figures of Ida, Dorothea, Margaret, Nano, do much to give charm to Greene's successful plays, and constitute no small part of Greene's contribution to the drama. The second element which made Greene's success was the out- of-doors which is to be found most delightfully in Friar Bacon. The surcharged atmosphere of courts and battle fields clears away for the calm air of Fressingfield and the activity of the Harleston Fair, where Margaret shines " amongst the cream bowls" and where cheese is safely "set upon the racks." 200 ROBERT GREENE "Well, if you chance to come by Fressingfield, Make but a step into the Keeper's Lodge; And such poor fare as woodmen can afford, Butter and cheese, cream and fat venison, You shall have store, and welcome therewithal." i Freshness and delicacy are Greene's contributions, mani fested in the brightness of the out-of-doors, the idyllic country life, the attractive women of his comedies. The rant and superficiality of the earlier plays are Greene's, too. They are a part of his work, and reveal a definite side of his make-up. But they are not contributions. Marlowe had made an advance. For Greene to have copied Marlowe even to have done well what Marlowe had done would have been no addition. To have copied Marlowe and to have failed, is loss. In the later plays, however, there is originality and gain. CONCLUSION IT cannot but be, with all the tangled threads of discussion and the intricate analyses, that the idea of Greene emerges somewhat blurred and indistinct. I propose, then, as shortly as possible, to bring together the results of the foregoing chapters into a summary. Such a process may perhaps make the portrait a little clearer. I have presented Greene as, fundamentally, a man of letters. To this one fact all other facts are subordinate. ( The statement that he wrote for his living explains Greene as fully, I think, as any single statement can. It was this keeping his finger on the pulse of the day, as it were, which determined the course of his career and which developed his characteristics both personal and literary. Greene produced many works of many kinds. Beginning with the didactic narrative of Lyly, he changed, as fashions changed, in order to follow closely the general trend of Elizabethan fiction. Frame-work tales, romances, prodigal stories, repentances, social pamphlets both serious and not serious, he wrote and arranged under one or another of his three mottoes. And because no one of those forms died out hi his lifetime he continued occasionally to publish pamphlets of an earlier kind after he had for the most part proceeded to a later one. Once Marlowe and Kyd had drawn his attention to the drama, he began to write plays. Whenever he saw an opportunity, in season or out, he was ready in a moment with something for the market. Hasty in publication, and desiring nothing beyond the immediate sale, Greene took no thought for finishing his work to a 201 202 ROBERT GREENE degree of perfection, or for removing from it flaws that might easily have been removed. Certain qualities of style he j wanted it to have for it to be successful. Further than that there was no need to go. Much of it, consequently, is slip shod. It could not well have been otherwise in view of the rapidity with which Greene wrote it and of the end he had in mind. There is about it, however, that which deserves praise. Greene, for all his making no attempt at " winning credite," had enough of real ability in him to impart signif icance to most of his writings, whether in the way of intro ducing continental ideas or of creating narrative. To us, much of the culture is commonplace and dull. We are no longer interested, except in a historical way, in the new ideas on manners and speech which were of so much concern to the Elizabethans. But in the narratives we can still find some pleasure. In all of them Greene manifests skill in getting the story along. Slow as the action appears to be, with the obstructing speeches and passions and tears, it is, in truth, usually swift. Characterization is less strong. There are few people hi Greene's works whom we remember for the vividness with which they are conceived. Some of them have a delightful air of refinement and charm; some of them are sufficiently distinct for us to know them and to become interested in their welfare as characters. But none , are great. It cannot be said that there is an evolution in the works of Greene as regards the kinds of pamphlets. His romances are not a higher literary form than the frame-work tales, nor did the former arise out of the latter. The prodigal stories, again, were a progress in time only, and developed from an interest not associated with the romances. The conny-catching pamphlets came from no broader attitude toward life than did any of the works which had preceded them. CONCLUSION 203 The earlier novels are encumbered with all the Euphuistic / adornment that Greene could well bestow. The later ones are comparatively simple. The difference results partly, of course, from the gradual turn of the age in the direction of simplicity; but it seems to me that there was also a growth in the art of expression by Greene himself. While he kept morality as the pretext for his writing, he more and more appreciated the story for its own sake. His sen tences became shorter, and grammatical to a degree unknown in the beginning. The style was more compact, more direct,^, and, to us at least, more effective. These are the main points about what and how Greene wrote. There is one other. Back of the matter and the method there was the man. We began with the man, and^/ we shall end with him. If we do not approach Greene in the right way, he is exceed ingly tiresome. There is much about him that is superficial. If we cannot see beyond the didacticism and the literary ' mannerisms, speeches, letters, long-drawn courtships, and the rest of it Greene is very stupid. And his personality has no attraction for us if we are wholly unsympathetic for the young wits who attempted to flourish in Bohemia, who lived their short lives and died untimely deaths. But if our nature is not too unlike his, we find much that interests us. When we come to know him, Greene appeals 1 to our imagination. About the idea of him in his green | cloak, his hair a little over-long, his reddish, pointed beard j "whereat you might hang a jewel" perhaps a slightly fantastic figure if we judge him closely about this pic ture, we gather the characteristics which Greene had, and we endeavor to recreate him in our mind's eye. We think of his carelessness and his lack of providence, his wilful ways, his separation from his wife, and his last thought of her. We j remember his bravado, a certain little swagger in his walk, 204 ROBERT GREENE a pride in his work that he could never quite down. And his sentimentality, his aphorisms, his tendency to preach, all these we put into the picture. We pardon the tediousness. We take pleasure in the charm and refinement which is present in his romances and his poems, and in the freshness of his better plays. The illus trative tales of the conny-catchers give us keen delight. But we must have humor enough not to interpret them too seriously. About our whole conception of Greene there should, indeed, be something humorous. We need to laugh at his oddities rather than to be provoked to indignation by them. Greene is not a man to whom life unfolds infinite possi bilities. He has no visions of greatness. Yet he does not tell us to the contrary. His interest is in the affair of the day; his trade is his chief concern. But he never cracks a smile as he sets about to expose the vices of London, never acknowledges for a moment that he is not the social investi gator he pretends to be. He publishes stories of repentance, and leaves it to us to discover that repentance is only his necessary machinery. He lies continually. We cannot accept a word he says without the support of our own judgment. It is not the kind of lying, however, that we censure harshly; it does nobody harm. We are inclined to be a little out of temper sometimes; we wish he were more trustworthy, for it would save us trouble in understanding him. But after all, it's pretense and we must recognize it as such. Greene is interested in appearances. He does not care about the real worth of what he writes. If it looks well, he is satisfied. Sincerity is not among his ideals. He gathers up all sorts of information from widely scattered sources, he attributes quotations now to one man and now to another, he repeats himself, he is inconsistent over and CONCLUSION 205 over again. None of these things disturbs his peace of mind. He says nothing about them; he seems to be unaware that they exist. So he goes calmly on. Naive we might almost think him to be if we did not know otherwise. There is a dark side, too. Part of the repentance was genuine. Although we may laugh up our sleeve at the childish faith in the credulity of man, we cannot but pity Greene that he was driven so hard. "This booke hath many things, which I would not have written on my Tombe," he said in one of his Prefaces; 1 and the cry cannot fail to reach us. The works had not been bad; nor the life, it may be, so bad as he thought. But the anguish for them both was not lessened thereby. Pity does not grant a man a place in literature. He must deserve it on other grounds. Greene's place is secure to him for the historical reason that he was one of the Eliza bethans. It is secure also through the charm of his poems and romances, and through the clever social pamphlets. Finally, it is secure through the personality of the man himself. 1 Vol. XII., p. 196. APPENDIX I TABULATION OF THE FRAME-WORK TALES Planetomachia, 1585. VENUS TRAGEDIE. Italianesque, on the model of the novella. Analyzed in the text, p. 29. SATURNES TRAGEDIE. To show the evil influence of love. The story of Rhodope and Psamneticus of Memphis, the courtezan who became queen. Penelopes Web, 1587. FIRST TALE. To show wifely obedience. A queen put away and taken again. There are speeches (p. 172, p. 173, Vol V.) practically like some in Saturnes Tra- gedie (p. 125, p. 127, Vol. V). The situation is much the same. There is no doubt that Greene had the earlier story in mind when he wrote the latter. This tale is from Cintio, III, 5. SECOND TALE. To illustrate chastity. A woman loved by a nobleman is imprisoned by him. She escapes and joins her husband. The nobleman repents and gives them riches. THIRD TALE. To praise silence in women. A king gives his crown to the son whose wife is most virtuous, that is, best able to keep silence. Censure to Philautus, 1587. ULISSES TALE. A woman elopes with a gentleman of the court whom she later poisons. Fearing treachery in her husband's reconciliation, she kills herself. 207 208 ROBERT GREENE HELENUS TRAGEDIE. How a queen outwitted her enemy who was in possession of her city. HECTORS TRAGEDIE. To illustrate fortitude hi a soldier. The eldest of three brothers defends his crown against the rebellion of his united younger brothers. ACHILLES TRAGEDIE. On liberality. Roxader of Athens on account of his liberality was able to save his native city and to be made dictator. Perymedes, 1588. FIRST TALE. Story of Marcella and Prestynes, an imita tion of Decameron, II. 6. The tale of a separation of husband and wife and children by Fortune. Of their reunion. SECOND TALE. A romantic story of a poor man and a rich girl. The man goes away to make his fortune. She follows, but is shipwrecked. She is cast upon the same shore. He has become famous. They are married and go back to their home. The story is from Decam eron, V. 2. THIRD TALE. A young woman loves a poor man; her father has another suitor selected. It happens that the father and daughter and selected suitor are ban ished. They lead humble lives. The poor man follows them, wins renown, and marries the girl. Alcida, 1588. FIRST TALE. Story of Fiordespine, who for her haughti ness in love was turned into a marble pillar. SECOND TALE. Story of Eriphila, who for her fickleness was turned into a camelion. (Some passages identical with passages in Mamillia.) THIRD TALE. Marpesia, for her inability to keep a secret, was turned into a rose-tree. TABULATION OF THE FRAMEWORK TALES 209 Ciceronis Amor, 1589. THE SHEEPHEARDES TALE. A pastoral. How Phillis and Coridon made up and were married. Orpharion, 1590. ORPHEUS TALE. Tale of Lydia, from Ariosto, 34:7-43. ARIONS TALE. How Argentina preserved her chastity by promising to consent to her lover after he had been confined for three days without food, and how the lover broke the agreement by first eating meat. Mourning Garment, 1590. THE SHEPHEARDS TALE. A pastoral. How Alexis aban doned Rosamond for Phillida, and how Rosamond died of grief. Whereupon Alexis hanged himself upon a willow-tree. Francescos Fortunes, 1590. THE HOSTS TALE. The shepherdess Mirimida had three suitors. Letters from them all arrived at the same instant. She appointed a meeting with them all. When they had promised to abide by her decision, she told them all nay. Farewell to Follie, 1591. PERATIOS TALE. Tale of Pride. Vadislaus, king of Buda, was deposed for his pride and tyranny, and went forth to wander as a beggar. COSIMOS TALE. Of Lust. Story of Semiramis. BERARDINOS TALE. Of Gluttony. A poor man unjustly judged by the drunken ruler, invited the ruler to a feast. While the ruler was drunk the poor man built a scaf fold and invited the citizens. When the ruler found that he was to be hanged, he hanged himself. 210 ROBERT GREENE Groatsworth of Wit, 1592. LAMILIAS TALE. An animal story with a hidden meaning. Accounts for the enmity between dogs and badgers. ROBERTOS TALE. Of the fabliau type. Story of the farmer bridegroom, who is cheated out of his wife and forced to marry another girl. Vision, 1590-92? CHAUCERS TALE. Of the fabliau type. Analyzed in the text, p. 28. GOWERS TALE. A tale of jealousy. A man who has put away his wife on account of jealousy, is cured of his jealousy by a magician who transforms him into a young man. In this shape he tries his wife's faith, and find ing her true takes her back again. APPENDIX II MISCONCEPTIONS CONCERNING GREENE THERE are a few matters which remain to be treated here. These, perhaps, demand an apology for being con sidered at all. At least, if they cannot be totally ignored they are no longer of sufficient importance to warrant their inclusion elsewhere than in an appendix. Although unmis takably founded on errors, they have so continued to be discussed seriously by Greene's biographers as almost to make them traditional, and a discussion of them unavoidable. I. One of these misapprehensions is that of Greene's connection with the church. Since the days of Dyce various biographers, Bernhardi, Fleay, and Grosart, have argued that Greene was at one time a minister. Fuller investigation has shown that he was not. The situation may be briefly sum marized as follows: 1. In 1576, a Robert Grene was presented by the Queen to the rectory of Walkington in Yorkshire. 1 There is no reason, however, on the basis of this fact, for assuming that Greene was connected with the church, inasmuch as he was at that tune a freshman in the University. 2. Greene cannot have been he who was Vicar of Tolles- bury in Essex from June 19, 1584, to February 17, 1586; 2 1 Rymer's Foedra, Vol. XV, p. 765. * The entry (in Newcourt's Repertarium, Vol. II, p. 602, which uses as its authority Bp. Grindal's Register, fol. 213; fol. 225) is as follows: "Tollsbury. Rob. Grene cl. 19 Jun. 1584, per mort. Searles. Earth. Moody, cl. 17 Feb. 1585, per resign. Grene." 211 212 ROBERT GREENE for that period in Greene's life was, by his own account, filled with other events. 3. He cannot, as Mr. Fleay thought, 3 be identified, as Robert the parson, with the Robert Persj or Rupert Persten who was with the Earl of Leicester's troupe on the Continent from December 1585, to July, 1587. We have no evidence that Greene formed a part of this troupe. It is, moreover, useless to attempt to make parson out of the Persj or Persten as it appears in the Saxon and Danish records. Besides, if Greene was Vicar of Tollesbury, as Fleay said he was, he must have been abroad as a member of a troupe of players during three months of the time that he was preaching in Essex. 4. Greene himself does not speak of having been a minister. Nor do any of his contemporaries, Nashe, Burbye, Dekker, Heywood, Chettle, not even the arch-enemy, Gabriel Harvey. 5. A passage in the Epistle Dedicatorie to the anon ymous tract Marline Mar-Sixtus has been taken to refer to Greene as a minister. This tract was issued in 1591, and was re-issued with change of date only in 1592. The epistle is signed R. W. 4 and clearly refers to Greene in the words about those who "are faine to put on mourning garment, and cry, Farewell." But the words, "I loathe to speake it, every red-nosed rimester is an author," whether they refer to Greene or not, are those from which the misunderstand ing has come. It is, though, a misunderstanding which is removed at once when the word is seen to be not minister, as Dr. Grosart read, but rimester. 6. Much has been made, at times, of certain manuscript 3 Life of Shakespeare pp. 92, 105; Hist. Stage, p. 82. 4 This Epistle is reprinted in Notes and Queries, 10th Ser., No. 2, Dec. 17, 1904; and the suggestion is there made that R. W. was Richard Willes. MISCONCEPTIONS CONCERNING GREENE 213 notes on the title-page of the 1599 edition of The Pinner of Wakefield. These notes are: (a.) " Written by ... a minister who acted the piner's pt in it himselfe. Teste W. Shakespeare." (6) "Ed. Juby saith that the play was made by Ro. Greene." Reasoning on the evidence of these notes is unsound for it must be remembered, as Mr. Gayley well says, 8 "that both attributions are hearsay; that both notes are anon ymous, that one or both may be fraudulent; 6 that there is no certain proof that they were written by contempora ries; and that, unless their contents are shown to be accu rate as well as authentic, they do not connect any Robert Greene with the ministry." II. Another of the misapprehensions concerning Greene is that he was at one time an actor. That Greene was an actor was held particularly by Dyce and Fleay, the former of whom misinterpreted certain of Harvey's remarks about Greene's "wilde head, full of mad brain and a thousand crotchets;" the latter of whom was anxious to identify Greene the parson as an actor in Leicester's troupe. There is, however, no reason on the grounds taken by Dyce or Fleay, nor on any other grounds, for thinking that he was ever professionally an actor. Neither he nor any of his contemporaries says anything about it. III. That Greene was once studying to become a physi cian has often been stated in biographies of him. The basis of the statement has of course been the occurrence of the phrase " student in phisicke" on the title-page of Planeto- 1 Representative English Comedies, p. 401. 6 It seems good to call attention to a remark made by Mr. Greg in Mod. Lang. Rev. 1906, p. 244. He said, "One to be competent to judge (in regard to these manuscript notes) must examine the original notes, and also be familiar with the Ireland and the Collier forgeries." 214 ROBERT GREENE machia, 1585. But the presence of these words does not in any way warrant the assumption that Greene was a student of medicine. Inasmuch as Planetomachia is a pamphlet de signed to set forth the opposition of the planets and to be an exposition concerning their influence, it seems better to interpret the phisicke in the sense of natural philosophy, in which sense it is used, for example in Thomas Bowes' trans lation of Primaudaye's French Academy (1586) as "the studie of naturall things: metaphysycke, which is of super natural things;" and to believe that Greene used the word merely that he might speak with pretended authority on the subject of the stars. APPENDIX III EARLY ALLUSIONS TO GREENE IN the following pages no attempt is made to bring together all the early allusions to Greene. Only those are printed which seem to help in forming an estimate of how Greene was regarded by his contemporaries. 1. Letter by Christopher Bird. Aug. 29, 1592. Harvey's Works, Ed. Grosart. Vol. I, p. 160. "In steed of other novels, I sende you my opinion, in a plaine, but true Sonnet, upon the famous new worke, intituled, A Quippe for an upstart Courtier; or, forsooth, A quaint Dispute betweene Velvet-breeches, and Cloth-breeches; as fantasticall and fond a Dialogue, as I have scene: and for some Particulars, one of the most licentious, and in tolerable Invectives, that ever I read." A due Commendation of the Quipping Autor. Greene the Connycatcher, of this Dreame the Autor. For his dainty devise, deserveth the hauter. A rakehell: A makeshift: a scribling foole: A famous bayard, in Citty, and Schoole. Now sicke, as a Dog: and ever brainesick: Where such a raving, and desperate Dick? Sir reverence, A scurvy Master of Art. He sweared inough . . . Aunscornes ther Aunswere: and Envy Salutes With Shortest vowels, and with longest mutes. For farther triall, himself he referres To proofe, and sound judgment, that seldome erres. Now good Robin-good-fellow, and gentle Greene-sleeves, Give him leave to be quiet, that none aggreeves. 2. Harvey's The Second Letter. Sept. 5, 1592. My next businesse was to enquire after the famous Author: who was reported to lye dangerously sicke in a shoemakers house near Dow-gate: 215 216 ROBERT GREENE not of the plague, ... as a Gentleman saide, but of a surfett of pickle herringe and rennish wine, or as some suppose, of an exceeding feare. For in his extreamest want, he offered ten, or rather then faile twenty shillinges to the printer (a huge som with him at that instant) to leave out the matter of the three brothers, p. 162. I was suddainely certified, that the king of the paper stage (so the Gentleman tearmed Greene) had played his last part, & was gone to Tarleton: whereof I protest, I was nothing glad . . . because I was Deprived of that remedy in Law, that I entended against him, in the behalfe of my Father, p. 167. Looke for my Confutation of his fine Quippe . . . whome his sweete hostisse, for a tender farewell, crowned with a Garland of Bayes: to shew, that a tenth Muse honoured him more being deade, than all the nine honoured him alive, p. 172. Here lies the man, whom mistrisse Isam crown'd with bayes; Shee, shee, that joyed to heare, her Nightingales sweete layes. p. 1. 3. Harvey's Third Letter. Sept. 8 & 9, 1592. Thanke other for thy borrowed & filched plumes of some little Italianated bravery; & what remaineth, but flat Impudencie, and grosse Detraction: the proper ornaments of thy sweete utterance? p. 187. I am not to extenuate or prejudice his wit, which could not any way be great, though som way not the least of our vulgar writers, & mani-waies very ungracious: but who ever esteemed him either wise, or learned, or honest, or any way credible? p. 189. The second Toy of London; the Stale of Poules, the Ape of Euphues, the Vice of the Stage, the mocker of the simple world: . . . Peruse his famous bookes: and in steede of Omne tulit punctum, qui miscuit utile dulci (that forsooth was his professed Poesie) Loe a wilde head, ful of mad braine and a thousand crotchets: A scholler, a Discourser, a Courtier, a ruffian, a Gamester, a Lover, etc., p. 189. But I pray God they have not done more harme by corruption of manners, than by quickening of witte: and I would, some Buyers had either more Reason to discerne, or lesse Appetite to desire such Novels. p. 190. The Countesse of Pembrokes Arcadia is not greene inough for queasie stomackes, but they must have Greenes Arcadia: and I beleeve most eagerlie longed for Greenes Faerie^Queene. p. 191. EARLY ALLUSIONS TO GREENE 217 4. Chettle. Kind-harts Dreame. Dec. 8, 1592. Ed. Rimbault. Percy. Soc. Vol. 5. About three moneths since died M. Robert Greene, leaving many papers in sundry Booke sellers hands, among other his Groats-worth of wit, in which, a letter written to divers play-makers, is offensively by one or two of them taken . . . For the first, whose learning I reverence, and, at the perusing of Greenes booke, stroke out what then, in con science I thought, he in some displeasure writ: or had it been true, yet to publish it was intollerable: him I would wish to use me no worse than I deserve. I had onely in the copy this share, it was il written, as sometime Greenes hand was none of the best, ... To be briefe, I writ it over. p. iv. With him was the fifth, a man of indifferent yeares, of face amible, of body well proportioned, his attire after the habite of a scholler-like gentleman, onely his haire somewhat long, whome I supposed to be Robert Greene, maister of Artes. ... He was of singular pleasaunce, the verye supporter, and, to no mans, disgrace bee this intended, the only comedian, of a vulgar writer, in this country, p. 11. 5. Nasbe, Foure Letters Confuted. Jan. 12, 1593. Ed. McKerrow. Had hee liv'd, Gabriel, ... he would have made thee an example of ignominy to all ages that are to come, and driven thee to eate thy owne booke butterd, as I sawe him make an Apparriter once in a Tavern eate his citation, waxe and all, very handsomely serv'd twixt two dishes, p. 271. Is my stile like Greenes or my jeaste like Tarltonsf Do I talke of any counterfeit birds, or hearbs, or stones, or rake up any new-found poetry from under the wals of Troy? p. 319. Of force I must graunt that Greene came oftner in print than men of judgment allowed off, but neverthelesse he was a daintie slave to content the taile of a Tearme, and stuffe Serving mens pockets, p. 329. What Greene was, let some other answere for him as much as I have done; I had no tuition over him; he might have writ another Galatoeo of manners, for his manners everie time I came in his companie: I saw no such base shifting or abhominable villanie by him. Something there was which I have heard, not seene, that hee had not that regarde to his credite in, which had beene requisite he should, p. 330. 218 ROBERT GREENE 6. Greenes Newes both from Heaven and Hell, Anon. 1593. You have beene a busie f ellowe with youre penne, it was you that writ the Bookes of cony-catching, but sirra, could you finde out the base abuses of a company of petty varlets that lived by pilfering cosonages , and could you not as well have descryed the subtill and fraudulent practises of great conny-catchers, such as rides upon footeclothes, and sometime in coatches, and walkes the streets in long gownes and velvet coates? 7. Greenes Funeralls. 1594. By R. B. (A series of verses eulogizing Greene most highly. Valuable for its list of Greene's works.) 8. Warner. Pan his Syrinx. 1584. In 2nd Ed. 1597. A scholler better than my selfe on whose grave the grasse now groweth green, whom otherwise, though otherwise to me guiltie, I name not. (Warner is probably accusing Greene of plagiarism in that he took the plot of Never too Late from his Opheltes.) 9. Francis Meres. Palladis Tamia. 1598. An English Garner. Critical Essays and Literary Fragments, with an Introduction by J. Churton Collins. As Achilles tortured the dead body of Hector; and as Antonius and his wife Fulvia tormented the lifeless corpse of Cicero; so Gabriel Harvey hath showed the same inhumanity to Greene, that lies full low in his grave, p. 19. 10. Rowlands. Tis Merrie when Gossips Meete. 1602. Hunterian Club. A conference between a gentleman and an apprentice. PBENTICE What lacke you Gentle-man? See a new Booke new come foorth. Sir: buy a new Booke, sir. GENTLEMAN New Booke say'st: Faith I can see no prettie thing come foorth to my humours liking. There are some old Bookes that I have more delight in than in your new, if thou couldst help me to them. EARLY ALLUSIONS TO GREENE 219 PRENTICE Troth sir, I thinke I can shew you as many of all sorts as any in London, sir. GENTLEMAN Can'st helpe mee to all Greenes Bookes in one volume? But I will have them every one, not any wanting. PRENTICE Sir; I have the most part of them, but I lacke Conny-catching, and some halfe dozen more: but I thinke I could procure them. There be in the Towne I am sure can fit you. 11. Dekker. A Knights Conjuring. 1607. Percy So ciety. Ed. Rimbault, Vol. 5. p. 76. These were likewise carowsing to one another at the holy well, some of them singing Paeans to Apollo, som of them hymnes to the rest of the Goddes, whiTst Marlow, Greene, and Peele had got under the shades of a large vyne, laughing to see Nash (that was but newly come to their Colledge) still haunted with the sharpe and satyricall spirit that followed him here upon earth. 12. Overbury. Characters. Ed. Rimbault. 1890. p. 101. A Chamber-maide. She reads Greenes works over and over. 13. Taylor. The Water Poet. Works, Ed. 1630. Spenser Soc. 1869. Praise of Hemp-Seed, p. 72. In Paper many a Poet now survives Or else their lines had perish'd with their lives, Old Chaucer, Gower, and Sir Thomas More, Sir Philip Sidney who the Lawrell wore, Spencer, and Shakespeare did in Art exceil, Sir Edward Dyer, Greene, Nash, Daniel, Silvester Beaumont, Sir John Harington. 14. Heywood. Hierarchic of the Blessed Angels. 1635, p. 206. Greene who had in both Academies ta'en Degree of Master, yet could never gaine To be called more than Robin. BIBLIOGRAPHY ADAMS, JOSEPH QUINCY, Jr. Modern Philology vol. 3, p. 317, Jan., 1906. Greene's Menaphon and The Thracian Wonder. Mod. Lang. Notes, XXII. 225, Nov. 7, 1907. Robert Greene's ^ What Thing is Love? AMEIS, THEODORUS. Jahresbericht hohere Burgerschule zu Langensala. 1869. On Robert Greene's Dramatical Style. ARBER, EDWARD. A Transcript of the Stationers' Registers. 5 vols. Privately printed. 1875-1894. ATKINS, J. W. H. Cambridge History of English Literature. Chap. XVI. Vol. III., p. 886. Elizabethan Prose Fiction. AYDELOTTE, FRANK. Oxford Historical and Literary Studies. Vol. I. Elizabethan Rogues and Vagabonds. BAKER, G. P. Cambridge History of English Literature. Vol. V., Chap. VI., p. 136. The Plays of the University Wits. BERNHARDI, WOLFGANG. Robert Greenes Leben und Schriften. Eine historisch-kritische Studie. Leipzig, 1874. BOAS, F. S. Shakespeare and his Predecessors. New York, 1908. BODENSTEDT, F. M. VON. German Edition of Greene's Plays. Marlowe und Greene als Vorldufer Shakespeares. Brunswick, 1858. BOND, R. WARWICK. The Complete Works of John Lyly. 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1902. BRADLEY, HENRY. Mod. Lang. Rev. vol. I., 3, 208 flf. Some Textual Puzzles in Greene's Works. BRERETON, J. LEGAY. Mod. Lang. Rev. Vol. II., p. 34. The Rela tion of The Thracian Wonder to Greene's Menaphon. BRIE, F. Eng. Stud. Vol. 42, p. 217. Lyly und Greene. BROOKE, C. F. TUCKER. The Authorship of 2 and 3 Henry VI. The Tudor Drama. A History of English National Drama to the Retirement of Shakespeare. Houghton Mi ill in Co. 1911. BROWN, J. M. New Zealand Magazine, No. 6. April, 1877. pp. 97-133. An Early Rival of Shakespeare. Reproduced substan tially in Vol. I. of Grosart's edition of Greene's Works. BULLEN, A. H. Article on Greene in Dictionary of National Biography. 221 222 BIBLIOGRAPHY CARD, J. Eng. Stud. Vol. 2, p. 141. Die Historischen Elemente in Shakespeares Sturm und Wintermarchen. CHANDLER, F. W. The Literature of Roguery. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1907. COLLIER, J. P. The History of English Dramatic Poetry to the Time of Shakespeare: and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration. 3 Vols., 1831. COLLINS, J. C. The Plays and Poems of Robert Greene. Clarendon Press, 1905. 2 vols. CONRAD, HERMANN. Jahrbuch der Deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft. XXIX-XXX, 1894, p. 210. Robert Greene als Dramatiker. COOPER, C. H. Athenae Cantabrigiensis. COURTHOPE, W. J. A History of English Poetry. Macmillan and Co., 1906. CRAWFORD, CHAS. Collectanea, First Series, 1906. Edmund Spenser, "Locrine," and "Selimus." CREIZENACH, W. Anglia, 1885, Vol 8, p. 419. Zu Greene's James the Fourth. CUNLIFFE, J. W. Cambridge History of English Literature. Vol. 5, Chap. IV, p. 68. Early English Tragedy. DANIEL, P. A. Athenaeum, Oct. 8, 1881, p. 465. Greene and Cinthio. ibid. April 16, 1898, p. 512. "Locrine" and "Selimus." DEBATE BETWEENE PRIDE AND LOWLINESS. By F. T. Shak. Soc. Pub., Vol. XVII., 1841. DELIUS. N. Jahrbuch der Deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft. XV., 1880, p. 22. Greene's Pandosto und Shakespeare's Winter's Tale. DICKINSON, T. H. The Complete Plays of Robert Greene. Mermaid Series, 1909. DISRAELI, ISAAC. Calamities of Authors: Literary Ridicule. Illus trated by some Account of a Literary Satire. DYCE, ALEXANDER. Collected Plays and Poems of Robert Greene, 2 vols., 1831. Contains an account of author and list of works. Dramatic and Poetical Works of Robert Greene and George Peele. 1 vol., 1858. ERSKINE, JOHN. The Elizabethan Lyric, A Study. Columbia Uni versity Press, 1905. FLEAY, F. G. A Chronicle History of the Life and Work of William Shakespeare, Player, Poet, and Playmaker. New York, 1886. A Chronicle History of the London Stage, 1559-1642. 1890. A Biographical Chronicle of the English Drama. FURNIVALL, F. J. The Shakespeare Library, 1907. The Rogues and Vagabonds of Shakespeare's Youth. BIBLIOGRAPHY 225 SYMONDS, J. A. Shakespeare's Predecessors in the English Drama, v New Edition, 1904. TOYNBEE, PAGET. Athenaeum, Feb. 15, 1902, p. 216. References to Dante. VETTER, Verhandlungen der 44 Versammlung dtsche Philologen und Schidmdnner. Robert Greene und Seine Prosa. VILES, EDWARD. (See under Furnivall.) WARD, A. W. A History of English Dramatic Literature to the Death of v Queene Anne. London, 1875. Marlowe's Faustus and Greene's. Friar Bacon. Oxford, 1901. 4th ed. Old English Drama. WILSON, JOHN DOVER. Library, 1909, p. 361. New Ser., 10. Euphues and the Prodigal Son. WOLFF, SAMUEL LEE. Eng. Stud. Vol. 37. Robert Greene and the Italian Renaissance. The Greek Romances and Elizabethan Prose Fiction. New York, 1912. INDEX Achilles Tatius, 35 Acolastus, 54, 55, 56 (summary), 58, 67, 72 Adventures of Master F. J., 120 Ethiopian History, The, 35 Alarum against Usurers, 91, 92 n. Albums England, 40 Alcida, 25, 72 n., 167, 168 n., 176 Allott, Robert, 184, 185 Alphonsus, 174-177, 184, 190-193, 194, 196, 197 Anacreon, 137 Anatomie of Absurditie, 168 n. Ann of Bohemia, 38 Arbasto, 27, 37, 39, 45, 59, 165 Arcadia, 6, 32 n., 34, 41 Ariosto, 193 Astrophel and Stella, 135 Audeley, John, 87 n. Bacon, Francis, 48 Barnfield, Richard, 146, 162 Belleau, Remy, 137 Blacke Booke, 3, 103 n., 116 Blacke Bookes Messenger, 3, 82, 100, 104, 107-109, 115, 173 Breton, Nicholas, 146, 155, 162 Browne, William, 146 C. Mery Talys, 110 Carde of Fancie, 7, 37, 39, 48, 65-66, 165 Caveat or Warning for Commen Cursetors, 85 n., 91, 92 Censure to PhUautus, 23-24, 167 Chettle, Henry, 169 Chevalier du Soliel, Le, 38 n. Cinthio, Giraldi, 31 n., 196 City Nightcap (Davenport's), 43 n. Clitophon and Leucippe, 35 Cobler of Canterbury, The, 54, 70, 170 Complaints (Spenser's), 175, 186 Daniel, Samuel, 175 n. Daphnis and Chloe, 35, 39, 189 Day, Angel, 35, 39 Debate between Pride and Lowli ness, 122, 124 Decameron, 21 Defence of Conny Catching, 82, 96-107, 109, 111, 120, 172, 179 Dekker, Thomas, 10, 92 n. Deloney, Thomas, 10 Diary (Henslowe's), 178, 180 Disputation belweene a Hee and a Shee Conny-Catcher, 82, 99, 100, 103 n., 105, 107, 115-121, 124, 172 Doctor Faustus, 195 Dowgate, The shoemaker of, 4 Drayton, Michael, 175 n. El Relox de Principes, 11 Englands Helicon, 174 n. Englands Parnassus, 184 Estienne, Henri, 137 227 228 INDEX Euphues, 10, 13-17, 35, 37, 45, 47, 55, 63, 76 n., 78 n., 189 Euphues Shadow, 16 n. Faerie Queene, 186 Faire Em, 180, 181 Farewell to Follie, 23, 69, 70, 72, 80, 103 n., 166 n., 167, 171, 172, 181, 185 Fenton, Geoffrey, 11, 16, 127 Francescos Fortunes, 27, 59-62, 63, 65, 68, 71, 80, 103 n., 141, 154, 155, 169, 171, 172 Fraternitye of Vacabondes, The, 87 n. Friar Bacon, 78 n., 180-181, 184, 188, 190, 195-196, 197, 199 Gascoigne, George, 12 n., 20, 120, 127, 134 n., 146 n., 148, 178 n. George-a-Greene, The Pinner of Wakefield, 182, 184, 187-189 Gli Asolani, 20 Glasse of Government, 55 n. Gnaepheus, 54 Governor (Elyot's), 11 Greene, Robert, brief summary of his life, 1-2; personal appear ance and character, 2-3; last illness and death, 3-4; letter to his wife, 3-4; general attitude toward literature, 5; general literary qualities, 5-8; his mot toes, 9; his Mamillia, 14-19; his Morando, 21-22; his Fare well to Follie, 23; his Censure to Philautus, 23-24; his Penelopes Web, 25; his Alcida, 25; his Planetomachia, 25; his Pery- medes, 26; his Orpharion, 26; as an introducer of Italian thought, 27; his Tompkins the Wheel wright, 28; his story of Val- dracko, 29; the narrative art of his frame-work tales, 28-34; his relations with Greek Ro mance, 34 seq.; his Second Part of Mamillia, 37; his Arbasto, 37; his Pandosto, 37-39; his Mena- phon, 39-42; his Philomela, 43; his Ciceronis Amor, 43; his attitude toward Fortune, 43; conventionality of his style in fiction, 45-49; his character ization, 49-52; his Spanish Masquerado, 53; his Royal Ex change, 53; his adoption of the motto, sero sed serio, 5354; influence of the prodigal son story upon him, 55 seq.; his Mourning Garment, 56-59; his Never too Late, and Francescos. Fortunes, 59-62; his Mirrour of Modestie, 61; his Groatsworth of Wit, 62-65, 72-76; his Garde of Fande, 65-66; interpreta tion of his prodigal son pam phlets, 66-72; Gabriel Harvey's account of his death, 74; purity of his writings, 75; his Repentance, 76-79; his travel on the continent, 77 n.; a list of his social pamphlets, 82; his Notable Discovery of Coos- nage, 82-83; his Second Part and his Thirde Part, 83; his adoption of the motto, nascimur pro patria, 84 seq.; his de fence of the style of the social pamphlets, 85 n.; the serious- INDEX 229 ness of his social pamphlets, 87 seq.; his use of the Manifest Detection of Dyce Play, 89-91; his accuracy in the social pamphlets, 91-96; the Defence of Conny Catching, and his author ship of it, 96-107; a new step in the Greene-Harvey-Nashe quar rel, 105-106; his Blacke Bookes Messenger, 107-109; signifi cance of his social pamphlets as narrative, 109-114; his Disputa tion, 115-121; his Quippefor an Upstart Courtier, 121-126; his lost ballad, 127; relation of his poems to his romances, 127-129; his poetic themes, 129-144; his Maidens Dreame, 142; his metres, 144-155; merit of his verse, with selections from his poetry, 155-163; his Al- phonsus, 174-177, 190-193; his Looking Glasse for London and Englande, 177-179; his Orlando Furioso, 179-180, 193-195; his Friar Bacon, 180-181, 195-196; his James IV., 181-182, 196- 197; summary of the dates of his plays, 182; his character istics as a dramatist, 189-200; summary of Greene's character istics as a man and as an author, 201-205 Greenes Ghost Haunting Coni- catchers, 90 n., 100 n. Greenes Vision, 26, 71, 88, 94 n., 132, 169, 170-172 Grimald, Nicholas, 134, 148 Groatsworth of Wit, 48, 59 n., 62- 65, 72, 73, 80, 139, 145, 170, 171, 173, 177, 183 Harman, Thomas, 85 n., 86 n., 87 n., 91, 92, 93 n. Harvey, Gabriel, 2, 74, 79, 105, 106 Harvey, Richard, 105, 106 Heliodorus, 35, 38 Henry VI., 182 Henslowe, Philip, 178, 179, 188 Heptameron, 21 Howard, Philip, Earl of Arundel, 166 Howell, Thomas, 139 n. Hunting of Cupid, 181 II Cortegiano, 11, 12, 20 Isam, Mrs., 4, 79 James IV., 181-182, 188, 189, 196-197 Jamyn, Amadis, 136 Kind-Harts Dreame, 169 King Lear, 194 Knack to Know a Knave, A, 75 n., 182, 183 Kyd, Thomas, 32, 189, 190, 201 La Burza Reale, 169 Lamb of God, 105 Laneham's Letter, 23 n. Locrine, 186 Lodge, Thomas, 75 n., 91, 127, 125, 156, 162, 178, 183, 185 Longus, 35, 38 Looking Glasse for London and Englande, 177-179, 183 Love's Metamorphosis, 25 n. Lyly, John, 9, 10, 13, 16, 17, 35, 45, 46, 64, 69, 75, 138, 189, 201 230 INDEX Macbeth, 190 Orpharion, 26, 53, 70, 103 n., 168, Maidens Dreame, 142, 149 n., 170, 172 172 Mamillia, 14-19, 25 n., 33, 66, Painter > WiUiam > U ' 16 > 1(l8 n ' 102 n., 164, 189 Mamillia, The Second Part, 37, 102 n., 127, 164 Pandosto, 36, 37-39, 45, 48, 66, 168, 197 Paradise of Daintie Devices, 140 n., 1 A_f\ Manifest Detection of Dyce Play, 89_91 93 n Passionate Century of Love, 134 Marlowe, Christopher, 32, 52, 75, ^ulus Jovius, 185 Peele, George, 76, 138, 180, 181 Penelopes Web, 25, 103 n, 167 Perymedes, 26, 92, 103 n., 167, 168, 176 Petite Pallace of Pettie His Pleas ure, A, 88 n. Pettie, George, 11, 46, 88 n. Philomela, 43, 140 n., 172 Phoenix Nest, 142, 149 n. Planetomachia, 25, 29, 88 n., 104, 166 Poetical Rhapsody (Davison's), 137 n. Pontano, his Aegidius, 26 n. Primaudaye, his Academy, 22 n., 23 n., 25 n., 167 n., 185 Printemps d'lver, 180 Nashe, Thomas, 2, 4 n., 6, 75, 105, P^^o-Anacreon, 137 168 n., 176, 177, 183 Quippefor an Upstart Courtier, A, 82, 99, 100 n., 101, 106, 121-126, 173, 193 133, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 196, 200 Martin Marprelate, 167 n. Menaphon, 36, 39-42, 45, 48, 53, 128, 149 n., 155, 156, 168, 176, 177, 189, 197 Merrie Conceited Jests of George Peele, 110 Milton, John, 190 Mirrour of Modestie, 61, 165 Morando, 21-22, 103 n., 166 Most Rare and Excellent Dreame, A, 142, 143, 149 n. Mourning Garment, 56-59, 67, 69, 80, 167, 169, 171, 172, 181 Mucedorus, 185 Never too Late, 27, 59-62, 68, 69, 71, 77 n., 80, 103 n., 133, 140 n., 169, 171, 172 News out of Purgatory, 152 Notable Discovery of Conny-Catch- 170, 171, 173 ing, 78 n., 82-83, 84, 85, 86, 87, Richard III., 190 90, 92, 102, 115 Noyes, Alfred, 151 n. Repentance, 3, 66, 72, 76-79, 80, Opheltes, 60, 65 Orlando Furioso, 100, 179-180, 188, 193-195, 196, 197 Riche, Barnabe, 11, 12 n., 46, 59 n., 65 n., 127 Rosalynde, 6, 152 Rowlands, Samuel, 10, 90 n., 92 n., 100 n. Royal Exchange, 53, 168, 185 INDEX 231 Sannazaro, 127 Schoolmaster (Ascham's), 11 Scillaes Metamorphosis, 178 Second Part of Conny-catching, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91 n., 101, 102, 172 Selimus, 182, 184^186, 187 Tarlton, Richard, 152 Teares of the Muses, The, 175 Thirde and Last Part of Conny- catching, 82, 83, 92, 99, 100, 109, 111, 172 Tompkins the Wheelwright, 28 Tottel's Miscellany, 134, 148 Shakespeare, William, 32, 76, 136, TurberviUe, George, 134, 146 146, 152, 162, 199 Tusser, Thomas, 146 Shepherd's Calendar, 130 Sidney, Sir Philip, 75 n., 127, 135, Underdowne, Thomas, 35 152, 156 Siemowitsch (or Zeimowit), 38 Spanish Masquerade, 53,88 n., 168, 178 Spanish Tragedy, 32, 194 Visions of Bellay, 148 n. Warner, William, 40, 60, 62 n., 65 Watson, Thomas, 134, 138 n. Spenser, Edmund, 148 n., 175, 185 Watteau, 42 Steel Glas, 148 Studentes (of Stymmelius), 55, 72 Whetstone, George, 46 Whittington College, 96 Summers Last Witt and Testament, Whittington, Richard, 96 n. 183 Surrey, Earl of, 134, 148 Tamburlaine, 167 n., 174 n., 175, 176, 177, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194 Tancred and Gismond, 186 Winter's Tale, 39 n. Wither, George, 146 Woman in the Moon, 26 Wounds of Civill War, 185 Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 134 "Young Juvenall," 75 n., 183 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS Columbia University in the City of New York The Press was incorporated June 8, 1893, to promote the publica tion of the results of original research. It is a private corporation, related directly to Columbia University by the provisions that its Trustees shall be officers of the University and that the President of Columbia University shall be President of the Press. 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After how many games in a professional tennis match are the balls first replaced? | Choosing/Replacing Balls | USTA
Choosing/Replacing Balls
Q. With most of the top players going to their bag for a new racquet upon the introduction of new balls, what happens when a ball is miss-hit into the stands? Are new balls put in or do the ball handlers go short?
A. You are referring to a fan-friendly initiative that was established for the 2005 US Open. On the three stadium courts, when a ball bounces or flies into the crowd, the fan that catches the ball gets to keep it.
These balls are replaced at the end of that particular game. Prior to the match, the umpire walks on court with a bag full of balls that have been worn to varying degrees. If a one-game old ball is hit into the crowd it will be replaced with a newer ball than if an eight-game old ball is lost.
Q. Just wanted to know what the pros look for in a ball when they pick up three balls and look at them, then choose two before they serve.
A. Generally, players try to choose the ball with the least amount of fluff on it. That way, when they serve, it travels through the air faster. However, some baseline retrievers might look for the fluffiest (or heaviest) ball to slow down a powerful opponent. Lastly, sometimes players are just trying to gather their thoughts, and they use the ritual of finding a “lucky” ball to slow themselves down between points.
Remember, at the professional level, six new balls are switched after the first seven games (and the five-minute warm-up) and then every nine games thereafter.
Q. Before serving, I noticed most of the professionals examine multiple tennis balls before they pick two. What are they looking for, and why?
A. For some players this may simply be an idle pre-point ritual. While they fiddle with the balls, they are actually focused entirely on what they need to try to do in order to win the next point. For others, it is a case of them choosing the balls that will best suit them. For example, a big server will look for the least-worn (newest) ball, so that it flies through the air fastest. Conversely, a baseline “grinder” might seek worn, fluffy balls to slow the pace of play a little. Lastly, some players are simply superstitious and they are looking for the “lucky ball” or, perhaps, the ball they used to win the last point.
Q. After how many games do they give out new balls?
A. During most sanctioned USTA tournaments, you start with one can of balls and then only after splitting sets do you get three “fresh” balls for the third set.
If you are talking about during professional matches, then balls are switched after the first seven games (because the warm-up counts as two games of “use”) and then every nine games thereafter. Six balls are used at all times during Tour matches.
By the way, I strongly advocate that recreational players use six balls when they play as well, because less time will be spent chasing down stray balls and players will get to hit more balls per hour on-court.
Q. A friend of mine had a Golf magazine and it stated that maybe the PGA needs to make the pro golfers use a different ball than the common player due to the distances a pro golfer can hit a normal golf ball. The article stated that in Tennis it is a well known fact that the pro tournaments use a different ball than what the common player would use because the pros would hit the normal ball much to fast. Is this true?
A. No. This is false.
Sometimes the women use a different (regular duty felt) ball than do the men (extra duty felt) during hard court tournaments. In fact, this occurs at the US Open. This is designed to “speed up” the women’s game and to “slow down” the men’s game, if only marginally. But, no… the balls that professional players use in tournaments can be purchased over the counter.
Q. Recently, I was in an argument with my neighbor because he said the tennis balls for women's matches at the US Open were actually lighter and smaller. He said that it was to help "speed" the play of the ball and the matches. Is this true? - I have watched many professional matches and I have never heard that.
A. I am not sure that I would categorize the balls as being lighter or smaller, but your neighbor is generally correct. The women use regular duty felt balls while the men play with extra-duty felt during the US Open. If his facts are a little off, at least his reasoning is accurate. This selection was designed to increase the ball speed in women’s game and to slow down the velocity of the balls in the men’s game.
Q. The pros always look at a few balls before rejecting one when they're about to serve. What are they looking for? Why would they choose one over another?
A. New balls are used after the first seven games, and then after nine games, during professional matches. Hard servers like the newest balls because they tend to fly through the air faster before their knap gets all fuzzy. On the other side of the coin, I believe that defensive baseliners actually seek the biggest and fluffiest balls- which is the opposite of big servers. Some players ask for the same “lucky” ball with which they just won the last point. And still some others might examine balls before serving as a part of their pre-point ritual.
So, there are lots of explanations but finding the “newest” ball is the most common reason.
Q. If I freeze a tennis ball before a match, will it improve my game?
A. Ahhh, I doubt it.
Although, you might have recognized that some tournaments- notably Wimbledon- keep the cans of tennis balls refrigerated prior to opening them for matches. Presumably, this is to help the playability of the balls. We do NOT practice this at the US Open.
Whit's Tennis Tips doesn't work without your questions, so please send those tennis related questions you've always been trying to get answered to AskWhit .
Knowledge Areas:
| 7 |
What is the title of the first feature film directed by Sam Mendes? | How to Play a Tennis Tiebreaker: 12 Steps (with Pictures)
How to Play a Tennis Tiebreaker
Three Parts: Serving in a Tiebreaker Switching Sides in a Tiebreaker Winning the Tiebreaker Community Q&A
In tennis, there are games, sets and matches. To win a game, a you must score four points and have a two point lead. To win a set, you must win seven games and have a two game lead. To win the match, you must win the best of three sets or the best of five sets depending on where you’re playing. [1] In tennis, there are no ties. When both sides are tied at six games a piece, a tiebreaker game will take place to decide the winner of a set. Tiebreakers have their own unique rules that are different from those of normal games in tennis. If you want to compete in tennis, you should know what to expect when you have to play a tiebreaker.
Steps
Serving in a Tiebreaker
1
Decide who goes first. The person who was set to serve at the end of the last game will serve first in the tiebreaker. In tennis, the server switches at the end of every game. If you were the receiver in the game before the tiebreaker, then you will serve first. Just like in a normal tennis game, the first service will be from the deuce (right) side of the of the hash.
Unlike a regular tennis game, the first server in a tiebreaker will only serve one point. In normal tennis games, only one person serves throughout the game.
2
Alternate servers. After the first player serves one point, the second server will serve two points. For the rest of the tiebreaker, each server will serve two points at a time. Remember that you will change servers after every serve where the total score is odd. [2]
If the the score is four to three, then you would change servers because the total number of points is seven, an odd number.
If the score is four to two, then the server would have one more serve because the total number of points is six, an even number.
3
Serve from the advantage (left) side of the hash first. After the first serve in the tiebreaker, each player will perform the first of their two serves from the left side of the hash. In normal tennis games, you always serve first from the right side of the hash so it may feel a bit awkward to switch it up in the tiebreaker.
An easy way to remember this is that every even point will be served from the advantage side of the court. For example, if the score is four to three and you are serving the eighth point in the game, then you will serve it from the left side of the court. [3]
4
Hit your second serve from the deuce side of the court. After you serve from the left side of the hash, you will move to the right side of the hash to perform your second serve. The exception to this rule is of course that the very first point in the tiebreaker is also served from the deuce side of the court.
Every time you serve an odd point, you will serve it from the right side of the court. For example, if the score is three to three and you are serving the seventh point in the game, then you will serve it from the right side of the court.
Part 2
Switching Sides in a Tiebreaker
1
Keep your side at the beginning of the tiebreaker. In tennis, players only switch sides at the end of odd numbered games in a set. The tiebreaker is technically the thirteenth game in a set so both players will remain on the same side of the court they were on for the twelfth game.
In normal tennis games you would switch sides after the first game, the third game, the fifth game and after any other odd numbered games.
2
Change sides after every six points. In normal tennis games, players keep their side for the entirety of the game. In tiebreakers however, players will alternate sides after every point where the total score is a multiple of six. Switching sides during the tiebreaker keeps everything fair. One side of the court may be at a disadvantage, especially if you’re playing outside. [4]
If the score is five to one, then the total score of the game is six and the players would have to alternate sides.
Some examples of disadvantage you may have on a particular side of a court include: the glare from the sun, the wind blowing in your face and the blinding lights at the venue.
3
Switch sides in the middle of your service set. Because players change sides of the court at the end of an even number of points (six) and servers alternate after odd numbered points, whoever was serving before the side switch will serve their second serve after the side switch. [5]
In normal tennis games, the side switch occurs at the beginning of a new game so there is always a new server.
4
Trade sides after the tiebreaker. If there is another set after the tiebreaker, the players will start the first game of the new set on the opposite ends of the court from where they ended up in the tiebreaker. If the score of the tiebreaker is seven to two, the players will switch sides for the next game even though there has only been three serves since the last side change.
Most professional organizations worldwide don’t allow tiebreakers to be played in the final set of a match so there will always be a new set after a tiebreaker.
The U.S. Tennis Association is one of the only worldwide tennis organizations that does allow tiebreakers to be played in the final set of a match.
Part 3
Winning the Tiebreaker
1
Be the first to score seven points. You only have to score four points in order to win a normal tennis game. In a tiebreaker however, you have to score seven points to achieve victory. The way points are counted in a tiebreaker is also different from the way they are counted in a normal tennis game. [6]
In a normal tennis game points are counted as: love (zero), 15 (one), 30 (two) and 40 (three).
In a tiebreaker points are simply counted as: one, two, three, four and so on.
2
Win by two. Just like a normal game of tennis, you must attain a two point advantage over your opponent to win the tiebreaker. The game will continue as long as it takes for one player gain a two point lead over the other. [7]
If the score is seven to six, the player with six points has one more chance to even the score up.
3
Be aggressive. Tiebreakers are mental and can be high-stress situations. You may be tempted to play it safe, but you’ll likely be more successful going into attack mode. Keep the intensity of your serves and be unpredictable. Try to get off to an early lead by getting in your opponent's head.
For example: If both you and your opponent are right handed, then it would be safer to serve the ball down the middle of the court so they’d have to return it using their backhand. However, they might be caught off guard if you serve towards their stronger forehand. [8]
Tiebreakers are often decided by mental errors. Force your opponent to make mistakes by making it impossible for them to know where you’ll hit the ball next.
4
Get in shape. If you and your opponent are evenly matched, then a tiebreaker can last for a long time. The game can go back and forth a number of times before one player finally earns a two point advantage. Make sure to do plenty of cardio to build your endurance. The last thing you want to do is run out of steam in the middle of a close match. Basic cardio exercises like jogging will help you build your general stamina but tennis is a sport that requires quick bursts of energy. Be sure to do drills that help your body build endurance specifically for tennis. [9]
Do mirror drills. One partner runs up court, down court and shuffles side to side while calling out where they’re moving. A partner on the other end of the court does their best to mirror the first partners motions. If the first partner says “left” then he’d shuffle to the left of the court and the other partner would shuffle to his right. Switch partners after sixty seconds and do this drill at least five times.
Do side to side drills. A feeder hits one ball to the left side of the court, one to the middle, one to the right and then back again. A runner tries to chase down and return each ball. Each player should be runner for about five minutes. The feeder should have quite a few extra balls so the drill can run smoothly.
Community Q&A
In a tie break, why does the second server serve from the left side of the court?
wikiHow Contributor
The first serve is served from the right side of the court. The second serve is served from the left side of the court. This helps the players to keep track of the score, based on which side of the court the ball is being served.
When the tiebreaker is finished,do the players switch sides of the court?
wikiHow Contributor
The tiebreaker score is reported as 7-6 (4). What does the (4) signify?
wikiHow Contributor
It signifies how many points the loser of the tiebreaker scored. So in this case, the tiebreaker score was 7-4.
Why was an advantage set played instead of a tie breaker in the match between Daria Garilova and her opponent at the Australian Open?
wikiHow Contributor
Most professional tennis associations require the last set in a match to be an advantage set. The U.S. Tennis Association is one of the only ones that allows a tiebreaker to be played during the last set of a match.
During a tiebreaker in doubles, can the server choose which side to serve to first?
wikiHow Contributor
What is the serving order in a tiebreaker?
wikiHow Contributor
The person who received during the last game will serve the first point of the tiebreaker, then the other person will serve two points. After that, the server will change after ever two serves.
Is there a limit to tiebreaker points to win the set. Do players keep playing until one wins by 2? What happens if the score is 7-7 or 8-8?
wikiHow Contributor
There is no limit. The score could be 10-10 and they would have to keep playing until someone wins by 2.
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What is the title of Abba’s last UK number one hit single? | Abba's Greatest Hits back at UK No 1 slot - Telegraph
UK News
Abba's Greatest Hits back at UK No 1 slot
The Swedish pop group Abba have made music history with the return of their greatest hits album to number one in the charts, 16-years after it was first released.
The last UK number one single that Abba had was Super Trouper released in November 1980
By Tom Peterkin
6:09PM BST 03 Aug 2008
Abba's Gold - Greatest Hits is the oldest album ever to reach number one, The Official Charts Company revealed.
It is the fourth biggest-selling album of all time in the UK and one of the top 40 worldwide, with sales topping 26 million.
Sunday marked the fifth time that Gold - Greatest Hits has topped the UK chart, and the second time that the Abba song writers have achieved a number one selling album in the last few weeks.
The soundtrack to the hit Abba-inspired film Mamma Mia! took the top spot in July. The album featured the stars of the film singing cover versions of Abba's songs.
Abba Gold is a compilation of the original Abba versions recorded in the 1970s and very early 1980s when the group was at its peak.
Related Articles
01 Jul 2008
The last UK number one single that Abba had was Super Trouper released in November 1980.
But Abba Gold has been a consistent best-seller in the UK in the years after the group split up. It last topped the charts in 1999 when it was number one on three separate occasions. It was also number one when it was first released in 1992.
The album's success saw Coldplay's Viva la Vida pushed down one place to number two.
Meanwhile in the UK singles chart, American musician Kid Rock took the top spot, ending rapper Dizzee Rascal's four-week reign.
Kid Rock's All Summer Long moved up one place, knocking Dizzee Rascal's Dance Wiv Me down to number two.
Kid Rock also saw success in the official album's chart, with Rock N Roll Jesus jumping more than 140 places to number four.
| Super Trouper |
Bunker, Birdie and Fore are all terms used in which sport? | ABBA | New Music And Songs |
ABBA
About ABBA
The most commercially successful pop group of the 1970s, the origins of the Swedish superstars ABBA dated back to 1966, when keyboardist and vocalist Benny Andersson, a onetime member of the popular beat outfit the Hep Stars, first teamed with guitarist and vocalist Bjorn Ulvaeus, the leader of the folk-rock unit the Hootenanny Singers. The two performers began composing songs together and handling session and production work for Polar Music/Union Songs, a publishing company owned by Stig Anderson, himself a prolific songwriter throughout the 1950s and 1960s. At the same time, both Andersson and Ulvaeus worked on projects with their respective girlfriends: Ulvaeus had become involved with vocalist Agnetha Faltskog, a performer with a recent number one Swedish hit, "I Was So in Love," under her belt, while Andersson began seeing Anni-Frid Lyngstad, a one-time jazz singer who rose to fame by winning a national talent contest.
In 1971, Faltskog ventured into theatrical work, accepting the role of Mary Magdalene in a Swedish production of Andrew Lloyd Webber's Jesus Christ Superstar; her cover of the musical's "Don't Know How to Love Him" became a significant hit. The following year, the duo of Andersson and Ulvaeus scored a massive international hit with "People Need Love," which featured Faltskog and Lyngstad on backing vocals. The record's success earned them an invitation to enter the Swedish leg of the 1973 Eurovision song contest, where, under the unwieldy name of Bjorn, Benny, Agnetha & Frida, they submitted "Ring Ring," which proved extremely popular with audiences but placed only third in the judges' ballots.
The next year, rechristened ABBA (a suggestion from Stig Anderson and an acronym of the members' first names), the quartet submitted the single "Waterloo," and became the first Swedish act to win the Eurovision competition. The record proved to be the first of many international hits, although the group hit a slump after their initial success as subsequent singles failed to chart. In 1975, however, ABBA issued "S.O.S.," a smash not only in America and Britain but also in non-English speaking countries such as Spain, Germany and the Benelux nations, where the group's success was fairly unprecedented. A string of hits followed, including "Mamma Mia," "Fernando," and "Dancing Queen" (ABBA's sole U.S. chart-topper), further honing their lush, buoyant sound; by the spring of 1976, they were already in position to issue their first Greatest Hits collection.
ABBA's popularity continued in 1977, when both "Knowing Me, Knowing You" and "The Name of the Game" dominated airwaves. The group also starred in the feature film ABBA -- The Movie, which was released in 1978. That year Andersson and Lyngstad married, as had Ulvaeus and Faltskog in 1971, although the latter couple separated a few months later; in fact, romantic suffering was the subject of many songs on the quartet's next LP, 1979's Voulez-Vous. Shortly after the release of 1980s Super Trouper, Andersson and Lyngstad divorced as well, further straining the group dynamic; The Visitors, issued the following year, was the final LP of new ABBA material, and the foursome officially disbanded after the December 1982 release of their single "Under Attack."
Although all of the group's members soon embarked on new projects -- both Lyngstad and Faltskog issued solo LPs, while Andersson and Ulvaeus collaborated with Tim Rice on the musical Chess -- none proved as successful as the group's earlier work, largely because throughout much of the world, especially Europe and Australia, the ABBA phenomenon never went away. Repackaged hits compilations and live collections continued hitting the charts long after the group's demise, and new artists regularly pointed to the quartet's inspiration: while the British dance duo Erasure released a covers collection, ABBA-esque, an Australian group called Bjorn Again found success as ABBA impersonators. In 1993, "Dancing Queen" became a staple of U2's "Zoo TV" tour -- Andersson and Ulvaeus even joined the Irish superstars on-stage in Stockholm -- while the 1995 feature Muriel's Wedding, which won acclaim for its depiction of a lonely Australian girl who seeks refuge in ABBA's music, helped bring the group's work to the attention of a new generation of moviegoers and music fans. ~ Jason Ankeny, Rovi
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What was the first name of famous German scientist Einstein? | Albert Einstein - Biography, Facts and Pictures
Albert Einstein
Lived 1879 – 1955.
Albert Einstein rewrote the laws of nature. He completely changed the way we understand the behavior of things as basic as light, gravity, and time.
Although scientists today are comfortable with Einstein’s ideas, in his time, they were completely revolutionary. Most people did not even begin to understand them.
If you’re new to science, you’ll probably find that some of his ideas take time to get used to!
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Quick Guide to Albert Einstein’s Scientific Achievements
Albert Einstein:
• provided powerful evidence that atoms and molecules actually exist, through his analysis of Brownian motion.
• explained the photoelectric effect, proposing that light came in bundles. Bundles of light (he called them quanta) with the correct amount of energy can eject electrons from metals.
• proved that everyone, whatever speed we move at, measures the speed of light to be 300 million meters per second in a vacuum. This led to the strange new reality that time passes more slowly for people traveling at very high speeds compared with people moving more slowly.
• discovered the hugely important and iconic equation, E = mc2, which showed that energy and matter can be converted into one another.
• rewrote the law of gravitation, which had been unchallenged since Isaac Newton published it in 1687. In his General Theory of Relativity, Einstein:
» showed that matter causes space to curve, which produces gravity.
» showed that the path of light follows the gravitational curve of space.
» showed that time passes more slowly when gravity becomes very strong.
• became the 20th century’s most famous scientist when the strange predictions he made in his General Theory of Relativity were verified by scientific observations.
• spent his later years trying to find equations to unite quantum physics with general relativity. This was an incredibly hard task for him to set himself. To date, it has still not been achieved.
His Beginnings
Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm, Germany. He was not talkative in his childhood, and until the age of three, he didn’t talk much. He spent his teenage years in Munich, where his family had an electric equipment business. As a teenager, he was interested in nature and showed a high level of ability in mathematics and physics.
Einstein loved to be creative and innovative. He loathed the uncreative spirit in his school at Munich. His family’s business failed when he was aged 15, and they moved to Milan, Italy. Aged 16, he moved to Switzerland, where he finished high school.
In 1896 he began to study for a degree at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. He didn’t like the teaching methods there, so he bunked classes to carry out experiments in the physics laboratory or play his violin. With the help of his classmate’s notes, he passed his exams; he graduated in 1900.
Einstein was not considered a good student by his teachers, and they refused to recommend him for further employment.
Einstein 1903
While studying at the Polytechnic, Einstein had learned about one of the biggest problems then baffling physicists. This was how to marry together Isaac Newton’s laws of motion with James Clerk Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism.
In 1902 he obtained the post of an examiner in the Swiss Federal patent office, and, in 1903, he wedded his classmate Mileva Maric. He had two sons with her but they later divorced. After some years Einstein married Elsa Loewenthal.
Early Scientific Publications
Einstein continued to work in the patent office, during which time he made most of his greatest scientific breakthroughs. The University of Zurich awarded him a Ph.D. in 1905 for his thesis “A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions.”
1905: The Year of Miracles
In 1905, the same year as he submitted his doctoral thesis, Albert Einstein published four immensely important scientific papers dealing with his analysis of:
Brownian motion
the equivalence of mass and energy
the photoelectric effect
special relativity
Each of these papers on their own was a huge contribution to science. To publish four such papers in one year was considered to be almost miraculous. Einstein was just 26 years old.
Mass Energy Equivalence
Einstein gave birth in 1905 to what has become the world’s most famous equation:
E = mc2
The equation says that mass (m) can be converted to energy (E). A little mass can make a lot of energy, because mass is multiplied by c2 where c is the speed of light, a very large number.
A small amount of mass can make a large amount of energy. Conversion of mass in atomic nuclei to energy is the principle behind nuclear weapons and explains the sun’s source of energy.
The Photoelectric Effect
If you shine light on metal, the metal may release some of its electrons. Einstein said that light is made up of individual ‘particles’ of energy, which he called quanta. When these quanta hit the metal, they give their energy to electrons, giving the electrons enough energy to escape from the metal.
Einstein showed that light can behave as a particle as well as a wave. The energy each ‘particle’ of light carries is proportional to the frequency of the light waves.
Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity
In Einstein’s third paper of 1905 he returned to the big problem he had heard about at university – how to resolve Newton’s laws of motion with Maxwell’s equations of light. His approach was the ‘thought experiment.’ He imagined how the world would look if he could travel at the speed of light.
He realized that the laws of physics are the same everywhere, and regardless of what you did – whether you moved quickly toward a ray of light as it approached you, or quickly away from the ray of light – you would always see the light ray to be moving at the same speed – the speed of light!
This is not obvious, because it’s not how things work in everyday life, where, for example, if you move towards a child approaching you on a bike he will reach you sooner than if you move away from him. With light, it doesn’t matter whether you move towards or away from the light, it will take the same amount of time to reach you. This isn’t an easy thing to understand, so don’t worry about it if you don’t! (Unless you’re at university studying physics.) Every experiment ever done to test special relativity has confirmed what Einstein said.
If the speed of light is the same for all observers regardless of their speed, then it follows that some other strange things must be true. In fact, it turns out that time, length, and mass actually depend on the speed we are moving at. The nearer the speed of light we move, the bigger differences we seen in these quantities compared with someone moving more slowly. For example, time passes more and more slowly as we move faster and faster.
Einstein Becomes Known to the Wider Physics Community
As people read Einstein’s papers and argued about their significance, his work gradually gained acceptance, and his reputation as a powerful new intellect in the world of physics grew. In 1908 he began lecturing at the University of Bern, and the following year resigned from the Patent Office. In 1911 he became a professor of physics at the Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague, before returning to Zurich in 1912 to a professorship there.
Working on the general theory of relativity, in 1911 he made his first predictions of how our sun’s powerful gravity would bend the path of light coming from other stars as it traveled past the sun.
The General Theory of Relativity – Einstein Becomes Famous Worldwide
A very, very rough approximation: the earth’s mass curves space. The moon’s speed keeps it rolling around the curve rather than falling to Earth. If you are on Earth and wish to leave, you need to climb out of the gravity well
Einstein published his general theory of relativity paper in 1915, showing, for example, how gravity distorts space and time. Light is deflected by powerful gravity, not because of its mass (light has no mass) but because gravity has curved the space that light travels through.
In 1919 a British expedition traveled to the West African island of Principe to observe an eclipse of the sun. During the eclipse they could test whether light from far away stars passing close to the sun was deflected. They found that it was! Just as Einstein had said, space truly was curved.
On November 7, 1919, the London Times’ headline read:
Revolution in science – New theory of the Universe – Newtonian ideas overthrown.
Honors and More Honors
Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. People are sometimes surprised to learn that the award was not made for his work in special or general relativity, but for his overall services to theoretical physics and one of the works from his miracle year specifically – the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect in 1905.
The Royal Society of London awarded him its prestigious Copely Medal in 1925 for his theory of relativity and contributions to the quantum theory. The Franklin Institute awarded him with the Franklin medal in 1935 for his work on relativity and the photo-electric effect.
Universities around the world competed with one another to award him honorary doctorates, and the press wrote more about him than any other scientist – Einstein became a celebrity.
Einstein’s Later Years
Einstein made his greatest discoveries when he was a relatively young man.
In his later years he continued with science, but made no further groundbreaking discoveries. He became interested in politics and the state of the world.
Einstein had been born German and a Jew. He died an American citizen in 1955. Einstein was in America when Hitler came to power. He decided it would be a bad idea to return to Germany, and renounced his German citizenship. Einstein did not practice Judaism, but strongly identified with the Jewish people persecuted by the Nazi Party, favoring a Jewish homeland in Palestine with the rights of Arabs protected.
It was Einstein’s wish that people should be respected for their humanity and not for their country of origin or religion. Expressing his cynicism for nationalistic pride, he once said:
“If relativity is proved right the Germans will call me a German, the Swiss will call me a Swiss citizen, and the French will call me a great scientist. If relativity is proved wrong, the French will call me Swiss, the Swiss will call me a German, and the Germans will call me a Jew.”
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The 10 Greatest Physicists in History
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‘Taim I’ngra leat’ is Irish for what? | Famous Physicists - The Greatest Physicists of All Time
Famous Physicists
The field of physics deals with the immutable laws that govern the entire universe. Some of the greatest names in this discipline include Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, and Niels Bohr, just to name a few. Their contributions along with the important discoveries of others have given us a better understanding of our world. Here is a list that includes some of the most famous physicists throughout history in order of the notoriety of their work.
Albert Einstein (1885-1962)
Famous For: Advancing the Theory of Relativity
At the age of seventeeen, Albert Einstein enrolled to complete and receive his teaching diploma in the field of physics and mathematics at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, Switzerland. He debated with Niels Bohr, the other founder of quantum mechanics. In 1905, Einstein published On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, this contained his theory on relativity. In 1921, Albert Einstein was a recipient of the Nobel Prize in the field of Physics.
Niels Bohr (1885-1962)
Famous For: Contributions to quantum theory, nuclear reactions and nuclear fission
Niels Henrik David Bohr, a native of Copenhagen, Denmark and his contribution to the world of physics rests on his study and explanation of the atomic structure. In addition, he helped in the understanding of quantum mechanics and in so doing founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics located at the University of Copenhagen, the institute has been renamed to the Niels Bohr Institute.
Stephen Hawking (1942)
Famous For: Explaining Black holes and Advances on the General Theory of Relativity and Quantum mechanics
He is known for his scientific works with Roger Penrose, for which they provided a theory for the basis of general relativity, this is known as the gravitational singularities theorem. In 1978, Hawking received the Albert Einstein Award, given to those who excelled in natural sciences, more specifically, theoretical physics.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Famous For: Explaining the theories of gravity and mechanics
Isaac Newton is known for his contribution to world of science. It was Newton who identified the concept of gravity and the theory of mechanics. He excelled in the fields of alchemy, astronomy, Christian theology, economics, mathematics, and of course, physics.
Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)
Famous For: Created the first Alternating Current system
Nikola Tesla is known for his contribution in the development and use of alternating current (AC) system. He worked briefly with Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse. His experiments on high voltage electricity gained him further notoriety.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Famous For: Providing a mathematical analysis of the relationship between astronomy and physics
Galileo is known for his experiments and theories in the field of bodies in motion. His work in astronomy, mathematics and physics and the combination of these sciences became instrumental in the study and understanding of the universe beyond us.
Marie Curie (1867-1934)
Famous For: Discovered radioactivity nature of thorium and the discovery of polonium and radium
She is known for introducing techniques in the field of radioactivity for isolating isotopes. Marie was instrumental in the discovery of the elements known as polonium and radium.
(Lord) Kelvin (1824-1907)
Famous For: Advancement of the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics. Developed absolute thermometric scale
He is known for formulating the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics. The measure of absolute temperatures has been named after him. It was he who coined the term “kinetic energy”.
Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
Famous For: Explaining Hooke’s Law of Elasticity
Robert Hooke is known for the physics principle that is the law of elasticity, which is better known as Hooke’s Law. He constructed one of the earliest reflecting telescopes.
Richard Feynman (1918-1988)
Famous For: Work on Path integral formulation on quantum mechanics, particle physics, theory of quantum electrodynamics and, superfluidity
Richard Feynman is known for his efforts in the integral formulation’s path in quantum mechanics along with advancing the theory of quantum electrodynamics and superfluidity. He is also remembered for his involvement with the Manhattan project.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Famous For: Discovery of electromagnetic induction and came up with the idea for first electrical transformer
Michael Faraday is known for his work on chemistry and physics, specifically In physics, he worked heavily in the field of magnetism and electricity. Many scientific concepts have been named after him; Faraday’s law of induction, Faraday’s law of electrolysis, and so on. He was successful in converting gases into liquid form.
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)
Famous For: Supporting the Theory on the existence of an atomic nucleus
Ernest Rutherford is known for his work in the field of nuclear physics. He worked with J.J. Thomson that led to the eventual discovery of the electron. He also explained the nature of radioactivity, in which he discovered two types of x-rays, alpha and beta rays.
Marconi (1874-1937)
Famous For: His work on the Wireless Telegraphy
Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi is known for his pioneering work on the radio telegraph system, which eventually led to him being recognized as the inventor of the radio. He received the Nobel Prize in 1909 along with Karl Braun for their contribution to the world of wireless innovations.
Max Planck (1858-1947)
Famous For: The formulation of the quantum theory
German national Max Planck is known for bringing to the world the concept or theory of quantum physics. His work in the field of physics expanded the understanding of time and space.
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)
Famous For: Inventing the first electric battery
Alessandro Volta is known for and credited for the discovery of methane and making the earliest known form of the battery in the 18th century. The “battery” was made of copper and zinc, with sulfuric acid used to complete the circuit.
J.J. Thomson (1856-1940)
Famous For: Showing the existence of the electron
Joseph John (J.J.) Thomson is known for the identification of the electron and isotopes. During one of his experiments, Thomson was able to identify a negative charged particle which became known as the electron.
Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961)
Famous For: Extensive Advancements on Quantum mechanics and the Schrodinger equation.
Erwin Schrodinger is known for his contribution to the world of physics in which he explains what is known as wave mechanics, it became known as the Schrodinger equation. He also provided answers for the diatomic molecule, the quantum harmonic oscillator, and the rigid rotor.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
Famous For: Work on the Theory of Electromagnetism and the Kinetic theory of gases
James Clerk Maxwell is known for his Theory of Electromagnetism which was published in a paper he wrote, A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in 1865. He demonstrated that the electromagnetic field is occurs in electricity, light, and magnetism. In collaboration with another scientist Ludwig Boltzmann, Maxwell explained the theory of kinetic gases, also known as the “Maxwell distribution”.
Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976)
Famous For: Work on Quantum Mechanics and the Uncertainty Principle
Werner Karl Heisenberg is known for the matrix formulation applied in quantum mechanics. The Heisenberg principle, or the “uncertainty principle” in quantum mechanics, became important to the field of physics in explaining inequalities of results from physical properties.
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Acute viral nasopharyngitis is a medical term for which common ailment? | Acute viral nasopharyngitis | definition of Acute viral nasopharyngitis by Medical dictionary
Acute viral nasopharyngitis | definition of Acute viral nasopharyngitis by Medical dictionary
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Acute+viral+nasopharyngitis
Related to Acute viral nasopharyngitis: common cold , Common cold virus
Common Cold
Definition
The common cold is a viral infection of the upper respiratory system, including the nose, throat, sinuses, eustachian tubes, trachea, larynx, and bronchial tubes. Although more than 200 different viruses can cause a cold, 30-50% are caused by a group known as rhinoviruses. Almost all colds clear up in less than two weeks without complications.
Description
Colds, sometimes called rhinovirus or coronavirus infections, are the most common illness to strike any part of the body. It is estimated that the average person has more than 50 colds during a lifetime. Anyone can get a cold, although pre-school and grade school children catch them more frequently than adolescents and adults. Repeated exposure to viruses causing colds creates partial immunity.
Although most colds resolve on their own without complications, they are a leading cause of visits to the doctor and of time lost from work and school. Treating symptoms of the common cold has given rise to a multi-million dollar industry in over-the-counter medications.
Cold season in the United States begins in early autumn and extends through early spring. Although it is not true that getting wet or being in a draft causes a cold (a person has to come in contact with the virus to catch a cold), certain conditions may lead to increased susceptibility. These include:
fatigue and overwork
smoking
living or working in crowded conditions
Colds make the upper respiratory system less resistant to bacterial infection. Secondary bacterial infection may lead to middle ear infection, bronchitis , pneumonia, sinus infection, or strep throat . People with chronic lung disease, asthma , diabetes, or a weakened immune system are more likely to develop these complications.
Causes and symptoms
Colds are caused by more than 200 different viruses. The most common groups are rhinoviruses and coronaviruses. Different groups of viruses are more infectious at different seasons of the year, but knowing the exact virus causing the cold is not important in treatment.
People with colds are contagious during the first two to four days of the infection. Colds pass from person to person in several ways. When an infected person coughs, sneezes, or speaks, tiny fluid droplets containing the virus are expelled. If these are breathed in by other people, the virus may establish itself in their noses and airways.
Colds may also be passed through direct contact. If a person with a cold touches his runny nose or watery eyes, then shakes hands with another person some of the virus is transferred to the uninfected person. If that person then touches his mouth, nose, or eyes, the virus is transferred to an environment where it can reproduce and cause a cold.
Cold Remedies
Rapid heart beat
Stimulation
Finally, cold viruses can be spread through inanimate objects (door knobs, telephones, toys) that become contaminated with the virus. This is a common method of transmission in child care centers. If a child with a cold touches her runny nose, then plays with a toy, some of the virus may be transferred to the toy. When another child plays with the toy a short time later, he may pick up some of the virus on his hands. The second child then touches his contaminated hands to his eyes, nose, or mouth and transfers some of the cold virus to himself.
Once acquired, the cold virus attaches itself to the lining of the nasal passages and sinuses. This causes the infected cells to release a chemical called histamine. Histamine increases the blood flow to the infected cells, causing swelling, congestion, and increased mucus production. Within one to three days the infected person begins to show cold symptoms.
The first cold symptoms are a tickle in the throat, runny nose, and sneezing. The initial discharge from the nose is clear and thin. Later it changes to a thick yellow or greenish discharge. Most adults do not develop a fever when they catch a cold. Young children may develop a low fever of up to 102°F (38.9°C).
In addition to a runny nose and fever, signs of a cold include coughing, sneezing, nasal congestion, headache , muscle ache, chills, sore throat , hoarseness, watery eyes, tiredness, and lack of appetite. The cough that accompanies a cold is usually intermittent and dry.
Most people begin to feel better four to five days after their cold symptoms become noticeable. All symptoms are generally gone within ten days, except for a dry cough that may linger for up to three weeks.
Colds make people more susceptible to bacterial infections such as strep throat, middle ear infections, and sinus infections. A person whose cold does not begin to improve within a week; or who experiences chest pain , fever for more than a few days, difficulty breathing, bluish lips or fingernails, a cough that brings up greenish-yellow or grayish sputum, skin rash, swollen glands, or whitish spots on the tonsils or throat should consult a doctor to see if he or she has acquired a secondary bacterial infection that needs to be treated with an antibiotic.
People who have emphysema , chronic lung disease, diabetes, or a weakened immune system—either from diseases such as AIDS or leukemia, or as the result of medications, ( corticosteroids , chemotherapy drugs)—should consult their doctor if they get a cold. People with these health problems are more likely to get a secondary infection.
Diagnosis
Colds are diagnosed by observing a person's symptoms. There are no laboratory tests readily available to detect the cold virus. However, a doctor may do a throat culture or blood test to rule out a secondary infection.
Influenza is sometimes confused with a cold, but flu causes much more severe symptoms and generally a fever. Allergies to molds or pollens also can make the nose run. Allergies are usually more persistent than the common cold. An allergist can do tests to determine if the cold-like symptoms are being caused by an allergic reaction. Also, some people get a runny nose when they go outside in winter and breathe cold air. This type of runny nose is not a symptom of a cold.
Treatment
There are no medicines that will cure the common cold. Given time, the body's immune system will make antibodies to fight the infection, and the cold will be resolved without any intervention. Antibiotics are useless against a cold. However, a great deal of money is spent by pharmaceutical companies in the United States promoting products designed to relieve cold symptoms. These products usually contain antihistamines , decongestants, and/or pain relievers.
Antihistamines block the action of the chemical histamine that is produced when the cold virus invades the cells lining the nasal passages. Histamine increases blood flow and causes the cells to swell. Antihistamines are taken to relieve the symptoms of sneezing, runny nose, itchy eyes, and congestion. Side effects are dry mouth and drowsiness, especially with the first few doses. Antihistamines should not be taken by people who are driving or operating dangerous equipment. Some people have allergic reactions to antihistamines. Common over-the-counter antihistamines include Chlor-Trimeton, Dimetapp, Tavist, and Actifed. The generic name for two common antihistamines are chlorpheniramine and diphenhydramine.
Decongestants work to constrict the blood flow to the vessels in the nose. This can shrink the tissue, reduce congestion, and open inflamed nasal passages, making breathing easier. Decongestants can make people feel jittery or keep them from sleeping. They should not be used by people with heart disease, high blood pressure, or glaucoma . Some common decongestants are Neo-Synepherine, Novafed, and Sudafed. The generic names of common decongestants include phenylephrine, phenylpropanolamine, pseudoephedrine, and in nasal sprays naphazoline, oxymetazoline and xylometazoline.
Many over-the-counter medications are combinations of both antihistamines and decongestants; an ache and pain reliever, such as acetaminophen (Datril, Tylenol, Panadol) or ibuprofen (Advil, Nuprin, Motrin, Medipren); and a cough suppressant (dextromethorphan). Common combination medications include Tylenol Cold and Flu, Triaminic, Sudafed Plus, and Tavist D. Aspirin should not be given to children with a cold because of its association with a risk of Reye's syndrome, a serious disease.
Nasal sprays and nose drops are other products promoted for reducing nasal congestion. These usually contain a decongestant, but the decongestant can act more quickly and strongly than ones found in pills or liquids because it is applied directly in the nose. Congestion returns after a few hours.
People can become dependent on nasal sprays and nose drops. If used for a long time, users may suffer withdrawal symptoms when these products are discontinued. Nasal sprays and nose drops should not be used for more than a few days. The label lists recommendations on length and frequency of use.
Scientists reported in 2004 the possibility of a new oral drug for use in relieving common cold symptoms. Called pleconaril, it inhibited viral replication in at least 90% of rhinoviruses if taken within 24 hours of onset.
People react differently to different cold medications and may find some more helpful than others. A medication may be effective initially, then lose some of its effectiveness. Children sometimes react differently than adults. Over-the-counter cold remedies should not be given to infants without consulting a doctor first.
Care should be taken not to exceed the recommended dosages, especially when combination medications or nasal sprays are taken. Individuals should determine whether they wish to use any of these drugs. None of them shorten or cure a cold. At best they help a person feel more comfortable. People who are confused about the drugs in any over-the-counter cold remedies should ask their pharmacist for an explanation.
In addition to the optional use of over the counter cold remedies, there are some self-care steps that people can take to ease their discomfort. These include:
drinking plenty of fluids, but avoiding acidic juices, which may irritate the throat
gargling with warm salt water—made by adding one teaspoon of salt to 8 oz of water—for a sore throat
not smoking
using a cool-mist room humidifier to ease congestion and sore throat
rubbing Vaseline or other lubricant under the nose to prevent irritation from frequent nose blowing
for babies too young to blow their noses, the mucus should be suctioned gently with an infant nasal aspirator. It may be necessary to soften the mucus first with a few drops of salt water.
Alternative treatment
Alternative practitioners emphasize that people get colds because their immune systems are weak. They point out that everyone is exposed to cold viruses, but not everyone gets every cold. The difference seems to be in the ability of the immune system to fight infection. Prevention focuses on strengthening the immune system by eating a healthy diet low in sugars and high in fresh fruits and vegetables, practicing meditation to reduce stress, and getting regular moderate exercise .
Once cold symptoms appear, some naturopathic practitioners believe the symptoms should be allowed to run their course without interference. Others suggest the following:
Inhaling a steaming mixture of lemon oil, thyme oil, eucalyptus, and tea tree oil (Melaleuca spp.). ( Aromatherapy )
Gargling with a mixture of water, salt, and turmeric powder or astringents such as alum, sumac, sage, and bayberry to ease a sore throat. ( Ayurvedic medicine )
Taking coneflower or goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis). Other useful herbs to reduce symptoms include yarrow (Achillea millefolium), eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis), garlic (Allium sativum), and onions (Allium cepa). (Herbal)
Microdoses of Viscue album, Natrum muriaticum, Allium cepa, or Nux vomica. (Homeopathy)
Taking yin chiao (sometimes transliterated as yinquiao) tablets that contain honeysuckle and forsythia when symptoms appear. Natural herb loquat syrup for cough and sinus congestion and Chinese ephedra (ma-huang) for runny nose. (Chinese traditional medicine)
The use of zinc lozenges every two hours along with high doses of vitamin C is suggested. Some practitioners also suggest eliminating dairy products for the duration of the cold. (Nutritional therapy).
The use of zinc lozenges may be moving toward acceptance by practitioners of traditional medicine. In 1996 the Cleveland Clinic tested zinc gluconate lozenges and found using zinc in the first 24 hours after cold symptoms occurred shortened the duration of symptoms. The mechanism by which zinc worked was not clear, but additional studies are underway.
At one time, the herb (Echinacea spp.) was touted as a remedy to relieve cold symptoms. However, a study published in 2004 reported that the herb failed to relieve cold symptoms in 400 children taking it and caused skin rashes in some children.
Prognosis
Given time, the body will make antibodies to cure itself of a cold. Most colds last a week to 10 days. Most people start feeling better within four or five days. Occasionally a cold will lead to a secondary bacterial infection that causes strep throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, sinus infection, or a middle ear infection. These conditions usually clear up rapidly when treated with an antibiotic.
Prevention
It is not possible to prevent colds because the viruses that cause colds are common and highly infectious. However, there are some steps individuals can take to reduce their spread. These include:
washing hands well and frequently, especially after touching the nose or before handling food
covering the mouth and nose when sneezing
disposing of used tissues properly
avoiding close contact with someone who has a cold during the first two to four days of their infection
not sharing food, eating utensils, or cups with anyone
avoiding crowded places where cold germs can spread
eating a healthy diet and getting adequate sleep
Resources
Periodicals
"Study: Echinacea Is Ineffective." Chain Drug Review February 16, 2004: 25.
Zepf, Bill. "Pleconaril for Treatment of the Common Cold?" American Family Physician February 1, 2004: 703.
Key terms
| Common cold |
At the age of 22 years and 47 days who was the youngest captain of the England football team? | Overview - Acute sinusitis - Mayo Clinic
Acute sinusitis
Print
Acute sinusitis (acute rhinosinusitis) causes the cavities around your nasal passages (sinuses) to become inflamed and swollen. This interferes with drainage and causes mucus to build up.
With acute sinusitis, it might be difficult to breathe through your nose. The area around your eyes and face might feel swollen, and you might have throbbing facial pain or a headache.
Acute sinusitis is mostly caused by the common cold. Unless a bacterial infection develops, most cases resolve within a week to 10 days.
In most cases, home remedies are all that's needed to treat acute sinusitis. However, persistent sinusitis can lead to serious infections and other complications. Sinusitis that lasts more than 12 weeks despite medical treatment is called chronic sinusitis.
References
Sinusitis. American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. http://www.aaaai.org/conditions-and-treatments/allergies/sinusitis.aspx. Accessed Jan. 11, 2016.
Hwang PH, et al. Acute sinusitis and rhinosinusitis in adults: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Jan. 14, 2016.
Hwang PH, et al. Acute sinusitis and rhinosinusitis in adults: Treatment. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Jan. 14, 2016.
Sinusitis (sinus infection). National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease. www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/sinusitis/pages/index.aspx. Accessed Jan. 14, 2016.
Adult sinusitis. American Rhinologic Association. http://care.american-rhinologic.org/adult_sinusitis. Accessed Jan. 15, 2016.
Complications of sinusitis. American Rhinologic Association. http://care.american-rhinologic.org/complications_sinusitis. Accessed Jan. 14, 2016.
Meltzer EO, et al. Rhinosinusitis diagnosis and management for the clinician: A synopsis of recent consensus guidelines. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2011;86:427.
Sinupret+. Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database. http://www.naturaldatabase.com. Accessed Jan. 15, 2016.
SinuGuard. Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database. http://www.naturaldatabase.com. Accessed Jan. 15, 2016.
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What colour is a fifty ‘pounds’ Monopoly bank note? | Monopoly | Monopoly Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
[ show ]
History
The history of Monopoly can be traced back to the early 1900s. In 1904, a Quaker woman named Elizabeth (Lizzie) J. Magie Phillips created a game through which she hoped to be able to explain the single tax theory of Henry George (it was supposed to illustrate the negative aspects of concentrating land in private monopolies). Her game, The Landlord's Game, was commercially published a few years later. Other interested game players redeveloped the game and some made their own sets. Lizzie herself patented a revised edition of the game in 1904, and similar games were published commercially. By the early 1930s, a board game named Monopoly was created much like the version of Monopoly sold by Parker Brothers and its parent companies throughout the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st. The Parker Brothers' version was created by Charles Darrow . Several people, mostly in the U.S. Midwest and near the U.S. East Coast, contributed to the game's design and evolution.
In 1941 the British Secret Service had John Waddington Ltd., the licensed manufacturer of the game outside the U.S., create a special edition for World War II prisoners of war held by the Nazis. Hidden inside these games were maps, compasses, real money, and other objects useful for escaping. They were distributed to prisoners by the International Red Cross.
By the 1970s, the game's early history had been lost (and at least one historian has argued that it was purposely suppressed - see below), and the idea that it had been created solely by Charles Darrow had become popular folklore. This was stated in the 1974 book The Monopoly Book: Strategy and Tactics of the World's Most Popular Game, by Maxine Brady, and even in the instructions of the game itself. As Professor Ralph Anspach fought Parker Brothers and its then parent company, General Mills, over the trademarks of the Monopoly board game, much of the early history of the game was "rediscovered."
Because of the lengthy court process, and appeals, the legal status of Parker Brothers' trademarks on the game was not settled until the mid-1980s. The game's name remains a registered trademark of Parker Brothers, as do its specific design elements. Parker Brothers' current corporate parent, Hasbro, again acknowledges only the role of Charles Darrow in the creation of the game. Anspach published a book about his research, called The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle (and republished as Monopolygate), in which he makes his case about the purposeful suppression of the game's early history and development.
Board
This is the original version produced by Charles Darrow, and later by Parker Brothers. The board consists of forty spaces containing twenty-eight properties, three Chance spaces, three Community Chest spaces, a Luxury Tax space, an Income Tax space, and the four corner squares: GO, Jail, Free Parking , and Go to Jail. In the U.S. versions shown below, the properties are named after locations in (or near) Atlantic City, New Jersey. However, as of September 2008, the layout of the board has been modified to more closely match the foreign-released versions, as shown in the two board layouts below. The notable changes are the colors of Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues changing from purple to brown, the colors of the GO square from red to black, and the adaptation of the flat $200 Income Tax (formerly the player's choice of 10% of their total holdings OR $200; players had to make a decision before calculating their total holdings) and increased $100 Luxury Tax (upped from $75) amounts. Similar color/amount changes are used in the U.S. Edition of the "Here And Now: World Edition" game , and are also used in the most recent version of the McDonald's Monopoly promotion.
US Board
($60)
US Info
A player who reaches the Jail space by a direct roll of the dice is said to be "just visiting", and continues normal play on the next turn.
Marvin Gardens , a yellow property on the board shown, is actually a misspelling of the original location name, Marven Gardens. Marven Gardens is not a street, but a housing area outside Atlantic City. The housing area is said to be derived from Margate City and Ventnor City in New Jersey (emphasis added). The misspelling was introduced by Charles Darrow when his home-made Monopoly board was copied by Parker Brothers. It was not until 1995 that Parker Brothers acknowledged this mistake and formally apologized to the residents of Marven Gardens for the misspelling. [2] Another change made by Todd and duplicated by Darrow, and later Parker Brothers, was the use of South Carolina Avenue. North Carolina Avenue was substituted for this street on the board.
Atlantic City's Illinois Avenue was renamed Martin Luther King Jr. Blvd. in the 1980s. Saint Charles Place no longer exists, as the Showboat Casino Hotel was developed where it once ran. [3]
Short Line is believed to refer to the Shore Fast Line, a streetcar line that served Atlantic City. [4] The B. & O. Railroad did not serve Atlantic City. A booklet included with the reprinted 1935 edition states that the four railroads that served Atlantic City in the mid 1930s were the Jersey Central, the Seashore Lines, the Reading Railroad, and the Pennsylvania Railroad . The actual "Electric Company" and "Water Works" serving the city are respectively Atlantic City Electric Company (a subsidiary of Pepco Holdings) and the Atlantic City Municipal Utilities Authority.
The other versions of the game have different property names, and the prices may be denominated in another currency, but the game mechanics are almost identical.
The original income tax choice from the U.S. version is replaced by a flat rate in the UK version, and the $75 Luxury Tax space is replaced with the £100 Super Tax space. The same is true of current German boards, with a €200 for the Income Tax space on the board, and a €100 Add-on tax in place of the Luxury Tax. An Austrian version, released by Parker Brothers/Hasbro in 2001, does allow for the 10% or $200 for Income Tax and has a $100 Luxury Tax. The choice of London main line stations is that of the four stations within the London and North Eastern Railway group. Starting with the September 2008 release, the U.S. Edition now also uses the flat $200 Income Tax value and the upped $100 Luxury Tax amount.
In the 1930s, John Waddington Ltd. (Waddingtons) was a firm of printers from Leeds that had begun to branch out into packaging and the production of playing cards. Waddingtons had sent the card game Lexicon to Parker Brothers hoping to interest them in publishing the game in the United States. In a similar fashion, Parker Brothers sent over a copy of Monopoly to Waddingtons early in 1935 before the game had been put into production in the United States.
The managing director of Waddingtons, Victor Watson, gave the game to his son Norman (who was head of the card games division) to test over the weekend. Norman was impressed by the game and persuaded his father to call Parker Brothers on Monday morning - transatlantic calls then being almost unheard of. This call resulted in Waddingtons obtaining a license to produce and market the game outside of the United States. Watson felt that in order for the game to be a success in the United Kingdom the American locations would have to be replaced, so Victor and his secretary, Marjory Phillips, went to London to scout out locations. The Angel, Islington is not a street in London but an area of North London named after a coaching inn that stood on the Great North Road. By the 1930s the inn had become a Lyons Corner House (it is now a Co-operative Bank). Some accounts say that Marjory and Victor met at the Angel to discuss the selection and celebrated the fact by including it on the Monopoly board. In 2003, a plaque commemorating the naming was unveiled at the site by Victor Watson's grandson who is also named Victor.
The standard English board, produced by Waddingtons, was for many years the version most familiar to people in countries in the Commonwealth (except Canada, where the U.S. edition with Atlantic City-area names was reprinted), although local variants of the board are now also found in several of these countries.
UK Board
In the cases where the game was produced under license by a national company, the £ (pound) was replaced by a $ (dollar) sign, but the place names were unchanged.
Standard (UK Edition) Monopoly game board layout
For a list of some of the localized versions, including the UK "Here & Now" edition, and the names of their properties.
Recent variations
Starting in the UK in 2005, an updated version of the game entitled Monopoly Here and Now was produced, replacing game scenarios, properties, and tokens with modern equivalents. Similar boards were produced for Germany and France. Variants of these first editions appeared with Visa-branded debit cards taking the place of cash - the later US "Electronic Banking" edition has unbranded debit cards.
The success of the first Here and Now editions caused Hasbro US to allow online voting for 26 landmark properties across the United States to take their places along the game board. The popularity of this voting, in turn, caused the creation of similar websites, and secondary game boards per popular vote to be created in the UK, France, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and other nations.
Hasbro opened a new website in January 2008, for online voting of the Monopoly Here and Now: World Edition. The colored property spaces will be worldwide cities, going by the same vote/popularity formula as established for national editions.
In 2006, Winning Moves Games released another edition, the Mega Edition, with a larger game board (50% bigger) and revised game play. Other streets from Atlantic City (eight, one per a color group) were included, along with a third "utility", the Gas Company. In addition, $1000 denomination notes (first seen in Winning Moves' "Monopoly: The Card Game") are included. Game play is further changed with bus tickets (allowing non-dice-roll movement along one side of the board), a speed die (itself adopted into variants of the Atlantic City Standard Edition; see below), skyscrapers (after houses and hotels), and train depots that can be placed on the Railroad spaces.
This edition was adapted for the UK market in 2007, and is sold by Winning Moves UK. After the initial US release, critiques of some of the rules caused the company to issue revisions and clarifications on their website.
In 2009, Winning Moves Games introduced "The Classic Edition", with a pre-2008 game board and cards, re-inclusion of the " sack of money " playing piece, and a plain MONOPOLY logo in the center of the board, with neither the 1985 or 2008 version of "Mr. Monopoly" present.
World editions
In 1998, Winning Moves procured the Monopoly license from Hasbro and created new UK city and regional editions with sponsored squares.
Winning Moves struggled to raise the sponsorship deals for the game boards, but did so eventually. A Nottingham Graphic Design agency, TMA, produced the visual design of the Monopoly packaging. Initially, in December 1998, the game was sold in just a few WHSmith stores, but demand was high, with almost fifty thousand games shipped in the 4 weeks leading up to Christmas. Winning Moves still produce new city and regional editions annually. Nottingham based designers Guppi have been responsible for the games' visual design since 2001.
In 2008, Hasbro released a world edition of Monopoly Here & Now. This world edition features top locations of the world. The locations were decided by votes over the Internet. The result of the voting was announced on August 20, 2008.
Dark Blue: Montreal, Riga
Light Blue: Athens, Barcelona, Tokyo
Brown: Taipei, Gdynia
Out of these, Gdynia is especially notable, as it is by far the smallest city of those featured and won the vote thanks to a spontaneous, large-scale mobilization of support started by its citizens. The new game will not use any particular currency; it uses millions and thousands. As seen above, there is no Dark Purple color-group, as that is replaced by brown.
It's also notable that three cities (Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver) are from Canada and three other cities (Beijing, Hong Kong, Shanghai) are from the People's Republic of China, while the other cities all only represent one country.
Equipment
Each player is represented by a small metal token that is moved around the edge of the board according to the roll of two dice . The twelve playing pieces currently used are pictured at left (from left to right): a wheelbarrow (1937b edition), a battleship, a sack of money (1999–2007 editions), a horse and rider, a car, a train (Deluxe Edition only), a thimble, a howitzer, an old style shoe (sometimes called a boot), a Scottie dog, an iron, and a top hat.
Many of the tokens came from companies such as Dowst Miniature Toy Company, which made metal charms and tokens designed to be used on charm bracelets. The battleship and cannon were also used briefly in the Parker Brothers war game Conflict (released in 1940), but after the game failed on the market, the premade pieces were recycled into Monopoly usage. [5] Hasbro recently adopted the battleship and cannon for Diplomacy.
Early localized editions of the standard edition (including some Canadian editions, which used the U.S. board layout) did not include pewter tokens but instead had generic wooden head-shaped tokens identical to those in Sorry! [6] Parker Brothers also acquired Sorry! in the 1930s.
Other items included in the standard edition are:
A pair of six-sided dice . (NOTE: Since 2007, a third "Speed Die" has been added--see ADD-ONS below.)
A Title Deed for each property. A Title Deed is given to a player to signify ownership, and specifies purchase price, mortgage value, the cost of building houses and hotels on that property, and the various rent prices depending on how developed the property is. Properties include:
22 streets, divided into 8 color groups of two or three streets. A player must own all of a color group (have a monopoly) in order to build houses or hotels. If a player wants to mortgage one property of a color-group, not only must any houses or hotels be removed from that property, but from the others in the color-group as well.
4 railways. Players collect $25 rent if they own one station, $50 if they own two, $100 if they own three and $200 if they own all four. These are usually replaced by railway stations in non-U.S. editions of Monopoly.
2 utilities. Rent is four times dice value if player owns one utility, but 10 times dice value if player owns both. Hotels and houses cannot be built on utilities or stations.
A supply of paper money. The supply of money is theoretically unlimited; if the bank runs out of money the players must make do with other markers, or calculate on paper. Additional paper money can be bought at certain locations, notably game and hobby stores, or downloaded from various websites and printed and cut by hand (one such site has created a $1,000 bill for the game; it is not one of the standard denominations). In the original U.S. standard editions, the supply generally starts with $15,140. The winner of the quadrennial Monopoly World Championship receives the same amount in United States dollars. [7] [NOTE: This base money amount has changed--see below.]
The term "Monopoly money" has been used to refer to currencies which cannot be used to purchase goods and services on the free market, such as exchange certificates printed by the Burmese government which must be used by foreign aid organizations. [8]
32 wooden or plastic houses and 12 wooden or plastic hotels (the original and the current Deluxe Edition have wooden houses and hotels; the current "base set" uses plastic buildings). Unlike money, houses and hotels have a finite supply. If no more are available, no substitute is allowed.
A deck of 16 Chance cards and a deck of 16 Community Chest cards. Players draw these cards when they land on the corresponding squares of the track, and follow the instructions printed on them.
Hasbro also sells a Deluxe Edition, which is mostly identical to the classic edition but has wooden houses and hotels and gold-toned tokens, including one token in addition to the standard eleven, a railroad locomotive. Other additions to the Deluxe Edition include a card carousel, which holds the title deed cards, and money printed with two colors of ink.
In 1978, retailer Neiman Marcus manufactured and sold an all-Chocolate edition of Monopoly through its "Christmas Wish Book" for that year. The entire set was edible, including the money, dice, hotels, properties, tokens and playing board. The set retailed for $600.
In 2000, the FAO Schwarz store in New York City sold a custom version called One-Of-A-Kind Monopoly for $100,000. [9] This special edition comes in a locking attaché case made with Napolino leather and lined in suede, and features include:
18-carat (75%) gold tokens, houses, and hotels
Rosewood board
street names written in gold leaf
emeralds around the Chance icon
sapphires around the Community Chest
rubies in the brake lights of the car on the Free Parking Space
the money is real, negotiable United States currency
The Guinness Book of World Records states that a set worth $2,000,000 and made of 23-carat gold, with rubies and sapphires atop the chimneys of the houses and hotels, is the most expensive Monopoly set ever produced. [10]
The distribution of cash in the U.S. version has changed with the newer release versions. Older versions had a total of $15,140 in the following amounts/colors:
20 $500 Bills (orange)
40 $5 Bills (pink)
40 $1 Bills (white)
The newer (Sept. 2008) editions have a total of $20,580, with 30 of each bill denomination. In addition, the colors of some of the bills have been changed; $10's are now blue instead of yellow, $20's are a brighter color green than before, and $50's are now purple instead of blue.
Each player begins the game with his or her token on the Go square, and $1500 (or 1500 of a localized currency) in play money. Prior to Sept. 2008, the money was divided as follows in the U.S. standard rules:
Two each of:
One x $/£5
Five x $/£1
Pre-Euro German editions of the game started with 30,000 "Spielmark" in eight denominations (abbreviated as "M."), and later used seven denominations of the "Deutsche Mark" ("DM."). In the classic Italian game, each player receives ₤350,000 ($3500) in a two-player game, but ₤50,000 ($500) less for each player more than two. Only in a six-player game does a player receive the equivalent of $1500. The classic Italian games were played with only four denominations of currency. At least one Spanish edition (the Barcelona edition) started the game with 150,000 in play money, with a breakdown identical to that of the American version.
All property deeds, houses, and hotels are held by the bank until bought by the players. Free passes may be issued if the owner of the property is using free passes as a transaction.
Rules
Main Article: Rules
Players take turns in order, with the initial player determined by chance before the game; with each player rolling the dice and the player who rolled the highest number going first. A typical turn begins with the rolling of the dice and advancing clockwise around the board the corresponding number of squares. Landing on Chance or Community Chest, a player draws the top card from the respective pile. If the player lands on an unowned property, whether street, railroad, or utility, he can buy the property for its listed purchase price. If he declines this purchase, the property is auctioned off by the bank to the highest bidder, including the player who declined to buy. If the property landed on is already owned and unmortgaged, he must pay the owner a given rent, the price dependent on whether the property is part of a monopoly or its level of development. If a player rolls doubles, he rolls again after completing his turn. Three sets of doubles in a row, however, land the player in jail. During a turn, players may also choose to develop or mortgage properties. Development involves the construction, for given amounts of money paid to the bank, of houses or hotels. Development must be uniform across a monopoly, such that a second house cannot be built on one property in a monopoly until the others have one house. No merges between players are allowed. All developments must be sold before a property can be mortgaged. The player receives money from the bank for each mortgaged property, which must be repaid with interest to unmortgage. Houses are returned to the bank for half their purchase price.
Parker Brothers' official instructions have long encouraged the use of House Rules, specific additions to or subtractions from the official rule sets. Many casual Monopoly players are surprised to discover that some of the rules that they are used to are not part of the official rules. Many of these house rules tend to make the game longer by randomly giving players more money. Some common house rules are listed below:
At the start of the game $2000 is given out to each of the players instead of $1500. Each player gets 2 500s, 4 100s, 6 50s, 8 20s, 8 10s, 10 5s, and 10 1s
Free Parking jackpot, which usually consists of an initial stake (typically $500, or $5 million in the Here & Now Edition) plus collections of fines and taxes otherwise paid to the bank. A player who lands on Free Parking wins the jackpot, which may then be reset with the initial stake (if any). The jackpot is usually put in the center of the board. Since the jackpot forms an additional income for players in this set of house rules, games can take a much longer time than under normal rules.
Eliminating the auction if a player decides not to purchase a property.
Requiring that every property be put up for auction (this eliminates some of the luck in the game of landing on particular squares and forces players to strategize more).
Allowing an unlimited number of houses to be available from the bank. When this house rule is implemented, substitute counters or written tallies are often employed to allay the actual shortage of house tokens in a standard game box.
Agreeing that each player be allowed to collect all of a color group once they have 'staked a claim' by buying only one of those properties. The same agreement may or may not be carried over to the rail stations and utilities.
Players in jail cannot collect rent, build houses, or conduct trades. This can be combined with increasing the price to get out of jail considerably (normally $50, or $500,000 in the Here & Now Edition). Together, these rules make jail a far more significant burden than that listed in the normal rules. Other players may bail the player out of jail but only if the player agrees.
A bonus for landing directly on Go by dice roll (commonly an additional $200 or $500). This may or may not include cards that send the player to Go.
Delayed Start: Players must pass Go (or circle the board at least once, or rarely twice) before they can buy property.
Only allowing houses (or hotels) to be built when the owner lands on the group
A bonus for rolling snake eyes (a pair of ones), often $500, $100, or one of each bill.
All properties are handed out evenly to all players before the game begins, or one or two are dealt to each player. This variation is in the official US and UK rules as a short game option.
In trades, players may offer "rent immunity" from their own properties (someone does not have to pay rent for landing on that property) as part of a deal (this can be good for a certain number of landings or the entire game).
Unlimited amounts of hotels on each space.
House rules, while unofficial, are not wholly unrecognized by Parker Brothers. George S. Parker himself created two variants, to shorten the length of game play. Video game and computer game versions of Monopoly have options where popular house rules can be used. House rules that have the effect of randomly introducing more money into the game have a side-effect of increasing the time it takes for players to become bankrupt, lengthening the game considerably, as well as decreasing the effects of strategy and prudent investment. House rules which increase the amount of money in the game may change the strategies of the players, such as changing the relative value of different properties- the more money in the game, the more one may wish to invest in the higher value properties.
Strategy
Monopoly involves a portion of luck, with the roll of the dice determining whether a player gets to own key properties or lands on squares with high rents. Even the initial misfortune of going last is a significant disadvantage because one is more likely to land on property which has already been bought and therefore be forced to pay rent instead of having an opportunity to buy unowned property. There are, however, many strategic decisions which allow skilled players to win more often than the unskilled. Hasbro also offers a helpful strategy guide and different insights on their site. According to the laws of probability, seven is the most probable roll of two dice, with a probability of 1 in 6, whereas 2 and 12 are the least probable rolls, each with a probability of one in 36. For this reason, Park Place/Park Lane is one of the least landed-on squares as the square seven places behind it is Go to Jail.
In consequence, some properties are landed upon more than others and the owners of those properties get more income from rent. The board layout factors include the following:
Jail: Since players are frequently directed to "Go To Jail", they will move through the magenta, orange, and red property groups immediately after leaving Jail. The two properties with the highest probability of being landed upon after leaving jail are the two cheaper orange properties (St James Place and Tennessee Avenue in North America and Bow Street and Marlborough Street outside North America). This makes the orange property set highly lucrative.
Go to…: One square — Go To Jail — plus a number of Chance and Community Chest cards will cause the player to advance a distance around the board. Thus, the squares immediately following Go To Jail and the take-a-card squares have a reduced probability of being landed upon. The least-landed upon property in this situation is the cheaper dark blue property (Park Place or Park Lane) because it sits in the lee of both Go to Jail and Community Chest (the Chance directly before it would not affect its odds because it is impossible to roll a one).
Go to (property): Several properties are blessed with Chance cards which draw players to them. St Charles Place (Pall Mall), Illinois Avenue (Trafalgar Square), Boardwalk (Mayfair), all of the railroads except Short Line (Liverpool Street Station), and both of the utilities benefit from this feature. Reading Railroad (King's Cross Station) has the fortune of having both a "go to" dedicated card plus the card advancing to the nearest railroad.
Advance to Go: A player may be directed to the Go square by a Chance or a Community Chest card, thus lowering the probability of being landed-upon of every square in-between. The properties most affected by this are the yellow, green, and dark blue sets. It also marginally raises the probability for each square in the wake of Go, including the purple and orange sets which will be reached two or three rolls after being on Go.
Go Back Three Spaces: This directive comes from a Chance card. A quick look at the board shows that there are three Chance squares and hence three other squares which are 3 spaces behind (one being a Community Chest space, another being Income Tax, and the third being the leading orange property). The leading orange property (New York Avenue or Vine Street) gains the most benefit from this card since the Chance square nestled amongst the red properties is itself the most landed-upon Chance square.
According to Jim Slater in The Mayfair Set, there is an overwhelming case for having the orange sites, because you land on them more often, the reason for that being the cards in Chance like Go to Jail, Advance to St. Charles Place (Pall Mall ), Advance to Reading Railroad (King's Cross Station) and Go Back Three Spaces.
In all, during game play, Illinois Avenue (Trafalgar Square), New York Avenue (Vine Street), B&O Railroad (Fenchurch Street Station), and Reading Railroad (King's Cross Station) are the most frequently landed-upon properties. Mediterranean Avenue (Old Kent Road) and Baltic Avenue (Whitechapel Road) are the least-landed-upon properties.
Limited number of houses and hotels
In order to put a cap on total development of property sets in the game, there are only 12 hotels and 32 houses. This limitation is in place to ensure that property sets cannot be developed unless there are houses or hotels available to purchase from the bank. This cap allows a certain amount of dominance to be developed by some players, because if every set of property were fully developed there would be enough rent collected between different players to allow the game to drag on for an extended period. This limitation on numbers of houses and hotels leads to an advantage for one player. Simply building each lot out to a maximum of 4 houses and then refusing to upgrade to hotels ensures that nearly the maximum amount of rent is collected for each property, and the monopolization of the houses from the game prevents opponents from developing their property. It is conceivable that a single player could end up owning all 32 houses near the end of the game, and the refusal to upgrade to hotels makes these houses unavailable for opponents to purchase for any property they may own.
Much of the skill comes from knowing how to make the best use of a player's resources and above all knowing how to strike a good bargain. Monopoly is a social game where players often interact and must deal with each other in ways similar to real world real estate bargaining. Note that the best deal is not always for the most expensive property; it is often situational, dependent on money resources available to each player and even where players happen to be situated on the board. When looking to deal, a player should attempt to bargain with another player who not only possess properties he or she needs but also properties the other player needs. In fact, offering relatively fair deals to other players can end up helping the player making the offer by giving him or her a reputation as an honest trader, which can make players less wary of dealings in the future. What is more, most people play Monopoly with the same group repeatedly. For this reason, such a reputation can have effects far beyond the game being played.
The end game
One common criticism of Monopoly is that it has carefully defined yet almost unreachable termination conditions. Edward P. Parker, a former president of Parker Brothers , is quoted as saying, "We always felt that forty-five minutes was about the right length for a game, but Monopoly could go on for hours. Also, a game was supposed to have a definite end somewhere. In Monopoly you kept going around and around." However, the problem of time can be resolved by playing with a time limit and counting each player's net worth when the time is up. In fact, tournament play calls for a 90-minute time limit. [11] Two hour time limits are used for international play. [12] The Lord of the Rings edition gives players the option of creating a random time limit using the included One Ring token and specialized dice. The SpongeBob SquarePants game board includes a Plankton piece that moves every time someone rolls snake eyes with the dice, and the game is over when it reaches the end of the board.
Played strictly to the rules, many games will be effectively decided when one player succeeds in bankrupting another because the bankrupt player gives all his property to the one to whom he could not pay his debt. A player who thus gains a fistful of properties will virtually control the game from that point onwards since other players will be constantly at risk. On the other hand, if a player is bankrupted by being unable to meet his debt to the bank (e.g., a fine or tax or other debt that is not rent), then his property is auctioned off; this can open up new possibilities in a game which was evenly set or in which a lot of property sets were divided among the players.
The Monopoly Mega Edition is geared towards faster play by incorporating more squares and enabling players to build without the full color-group.
Another path to a faster ending is by a key property bargain, whether it be a very shrewd trade which sets one player up with a well-positioned set or a very rash trade where an inexperienced player gives his experienced opponent an underpriced gem. Either way, a deal which pays off for one player is most often the turning point of the game.
A third way to finish the game is to wait for all of the property to be bought. Once this has occurred, the player with the highest value of money and assets is victorious.
Another way is to remove the $200 bonus gained by passing "Go". This ensures that players run out of money quickly.
Some players, in an attempt to lessen the huge advantage gained by the first player to bankrupt another player, have the bankrupted player pay what he can to the player he is indebted to (including the money from mortgages), and then forfeit the properties, so that they are back on the market and open to purchase by other players.
Hasbro states that the longest game of Monopoly ever played lasted 1,680 hours (70 days or 10 weeks or 2 1/3 months). [13]
Add-ons
Numerous add-ons have been made for Monopoly, both before its commercialization and after. Three such official add-ons are discussed below.
Stock Exchange
The Stock Exchange add-on was originally published by Parker Brothers in 1936 ( wikibook ). The Free Parking square is covered over by a new Stock Exchange space and the add-on included three Chance and three Community Chest cards directing the player to "Advance to Stock Exchange".
The add-on also included thirty stock certificates, five for each of the six different stocks, differing only in the purchase price (or Par Value), ranging from $100 to $150. Shares, like properties, are tradeable material, and could also be mortgaged for half their purchase price. Shareholders could increase the value of their shares by buying up more of the same company's shares.
When a player moves onto Free Parking/Stock Exchange, stock dividends are paid out to all players on their non-mortgaged shares. The amount to be paid out to each player is determined based on the number and kind of shares owned. Specifically, a player receives dividends from each stock based on the following formula:
(par value of share / 10) × (number of shares owned)2
EXAMPLE: Owning one share of "Motion Pictures" (par value $100) pays dividends of $10. Owning two shares pays $40 ($10 x 2 x 2), owning three pays $90 ($10 x 3 x 3) and owning four pays $160 ($10 x 4 x 4). A player owning all five receives $250 ($10 x 5 x 5).
The player who lands on Free Parking/Stock Exchange can also choose to buy a share if any remain. Should the player decline, the share is auctioned to the highest bidder by the Bank.
The Stock Exchange add-on serves to inject more money into the game, in a similar manner to railroad properties, as well as changing the relative values of properties. In particular, the Orange and Light Purple properties are more valuable due to the increased chance of landing on Free Parking, at the expense of the Red and Yellow groups.
The Stock Exchange add-on was later redesigned and rereleased in 1992 under license by Chessex, this time including a larger number of new Chance and Community Chest cards. [14] This version included ten new Chance cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and five other related cards) and eleven new Community Chest cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and six other related cards; the regular Community Chest card "From sale of stock you get $45" is removed from play when using these cards). Many of the original rules applied to this new version (in fact, one optional play choice allows for playing in the original form by only adding the "Advance to Stock Exchange" cards to each deck).
A Monopoly Stock Exchange Edition was released in 2001 (although not in the US), this time adding an electronic calculator-like device to keep track of the complex stock figures. This was a full edition, not just an add-on, that came with its own board, money and playing pieces. Properties on the board were replaced by companies on which shares could be floated, and offices and home offices (instead of houses and hotels) could be built. [15]
Playmaster
Playmaster, another official add-on, released in 1982, was an electronic device that kept track of all player movement and dice rolls as well as what properties are still available. It then uses this information to call random auctions and mortgages that will be advantageous for some players and a punishment for others, making it easier to free up cards of a color group. It also plays eight short tunes when key game functions occur, for example when a player lands on a railroad it will play I've Been Working on the Railroad. [16]
Speed Die
In 2007, Parker Brothers began releasing its standard version of Monopoly with a new addition to gameplay--the Speed Die. ( http://www.hasbro.com/common/instruct/00009.pdf ) First included in Winning Moves' Monopoly: The Mega Edition variant, this third die alters gameplay by allowing players to increase their move up to 3 spaces (rolling one of the 3 numbered sides); move immediately to the next unowned property OR to the next property on which they would owe money (rolling one of 2 "Mr. Monopoly" sides); or "Get Off The Bus Early" (rolling the "Bus" side), allowing the player to use the total from one die or both dice to move (i.e. A roll of 1-5-BUS would let the player choose from moving 1, 5 or 6 spaces). Usage of the die in the regular game differs slightly from use in the Mega Edition (i.e. Players use the Speed Die from the beginning in Mega; players can only use the Speed Die in the regular game AFTER their first time going past GO). [17]
Spinoffs
Feature Film
On June 19, 2007, Ridley Scott announced that he was directing a futuristic comedy-thriller based on the game, featuring a variety of young actors to generate interest in the game. Scarlett Johansson and Kirsten Dunst have been considered so far. [18] However, that version of the film ended up being shelved and Emmet Furla Productions took over the project, with production slated to commence in Summer 2015. It is now described as being in the vein of Goonies.
Other games
Besides the many variants of the actual game (and the Monopoly Junior spin-off) released in either video game or computer game formats (e.g. Windows-based PC, Macintosh, Game Boy, Game Boy Advance, Sega Genesis, Commodore 64, etc.), two spin-off computer games have been created.
Monopoly Tycoon is a PC game in the Tycoon series that makes strategy and speed into determining factors for winning the game, eliminating completely the element of luck inherent in the dice rolls of the original. The game uses the U.S. standard Atlantic City properties as its basis, but the game play is unique to this version. The game also allows for solo and multi-player online games.
Monopoly Casino is also a PC game, simulating a casino full of Monopoly-based adaptations of various casino games (most notably, slot machines). This program was released in both standard and "Vegas" editions, each featuring unique games.
Monopoly: Star Wars is another PC game based on the standard Monopoly board but with Star Wars characters and locations.
Here and Now Electronic Edition : Eliminates the need for money, using credit cards instead.
Monopoly Slots, a mobile app slot machine game with a Monopoly theme
Monopoly Hotels, a mobile social app game
Monopoly Casino, a mobile app gambling game with a Monopoly theme
Game show versions
Main article: Monopoly (TV game show)
A short-lived Monopoly game show aired on Saturday evenings during mid-1990 on ABC. The show was produced by Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy! creator Merv Griffin, and was hosted by former Jeopardy! contestant Mike Reilly. Three contestants competed by answering crossword puzzle-style clues to acquire the many properties on the board and money equivalent to the values of said properties (with bonuses added for getting monopolies). After the properties were acquired and players used the earned money to improve them with houses and hotels, a timed "Monopoly Game Round" was played, allowing players to earn even more money by landing on their properties and answering more word clues. When time was up, the player with the most money won the game, and then went on to play the Bonus Game. In the Bonus Game, the contestant had to choose 4 properties on the board to convert to "Go To Jail" spaces. Along with the actual "Go To Jail" space, the contestant rolled the dice up to five times (with extra rolls added for each double rolled) and had to pass GO without landing on a "Go To Jail" space. If the contestant passed GO before running out of rolls or landing on a "Go To Jail" space, they won $25,000; however if the contestant landed EXACTLY on GO, they would win $50,000. The show was paired on ABC with a summer-long Super Jeopardy! tournament!
Monopoly Millionaires' Club
Main article: Monopoly Millionaires' Club (TV game show)
A new Monopoly game show based on the short-lived lottery game will be airing on TV stations in selected cities and on GSN beginning this March. As of October 2014, it had been sold to stations in the 44 states and the District of Columbia (including non-MMC states) where lotteries are held. [22] [23] Taped at The Rio in Las Vegas , each episode will feature five contestants playing Monopoly-inspired games to win up to $100,000 each, and the possibility to risk their winnings for a chance to win $1 million. Despite the suspension of the lottery game, the series and a second set of tapings proceeded. [24] [22]
Texas Lottery players who "won" a trip-for-two prize package received $10,000 instead; contestants and audience members chosen for the first two series of tapings represent the other 22 MMC members.
Nine additional episodes are planned to be filmed in summer 2015 to accommodate participants of the scratch-off game.
Gambling games
In North America, a variety of slot machines and lotteries have been produced with a Monopoly theme. In Europe, there were also Monopoly "fruit machines", some of which remain popular through emulation. The British quiz machine brand itbox also supports a Monopoly trivia and chance game, which, like most other itbox games, costs 50p (£0.50) to play and has a £20 jackpot, although this is very rarely won. There is also an online slot machine version of the game made by WMS which is a 19 reel traditional style casino game.
There was also a live, online version of Monopoly. Six painted taxis drive around London picking up passengers. When the taxis reach their final destination, the region of London that they are in is displayed on the online board. This version takes far longer to play than board-game monopoly, with one game lasting 24 hours. Results and position are sent to players via e-mail at the conclusion of the game.
Commercial Promotions
Main article: McDonald's Monopoly
The McDonald's Monopoly game is a sweepstakes advertising promotion of McDonald's and Hasbro that has been offered in the United States, Canada, Germany, United Kingdom, and Australia. The game mimics the game of Monopoly. Originally, customers received a set of two tokens with every purchase, but now tokens only come with certain menu items. Tokens correspond to a property space on the Monopoly board. When combined into color-matched properties, the tokens may be redeemed for money or prizes There are also "instant win" tokens the recipient can redeem for McDonald's food, money, or other prizes.
Variants
Because Monopoly evolved in the public domain before its commercialization, Monopoly has seen many variant games. Most of these are exact copies of the Monopoly games with the street names replaced with locales from a particular town, university, or fictional place. National boards have been released as well. Many of these are listed at "Localized versions of the Monopoly game". Details, including box cover art, can be seen in the "List of licensed Monopoly game boards". Over the years, many specialty Monopoly editions, licensed by Parker Brothers/Hasbro, and produced by them, or their licensees (including USAopoly and Winning Moves Games) have been sold to local and national markets worldwide. Two well known "families" of -opoly like games, without licenses from Parker Brothers/Hasbro, have also been produced.
Several published games are similar to Monopoly. These include:
Totopoly , created by Waddingtons in 1938, is based around horse racing.
Anti-Monopoly , created by Ralph Anspach in 1974.
Triopoly , designed by Jeffrey W. Berndt, Chris Hornbaker, & Jeremy Parish, published by Reveal Entertainment, Inc. in 1997
Late for the Sky , has produced a large number of Monopoly style games, called "___ in a box" or "___ -opoly" , the blank being filled in with the theme.
Chômageopoly, "Unemployment Monopoly", a board game created by the Lip factory in the 1970s
Dinosauropoly, a version using prehistoric motifs and rules.
Easy Money , published by Milton Bradley, also in the 1930s.
The Farming Game is a board game in which the goal is to run a financially successful farm, and like Monopoly the heart of the game is economics. The game's website draws comparisons to Monopoly.
Fast Food Franchise is a board game by TimJim games which shares Monopoly's core mechanic, but through careful design guarantees that it will actually end.
La gran Capital, published by several Chilean factories, is a Chilean version of the game, with neighborhoods from Santiago de Chile. The title means "the big capital", other versions are even named "Metropolis"
The Fascinating Game of Finance, later shortened to Finance, first marketed in 1932 by Knapp Electric, and later by Parker Brothers.
Go For Broke, the exact opposite of Monopoly, has the players trying to spend all their money before anyone else. Bad bets at the casino, real estate, stock market, race track, and giving to the poor house lowers your account balance. This was a Milton Bradley game originally published in the mid-1960s.
Ghettopoly, released in 2003, caused considerable offense upon its release. The game, intended to be a humorous rendering of ghetto life, was decried as racist for its unflinching use of racial stereotypes. Hasbro sought and received an injunction against Ghettopoly's designer. [25] [26]
Greekopoly, a college-themed version using fraternities and sororities as properties.
Potopoly, A marijuana-themed version, using a five-sided board, and bags instead of houses.
Itadaki Street, also called Fortune Street in North America, and Boom Street in Europe, is a series of board games for video game consoles from Square-Enix.
Poleconomy, a board game designed in New Zealand incorporating real-world companies as well as political and economic strategy.
The Mad Magazine Game, a Mad Magazine themed board game in which the object of the game is for player to lose all their money, play is counter-clockwise, and the dice must be rolled with the left hand. Released by Parker Brothers in 1979.
Make Your Own Opoly is a game set sold by TDC Games of Itasca, Illinois. Using a Microsoft Windows-based PC, a person can print out his or her own property cards, labels to place on the board and the box, and play money. [27]
Solarquest, a popular space-age adaptation, was released by Golden in 1986.
Strictly Pittsburgh, a variant based around the city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In addition to properties being replaced with local Pittsburgh sites and businesses, it contained a somewhat different board layout and replaced houses and hotels with skyscrapers.
Dostihy a sázky, a variant sold in Czechoslovakia. This game comes from the totalitarian communist era (1948–1989), when private businesses were forbidden and mortgages didn't exist. So the monopoly theme was changed to a horse races theme. Complete rules and game plan (in Czech)
Petropolis, a copy of Monopoly based in buying into the oil industry, using oilfields. The game uses 'telex messages' instead of Chance cards and the playing board snakes round into the middle before continuing round the edge.
Turista, a Mexican copy of Monopoly made by Montecarlo board game manufacturer. It is based in buying Mexican States. In each state it is possible to build gas stations and hotel to increase the rent amount.
Gallery
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History
The history of Monopoly can be traced back to the early 1900s. In 1904, a Quaker woman named Elizabeth (Lizzie) J. Magie Phillips created a game through which she hoped to be able to explain the single tax theory of Henry George (it was supposed to illustrate the negative aspects of concentrating land in private monopolies). Her game, The Landlord's Game, was commercially published a few years later. Other interested game players redeveloped the game and some made their own sets. Lizzie herself patented a revised edition of the game in 1904, and similar games were published commercially. By the early 1930s, a board game named Monopoly was created much like the version of Monopoly sold by Parker Brothers and its parent companies throughout the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st. The Parker Brothers' version was created by Charles Darrow . Several people, mostly in the U.S. Midwest and near the U.S. East Coast, contributed to the game's design and evolution.
In 1941 the British Secret Service had John Waddington Ltd., the licensed manufacturer of the game outside the U.S., create a special edition for World War II prisoners of war held by the Nazis. Hidden inside these games were maps, compasses, real money, and other objects useful for escaping. They were distributed to prisoners by the International Red Cross.
By the 1970s, the game's early history had been lost (and at least one historian has argued that it was purposely suppressed - see below), and the idea that it had been created solely by Charles Darrow had become popular folklore. This was stated in the 1974 book The Monopoly Book: Strategy and Tactics of the World's Most Popular Game, by Maxine Brady, and even in the instructions of the game itself. As Professor Ralph Anspach fought Parker Brothers and its then parent company, General Mills, over the trademarks of the Monopoly board game, much of the early history of the game was "rediscovered."
Because of the lengthy court process, and appeals, the legal status of Parker Brothers' trademarks on the game was not settled until the mid-1980s. The game's name remains a registered trademark of Parker Brothers, as do its specific design elements. Parker Brothers' current corporate parent, Hasbro, again acknowledges only the role of Charles Darrow in the creation of the game. Anspach published a book about his research, called The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle (and republished as Monopolygate), in which he makes his case about the purposeful suppression of the game's early history and development.
Board
This is the original version produced by Charles Darrow, and later by Parker Brothers. The board consists of forty spaces containing twenty-eight properties, three Chance spaces, three Community Chest spaces, a Luxury Tax space, an Income Tax space, and the four corner squares: GO, Jail, Free Parking , and Go to Jail. In the U.S. versions shown below, the properties are named after locations in (or near) Atlantic City, New Jersey. However, as of September 2008, the layout of the board has been modified to more closely match the foreign-released versions, as shown in the two board layouts below. The notable changes are the colors of Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues changing from purple to brown, the colors of the GO square from red to black, and the adaptation of the flat $200 Income Tax (formerly the player's choice of 10% of their total holdings OR $200; players had to make a decision before calculating their total holdings) and increased $100 Luxury Tax (upped from $75) amounts. Similar color/amount changes are used in the U.S. Edition of the "Here And Now: World Edition" game , and are also used in the most recent version of the McDonald's Monopoly promotion.
US Board
($60)
US Info
A player who reaches the Jail space by a direct roll of the dice is said to be "just visiting", and continues normal play on the next turn.
Marvin Gardens , a yellow property on the board shown, is actually a misspelling of the original location name, Marven Gardens. Marven Gardens is not a street, but a housing area outside Atlantic City. The housing area is said to be derived from Margate City and Ventnor City in New Jersey (emphasis added). The misspelling was introduced by Charles Darrow when his home-made Monopoly board was copied by Parker Brothers. It was not until 1995 that Parker Brothers acknowledged this mistake and formally apologized to the residents of Marven Gardens for the misspelling. [2] Another change made by Todd and duplicated by Darrow, and later Parker Brothers, was the use of South Carolina Avenue. North Carolina Avenue was substituted for this street on the board.
Atlantic City's Illinois Avenue was renamed Martin Luther King Jr. Blvd. in the 1980s. Saint Charles Place no longer exists, as the Showboat Casino Hotel was developed where it once ran. [3]
Short Line is believed to refer to the Shore Fast Line, a streetcar line that served Atlantic City. [4] The B. & O. Railroad did not serve Atlantic City. A booklet included with the reprinted 1935 edition states that the four railroads that served Atlantic City in the mid 1930s were the Jersey Central, the Seashore Lines, the Reading Railroad, and the Pennsylvania Railroad . The actual "Electric Company" and "Water Works" serving the city are respectively Atlantic City Electric Company (a subsidiary of Pepco Holdings) and the Atlantic City Municipal Utilities Authority.
The other versions of the game have different property names, and the prices may be denominated in another currency, but the game mechanics are almost identical.
The original income tax choice from the U.S. version is replaced by a flat rate in the UK version, and the $75 Luxury Tax space is replaced with the £100 Super Tax space. The same is true of current German boards, with a €200 for the Income Tax space on the board, and a €100 Add-on tax in place of the Luxury Tax. An Austrian version, released by Parker Brothers/Hasbro in 2001, does allow for the 10% or $200 for Income Tax and has a $100 Luxury Tax. The choice of London main line stations is that of the four stations within the London and North Eastern Railway group. Starting with the September 2008 release, the U.S. Edition now also uses the flat $200 Income Tax value and the upped $100 Luxury Tax amount.
In the 1930s, John Waddington Ltd. (Waddingtons) was a firm of printers from Leeds that had begun to branch out into packaging and the production of playing cards. Waddingtons had sent the card game Lexicon to Parker Brothers hoping to interest them in publishing the game in the United States. In a similar fashion, Parker Brothers sent over a copy of Monopoly to Waddingtons early in 1935 before the game had been put into production in the United States.
The managing director of Waddingtons, Victor Watson, gave the game to his son Norman (who was head of the card games division) to test over the weekend. Norman was impressed by the game and persuaded his father to call Parker Brothers on Monday morning - transatlantic calls then being almost unheard of. This call resulted in Waddingtons obtaining a license to produce and market the game outside of the United States. Watson felt that in order for the game to be a success in the United Kingdom the American locations would have to be replaced, so Victor and his secretary, Marjory Phillips, went to London to scout out locations. The Angel, Islington is not a street in London but an area of North London named after a coaching inn that stood on the Great North Road. By the 1930s the inn had become a Lyons Corner House (it is now a Co-operative Bank). Some accounts say that Marjory and Victor met at the Angel to discuss the selection and celebrated the fact by including it on the Monopoly board. In 2003, a plaque commemorating the naming was unveiled at the site by Victor Watson's grandson who is also named Victor.
The standard English board, produced by Waddingtons, was for many years the version most familiar to people in countries in the Commonwealth (except Canada, where the U.S. edition with Atlantic City-area names was reprinted), although local variants of the board are now also found in several of these countries.
UK Board
In the cases where the game was produced under license by a national company, the £ (pound) was replaced by a $ (dollar) sign, but the place names were unchanged.
Standard (UK Edition) Monopoly game board layout
For a list of some of the localized versions, including the UK "Here & Now" edition, and the names of their properties.
Recent variations
Starting in the UK in 2005, an updated version of the game entitled Monopoly Here and Now was produced, replacing game scenarios, properties, and tokens with modern equivalents. Similar boards were produced for Germany and France. Variants of these first editions appeared with Visa-branded debit cards taking the place of cash - the later US "Electronic Banking" edition has unbranded debit cards.
The success of the first Here and Now editions caused Hasbro US to allow online voting for 26 landmark properties across the United States to take their places along the game board. The popularity of this voting, in turn, caused the creation of similar websites, and secondary game boards per popular vote to be created in the UK, France, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and other nations.
Hasbro opened a new website in January 2008, for online voting of the Monopoly Here and Now: World Edition. The colored property spaces will be worldwide cities, going by the same vote/popularity formula as established for national editions.
In 2006, Winning Moves Games released another edition, the Mega Edition, with a larger game board (50% bigger) and revised game play. Other streets from Atlantic City (eight, one per a color group) were included, along with a third "utility", the Gas Company. In addition, $1000 denomination notes (first seen in Winning Moves' "Monopoly: The Card Game") are included. Game play is further changed with bus tickets (allowing non-dice-roll movement along one side of the board), a speed die (itself adopted into variants of the Atlantic City Standard Edition; see below), skyscrapers (after houses and hotels), and train depots that can be placed on the Railroad spaces.
This edition was adapted for the UK market in 2007, and is sold by Winning Moves UK. After the initial US release, critiques of some of the rules caused the company to issue revisions and clarifications on their website.
In 2009, Winning Moves Games introduced "The Classic Edition", with a pre-2008 game board and cards, re-inclusion of the " sack of money " playing piece, and a plain MONOPOLY logo in the center of the board, with neither the 1985 or 2008 version of "Mr. Monopoly" present.
World editions
In 1998, Winning Moves procured the Monopoly license from Hasbro and created new UK city and regional editions with sponsored squares.
Winning Moves struggled to raise the sponsorship deals for the game boards, but did so eventually. A Nottingham Graphic Design agency, TMA, produced the visual design of the Monopoly packaging. Initially, in December 1998, the game was sold in just a few WHSmith stores, but demand was high, with almost fifty thousand games shipped in the 4 weeks leading up to Christmas. Winning Moves still produce new city and regional editions annually. Nottingham based designers Guppi have been responsible for the games' visual design since 2001.
In 2008, Hasbro released a world edition of Monopoly Here & Now. This world edition features top locations of the world. The locations were decided by votes over the Internet. The result of the voting was announced on August 20, 2008.
Dark Blue: Montreal, Riga
Light Blue: Athens, Barcelona, Tokyo
Brown: Taipei, Gdynia
Out of these, Gdynia is especially notable, as it is by far the smallest city of those featured and won the vote thanks to a spontaneous, large-scale mobilization of support started by its citizens. The new game will not use any particular currency; it uses millions and thousands. As seen above, there is no Dark Purple color-group, as that is replaced by brown.
It's also notable that three cities (Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver) are from Canada and three other cities (Beijing, Hong Kong, Shanghai) are from the People's Republic of China, while the other cities all only represent one country.
Equipment
Each player is represented by a small metal token that is moved around the edge of the board according to the roll of two dice . The twelve playing pieces currently used are pictured at left (from left to right): a wheelbarrow (1937b edition), a battleship, a sack of money (1999–2007 editions), a horse and rider, a car, a train (Deluxe Edition only), a thimble, a howitzer, an old style shoe (sometimes called a boot), a Scottie dog, an iron, and a top hat.
Many of the tokens came from companies such as Dowst Miniature Toy Company, which made metal charms and tokens designed to be used on charm bracelets. The battleship and cannon were also used briefly in the Parker Brothers war game Conflict (released in 1940), but after the game failed on the market, the premade pieces were recycled into Monopoly usage. [5] Hasbro recently adopted the battleship and cannon for Diplomacy.
Early localized editions of the standard edition (including some Canadian editions, which used the U.S. board layout) did not include pewter tokens but instead had generic wooden head-shaped tokens identical to those in Sorry! [6] Parker Brothers also acquired Sorry! in the 1930s.
Other items included in the standard edition are:
A pair of six-sided dice . (NOTE: Since 2007, a third "Speed Die" has been added--see ADD-ONS below.)
A Title Deed for each property. A Title Deed is given to a player to signify ownership, and specifies purchase price, mortgage value, the cost of building houses and hotels on that property, and the various rent prices depending on how developed the property is. Properties include:
22 streets, divided into 8 color groups of two or three streets. A player must own all of a color group (have a monopoly) in order to build houses or hotels. If a player wants to mortgage one property of a color-group, not only must any houses or hotels be removed from that property, but from the others in the color-group as well.
4 railways. Players collect $25 rent if they own one station, $50 if they own two, $100 if they own three and $200 if they own all four. These are usually replaced by railway stations in non-U.S. editions of Monopoly.
2 utilities. Rent is four times dice value if player owns one utility, but 10 times dice value if player owns both. Hotels and houses cannot be built on utilities or stations.
A supply of paper money. The supply of money is theoretically unlimited; if the bank runs out of money the players must make do with other markers, or calculate on paper. Additional paper money can be bought at certain locations, notably game and hobby stores, or downloaded from various websites and printed and cut by hand (one such site has created a $1,000 bill for the game; it is not one of the standard denominations). In the original U.S. standard editions, the supply generally starts with $15,140. The winner of the quadrennial Monopoly World Championship receives the same amount in United States dollars. [7] [NOTE: This base money amount has changed--see below.]
The term "Monopoly money" has been used to refer to currencies which cannot be used to purchase goods and services on the free market, such as exchange certificates printed by the Burmese government which must be used by foreign aid organizations. [8]
32 wooden or plastic houses and 12 wooden or plastic hotels (the original and the current Deluxe Edition have wooden houses and hotels; the current "base set" uses plastic buildings). Unlike money, houses and hotels have a finite supply. If no more are available, no substitute is allowed.
A deck of 16 Chance cards and a deck of 16 Community Chest cards. Players draw these cards when they land on the corresponding squares of the track, and follow the instructions printed on them.
Hasbro also sells a Deluxe Edition, which is mostly identical to the classic edition but has wooden houses and hotels and gold-toned tokens, including one token in addition to the standard eleven, a railroad locomotive. Other additions to the Deluxe Edition include a card carousel, which holds the title deed cards, and money printed with two colors of ink.
In 1978, retailer Neiman Marcus manufactured and sold an all-Chocolate edition of Monopoly through its "Christmas Wish Book" for that year. The entire set was edible, including the money, dice, hotels, properties, tokens and playing board. The set retailed for $600.
In 2000, the FAO Schwarz store in New York City sold a custom version called One-Of-A-Kind Monopoly for $100,000. [9] This special edition comes in a locking attaché case made with Napolino leather and lined in suede, and features include:
18-carat (75%) gold tokens, houses, and hotels
Rosewood board
street names written in gold leaf
emeralds around the Chance icon
sapphires around the Community Chest
rubies in the brake lights of the car on the Free Parking Space
the money is real, negotiable United States currency
The Guinness Book of World Records states that a set worth $2,000,000 and made of 23-carat gold, with rubies and sapphires atop the chimneys of the houses and hotels, is the most expensive Monopoly set ever produced. [10]
The distribution of cash in the U.S. version has changed with the newer release versions. Older versions had a total of $15,140 in the following amounts/colors:
20 $500 Bills (orange)
40 $5 Bills (pink)
40 $1 Bills (white)
The newer (Sept. 2008) editions have a total of $20,580, with 30 of each bill denomination. In addition, the colors of some of the bills have been changed; $10's are now blue instead of yellow, $20's are a brighter color green than before, and $50's are now purple instead of blue.
Each player begins the game with his or her token on the Go square, and $1500 (or 1500 of a localized currency) in play money. Prior to Sept. 2008, the money was divided as follows in the U.S. standard rules:
Two each of:
One x $/£5
Five x $/£1
Pre-Euro German editions of the game started with 30,000 "Spielmark" in eight denominations (abbreviated as "M."), and later used seven denominations of the "Deutsche Mark" ("DM."). In the classic Italian game, each player receives ₤350,000 ($3500) in a two-player game, but ₤50,000 ($500) less for each player more than two. Only in a six-player game does a player receive the equivalent of $1500. The classic Italian games were played with only four denominations of currency. At least one Spanish edition (the Barcelona edition) started the game with 150,000 in play money, with a breakdown identical to that of the American version.
All property deeds, houses, and hotels are held by the bank until bought by the players. Free passes may be issued if the owner of the property is using free passes as a transaction.
Rules
Main Article: Rules
Players take turns in order, with the initial player determined by chance before the game; with each player rolling the dice and the player who rolled the highest number going first. A typical turn begins with the rolling of the dice and advancing clockwise around the board the corresponding number of squares. Landing on Chance or Community Chest, a player draws the top card from the respective pile. If the player lands on an unowned property, whether street, railroad, or utility, he can buy the property for its listed purchase price. If he declines this purchase, the property is auctioned off by the bank to the highest bidder, including the player who declined to buy. If the property landed on is already owned and unmortgaged, he must pay the owner a given rent, the price dependent on whether the property is part of a monopoly or its level of development. If a player rolls doubles, he rolls again after completing his turn. Three sets of doubles in a row, however, land the player in jail. During a turn, players may also choose to develop or mortgage properties. Development involves the construction, for given amounts of money paid to the bank, of houses or hotels. Development must be uniform across a monopoly, such that a second house cannot be built on one property in a monopoly until the others have one house. No merges between players are allowed. All developments must be sold before a property can be mortgaged. The player receives money from the bank for each mortgaged property, which must be repaid with interest to unmortgage. Houses are returned to the bank for half their purchase price.
Parker Brothers' official instructions have long encouraged the use of House Rules, specific additions to or subtractions from the official rule sets. Many casual Monopoly players are surprised to discover that some of the rules that they are used to are not part of the official rules. Many of these house rules tend to make the game longer by randomly giving players more money. Some common house rules are listed below:
At the start of the game $2000 is given out to each of the players instead of $1500. Each player gets 2 500s, 4 100s, 6 50s, 8 20s, 8 10s, 10 5s, and 10 1s
Free Parking jackpot, which usually consists of an initial stake (typically $500, or $5 million in the Here & Now Edition) plus collections of fines and taxes otherwise paid to the bank. A player who lands on Free Parking wins the jackpot, which may then be reset with the initial stake (if any). The jackpot is usually put in the center of the board. Since the jackpot forms an additional income for players in this set of house rules, games can take a much longer time than under normal rules.
Eliminating the auction if a player decides not to purchase a property.
Requiring that every property be put up for auction (this eliminates some of the luck in the game of landing on particular squares and forces players to strategize more).
Allowing an unlimited number of houses to be available from the bank. When this house rule is implemented, substitute counters or written tallies are often employed to allay the actual shortage of house tokens in a standard game box.
Agreeing that each player be allowed to collect all of a color group once they have 'staked a claim' by buying only one of those properties. The same agreement may or may not be carried over to the rail stations and utilities.
Players in jail cannot collect rent, build houses, or conduct trades. This can be combined with increasing the price to get out of jail considerably (normally $50, or $500,000 in the Here & Now Edition). Together, these rules make jail a far more significant burden than that listed in the normal rules. Other players may bail the player out of jail but only if the player agrees.
A bonus for landing directly on Go by dice roll (commonly an additional $200 or $500). This may or may not include cards that send the player to Go.
Delayed Start: Players must pass Go (or circle the board at least once, or rarely twice) before they can buy property.
Only allowing houses (or hotels) to be built when the owner lands on the group
A bonus for rolling snake eyes (a pair of ones), often $500, $100, or one of each bill.
All properties are handed out evenly to all players before the game begins, or one or two are dealt to each player. This variation is in the official US and UK rules as a short game option.
In trades, players may offer "rent immunity" from their own properties (someone does not have to pay rent for landing on that property) as part of a deal (this can be good for a certain number of landings or the entire game).
Unlimited amounts of hotels on each space.
House rules, while unofficial, are not wholly unrecognized by Parker Brothers. George S. Parker himself created two variants, to shorten the length of game play. Video game and computer game versions of Monopoly have options where popular house rules can be used. House rules that have the effect of randomly introducing more money into the game have a side-effect of increasing the time it takes for players to become bankrupt, lengthening the game considerably, as well as decreasing the effects of strategy and prudent investment. House rules which increase the amount of money in the game may change the strategies of the players, such as changing the relative value of different properties- the more money in the game, the more one may wish to invest in the higher value properties.
Strategy
Monopoly involves a portion of luck, with the roll of the dice determining whether a player gets to own key properties or lands on squares with high rents. Even the initial misfortune of going last is a significant disadvantage because one is more likely to land on property which has already been bought and therefore be forced to pay rent instead of having an opportunity to buy unowned property. There are, however, many strategic decisions which allow skilled players to win more often than the unskilled. Hasbro also offers a helpful strategy guide and different insights on their site. According to the laws of probability, seven is the most probable roll of two dice, with a probability of 1 in 6, whereas 2 and 12 are the least probable rolls, each with a probability of one in 36. For this reason, Park Place/Park Lane is one of the least landed-on squares as the square seven places behind it is Go to Jail.
In consequence, some properties are landed upon more than others and the owners of those properties get more income from rent. The board layout factors include the following:
Jail: Since players are frequently directed to "Go To Jail", they will move through the magenta, orange, and red property groups immediately after leaving Jail. The two properties with the highest probability of being landed upon after leaving jail are the two cheaper orange properties (St James Place and Tennessee Avenue in North America and Bow Street and Marlborough Street outside North America). This makes the orange property set highly lucrative.
Go to…: One square — Go To Jail — plus a number of Chance and Community Chest cards will cause the player to advance a distance around the board. Thus, the squares immediately following Go To Jail and the take-a-card squares have a reduced probability of being landed upon. The least-landed upon property in this situation is the cheaper dark blue property (Park Place or Park Lane) because it sits in the lee of both Go to Jail and Community Chest (the Chance directly before it would not affect its odds because it is impossible to roll a one).
Go to (property): Several properties are blessed with Chance cards which draw players to them. St Charles Place (Pall Mall), Illinois Avenue (Trafalgar Square), Boardwalk (Mayfair), all of the railroads except Short Line (Liverpool Street Station), and both of the utilities benefit from this feature. Reading Railroad (King's Cross Station) has the fortune of having both a "go to" dedicated card plus the card advancing to the nearest railroad.
Advance to Go: A player may be directed to the Go square by a Chance or a Community Chest card, thus lowering the probability of being landed-upon of every square in-between. The properties most affected by this are the yellow, green, and dark blue sets. It also marginally raises the probability for each square in the wake of Go, including the purple and orange sets which will be reached two or three rolls after being on Go.
Go Back Three Spaces: This directive comes from a Chance card. A quick look at the board shows that there are three Chance squares and hence three other squares which are 3 spaces behind (one being a Community Chest space, another being Income Tax, and the third being the leading orange property). The leading orange property (New York Avenue or Vine Street) gains the most benefit from this card since the Chance square nestled amongst the red properties is itself the most landed-upon Chance square.
According to Jim Slater in The Mayfair Set, there is an overwhelming case for having the orange sites, because you land on them more often, the reason for that being the cards in Chance like Go to Jail, Advance to St. Charles Place (Pall Mall ), Advance to Reading Railroad (King's Cross Station) and Go Back Three Spaces.
In all, during game play, Illinois Avenue (Trafalgar Square), New York Avenue (Vine Street), B&O Railroad (Fenchurch Street Station), and Reading Railroad (King's Cross Station) are the most frequently landed-upon properties. Mediterranean Avenue (Old Kent Road) and Baltic Avenue (Whitechapel Road) are the least-landed-upon properties.
Limited number of houses and hotels
In order to put a cap on total development of property sets in the game, there are only 12 hotels and 32 houses. This limitation is in place to ensure that property sets cannot be developed unless there are houses or hotels available to purchase from the bank. This cap allows a certain amount of dominance to be developed by some players, because if every set of property were fully developed there would be enough rent collected between different players to allow the game to drag on for an extended period. This limitation on numbers of houses and hotels leads to an advantage for one player. Simply building each lot out to a maximum of 4 houses and then refusing to upgrade to hotels ensures that nearly the maximum amount of rent is collected for each property, and the monopolization of the houses from the game prevents opponents from developing their property. It is conceivable that a single player could end up owning all 32 houses near the end of the game, and the refusal to upgrade to hotels makes these houses unavailable for opponents to purchase for any property they may own.
Much of the skill comes from knowing how to make the best use of a player's resources and above all knowing how to strike a good bargain. Monopoly is a social game where players often interact and must deal with each other in ways similar to real world real estate bargaining. Note that the best deal is not always for the most expensive property; it is often situational, dependent on money resources available to each player and even where players happen to be situated on the board. When looking to deal, a player should attempt to bargain with another player who not only possess properties he or she needs but also properties the other player needs. In fact, offering relatively fair deals to other players can end up helping the player making the offer by giving him or her a reputation as an honest trader, which can make players less wary of dealings in the future. What is more, most people play Monopoly with the same group repeatedly. For this reason, such a reputation can have effects far beyond the game being played.
The end game
One common criticism of Monopoly is that it has carefully defined yet almost unreachable termination conditions. Edward P. Parker, a former president of Parker Brothers , is quoted as saying, "We always felt that forty-five minutes was about the right length for a game, but Monopoly could go on for hours. Also, a game was supposed to have a definite end somewhere. In Monopoly you kept going around and around." However, the problem of time can be resolved by playing with a time limit and counting each player's net worth when the time is up. In fact, tournament play calls for a 90-minute time limit. [11] Two hour time limits are used for international play. [12] The Lord of the Rings edition gives players the option of creating a random time limit using the included One Ring token and specialized dice. The SpongeBob SquarePants game board includes a Plankton piece that moves every time someone rolls snake eyes with the dice, and the game is over when it reaches the end of the board.
Played strictly to the rules, many games will be effectively decided when one player succeeds in bankrupting another because the bankrupt player gives all his property to the one to whom he could not pay his debt. A player who thus gains a fistful of properties will virtually control the game from that point onwards since other players will be constantly at risk. On the other hand, if a player is bankrupted by being unable to meet his debt to the bank (e.g., a fine or tax or other debt that is not rent), then his property is auctioned off; this can open up new possibilities in a game which was evenly set or in which a lot of property sets were divided among the players.
The Monopoly Mega Edition is geared towards faster play by incorporating more squares and enabling players to build without the full color-group.
Another path to a faster ending is by a key property bargain, whether it be a very shrewd trade which sets one player up with a well-positioned set or a very rash trade where an inexperienced player gives his experienced opponent an underpriced gem. Either way, a deal which pays off for one player is most often the turning point of the game.
A third way to finish the game is to wait for all of the property to be bought. Once this has occurred, the player with the highest value of money and assets is victorious.
Another way is to remove the $200 bonus gained by passing "Go". This ensures that players run out of money quickly.
Some players, in an attempt to lessen the huge advantage gained by the first player to bankrupt another player, have the bankrupted player pay what he can to the player he is indebted to (including the money from mortgages), and then forfeit the properties, so that they are back on the market and open to purchase by other players.
Hasbro states that the longest game of Monopoly ever played lasted 1,680 hours (70 days or 10 weeks or 2 1/3 months). [13]
Add-ons
Numerous add-ons have been made for Monopoly, both before its commercialization and after. Three such official add-ons are discussed below.
Stock Exchange
The Stock Exchange add-on was originally published by Parker Brothers in 1936 ( wikibook ). The Free Parking square is covered over by a new Stock Exchange space and the add-on included three Chance and three Community Chest cards directing the player to "Advance to Stock Exchange".
The add-on also included thirty stock certificates, five for each of the six different stocks, differing only in the purchase price (or Par Value), ranging from $100 to $150. Shares, like properties, are tradeable material, and could also be mortgaged for half their purchase price. Shareholders could increase the value of their shares by buying up more of the same company's shares.
When a player moves onto Free Parking/Stock Exchange, stock dividends are paid out to all players on their non-mortgaged shares. The amount to be paid out to each player is determined based on the number and kind of shares owned. Specifically, a player receives dividends from each stock based on the following formula:
(par value of share / 10) × (number of shares owned)2
EXAMPLE: Owning one share of "Motion Pictures" (par value $100) pays dividends of $10. Owning two shares pays $40 ($10 x 2 x 2), owning three pays $90 ($10 x 3 x 3) and owning four pays $160 ($10 x 4 x 4). A player owning all five receives $250 ($10 x 5 x 5).
The player who lands on Free Parking/Stock Exchange can also choose to buy a share if any remain. Should the player decline, the share is auctioned to the highest bidder by the Bank.
The Stock Exchange add-on serves to inject more money into the game, in a similar manner to railroad properties, as well as changing the relative values of properties. In particular, the Orange and Light Purple properties are more valuable due to the increased chance of landing on Free Parking, at the expense of the Red and Yellow groups.
The Stock Exchange add-on was later redesigned and rereleased in 1992 under license by Chessex, this time including a larger number of new Chance and Community Chest cards. [14] This version included ten new Chance cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and five other related cards) and eleven new Community Chest cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and six other related cards; the regular Community Chest card "From sale of stock you get $45" is removed from play when using these cards). Many of the original rules applied to this new version (in fact, one optional play choice allows for playing in the original form by only adding the "Advance to Stock Exchange" cards to each deck).
A Monopoly Stock Exchange Edition was released in 2001 (although not in the US), this time adding an electronic calculator-like device to keep track of the complex stock figures. This was a full edition, not just an add-on, that came with its own board, money and playing pieces. Properties on the board were replaced by companies on which shares could be floated, and offices and home offices (instead of houses and hotels) could be built. [15]
Playmaster
Playmaster, another official add-on, released in 1982, was an electronic device that kept track of all player movement and dice rolls as well as what properties are still available. It then uses this information to call random auctions and mortgages that will be advantageous for some players and a punishment for others, making it easier to free up cards of a color group. It also plays eight short tunes when key game functions occur, for example when a player lands on a railroad it will play I've Been Working on the Railroad. [16]
Speed Die
In 2007, Parker Brothers began releasing its standard version of Monopoly with a new addition to gameplay--the Speed Die. ( http://www.hasbro.com/common/instruct/00009.pdf ) First included in Winning Moves' Monopoly: The Mega Edition variant, this third die alters gameplay by allowing players to increase their move up to 3 spaces (rolling one of the 3 numbered sides); move immediately to the next unowned property OR to the next property on which they would owe money (rolling one of 2 "Mr. Monopoly" sides); or "Get Off The Bus Early" (rolling the "Bus" side), allowing the player to use the total from one die or both dice to move (i.e. A roll of 1-5-BUS would let the player choose from moving 1, 5 or 6 spaces). Usage of the die in the regular game differs slightly from use in the Mega Edition (i.e. Players use the Speed Die from the beginning in Mega; players can only use the Speed Die in the regular game AFTER their first time going past GO). [17]
Spinoffs
Feature Film
On June 19, 2007, Ridley Scott announced that he was directing a futuristic comedy-thriller based on the game, featuring a variety of young actors to generate interest in the game. Scarlett Johansson and Kirsten Dunst have been considered so far. [18] However, that version of the film ended up being shelved and Emmet Furla Productions took over the project, with production slated to commence in Summer 2015. It is now described as being in the vein of Goonies.
Other games
Besides the many variants of the actual game (and the Monopoly Junior spin-off) released in either video game or computer game formats (e.g. Windows-based PC, Macintosh, Game Boy, Game Boy Advance, Sega Genesis, Commodore 64, etc.), two spin-off computer games have been created.
Monopoly Tycoon is a PC game in the Tycoon series that makes strategy and speed into determining factors for winning the game, eliminating completely the element of luck inherent in the dice rolls of the original. The game uses the U.S. standard Atlantic City properties as its basis, but the game play is unique to this version. The game also allows for solo and multi-player online games.
Monopoly Casino is also a PC game, simulating a casino full of Monopoly-based adaptations of various casino games (most notably, slot machines). This program was released in both standard and "Vegas" editions, each featuring unique games.
Monopoly: Star Wars is another PC game based on the standard Monopoly board but with Star Wars characters and locations.
Here and Now Electronic Edition : Eliminates the need for money, using credit cards instead.
Monopoly Slots, a mobile app slot machine game with a Monopoly theme
Monopoly Hotels, a mobile social app game
Monopoly Casino, a mobile app gambling game with a Monopoly theme
Game show versions
Main article: Monopoly (TV game show)
A short-lived Monopoly game show aired on Saturday evenings during mid-1990 on ABC. The show was produced by Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy! creator Merv Griffin, and was hosted by former Jeopardy! contestant Mike Reilly. Three contestants competed by answering crossword puzzle-style clues to acquire the many properties on the board and money equivalent to the values of said properties (with bonuses added for getting monopolies). After the properties were acquired and players used the earned money to improve them with houses and hotels, a timed "Monopoly Game Round" was played, allowing players to earn even more money by landing on their properties and answering more word clues. When time was up, the player with the most money won the game, and then went on to play the Bonus Game. In the Bonus Game, the contestant had to choose 4 properties on the board to convert to "Go To Jail" spaces. Along with the actual "Go To Jail" space, the contestant rolled the dice up to five times (with extra rolls added for each double rolled) and had to pass GO without landing on a "Go To Jail" space. If the contestant passed GO before running out of rolls or landing on a "Go To Jail" space, they won $25,000; however if the contestant landed EXACTLY on GO, they would win $50,000. The show was paired on ABC with a summer-long Super Jeopardy! tournament!
Monopoly Millionaires' Club
Main article: Monopoly Millionaires' Club (TV game show)
A new Monopoly game show based on the short-lived lottery game will be airing on TV stations in selected cities and on GSN beginning this March. As of October 2014, it had been sold to stations in the 44 states and the District of Columbia (including non-MMC states) where lotteries are held. [22] [23] Taped at The Rio in Las Vegas , each episode will feature five contestants playing Monopoly-inspired games to win up to $100,000 each, and the possibility to risk their winnings for a chance to win $1 million. Despite the suspension of the lottery game, the series and a second set of tapings proceeded. [24] [22]
Texas Lottery players who "won" a trip-for-two prize package received $10,000 instead; contestants and audience members chosen for the first two series of tapings represent the other 22 MMC members.
Nine additional episodes are planned to be filmed in summer 2015 to accommodate participants of the scratch-off game.
Gambling games
In North America, a variety of slot machines and lotteries have been produced with a Monopoly theme. In Europe, there were also Monopoly "fruit machines", some of which remain popular through emulation. The British quiz machine brand itbox also supports a Monopoly trivia and chance game, which, like most other itbox games, costs 50p (£0.50) to play and has a £20 jackpot, although this is very rarely won. There is also an online slot machine version of the game made by WMS which is a 19 reel traditional style casino game.
There was also a live, online version of Monopoly. Six painted taxis drive around London picking up passengers. When the taxis reach their final destination, the region of London that they are in is displayed on the online board. This version takes far longer to play than board-game monopoly, with one game lasting 24 hours. Results and position are sent to players via e-mail at the conclusion of the game.
Commercial Promotions
Main article: McDonald's Monopoly
The McDonald's Monopoly game is a sweepstakes advertising promotion of McDonald's and Hasbro that has been offered in the United States, Canada, Germany, United Kingdom, and Australia. The game mimics the game of Monopoly. Originally, customers received a set of two tokens with every purchase, but now tokens only come with certain menu items. Tokens correspond to a property space on the Monopoly board. When combined into color-matched properties, the tokens may be redeemed for money or prizes There are also "instant win" tokens the recipient can redeem for McDonald's food, money, or other prizes.
Variants
Because Monopoly evolved in the public domain before its commercialization, Monopoly has seen many variant games. Most of these are exact copies of the Monopoly games with the street names replaced with locales from a particular town, university, or fictional place. National boards have been released as well. Many of these are listed at "Localized versions of the Monopoly game". Details, including box cover art, can be seen in the "List of licensed Monopoly game boards". Over the years, many specialty Monopoly editions, licensed by Parker Brothers/Hasbro, and produced by them, or their licensees (including USAopoly and Winning Moves Games) have been sold to local and national markets worldwide. Two well known "families" of -opoly like games, without licenses from Parker Brothers/Hasbro, have also been produced.
Several published games are similar to Monopoly. These include:
Totopoly , created by Waddingtons in 1938, is based around horse racing.
Anti-Monopoly , created by Ralph Anspach in 1974.
Triopoly , designed by Jeffrey W. Berndt, Chris Hornbaker, & Jeremy Parish, published by Reveal Entertainment, Inc. in 1997
Late for the Sky , has produced a large number of Monopoly style games, called "___ in a box" or "___ -opoly" , the blank being filled in with the theme.
Chômageopoly, "Unemployment Monopoly", a board game created by the Lip factory in the 1970s
Dinosauropoly, a version using prehistoric motifs and rules.
Easy Money , published by Milton Bradley, also in the 1930s.
The Farming Game is a board game in which the goal is to run a financially successful farm, and like Monopoly the heart of the game is economics. The game's website draws comparisons to Monopoly.
Fast Food Franchise is a board game by TimJim games which shares Monopoly's core mechanic, but through careful design guarantees that it will actually end.
La gran Capital, published by several Chilean factories, is a Chilean version of the game, with neighborhoods from Santiago de Chile. The title means "the big capital", other versions are even named "Metropolis"
The Fascinating Game of Finance, later shortened to Finance, first marketed in 1932 by Knapp Electric, and later by Parker Brothers.
Go For Broke, the exact opposite of Monopoly, has the players trying to spend all their money before anyone else. Bad bets at the casino, real estate, stock market, race track, and giving to the poor house lowers your account balance. This was a Milton Bradley game originally published in the mid-1960s.
Ghettopoly, released in 2003, caused considerable offense upon its release. The game, intended to be a humorous rendering of ghetto life, was decried as racist for its unflinching use of racial stereotypes. Hasbro sought and received an injunction against Ghettopoly's designer. [25] [26]
Greekopoly, a college-themed version using fraternities and sororities as properties.
Potopoly, A marijuana-themed version, using a five-sided board, and bags instead of houses.
Itadaki Street, also called Fortune Street in North America, and Boom Street in Europe, is a series of board games for video game consoles from Square-Enix.
Poleconomy, a board game designed in New Zealand incorporating real-world companies as well as political and economic strategy.
The Mad Magazine Game, a Mad Magazine themed board game in which the object of the game is for player to lose all their money, play is counter-clockwise, and the dice must be rolled with the left hand. Released by Parker Brothers in 1979.
Make Your Own Opoly is a game set sold by TDC Games of Itasca, Illinois. Using a Microsoft Windows-based PC, a person can print out his or her own property cards, labels to place on the board and the box, and play money. [27]
Solarquest, a popular space-age adaptation, was released by Golden in 1986.
Strictly Pittsburgh, a variant based around the city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In addition to properties being replaced with local Pittsburgh sites and businesses, it contained a somewhat different board layout and replaced houses and hotels with skyscrapers.
Dostihy a sázky, a variant sold in Czechoslovakia. This game comes from the totalitarian communist era (1948–1989), when private businesses were forbidden and mortgages didn't exist. So the monopoly theme was changed to a horse races theme. Complete rules and game plan (in Czech)
Petropolis, a copy of Monopoly based in buying into the oil industry, using oilfields. The game uses 'telex messages' instead of Chance cards and the playing board snakes round into the middle before continuing round the edge.
Turista, a Mexican copy of Monopoly made by Montecarlo board game manufacturer. It is based in buying Mexican States. In each state it is possible to build gas stations and hotel to increase the rent amount.
Gallery
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‘The ‘what’ Tree’ is a 1987 album by U2? | U2 > Discography > Albums > The Joshua Tree
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The release of The Joshua Tree saw the band on the cover of Time Magazine billed as 'Rock's Hottest Ticket.' In Sweden, copies of The Joshua Tree were pressed in yellow, pink and red vinyl with sleeves similar to the UK. In Mexico, a limited edition CD was released as part of the Serie Millennium re-issues with a different picture sleeve. In 1999, The Joshua Tree CD was re-issued with the clear band photo that appeared on the original vinyl LP rather than the blurred picture on the initial CD release.
The Joshua Tree entered the US album charts at No.7 and reached No. 1 three weeks later. It was U2's first album to reach No.1 in the United States. In 1999, The Joshua Tree was awarded the RIAA's highest certification, Diamond, with 10 million units sold. The album also peaked at No.1 on the UK, Canadian, West German, Dutch and Australian charts. In Switzerland, the album reached No.1 on the charts and stayed there for a total of 33 weeks. The album and sleeve cover also placed No. 1 in Rolling Stone magazine's annual Music Awards chosen by readers. Critics at Rolling Stone made it No. 2 album of the year. U2 also won Best Rock Performance By A Group Or Duo at the Grammy Awards for The Joshua Tree. Production Credits Produced and Engineered: Daniel Lanois and Brian Eno Additional Engineering: Dave Meegan with Pat McCarthy Studio: Windmill Lane, Dublin Ireland Mixed by: Steve Lillywhite Recorded by: Flood
Release Date:
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In the UK in pre-decimal currency how many farthings were in a shilling? | Joshua Tree on U2 album cover is found chopped up in the desert | Daily Mail Online
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It has been a tourist attraction for thousands of U2 fans since 1987.
But the tree that adorned the cover of the band's album, Joshua Tree, is now a shadow of its former glory.
The revered landmark died in 2000 and collapsed into a mound in California's Mojave Desert.
Now it has apparently been deliberately vandalized and is missing a limb.
Scroll down for video
Vandalized: This is a picture a fan took of the band's famous Joshua Tree apparently hacked by someone
'Iconic': The tree, which died in 2000, appeared on the cover of U2's 1987 hit album Joshua Tree
A fan discovered the situation during his annual hike to the tree near Darwin, California, with his dog on Sunday.
Going by the name Hwy 190, the fan wrote on a U2 message board: 'I’ve been visiting U2’s Joshua Tree in the California desert for nearly 20 years now the Mojave is my home.
'This past Sunday, I made my proverbial yearly hike out to the Tree with my dog to reminisce only to find that some hack and I do mean hack, decided it was a bright idea to take a hacksaw to one of the Tree’s limbs - evidently to remove an inch thick cross section as a souvenir.
'I won’t even elaborate as to how pathetic this is. Let’s just say It was a good thing I didn’t happen upon this ignorant low-life degenerate in his course of action.
'In short, leave the damn Tree alone, so that future fans can enjoy it. Left alone, the Tree will be there for many, many decades to come.'
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It stood in the Mojave Desert of California and was picked by the band to represent their American experience
Collapsed: Although it fell in 2000, many fans still pilgrimage to the site
Tributes: Signs adorn the tree. The fan who discovered the vandalism believes somebody took a piece home
The image of the tree was shot by photographer Anton Corbijn, who traveled with the band for three days in December 1986 trying to find the right spot for a photo.
The album was designed to represent their band's experience of America.
It is billed as the record that sealed their worldwide success, with record-breaking sales across the world.
Some of their best-selling songs were featured on the album, including With Or Without You, and I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For.
The group landed Grammy Awards for Album of the Year and Best Group Rock Performance that year.
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Harrisburg is the capital of which US state? | The State Capitol of Pennsylvania - Hershey-Harrisburg.com
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The State Capitol of Pennsylvania
Harrisburg has been an important transportation center since the days of riverboat traffic. Its western boundary is formed by the Susquehanna River. This location played an important part in its selection as the capital of Pennsylvania in 1812. Because of its location, Harrisburg played a large part in the early development of the Pennsylvania canal system and the subsequent development of the railroads, highways and airlines. Today, Harrisburg is one of the most important commercial centers and distribution points in the East.
In colonial days, John Harris operated a ferry at Harrisburg. His son, John Jr., laid out the town of Harrisburg in 1785, and gave land to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania that was later used for the Capitol grounds. The capitol building is an Italian Renaissance-style statehouse. It is an example of outstanding architecture, with collections of art and scultpture, including large murals. On the floor of the main hallway, tiles show Pennsylvania’s history, symbols, insects and animals.
At the dedication of the Capitol building in 1906, President Teddy Roosevelt described this structure as “the handsomest building I ever saw”. The capitol dome rises 272 feet. This vaulted dome weighs 52 million pounds, and was modeled after St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. It’s beautiful staircase looks like one from the Paris Opera. Over 100,000 people per year enjoy a free tour of Harrisburg’s Capitol building.
Walk across a plaza to the Forum building, housing the State Library, an extensive Law Library and genealogical search room for visitors.
If you would like to take a free tour of Pennsylvania’s Capitol building, call or write the General Assembly’s Office Of Capitol Visitor Services at 1-800-TOUR-N-PA (800-868-7672). You will want to reserve your tour as far in advance as possible. Allow 40 minutes for a tour. Tours are available weekdays, weekends, and some holidays. No tours are given on New Year’s Day, Christmas Day, Easter Sunday, or Thanksgiving.
You can also explore Pennsylvania government at work by visiting the Welcome Center at the Capitol. Learn about Pennsylvania Government — and have fun in the process — by reading, listening, touching and interacting with 18 colorful, informative exhibits. The Welcome Center is located in the East Wing of the Capitol, and is open regular workdays (Monday through Friday) from 8:30 am to 4:00 pm. Tours are held year ’round, Monday through Friday, 8:30 am – 4:00 pm every half hour and Saturday, Sunday, and most holidays 9:00, 11:00, 1:00 & 3:00 pm.
Photographs on this page courtesy The Dauphin County Historical Society.
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Teatro La Fenice opera house is in which European city? | Pennsylvania State Capitol - Official Site
The CapitolA National Historic Landmark
Pennsylvania's Capitol is, first and foremost, a public building belonging to the citizens of the Commonwealth. It is also a priceless architectural and artistic treasure, a majestic symbol of history and power, and an icon of democracy and freedom.
When President Theodore Roosevelt attended the dedication of the building on October 4, 1906, he said, "This is the handsomest building I ever saw." The Capitol was designed in the American Renaissance style by Philadelphia architect Joseph Huston (1866-1940), who envisioned the building as a "Palace of Art."
Built and furnished at a cost of $13 million, the Capitol features paintings, stained glass and furnishings by some of the best artisans of the day. The building incorporates various Renaissance designs in some of its largest rooms: Italian in the House Chamber, French in the Senate Chamber, and English in the Governor's Reception Room. It also reflects Greek, Roman and Victorian influences in its art and ornamentation. Throughout the building, Huston blended the various styles with motifs featuring Pennsylvania's achievements in labor, industry and history, making the Capitol uniquely American. Its five-story exterior is faced with handsome Vermont granite, and the roof is composed of green glazed terra cotta tile.
The Capitol's centerpiece is a spectacular 272-foot, 52 million-pound dome inspired by Michelangelo's design for St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Following its completion, the building was the tallest structure between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh for 80 years. While the building has been modernized over time, efforts to blend form and function continue today, and a special Capitol Preservation Committee ensures that as the building evolves, the artistic elements are never lost. The seat of Pennsylvania's government continues to inspire visitors with its wealth of art, its outstanding architecture, and its strong connection to the vision of the Commonwealth's founder, William Penn, who sought to establish a land that would be governed by just laws and tolerant of all religious faiths.
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The 2009 album ‘Journal for Plague Lovers’ was released by which band? | Manic Street Preachers - Journal For Plague Lovers (album review 4) | Sputnikmusic
Manic Street Preachers
May 8th, 2009 | 95 replies
Release Date: 2009 | Tracklist
Review Summary: Not quite the Holy Bible sequel we were sold, but great all the same.
Let's take a step back and just consider this - it is incredible just how much good-will the Manic Street Preachers can still engender in the music press, and in the average music listener, in the UK. To even be able to generate this much attention on your 9th studio album is pretty impressive; to do it after a major sonic shift toward more mature, more dad-friendly territory is almost unheard of. And then, to still have that goodwill behind you when you release an album that is a blatant attempt to recapture the glory days of an album you released 15 years ago? Wow. A lot of that credit probably goes to Nicky Wire, a man who is famously erudite, polite, and open when being interviewed, but we can't discount the sheer power of the music the Manics have conjured across their careers either - "A Design For Life" still stings like no song about class war since, and The Holy Bible hasn't lost a drop of its impact since it was released.
With Journals for Plague Lovers, they're calling in their goodwill. Literally no other band in the world would get away with doing this - an album seemingly built entirely from references to a man who's been missing for 15 years, and written using nothing but lyrics that he wrote just before that, it would just be seen as shocking and crass in the hands of a P. Diddy, or a Dave Grohl or Courtney Love, or even a Paul McCartney. Yet the Manics are getting away with that and more. The Holy Bible is called to mind time and again before you even listen to the record - the artwork here is drawn by Jenny Saville (the same artist responsible for THB's artwork), and every advert and poster has even used the same typeface. When you switch the record on, it's not long before you hear a vocal sample, just like the ones that bound together the tracks on their 1994 classic. Steve Albini is even called in as a producer, just in case you weren't prepared enough for a dark, depressive alt-rock record from the mid-90s.
You'd be forgiven for bracing yourself for a train wreck. And yet, three tracks is all takes to allay those fears. "Peeled Apples", "Jackie Collins Existential Question Time", and "Me and Stephen Hawking" must all stand among the likes of "The Masses Against The Classes", "If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next", and "Found That Soul" as the best songs the band have conjured since Everything Must Go. Whatever else has happened, the tunes must be the primary concern, and these three are as good as even the band's most ardent fans could have expected.
It's after these tracks have sunk in that the sting in the tale of Journal For Plague Lovers reveals itself - actually, it's all been a ruse, and this is not much like The Holy Bible at all. Where that album seemed to be summed up by one of its voiceover samples - 'I think you are the devil itself' - Journal is the trickster Loki to The Holy Bible's black-hearted Beelzebub. It's still not a happy record by any means, but it's noticeably less dark, and its defining feature is surely its sense of humour. "Me and Stephen Hawking" boasts the great line 'we missed the sex revolution/when we failed the medical', while the chorus of "Jackie Collins" sees Bradfield/Edwards conjuring their younger selves to ask the immortal question - 'Mummy, what's a Sex Pistol?'. On a gut level, this simply can't be considered a sequel. While Richey's subject matter still often reverts to uncomfortable topics, no other Manics record has really felt like this, and it's worth wondering whether they've ever been this loose and this good-humoured. You'd probably have to go all the way back to "Motown Junk" and "Slash N Burn" to argue that they have been. The fact that Steve Albini is involved just makes things slightly more surprising - although black humour has always been part of his shtick, from Rapeman to McLusky, the album doesn't sound like he had too much control over proceedings, even at the production stage.
So that leaves us with a rock record, a Manic Street Preachers album. That's all you can judge Journals For Plague Lovers by, and if you do, it comes up trumps on both counts. It's a shade better than Send Away The Tigers, itself heralded as a return to form, and in a year that hasn't really been anything special so far for straight-ahead rock, this is a standout. For Manics fans, they can revel in another added bonus - this is the album that Know Your Enemy should have been.
Ignoring the hidden track, the album proper ends with Nicky Wire singing "William's Last Words", as simple a lyric as Richey ever wrote. It's nothing more a thank you to his friends, and it's the most poignant thing here. It's also entirely fitting. As a tribute to Richey, Journals seems to be all about setting the record straight, remembering Richey as a human being rather than an insane dervish on the brink of self-annihilation. The lyrics here reveal a man as intelligent and well-read as the one on the first three Manics albums, but also one with a wicked sense of humour, and a very real capacity to enjoy life - for those of us that didn't know him, that's where the real revelation lies. You suspect that he would have loved it.
| Manic Street Preachers |
A group of which animals is known as an ‘Array’? | Reviews for Journal For Plague Lovers by Manic Street Preachers - Metacritic
May 20, 2011
10
Well... where do I start? The 9th album by the Manics is 14 songs of rock heaven, in my opinion there best album to date with Send away theWell... where do I start? The 9th album by the Manics is 14 songs of rock heaven, in my opinion there best album to date with Send away the tigers in 2nd and everything must go in 3rd. The reason for this is that every song seems to have so much efffort into them, each song has great music, great singing from JDB and of course great lyrics from Richey Edwards. The Holy Bible has great lyrics from Richey Edwards but the music doesnt support them but this type the music does. ITS BRILLIANT.… Expand
Oct 23, 2014
9
It was always going to be a brave decision to use lyrics written by Richey Edwards on a Manic Street Preachers album once again, but the bandIt was always going to be a brave decision to use lyrics written by Richey Edwards on a Manic Street Preachers album once again, but the band pulls it off in the only way they know how; by producing an outstanding record. 30 seconds in; following a mean bassline, solid drums, a no nonsense guitar riff from James Dean Bradfield are the lyrics "the more I see, the less I scream. The figure 8 inside out is infinity". Sets the tone for the album perfectly. From then on in, almost every song is flawless. The majority with Powerful overdriven Steve Albini guitar sounds, along with huge choruses, raw energy and some of the most relevant and intellectual lyrics of the 21st century. Others such as "Facing Page: Top Left" and "William's Last Words" much more mellow. The hidden track 'Bag Lady' is also definitely worth a listen.
For me, this has to be The Manic's best effort since The Holy Bible. Highly recommend it to anybody. (Personal Favourites: Journal For Plague Lovers, Marlon J.D, Pretension/Repulsion)… Expand
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Challis, Loden and Cheviot are all types of which fabric? | Glossary of Fabric Terms - Fabric - Store
A manufactured fiber, its major properties include a soft, wool-like hand, machine washable and dryable and excellent color retention.
Alpaca
A natural hair fiber obtained from the Alpaca sheep, a domesticated member of the llama family.
Angora
The hair of the Angora goat. Also known as Angora mohair. Angora may also apply to the fur of the Angora rabbit.
Antique Satin
A reversible satin-weave fabric with satin floats on the technical face and surface slubs on the technical back created by using slub-filling yarns. It is usually used with the technical back as the right side for drapery fabrics and often made of a blend of fibers.
Batik
A method of dyeing fabric where some areas are covered with wax or pastes made of glues or starches to make designs by keeping dyes from penetrating in pattern areas. Multicolored and blended effects are obtained by repeating the dyeing process several times, with the initial pattern of wax boiled off and another design applied before dyeing again in a new color.
A lightweight, plain weave fabric, semi-sheer and usually made of cotton or cotton blends. Appropriate for heirloom sewing, baby clothes and lingerie.
Bedford Cord
A cord cotton-like fabric with raised ridges in the lengthwise direction. Since the fabric has a high strength and a high durability, it is often used for upholstery and work clothes.
A fabric with a crosswise rib made from textile fibers (as rayon, nylon, cotton, or wool) often in combination.
Boiled Wool
Felted knitted wool, it offers the flexibility of a knit with great warmth. Create your own by washing double the needed amount of 100% wool jersey in hot water and drying in a hot dryer. Expect 50% shrinkage. Appropriate for jackets, vests and stuffed animals.
Blackout
A type of fabric that is commonly used for drapery, this fabric has the distinctive quality of blocking light, and comes in two forms: 2-pass and 3-pass. Two-pass has two “passes” of foam on a fabric, which means the black layer of foam will be visible. 3-pass has two layers of white and one layer of black foam. Three-pass can also be used as an upholstery fabric, as the black layer is not visible. Blackout fabrics can also be insulating and noise-dampening.
Buckram
A very stiff cotton fabric that is been soaked in a substance to fill in the gaps between the fibers. The fiber is usually cotton and is finished with starch and resin. Buckram fabric is most commonly used as the supporting material inside of baseball caps. It is also used in lady's hats, costumes, belts, and handbags.
A loosely constructed, heavy weight, plain weave fabric. It has a rough hand. Appropriate for draperies and decorative items.
Burn-out Velvet
Created from two different fibers, the velvet is removed with chemicals in a pattern leaving the backing fabric intact. Appropriate for more unconstructed and loosely fit garments.
Chenille
The French word for caterpillar, this soft fabric is created by placing short pieces of yarns between core yarns and twisting the yarn together to make a fabric. This fabric is commonly used for baby items and in home décor fabrics.
Chantilly lace
This lace has a net background, and the pattern is created by embroidering with thread and ribbon to create floral designs. The pattern has areas of design that are very dense, and the pattern is often outlined with heavier cords or threads.
Charm Quilt
A quilt made of many, many small patches (traditionally 2" or so) where each piece is a different fabric. The pattern is usually a one-patch design and often involves swaps and trades with friends to gather many fabrics.
Charmuese
A luxurious, supple silky fabric with a shiny satin face and a dull back. Generally either silk, rayon ,or polyester. Suitable for blouses, fuller pants and lingerie.
Cotton
a white vegetable fiber grown in warmer climates in many parts of the world, has been used to produce many types of fabric for hundreds of years. Cotton fabric feels good against the skin regardless of the temperature or the humidity and is therefore in great demand by the consumer.
Used to describe all kinds of fabrics--wool, cotton, silk, rayon, synthetics and blends-that have a crinkle, crimped or grained surface.
Crepe Charmeuse
A smooth, soft luster fabric of grenadine silk warp and filling, with latter given crepe twist. It has the body and drape of satin and is used for dresses and eveningwear.
Crepe de Chine
Silk crepe de chine has a slightly crinkly surface create with highly twisted fibers. It comes in three weights: 2 ply, appropriate for blouses and lingerie; 3 ply, appropriate for dresses, fuller pants and dresses; and 4 ply, most luxurious and best for trousers and jackets.
Crepe-back Satin
A satin fabric in which highly twisted yarns are used in the filling direction. The floating yarns are made with low twist and may be of either high or low luster. If the crepe effect is the right side of the fabric, the fabric is called satin-back crepe.
Crewel
A true crewel fabric is embroidered with crewel yarn (a loosely twisted, two-ply wool) on a plain weave fabric. Traditional crewel fabrics are hand-woven and embroidered in India. The design motif for crewel work is typically outlines of flowers, vines, and leaves, in one or many colors. Modern weaving technology and inventive designers create traditional "crewel" looks with weave effects alone, without the use of embroidery.
Crocheted
Denim
A twill weave cotton fabric made with different colored yarns in the warp and the weft. Due to the twill construction, one color predominates on the fabric surface. Suitable for pants, jackets and skirts. Pre-wash and dry 100% cotton denim at least twice to eliminate shrinkage and color bleeding.
Dimity
A lightweight and sheer cotton fabric that features a raised texture. Usually seen in light colors, but occasionally printed as well. Dimity fabric is commonly used in window treatments, draperies, and heirloom projects.
A decorative weave, characterized by small figures, usually geometric, that are woven into the fabric structure.
Doeskin
Generally applied to fabric with a low nap that is brushed in one direction to create a soft suede-like hand on the fabric front. Great for tops, pants and fuller skirts.
A lightweight, sheer cotton or cotton blend fabric with a small dot flock-like pattern either printed on the surface of the fabric, or woven into the fabric. End-uses for this fabric include blouses, dresses, baby clothes, and curtains.
Double Cloth
A fabric construction, in which two fabrics are woven on the loom at the same time, one on top of the other. In the weaving process, the two layers of woven fabric are held together using binder threads. The woven patterns in each layer of fabric can be similar or completely different.
A weft knit fabric in which two layers of loops are formed that cannot be separated. A double knit machine, which has two complete sets of needles, is required for this construction.
Double Rub
Double rubs measure a fabric’s abrasion resistance, determined by the Wyzenbeek test. Each “rub” is one back and forth pass over a stretched piece of fabric by a mechanical arm. The test is run until the fabric shows noticeable wear. Consider the double rub count when purchasing upholstery fabric for a high-traffic area in your home.
Drill
Strong, medium- to heavyweight, warp-faced, twill-weave fabric. It is usually a 2/1 left-handed twill and piece dyed.
A sheer, open-weave fabric usually cotton or silk. It is suitable for blouses, dresses and curtains.
Georgette
A drapey woven fabric created from highly twisted yarns creating a pebbly texture. It is semi-sheer and suitable for blouses, full pants and flowing dresses.
A medium weight, plain weave fabric with a plaid or check pattern. End-uses include dresses, shirts, and curtains.
Gossamer
Very soft, gauzelike veiling originally of silk.
Grois Point
A fabric which features large points of yarn on the surface of the fabric.
Grosgrain
A tightly woven, firm, warp-faced fabric with heavy, round filling ribs created by a high-warp count and coarse filling yarns. Grosgrain can be woven as a narrow-ribbon or a fullwidth fabric.
A fabric, usually handwoven which has been tie-dyed in the yarns prior to weaving. The pattern can range from simple little dots to intricate double ikats.
Interlining
An insulation, padding, or stiffening fabric, either sewn to the wrong side of the lining or the inner side of the outer shell fabric. The interlining is used primarily to provide warmth in coats, jackets, and outerwear.
Also known as T-shirt knit. It usually has stretch across the grain. Great for tops, skirts and lightweight pants.
Irish Poplin
There are two types of Irish poplin: (1) Originally a fabric constructed with silk warp and wool filling in plain weave with fine rib. (2) Fine linen or cotton shirting also made in Ireland. Sometimes used for neckwear.
Knit Fabric
Fabrics made from only one set of yarns, all running in the same direction. Some knits have their yarns running along the length of the fabric, while others have their yarns running across the width of the fabric. Knit fabrics are held together by looping the yarns around each other. Knitting creates ridges in the resulting fabric. Wales are the ridges that run lengthwise in the fabric; courses run crosswise.
Knit-de-knit
A type of yarn texturizing in which a crimped yarn is made by knitting the yarn into a fabric, and then heat-setting the fabric. The yarn is then unraveled from the fabric and used in this permanently crinkled form.
Napped
Napped fabric has a surface texture with an added visual appeal, and is frequently featured in flannel, corduroy, velvet, and satin. The napped texture creates soft, heavy, and warm qualities, making it perfect for shirting, sleepwear, and baby blankets. Double napped fabrics are brushed on both sides, while single-napped is only brushed on one side. When sewing with fabrics with a distinct nap, be sure to allow for extra fabric, and lay all of your pattern pieces going in the same direction.
Refers to any open-construction fabric whether it is created by weaving, knitting, knotting, or another method.
Noil
Noil is a short fiber that is left over when combing longer fibers during textile production. Silk noil fabric is created from taking the leftover noils from spinning silk to create an overall raw silk fabric that features a gentle drape, slightly nubby, uneven texture, and dull surface. Noil fabric is perfect for creating loose-fitting jackets, skirts, dresses, and home décor accents.
Ottoman
A heavy, plain weave fabric with wide, flat crosswise ribs that are larger and higher than in faille. It sometimes comes with alternating narrow and wide ribs. When made of narrow ribs only, it is called soleil. Warp may be silk or manmade fiber; filling may be cotton, silk, wool, or manmade fiber. Used for dress coats, suits, and trimmings.
Outdoor
Outdoor fabric is used to recover cushions, pillows, create awnings, and more for spaces exposed to nature’s elements like the sun and rain. Created with polyester or acrylic fibers, outdoor fabric is durable, soil and stain resistant, and can be cleaned by wiping with a damp rag.
Panel
A panel is a cotton print that can be used for anything from quilt projects to aprons, doll clothes, or soft books. Most commonly used in quilting, panels feature a large design that is often featured in the center of a quilt, making it perfect for themed projects. Some panels also feature instructions and cut-outs for projects like an apron or book.
Panné Satin
Lightweight silk or manmade fiber satin fabric with very high luster achieved with aid of heavy roll pressure. Crushes easily. Used for eveningwear.
Panné Velvet
A lustrous, lightweight velvet fabric, in which the pile has been flattened in one direction. Has good stretch across the grain. Appropriate for tops and dresses.
A soft fabric with a brushed texture similar to the skin of a peach on one side, with a good amount of drape. Peachskin is often used to create blouses, skirts, and dresses with a lining.
Peau de Soie
A heavy twill weave drapeable satin fabric, made of silk or a manufactured fiber, and used for bridal gowns and eveningwear.
Pima Cotton A type of cotton plant developed in the Southwestern USA from a cross between Egyptian and Uplands cotton which is longer in fiber length and more lustrous than most American cottons. It is used to weave some of the popular quilting fabrics which have a silk-like hand.
Plissé
A lightweight, plain weave, fabric, made from cotton, rayon, or acetate, and characterized by a puckered striped effect, usually in the warp direction. The crinkled effect is created through the application of a caustic soda solution, which shrinks the fabric in the areas of the fabric where it is applied. Plissé is similar in appearance to seersucker. End-uses include dresses, shirtings, pajamas, and bedspreads.
Plush
A compactly woven fabric with warp pile higher than that of velvet. Made of cotton, wool, silk, or manmade fiber, often woven as double face fabric and then sheared apart. Higher pile gives bristly texture. Usually piece-dyed but may be printed. Used for coats, upholstery.
Pointelle
Unclipped, looped pile, 100% cotton terry cloth is highly absorbent. French Terry has a looped reverse and a knit-like face.
Ticking
A variety of fabrics are known as "ticking." The main weave is a closely-woven, thick yarn twill. Spaced, colored, and natural or white yarns repeated in the warp, and all natural or white in the filling, forming a stripe. Several color combinations used, as blue and white, brown and white, red and white. Heavy warp-face sateens as well as heavy sheetings are printed and sold as ticking. Jacquard damask ticking woven in damask effects also sold for this purpose as well as other fabrics, such as drills.
Toile
A type of decorating pattern consisting of a white or off-white background on which a repeated pattern depicting a fairly complex scene, generally of a pastoral theme such as (for example) a couple having a picnic by a lake. The pattern portion consists of a single colour, most often black, dark red, or blue. Greens and magenta toile patterns are less common but not unheard of.
Wool is naturally stain and wrinkle resistant. It can absorb up to 40% of it’s weight in moisture without feeling damp. Wool comes in many forms including crepe, challis, gabardine, merino, melton, jersey and worsted wool suitings.
Wool Crepe
A lightweight worsted fabric with a more or less crinkly appearance, obtained by using warp yarns that are tightly twisted in alternate directions. The term is often applied to lightweight worsted fabrics for women's wear that have little or no crepe surface.
Woven Fabric
Fabrics composed of two sets of yarns. One set of yarns, the warp, runs along the length of the fabric. The other set of yarns, the fill or weft, is perpendicular to the warp. Woven fabrics are held together by weaving the warp and the fill yarns over and under each other.
| Wool |
The headquarters of IT company Viglen double up as one of the filming locations of which British reality television show? | Wool Fabric | Fashion Fabrics
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Forest Green Herringbone Rayon Suiting Forest green and black herringbone weave with a brick red vertical yarn dyed pinstripe accent. Medium weight rayon and wool blend fabric with a smooth surface and dry hand/feel. Drapes in folds. Suitable for tailored dresses, jackets, vests, slacks and suits. Hand wash cold or dry clean for best results.Compare to $12.00/yd
Forest green and black herringbone weave with a brick red vertical yarn dyed pinstripe accent. Medium weight rayon and wool blend fabric with a smooth surface and dry hand/feel. Drapes in folds. Suitable for tailored dresses, jackets, vests, slacks and suits. Hand wash cold or dry clean for best results.Compare to $12.00/yd [ more ]
Item Number: 47383
Sale: $ 3.9500 $3.95 / Yard Original Price: $5.75 You Save: $1.80 New
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Black Denim Look Jacketing Medium to heavy weight cotton and wool blend woven fabric with the look of denim. Slightly brushed surface and dry hand/feel. Suitable for jackets, crafts and home décor. Hand wash cold or dry clean.Compare to $25.00/yd
Medium to heavy weight cotton and wool blend woven fabric with the look of denim. Slightly brushed surface and dry hand/feel. Suitable for jackets, crafts and home décor. Hand wash cold or dry clean.Compare to $25.00/yd [ more ]
Item Number: 47261
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Which element changes a person’s voice when inhaled, making it sound much higher? | Helium Facts - Atom, Properties, Uses, Gas, Balloons, Voice, Element He
Helium Facts
Check out these great helium facts relating to its discovery, uses and chemical properties.
Learn about helium balloons, noble gases, the helium atom, the balloon boy hoax, space related helium storage tanks, how helium can change a person’s voice and much more with our range of interesting helium facts, properties and information.
Helium is a chemical element with the symbol He and atomic number 2.
Helium is a colorless, tasteless and odorless gas.
Helium is the second most common element in the Universe (after hydrogen), making up around 24% of its mass.
Helium is part of a group of chemical elements called noble gases, the other five that occur naturally are neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon. Under normal conditions they share similar properties, including being less likely to participate in chemical reactions due to their outer shell of electrons being full. Helium is the second least reactive element after neon.
French and English astronomers Pierre Janssen and Norman Lockyer are jointly credited with discovering helium after spectral analysis of sunlight following a solar eclipse in 1868.
The word helium comes from the Greek word meaning sun (helios). It was named by Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland.
The USA is the world’s largest supplier of helium, with many reserves found in large natural gas fields.
The rate at which helium is currently being used by humans is much faster than the rate at which the reserves are being replenished. New technologies for obtaining or recycling helium are one way for gas companies to help slow this problem.
Because helium is lighter than air it is commonly used to fill airships, blimps and balloons. As it doesn’t burn or react with other chemicals, helium is relatively safe to use for this purpose.
While hydrogen is 7% more buoyant than helium it has a much higher fire risk.
You might notice the helium balloon you got from the amusement park slowly falling to the ground after a few days, this happens as the helium gradually leaks from the balloon.
Helium has a lifting force of around one gram per liter. A balloon that holds 10 liters of helium should therefore lift an object weighing 10 grams. Unfortunately you’ll need around 5000 of these balloons if you weigh around 50kgs and want to get off the ground.
The balloon boy hoax from October 15, 2009 led people to believe that a six year old boy had floated away in a home made helium balloon when in fact he was hiding at his house the whole time.
Because helium is less dense than normal air, when inhaled from a source such as a helium balloon it briefly changes the sound of a person’s voice, making it much sound much higher. However, breathing in too much helium can be very dangerous, potentially choking people due to a lack of oxygen.
Helium can be in a liquid and even solid state but they can only occur at temperatures near absolute zero.
Liquid helium is used to cool metals for superconductivity use. The European Organization for Nuclear Research’s (CERN) Large Hadron Collider uses liquid helium to maintain an extremely low temperature.
Helium is often used in space programs, displacing fuel in storage tanks and having other rocket fuel applications.
| Helium |
Who did late actor Humphrey Bogart marry in 1945? | The Straight Dope: Why does helium make your voice squeaky?
A Staff Report from the Straight Dope Science Advisory Board
Why does helium make your voice squeaky?
July 14, 2000
Why does inhaling helium make your voice sound funny and high pitched?
— Ian, Nowheresville
SDStaff Alphagene replies:
This takes me back to the days when I would spend hour after hour at birthday parties and bar mitzvahs sucking helium out of dozens of balloons to the amusement of myself and my fellow junior high schoolers.
Cut me some slack, I hadn't discovered booze yet.
Anyway, Ian, let's talk acoustics. While no one will question that helium makes your voice sound funny, people who are knowledgeable about acoustics will insist that helium does not make your voice high-pitched. That bears repeating: helium does not change the pitch of your voice. Don't believe me? There's a web site that has sound files demonstrating this fact rather well. It's educational and you get to hear a man with an Australian accent sing a monotonous song with a vocal tract full of helium. Check out http://www. phys.unsw.edu.au/PHYSICS_!/SPEECH_HELIUM/speech.html . The fourth sound file is bound to be a Top 40 hit.
What helium does change is the timbre of your voice. Timbre is what allows you to distinguish between the same note played at the same volume on two different instruments. Timbre also allows you to distinguish different elements of speech (such as vowel sounds) from each other. For this last reason, timbre is very important to interpreting speech.
When you speak, air travels from your lungs up through the larynx on its way out of your mouth. In the larynx are a pair of vocal folds which meet to form a V-shaped slit. On its way through, the air hits the underside of your vocal folds causing them to vibrate. This vibration then excites air molecules in your vocal tract, setting up resonant frequencies that are interpreted by the ear. By manipulating your vocal tract (moving your tongue, lips, soft palate, etc.) you can create different resonant frequencies allowing you to make the many different sounds of coherent speech.
Everyday speech is a combination of the vibration of your vocal folds (which influences the pitch) and the vibration of the air in your vocal tract (which influences the timbre). When you say "ee," your tongue, lips, etc., are in a different configuration than when you say "ooh." Each speech element has a specific pattern of frequencies, like a fingerprint. The resonant frequencies that make the "ee" sound are distinct from those that produce "ooh". These distinct patterns allow us to recognize an "ee" sound regardless of pitch — a soprano singing "ee" produces the same resonant frequencies as a baritone singing "ee."
Helium is significantly less dense than air. As a result, the speed of sound is much higher in helium. By inhaling helium you are effectively increasing the speed of the sound of your voice. The configuration of your vocal tract does not change, however. If you increase the speed of a sound while keeping its wavelength constant, you increase the frequency of that sound. (Think of it as a sort of Doppler effect.) Since each element of speech is composed of a pattern of several frequencies, altering the speed of sound distorts that pattern. Result: you sound like Donald Duck.
Note that the pitch remains the same because your vocal folds are vibrating at the same frequency as when you were breathing air. Contrary to many explanations I have read, helium does not significantly affect the vibration of your vocal folds. To repeat yet again, helium drastically changes the timbre of your voice without having any significant effect on its pitch.
I have heard reports of wacky chemistry professors (how's that for redundant?) inhaling balloons full of xenon gas. Because pure xenon is much denser than air, the speed of sound through xenon is slower, and inhaling xenon lowers the resonant frequencies of your vocal tract. Some web sites recommend wearing a cowboy hat while speaking in a "xenon voice" for maximum comedic effect. Yee ha.
One final note: inhaling helium is not a terribly healthy thing to do. Every time you inhale pure helium, you are not inhaling oxygen. And for the love of Pierre-Jules-César Janssen (the first man to find evidence for the existence of helium), do not inhale helium from a pressurized tank! In addition to risking serious damage to your lungs, you could wind up with helium bubbles in the arteries that supply blood to your brain. This is known as a cerebral arterial gas embolism and can lead to stroke-like symptoms including, of course, death.
So unless you want to spend the next few days after your friend's bar mitzvah in a hyperbaric chamber, take it easy on the helium balloons, OK?
— SDStaff Alphagene, Straight Dope Science Advisory Board
Staff Reports are written by the Straight Dope Science Advisory Board, Cecil's online auxiliary. Though the SDSAB does its best, these columns are edited by Ed Zotti, not Cecil, so accuracywise you'd better keep your fingers crossed.
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The first US execution by lethal injection was carried out in December 1982 in which state? | First execution by lethal injection - Dec 07, 1982 - HISTORY.com
First execution by lethal injection
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The first execution by lethal injection takes place at the state penitentiary in Huntsville, Texas. Charles Brooks, Jr., convicted of murdering an auto mechanic, received an intravenous injection of sodium pentathol, the barbiturate that is known as a “truth serum” when administered in lesser doses.
Texas, the national leader in executions, adopted the lethal injection procedure as a more humane method of carrying out its death sentences, as opposed to the standard techniques of death by gas, electrocution, or hanging. During the next decade, 32 states, the federal government, and the U.S. military all took up the lethal injection method.
After several years of practical development, execution authorities adopted a lethal injection procedure in which three separate drugs are injected successively into the convict’s bloodstream. The first drug, sodium thiopental, a barbiturate, renders the prisoner unconscious, the next, pancuronium bromide, a muscle relaxant, paralyses the diaphragm and lungs, and the third, potassium chloride, causes cardiac arrest and ensures the prisoner’s death.
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| Texas |
Which English author drowned in 1941, after filling her pockets with stones and walking into the River Ouse? | Methods of Execution
Methods of Execution
1000+ Death Penalty Links
In Indiana prior to 1913, all executions were by hanging. From 1913 through 1994, all executions were by electric chair. Since 1995, all executions have been by lethal injection. Current execution procedure is found at Indiana Code 35-38-6 and requires that the lethal injection execution take place inside the walls of the Indiana State Prison at Michigan City before sunrise.
IC 35-38-6-1 Execution Procedure
(a) The punishment of death shall be inflicted by intravenous injection of a lethal substance or substances into the convicted person:
(1) in a quantity sufficient to cause the death of the convicted person; and
(2) until the convicted person is dead.
(b) The death penalty shall be inflicted before the hour of sunrise on a date fixed by the sentencing court. However, the execution must not occur until at least one hundred (100) days after the conviction.
(c) The superintendent of the state prison, or persons designated by the superintendent, shall designate the person who is to serve as the executioner.
(d) The department of correction may adopt rules under IC 4-22-2 necessary to implement subsection(a). [As added by P.L.311-1983, SEC.3. Amended by P.L.294-1995, SEC.1; P.L.20-2002, SEC.1.]
In the 36 states, the Federal Government, and U.S. Military that currently have death penalty statutes, five different methods of execution are prescribed: Lethal Injection, Electrocution, Lethal Gas, Firing Squad, and Hanging. All jurisdictions provide for execution by lethal injection. 16 jurisdictions provide for alternative methods of execution, contingent upon the choice of the inmate, the date of the execution or sentence, or the possibility of the method being held unconstitutional.
Most recently, Maryland (2013), Connecticut (2012), Illinois (2011), New Mexico (2009), New Jersey (2007), and New York (2007) have abolished the death penalty. Three of these states (Connecticut, Maryland, and New Mexico) have recently repealed their death penalty statutes, but the laws are apparently not retroactive and those on death row may still be subject to execution.
Lethal Injection
Electrocution Lethal Gas Firing Squad Alabama
Arkansas
Washington
Arizona - Authorizes lethal injection for persons sentenced after November 15, 1992; inmates sentenced before that date may select lethal injection or gas. Arkansas - Authorizes lethal injection for those whose offense occurred on or after July 4, 1983; inmates whose offense occurred before that date may select lethal injection or electrocution. Connecticut - Authorizes lethal injection for inmates whose capital offense occurred prior to April 25, 2012. Delaware - Authorizes hanging if lethal injection is held to be unconstitutional by a court of competent jurisdiction. Kentucky - Authorizes lethal injection for persons sentenced on or after March 31, 1998; inmates sentenced before that date may select lethal injection or electrocution. New Hampshire - Authorizes hanging only if lethal injection cannot be given. New Mexico - Authorizes lethal injection for those whose capital offense occurred prior to July 1, 2009. Oklahoma - Authorizes electrocution if lethal injection is held to be unconstitutional, and firing squad if both lethal injection and electrocution are held to be unconstitutional. Tennessee - Authorizes lethal injection for those whose capital offense occurred after December 31, 1998; inmates whose offense occurred before that date may select electrocution by written waiver. Utah - Authorizes firing squad if lethal injection is held unconstitutional. Inmates who selected execution by firing squad prior to May 3, 2004, may still be entitled to execution by that method. Wyoming - Authorizes lethal gas if lethal injection is held to be unconstitutional. Federal Government - The method of execution of federal prisoners is lethal injection, pursuant to 28 CFR, Part 26. For offenses prosecuted under the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, the execution method is that of the state in which the conviction took place (18 U.S.C. 3596).
STATE STATUTES / METHOD OF EXECUTION
Jurisdiction
Lethal Injection or Electrocution or
Firing Squad
State Method
LETHAL INJECTION
Procedure: State statutes typically provide: "The punishment of death must be inflicted by continuous, intravenous administration of a lethal quantity of an ultrashort-acting barbiturate in combination with a chemical paralytic agent until death is pronounced by a licensed physician according to accepted standards of medical practice."
The execution protocol for most jurisdictions authorizes the use of a combination of three drugs. The first, sodium thiopental or sodium pentothal, is a barbiturate that renders the prisoner unconscious. The second, pancuronium bromide, is a muscle relaxant that paralyzes the diaphragm and lungs. The third, potassium chloride, causes cardiac arrest. Each chemical is lethal in the amounts administered.
The inmate is escorted into the execution chamber and is strapped onto a gurney with ankle and wrist restraints. The inmate is connected to a cardiac monitor which is connected to a printer outside the execution chamber. An IV is started in two usable veins, one in each arm, and a flow of normal saline solution is administered at a slow rate. One line is held in reserve in case of a blockage or malfunction in the other. At the warden�s signal, 5.0 grams of sodium pentothal (in 20 cc of diluent) is administered, then the line is flushed with sterile normal saline solution. This is followed by 50 cc of pancuronium bromide, a saline flush, and finally, 50 cc of potassium chloride. (See California Execution Procedures).
The most common problem encountered is collapsing veins and the inability to properly insert the IV. Some states allow for a Thorazine or sedative injection to facilitate IV insertion.
History: Lethal injection had first been proposed as a means of execution in 1888 when New York considered it, but ultimately opted for electrocution. In 1977, Oklahoma became the first state to adopt lethal injection. Texas performed the first execution by lethal injection in 1982 with the execution of Charlie Brooks.
Current Application: 20 states authorize lethal injection as the sole method of execution. 16 other states provide for lethal injection as the primary method of execution, but provide alternative methods depending upon the choice of the inmate, the date of the execution or sentence, or the possibility of the method being held unconstitutional. Since 2008, almost 90% of all U.S. executions have been by lethal injection.
ELECTROCUTION
Procedure: State statutes typically provide: "The sentence shall be executed by causing to pass through the body of the convict a current of electricity of sufficient intensity to cause death, and the application and continuance of such current through the body of such convict shall continue until such convict is dead."
The execution protocol for most jurisdictions authorizes the use of a wooden chair with restraints and connections to an electric current. The offender enters the execution chamber and is placed in the electric chair. The chair is constructed of oak and is set on a rubber matting and bolted to a concrete floor. Lap, chest, arm, and forearm straps are secured. A leg piece (anklet) is laced to the offender's right calf and a sponge and electrode is attached. The headgear consists of a metal headpiece covered with a leather hood which conceals the offender's face. The metal part of the headpiece consists of a copper wire mesh screen to which the electrode is brazened. A wet sponge is placed between the electrode and the offender's scalp. The safety switch is closed. The circuit breaker is engaged. The execution control panel is activated. The automatic cycle begins with the programmed 2,300 volts (9.5 amps) for eight seconds, followed by 1,000 volts (4 amps) for 22 seconds, followed by 2,300 volts (9.5 amps) for eight seconds. When the cycle is complete, the equipment is disconnected and the manual circuit behind the chair is disengaged. If the offender is not pronounced dead, the execution cycle is then repeated. (See Florida Execution Procedures).
The most common problems encountered include burning of varying degrees to parts of the body, and a failure of the procedures to cause death without repeated shocks. Witness accounts of many botched executions over the years have likely caused electrocution to be replaced with lethal injection as the most common method of execution.
History: In 1888, New York became the first state to adopt electrocution as its method of execution. William Kemmler was the first man executed by electrocution in 1890. See, In re Kemmler, 136 U.S. 436 (1890). The last state to adopt electrocution as a method of execution was in 1949. From 1930-1980 it was clearly the most common method of execution in the United States.
Current Application: No state currently uses electrocution as the sole method of execution. Nine other states provide for electrocution as an alternative method to lethal injection, depending upon the choice of the inmate, the date of the execution or sentence, or the possibility of the method being held unconstitutional. Of the countries outside the United States that impose capital punishment, none prescribe execution by electrocution. Both the Humane Society of the United States and the American Veterinarian Medical Association condemn electrocution as a method of euthanasia for animals. Since the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1976, 158 (11.6%) convicted murderers executed were by electric chair. (Florida 44, Virginia 31, Alabama 24, Georgia 23, Louisiana 20, South Carolina 7, Indiana 3, Nebraska 3, Kentucky 1, Arkansas 1, Tennessee 1.) The last was Robert Charles Gleason Jr. in Virginia on January 16, 2013).
LETHAL GAS
Procedure: State statutes typically and simply provide: "The punishment of death must be inflicted by the administration of a lethal gas."
The execution protocol for most jurisdictions authorizes the use of a steel airtight execution chamber, equipped with a chair and attached restraints. The inmate is restrained at his chest, waist, arms, and ankles, and wears a mask during the execution. The chair is equipped with a metal container beneath the seat. Cyanide pellets are placed in this container. A metal canister is on the floor under the container filled with a sulfuric acid solution. There are three executioners, and each executioner turns one key. When the three keys are turned, an electric switch causes the bottom of the cyanide container to open allowing the cyanide to fall into the sulfuric acid solution, producing a lethal gas. Unconsciousness can occur within a few seconds if the prisoner takes a deep breath. However, if he or she holds their breath death can take much longer, and the prisoner usually goes into wild convulsions. A heart monitor attached to the inmate is read in the control room, and after the warden pronounces the inmate dead, ammonia is pumped into the execution chamber to neutralize the gas. Exhaust fans then remove the inert fumes from the chamber into two scrubbers that contain water and serve as a neutralizing agent. The neutralizing process takes approximately 30 minutes from the time the offender's death is determined. Death is estimated to usually occur within 6 to 18 minutes of the lethal gas emissions. (See North Carolina Execution Procedures).
The most common problems encountered are the obvious agony suffered by the inmate and the length of time to cause death.
History: The use of a gas chamber for execution was inspired by the use of poisonous gas in World War I, as well as the popularity of the gas oven as a means of suicide. Nevada became the first state to adopt execution by lethal gas in 1924 and carried out the first execution in 1924. Since then it has served as the means of carrying out the death sentence 31 times. Lethal gas was seen as an improvement over other forms of execution, because it was less violent and did not disfigure or mutilate the body. The last execution by lethal gas took place in Arizona in 1999.
Current Application: Only 4 states, Arizona, California, Missouri, and Wyoming, currently authorize lethal gas as a method of execution, all as an alternative to lethal injection, depending upon the choice of the inmate, the date of the execution or sentence, or the possibility of lethal injection being held unconstitutional. Since the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1976, 11 of 1,389 (01.0%) convicted murderers executed were by the administration of lethal gas. Most recently, Walter LeGrand elected Lethal Gas in Arizona on March 3, 1999.
HANGING
Procedure: Prior to any execution, the gallows area trap door and release mechanisms are inspected for proper operation. The rope, which is of manila hemp of at least 3/4"and not more than 1 1/4"in diameter and approximately 30 feet in length, is soaked and then stretched while drying to eliminate any spring, stiffness, or tendency to coil. The hangman's knot, which is tied pursuant to military regulations, is treated with wax, soap, or clear oil, to ensure that the rope slides smoothly through the knot. The end of the rope which does not contain the noose is tied to a grommet in the ceiling and then is tied off to a metal T-shaped bracket, which takes the force delivered by the offender's drop.
Additionally, prior to an execution, the condemned offender's file is reviewed to determine if there are any unusual characteristics the offender possesses that might warrant deviation from field instructions on hanging. A physical examination and measuring process is conducted to assure almost instant death and a minimum of bruising. If careful measuring and planning is not done, strangulation, obstructed blood flow, or beheading could result. At the appropriate time on execution day, the inmate, in restraints, is escorted to the gallows area and is placed standing over a hinged trap door from which the offender will be dropped. Following the offender's last statement, a hood is placed over the offender's head. Restraints are also applied. If the offender refuses to stand or cannot stand, he is placed on a collapse board. A determination of the proper amount of the drop of the condemned offender through the trap door is calculated using a standard military execution chart for hanging. The "drop" must be based on the prisoner's weight, to deliver 1260 foot_pounds of force to the neck. The noose is then placed snugly around the convict's neck, behind his or her left ear, which will cause the neck to snap. The trap door then opens, and the convict drops. If properly done, death is caused by dislocation of the third and fourth cervical vertebrae, or by asphyxiation. A button mechanically releases the trap door and escorts then move to the lower floor location to assist in the removal of the offender's body. (See Washington Execution Procedures).
History: Hanging is the oldest method of execution in the United States, but fell into disfavor in the 20th century after many botched attempts, and was replaced by electrocution as the most common method. There have been only 3 executions by hanging since 1977: Westley Dodd (WA 1993), Charles Campbell (WA 1994), and Billy Bailey (DE 1996).
Current Application: Only 3 states, Delaware, New Hampshire, and Washington, currently authorize hanging as a method of execution, all as an alternative to lethal injection, depending upon the choice of the inmate, whether injection is �impractical," or the possibility of lethal injection being held unconstitutional. Since the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1976, only 3 of 1,389 (0.3%) convicted murderers executed were by hanging. Most recently, Billy Bailey elected Hanging in Delaware on January 25, 1996.
FIRING SQUAD
Procedure: Shooting can be carried out by a single executioner who fires from short range at the back of the head or neck as in China. The traditional firing squad is made up of three to six shooters per prisoner who stand or kneel opposite the condemned who is usually tied to a chair or to a stake. Normally the shooters aim at the chest, since this is easier to hit than the head, causing rupture of the heart, great vessels, and lungs so that the condemned person dies of hemorrhage and shock. It is not unusual for the officer in charge to have to give the prisoner a pistol shot to the head to finish them off after the initial volley has failed to kill them.
The Utah statute authorizing execution by firing squad only provides: "If the judgment of death is to be carried out by shooting, the executive director of the department or his designee shall select a five-person firing squad of peace officers." At the appropriate time, the condemned offender is led to the execution area or chamber, which is used for both lethal injection and firing squad executions. The offender is placed in a specially designed chair which has a pan beneath it to catch and conceal blood and other fluids. Restraints are applied to the offender's arms, legs, chest and head. A head restraint is applied loosely around the offender's neck to hold his neck and head in an upright position. The offender is dressed in a dark blue outfit with a white cloth circle attached by Velcro to the area over the offender's heart. Behind the offender are sandbags to absorb the volley and prevent ricochets. Approximately 20 feet directly in front of the offender is a wall. This wall has firing ports for each member of the firing squad. The weapons used are 30_30 caliber rifles. No special ammunition is used. Following the offender's statement, a hood is placed over the offender's head. The warden leaves the room. The firing squad members stand in the firing position. They support their rifles on the platform rests. With their rifle barrels in the firing ports, the team members sight through open sights on the white cloth circle on the offender's chest. On the command to fire, the squad fires simultaneously. One squad member has a blank charge in his weapon but no member knows which member is designated to receive this blank charge. (See Utah Execution Procedures).
History: In recent history only three inmates have been executed by firing squad, all in Utah: Gary Gilmore (1977), John Albert Taylor, and Ronnie Lee Gardner (2010). While the method was popular with the military in times of war, there has been only one such execution since the Civil War: Private Eddie Slovak in WWII.
Current Application: Only 2 states, Oklahoma and Utah, currently authorize shooting as a method of execution, all as an alternative to lethal injection, depending upon the choice of the inmate, whether injection is �impractical," or the possibility of lethal injection being held unconstitutional. Since the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1976, only 3 (0.2%) of the 1,389 convicted murderers executed were by firing squad. Most recently, Ronnie Lee Gardner elected a Firing Squad in Utah on June 18, 2010.
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Late US professional boxer Walker Smith Jr was better known by what name? | Sugar Ray Robinson | American boxer | Britannica.com
Sugar Ray Robinson
Alternative Title: Walker Smith, Jr.
Sugar Ray Robinson
Floyd Patterson
Sugar Ray Robinson, byname of Walker Smith, Jr. (born May 3, 1921, Detroit , Mich., U.S.—died April 12, 1989, Culver City , Calif.), American professional boxer, six times a world champion: once as a welterweight (147 pounds), from 1946 to 1951, and five times as a middleweight (160 pounds), between 1951 and 1960. He is considered by many authorities to have been the best fighter in history.
Sugar Ray Robinson (right) fighting Randy Turpin, 1951
AP
He won 89 amateur fights without defeat, fighting first under his own name and then as Ray Robinson, using the amateur certificate of another boxer of that name in order to qualify for a bout. He won Golden Gloves titles as a featherweight in 1939 and as a lightweight in 1940.
Robinson won 40 consecutive professional fights before losing to Jake LaMotta in one of their six battles. On Dec. 20, 1946, he won the welterweight championship by defeating Tommy Bell on a 15-round decision. Robinson resigned this title on winning the middleweight championship by a 13-round knockout of LaMotta on Feb. 14, 1951. He lost the 160-pound title to Randy Turpin of England in 1951 and regained it from Turpin later that year. In 1952 he narrowly missed defeating Joey Maxim for the light-heavyweight (175-pound) crown and a few months later retired.
Robinson returned to the ring in 1954, recaptured the middleweight title from Carl (Bobo) Olson in 1955, lost it to and regained it from Gene Fullmer in 1957, yielded it to Carmen Basilio later that year, and for the last time won the 160-pound championship by defeating Basilio in a savage fight in 1958. Paul Pender defeated Robinson to win the title on Jan. 22, 1960, and also won their return fight.
Robinson continued to fight until late 1965, when he was 45 years old. In 201 professional bouts, he had 109 knockouts. He suffered only 19 defeats, most of them when he was past 40. His outstanding ability and flamboyant personality made him a hero of boxing fans throughout the world. In retirement he appeared on television and in motion pictures and formed a youth foundation in 1969.
Learn More in these related articles:
| Sugar Ray Robinson |
Which cartoon character owns a dog called Dogmatix? | Famous People who Have and Had Dementia
Famous People who Have and Had Dementia
A listing of famous people around the world who suffer and had suffered from Dementia.
What is Dementia?
Dementia is the progressive decline in cognitive function due to damage or disease in the brain beyond what might be expected from normal aging. Although dementia is far more common in the geriatric population, it may occur in any stage of adulthood.
In dementia, affected areas in cognition may be memory, attention, language, and problem solving.
The prevalence of dementia is rising as the global life expectancy is rising. Particularly in Western countries, there is an increasing concern about the economic impact that dementia will have in future, older populaces
There is no cure to this illness, although scientists are progressing in making a type of medication that will slow down the process. Cholinesterase inhibitors are often used early in the disease course
Tacrine (Cognex), donepezil (Aricept), galantamine (Reminyl), and rivastigmine (Exelon) are approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of dementia induced by Alzheimer disease . They may be useful for other similar diseases causing dementia such as Parkinsons or vascular dementia.
List of Famous People who Have and Had Dementia
Charles Bronson - Charles Bronson (born Charles Dennis Buchinsky, November 3, 1921 - August 30, 2003) was an American actor of "tough guy", or "macho" roles. In most of his roles, he played a police detective, western gunfighter, vigilante, boxer or Mafia hitman. Bronson's father died when he was only 10, and he went to work in the coal mines like his older brothers until he was drafted for World War II. His family was so poor that, at one time, he reportedly had to wear his sister's dress to school because he had nothing else to wear.
Charlton Heston - (October 4, 1924 - April 5, 2008) was an American film actor. In a long career he was mostly known for playing heroic roles such as Moses in The Ten Commandments, Colonel George Taylor in Planet of the Apes, and Judah Ben-Hur in Ben-Hur. Heston's most frequently played roles on stage include the title role in Macbeth, Sir Thomas More in A Man For All Seasons, and Mark Antony in both Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra. Charlton Heston was lost in a world of Alzheimer's Disease, according to close family friends.
Rita Hayworth - (October 17, 1918 - May 14, 1987), Margarita Carmen Cansino, better known as Rita Hayworth, was born in Brooklyn, New York, the daughter of Spanish flamenco dancer Eduardo Cansino (Sr.) and English/Irish-American Ziegfeld girl Volga Hayworth. After about 1960, Hayworth suffered from extremely early onset of Alzheimer's disease, which was not diagnosed until 1980. She continued to act in films until the early 1970s and made a well-publicized 1971 appearance on The Carol Burnett Show. Both of her brothers died within a week of each other in March 1974, saddening her greatly, and causing her to drink even more heavily than before. Rita Hayworth public diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease in 1980 was a big step in destigmatizing the degenerative disease.
Ronald Reagan - Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 - June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981-1989) and the 33rd Governor of California (1967-1975). Born in Illinois, Reagan moved to Los Angeles in the 1930s. In July 1989, the Reagans took a trip to Mexico, where Reagan was thrown off a horse and taken to a hospital for tests. The Reagans returned to the U.S. and visited the Mayo Clinic where they were told President Reagan had a head concussion and a subdural hematoma, and was subsequently operated on. Doctors believe that is what hastened the onset of Alzheimer's disease, an incurable neurological disorder which ultimately causes brain cells to die, and something Reagan was diagnosed with in 1994.
Alfred Van Vogt - Born on a farm in Edenburg, a Russian Mennonite community east of Gretna, Manitoba, Canada, van Vogt was one of the most popular and highly esteemed science fiction writers of the 1940s. Van Vogt's first published SF story, "Black Destroyer" (Astounding Science Fiction, July 1939), was inspired by The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin. In the 1950s, van Vogt briefly became involved in L. Ron Hubbard's projects. Van Vogt operated a storefront for Dianetics, the secular precursor to Hubbard's Church of Scientology, in the Los Angeles area for a time.
Sugar Ray Robinson - (born Walker Smith Jr., May 3, 1921 - April 12, 1989) was a professional boxer. Frequently cited as the greatest boxer of all time. Robinson was a fluid boxer who possessed a quick jab and knockout power. He possessed tremendous versatility-according to boxing analyst Bert Sugar, "Robinson could deliver a knockout blow going backward." In Robinson's last years, he was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. He died in Los Angeles at the age of 67.
Stan Mikita - (born Stanislav Guoth; May 20, 1940), is a Slovak-born Canadian retired professional ice hockey player for the Chicago Black Hawks of the National Hockey League, generally regarded as the best centre of the 1960s. Mr. Mikita's family has announced he has been diagnosed with dementia, and the doctors suspect it to be Lewy body dementia (LBD), one of the most debilitating forms of dementia. LBD affects 1.4 million Americans.
Burgess Meredith - (November 16, 1907 - September 9, 1997) Burgess Meredith was a versatile two-time Academy Award-nominated American actor. He was known for portraying Rocky Balboa's trainer Mickey Goldmill in the Rocky films and The Penguin in the television series Batman. Burgess Meredith was adept playing both dramatic and comedic roles, and with his rugged looks and gravelly voice, he could convincingly play either an everyman hero or a sinister villain.
Iris Murdoch - (15 July 1919 - 8 February 1999) Iris Murdoch was a Dublin-born writer and philosopher. Her first published novel, Under the Net, was selected in 2001 by the editorial board of the American Modern Library as one of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. In 1987, she was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire. Murdoch's novels are by turns intense and bizarre, filled with dark humor and unpredictable plot twists, undercutting the civilized surface of the usually intellectual upper middle-class milieu in which her characters are observed.
Jack Lord - (December 30, 1920 - January 21, 1998) Jack O'Brien was an American television, film, and Broadway actor.Born in Brooklyn, New York, Jack Lord was the son of Irish-American parents. His father, William Lawrence Ryan was a steamship company executive. His first work on Broadway was in Traveling Lady with Kim Stanley. He was then cast as a replacement for Ben Gazarra in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. Jack Lord died of congestive heart failure at his home on January 21, 1998 in Honolulu, Hawaii, at the age of 77. He left an estate of $40 million, and being a philanthropist in his lifetime, the entire estate went to various Hawaiian charities upon his wife Marie's death in 2005. Portions of their estate were auctioned on eBay in March 2007.
Abe Burrows - (December 18, 1910 - May 17, 1985) Abe Burrows was a noted American humorist, author, and director for both the radio and the stage, particularly Broadway. He began working as a runner on Wall Street while at NYC, and he also worked in an accounting firm. After he met Frank Galen in 1938, the two wrote and sold jokes to an impressionist who appeared on the Rudy Vallee radio program. Abe burrows later suffered of dementia at an older age.
Kay Swift - (1897-1993) Kay Swift was an American composer of popular and classical music, the first woman to score a complete musical. Swift was educated as a classical musician and composer at the Institute of Musical Art (now known as the Juilliard School). Her teacher of composition was Charles Loeffler, while harmony and composition was taught to her by Percy Goetschius. Her marriage to a cowboy and subsequent move to Oregon prompted an autobiographical novel, Who Could Ask For Anything More? Which was made into the film Never a Dull Moment in 1950, which had a Kay Swift musical score.
Barry Goldwater - (January 2, 1909 - May 29, 1998) was a five-term United States Senator from Arizona (1953-1965, 1969-87) and the Republican Party's nominee for President in the 1964 election. He was a Major General in the U.S. Air Force Reserves. He was also referred to as "Mr. Conservative". Goldwater is the politician most often credited for sparking the resurgence of the American conservative political movement in the 1960s. By the 1980s, the increasing influence of the Christian Right on the Republican Party so conflicted with Goldwater's libertarian views that he became a vocal opponent of the religious right on issues such as abortion and gay rights. Goldwater concentrated on his Senate duties, especially passage of the Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986.
Dana Andrews - (January 1, 1909 - December 17, 1992) was an American film actor. Andrews signed a contract with Samuel Goldwyn and nine years after arriving in Los Angeles was offered his first movie role in William Wyler's The Westerner (1940), starring Gary Cooper. In the 1943 movie adaptation of The Ox-Bow Incident with Henry Fonda, often cited as one of his best films, he played a lynching victim. He gave a finely calibrated performance in Where the Sidewalk Ends (1950), followed by the Andrews' two signature roles, as an obsessed detective in Laura (1944) opposite Gene Tierney, and as a soldier returning home from the war in the Oscar-winning 1946 film The Best Years of Our Lives.
Harry Ritz - The Ritz Brothers were a comedy team who appeared in 1930s films, and as live performers from 1925 to the late 1960s. Although there were four brothers, only three of them performed together. The fourth brother, George, acted as their manager. The influence of the Ritz Brothers was greater than their film career, in part because of their long career as nightclub entertainers. They influenced actors including Danny Kaye, Jerry Lewis, and Sid Caesar. In his 1976 film Silent Movie, Mel Brooks paid tribute to the Ritz Brothers by casting Harry in a cameo (he's the nutty fellow leaving a tailor's shop). It was the actor's last role.
Mervyn Leroy - (October 15, 1900 - September 13, 1987) was an Academy Award-winning American film director, producer and sometime actor. LeRoy worked in costumes, processing labs and as a camera assistant until he became a gag writer and actor in silent films. His first directing job was in 1927's No Place to Go. When his movies made lots of money without costing too much, he became well-received in the movie business. LeRoy retired in 1965 and wrote his autobiography, Take One, in 1974. He died in Beverly Hills, California and was interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1560 Vine Street.
Rockwell - (February 3, 1894 - November 8, 1978) Norman Rockwell was a 20th century American painter and illustrator. In 1943, during the Second World War, Rockwell painted the Four Freedoms series, which was completed in seven months and resulted in his losing 15 pounds. The series was inspired by a speech by Franklin D. Roosevelt, in which he described four principles for universal rights: Freedom from Want, Freedom of Speech, Freedom to Worship, and Freedom from Fear.
Perry Como - (May 18, 1912 - May 12, 2001) was an Italian-American singer and television personality. During a career spanning more than half a century he recorded exclusively for the RCA Victor label after signing with it in 1943. "Mr. C", as he was nicknamed, sold millions of records for RCA and also pioneered a weekly musical variety television show, which set the standards for the genre and proved to be one of the most successful in television history. His combined success on television and popular recordings was not matched by any other artist of the time.
Peter Michael Falk - (September 16, 1927 - June 23, 2011) was a retired American actor, best known for his role as Lieutenant Columbo in the television series Columbo. He appeared in numerous films and television guest roles, and has been nominated for an Academy Award twice (for 1960's Murder, Inc. and 1961's Pocketful of Miracles), and won the Emmy Award on five occasions (four for Columbo) and the Golden Globe award once. Peter Falk starred on TV as Lieutenant Columbo, the shabby detective whose apparent absentmindedness hid a razor-sharp brain. It is said Falk no longer remembered his role in Columbo, for which he won four Emmys, due to advanced Alzheimer's disease (Dementia) that has left him unable to care for himself. At a two day conservatorship trial in Los Angeles in June 2009, one of Falk's personal physicians, Dr. Stephen Read, reported Falk rapidly slipped into dementia after a series of dental operations in 2007.
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Which UK television game show is the setting for the novel ‘Starter For 10’ by David Nicholls? | Starter for 10 Movie Review, Trailer, Actors and NZ Screening Times
Starter for 10
"Ever since I can remember, I've wanted to be clever," Brian Jackson confesses in voice over at the start of Starter for 10. A working-class student from Essex navigating his first year at Bristol University, Brian (James McAvoy) has a lot to prove. While his hometown mates worry about him turning into a poncey wanker, Brian's biggest concern is making the team for the long-running British television quiz show University Challenge. (The game show, which began in 1962 and is something like the UK's answer to Jeopardy, pits four-member teams from posh universities against each other. "Starter" questions, worth ten points each, gave the film its title.) Amidst Tarts and Vicars dances, anti-Apartheid rallies, minging dorm rooms and puffs of marijuana smoke, Brian also finds himself romantically torn between two very different co-eds: ultra-fit blonde bombshell and University Challenge team-mate Alice (Alice Eve), and thoughtful, politically-conscious Rebecca Epstein (Rebecca Hall in Christopher Nolan's The Prestige). With Margaret Thatcher's economically depressed Blighty as a backdrop, and a killer, pitch-perfect New Wave soundtrack - featuring music by The cure, Wham! Bananarama, Yaz, The Smiths, New Order, Tears For Fears, Echo and the Bunnymen, The Buzzcocks, and The Psychedelic Furs - in the foreground, Starter for 10 is the great British teen 80s movie that never was... It is also altogether delightful, with UK comedy sensation Catherine Tate co-starring as Brian's steadfast mum, and McAvoy (The Lion, The Witch, and the Wardrobe's Mr. Tumnus the Faun) delivering the kind of charming, humourous performance that reinvigorates a genre. Though Brian Jackson knows everything, like all honest coming-of-age stories, Starter for 10 is ultimately about its hero discovering the difference between knowledge and wisdom. Directed by Tom Vaughan, based on the novel by David Nicholls, Starter for 10 is produced by Tom Hanks, Gary Goetzman and Pippa Harris and executive produced by Sam Mendes, Steven Shareshain, Nathalie Marciano, and Michelle Chydzik Sowa.
1hr 30mins long
| University Challenge |
Hipolito Yrigoyen was the President of which South American country from 1928 to 1930? | The MovieSite — Starter for 10
Starter for 10
Hope my hand doesn't slip.....
A British rom-com set back in the 1980s. Our hero is a young working-class man starting out at a posh university. His goal is to make it onto the ''University Challenge'' quiz show team. Along the way he gets to dabble with two very different women... one in auto-protest mode, and the other a team member.
92 minutes
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Which English darts player is known by the nickname ‘The Power’? | Phil Taylor | Darts Wikia | Fandom powered by Wikia
2010, 2010, 2011, 2011
Other achievements
2002 Achieves his first televised nine dart finish (and the first live televised nine-darter in the UK) at World Matchplay
2004 Becomes first player to hit a second televised nine-dart finish
2005 Hit third televised nine-dart finish
2006 PDC Player of the Year
2007 Fourth televised nine-darter in IDL in the Netherlands
2007 Fifth televised nine-darter in 2007 UK Open at the Reebok Stadium, Bolton
2007 PDC Fans' Player of the Year
2008 Sixth televised nine-darter in 2008 UK Open
2008 Fans' Player of the Year, PDC Player of the Year and PDPA Player's Player of the Year
2009 Hits seventh televised 9 darter in Championship League Darts against John Part
2009 PDC Player of the Year, PDPA Players’ Player of the Year, Fans’ Player of the Year and Best PDC Pro Tour Player
2010 Inaugural inductee into Stoke-on-Trent Sporting Hall of Fame
2010 Hit two televised nine dart finishes in Premier League Final against James Wade
2010 Scored world record televised average of 118.66 against Kevin Painter in UK Open
Updated on 20 November 2011.
Philip Douglas 'Phil' Taylor (born 13 August 1960) is an English professional darts player, nicknamed The Power. He is regarded as the best darts player ever to have played the game, having won more than 150 professional tournaments and a record 15 World Championships .
He won PDC Player of the year four times (2006, 2008, 2009 and 2010) and has been twice nominated for the BBC Sports Personality of the Year award (2006 and 2010). He was the first person to hit two nine darters in one match, in the 2010 Premier League Darts final against James Wade . As of 26 September 2010, he has hit nine televised nine dart finishes , and is ranked World No. 1 in the PDC Order of Merit .
Taylor played in the British Darts Organisation (BDO) from 1988 to 1993 before he, and several other players, broke away to form the World Darts Council, now known as the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC).
He was given the nickname "The Power" by a Sky Sports production manager, Peter Judge. Judge told Taylor that he should have a nickname, and he was named "The Power" after Judge stepped on an empty CD case of Snap!'s "The Power".
Early life
Edit
Taylor was born to Douglas "The Wizard" and Elizabeth "The Dame" Taylor on 13 August 1960 in Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent. He left school at the age of 16 and after holding a few jobs including as a sheet metal worker, he would spend most of his early working days making ceramic toilet roll handles, for which he earned £52 a week. Although he liked to play darts as a child, he never took up the game seriously until 1986 when he moved into a terraced house in Burslem, living near to Eric Bristow 's pub the Crafty Cockney. A few months later, his wife Yvonne bought him a set of darts for his birthday and he started playing weekly, occasionally at Bristow's pub. By 1988 he was selected for the county team and playing at Super League level. Bristow started sponsoring him by loaning him £10,000 later that year to help him get started as a professional darts player and on the condition that he gave up his job as a ceramic engineer.
Early career
Edit
Taylor's first title came in the Canadian Open in 1988 and after reaching the quarter finals of the British Open and the semi finals of the Winmau World Masters in 1989 he had qualified for the World Championships for the first time in 1990. Although he had achieved some success in Open events, he went into the 1990 World Championship as a 125–1 unseeded outsider. He beat number six seed Russell Stewart 3–1 in the first round, Dennis Hickling 3–0 in the second round, Ronnie Sharp 4–2 in the quarter finals and Cliff Lazarenko 5–0 to reach the final, where he met his mentor, Bristow. Bristow had been suffering with dartitis since 1986 but had recovered his world number one ranking to be the top seed in the event. After sharing the first two sets, Taylor beat Bristow 6–1 in sets to claim his first world title. For the rest of 1990, Taylor dominated the Open events taking the titles in Isle of Man, Finland, North America, Denmark plus the British Pentathlon, British Masters, Europe Cup and the game's second major tournament at the time, the Winmau World Masters .
Taylor's defence of the world championship in 1991 ended at the quarter-final stage with a loss to Dennis Priestley , who went on to win his first world title. He picked up fewer titles in 1991 losing both his Danish Open and World Masters titles in finals to Rod Harrington . Taylor regained the world championship the following year, beating Mike Gregory 6–5 in the final. He called the win as the favourite of his career.
Split in darts
Main article: Split in darts
From a peak during the 1980s, the game of darts had lost many sponsors and almost all television coverage. Players felt that the BDO was no longer serving the interests of the game at the top level. In 1993, some players broke away from the game's ruling body, the British Darts Organisation , and formed their own organisation, the World Darts Council (WDC), later renamed the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC).
In the 1993 World Championship , the last unified World Championship to be held, Taylor lost in the second round to Kevin Spiolek . The BDO refused to allow the new organisation to set up and run their own tournaments, so the WDC players decided that they would no longer compete in the BDO World Championship. They founded the WDC World Darts Championship as an alternative. In the first WDC World Championship in 1994 , Taylor lost to Priestley, but Taylor dominated the event for the next decade and beyond.
PDC career
Edit
After losing to Priestley in the final of the first PDC World Championship in 1994, Taylor began to dominate the event during the next few years. Rod Harrington reached his first World Final in 1995 and although he had won his previous three finals against Taylor in 1991 and 1992, Taylor took the title 6–2 and it would turn out to be Harrington's only appearance in a World Final.
The finals of 1996, 1997 and 1998 would feature Taylor v Priestley in a repeat of the inaugural final. Priestley achieved the first 100 average in a final in 1996 but still ended up runner-up and the next two finals would be more one-sided in favour of Taylor who took the title 6–3 in 1997 and 6–0 in 1998 with an average in the final of 103.98. By 1998, he had passed his mentor Eric Bristow 's haul of five world championships.
Taylor's record at Blackpool in the WDC's second major event, the World Matchplay was not as strong in the early days, losing to Bob Anderson in 1994, Peter Evison in 1996 and Ronnie Baxter in 1998 – but he still won the event twice in the first five years, beating Priestley 16–11 in 1995 and Alan Warriner-Little 16–11 in 1997.
1999 to 2004
Edit
Taylor stretched his World Championship unbeaten run to eight years in the PDC World Championship beating Peter Manley in 1999 and 2002, Priestley for a fourth time in 2000 and John Part in 2001. Part would finally end the run by beating Taylor 7–6 ( sets ) in the 2003 World Championship .
He would improve his record at Blackpool during this spell. After he lost in the 1999 semi-final of the World Matchplay to Peter Manley, he would go on to win the title for the next five years (2000–2004) beating five different opponents in the final, Alan Warriner-Little (2000), Richie Burnett (2001), John Part (2002), Wayne Mardle (2003) and Mark Dudbridge (2004). By the end of 2004, he had won 11 World Championships and seven World Matchplays.
Taylor has faced the incumbent BDO World Champion in challenge matches on two occasions. In 1999, he beat Raymond van Barneveld by 21 legs to 10 in a one-hour challenge dubbed "The Match of the Century" at the Wembley Conference Centre. The second challenge match came in 2004 against Andy Fordham . Taylor was leading 5–2 in sets when Fordham, feeling unwell, abandoned the match.
2004 to 2008
Edit
Taylor continued his dominance during 2004 and 2005, but after winning his 13th World Championship title in January 2006, he lost four matches in televised tournaments during the first half of the year. He lost to Jelle Klaasen and Simon Whitlock in the International Darts League tournament, and twice in a row to Raymond van Barneveld —in the UK Open and the Las Vegas Desert Classic . He came back to win the World Matchplay , the World Darts Trophy (a BDO affiliated event), and the World Grand Prix in the second half of the year.
The 2007 World Final was between Taylor and Raymond van Barneveld . The game was tied at 6–6 in sets and van Barneveld had a 2–1 lead in legs. van Barneveld missed four darts and Taylor tied the set at 2–2. The set went to 5–5, and van Barneveld won the sudden death leg for his fifth World Championship (four with BDO and one with PDC). Taylor had many opportunities to win the match, as he led 3–0, 4–2 and 5–3. Taylor said, "Of all the finals I've played in, I would probably put this one as the best".
2007 proved to be Taylor's most barren year for major title successes. He was defeated at the International Darts League and the World Darts Trophy in the Netherlands. At the UK Open in Bolton, he suffered a 4–11 loss to van Barneveld. He lost to Mark Dudbridge at the Las Vegas Desert Classic , and lost at the World Matchplay in Blackpool. At the World Grand Prix in Dublin, he lost to Adrian Gray . Taylor feared his career was in decline or over but later vowed that he would continue.
Taylor's 100% appearance record in the Final of the PDC World Darts Championship came to an end in 2008 after 14 years when Taylor was beaten in the quarter finals. This was the first time that he had not reached the final stage of the PDC World Darts Championship. He was taken to the final set in each of his first three rounds before losing to Wayne Mardle 5 sets to 4; At one point he was up 3–0 in sets.
Before the start of the Premier League tournament, [1] Taylor unveiled some new black 26g darts. [2] Despite a poor start to his Premier League Darts campaign, with three defeats in his first four matches, Taylor finished at the top of the Premier League standings. He beat Adrian Lewis 11–1 with a 112.68 average in the semi-final, and went on to take his fourth consecutive title [3] with a 16–8 victory over Wade (average 108.36). [4] He won his second US Open title in May 2008, defeating Colin Lloyd in the final. [5] [6] At the UK Open , Taylor broke the world record for highest average in a televised game by averaging 118.66 against Kevin Painter in round four. He won the match 9–0, [7] but was defeated 10–9 in the quarter-finals by Raymond van Barneveld . [8]
As he went to Las Vegas for the 2008 Las Vegas Desert Classic in July, he was in an unusual position for him of not holding any of the major televised ranking events, but corrected that by taking his fourth Vegas title. He then regained the World Matchplay , [9] World Grand Prix , [10] the first European Darts Championship . [11] [12] and the Grand Slam of Darts . [13] [14]
2009 to 2012
Edit
Taylor won the World Championship title (his 14th title) for the first time in three years by beating Raymond van Barneveld 7–1 in the 2009 world final . His 110.94 three-dart average was the highest ever recorded in a PDC final. His average during the course of the tournament was 104.08. Taylor beat Colin Osborne 11–6 in the final to win his third UK Open title in June, his first win at this tournament since 2005. His tournament average was 107.38.
Success continued throughout the rest of 2009 winning the last Las Vegas Desert Classic (his fifth time), the World Matchplay , the World Grand Prix , European Darts Championship and the Grand Slam of Darts for the third successive time in November.
Taylor kicked off 2010 by winning his fifteenth World Championship title, beating Simon Whitlock seven sets to three with an average of more than 104 and winning the match with a 131 checkout. Taylor lost in the semi-finals of the Players Championship at the Circus Tavern in Purfleet. Whilst attempting to defend his title earned in the inaugural event of 2009, Taylor lost to eventual champion Paul Nicholson . Taylor admitted, following his defeat, that he had had little time to practice after his World Championship win. He made history again in the Premier League final against defending champion James Wade in the final by hitting two nine dart finishes , the first time this has been done in professional darts.
By the summer of 2010, he was the holder of the World Championship, World Matchplay, Premier League, UK Open, World Grand Prix and Grand Slam of Darts – with only the Players Championship Finals missing from a complete set of major televised titles. These performances, in addition to his longevity contributed to his nomination for the BBC Sports Personality of the Year award in 2010, where he was voted runner-up to A.P. McCoy . However, defeats in the World Grand Prix, the Grand Slam and a loss to Mark Webster in the quarter finals of the 2011 World Championship meant he started 2011 as holder of three major titles – the World Matchplay, Premier League and UK Open. However he won his first major tournament in seven months by winning the 2011 Players Championship beating Gary Anderson 13 – 12 in a thrilling final. Phil won the World Matchplay for a record 12th time in 18 years, beating Mark Hylton 10–8 in the 1st round, Wayne Jones 13–7 in the 2nd round, Wes Newton 16–5 in the Quarter finals, Andy Hamilton 17–9 in the Semi finals and James Wade 18–8 in the final, with a tournament average of over 106.
One week later,Taylor flew over to Düsseldorf, Germany to play in the 2011 European Championship to win his 4th consecutive European title. He did this by beating John Michael 6–3, Mervyn King 10–3, Paul Nicholson 10–7, Simon Whitlock 11–4 and Adrian Lewis 11–8. He had a tournament average of 105.15.
On 27 September, Taylor competed in Group 1 of the Championship League, where he won all 7 of his qualifying games, 6-3 vs Adrian Lewis, 6-2 vs Terry Jenkins, 6-3 vs Wes Newton, 6-2 vs James Wade, 6-3 vs Simon Whitlock, 6-2 vs Gary Anderson and 6-1 vs Mark Webster, he finished the Group stage with a maximum 14 points, 42 legs won, 16 lost, for a leg difference of + 28, and won £2,100 during qualifying. He lost the semi final 6-5 in a superb match vs Wes Newton, he won a further £500 in that match, taking his total winnings for the day to £2,600. Due to not winning the Group he returned the next day to play in Group 2.
In Group 2 he won 6 out of his 7 games, losing his 4th match 6-4 to Simon Whitlock. He beat James Wade 6-1, Mervyn King 6-4, Paul Nicholson 6-0, Mark Webster 6-3, Wes Newton 6-4 and Andy Hamilton 6-1, to finish top of the Group with 12 points, 40 legs won, 19 lost, so a leg difference of + 21, he won £2,000 in qualifying. In the semi final he beat Paul Nicholson 6-3 and Simon Whitlock 6-5 to win Group 2 and progress to the Winner's Group.
In the Winner's Group he won all 7 of his qualifying games, he beat Gary Anderson 6-5, Steve Beaton 6-3, Mervyn King 6-3, he also hit a 9 dart leg in this match, his 10th in competition. He also beat Mark Walsh 6-3, Simon Whitlock 6-5, Paul Nicholson 6-1 and Dennis Priestley 6-2 to qualify top of the Group. In the Semi Finals he beat Steve Beaton 6-1 and in the Final he beat Paul Nicholson 6-1 to win his second Championship League title, winning £6,600 in the Group stages, and a further £10,000 for winning the title.
In November, he won the Grand Slam of Darts by beating Gary Anderson 16-4. He lost his Players championship title to Kevin Painter when he was defeated by Mervyn King.
Taylor failed to make the quarter-finals of the PDC World Championship for the first time in his career in 2012 . He was beaten in the second round, 1-4, by Dave Chisnall .
Rivalries
Edit
Dennis Priestley and Phil Taylor have played each other in five World Finals, with Taylor on top in these head-to-heads 4–1. During the early years of the WDC, Priestley and Taylor had an agreement where they would share prize money won at events. Following the split in darts, the players had already gone through large expenses to fight court cases that would last until 1997 when they were finally able to overturn a ban by the British Darts Organisation . Their arrangement lasted between 1994 and 2000 and made sound financial sense given that one or the other generally delivered success in the immediate years after the split. The agreement eventually ended when the prize money grew to a level where the players could individually sustain a better living and this ironically coincided with Priestley's sharp dip in form.
Taylor and Priestley first met in major competition in the 1990 World Masters. Taylor won that semi-final encounter en route to the title. Priestley then assumed the upper hand in their rivalry, however, with victories over Taylor in the 1991 World Championship and British Matchplay final later that year. Their early meetings in the WDC were also won by Priestley, who defeated Taylor in the finals of the 1993 UK Matchplay and 1994 World Championship.
However, since Taylor's defeat in the 1994 World Final, he has only lost twice in all competitions and hasn't been beaten on television by Priestley since 1995. Taylor and Priestley remain great friends, and Taylor has claimed Priestley is the toughest opponent he has ever faced. At the 2009 Las Vegas championship Taylor was emotional when he beat Dennis Priestley 8–0 in the second round. He later said it was tough to beat such a great friend that way.
Part
Edit
Taylor's next rivalry was with Canadian John Part , who won the BDO World Championship in 1994 and moved to the PDC in 1997. Their first meeting in the PDC came at the 2001 PDC World Championship final . The match was one-sided as Taylor averaged 107 and won 7–0. Taylor won their first five encounters including a 6–0 quarter final win at the 2002 PDC World Championships , a much closer match at the 2002 World Matchplay final, 18–16 and the 2002 World Grand Prix final, where Taylor again ended Part's attempt at a title by winning 7–3.
A turning point came in the 2003 World Championship , where Part and Taylor met in the final. Part took a 4–1 lead but Taylor hit back to take the lead, 5–4. At 6–6 Part held his nerve and beat Taylor 7–6 to end Taylor's eight tournament unbeaten run in the championship. Taylor's other losses to Part came in the 2003 Las Vegas Desert Classic (10–13 in the semi-final), the 2004 UK Open (6–8 in the quarter final) and at the 2005 World Matchplay (11–16 in the quarter final).
Part won the 2008 PDC World Championship and became one of only three people with Adrian Lewis and Phil Taylor to have won the tournament more than once, but Taylor has an overall winning record greater than 85% against Part and has continued to improve the win percentage in recent years by winning all of his games against Part since the 2005 World Matchplay defeat.
Van Barneveld
Edit
Whilst Taylor was clocking up World titles in the PDC, Raymond van Barneveld was amassing four in the BDO. Darts was denied a great rivalry as the two best players were unable to compete against each other regularly due to the split in the game. Van Barneveld switched to the PDC in 2006. Their first clash came in the 2006 Premier League Darts tournament and ended in a 7–7 draw. The return match went in Taylor's favour. Barneveld's first PDC win over Taylor came at the 2006 UK Open with an 11–10 quarter final success, which he followed up with success in the semi-finals of the Las Vegas Desert Classic , winning by 4 sets to 3. Taylor later defeated van Barneveld by 3 sets to 1 in the World Grand Prix.
They then met in the final of the 2007 PDC World Championship at the Circus Tavern. The match has been described as the greatest game of darts ever played. Despite being three sets to none up at one point, Taylor was defeated by van Barneveld seven sets to six in a sudden-death leg in the thirteenth set. Following further defeats to Van Barneveld at the Masters of Darts (3-0) and the World Darts Challenge (4-1), Taylor responded by defeating Van Barneveld on two occasions in the 2007 Premier League Darts and beating him in the final of the inaugural US Open . Van Barneveld later defeated Taylor in the quarter-finals of the UK Open by 11 legs to 4. Taylor lost his top spot in the PDC World Rankings to van Barneveld in January 2008, but regained it in June when Van Barneveld was unable to defend his ranking points at the UK Open.
In major PDC tournaments in 2008, Taylor defeated van Barneveld twice in the Premier League , lost by 10 legs to 9 in the quarter-finals of the UK Open , but won the World Grand Prix against his rival by 6 sets to 2. The rivalry continued into 2009 with the two meeting in the World Championship final for a second time, with Taylor winning 7–1 with a 110.94 three-dart average. The two then met in the 2010 World Matchplay final; Taylor won 18–12, averaging more than 105, while Van Barneveld's averaged 100.11. After the game Barneveld acknowledged "I'm the number two at the moment, and players like James Wade, Simon Whitlock and Gary Anderson are all trying but he's just too good for everyone".
They have now met more than 55 times, with Taylor having 44 victories.
Manley, Mason, King and Wade
Edit
Taylor has overcome rivals such as Peter Manley who he met in three World Finals (1999, 2002 and 2006) and has only lost twice on television (1999 World Matchplay semi-final and in a 2008 Premier League group game). At the 2007 World Championships Taylor defeated Chris Mason in the 3rd Round then claimed afterwards that Mason had sworn at him and the fans. He was "seriously considering his future in the game" because of Mason's behaviour but decided to continue. Mason apologised to Taylor for his behaviour a week later.
He also has current rivalries with Mervyn King since he switched to the PDC in 2007 but has only suffered two televised defeats to-date (2009 Premier League semi-final, Players Championship Finals 2011). James Wade has won six PDC titles since he burst onto the scene in 2006, although he has yet to knock Taylor out of a tournament on his way to a televised title, although he beat him in the final of Championship League Darts 2010. Wade handed Taylor his first defeat in a Premier League match, but Taylor has won every televised knockout match against him, including three World Matchplay finals and two Premier League finals.
Nine-dart finishes
Edit
Taylor has often talked in interviews and his autobiography about his quests to achieve the perfect leg of darts – a nine dart finish . The first time he achieved this was at the Winter Gardens in Blackpool, against Chris Mason in the televised World Matchplay Championship in 2002. He has achieved the feat nine times on television, including four times in the UK Open at the Reebok Stadium, Bolton (2004, 2005, 2007, and 2008).
On 24 May 2010, in the final of the 2010 PDC Whyte & Mackay Premier League , Taylor became the first player in professional darts to hit two nine dart finishes in a single match.
Phil Taylor's televised nine-dart finishes
Date
3 x T20; 3 x T20; T20, T19, D12
Outside darts
Edit
Taylor and his former wife Yvonne have four children: Lisa, Chris, Kelly and Natalie. He has written an autobiography with Sky TV darts commentator Sid Waddell . He supports his home town football club, Port Vale. He was also inducted into the Stoke-on-Trent Hall of Fame when it was opened in January 2011. Taylor discussed whether or not he thought Darts was a sport in a recent interview with 6 Towns Radio. Taylor was convicted of sexual assault in 1999 and fined £2000
Television appearances
Edit
Taylor's achievements in darts have led to guest appearances on television.
Despite PDC darts not being broadcast on the BBC, he has appeared on several BBC television shows over the years. On 2 February 2009, he made a guest appearance in the long-running popular soap opera Coronation Street, playing the part of 'Disco Dave', the captain of a rival darts team to the Rovers Return. Taylor was seen only briefly on screen and had no dialogue. On 22 January 2011 he appeared to present the award for Best Comedy Panel Show at the British Comedy Awards hosted by Jonathan Ross. After winning the 2011 Players Championship he announced he would be taping an appearance for an upcoming edition of A Question Of Sport.
Awards and records
Edit
Taylor was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2001 New Year honours, but it was retracted and annulled in May 2002 following a conviction for indecent assault. The incident happened after a 1999 exhibition match in Scotland when two women, aged 23 and 25, accompanied Taylor back to his van after the event. They later accused him of sexual assault. Taylor denied the charges but he was found guilty in 2001 and fined £2,000.
Taylor holds records for high scoring in darts. His three-dart average per match records are the highest in the history of the game. No player has a winning head-to-head record against him. Taylor has a 79% win rate against Raymond van Barneveld, the player with the most wins against him. Taylor is the first darts player to win more than £1 million in prize money.
On 9 January 2007 Taylor won the 2006 PDC Player of the Year award at the inaugural PDC Awards Dinner held at the Dorchester Hotel in London's Park Lane. He was one of ten nominees for the BBC Sports Personality of the Year award in 2006; the award went to Zara Phillips. Taylor was voted the 2007 Fans' Player of the Year following a vote conducted on the website Planet Darts. He received the award at the annual PDC Awards Dinner in January 2008. He won four gongs at the PDC Player Of The Year Awards in 2009. After his fifteenth world championship victory, Taylor was made an inaugural inductee to the Stoke-on-Trent Sporting Hall of Fame on 7 January 2010.
Awards excluding Hall Of Fame are handed out the following January so add a year for the year received.
PDC Player of the Year: 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011
PDC Fans' Player of the Year: 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011
Best PDC Pro Tour Player/Floor Player: 2008, 2009
PDPA Players' Player of the Year: 2007, 2008, 2009,
PDC Nine Dart Club: *2007 *2008,*2009,*2010,*2011.-2011 *Gold Pin Badge(Televised)/-Silver Pin Badge(Non Televised)
BBC Sports Personality Of The Year ( Runner Up ) 2010
PDC Hall Of Fame 2011
Tournament wins
Players Championships (Derby): 2010, 2010
Players Championships (Eindhoven): 2008, 2008
Players Championships (Germany): 2008, 2008, 2009, 2009
Players Championships (Gibraltar): 2009, 2009
Players Championships (Netherlands): 2005, 2005, 2007, 2007
Players Championships (Ireland): 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011
Players Championships (Las Vegas): 2008
Players Championships (English Midlands): 2008
Players Championships (Nuland): 2009, 2009
Players Championships (Southern England): 2008, 2009
Players Championships (Wales): 2005, 2006
Players Championships (Wigan): 2010, 2011, 2011
UK Open Regionals
UK Open Regional (Ireland): 2002, 2004
UK Open Regional (English Midlands): 2008, 2009
UK Open Regional (North West England): 2008
UK Open Regional (South West England): 2009
UK Open Regional (Southern England): 2003, 2007, 2009
UK Open Regional (Wales): 2002, 2004, 2006
UK Open Qualifier: 2010, 2010, 2011, 2011
Performance timeline
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Teri Hatcher played Paris Carver in which James Bond film? | Hall of Fame | PDC
Hall of Fame
Home Players
PDC Hall of Fame
THE Professional Darts Corporation launched their Hall of Fame in January 2005 to recognise the contribution to the sport of some of the most famous names and revered personalities.
Players, officials, administrators and commentators are amongst those who have been inducted into the PDC Hall of Fame, with the awards being presented at the PDC's Annual Awards Dinner.
Information about each of the current members of the PDC Hall of Fame can be found below.
The current members of the PDC Hall of Fame are:
Eric Bristow, John Lowe, Freddie Williams, Phil Jones, John Raby, Dave Lanning, Sid Waddell, Dennis Priestley, Dick Allix, Tommy Cox, Phil Taylor, Bruce Spendley, John Gwynne and John Part, who was inducted in January 2017.
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John Part
John Part - Inducted into PDC Hall of Fame in 2017
Canadian legend John was inducted into the PDC Hall of Fame in January 2017 to recognise his career as the sport's most successful North American player.
The winner of the 1994 Lakeside Championship as he made an immediate breakthrough at the top level, Part went on to win the PDC World Championship in both 2003 - when he ended Phil Taylor's eight-year reign - and 2008, when he was the first to triumph at Alexandra Palace.
Part has also won the 2006 Las Vegas Desert Classic amongst a host of PDC ranking titles, and has also been a dominant force on the North American circuit during his career.
Part has combined his playing with commentary for Sky Sports, and after dropping out of the world's top 64 in 2017 to lose his Tour Card has pledged to continue competing.
"I love darts and I think there are a lot of great, fantastic things happening in the game," said Part. "It's been really wonderful, and I'm so happy to have been at the onset of the current game, and to get some acknowledgement of that is fantastic.
"All I've ever done is play a game I love, and I got to keep going to different places and do a lot more than play darts, and I've had a lot of good times. This means a great deal to me."
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Who succeeded Peter III of Russia in 1762? | Peter III - Emperor - Biography.com
Peter III
Peter III was emperor of Russia for a mere six months in 1762 before he was overthrown by his wife, Catherine the Great, and assassinated in 1762.
IN THESE GROUPS
Famous People Who Died in Ropsha
Synopsis
Peter III was emperor of Russia for a mere six months in 1762. During his reign, he withdrew from the Seven Years War and formed an alliance with Prussia to wage war against Denmark, which made him an unpopular leader. His wife, Catherine the Great, suspected he was set to divorce her and conspired with her lover to overthrow him. He was subsequently assassinated on July 17, 1762, in Ropsha, Russia.
Early Life
Peter III was born Karl Peter Ulrich on February 21, 1728, in Kiel, in the duchy of Schleswig-Holstein in northern Germany. The only son of Anna Petrovna and Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, he was the grandson of two emperors, Peter the Great of Russia and Charles XII of Sweden. Karl's parents died when he was young, and he was placed in the care of tutors and officials at the Holstein court, who groomed him for the Swedish throne.
Karl was cruelly raised by his mentors and punished for being a poor student. Though he showed interest in the arts, he failed nearly every academic subject. He loved military parades and dreamed of being a world-famous military warrior. At age 14, he was brought to Russia by his aunt Elizabeth when she became empress, renamed Pyotr Fyodorovich, and proclaimed heir to the throne. Peter resented living in Russia and often complained the Russian people would never accept him.
A Contentious Marriage
On August 21, 1745, Peter married Sophie Frederica Auguste, a princess from Anhalt-Zerbst in Saxony, who took the name Catherine. The marriage, politically arranged by Peter's aunt, was a disaster from the start. Catherine was a young woman of prodigious intellect, while Peter was a child in a man's body. They had one son, Paul, the future emperor, and a daughter, Anna, who died before she was 2. Later, Catherine alleged that Paul was not Peter's son and that she and Peter had never consummated their marriage. During their 16 years together, Catherine and Peter took numerous lovers.
It is believed Empress Elizabeth shielded Peter from government affairs, possibly because she suspected he was mentally incapable. He hated being in Russia. His allegiance was toward his homeland and Prussia. He didn't care about Russia's people and hated the Orthodox Church. Nonetheless, Peter succeeded Elizabeth when she died on December 25, 1761. Much of what has been known about Peter III was drawn from his wife's memoirs, which depict him as an idiot and a drunkard, prone to brutal practical jokes and interested only in playing soldier.
A Controversial Reign
Once on the throne, Peter III reversed his aunt's foreign policy, withdrew Russia from the Seven Years War and struck an alliance with Prussia, Russia's enemy. He set out to wage war against Denmark and gain back his native land of Holstein. The move was seen as a betrayal of Russian war sacrifices and alienated him politically among the military and powerful court cliques. While historically Peter's actions have been viewed as treasonous, recent scholarship has suggested they may have been part of a pragmatic plan to expand Russia's influence westward.
Peter III also instituted many domestic reforms that today seem democratic, including proclaiming religious freedom, abolishing the secret police and outlawing the killing of serfs by their landowners. He established the first state bank in Russia and encouraged mercantilism by increasing grain exports and placing embargos on materials that could be found in Russia.
There is wide speculation as to Peter III's demise. Traditionally, it has been believed that he had alienated the Orthodox Church and much of the nobility with his reforms, and that because his personality and policies were seen as so bizarre and unpredictable, these factions went to Catherine for help and plotted against him. But recent scholarship points to Catherine as the mastermind of a conspiracy to rid herself of her husband because she thought he was going to divorce her. On June 28, 1762, Peter III was arrested and forced to abdicate. He was taken to Ropsha, outside St. Petersburg, where he was supposedly assassinated on July 17, though this has never been confirmed, and some evidence shows he might have committed suicide.
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| Catherine the Great |
Cee Lo Green is one half of which US soul duo? | Romanov
Encyclopedia > History > Biographies > Russian, Soviet, and CIS History: Biographies
Romanov
Romanov (rōˈmənŏf, Rus. rəmäˈnəf) [ key ], ruling dynasty of Russia from 1613 to 1917. The name Romanov was adopted in the 16th cent. by a family of boyars (great nobles) that traced its beginnings to the 14th cent. Czar Ivan IV took as his first wife Anastasia Romanov. Anastasia's brother, Nikita, was a regent for her son, Czar Feodor I . Nikita's son, Philaret, whom Boris Godunov forced to take monastic vows, was patriarch of Moscow from 1619 until his death in 1633. Michael , Philaret's son, was chosen in 1613 as czar of Russia; his election ended a turbulent period in Russian history. Except for the period from 1722 to 1797, the succession was thereafter regulated by the law of primogeniture.
The direct successors of Michael were Alexis (1645–76) and Feodor III (1676–82). Ivan V and Peter I (Peter the Great) reigned jointly under the regency of their sister Sophia Alekseyevna until 1689, when Peter assumed sole rule. In 1721, Peter took the title emperor of Russia in addition to that of czar; the new title was borne by all his successors. His succession decree of 1722 denounced the law of primogeniture and declared that the choice of a successor lay solely with the ruling emperor.
In 1723, Peter made his consort joint ruler as Catherine I , and after his death (1725) she continued to rule until she died in 1727. Peter's son by his first marriage, Czarevich Alexis , had been executed in 1718. His second marriage, with Catherine, produced two daughters: Anna, who married Duke Charles Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, and Elizabeth. They were bypassed in the succession of 1727 in favor of Peter II (1727–30), son of Czarevich Alexis.
Peter II was the last of the direct male Romanov line, and on his death Anna , duchess of Courland, a daughter of Ivan V, ascended the throne. She died without heirs and was succeeded (1740) by Ivan VI, a great-grandson of Ivan V. He was a German, son of the duke of Brunswick and of Anna Leopoldovna, a princess of Mecklenburg.
The rule of foreigners was unpopular, and Peter I's daughter Elizabeth executed a coup in 1741 and was proclaimed czarina. Her nephew Peter III succeeded her in 1762 but was deposed (and probably assassinated) that year in a coup that made his consort, a princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, empress as Catherine II (Catherine the Great). There was some argument as to the paternity of Catherine's son and successor, Paul I (1796–1801), but it is now generally believed that he was the son of Peter III.
Paul, who was assassinated, restored the succession by primogeniture in 1797. His successors reigned as Alexander I (1801–25), Nicholas I (1825–55), Alexander II (1855–81; assassinated), Alexander III (1881–94), and Nicholas II (1894–1917). The marriage of Nicholas II to Princess Alix of Hesse (Czarina Alexandra Feodorovna ) brought hemophilia into the family; their son, Czarevich Alexis (1904–18), was afflicted with the disease. In 1918, after the Russian Revolution, Nicholas II and his immediate family were executed. The members of the Romanov family who escaped execution fled abroad.
See D. Lieven, Russian Rulers before the Revolution (1989); R. K. Masie, The Romanovs (1995), M. D. Steinberg and V. M. Khrustaëv, The Fall of the Romanovs (1995); J. Van der Kiste, The Romanovs, 1818–1959 (1998), and J. C. Perry and C. V. Pleshakov, The Flight of the Romanovs (1999).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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In February 1938, what was the first commercial product to be made with nylon yarn? | Toothbrush | Little Bits of History
Little Bits of History
Posted in History by patriciahysell on February 24, 2010
Toothbrush close up
February 24, 1938: DuPont corporation uses nylon yarn to create a nylon-bristle toothbrush, the first commercial product using nylon yarn. The toothbrush has come a long way from the initial “chew stick” used since 3500 BC. This stick was about the size of today’s pencil and was chosen with care. The wood was selected for its aromatic property so it would help to sweeten the breath. One end was chewed until it got mushy and resembled bristles. That end was used to cleanse the teeth. The opposite end was pointed and used as a toothpick.
China came up with the first instrument that looked somewhat like today’s toothbrush. It was a bone handle with wild boar bristles inserted into it to use a brush. This was brought back to Europe where the stiff bristles made Europeans’ gums bleed. They opted, therefore, to use horse hair instead.
William Addis created the first mass-produced toothbrush in 1780 in England. By 1850, H. N. Wadsworth patented a toothbrush in the US, but it was not mass produced until 1885. Dental floss was invented by Levi Spear Parmly of New Orleans in 1815. He recommended silk floss be used for cleaning. This was only available to dentists, however. In 1882 Codman and Shurtleft produced the first consumer use – unwaxed silk floss. The first patent for the product went to Johnson & Johnson in 1898.
Americans were not real big on oral hygiene, toothbrush or dental floss, and did not regularly brush their teeth until after World War II. The soldiers came back from the war where they were forced to brush their teeth daily. On their return, they kept up this practice.
The first electric toothbrush was from Switzerland and produced in 1939. The US finally got electric brushes in the 1960s. By 1987, rotary action was added. By the turn of the century, battery powered toothbrushes were available.
“Every tooth in a man’s head is more valuable than a diamond.” – Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote
“For there was never yet philosopher
That could endure the toothache patiently.” – William Shakespeare, Much Ado About Nothing
“If a patient cannot clean his teeth, no dentist can clean them for him.” – Martin H. Fischer
“Tooth decay was a perennial national problem that meant a mouthful of silver for patients, and for dentists a pocketful of gold.” – Claudia Wallis
Also on this day, in 1607 one of the earliest operas was performed.
| Toothbrush |
The Harry Potter series of books was published by which British publisher? | Nylon, a Petroleum Polymer - American Oil & Gas Historical Society
Nylon, a Petroleum Polymer
The world’s first synthetic fiber is the petroleum product “Nylon 6.” It is discovered by a DuPont chemist who produces the polymer from chemicals found in oil.
“Women show off their nylon pantyhose to a newspaper photographer, circa 1942,” notes historian Jennifer S. Li in “The Story of Nylon – From a Depressed Scientist to Essential Swimwear.” Photo by Dale Rooks.
Du Pont models at the 1939 New York World’s Fair demonstrate nylon’s strength.
Du Pont Corporation foresees the future artificial fibers “strong as steel.” The chemical company becomes a global giant as its scientist create consumer products out of nylon, rayon and lucite.
The world’s first synthetic fiber – nylon – is discovered on February 28, 1935, by a former Harvard professor working at a DuPont Corporation research laboratory.
Later called Nylon 6 by scientists, the revolutionary product comes from chemicals found in petroleum.
Professor Wallace Carothers had experimented with artificial materials for more than six years. He previously discovered neoprene rubber (commonly used in wetsuits) and made major contributions to understanding polymers – large molecules composed in long chains of repeating chemical structures.
DuPont names the new petroleum product nylon – although chemists call it Nylon 6 because the adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine each contain 6 carbon atoms per molecule.
Just 32-years-old, Carothers creates fibers when he combines the chemicals amine, hexamethylene diamine, and adipic acid.
He forms a polymer chain using a process in which individual molecules join together with water as a byproduct.
However, the fibers are weak, explains a PBS series, “A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries.”
“Carothers’ breakthrough came when he realized the water produced by the reaction was dropping back into the mixture and getting in the way of more polymers forming,” notes the PBS website. “He adjusted his equipment so that the water was distilled and removed from the system. It worked!”
DuPont will name the petroleum product nylon – although chemists call it Nylon 6 because the adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine each contain six carbon atoms per molecule.
Each molecule consists of 100 or more repeating units of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, strung in a chain. A single filament of nylon may have a million or more molecules, each taking some of the strain when the filament is stretched.
Nylon was first used commercially for toothbrush bristles and then used for women’s stockings in the 1940s. Above, a DuPont 1948 advertisement.
Replacing Hog Bristles
During WWII, Nylon was used as a substitute for silk in parachutes.
The first commercial use of this revolutionary petroleum product was for toothbrushes.
On February 24, 1938, the Weco Products Company of Chicago, Illinois, began selling its new “Dr. West’s Miracle-Tuft” – the earliest toothbrush to use synthetic DuPont nylon bristles.
Americans will soon brush their teeth with nylon – instead of hog bristles, declared an article in the New York Times.
“Until now, all good toothbrushes were made with animal bristles,” noted a 1938 Weco Products advertisement in Life magazine. “Today, Dr. West’s new Miracle-Tuft is a single exception. It is made with EXTON, a unique bristle-like filament developed by the great DuPont laboratories, and produced exclusively for Dr. West’s.”
Pricing its toothbrush at 50 cents, the Weco Products Company guaranteed “no bristle shedding.” Johnson & Johnson of New Brunswick, New Jersey, will introduce a competing nylon-bristle toothbrush in 1939.
Nylon Stockings
Although DuPont patented nylon in 1935, it was not officially announced to the public until October 27, 1938 in New York City.
A DuPont vice president unveils the world’s first synthetic fiber – not to a scientific society or industry association – but to 3,000 Women’s Club members gathered at the site of the upcoming 1939 New York World’s Fair.
“Until now, all good toothbrushes were made with animal bristles,” notes a 1938 magazine advertisement for “Dr. West’s Miracle-Tuft.” Johnson & Johnson will introduce a nylon-bristle toothbrush in 1939.
“He spoke in a session entitled ‘We Enter the World of Tomorrow,’ which was keyed to the theme of the forthcoming fair, the World of Tomorrow,” explains DuPont historian David A. Hounshell.
The petroleum product was an instant hit, especially as a replacement for silk in hosiery. DuPont built a full-scale nylon plant in Seaford, Delaware, and began commercial production in late 1939.
The company purposefully did not register “nylon” as a trademark – choosing to allow the word to enter the American vocabulary as a synonym for “stockings.”
Nylon became far and away the biggest money-maker in the history of DuPont, and its success proved so powerful that it soon led the company’s executives to derive a new formula for growth, according to David A. Hounshell in The Nylon Drama .
“By putting more money into fundamental research, Du Pont would discover and develop ‘new nylons,’ that is, new proprietary products sold to industrial customers and having the growth potential of nylon,” he explains.
Carothers did not live to see the widespread application of his work – in consumer goods such as toothbrushes, fishing lines, luggage and lingerie, or in special uses such as surgical thread, parachutes, or pipes – nor the powerful effect it had in launching a whole era of synthetics.
“Early in 1937 his favorite sister died suddenly. He never recovered from the loss…and in April of that year he committed suicide. DuPont later named its research station after him.”
The DuPont website notes the Carothers invention “changed the way people dressed worldwide and rendered the term ‘silk stocking’ – once an epithet directed at the wealthy elite – obsolete.
“Its success also encouraged DuPont’s management to adopt a long-term strategy of growth through products developed out of basic research.”
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In Greek mythology, one of the 12 Labours of Hercules was to defeat the man-eating Stymphalian ‘what’? | Greek Mythology: Twelve Labors of Hercules
Twelve Labors of Hercules
12 Labors of Hercules
Hercules was the son of Zeus and Alcmene , granddaughter of Perseus . Zeus swore that the next son born of the Perseid house should become ruler of Greece, but by a trick of Zeus’s jealous wife, Hera , another child, the sickly Eurystheus, was born first and became king; when Hercules grew up, he had to serve him and also suffer the vengeful persecution of Hera . His first exploit, in fact, was the strangling of two serpents that she had sent to kill him in his cradle. Later, Hercules waged a victorious war against the kingdom of Orchomenus in Boeotia and married Megara, daughter of Creon, king of Thebes. But he killed her and their children in a fit of madness sent by Hera. In desperate remorse he sought the advice of the oracle at Delphi where the Pythian priestess told him to expiate his crime by serving King Eurystheus for 12 years. During this 12-year period Hercules had to perform the 10 labors the king would require of him.
Labor 1 - Slay the Nemean Lion.
Eurystheus ordered Hercules to bring him the skin of the Nemean Lion. In Greek mythology, the Nemean lion took women as hostages to its lair in a cave near Nemea, luring warriors from nearby towns to save the damsel in distress. After entering the cave, the warrior would see the woman (usually feigning injury) and rush to her side. Once he was close, the woman would turn into a lion and kill the warrior, devouring his remains and giving the bones to Hades.
Hercules wandered the area until he came to the town of Cleonae. There he met a boy who said that if Heracles slew the Nemean lion and returned alive within 30 days, the town would sacrifice a lion to Zeus; but if he did not return within 30 days or he died, the boy would sacrifice himself to Zeus. According to other version, Hercules met Molorchos, a shepherd who had lost his son to the lion, saying that if he came back within 30 days, a ram would be sacrificed to Zeus. If he did not return within 30 days, it would be sacrificed to the dead Hercules as a mourning offering.
Hercules and Nemean Lion
Hercules wondered for many a days before he came to the cave of the Nemean lion. Hercules hid behind a rock and laid in wait for the lion to return home. Later in the evening the lion returned home. Hercules jumped out from his hiding and shot the lion with his bow and arrow. Hercules was shocked and surprised when the arrow hit the lion and bounced off.
Hercules ran and the lion chased. Eventually Hercules was able to get away from the lion. The next day the Nemean lion left his cave and Hercules blocked off the back entrance to the lions cave and hid waiting for the lion to return. Later that night the lion returned home and went into his cave. Hercules jumped into the cave and stood between the lion and the front entrance. Already blocking off the back entrance the lion had no place to go. In the dark of the cave Hercules wrestled the lion and eventually slayed the lion with his bare hands.
After slaying the lion, when Hercules tried to remove the lions fur he could not cut it. Hercules sharpened his knife with a rock and tried again, he even tried the rock, but nothing would cut the lions fur. Eventually Athena showed up and told Hercules to use the lions own claws to remove the fur. With great success with the help Athena's advice, Hercules was able to remove the lion's fur.
Hercules left and headed back to the king to show him the lions pelt as proof of his task being complete. When Hercules showed the lion's fur to the king, the king was afraid and forbid Hercules from coming into the city again. Hercules was told that he could prove the remained of his tasks outside the city gates. The king warned Hercules that the tasks would become harder and harder. He then sent Hercules off to complete his next quest, which was to destroy the Lernaean hydra.
Labor 2 - Slay the nine-headed Lernaean Hydra.
After the slaying of the Nemean lion, Eurystheus sent Hercules to slay the Hydra, which Hera had raised just to slay Hercules. Hercules set off with a bow and arrows and his magic gold sword (a gift from the goddess Athena) to find and slay the hydra. Hercules came across the swamp where the hydra lived. Hercules covered his mouth and nose with cloth so he wouldn't get harmed (or have to smell) the nasty hydra breath. He shot a flaming arrow and the hydra, and the hydra came after Hercules. Hercules made quick work of the 8 magic heads, and went to strike the final blow when the magic heads sprung back to life now 16 heads. Hercules tried again, and each time he cut a head of 2 more heads appeared. Hercules realizing that this wasn't going to work retreated into the forest.
Hercules and Hydra
Hercules found his nephew Lolous and asked him to help. The plan was Hercules would cut off the head, and before 2 more would grow back it was Lolous job to burn the cut neck of the hydra. So Hercules with his nephew in toe traveled back to the swamp to beat the hydra.
Hercules and his nephew arrived at the swamp and were met by the hydra that had too many heads to count. Hercules sprang to work cutting off the heads of the hydra with his magic gold sword. Right behind him with a torch was his nephew Lolous who would then burn the necks.
Enraged with Hercules’s progress of slaying the hydra Hera sent a giant crab to distract and pinch Hercules’s. The crab was no match for the hero and he quickly crushed the crab with his foot. When all but one head was gone, Hercules dipped an arrow into the poisonous blood of the hydra, and shot the hydra's last remaining head. With the poisoned arrow piercing the hydra's last neck, it died. Hercules collected the poisonous blood of the hydra to add to his arsenal of magical tools.
Hercules returned to the king to tell him of his victory. The king told Hercules that because he received help that slaying the Hydra didn't count and he would have to do another labor. Hera was so upset about her special "pets" she decided to immortalize the hydra and the crab in the stars, and that’s why how we have the constellations cancer and the hydra.
Labor 3 - Capture the Golden Hind of Artemis.
After Hercules successfully slayed the Nemean Lion and the Nine-Headed Hydre of Lerneaen he returned to the king for his 3rd task. King Eurystheus and goddess Hera , were angry that Hercules was able to escape his death both times. After some consideration they decided to give Hercules the task of hunting down the special gold deer of Artemis . The golden deer was very sacred to goddess Artemis, and Eurystheus and Hera hoped that by having Hercules capture her sacred golden deer, that this would anger Artemis and she would put an end to Hercules.
Golden stag of Artemis
Hercules set out to hunt down and capture the golden stag of Artemis. Hercules spent many days and nights wondering the forest in search of the stag. One morning he was awoken by the glistening rays of the sun of the stags antlers. Hercules took chase after the deer. He chased the deer for a year all around Greece and the neighboring countries.
Finally one night while the deer was sleeping, Hercules crept up to the sleeping animal and was able to catch him by throwing a net over the sleeping animal. At once Artemis appeared before Hercules. Hercules begged forgiveness from the goddess. Hercules explained how he needed to capture Artemis deer for redemption of his crimes. He promised to let the stag go once he had shown it to the king. Artemis forgave Hercules and said as long as he lets the deer go she will not harm him.
Hercules returned to the city gates with the deer. The king told Hercules that the deer was to become part of the kings pets, Hercules knew if the deer didn't return Artemis would hurt Hercules. So thinking fast Hercules agreed to give the king the deer under one condition, that the king come outside the city gates and get the deer himself. The king agreed. When Hercules let the deer go to hand to king Eurystheus the deer sprinted back to Artemis. King Eurystheus was furious, but Hercules told the king the reason the deer got away was the king was not fast enough. Eurystheus, upset that Hercules had managed to overcome yet another creature, told him to bring the fearsome Erymanthian Boar back to him alive.
Labor 4 - Capture the Erymanthian Boar.
In Greek mythology, the Erymanthian Boar was a giant wild boar, which was also sacred to Artemis at one time. The boar lived high on top the Mount Erymanthos. This boar was a favorite of the gods. The Erymanthian boar was sent to do all of the gods and goddess dirty work. The Erymanthian Boar killed Adonis and would be sent to destroy villages for not paying homage to certain gods.
Winter had come and Hera and King Eurystheus decided that for Hercules next task he would have to capture the Erymanthian Boar. In terms of difficulty this labor turns out to be pretty easy.
Hercules and Erymanthian Boar
So Hercules set off to capture this boar. Along the way Hercules decided to stop by and visit his friend Pholus, a friendly centaur. Pholus and Hercules sat down to dinner and talked. Hercules asked Pholus for advice on how to defeat and capture The Erymanthian Boar. Pholus told Hercules that he would be able to capture the boar if he chased him into the deep snow.
With his friend’s advice, Hercules set off to find the boar. With some searching and a little luck Hercules found the boar. Hercules charged the boar and sent it running. Hercules did just as his friend had suggested and chased the giant boar into the deep snow. The Erymanthian Boar became stuck within the deep snow and was unable to move. Hercules moved in and captured the boar.
Hercules took the boar back to King Eurystheus. When the king saw the boar he became frightened and told Hercules to get rid of the Erymanthian Boar. As commanded Hercules picked up the boar and hurled it into the sea.
Labour 5 - Clean the Augean stables in a single day.
The fifth Labor of Hercules was to clean the Augean stables. This assignment was intended to be both humiliating (rather than impressive, as had the previous labors) and impossible. These particular stables housed thousands of cattle, sheep, goats, and horses and the stable had not been cleaned in 30 years. The Augean king was said to have more cattle then any man in Greece.
When Hercules showed up he offered to clean the stables in a single day for one tenth of the Augean king's entire cattle. Hercules did not say anything about how he was sent by Eurystheus or about his labors of redemption. The Augean King was so shocked at his fortune he agreed to pay Hercules, if he could do it in one day.
Hercules took the Augean king's son (Phyleus) with him to witness the stables being cleaned. Hercules set to work tearing a big hole in the front of the stable yards. Next Hercules made a hole in the back wall of the stable yards. Hercules then dug a trench between 2 rivers flowing nearby. He then diverted the 2 rivers into the front of the stable yards and out the rear of the stable yards and back into the river with taking all the filth along with it.
Hercules returned to the Augean King to collect his payment. The Augean king had found out that Eurystheus had been the one to send Hercules and refused to pay him saying that if Hercules did not agree he could always take the Augean King to court. So Hercules did just that. Hercules even had the Augean King's son testify that his father did indeed promise to pay Hercules one tenth of all his cattle. The King reluctantly paid Hercules and then promptly banished him from his kingdom.
Hercules returned to Eurystheus to inform the king of the completion of Hercules labor. Eurystheus had found out that Hercules was paid for his cleaning out of the stables, and therefore told Hercules that this labor (just like the 2nd labor) didn't count.
Labor 6 - Slay the Stymphalian Birds.
After cleaning the Augean Stables, Eurystheus sent Hercules to defeat the Stymphalian birds, man-eating birds with beaks of bronze and sharp metallic feathers they could launch at their victims. Furthermore, their dung was highly toxic. They had migrated to Lake Stymphalia in Arcadia, where they bred quickly and took over the countryside, destroying local crops, fruit trees and townspeople. Hercules could not go too far into the swamp, for it would not support his weight.
Goddess Athena, noticing the hero's plight, gave Hercules a special noise maker which Hephaestus had made especially for the occasion. Hercules arrived at Lake Stymphalia and hundreds of Stmphalian birds, nesting all over the lake, and in the trees. Hercules pulled out his new gift and filled the air with the loud and melodious sound. The Stymphalian birds where scared and took flight into the air. Hercules pulled out his bow and Arrow, and set the arrows on fire. He then shot the Stymphalian birds while in the air. One by one the Birds fell dead. Hercules slayed 100 of the Stymphalian birds, and the rest flew off into the sky never to be heard of or seen again. According to some versions, Argonauts would later encounter them.
Hercules picked up a dozen of the birds, and took them back to King Eurystheus.
Labour 7 - Capture the Cretan Bull.
Hercules was then sent to capture the Cretan Bull by Eurystheus as his seventh task. In Greek mythology, the Cretan Bull was a gift from Poseidon to King Minos of Crete. The Cretan Bull also was father of the Minotaur by Pasiphae . The Cretan bull was a very sweet and gentle beast that is until king Minos upset Poseidon. Poseidon struck the bull driving the bull insane and then the Cretan bull ran wild through all Crete knocking down orchard walls, and destroying crops.
Hercules and Cretan Bull
Hercules sailed to Crete, whereupon the King Minos gave Hercules permission to take the bull away and offered him assistance, but Hercules refused King Minos help. Hercules set off to find the bull. He found the bull drinking from a water spring, and snuck up behind the bull. Grabbing the bull by the horns, Hercules wrestled the bull to the ground and tied the bull up so it could not escape.
With the bull successfully subdue, Hercules took the bull with him and sailed back to King Eurystheus. When the king saw how massive the bull was he was frightened. He told Hercules, that they should sacrifice the bull to goddess Hera. Hera refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Hercules. The bull was released and wandered into Marathon, becoming known as the Marathonian Bull. In some versions, Theseus later sacrifice the bull to Athena or Apollo. Eurystheus next sent Hercules to bring back the man-eating Mares of Diomedes.
Labor 8 - Steal the Mares of Diomedes.
After capturing the Cretan Bull, Hercules was than sent to steal the Mares of Diomedes. Hercules travelled to the shores of the Black Sea to meet King Diomedes. Diomedes was the son of the god Ares and Cyrene . King Diomedes was a savage. Diomedes mares were four man eating horses - Podargos (swift-footed), Lampon (the shining), Xanthos (the blond) and Deinos (the terrible). Diomedes enjoyed feeding strangers and prisoners to his mares. His mares could not be controlled, they were savage, just like the King. The mare needed to be tethered to a bronze manger by chains, so they would not escape.
Upon arrival Hercules, knowing how King Diomedes treats strangers, wrestles with him, trying to bring King Diomedes to the stables, where the mares live. Even though Heracles is said to have unmatched strength, it is a long and reasonably even match, since Diomedes himself is the son of the god of war. He soon loses to Hercules. Hercules then feed Diomedes to his own man eating horses. Being half god the flesh of Diomedes made the horses calm and wild no more. Hercules was easily able to bring the mares back to King Eurystheus. Eurytheus dedicates the mares to goddess Hera. According to other version, the mares were released and free to roam Argos. One of their descendants was said to be the horse of Alexander the Great.
Labor 9 - Obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons.
Eurystheus' daughter Admete wanted the belt of Hippolyta, a gift to the queen of the Amazons from the war god Ares. To please his daughter, Eurystheus ordered Hercules to retrieve the belt as his ninth labour. Taking a band of friends with him, Hercules set sail, stopping at the island of Paros, which was inhabited by some of Minos' sons. The sons killed two of Hercules' companions, an act which set Hercules on a rampage. He killed two of Minos ' sons and threatened the other inhabitants until he was offered two men to replace his fallen companions. Hercules agreed and took two of Minos' grandsons, Alcaeus and Sthenelus. They continued their voyage and landed at the court of Lycus, whom Hercules defended in a battle against the king of the Bebryces, Mygdon. After killing King Mygdon, Hercules gave much of the land to his friend Lycus. Lycus called the land Heraclea. The crew then set off for Themiscyra where Hippolyta lived.
Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons, impressed with Hercules and his exploits, agreed to give him the belt and would have done so had Hera not disguised herself and walked among the Amazons sowing seeds of distrust. She claimed the strangers were plotting to carry off the queen of the Amazons. Alarmed, the women set off on horseback to confront Hercules. When Hercules saw them, he thought Hippolyta had been plotting such treachery all along and had never meant to hand over the belt, so he killed her, took the belt and returned to Eurystheus. Eurystheus, shocked that Hercules survived his encounter with the Amazons, immediately sent him to capture the cattle of Geryon.
Labour 10 - Obtain the cattle of the monster Geryon.
Hercules was required to travel to the far-off western Mediterranean island of Erytheia, in order to obtain the Cattle of Geryon as his tenth labour. On the way there, he crossed the Libyan desert and became so frustrated at the heat that he shot an arrow at Helios, the Sun. Helios "in admiration of his courage" gave Hercules the golden cup he used to sail across the sea from west to east each night.
As soon as Hercules landed at Erytheia, he was confronted by the two-headed dog, Orthrus. With one huge blow from his olive-wood club, Hercules killed the watchdog. Eurytion the herdsman came to assist Orthrus, but Hercules dealt with him the same way.
Hercules and Geryon
On hearing the commotion, Geryon sprang into action, carrying three shields, three spears, and wearing three helmets. He pursued Hercules at the River Anthemus but fell victim to an arrow that had been dipped in the venomous blood of the Lernaean Hydra, shot so forcefully by Hercules that it pierced Geryon's forehead, "and Geryon bent his neck over to one side, like a poppy that spoils its delicate shapes, shedding its petals all at once". Hercules then had to herd the cattle back to Eurystheus.
To annoy Hercules, Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle, irritate them and scatter them. The hero was within a year able to retrieve them. Hera then sent a flood which raised the level of a river so much, Hercules could not cross with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower. When he finally reached the court of Eurystheus, the cattle were sacrificed to Hera.
Labor 11 - Steal the apples of the Hesperides
After Hercules completed his first ten Labours, Eurystheus gave him two more claiming that neither the Hydra counted (because Iolaus helped Hercules) nor the Augean stables (either because he received payment for the job or because the rivers did the work). The first of these two additional Labours was to steal the apples from the garden of the Hesperides. Hercules first caught the Old Man of the Sea, the shape-shifting sea god, to learn where the Garden of the Hesperides was located.
In some versions, Hercules, either at the start or at the end of his task, meets Antaeus, who was invincible as long as he touched his mother, Gaea , the earth. Hercules killed Antaeus by holding him aloft and crushing him in a bearhug.
In some versions, Hercules stopped in Egypt, where King Busiris decided to make him the yearly sacrifice, but Hercules burst out of his chains.
Hercules and Atlas
Finally making his way to the Garden of the Hesperides, Hercules tricked Atlas into retrieving some of the golden apples for him, by offering to hold up the heavens for a little while. This would have made this task – like the Hydra and Augean stables – void because he had received help. Upon his return, Atlas decided that he did not want to take the heavens back, and instead offered to deliver the apples himself, but Hercules tricked him again by agreeing to take his place on condition that Atlas relieve him temporarily so that Hercules could make his cloak more comfortable. Atlas agreed, but Hercules reneged and walked away, carrying the apples. According to other version, Hercules slew Ladon, the dragon-like guardian of the apples. Furious that Hercules had accomplished something that Eurystheus thought could not possibly be done, he sent Hercules off to his final task, the capture of Cerberus, the three-headed guardian hound of the gates of the Underworld.
Labor 12 - Capture and bring back Cerberus.
Capturing Cerberus alive, without using weapons, was the final labour assigned to Hercules by Eurystheus, in recompense for the killing of his own children by Megara after he was driven insane by Hera, and therefore was the most dangerous and difficult.
After having been given the task, Hercules went to Eleusis to be initiated in the Eleusinian Mysteries so that he could learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive, and in passing absolve himself for killing centaurs. He found the entrance to the underworld at Tanaerum, and Athena and Hermes helped him to traverse the entrance in each direction. He passed Charon with Hestia's assistance and his own heavy and fierce frowning.Whilst in the underworld, Hercules met Theseus and Pirithous . The two companions had been imprisoned by Hades for attempting to obtain Persephone. In some versions, the snakes coiling around their legs then turning into stone. In other version, that Hades feigned hospitality and prepared a feast inviting them to sit. They unknowingly sat in chairs of forgetfulness and were permanently ensnared. When Hercules had pulled Theseus first from his chair, but the earth shook at the attempt to liberate Pirithous, whose desire to have the wife of a god for himself was so insulting he was doomed to stay behind.
Hercules and Cerberus
Hercules found Hades and asked permission to bring Cerberus to the surface, which Hades agreed to if Hercules could overpower the beast without using weapons. Hercules was able to overpower Cerberus and proceeded to sling the beast over his back, dragging it out of the underworld through a cavern entrance in the Peloponnese and bringing it to Eurystheus. Eurystheus asked Hercules to return it to the underworld in return for releasing him from his labors. After completing the labours Hercules joined the Argonauts in the search for the Golden Fleece.
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Samedi is French for which day of the week? | Hercules' Sixth Labor: the Stymphalian Birds
The Stymphalian Birds
After Hercules returned from his success in the Augean stables, Eurystheus came up with an even more difficult task. For the sixth Labor, Hercules was to drive away an enormous flock of birds which gathered at a lake near the town of Stymphalos.
Arriving at the lake, which was deep in the woods, Hercules had no idea how to drive the huge gathering of birds away. The goddess Athena came to his aid, providing a pair of bronze krotala, noisemaking clappers similar to castanets. These were no ordinary noisemakers. They had been made by an immortal craftsman, Hephaistos, the god of the forge.
Dancer with krotala, flute case, and walking stick
Philadelphia MS2445, Attic red figure kylix, ca. 480 B.C.
Photograph by Maria Daniels, courtesy of the University of Pennsylvania Museum
Climbing a nearby mountain, Hercules clashed the krotala loudly, scaring the birds out of the trees, then shot them with bow and arrow, or possibly with a slingshot, as they took flight.
Hercules and the Stymphalian birds
London B 163, Attic black figure amphora, ca. 560-530 B.C.
Photograph courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum, London
Some versions of the legend say that these Stymphalian birds were vicious man-eaters. The 2nd century A.D. travel writer, Pausanias, trying to discover what kind of birds they might have been, wrote that during his time a type of bird from the Arabian desert was called "Stymphalian," describing them as equal to lions or leopards in their fierceness. He speculated that the birds Hercules encountered in the legend were similar to these Arabian birds.
These fly against those who come to hunt them, wounding and killing them with their beaks. All armor of bronze or iron that men wear is pierced by the birds; but if they weave a garment of thick cork, the beaks of the Stymphalian birds are caught in the cork garment... These birds are of the size of a crane, and are like the ibis, but their beaks are more powerful, and not crooked like that of the ibis.
Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8.22.5
Pausanias also saw and described the religious sanctuary built by the Greeks of Stymphalos and dedicated to the goddess Artemis. He reported that the temple had carvings of the Stymphalian birds up near its roof. Standing behind the temple, he saw marble statues of maidens with the legs of birds.
(md)
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The Scottish village of Ullapool lies on which loch? | Ullapool and Loch Broom - Scottish Culture
Ullapool and Loch Broom
Guest Author - Asha Sahni
We travel to Ullapool by bus from Inverness � a spectacular journey, passing through rugged countryside � hills, mountains, silver streams of water carving paths through rocks, swathes of unpopulated land. That evening we eat in a pub where musicians and singers gather - the highlight for me a woman singing, unaccompanied, a haunting Gaelic song.
The next morning, climbing Ullapool Hill, we stop to watch a ferry leaving for the Outer Hebrides. The path has regular run-offs for water, ensuring earth can breathe when the rains come in. Ullapool from above resembles a toy town - school, shops, harbour, camping site, rows of houses.
We reach a viewpoint with a metal face which carries words that seem at one with the setting - Hills of rugged heather, cairns of crumpled rock, the loch glistens in the sunlight and the sky sends the birds flying.
Clouds grey over, casting distant shadows. Hill tops and islands merge with far away mist. Waves of wind and water sweep towards us. A large shadow moves through the sun on the hill opposite, shape changing with the landscape from dinosaur to whale.
Ullapool is on Scotland�s north west coast and lies on the shores of the sea loch Loch Broom. Exposure to waters from the Gulf Stream ensures weather mild for the Scottish Highlands. It is likely the earliest settlers in the area arrived by sea. At Rhue, a few miles from Ullapool, you will find the remains of a prehistoric round house which could have been established up to 3,500 years ago.
Designed by Thomas Telford, Ullapool was established in 1788 as a fishing village - the main catch herring. The area is cradled by hills and mountains and offers a host of opportunities for gentle rambles, hill walking and climbing.
In the eighteenth century a lot of the trees around Loch Broom were cut down for ship building; many of the trees you see now will have been planted in the last century. Landowners started to evict tenants and create large farms/estates which they believed provided greater economies of scale during the Highland Clearances. Some hill farms lost their traditional sheep and cattle stock in favour of deer, providing rich hunting grounds for the wealthy upper classes.
Men from Loch Broom were involved in the Battle of Culloden in 1746 and some died there. Many inhabitants of Loch Broom emigrated to Pictou in Nova Scotia on The Hector in 1773. The hard conditions of the trip claimed eighteen casualties (mainly children), and the settlers faced a tough life when they reached their new land.
From Ullapool you can get a boat to Stornoway on the Isle of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides � well worth doing if you have the time. The journey passes through some beautiful scenery � wrap up warm if you want to get the full benefit by standing or sitting on deck for the trip.
Ullapool attracts musicians, writers and artists. The Ullapool book festival takes place every May. The music festival Loopallu (Ullapool spelled backwards) draws late summer crowds. To enjoy the best of the village visit between April and September, asking the weather gods will bless you with sunshine!
| Loch Broom |
In May 1990 ‘Portrait of Dr Gachet’ by which artist was sold at auction for a record 82.5 Million US dollars? | Welcome Ullapool is a group representing the village and area of Loch Broom and surrounding villages. Our goal is to help promote the area and assist the village and area thrive.
© Angus Bruce Photography
Places of Interest
The village itself has many places worth visiting, the original part of the village is part of Thomas Telford's original design and many of the buildings date back hundreds of years. Wandering the streets you will see many old houses dating from our fishing heritage and churches that have been places of worship for generations.
Outside the village you will find remnants of the iron age history still evident in the old broches and forts scattered around our coast along with abandoned crofts and farm lands where famine and clearance took the population from the land.
Sites worth visiting include Ardmair beach and bay, the smooth flat stones make for interesting stone statues and 'skimming'. Rhue Point Lighthouse is a lovely walk, especially as the sun sets over the Summer Isles behind.
South, Leckmelm Gardens are a reminder of the old Victorian Estate that stood at the head of the loch and the gardens that were used to feed the owners but now hold many unique pants and trees. Similarly, Lael Forest Gardens have some amazing species from around the world.
Corrieshalloch Falls are a wonder to witness and should be seen by everyone travelling to and from Ullapool. A short walk from the car park takes you to one of the most stunning gorges in the world that was carved out over millions of years.
The museum hold much of Loch Brooms past - both distant and more recent. Many visitors with Scottish ancestory have discovered family backgrounds in some of the parish records held there. Some have even found relatives still living in the area.
The North West GeoPark heading north from the village has some of the most amazing geology about. Start at Knockan Crag to discover more and watch for the signs throughout the area that tell more and highlight a landscape described as the birthplace of modern geological theories.
Find everything you need in Ullapool
Did You know?
Ullapool is a town of around 1,500 inhabitants in Ross-shire, Scottish Highlands. Despite its small size it is the largest settlement for many miles around and a major tourist destination of Scotland.
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‘Welcome to Joyville’ is an advertising slogan for which confectionery brand? | Pinata from Cadbury Dairy Milk - YouTube
Pinata from Cadbury Dairy Milk
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Published on Apr 7, 2013
Welcome To Joyville. Cadbury Dairy Milk.
Dairy Milk is a brand of chocolate bar made by Cadbury. The bar is popular both in the United Kingdom and around the world.
Cadbury plc is a confectionery and beverage company with its headquarters in London, United Kingdom, and is the world's largest confectionery manufacturer.
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| Cadbury |
Which British television chef was reported as saying ‘For any chef, supermarkets are like a factory. I buy from specialist growers, organic suppliers and farmers’? | Personalised Chocolate | Cadbury Gifts Direct
Personalised Chocolate | Cadbury Gifts Direct
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Allergens can be found in the ingredients list Contains Milk, Soya. May Contain Nuts.
Ingredients
Allergy Advice: For allergens see highlighted ingredients Sugar, Glucose Syrup, Vegetable Fats (Palm, Shea), Dried Whey (from Milk), Cocoa Butter, Invert Sugar Syrup, Cocoa Mass, Dried Skimmed Milk, Milk Fat, Emulsifiers (E442, Soya Lecithin, E471, Sunflower Lecithin), Fat-Reduced Cocoa, Salt, Humectant (Sorbitol Syrup), Strawberry Powder, Molasses, Flavourings, Dried Whole Milk, Sodium Bicarbonate, Citric Acid, Stabiliser (Invertase), Milk Chocolate: Milk Solids 14% minimum, Milk Chocolate and White Chocolate contain Vegetable Fats in addition to Cocoa Butter
Nutrition
*Reference intake of an average adult (8400 kJ/2000 kcal)
https://www.cadburygiftsdirect.co.uk/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/m/i/milk-tray-78g-base.png £3.99 902
Allergens can be found in the ingredients list Contains Milk, Hazelnuts, Soya. May Contain Nuts.
Ingredients
Allergy Advice: For allergens see highlighted ingredients Sugar, Vegetable Fats (Palm, Shea), Cocoa Butter, Glucose Syrup, Cocoa Mass, Dried Skimmed Milk, Dried Whey (from Milk), Milk Fat, Invert Sugar Syrup, Hazelnuts, Emulsifiers (E442, Soya Lecithin, E471, Sunflower Lecithin), Fat-Reduced Cocoa Powder, Dried Whole Milk, Humectant (Sorbitol Syrup), Salt, Strawberry Powder, Flavourings, Molasses, Sodium Bicarbonate, Citric Acid, Caramelized Sugar, Cinnamon, Stabiliser (Invertase), Milk Chocolate: Milk Solids 14% minimum, Milk Chocolate and White Chocolate contain Vegetable Fats in addition to Cocoa Butter
Nutrition
*Reference intake of an average adult (8400 kJ/2000 kcal)
https://www.cadburygiftsdirect.co.uk/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/m/i/milk-tray-180g-base.png £7.00 894
Allergens can be found in the ingredients list Contains Milk, Hazelnuts, Soya. May Contain Nuts.
Ingredients
Allergy Advice: For allergens see highlighted ingredients Sugar, Vegetable Fats (Palm, Shea), Cocoa Butter, Glucose Syrup, Cocoa Mass, Dried Skimmed Milk, Dried Whey (from Milk), Milk Fat, Invert Sugar Syrup, Hazelnuts, Emulsifiers (E442, Soya Lecithin, E471, Sunflower Lecithin), Fat-Reduced Cocoa Powder, Dried Whole Milk, Humectant (Sorbitol Syrup), Salt, Strawberry Powder, Flavourings, Molasses, Sodium Bicarbonate, Citric Acid, Caramelised Sugar, Cinnamon, Stabiliser (Invertase), Milk Chocolate: Milk Solids 14% minimum, Milk Chocolate and White Chocolate contain Vegetable Fats in addition to Cocoa Butter
Nutrition
*Reference intake of an average adult (8400 kJ/2000 kcal)
https://www.cadburygiftsdirect.co.uk/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/m/i/milk-tray-360g-base.png £10.00 893
Allergens can be found in the ingredients list Contains Milk, Hazelnuts, Soya. May Contain Nuts.
Ingredients
Allergy Advice: For allergens see highlighted ingredients Sugar, Vegetable Fats (Palm, Shea), Cocoa Butter, Glucose Syrup, Cocoa Mass, Dried Skimmed Milk, Dried Whey (from Milk), Milk Fat, Invert Sugar Syrup, Hazelnuts, Emulsifiers (E442, Soya Lecithin, E471, Sunflower Lecithin), Fat-Reduced Cocoa Powder, Dried Whole Milk, Humectant (Sorbitol Syrup), Salt, Strawberry Powder, Flavourings, Molasses, Sodium Bicarbonate, Citric Acid, Caramelized Sugar, Cinnamon, Stabiliser (Invertase), Milk Chocolate: Milk Solids (14%) minimum, Milk Chocolate and White Chocolate contain Vegetable Fats in addition to Cocoa Butter
Nutrition
*Reference intake of an average adult (8400 kJ/2000 kcal)
https://www.cadburygiftsdirect.co.uk/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/m/i/milk-tray-530g-base_4.png £15.50 892
Allergens can be found in the ingredients list May Contain Wheat, Nuts. Contains Milk.
Ingredients
Allergy Advice: For allergens see highlighted ingredients Milk**, Sugar, Cocoa Butter, Cocoa Mass, Vegetable Fats (Palm, Shea), Emulsifiers (E442, E476), Flavourings, Sugar, Cocoa: traded in compliance with Fairtrade Standards, total 70%, **The equivalent of 426ml of Fresh Liquid Milk in every 227g of Milk Chocolate, Milk Solids 20% minimum, actual 23%, Cocoa Solids 20% minimum, Contains Vegetable Fats in addition to Cocoa Butter
Nutrition
*% reference intake of an average adult (8400 kJ/2000 kcal)
https://www.cadburygiftsdirect.co.uk/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/p/e/personalised-2nd.png £12.00 1846
Allergens can be found in the ingredients list May Contain Wheat, Nuts. Contains Milk.
Ingredients
Allergy Advice: For allergens see highlighted ingredients Milk**, Sugar, Cocoa Butter, Cocoa Mass, Vegetable Fats (Palm, Shea), Emulsifiers (E442, E476), Flavourings, Sugar, Cocoa: traded in compliance with Fairtrade Standards, total 70%, **The equivalent of 426ml of Fresh Liquid Milk in every 227g of Milk Chocolate, Milk Solids 20% minimum, actual 23%, Cocoa Solids 20% minimum, Contains Vegetable Fats in addition to Cocoa Butter
Nutrition
*% reference intake of an average adult (8400 kJ/2000 kcal)
https://www.cadburygiftsdirect.co.uk/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/i/m/image6.png £7.00 899
Allergens can be found in the ingredients list May Contain Wheat, Nuts. Contains Milk.
Ingredients
Allergy Advice: For allergens see highlighted ingredients Milk**, Sugar, Cocoa Butter, Cocoa Mass, Vegetable Fats (Palm, Shea), Emulsifiers (E442, E476), Flavourings, Cocoa, Sugar: traded in compliance with Fairtrade Standards, total 70%, **The equivalent of 426ml of Fresh Liquid Milk in every 227g of Milk Chocolate, Milk Solids 20% minimum, actual 23%, Cocoa Solids 20% minimum, Contains Vegetable Fats in addition to Cocoa Butter
Nutrition
*% reference intake of and average adult (8400 kJ/2000 kcal)
https://www.cadburygiftsdirect.co.uk/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/c/d/cdm-200g.png £5.50 897
Allergens can be found in the ingredients list May Contain Wheat, Nuts. Contains Milk.
Ingredients
Allergy Advice: For allergens see highlighted ingredients Milk**, Sugar, Cocoa Butter, Cocoa Mass, Vegetable Fats (Palm, Shea), Emulsifiers (E442, E476), Flavourings, Cocoa, Sugar: Traded in compliance with Fairtrade Standards, total 70%, **The equivalent of 426ml of Fresh Liquid Milk in every 227g of Milk Chocolate, Milk Solids 20% minimum, actual 23%, Cocoa Solids 20% minimum, Contains Vegetable Fats in addition to Cocoa Butter
Nutrition
*% reference intake of an average adult (8400 kJ/2000 kcal)
https://www.cadburygiftsdirect.co.uk/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/c/d/cdm-110g.png £4.00 898
Allergens can be found in the ingredients list May Contain Wheat, Nuts. Contains Milk.
Ingredients
Allergy Advice: For allergens see highlighted ingredients Milk**, Sugar, Cocoa Butter, Cocoa Mass, Vegetable Fats (Palm, Shea), Emulsifiers (E442, E476), Flavourings, Cocoa, Sugar: traded in compliance with Fairtrade Standards, total 70 %, **The equivalent of 426 ml of Fresh Liquid Milk in every 227 g of Milk Chocolate, Milk Solids 20 % minimum, actual 23 %, Cocoa Solids 20 % minimum, Contains Vegetable Fats in addition to Cocoa Butter
Nutrition
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Who played the role of Gabrielle Dragon in the 1966 UK television series ‘George and the Dragon’? | George and the Dragon (TV Series 1966–1968) - IMDb
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Title: George and the Dragon (1966–1968)
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19 November 1966 (UK) See more »
Filming Locations:
(Hertford, England) – See all my reviews
Skirt-chasing chauffeur George (wizened dirty old man Sid James) meets his match when his employer hires the formidable Gabrielle Dragon (the scarily ferocious Peggy Mount) as a new housekeeper.
The ATV sitcom ran from 1966-68 for 26 episodes, no small achievement for a programme effectively based on one long mother-in-law joke and James' trademark lecherous cackle.
James and Mount are a fine match and the banter sparking off every locking of horns has lost none of its comedy value.
Meanwhile, John Le Mesurier is at his vague, dry best as the retired colonel who referees their sparring.
It's dated, inevitably, but there're still plenty of laughs in the Odd Couple friction
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| Peggy Mount |
What does the Latin phrase ‘Vestis virum reddit’ translate to in English? | "George and the Dragon" George Meets the Dragon (TV Episode 1966) - IMDb
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19 November 1966 (UK) See more »
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Goofs
In the closing credits to the first episode Keith Marsh's first name is incorrectly spelled 'Kieth'. See more »
Connections
Raucous Sitcom For Two Special Talents
18 February 2016 | by l_rawjalaurence
(London) – See all my reviews
Vince Powell and Harry Driver script-wrote several ITV comedy successes of the Sixties and Seventies, notably NEVER MIND THE QUALITY, FEEL THE WIDTH (1967-71), BLESS THIS HOUSE (1971-6), and NEAREST AND DEAREST (1968-73). Their humor was not especially subtle, centering around the battle of the sexes between a supposedly strong man and a strong woman, or two strong men. Their work provided a suitable vehicle for such talents as Hylda Baker, Irene Handl, Wilfred Pickles and Jimmy Jewel, all stalwarts of television and radio for many years.
Premiering in 1966, GEORGE AND THE DRAGON paired the twin talents of Sidney James and Peggy Mount. The plots were not especially subtle; they were designed to show off the talents of two outstanding comedy actors. James plays his customary role of the philanderer always on the lookout for "birds." However he meets his match with the presence of Mount's Miss Dragon, whose character is suggested by her surname - a dominant woman with a penchant for crushing anything and everyone who stands in her way. Both of them are domestic servants in the employ of Colonel Maynard (John le Mesurier); George is the manservant, Mount the cook.
The plot of this opening episode is straightforward enough: George wants to get his "bird" Gloria employed as the cook, but due to a series of comic misunderstandings, Miss Dragon takes the job instead. The twenty-five minute episode ends with a classic farcical situation, with George trying to conceal his "bird" and the Colonel from Miss Dragon's sight by pushing them into separate rooms, but finding all his best-laid plans coming to naught.
The jokes are fairly obvious; and highly sexist by today's standards. Nonetheless we can enjoy the sight of two legendary comic talents at work.
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Who wrote the 1869 novel ‘War and Peace’? | Who wrote the book War and Peace? - Quora
Quora
Written Jun 5, 2010
Leo Tolstoy ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo... ), a great 19th century Russian writer.
"War and Peace" ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War... ) is considered one of his greatest novels, as well as one of the greatest novels of all times. The book is long but a must-read. Historically, it describes the time between 1805 and approximately 1815, including Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Tolstoy combines his own perspective on the events and people with the creative narrative of whole bunch of fictional characters and historical figures.
They say that somebody asked Tolstoy to briefly tell what "War and Peace" was about. He answered that if could tell the story shorter he would have written a shorter story.
| Leo Tolstoy |
In medicine, ptosis affects which part of the body? | Towards a Literature of Peace - Diplomatic Courier
Diplomatic Courier
June 27, 2016
Written by Niall Munro
Would Tolstoy’s epic 1869 novel have been such a success if it had just been called Peace? There is no doubt that a literature of war is very well established: from the Iliad to the present day, the genre has been influential in shaping our responses to conflict, and some would argue that it has even created the conditions for war. Even if Abraham Lincoln’s famous remark to Harriet Beecher Stowe about her anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (‘So you’re the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war!’) was never actually spoken by the president in 1862, the literature of war has had far-reaching consequences. Not so the literature of peace. What would a literature of peace even look like?
Yet as the Global Peace Index demonstrates, war is only one part of the story. In its section on Positive Peace, the GPI notes that ‘[u]nderstanding what creates sustainable peace cannot just be found in the study of violence.’ The same might be said of literature. As an academic working on literary representations of the American Civil War and Reconstruction, I am naturally interested in what the literature produced during and after a period of war can tell us about what it is like to experience conflict and remember it in peacetime. Robert Penn Warren once called the Civil War ‘our only “felt” history’ – history lived in the national imagination’, which indicates how deeply the memory of war can penetrate into consciousness, because the effects of war and peace are felt not just on the body, but in the mind as well.
In literature, the experience of war is translated into words which bear witness to pain and the most extreme human difficulty. There have been many examples of this kind of writing, but as Carolyn Forché has shown , it is frequently poets who take on this role of witness. According to Forché, poetry has an acute responsibility because ‘the poem might be our only evidence that an event has occurred: it exists for us as the sole trace of an occurrence. Poem as trace, poem as evidence.’ In this way, poetry (and literature more broadly), can help to achieve some measure of postwar reconciliation, since it provides a non-violent mode for feelings of resistance or expressions of trauma related to conflict. It also has the power to bring about societal cohesion as it draws upon established and respected cultural forms to give voice to impulses of peacebuilding, as demonstrated in Somalia , one of the least peaceful countries in the world according to the GPI.
When we think about Positive Peace as representing ‘the attitudes and structures which create and sustain peaceful societies’, I think it is essential that we consider the cultural dimensions of those attitudes and structures. How could a future Peace Index measure how far a country fosters a cultural imaginary to promote reconciliation and peace? Could it look, for example, at the extent of literary censorship in the country, or investigate how far cultural figures were appointed to bodies such as truth and reconciliation commissions?
If in recent years we have entered a Peace ‘Moment’, then now is the perfect time to emphasize the necessity of literature and culture in sustaining that moment and interrogating the rhetoric surrounding it – aspirations that literature and literary criticism can achieve. For if it is to exist and have efficacy, one of the aims of a literature of peace should be, as the Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe put it , ‘to make humanity uncomfortable’. A literature of peace must challenge. However recent the conflict, it must insist on its role in the safeguarding of memory and commemoration and it must highlight the need for citizens to acknowledge personal responsibility for their actions.
Drawing on Jean-Paul Sartre’s writings promoting ‘counter-violence’ after World War II, Antony Adolf has argued that ‘peace literature and especially its criticism become counter-counter-violence; that is, they are wholly nonviolent when considered through the paradigmatic prisms of individual, social, and collective peace.’ Literature of this type is not passive. Its dynamic quality comes from the presentation of injustice and the expectation that a reader will respond by assessing his or her own role in perpetrating violence – and then acting to counter such aggression. A recent work of poetry like Claudia Rankine’s Citizen: An American Lyric exemplifies that kind of relationship between reader and writer. Documenting the casual, everyday acts of racism experienced in America, the book particularly derives its power from two aspects of the work: firstly, the calm yet forceful way it presents these experiences – it shows, it does not tell. And then the second-person address of the book: ‘you’ are part of this narrative of discrimination and micro-aggressions whether you have experienced them yourself or not.
It is a profoundly disturbing book, but just as it disturbs, so it simultaneously inspires in a reader a sense of resilience, a key component of Positive Peace. Reading this book and others like it makes us want to be resilient to the kind of violence it describes, and to commit ourselves to its prevention.
As authors and critics seek to fashion a genre of the literature of peace, we need more writing like this, and we need it urgently.
About the author: Dr. Niall Munro is Senior Lecturer in American Literature and Director of the Oxford Brookes Poetry Centre at Oxford Brookes University, UK. He is the author of Hart Crane’s Queer Modernist Aesthetic and is currently writing a book entitled ‘Our only “felt” history’: American Modernism and the Civil War, 1891-1944.
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What is the name of a small curve over a vowel which symbolises a short sound? | Diacritical Marks (Phonics on the Web)
Phonics on the Web
Diacritical Marks
Because there are more letter sounds than there are letters in the alphabet, dictinaries use diacritical marks to indicate which phoneme to give to a grapheme ; that is, which sound to give to a letter unit. Although we do not typically use diacritical marks for consonant sounds, we do teach them for vowel sounds.
The most common diacritical marks are the long vowel mark ( ¯ ), called the macron; the short vowel mark ( ˘ ), called the breve, and the schwa mark ( ə ).
Long Vowel Mark
The long vowel mark placed over a vowel indicates that it will be pronounced just as it sounds when we recite the alphabet:
ā as in ate
ū as in use or in flute
ȳ as in cry
The short vowel mark placed over a vowel is as follows:
ă as in apple
ŏ as in on
ŭ as in under
(Note that no mark is given for short y; the short i sound is used instead.)
Schwa Mark
The schwa mark represents the indistinct vowel sound that is the unaccented or unstressed syllable of a multisyllabic word:
ə as in ago
| Breve |
What type of creature is a dragonet? | Diacritical Marks Described and Explained
Diacritical Marks Described and Explained
This article has been archived. It is offered "as is" and will no longer be updated.
Summary
Diacritical marks are symbols added to letters of the alphabet toindicate different pronunciation than the letters are usually given.This article describes the most common diacritical symbols, as well assome punctuation marks commonly used in French, Italian, and Spanish.
The examples given below are ANSI values, as shown in the Windows 3.1character map.
DiacriticalMark Description-----------------------------------------------------------------------acute accent A little diagonal line, used over a vowel. Usually indicates which syllable is stressed. Slants from upper right down to lower left. Used in French, Hungarian, Portuguese, and Spanish. Example: 0225 (accent over lowercase A)breve (BREEV) A curved mark over a vowel. Used to indicate a short vowel or a short or unstressed syllable. (Sometimes referred to as a "smiley face.") Used in Latin and Turkish. No example in standard Windows character set.caret (CARE-et) The "hat" symbol found on the "6" key. See also circumflex. Used in French and Portuguese. Example: 0226 (lowercase A with caret above)caron See hacek.cedilla (sih-DIL-uh) A tiny curved symbol, like a backward "c," placed at the bottom of a letter to indicate a different pronunciation (as in the French word "facade"). Used in French. Example: 0231 (cedilla beneath lowercase C)circumflex A mark such as the caret or tilde, placed over a vowel to indicate various pronunciations. Used in French and Polish. Example: 0226 (circumflex above lowercase A)diaeresis (deye-ER-uh-suhs) The two dots that appear over a vowel(or dieresis) to show that the vowel is pronounced in a separate syllable (as in the word "naive," with the diaeresis over the i). Looks like an umlaut. Example: 0239 (diaeresis above lowercase I)digraph See ligature.edh (ETH) A letter used in Icelandic and Old English to(or eth) represent a particular sound, usually "th". Looks like a "d" tilted to the left, with a horizontal line across the vertical stroke of the d. Example: 0240grave accent (GRAYV or GRAHV) The diagonal line that appears above a vowel. Slants from upper left to lower right (the reverse of the acute accent). Used in Ancient Greek, French, and Italian. Example: 0224 (grave accent above lowercase A)hacek (HAH-check) Looks like an upside-down caret, or a small "v". Placed above vowels and some consonants. Used in many Eastern European languages. Example: 0154 (s with hacek above). Not available as a separate character with any of the fonts that ship with Microsoft Windows.Hungarian Two acute accents or prime marks. Used above a letter,umlaut usually O or U. Used in Hungarian. No example in ANSI character set.ligature A character that resembles two characters joined together, as in AE, fl, or OE. Used in Latin and English. Example: 0198 (uppercase AE ligature).macron (MAY-krahn or MAH-kruhn) A horizontal line over a vowel to indicate that the vowel is to be pronounced stressed or long. Used in Latin. Example: 0175. Available as a separate character only.ogonek A small mark placed beneath a letter. Generally under E and A. Different reference books use different marks. Used in Polish. No example available in ANSI character set.Polish cedilla See ogonek.ring Hollow circle above a vowel. Used mainly in(or volle) Scandinavian languages. Example: 0229 (lowercase a with ring above)tilde Placed over a letter to denote the "nyuh" sound (as in the Spanish word "senora," with the tilde over the n), or over a vowel to indicate nasality (as in the Portuguese word "irma," with the tilde over the a). Example: 0227 (lowercase A with tilde above)umlaut Two dots placed above a vowel to indicate a partial assimilation to a succeeding sound. Used primarily in German. Example: 0252 (lowercase U with umlaut above)PunctuationMark Description-----------------------------------------------------------------------ellipsis Also called points of suspension; consists of three periods set close together. Often used to indicate an interruption or pause. Used mainly in French and Spanish. Example: three periods in a row.em dash Looks like a long hyphen. Used like quotation marks. Used mainly in French, Italian, and Spanish. Example: 0151guillemet (gee-yuh-MAY) Also called chevron. Looks like two closely-spaced greater-than or less-than symbols. Used like quotation marks. Used in French, Italian, and Spanish. Example: 0171 (open guillemets); 0187 (close guillemets)
References
"The Chicago Manual of Style," Thirteenth Edition, pages 253-279, TheUniversity of Chicago Press, Chicago: 1982
"Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary," Merriam-Webster Inc.,Springfield, Massachusetts: 1990
"Words Into Type," Third Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey: 1974
winword winword2 special extended
| i don't know |
The Cathar Castles are in which European country? | Cathar country and the Cathar castles - historic background
The castle at Qu�ribus
What and where is "le Pays Cathare", and who were the Cathars?
Map of Cathar country, showing main towns and main Cathar castles
The story of the Cathars
The "Cathars" themselves were not a race, or a people; they were the followers of a dissident church that flourished in several parts of Europe during the early Mediaeval period.
Catharism - meaning litterally purity (as in catharsis) - was a sort of proto- Protestantism that promoted values of equality, neighbourliness and charity, and turned its back on the pomp, hierarchy and worldly wealth of the Catholic church of the time. Cathars believed that Earth was ruled by a malevolent God, and that Heaven was the world of the good God: this dualist concept of God was not unique to Catharism, but it was sufficient cause for the Catholic church of the time to brand Catharism as a heresy.
Catharism did not have a founder, nor a designated leader, and it did not only take root in one place. It appears to have originated in the Byzantine world, and to have spread to Europe via churches in Bulgaria. By the eleventh century, there were Cathar believers all over Europe, including England. But one of the places in which the Cathar church really flourished, and the place with which the word Cathar is now strongly associated, is the southern half of the French regions of Languedoc and Midi-Pyr�n�es .
Cathars and Languedoc
In the early Middle Ages, France was a much smaller country than now; the area that is France today was then a hotchpotch of kingdoms, duchies and counties, some with allegiance to the French crown, others with different loyalties. "Languedoc" was the generic name given to the southern half of the country, where they did not speak French at all, but a family of languages between French and Spanish known as "les langues d'oc", or Occitanian. Some areas in this "Occitania" were largely independent, others belonged to the Holy Roman Empire, others - including parts of "Cathar country" to the kingdom of Aragon. Above all, territories in this frontier region far from the power houses of Europe - Paris, London and Rome - changed hands frequently following alliances and power struggles, marriages and deaths, among the local rulers, the most important of whom were the Counts of Toulouse.
As in later centuries, religious dissent was not just a theological statement; it was a way by which local rulers and people could assert their differences and their cultural independence from the great European powers of the day, the Catholic church and the Kings of France.
Thus a large part of the Languedoc, people and nobles, adopted the Cathar heresy, and by so doing distanced themselves from the French and from Rome. By the early 13th century, Catharism had taken such a strong hold in the area, that in 1208 Pope Innocent III launched the notorious Albigensian Crusade - a crusade aimed not against the Infidels, but against the "heretical" Cathars. For twenty years, crusaders, led by the Barons of France including Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, sacked and pillaged the area, massacring Cathars or converting them by force to Catholicism. In the early 1220s, the Cathars' fortunes revived, prompting a second wave of Crusading this time led by King Louis VIII and later Louis IX. Finally, most of the area was subjugated, and in 1229, the Treaty of Meaux-Paris was signed, bringing almost the whole of Occitania into the realm of the French crown. Pockets of Cathar resistance held out for the next twenty-six years.
Impregnable Puylaurent
"Cathar country's" fortified hilltops, castles, villages and towns remain to this day as a stark reminder of the the area's turbulent history. Many of the castles predate the period of the Cathar heresy, having been built in earlier centuries as defensive positions along the changing border area between Aragon and France. During the Albigensian crusade period, many castles and other fortified positions served as strongholds for beseiged Cathars, and many witnessed atrocious massacres.
The Albigensian Crusade has been described as the first act of genocide in Europe, though this is surely an exaggeration; mediaeval wars were cruel, and acts that would be classed today as crimes against humanity, were in those days part and parcel of the strategy of conquest. The castle at Monts�gur remained a Cathar stronghold until 1244, when it was finally taken and 200 Cathar prisoners taken were burned alive. The last Cathar stronghold, the Chateau de Peyrepertuse, fell in 1255.
In order to consolidate their power, the new French masters of Languedoc rebuilt and maintained the fortified cities and the great defensive castles of the area. They strengthened the defences of walled cities like Carcassonne and Narbonne, and renovated most of the imposing strongholds that they had captured, as at Qu�ribus, Peyrepertuis, or Puylaurent. They even built the massive fortified cathedral at Albi , as a high-powered statement of Catholic dominance - and fear of revolt - in the area. And because Languedoc was for the next six centuries largely a peripheral area in terms of European development, a lot of these mediaeval monuments have come down through time relatively intact.
In human terms, historians estimate that the persecution of the Cathars in Languedoc caused half a million deaths. In cultural terms, the suppression of the Cathar heresy and the consolidation of French power in Occitania led to the strangling of of one of the great cultures of mediaeval Europe. However most people in the area continued to speak forms of Occitanian until well into the nineteenth century, and Occitanian languages are still alive as patois even to this day. In recent years,; and since the 1970s, the concept of "Oc" - and with it the memory of the Cathars - has staged a strong revival. Even so, the flame of Occitanian literature and culture, snuffed out in the 13th century by the imposition of a nobility answerable to the crown of France, has never been seriously rekindled .
Getting to Cathar country :
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What is the official language of the Canadian province Quebec? | Cathar Castle Tours in the Languedoc: home
Historical Tours of Cathar Castles in deep rural France
Led by James McDonald
Cathar Castles in the Languedoc
We offer top-of-the-range tours centred on the Cathars of the Languedoc, all conducted in English, on location in the Pays Cathare "Cathar Country" in France.
The Cathar movement and the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars were two of the most important events in European history - with many, often surprising, world-wide resonances even today, eight centuries later.
The Castrum and Château Fort (Castle) of Carcassonne
Our organized tours are led by an English speaking expert on Catharism who lives locally, just south of Carcassonne in the heart of Cathar Country. He has written a number of books and is the author of the leading English Language website on the Cathars ( www.cathar.info ). You will not need to speak any French on our escorted tours.
Our Unique Seling point is that our tours cover historical information in much greater breadth and depth than any other source, and are founded on primary sources. Tours include guided visits to "Cathar Castles" and other Cathar related sites, informal illustrated lectures and talks on Catharism, Cathar beliefs and practices, the concept of heresy, Medieval warfare and the Albigensian Crusade, along with the history of the "Pays Cathare" - Cathar Country. Talks also cover the ancient culture of the area including the role of the medieval Counts of Toulouse and the medieval Inquisition. You can also learn about the local language, Occitan, the first post-classical literary language of Europe, spoken throughout Occitania. (Occitan was the language of the troubadours and the first language of Richard the Lionheart).
The Château Fort (Castle) of Foix
Information provided includes historical and cultural background, illustrations, maps and timelines - even an introduction to the esoteric world of Gnostic Dualism. You will learn how to spot medieval Cathars and how to besiege a Medieval Castle. Escorted visits include trips to key historic locations such as Carcassonne and Montsegur. While we endeavor to ensure strict historical accuracy of the information provided, we appreciate that this is a vacation in the South of France, rather than a university course. - and no one will mind if you decide to spend some of your holiday sitting in the Languedoc sun and drinking some of the famous Languedoc wines.
We offer a choice of tour.
You will find a summary of dates for scheduled tours here and a tour calendar here .
The Battle of Muret, 1213
Tour Leader
The tour is lead by the author James McDonald. James has extensive experience as a public speaker and broadcaster, and lives locally in the heart of Cathar Country. His has an encyclopedic knowledge of all aspects of Catharism and its history in the Languedoc. He is an author and the translator of Voltaire's work on the Cathars, published in English as "The Crusade Against the People of the Languedoc".
Click on the following link for more on James McDonald >>>
The Château Fort (Castle) of Montsegur
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British Prime Minister Harold MacMillan was the leader of which political party? | History of Harold Macmillan - GOV.UK
GOV.UK
Harold Macmillan Conservative 1957 to 1963
Born
29 December 1986, Chelwood Gate, Sussex
Dates in office
Political party
Conservative
Prime Minister Harold 'Supermac' Macmillan distanced the UK from apartheid, sped up the process of decolonisation and was heavily involved in negotiating the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.
The half-American son of a publisher, Harold Macmillan was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford and served in both World Wars.
He rose quickly through Conservative ranks and, when the Conservatives were elected in 1951, he was made Minister of Housing, then Minister of Defence, Foreign Secretary and finally Chancellor of the Exchequer.
When Sir Anthony Eden resigned as Prime Minister in January 1957, Macmillan came out from the wreckage of Suez to lead a demoralised Conservative party and a country that was still in the depths of turmoil.
Despite telling the Queen that he did not think the new government would last longer than 6 weeks, Macmillan quickly restored the country’s confidence and its fortunes. In domestic policy, he was determined to avoid the mass unemployment he had witnessed in the 1930s as MP for Stockton-on-Tees. A champion of economic planning and a moderniser at heart, as living standards and prosperity in Britain increased he was able to claim that the British public had “never had it so good”. Dubbed ‘Supermac’, the Conservative party increased its majority in the October 1959 General Election.
On the international scene, Macmillan was busy with the complexities of the Cold War. He led the country through the Cuban Missile crisis and was the first truly nuclear-armed Prime Minister, taking important steps to maintain the effectiveness and credibility of the nuclear deterrent well into the 1980s.
He was responsible for reorientating British foreign policy and he repaired the damage done to the Anglo-American relationship through his close relationships with Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy. With his ‘winds of change’ speech in 1960, he distanced himself and the country from apartheid and he speeded up the process of decolonisation, following a series of studies into the costs and benefits of the British Empire.
Macmillan acknowledged that Britain’s future lay with Europe, but his plans for entry into the new European Economic Community were set back when the French President General Charles de Gaulle said no to Britain’s application in January 1963. Devastated, he wrote in his diary that “all our policies at home and abroad are in ruins”. His greatest achievement on the international scene came a few months later in August 1963, when he was heavily involved in negotiating the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, earning praise from Presidents Kennedy and Khrushchev for his patience and diplomacy.
By 1963 the economy, thanks to problems with the balance of payments, was faltering. Harold was also increasingly portrayed as out of touch. The sacking of 6 cabinet ministers in an event that became known as the ‘night of the long knives’ did little to refresh the government. After a series of scandals, the most damaging of which involved the minister John Profumo, he resigned in October 1963.
Macmillan was created Earl of Stockton in 1984 and died in 1986.
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The Calcutta Cup is played for in Rugby union between which two nations? | History of Harold Wilson - GOV.UK
GOV.UK
Harold Wilson Labour 1974 to 1976, 1964 to 1970
Born
11 March 1916, Huddersfield, Yorkshire
Died
1974 to 1976, 1964 to 1970
Political party
Labour
Major acts
Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965: suspended the death penalty in England, Wales and Scotland.
Sexual Offences Act 1967: decriminalisation of certain homosexual offences.
Interesting facts
In 1969 he was struck in the eye by a stink bomb thrown by a schoolboy. Wilson’s response was "with an arm like that he ought to be in the English cricket XI″
As Prime Minister Harold Wilson enacted social reforms in education, health, housing, gender equality, price controls, pensions, provisions for disabled people and child poverty.
Harold Wilson, the son of a chemist and teacher, was born in Yorkshire during the First World War. In 1924, aged 8, he visited 10 Downing Street, which would eventually become his home.
He studied Modern History for a year before transferring to Philosophy, Politics and Economics at Oxford University, graduating with a first class BA.
The Labour politician entered Parliament in 1945 as MP for Ormskirk and later becoming MP for Huyton. In 1947, then Prime Minister Clement Attlee made Wilson President of the Board of Trade. Aged 31, he had become the youngest member of the Cabinet in the 20th century.
Under Hugh Gaitskell’s leadership of the Labour party, Wilson served as Shadow Chancellor from 1955 to 1961, then as Shadow Foreign Secretary from 1961 to 1963. After Gaitskell passed away suddenly, Wilson fought and won a leadership contest against George Brown and James Callaghan. As Labour leader, he won 4 of the 5 General Elections he contested, although this includes a minority government.
His first election victory on 15 October 1964 saw him win with a small majority of 4, which increased significantly to 98 after a second General Election on 31 March 1966. As Prime Minister from 1964 to 1970, his main plan was to modernise. He believed that he would be aided by the “white heat of the technological revolution”. His government supported backbench MPs in liberalising laws on censorship, divorce, abortion, and homosexuality, and he abolished capital punishment. Crucial steps were taken towards stopping discrimination against women and ethnic minorities, and Wilson’s government also created the Open University.
In comparison, his outlook on foreign affairs was less modernising. He wanted to maintain Britain’s world role by keeping the Commonwealth united and nurturing the Anglo-American alliance. For example, his approach to the Vietnam War saw him skilfully balance modernist ambitions with Anglo-American interests when, despite repeated American requests, he kept British troops out while still maintaining good relations. Wilson biographer Philip Ziegler characterises his role as “honest broker”.
However, he had to fundamentally reshape Britain’s world role after inheriting an overstretched military and a £400 million balance of payments deficit, which caused successive sterling crises. To resolve these 2 interlinked problems, Wilson launched a Defence Review (1964 to 1965) and created the Department for Economic Affairs, which sought to implement an ambitious National Plan.
When sterling crises continued, Wilson was forced to devalue the pound in November 1967. Two months later, his government reluctantly announced Britain’s gradual withdrawal from the strategically important East of Suez. Despite his initial hesitation, Wilson recognised the value of membership of the European Economic Community ( EEC ), but his 1967 application was unsuccessful. Believing his popularity had increased, Wilson called a general election on 18 June 1970, but suffered defeat by the Conservative Party under Edward Heath .
Wilson held onto the Labour leadership. The next General Election on 28 February 1974 resulted in a hung parliament, and he formed a minority government. He called another election on 10 October 1974 at which he secured a small majority of 3.
His next 2 years as Prime Minister saw him concentrate heavily on domestic policy, achieving social reforms in education, health, housing, gender equality, price controls, pensions, provisions for disabled people and child poverty. As a result, income tax on top earners increased to 83%. Job creation remained an issue – by 1975, unemployment had reached 1 million.
He limited the damage caused by differing opinions within his party during renegotiation of the terms of Britain’s EEC membership. He also sought to resolve The Troubles between the nationalists and unionists in Northern Ireland but was ultimately unsuccessful.
On 16 March 1976, 5 days after his 60th birthday, he stunned the nation when he announced his intention to resign, a decision that he claimed he had made 2 years previously. James Callaghan , leader of the Labour Party, succeeded him to the role of Prime Minister.
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The Biskupin Open Air Museum is a life-size model of a prehistoric settlement in which European country? | Biskupin, Poland Tourist Information
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Kujawsko-Pomorskie, Poland
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The archaeological open air museum Biskupin is an archaeological site and a life-size model of an Iron Age fortified settlement in north-central (Wielkopolska) Poland (Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship). When first discovered it was thought to be early evidence of Slavic settlement but archaeologists later confirmed it belonged to the Biskupin group of the Lusatian culture. The excavation and the reconstruction of the prehistoric settlement has played an instrumental part in Polish historical consciousness. The Museum is situated on a marshy peninsula in Lake Biskupin, ca. 90 km northeast of Poznań, 8 km south of the small town of Żnin. It is a division of the National Museum of Archaeology in Warsaw.
History of the excavations
In 1933 Polish archaeologists discovered remains of a Bronze Age fort/settlement in Wielkopolska (Greater Poland), the discovery became famous overnight. The site was excavated from 1934 onwards by the team from Poznań University, led by archaeologists Józef Kostrzewski (1885–1969) and Zdzisław Rajewski (1907–1974). The first report was published in 1936. By the beginning of 1939, ca. 2,500 m2 (26,909.78 sq ft) had been excavated. Biskupin soon became famous, attracting numerous distinguished guests, including officials of the Piłsudski government, members of the military, and high churchmen such as the primate of Poland.
The site soon became part of Polish national consciousness, the symbol of achievements of the Slavonic forebears in prehistoric times. It was called the "Polish Pompeii" or "Polish Herculaneum". The existence of a prehistoric fortress, 70 km from the German border, was used to show that the prehistoric "Poles" had held their own against foreign invaders and plunderers as early as the Iron Age. Biskupin came to feature in paintings and popular novels.
When the Germans occupied parts of Poland in the autumn of 1939, Biskupin became part of the Warthegau, an area that German Nationalists claimed to have been "Germanic" since at least the Iron Age (Gustaf Kossinna, Das Weichselland, ein uralter Heimatboden der Germanen, Leipzig, Kabitzsch 1919). Biskupin was renamed "Urstädt". In 1940, excavations were resumed under the patronage of Heinrich Himmler by the SS-Ahnenerbe under the supervision of Hauptsturmführer Hans Schleif, a classical archaeologist who was to excavate in Olympia, Greece as well.
Schleiff published only two short popular accounts that describe how Germanic tribes overran the 'small Lusatian settlement'. The excavations were continued till 1942. When the Germans retreated, the site was flooded, which ironically led to the good preservation of the ancient timbers. Excavations were resumed by Polish archaeologists after the war and continued until 1974.
The site
There are two settlement periods at Biskupin, which was located in the middle of a lake but is now situated on a peninsula, that follow each other without hiatus. Both settlements were laid out on a rectangular grid with eleven streets that are three meters wide. The older settlement from early Iron Age was established on a slightly wet island of over 2 hectares and consisted of ca. 100 oak and pine log-houses that are of similar layout and measure ca. 8 x 10 m each.They consisted of two chambers and an open entrance-area.These houses were designed to accommodate 10 to 12 persons. An open hearth was located in the centre of the biggest room. There are no larger houses that could indicate social stratification. Because of the damp, boggy ground the streets were covered with wooden planks.
The settlement was surrounded by a tall wooden wall, or palisade, set on a rampart made up of both wood and earth. The rampart was constructed of oak trunks that form boxes filled with earth. The rampart is more than 450 m long and accompanied by a wooden breakwater in the lake. 6000–8000 m³ of wood have been used in the construction of the rampart.
Dating
The settlement at Biskupin belongs to the Hallstatt C and D periods (early Iron Age, 800-650 BC and 650-475 BC). There are four Radiocarbon dates from Biskupin (all B.C.):
first settlement: 720±150 (Gif 494)
later settlement: 560±150 (Gif 495)
rampart: 620 ±150 (Gif 492)
A2 4C, VII: 620±150 (Gif 493)
However, dendrochronological analysis provided more accurate dating. It proved that oak wood used in the construction of the settlement was cut down between 747-722 B.C. Over half of the wood used was cut during the winter of 738/737 B.C.
The model
In 1936, the first life-size model (open air museum) was built on the peninsula, inspired by the Unteruhldingen-pile dwellings in Germany . After the war, the ramparts and one street with houses on both sides were added. In the 2000s, a film prop "medieval" timber castle has been constructed on a part of the original site.
Map
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‘Stone walls do not a ‘what’ make’ is a line from a poem by 17th Century poet Richard Lovelace? | Biskupin - AbeBooks
Biskupin
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ISBN 10: 2226018980 ISBN 13: 9782226018984
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Published by Academic Journal Offprint from - Antiquity 47, 1938. (1938)
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ISBN 10: 3891660340 ISBN 13: 9783891660348
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Published by Albin Michel (1984)
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Published by Warschau : Polonia, (1959)
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Published by Zet, Wroclaw (1997)
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Published by Jaca book (1987)
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Published by Polonia, Varsovie (1959)
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ISBN 10: 5511434701 ISBN 13: 9785511434704
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Item Description: Book on Demand, Miami, 2016. Perfect binding. Book Condition: NEW. Dust Jacket Condition: NEW. 8.3" x 11". In English language. High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! The archaeological open air museum Biskupin is an archaeological site and a life-size model of an Iron Age fortified settlement in north-central (Wielkopolska) Poland (Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship). When first discovered it was thought to be early evidence of Slavic settlement but archaeologists later confirmed it belonged to the Biskupin group of the Lusatian culture. The excavation and the reconstruction of the prehistoric settlement has played an instrumental part in Polish historical consciousness. Dannoe izdanie predstavlyaet soboj kompilyatsiyu svedenij, nahodyaschihsya v svobodnom dostupe v srede Internet v tselom, i v informatsionnom setevom resurse "Vikipediya" v chastnosti. Sobrannaya po chastotnym zaprosam ukazannoj tematiki, dannaya kompilyatsiya postroena po printsipu podbora blizkih informatsionnyh ssylok, ne imeet samostoyatelnogo syuzheta, ne soderzhit nikakih analiticheskih materialov, vyvodov, otsenok moralnogo, eticheskogo, politicheskogo, religioznogo i mirovozzrencheskogo haraktera v otnoshenii glavnoj tematiki, predstavlyaya soboj isklyuchitelno faktologicheskij material. This item is printed on demand. This is a printed copy of digital content available at Wikipedia. SOFT COVER. Bookseller Inventory # 1849078
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Item Description: Milano, 1939, stralcio con copertina posticcia muta, pp. 73/81 con fotografie, tavole fotografiche ed una cartina. - !! ATTENZIONE !!: Con il termine estratto (o stralcio) intendiamo riferirci ad un fascicolo contenente un articolo di rivista, sia che esso sia stato stampato a parte utilizzando la stessa composizione sia che provenga direttamente da una rivista. Le pagine sono indicate come "da/a", ad esempio: 229/231 significa che il testo è composto da tre pagine. Quando la rivista di provenienza non viene indicata é perchè ci è sconosciuta. - !! ATTENTION !!: : NOT A BOOK : ?estratto? or ?stralcio? means simply a few pages, original nonetheless, printed in a magazine. Pages are indicated as in "from? ?to", for example: 229/231 means the text comprises three pages (229, 230 and 231). If the magazine that contained the pages is not mentioned, it is because it is unknown to us. Bookseller Inventory # 1991/LVM
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Item Description: Editions Vincent, Fréal & Cie, 1952. souple. 1 chemise in-4 ancien modèle recueillant 9 planches dont 1 triple et 1 double, Editions Vincent, Fréal & Cie, Paris, s.d. [ circa 1952 ][ Contient : ] 136 : Bird's and Pixmore Hills. Lechtworth - 137 : Saratoga Terrace. Binghampton New York - 318 : Ecole Holingbury. Brighton - 454 : Abords de la Cathédrale. Albi - 455 : Grande Place. Locronan - 456 : Grande Place. Villefrance-de-Rouergue - 457 : St-James et Queen's Squares. Bath - 701-702-703 : Letchworth - 704-705 : Biskupin Fascicule 11 complet de l'Encyclopédie de l'urbanisme, qui présente, généralement au 1/2000e, divers plans d'intérêt urbanistique, au format 25 x 32,5 cm. Etat satisfaisant (chemise frottée avec petits accrocs, haut de qq. planches lég. frottées) Langue: Français. Bookseller Inventory # 42265
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In Judaism, what is the collective name for the ten people required to be present in order to for a communal religious service to be conducted? | Jewish Beliefs and Practices « Jewish Prisoner Services
an excerpt from the Handbook of Religious Beliefs and Practices
History/Background
Judaism is the religion of the Jews. There are an estimated 13.5 million Jews in the world, approximately 5.3 million in the United States, 5.8 million in Israel and the remainder dispersed throughout the world, many of them in Eastern Europe. In the holocaust of World War II, some six million Jews were annihilated in Nazi occupied Europe, as Hitler’s armies sought to “purify” the “Aryan race.”
Early Jewish history is told in the Hebrew bible, beginning with the “Pentateuch” [Five Books of Moses], also known as the “Torah” [written law], which is only complete with the inclusion of other specific holy writings and an oral tradition that was later committed to written form [see Religious Law below]. These documents are a compendium of history, law and ethical teachings. Beginning with the pre-history of Creation and the fist humans, Torah first focuses on the Patriarchs [founding fathers] and Matriarchs [founding mothers] of the Jews, most notably the first Patriarch Abraham who is said to have made a direct covenant with God that would then extend to all of Abraham’s descendents. To this day, Jewish prayer invokes the names of the Patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and of the Matriarchs Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah. In about 1800 BCE*, Abraham and his family settled in Canaan, roughly the same location as the present state of Israel. In biblical times, these Hebrew speaking people were known as “Israelites” [Children of Israel], from the name given to Abraham‘s grandson Jacob by God, and then during the post-biblical Kingdom of Judah they became known as “Jews.”
Facing famine, the tribal retinue of Jacob and his children entered Egypt, where their descendents became slaves. In 1312 BCE* [Hebrew calendar year 2448], the Israelites were led out Egypt by Moses on direction from God. This singular event, termed “The Exodus,” freed the enslaved Israelites and enabled them to re-affirm their covenantal relationship with God, culminating in the receiving of the Torah, symbolized by the first “Ten Commandments”, at Mount Sinai.
Though Moses himself was unable to enter “The Promised Land” [Canaan/Israel], the Israelites re-settled the land in 1272 BCE* and established a centuries long presence there led by selected judges, priests, prophets and kings. Toward the turn of the millennium, rabbis [scholars; teachers] led the peoples’ search for an understanding of the correct ways to serve God. By the second century CE*, Judaism as a faith system had become the binding experience for the people, particularly crucial in the aftermath of the 70 CE* Roman destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem which had been Judaism’s holiest site and the center of post biblical Jewish life. In about 500 CE*, the rabbis’ teachings of written and oral law were compiled into the written volumes of the “Talmud”. Conscious of their covenantal relationship with God, the Jews retained their religious, cultural and communal identity wherever they went and no matter what circumstances they lived, whether they were persecuted or prospered.
The Judaism of today is based mainly on the Talmud and 613 commandments derived from the Torah (by early renowned rabbis), several of which cannot presently be fulfilled without the existence of the holy Temple. The central tenets of Judaism were well defined in the 12th century CE* by Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon [the “Rambam” or “Maimonides”] in his ‘Thirteen Principles of Faith”, which include a belief in one God and the eventual coming of a Messiah [“Anointed One’]. Judaism’s tenets and practices have been further defined to varying degrees by branches (i.e. denominations) of the faith.
In 1948 CE*, shortly following World War II, the tiny State of Israel was born. It was intended to create a secure permanent homeland for the Jews. Israel’s short history has been one of remarkable economic and artistic achievement, and of painful struggle for recognition, identity and survival.
*As are also employed by most historians, the terms BCE [Before Common Era] and CE [Common Era] are generally used by Jews as they do NOT believe that a Messiah has yet been revealed and they, therefore, do not use the Christian terms BC [Before Christ] or AD [Year of Our Lord].
Theology/Major Teachings/Belief
“Judaism” is the term for the religion of the Jewish people. It is the oldest of the three western monotheistic religions and so is the ancestor of both Islam and Christianity. At the heart of Judaism is the belief that there exists only one eternal God who is the creator and the ruler of the universe and all that is in it. God is transcendent and eternal, knowing and seeing everything. God has revealed His law [Torah] for the Jews, who are to serve as a light and example to the world. Abraham, the biblical Patriarch was the first to give expression to this faith, and it is through him that the blessing and the inheritance from God to the Jewish people comes, particularly the promise of the land that has a central place in Jewish thought and practice.
The essence of the Jewish faith is contained in the biblical “Shema” that is recited every morning and evening by a devote Jew: “Hear O Israel the Lord is our God, the Lord is one. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your might. And these words which I command you today shall be upon your heart.” [Deuteronomy 6:4-6]. In addition to this and other scriptural mandates, Jewish practice incorporates an ever-growing body of rabbinic commentary and interpretation.
Religious Law: Traditionally, Jewish life is guided by the 613 Godly commandments derived from Torah. The Talmud (based on oral Torah), and the Code of Jewish law [“Shulchan Aruch”], arranged rabbinic (i.e. scholarly) commentary on religious law, are highly specific about individual and community conduct.
In recent times, some Jewish factions have departed from the traditional role of written and oral Torah as religious law. Within the following major groupings of Judaism there have developed variations with respect to religious belief and practice, ritual observance, lifestyles, and degree of acculturation:
Orthodox Judaism: The traditional approach that asserts the divine origin of the Torah, seen as the changeless revelation of God’s eternal will and therefore fully authoritative. Following “Halachah” [rabbinic defined law] is obligatory and thus of all the branches, Orthodox Judaism places the greatest and strictest demands on its adherents in its concern for preserving religious belief and observing strict religious codes of behavior. “Hassidim” – sometimes termed “Ultra-Orthodox Jews” – are considered to be the most pious of Orthodox Jews.
Conservative Judaism: This branch emphasizes the historic development of Judaism, thereby allowing it to make adjustments since it views the basic Jewish theological and ritual concepts as objects of continuing and evolving change. With Conservative Judaism there is also a strong emphasis on preserving “the People of Israel” and on Zionism.
Reform Judaism: This most liberal and non-authoritarian of mainstream branches regards Torah as guidance rather than as literal divine revelation, thus ethical concepts are emphasized over ritual law. Revelation is thought to be a continuing process, so Reform Judaism believes that Judaism is still evolving.
Reconstructionist Judaism: This smallest and most recent branch follows an approach to Judaism developed by Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan who emphasized human values and the centrality of Jewish peoplehood. In practice, it is very close to Conservative Judaism.
In general, however, Judaism remains relatively constant in terms of basic beliefs and practices, and most Jews see themselves as members of the Jewish community rather than only as members of a single branch.
Who is a Jew? Traditionally, Jewish religious law defines a Jew as one who is born of a Jewish mother [see note below] or one who has been properly converted to Judaism. Stringency of conversion requirements varies from branch to branch, but all mainstream branches are in agreement that mere self-declaration does not constitute conversion. The basics of the conversion process include rabbinic sponsorship and lengthy study in a formal program that culminates with approval by a rabbinic body/court [“Beis Din”]. Although most prison systems allow inmates to simply designate their own religious status, the Jewish community only recognizes those who meet the preceding criteria as being Jewish. Furthermore, Jews usually do not proselytize or encourage conversion (as Judaism does not assert that it is the only path to redemption/salvation), and it would be almost impossible for a person to meet conversion requirements while incarcerated.
Consistent with the Patriarch Abraham’s covenant with God, all Jewish males must be ritually circumcised. Religious law specifies that this be performed when the male is eight days old. In the case of a convert, ritual circumcision is done along with other required rituals following Beis Din approval.
Note: Elements of the Reform movement have recently broken with established religious law by affirming patrilineal descent (provided that the child is also raised Jewish through confirmation age), seeking converts, allowing women to practice certain liturgical duties and customs previously reserved for men (e.g. ordaining women as rabbis, women publicly reading from the Torah, and women donning items such as skull caps, prayer shawls, and phylacteries, etc.).
Mainstream Judaism does not recognize “Messianic Judaism’ (i.e. “Christian Jews”, “Jews for Jesus”, etc.) or the “Hebrew Israelite,” “Black Hebrew”, “Yahweh Ben Yahweh” sects or similar groups as being bona fide branches of Judaism.
Worship/Rites/Ceremonies
Private: A devout Jew is required to pray three times a day – morning, afternoon, and evening. Although preferably with a quorum [Minyan] of at least ten adult Jewish men in a synagogue setting (if one is available), prayers can alternately be recited individually at home or wherever else one may be located. An additional morning worship service is included on the Sabbath and Festivals, along with special prayers for specific holy days. Hebrew or Hebrew/English (or Hebrew/other local language) books containing structured liturgies are used during prayers. For all male Orthodox, Conservative, Reconstructionist and some Reform Jews the head is covered during prayer with a skull cap [yarmulke] or ordinary hat. Note: most Orthodox men will cover their heads at all times as a sign of reverence to G-d. During morning prayers, a prayer shawl [Tallit] which as fringes at the four corners (in obedience to a command found in the Torah), is worn by adult males. On non-Sabbath/Festival days, two small leather phylacteries [Tefillin] boxes are attached to the forehead and arm with leather straps by adult Orthodox males and by some adherents of other branches. The boxes contain four passages of Hebrew scripture written on parchment, Exodus 13:1 – 10 and 13:11–16, Deuteronomy 6:4–9 and 11:13-21. Although these items may be visually inspected (if handled with respect and care), only a qualified rabbi or scribe may open the sinew closed portions of the boxes. Also, whenever possible, a Jewish inmate should not be required to pray in a room/cell that contains either a toilet or symbols of any other religions.
Jews also affix a “Mezuzah”, a small parchment scroll (on which is written the opening paragraphs of the Shema which prescribes this practice) within a protective container to the upper right-hand corner of the doorpost of the front door of their home and synagogues. In the homes of more observant Jews, Mezuzahs are also placed on the doorposts of every other living room (except bathrooms). Though inmates may request a Mezuzah for their living area and/or chapel, a prison is not considered an appropriate place to post a Mezuzah.
Corporate: Although a Minyan is required to conduct a complete Jewish worship service, a lesser number of Jewish males and females can conduct corporate prayer with certain proscribed sections of the service being omitted. Those who are not properly Jewish cannot serve in a Minyan. Likewise, non-Jews should not utter some particular Jewish blessings or participate in certain Jewish liturgical functions. The Pentateuch is divided into weekly portions which are publicly read throughout the Jewish calendar year in synagogues each Sabbath from a Hebrew hand-scribed parchment scroll. Parts of these are further publicly read each Monday and Thursday morning. Related sections of the writings of the Prophets are also publicly read on the Sabbath. Specified other holy writings are publicly read on various holy days. A specially trained person is required to accomplish these readings (which can only be done from proper scrolls) and certain difficult conditions would have to be met in order for such readings to be done in a prison setting.
The Sabbath, Festivals and Other Holy Days
Observant Jews are not permitted to work or engage in various other ‘weekday’ activities on the Sabbath, which is devoted to worship and other related ceremonies. Biblically mandated festivals generally follow the same rules as the Sabbath, with the addition of particular observances and customs. Post biblical holy days are generally not as restrictive and have their own observances and customs. The celebration of these events should be part of a shared religious experience by as many Jewish inmates as possible, so corporate worship and other joint activities are encouraged. Prayer books and other religious materials needed for these events may be obtained from national and/or local Jewish chaplaincies, local synagogues and/or Jewish communities. See the diet section [below] for special dietary requirements.
Basic observances/customs for the Sabbath, Festivals and Holy Days are as follows:
The Sabbath
“Shabbas/Shabbat” is a weekly day devoted to God through religious activities and it is considered to be the most important of all Jewish holy days. The beginning of the Sabbath just prior to sundown each Friday is marked by the lighting of candles, a minimum of two per household which must be capable of burning for at least one half hour and which must be allowed to burn out by themselves. A special prayer must be recited over the candle lighting by somebody who is properly Jewish. Similarly, following Friday evening and Saturday morning worship services, a special prayer [Kiddush] is recited over wine by somebody who is properly Jewish. Note: it is permissible to use grape juice as substitute for wine, provided that the grape juice meets religious dietary (i.e. kosher) standards. It is also traditional to say a prayer over and eat special bread [Challah] before meals on the Sabbath. Note: Kosher unleavened bread [Matzah] may be substituted for Challah. The end of the Sabbath at approximately one hour past sundown each Saturday is marked with a special service [Havdallah], during which candles, wine (or grape juice) and spices are used. Note: as Jews are not permitted to work on their Sabbath and certain Festivals, it is appropriate to request that Jewish inmates work as substitutes for other inmates on non-Jewish holidays.
The following Festivals, specific dates of which are delineated in Torah, and other rabbinic mandated holidays are in sequential order as they occur through the Jewish calendar year that begins in early autumn:
Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur
The two day Jewish New Year [Rosh Hashanah] is a period of religious self examination and resolution. A ram’s horn [Shofar] is blown as a call to look into one’s soul and improve one’s ways. It is customary at the meal on the eves of Rosh Hashanah to eat apple dipped in honey and to wish others a good and sweet year. A new fruit, usually pomegranate, a sweet carrot dish [tizimmes], honey cake, round Challah bread and other foods are also traditional. Another custom is to send greeting cards to one’s relatives and friends.
The ten days beginning with Rosh Hashanah are considered to be “Days of Awe” and repentance, culminating with the Day of Atonement [Yom Kippur] which is considered to be the most solemn day in the Jewish calendar as it is believed that this is when God decrees each Jew’s fate for the remainder of the year. It is a day spent praying and fasting during which white garments are worn, a special fifth worship services is added, and it concludes with the Shofar being blown. Note: Prior to the beginning of the approximately 25-hour fast, it is traditional to eat a hearty meal that includes boiled pieces of dough filled with meat [Kreplach].
Succoth
“Succoth/Sukkot/Sukkos/” is an eight day period of rejoicing on which temporary booths covered with branches are built on porches, terraces, roofs or yards. Observant Jews eat all their meals and may sleep within these small huts. Four species of plants, the citron [Esrog], palm branch [Lulav], myrtles [Hadassim] and willow [Aravos] as enumerated in the Torah are bound together and used individually by Jews during services in synagogue and the booths. These items may be obtained for Jewish inmates from Jewish chaplaincy organizations.
Shemini Atzeret/Simchat Torah
The “Shemi Atzeret” holiday corresponds to the final day of Succoth, but is a separate and complete holy day in itself that is usually marked by a festive meal. On the following day of “Simchat Torah”, the annual reading of the entire Pentateuch and initiation of the next year’s reading is joyfully conducted, most notably by dancing with Torah scrolls in synagogue.
Chanukah
This post-biblical eight day celebration commemorates the recapture of the Holy Temple in 165 B.C.E from Assyrian- Greek oppressors. In preparation for rededication of the temple, which had been spoiled by the enemy, only one small jar of acceptable oil was found with which to rekindle the temples candelabra [Menorah]. This single day’s supply lasted for the entire days required to prepare acceptably pure olive oil to burn. In honor of this miracle, Jews light candles on each of the evening of Chanukah, beginning with one candle on the first evening, two in the second evening, etc. Each evening an additional candle is used to light the others, requiring a total of 44 candles for the entire holiday. Children are often given gifts of coins and they play a traditional game with a spinning top [Dreidel]. Because of the significance of oil in the Chanukah miracle it is also customary to eat potato pancakes fried in oil [Latkes] and/or jelly filled donuts [Sufganiyot] during the holiday.
Purim
This day commemorates the saving from massacre of the Jewish community under Persian rule in 450 B.C.E., as recalled in the Book of Esther that is publicly read on this day with much flourish. This is a particularly joyous holiday during which gifts of food and charity are given. A festival meal is required and it is traditional to eat pastries [Hamantash] shaped in the triangular form of the hat of the villain in the Purim story.
Pesach
The Passover [Pesach] Festival recalls the deliverance of the Jews from slavery in Egypt during biblical times. It lasts for eight days beginning with “Seder” ceremonies on the first two evenings during which the deliverance from Egypt is recounted from a special book [Haggadah]. Certain ceremonial items are consumed, including unleavened bread [Matzah], bitter herbs and four cups of wine or grape juice. No products containing any leavening can be consumed during this period, and many Jews also refrain from eating other foods (such as legumes and rice). The Seders are required to be particularly festive and they are often the highlight of the year for Jewish inmates. Even Jewish inmates who do not maintain a religious (i.e. kosher) diet during the rest of the year will follow the special Passover diet. It is also very important that Jewish dietary authorities be consulted regarding currently certified Passover foods.
Lag B’Omer
This holiday occurs during the 49 days “Omer” counting to mark the time between the Exodus from Egypt and the revelation of Torah. On the 33rd day [Lag B’Omer], Jews commemorate the ending of an epidemic that befell students of the great scholar Rabbi Akiva and the anniversary of the great sage Rabbi Shimon Bar Yochai.
Shavuot
The two-day Festival of Shavuot commemorates God’s gift of Torah to the Jews at Mount Sinai, at which time they formally became a nation. It is customary for adult males (i.e. those over the age of 13) to stay up all night and study the Torah. Consuming a dairy meal is also traditional.
Tisha B’Av
The 9th day of the month of Av [Tisha B’Av] is the final day of three weeks of mourning the destruction of the Holy Temple on the same date in 587 B.C.E. and 70 C.E. Though it is not a biblically mandated Festival, work is discouraged during this 25-hour fast day.
Holy Books
Torah [Pentateuch ‘bible’]; Nevi’im (21 books of Prophets); Ketuvim (13 books of Writings, including Psalms) Note: A single text containing all of the previous is called a “Tanach”, and a single text containing the Pentateuch and selections from Prophets is called a “Chumash”.
As is previously noted, prayer books containing liturgies for the Sabbath, various Festivals and Holy Days are necessary for worship. Although abridged forms of all liturgies can be found in some ‘complete’ single texts, these are not necessarily adequate for some observances.
Jewish Calendar Dates for Festivals and Holy Days
The Jewish calendar is a lunar one, as opposed to the solar or Gregorian calendar used by most of the world. Published calendars that list both Gregorian and Jewish dates (with designated Jewish religious observance dates noted) are readily available from Jewish chaplaincies, most synagogues and other Jewish community organizations. Charts of dates for several years ahead are also available for planning purposes from Jewish chaplaincies. Like the Sabbath, all Jewish Festivals and Holy Days begin at or just prior to sundown and they end at or shortly following sundown, precise times for which are usually listed on Jewish calendars.
Work Proscription Days
Jews are not permitted to work entirely or engage in various other ‘weekday’ pursuits on the weekly Sabbaths, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, the first two day and the last two days of Sukkoth (including Shemi Atzeret), Simchat Torah, Purim, the first two days and last two days of Pesach, Shavuot, and prior to midday on Tisha B’Av.
Fast Days
In addition to the full fast days (from before sunset to after the following sunset) on Yom Kippur and Tisha B’Av, the following daytime fasts (from daybreak through nightfall) occur annually:
Fast of Gedaliah on 3rd of Tishrei, Fast of 10th of Tevet on 10th of Tevet 10th, Fast of Esther on 13th of Adar, Fast of Firstborn (for first born males of Jewish families only) on 14th of Nissan, Fast of 17th of Tammuz on 17th of Tammuz, and Fast of Gedaliah on 3rd of Tishrei. As these dates are occasionally rescheduled (primarily due to conflicts with the Sabbath), consult a Jewish calendar for precise dates and times. Jewish fasts prohibit both food and water, but not prescription medications. Also, person with physical ailments that would be aggravated by fasting, males under age 13, females under age 12, and pregnant or nursing women are all excused from fasting.
Any Jewish inmate, whether or not participating in a regular Jewish religious and/or Passover diet program must be permitted to fast on religiously prescribed fast days.
Fasting Jewish inmates must be provided with extra nourishment via two fast bags for each fast, one to consume prior to the fast and the other to consume following the fast.
Jewish Dietary Restrictions
Jewish dietary law [Kashruth] is an important aspect of religious observance for all Orthodox, many Conservative, and some Reform and Reconstructionist Jews. Foods that are fit [kosher] for consumption by Jews and the manners in which they are handled are specified in the Torah and further defined through rabbinic law. These dietary laws are extremely complex, so only qualified kosher supervisory personnel should be allowed to make decisions regarding kosher diets.
Basically, kosher foods are divided into three categories; meat, milk, and “pareve” (i.e. neutral). Meat and milk products cannot be cooked, served, or eaten together. They not only require separate cooking, serving and storage utensils from non-kosher foods, but also from each other kosher category.
Milk products (e.g. liquid, milk or cream, cottage cheese, cheeses) are considered kosher if proper supervision has been approved to insure there is no contact with any meat product (e.g. meat sourced rennet used in the production of many cheeses) or milk from prohibited animals. Milk products may not be eaten with or immediately after meat products. An interval of time, usually a minimum of three hours (depending on the custom of the community) must elapse between consuming meat and then milk.
Meat of only kosher animals and fowl is permitted. Kosher animals, as specified in Torah scripture, are those that both chew their cud and have split hooves (e.g., cows, goats, sheep, etc.). Kosher fowl are primarily those which are not birds of prey (e.g., chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys) and fowl is treated as meat. All of these must be slaughtered and dressed in prescribed manners (by qualified butchers) to be considered kosher. Meat may be eaten following a short interval after eating most soft milk products (or the pallet is cleaned by consuming something that is pareve). However, aged chesses require the same time interval as applies for meat to milk.
Pareve products consist of all neutral substances such as fruits, vegetables, grains, eggs, etc. Pareve products may be cooked and eaten together with either meat or milk products.
Fish are considered pareve, but they must have both fins and scales to be kosher. Therefore, shellfish, catfish, shark, most bottom feeders, etc. are prohibited. Fish do not have to be slaughtered or dressed in a prescribed manner and generally may be consumed together with milk or meat products at the same meal.
There are several organizations that supervise the production of kosher food products. These organizations can usually be identified by their unique registered symbols that are prominently placed on labels of products that they have certified as being kosher. As the reliability of supervision varies from one organization to another, it is best to only use products that meet an Orthodox Jewish degree of approval, as this will cover the requirement of all inmates on a religious diet program. Kosher foods are easily obtained through various retail outlets and kosher purveyors. NOTE: A plain letter ‘K’ on a package is not assurance of kosher status as it usually merely means that the manufacturer itself is claiming the product to be kosher.
A qualified kosher food supervisor should always be consulted regarding any questions pertaining to certification and/or handling of foods served to Jewish inmates on a religious diet program. Contact with kosher food supervisors can usually be made through the Department of Corrections Religious Programs office or through various Jewish community organizations such as synagogues and Jewish chaplaincy programs.
| Minyan |
The dish Kinchi (or Ginchi) is a traditional vegetable side-dish of which country? | Judaism 101: Prayers and Blessings
Prayers and Blessings
For observant Jews, prayer is a continual part of every day
Prayer should be done with the proper mindset, in Hebrew, and with a group
There are traditional blessings to be recited whenever one performs a commandment, enjoys a material pleasure or experiences an unusual event
An important, biblically-commanded prayer is grace after meals
Tefilah: Prayer
The Hebrew word for prayer is tefilah. It is derived from the root Pe-Lamed-Lamed and the word l'hitpalel, meaning to judge oneself. This surprising word origin provides insight into the purpose of Jewish prayer. The most important part of any Jewish prayer, whether it be a prayer of petition, of thanksgiving, of praise of G-d , or of confession, is the introspection it provides, the moment that we spend looking inside ourselves, seeing our role in the universe and our relationship to G-d.
The Yiddish word meaning "pray" is "daven," which ultimately comes from the same Latin root as the English word "divine" and emphasizes the One to whom prayer is directed.
For an observant Jew, prayer is not simply something that happens in synagogue once a week (or even three times a day). Prayer an integral part of everyday life. In fact, one of the most important prayers in Judaism, the Birkat Ha-Mazon , is never recited in synagogue!
Observant Jews are constantly reminded of G-d'-s presence and of our relationship with G-d, because we are continually praying to Him. Our first thought in the morning, even before we get out of bed, is a prayer thanking G-d for returning our souls to us. There are prayers to be recited before enjoying any material pleasure, such as eating or wearing new clothes; prayers to recite before performing any mitzvah (commandment), such as washing hands or lighting candles; prayers to recite upon seeing anything unusual, such as a king, a rainbow, or the site of a great tragedy; prayers to recite whenever some good or bad thing happens; and prayers to recite before going to bed at night. All of these prayers are in addition to formal prayer services, which are performed three times a day every weekday and additional times on shabbat and festivals . See Jewish Liturgy .
The Need for Prayer
Many people today do not see the need for regular, formal prayer. "I pray when I feel inspired to, when it is meaningful to me," they say. This attitude overlooks two important things: the purpose of prayer, and the need for practice.
One purpose of prayer is to increase your awareness of G-d in your life and the role that G-d plays in your life. If you only pray when you feel inspired (that is, when you are already aware of G-d), then you will not increase your awareness of G-d.
In addition, if you want to do something well, you have to practice it continually, even when you don't feel like doing it. This is as true of prayer as it is of playing a sport, playing a musical instrument, or writing. The sense of humility and awe of G-d that is essential to proper prayer does not come easily to modern man, and will not simply come to you when you feel the need to pray. If you wait until inspiration strikes, you will not have the skills you need to pray effectively. Before I started praying regularly, I found that when I wanted to pray, I didn't know how. I didn't know what to say, or how to say it, or how to establish the proper frame of mind. If you pray regularly, you will learn how to express yourself in prayer.
Kavanah: The Mindset for Prayer
When you say the same prayers day after day, you might expect that the prayers would become routine and would begin to lose meaning. While this may be true for some people, this is not the intention of Jewish prayer. As I said at the beginning of this discussion, the most important part of prayer is the introspection it provides. Accordingly, the proper frame of mind is vital to prayer.
The mindset for prayer is referred to as kavanah, which is generally translated as "concentration" or "intent." The minimum level of kavanah is an awareness that one is speaking to G-d and an intention to fulfill the obligation to pray. If you do not have this minimal level of kavanah, then you are not praying; you are merely reading. In addition, it is preferred that you have a mind free from other thoughts, that you know and understand what you are praying about and that you think about the meaning of the prayer.
Liturgical melodies are often used as an aid to forming the proper mindset. Many prayers and prayer services have traditional melodies associated with them. These can increase your focus on what you are doing and block out extraneous thoughts.
I also find it useful to move while praying. Traditional Jews routinely sway back and forth during prayer, apparently a reference to Psalm 35, which says "All my limbs shall declare, 'O L-rd, who is like You?'" Such movement is not required, and many people find it distracting, but I personally find that it helps me concentrate and focus.
Hebrew: The Language for Prayer
The Talmud states that it is permissible to pray in any language that you can understand; however, traditional Judaism has always stressed the importance of praying in Hebrew. A traditional Chasidic story speaks glowingly of the prayer of an uneducated Jew who wanted to pray but did not speak Hebrew. The man began to recite the only Hebrew he knew: the alphabet . He recited it over and over again, until a rabbi asked what he was doing. The man told the rabbi, "The Holy One, Blessed is He, knows what is in my heart. I will give Him the letters, and He can put the words together."
Even the more liberal movements are increasingly recognizing the value of Hebrew prayer. My grandmother told me that fifty years ago, you never heard a word of Hebrew in a Reform synagogue . Today, the standard Reform prayer book contains many standard prayers in Hebrew, generally followed by transliteration and an English translation. I have heard several Reform rabbis read from the Torah in Hebrew, also generally followed by an English translation or explanation.
There are many good reasons for praying in Hebrew: it gives you an incentive for learning Hebrew, which might otherwise be forgotten; it provides a link to Jews all over the world; it is the language in which the covenant with G-d was formed, etc. To me, however, the most important reason to pray in Hebrew is that Hebrew is the language of Jewish thought.
Any language other than Hebrew is laden down with the connotations of that language's culture and religion. When you translate a Hebrew word, you lose subtle shadings of Jewish ideas and add ideas that are foreign to Judaism. Only in Hebrew can the pure essence of Jewish thought be preserved and properly understood. For example, the English word "commandment" connotes an order imposed upon us by a stern and punishing G-d, while the Hebrew word " mitzvah " implies an honor and privilege given to us, a responsibility that we undertook as part of the covenant we made with G-d, a good deed that we are eager to perform.
This is not to suggest that praying in Hebrew is more important than understanding what you are praying about. If you are in synagogue and you don't know Hebrew well enough, you can listen to the Hebrew while looking at the translation. If you are reciting a prayer or blessing alone, you should get a general idea of its meaning from the translation before attempting to recite it in Hebrew. But even if you do not fully understand Hebrew at this time, you should try to hear the prayer, experience the prayer, in Hebrew.
Group Prayer
Most of our prayers are expressed in the first person plural, "us" instead of "me," and are recited on behalf of all of the Jewish people . This form of prayer emphasizes our responsibility for one another and our interlinked fates.
In Judaism, prayer is largely a group activity rather than an individual activity. Although it is permissible to pray alone and it fulfills the obligation to pray, you should generally make every effort to pray with a group, short of violating a commandment to do so.
A complete formal prayer service cannot be conducted without a quorum of at least 10 adult Jewish men; that is, at least 10 people who are obligated to fulfill the commandment to recite the prayers. This prayer quorum is referred to as a minyan (from a Hebrew root meaning to count or to number). Certain prayers and religious activities cannot be performed without a minyan. This need for a minyan has often helped to keep the Jewish community together in isolated areas.
Berakhot: Blessings
A berakhah (blessing) is a special kind of prayer that is very common in Judaism. Berakhot are recited both as part of the synagogue services and as a response or prerequisite to a wide variety of daily occurrences. Berakhot are easy to recognize: they all start with the word barukh (blessed or praised).
The words barukh and berakhah are both derived from the Hebrew root Beit-Reish-Kaf, meaning "knee," and refer to the practice of showing respect by bending the knee and bowing. See animation at right. There are several places in Jewish liturgy where this gesture is performed, most of them at a time when a berakhah is being recited.
According to Jewish tradition, a person should recite 100 berakhot each day! This is not as difficult as it sounds. Repeating the Shemoneh Esrei three times a day (as all observant Jews do) covers 57 berakhot all by itself, and there are dozens of everyday occurrences that require berakhot.
Who Blesses Whom?
Many English-speaking people find the idea of berakhot very confusing. To them, the word "blessing" seems to imply that the person saying the blessing is conferring some benefit on the person he is speaking to. For example, in Catholic tradition, a person making a confession begins by asking the priest to bless him. Yet in a berakhah, the person saying the blessing is speaking to G-d . How can the creation confer a benefit upon the Creator?
This confusion stems largely from difficulties in the translation. The Hebrew word "barukh" is not a verb describing what we do to G-d; it is an adjective describing G-d as the source of all blessings. When we recite a berakhah, we are not blessing G-d; we are expressing wonder at how blessed G-d is.
Content of a Berakhah
There are basically three types of berakhot: ones recited before enjoying a material pleasure (birkhot ha-na'ah), ones recited before performing a mitzvah (commandment) (birkhot ha-mitzvot) and ones recited at special times and events (birkhot hoda'ah).
Berakhot recited before enjoying a material pleasure, such as eating, drinking or wearing new clothes, acknowledge G-d as the creator of the thing that we are about to use. The berakhah for bread praises G-d as the one "who brings forth bread from the earth." The berakhah for wearing new clothing praises G-d as the one "who clothes the naked." By reciting these berakhot, we recognize that G-d is the Creator of all things, and that we have no right to use things without first asking his permission. The berakhah essentially asks permission to use the thing.
Berakhot recited before performing a mitzvah (commandment), such as washing hands or lighting candles, praise G-d as the one "who sanctified us with his commandments and commanded us..." to do whatever it is we are about to do. Reciting such a blessing is an essential element of the performance of a mitzvah. In Jewish tradition, a person who performs a mitzvah with a sense of obligation is considered more meritorious than a person who performs the same mitzvah because he feels like it. Recitation of the berakhah focuses our attention on the fact that we are performing a religious duty with a sense of obligation. It is worth noting that we recite such berakhot over both biblical commandments and rabbinical commandments. In the latter case, the berakhah can be understood as "who sanctified us with his commandments and commanded us to obey the rabbis, who commanded us to..." do whatever it is we are about to do. See Halakhah: Jewish Law for an explanation of the distinction between biblical and rabbinical commandments.
Berakhot recited at special times and events, such as when seeing a rainbow or a king or hearing good or bad news, acknowledge G-d as the ultimate source of all good and evil in the universe. It is important to note that such berakhot are recited for both good things and things that appear to us to be bad. When we see or hear something bad, we praise G-d as "the true Judge," underscoring the fact that things that appear to be bad happen for a reason that is ultimately just, even if we in our limited understanding cannot always see the reason.
Form of a Berakhah
Many of the berakhot that we recite today were composed by Ezra and the Men of the Great Assembly nearly 2500 years ago, and they continue to be recited in the same form.
All berakhot include the phrase "Barukh atah Ha-shem , Elokaynu , melekh ha-olam," Blessed art thou L-rd , our G-d , King of the Universe. This is sometimes referred to as shem u'malkut (the name and the sovereignty), the affirmation of G-d as king.
The use of the word "thou" is worth discussing: in modern English, many people think of the word "thou" as being formal and respectful, but in fact the opposite is true. Thou (and the corresponding Hebrew atah) is the informal, familiar second person pronoun, used for friends and relatives. This word expresses our close and intimate relationship with G-d.
Immediately after this phrase, the berakhah abruptly shifts into the third person; for example, in the birkhot ha-mitzvot, the first two phrases are blessed art thou, L-rd our G-d, King of the Universe, who sanctifies us with his commandments and commands us... This grammatical faux pas is intentional. The use of the third person pronoun ("who") while speaking to a person in Hebrew is a way of expressing extreme respect and deference. This shift in perspective is a deliberately jarring way of expressing the fact that G-d is simultaneously close to us and yet far above us, intimately related to us and yet transcendent. This paradox is at the heart of the Jewish relationship with G-d.
Birkat Ha-Mazon: Grace After Meals
One of the most important prayers in Judaism, one of the very few that the Bible commands us to recite, is never recited during synagogue services . That prayer is birkat ha-mazon, grace after meals.
In Deuteronomy 8:10, we are commanded that when we eat and are satisfied, we must bless the L-rd , our G-d . This commandment is fulfilled by reciting the birkat ha-mazon (blessing of the food) after each meal. Reciting birkat ha-mazon is commonly referred to as bentsching, from the Yiddish word meaning "to bless." Although the word "bentsch" can refer to the recitation of any berakhah , it is almost always used to refer to reciting birkat ha-mazon.
Grace after meals is recited in addition to the various berakhot over food recited before meals.
Birkat ha-mazon actually consists of four blessings, three of which were composed around the time of Ezra and the Great Assembly and a fourth which was added after the destruction of the Temple. These blessings are:
Birkat Hazan (the blessing for providing food), which thanks G-d for giving food to the world,
Birkat Ha-Aretz (the blessing for the land), which thanks G-d for bringing us forth from the land of Egypt, for making His covenant with us, and for giving us the land of Israel as an inheritance,
Birkat Yerushalayim (the blessing for Jerusalem), which prays for the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the coming of the mashiach ; and
Birkat Ha-Tov v'Ha-Maytiv (the blessing for being good and doing good), was added after the destruction of the Temple, although it existed before that time. It emphasizes the goodness of G-d's work, that G-d is good and does good.
In addition to these four blessings, the full birkat ha-mazon incorporates some psalms and additional blessings for various special occasions (holidays, guests, etc.)
If you would like to hear the Birkat Ha-Mazon sung, check out the MP3 recording by Rabbi Mark Zimmerman on SiddurAudio.com . The recording is designed for educational purposes, and is chanted at a very moderate pace with very clear enunciation. Siddur Audio and its sister site, Haftorah Audio are great sources for learning the melodies of Jewish liturgy. (Rabbi Zimmerman is not associated with this website).
Finding a Minyan (Prayer Group)
As I said above , Jewish prayer is ordinarily a group activity done with a quorum of 10 people called a minyan. If you are interested in finding an Orthodox minyan in your area to pray with, check out Go Daven , a searchable worldwide database of Orthodox minyans. Just tell them where you want to daven (pray), and they'll find you an Orthodox minyan, complete with service times and even a link to a map!
If you would prefer a Conservative synagogue, try the USCJ's Find a Kehilla page. If you prefer Reform , try the URJ's Directory of Congregations . For Reconstructionist synagogues, try the JRF's directory of Reconstructionist Congregations and Havurot .
© Copyright 5757-5772 (1996-2012), Tracey R Rich
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What is the title of the first-person shooter science fiction video game, released by id Software in 1993? | Doom HD Texture Pack - YouRepeat
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Doom
Doom is a 1993 science fiction horror-themed first-person shooter video game by id Software. It is considered one of the most significant and influential titles in the video game industry, for having ushered in the popularity of the first-person shooter genre. The original game is divided into three nine-level episodes and distributed via shareware and mail order. The Ultimate Doom, an updated release of the original game featuring a fourth episode, was released in 1995 and sold at retail. In Doom, players assume the role of a space marine, who became popularly known as "Doomguy", fighting their way through hordes of invading demons from Hell. With one third of the game, nine levels, distributed as shareware, Doom was played by an estimated 10 million people within two years of its release, popularizing the mode of gameplay and spawning a gaming subculture. In addition to popularizing the FPS genre, it pioneered immersive 3D graphics, networked multiplayer gaming, and support for customized additions and modifications via packaged files in a data archive known as "WADs". As a sign of its effect on the industry, first-person shooter games from the genre's boom in the 1990s, helped in no less part by the game's release, became known simply as "Doom clones". Its graphic violence, as well as its satanic imagery, made it the subject of controversy.
Developer: id Software
Genre: Action game , Science Fiction
Doom II: Hell on Earth
Doom II: Hell on Earth is an award winning first-person shooter video game and the second title of id Software's Doom franchise. It was originally released for MS-DOS computers in 1994 and Macintosh computers in 1995. The Macintosh version was developed in Austin, Texas by developers such as Brett Butler. Unlike Doom which was initially only available through shareware and mail order, Doom II was a commercial release sold in stores. Master Levels for Doom II, an expansion pack that includes 21 new levels, was released on December 26, 1995 by id Software. Due to its popularity and success, Doom II was later released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002, the Tapwave Zodiac in 2004, and on Xbox Live Arcade in 2010. The release of the original Doom source code has facilitated ports to many other platforms, including the Apple iPod, and several types of cellphones. On August 13, during the QuakeCon 2009 media conference, it was announced that Doom II would be ported to Xbox Live Arcade, and was released in May the following year.
Developer: id Software
| Doom |
Who won the 1994 Formula One Grand Prix World Championships? | Doom - The Doom Wiki at DoomWiki.org - Doom, Heretic, Hexen, Strife, and more
Doom title screen
Doom (officially cased DOOM) is the first release of the Doom series, and one of the games that consolidated the first-person shooter genre. With a science fiction and horror style, it gives the players the role of marines who find themselves in the focal point of an invasion from hell. The game introduced deathmatch and cooperative play in the explicit sense, and helped further the practice of allowing and encouraging fan-made modifications of commercial video games. It was first released on December 10, 1993 , when a shareware copy was uploaded to an FTP server at the University of Wisconsin .
Contents
Main article: Development of Doom
The development of Doom began in late 1992, with John Carmack writing the new game engine while the rest of id Software was finishing Spear of Destiny (the prequel to Wolfenstein 3D ). When the full design phase began in late 1992, the main thematic influences were the movies Aliens and Evil Dead II , and the Dungeons & Dragons campaign the developers had been playing, where the forces of hell invaded the material world. The title of the game was chosen by John Carmack:
There is a scene in " The Color of Money " where Tom Cruse [sic] shows up at a pool hall with a custom pool cue in a case. "What do you have in there?" asks someone. "Doom." replied Cruse with a cocky grin. That, and the resulting carnage, was how I viewed us springing the game on the industry.
Designer Tom Hall wrote an elaborate specifications document called the Doom Bible , according to which the game would feature a detailed storyline, multiple player characters, and a number of interactive features. However, many of his ideas were discarded during development in favor of a simpler design primarily advocated by John Carmack, resulting in Hall's eventually being forced to resign from id Software. Most of the final level designs are those of John Romero and Sandy Petersen . The graphics, by Adrian Carmack , Kevin Cloud , and Gregor Punchatz , were created in various ways: although much was drawn or painted, several of the monsters were digitized from sculptures in clay or latex, and some of the weapons are modeled on toy guns from Toys "Я" Us . A heavy metal / ambient soundtrack was supplied by Bobby Prince .
Doom's primary distinguishing characteristic at the time of its release was its "3-D" graphics, then unparalleled by other real-time-rendered games running on consumer-level hardware. Several new features improved on those of Wolfenstein 3D:
Altitude differences (all floors/ceilings in Wolfenstein 3D are at the same height), but not sloped surfaces.
Non-orthogonal walls (all walls in Wolfenstein 3D run along a rectangular grid). However, all walls in Doom are still perpendicular to the floor and/or ceiling.
Full texture mapping of all surfaces.
Varying light levels (all areas in Wolfenstein 3D have identical lighting). This not only made each map's structure more visually authentic, but contributed to its atmosphere and gameplay by using darkness to frighten or confuse the player.
A less static architecture than in Wolfenstein 3D: platforms can move up or down, floors can be lifted sequentially to form staircases, and bridges can rise or lower.
A stereo sound system, which makes it possible to roughly tell the direction and distance of a sound's origin. The player is kept on guard by the grunting and snarling of monsters , and receives occasional clues to the locations of secret areas by hearing hidden doors open remotely.
Id's programmers had to make use of several tricks for these features to run smoothly on 1993-vintage personal computers . Most significantly, Doom levels are not truly three-dimensional : they are internally represented on a two-dimensional plane, with height differences added separately (a similar trick is still used by many games to create huge outdoor environments). Doom also has a low-detail mode to improve frame rates on slower PCs, such as those with an 80386 processor.
Story[ edit ]
Doom has a simple plot; its background is given in the instruction manual , and the in-game story advances mainly through short messages displayed between the game's episodes .
The player takes the role of a marine (unnamed to further represent the person playing), "one of Earth's toughest, hardened in combat and trained for action", who has been incarcerated on Mars after assaulting a senior officer when ordered to fire upon civilians. There, he works alongside the Union Aerospace Corporation (UAC), a multi-planetary conglomerate and military contractor performing secret experiments on interdimensional travel. Recently, the teleportation has shown signs of anomalies and instability, but the research continues nonetheless.
Suddenly, something goes wrong and creatures from hell swarm out of the teleportation gates on Deimos and Phobos . A defensive response from base security fails to halt the invasion, and the bases are quickly overrun by monsters ; all personnel are killed or turned into zombies .
A military detachment from Mars travels to Phobos to investigate the incident. The player is tasked with securing the perimeter, as the assault team and their heavy weapons are brought inside. Radio contact soon ceases and the player realizes that he is the only survivor. Being unable to pilot the shuttle off of Phobos by himself, the only way to escape is to go inside and fight through the complexes of the moon base.
Gameplay[ edit ]
Doom is a first-person shooter with a background setting that mixes science fiction and horror (of the weird menace style), presented in the form of three episodes, each taking place in a separate general location and played separately. The primary objective of each level is simply to locate the exit room that leads to the next area (invitingly labeled with a red EXIT sign), while surviving all hazards along the way. Among the obstacles are monsters, pits of radioactive waste , ceilings that descend to crush the player, and locked doors for which a key or remote switch need to be located. The levels are sometimes labyrinthine (the automap is a crucial aid in navigating them), and feature plenty of hidden rooms that hold powerups as a reward for players who explore thoroughly. A tally screen at the end of each level (except the last of each episode, which describes part of the plot) helps players aiming for additional objectives, such as clearing the levels of monsters or finding secret areas.
Doom's weapon arsenal was highly distinctive in 1993 and eventually became prototypical for first-person shooters. The player starts out armed only with a pistol , and brass-knuckled fists in case his ammunition runs out, but larger weapons can be picked up: a chainsaw , a shotgun , a chaingun , a rocket launcher , a plasma gun , and the immensely powerful BFG9000 . There is a wide array of additional powerups, such as a backpack that increases the player's ammunition-carrying capacity, armor , medical supplies to heal injuries, and strange alien artifacts which can turn the player invisible or boost his health beyond its normal maximum.
The enemy monsters are Doom's central gameplay element. There are 10 types of monster, including possessed humans as well as demons of different strength, ranging from weaker but ubiquitous imps and red, floating cacodemons to the bosses , which tend to survive multiple strikes even from the player's strongest weapons. The monsters generally exhibit very simple AI , and thus most cases must outnumber the player to triumph (although great numbers can sometimes prove counterproductive due to monster infighting ).
Aside from the single-player game mode, Doom features two multiplayer modes usable over a network : co-operative mode, in which two to four players team up against the legions of hell, and deathmatch mode, in which the same number of players fight each other.
Release and sales [ edit ]
The first-episode shareware format of the initial release offered a substantial and freely playable taste of the game, which could be distributed with ease on floppy disks , over the Internet, and in CD-ROM packages, thus encouraging players and retailers to spread Doom as widely as possible. By 1995 the shareware version was estimated to have been installed on more than 10 million computers. The full or registered version of Doom, containing all three episodes, was only available by mail order; although most users did not purchase the registered version, over one million copies have been sold, and this popularity helped the sales of later games in the Doom series, which were not released as shareware. The original Doom did eventually receive a retail release as well, when it was offered in an expanded version as The Ultimate Doom (adding a fourth episode).
In addition to the thrilling nature of the single-player game, the deathmatch mode was an important factor in the game's popularity. Doom was not the first first-person perspective shooting game with a face to face competitive mode ( MIDI Maze , on the Atari ST , had one in 1987), but it introduced the term deathmatch to games and was the first to use Ethernet connections, and the combination of violence and gore with fighting friends made deathmatching in Doom particularly attractive. Due to its widespread distribution, Doom became the game that popularize the mode of play to a large audience.
Doom was also widely praised by the gaming press. In 1994, it was named Game of the Year by both PC Gamer and Computer Gaming World . It received the Award for Technical Excellence from PC Magazine , and the Best Action Adventure Game award from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences .
Extensibility[ edit ]
An important feature of the Doom engine is a modular approach that allows game content to be replaced by custom patch files , known as PWADs . Wolfenstein 3D had not been designed this way, but fans had nevertheless figured out how to create their own levels for it, and id Software decided to push this phenomenon further. The first level editors appeared in early 1994, followed over the next few years by additional tools which allow most aspects of the game to be edited. Although the majority of PWADs contain one or several custom levels of essentially the same style as the original game, others implement new monsters and other resources, and heavily alter the gameplay; various popular movies, television series, and other brands from popular culture have been turned into Doom maps by fans (although this has led to copyright disputes ), including Aliens , Star Wars , The X-Files , The Simpsons , and Batman . In 1994 and 1995, PWADs were primarily available online over bulletin board systems or sold in collections on compact discs (sometimes bundled with editing guidebooks) in computer shops; FTP servers later became the primary distribution method. Tens of thousands of PWADs (at least) have been created in total; the idgames FTP archive at gamers.org alone contains over 17,500 files.
The idea of making Doom easily modifiable was primarily backed by John Carmack, a well-known supporter of copyleft and the hacker ideal of people sharing and building upon each other's work, and by John Romero, who had hacked games in his youth and wanted to allow other gamers to do the same. Not everybody in the id Software crew was happy with this development; some, including Jay Wilbur and Kevin Cloud, objected due to legal concerns and in the belief that it would not be of any benefit to the company's business.
A bloody scene in E4M8: Unto the Cruel
In a press release dated January 1, 1993, id Software wrote that they expected Doom to be "the number one cause of decreased productivity in businesses around the world". This prediction came true at least in part: Doom became a major inconvenience at workplaces, occupying the time of employees and clogging computer networks with traffic caused by deathmatches. Intel and Carnegie Mellon University , among many other organizations , reportedly formed policies specifically disallowing Doom-playing during work hours.
Doom was (and remains) a controversial product due to its high levels of violence, gore, and Satanic imagery. It has been repeatedly criticized by Christian organizations for its diabolic undertones, and prompted fears that virtual reality technology, then in its earliest forms, could be used to simulate extremely realistic killing; in 1994, this led to unsuccessful attempts by Washington state senator Phil Talmadge to introduce compulsory licensing of VR use. The game again made national headlines in 1999, when it was linked to the Columbine High School Massacre .
Legal issues in Germany[ edit ]
The game was put on the Index of the Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Schriften (Medien) on 31 May 1994 (date of official announcement). This means that the game could not be advertised, sold, rented, or otherwise given to minors. This applied to all versions of the game, except for the Game Boy Advance port.
On the 4th of August 2011 the Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien deleted Doom from the Index on request by ZeniMax Media . [1]
Legacy[ edit ]
Doom is widely regarded as one of the most important titles in gaming history. In the wake of its immense popularity, dozens of new first-person shooter titles appeared, which were more often referred to as "Doom clones" than "first-person shooters". Id Software went on to release a sequel, Doom II , followed by an expanded edition for retail stores ( The Ultimate Doom ), and additional levels by experienced WAD designers from the fan community ( Master Levels for Doom II and the standalone Final Doom ). Doom itself was eventually ported to several dozen other operating systems and consoles .
Doom has also appeared in several other media, including a comic book , four novels , and a film released in October 2005. The game's development and impact on popular culture is the subject of the book Masters of Doom by David Kushner .
Devoted players have spent years creating speedruns , competing for the quickest completion times and sharing knowledge about routes through the levels and how to exploit engine bugs as shortcuts. Achievements include the completion of both Doom and Doom II on the "Ultra-Violence" difficulty setting in less than 30 minutes each. In addition, a few players have also managed to complete Doom II in a single run on the "Nightmare!" difficulty setting (level designer John Romero has characterized the idea of such a run with the statement "it's just gotta be impossible!" ). Movies of most of these runs are available from the Compet-n database.
Although the popularity of the Doom games decreased following the publication of Quake in 1996, the series has retained a strong fan base that continues playing competitively and creating new PWADs (the idgames archive still receives a number of new PWADs each week), and Doom-related news is still tracked at various community websites . Interest in Doom was renewed in 1997, when the source code for the engine was released; fans then began porting the game to various operating systems, even to previously unsupported platforms such as the Sega Dreamcast and the iPod , and adding new features which allow PWADs to alter the gameplay more radically (such as OpenGL rendering and scripting ). There are well over 50 distinct source ports, some of which remain under active development.
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Who was Bill Clinton’s running mate in the 1992 US Presidential election? | Bill Clinton 1992 Presidential Election
Home Presidents Articles Bill Clinton 1992 Presidential Election
Bill Clinton 1992 Presidential Election
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1992 Presidential Election
The 1992 Presidential Election was successfully won by Bill Clinton, an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from (1993-2001). Previously, served as Governor of Arkansas (1979-1981) and (1983-1992), and as the state’s Attorney General from 1977 to 1979.
Bill is the husband of 2016 presidential candidate Hillary Clinton . A member of the Democratic Party, ideologically Clinton was a “ New Democrat ”, and many of his policies reflected a centrist Third Way philosophy of governance.
Other 992 Presidential Election Candidates
The candidates of 1992 were considered as one of the weakest line ups the democratic party had seen in a while, due to President George H. W. Bush high approval ratings. Front runners such as Bill Bradley, Jesse Jackson, Dick Gephardt, Al Gore, and Jay Rockefeller all bowed out of the presidential race early. With less competition, Bill Clinton quickly became the leading candidate on the rise. C
linton started out by winning an informal poll declaring his popularity in Florida. The Iowa Caucus is usually the launching pad for successful candidates, but Clinton’s main competitor was a Senator from Iowa. So he strategically turned his sites towards New Hampshire.
Bill Clinton Accepts Presidential Nomination
American Presidency Project : Address Accepting Democratic National Convention New York July 16, 1992.
“One sentence in the Platform we built says it all. The most important family policy, urban policy, labor policy, minority policy, and foreign policy America can have is an expanding entrepreneurial economy of high-wage, high-skilled jobs.”
……I am a product of that middle class, and when I am President, you will be forgotten no more.
Tonight 10 million of our fellow Americans are out of work, tens of millions more work harder for lower pay. The incumbent President says that unemployment always goes up a little before a recovery begins, but unemployment only has to go up by one more person before a real recovery can begin. And Mr. President, you are that man.
This election is about putting power back in your hands and putting government back on your side. It’s about putting people first.
Clinton Campaign Accusations
By January 1992, he was the front runner, but two damaging stories almost derailed his presidential aspirations. Reports in several media outlets accused Bill of having an affair with night club singer Gennifer Flowers. Bill adamantly denied this claim.
What caused him an even greater downfall was the notion that he had dodged the draft in order to avoid military service during the Vietnam War. With both these scandals in the public, he lost over 20 points in less than a week. Bill was able to overcome and finished second behind Senator Tsongas. After which he was accused of another scandal. He was then accused of smoking marijuana while attending College.
Despite the controversy he took the lead in the primary season including a well-timed victory in Georgia. Clinton then won most of the rest of the primaries facing eliminated of diminished competition. Clinton’s advisors felt he won the nomination when Jerry Brown upset Tsongas in the Maryland primary.
Brown became his main competitor when he upset Clinton in the Connecticut primary. His journey through the primaries was relatively easy after the March 3, 1992 win in Georgia. Eventually leading him to the next step in becoming the next president of the United States.
One of Clinton’s most beneficial strategies was his lock down on the southern states. Democrats struggled to win the republican dominated south throughout the years. Clinton being from Arkansas and choosing Tennessee native Al Gore as his running mate proved to be a dynamite road block for the republican campaign. Also, the Clinton campaign hit a stroke of luck as George H. W. Bush’s rates fell below 50 percent. Clinton’s charisma combined with an impressive campaign staff helped him to achieve victory.
After winning much popularity within the National primaries, and experiencing a sweeping victory across the nation, the Boy Governor moved on to the National Democratic Convention.
It was on 3 October 1991, in front of the Old State House in Little Rock, that Clinton officially declared that he was a candidate for president. ‘I refuse to be part of a generation,’ he stated in explaining the rationale behind his presidential bid, ‘that celebrates the death of communism abroad with the loss of the American Dream at home.’
During that autumn, Clinton assembled an effective campaign team of predominantly young operatives who saw in the Arkansas governor a candidate capable of loosening the longstanding Republican grip on the presidency.
Bill Clinton’s 1992 campaign for President of the United States was a critical turning point for the Democratic Party, which had controlled the White House for only four of the previous twenty-four years. Initially viewed as an unlikely prospect to win his party’s nomination, Clinton did so and went on to defeat incumbent President George H. W. Bush, who had been viewed as politically invincible just a year earlier.
Two factors cast a shadow over Clinton’s sequence of primary successes in the spring of 1992. The first was the emergence of a strong third-party candidate in the form of Texan Ross Perot. With his emphasis on the scale of the national debt, Perot’s incipient campaign had focus.
His quirky personality, quotable one-liners, palpable dismay at the president’s performance, and background in business rather than politics gave him an intriguing outsider status at a time when many Americans felt cynical about conventional politics and politicians.
Polls at the end of April put him ahead of Bush, with Clinton in third place. Exit polls at the end of the primary season in June indicated that a good many Democrats planned to vote for Perot in November.
The second factor to take the gloss off Clinton’s primary victories was the continuing concern over his character. There was a distinct sense that the Democrats were nominating a man whose personal shortcomings made him unelectable.
Exit polls taken at the time of the New York primary, for instance, showed that only 49 per cent of voters thought he had the integrity to be president.
1992 Presidential Results
Clinton only got 6% more popular vote than Bush in the 1992 Presidential Election. But the states he got were much higher in electoral votes. ex. California, New York, Pennsylvania (and even though he did not get Texas or Florida he had enough other states with medium electoral votes that he had a hundred over electoral votes than was necessary to win).
Clinton also won rural voters in the south and mid-west, carrying states such as Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, Louisiana, Georgia, and Iowa (57 Electoral Votes).
And so the Boy Governor became President of the United States of America, and was re-elected for a second term in 1996.
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In August 1990, which late American composer and conductor had his final concert at Tanglewood in Massachusetts, with the Boston Symphony Orchestra? | THE 1992 ELECTIONS - PRESIDENT -- THE OVERVIEW - CLINTON CAPTURES PRESIDENCY WITH HUGE ELECTORAL MARGIN - WINS A DEMOCRATIC CONGRESS - NYTimes.com
THE 1992 ELECTIONS: PRESIDENT -- THE OVERVIEW
THE 1992 ELECTIONS: PRESIDENT -- THE OVERVIEW; CLINTON CAPTURES PRESIDENCY WITH HUGE ELECTORAL MARGIN; WINS A DEMOCRATIC CONGRESS
By ROBIN TONER
Published: November 4, 1992
Gov. Bill Clinton of Arkansas was elected the 42d President of the United States yesterday, breaking a 12-year Republican hold on the White House.
Mr. Clinton shattered the Republicans' political base with a promise of change to an electorate clearly discontented with President Bush.
Ross Perot, the Texas billionaire who roiled this race throughout, finished third, drawing roughly equally from both major party candidates, according to Voter Research & Surveys, the television polling consortium. His share of the popular vote had the potential to exceed any third-party candidate's in more than half a century. Faithful Are Won Back
The President-elect, capping an astonishing political comeback for the Democrats over the last 18 months, ran strongly in all regions of the country and among many groups that were key to the Republicans' dominance of the 1980's: Catholics, suburbanites, independents, moderates and the Democrats who crossed party lines in the 1980's to vote for Ronald Reagan and Mr. Bush.
The Governor from Arkansas won such big, closely contested states as Michigan, Missouri, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Illinois. As polls closed across the nation, networks announced projected winners based on voter surveys. It was Ohio that put him over the top shortly before 11 P.M., followed closely by California. Based on those projections, Mr. Bush prevailed in his adopted state of Texas and other pockets of Republican states around the country.
With 83 percent of the nation's precincts reporting by 3 A.M. today, Mr. Clinton had 43 percent to 38 percent for Mr. Bush and 18 percent for Mr. Perot.
A state-by-state breakdown of those returns gave the President-elect more than 345 electoral votes, a commanding victory in the Electoral College, which requires 270 for election. His victory also provided coattails for Democrats running for Congress in the face of tough Republican challenges: Democrats, who control both chambers, appeared likely to gain in the Senate and suffer manageable losses in the House. 'With High Hopes'
In a victory speech to a joyous crowd in Little Rock, Mr. Clinton declared, "On this day, with high hopes and brave hearts, in massive numbers, the American people have voted to make a new beginning."
He described the election as a "clarion call" to deal with a host of domestic problems too long ignored and to "bring our nation together." He paid tribute to the voters he had met along the campaign trail, saying they had simply demanded that "we want our future back." The President-elect, who looked euphoric and seemed to savor every cheer, added, "I intend to give it to you."
He also hailed his longtime rival, Mr. Bush, for "his lifetime of public service" and the "grace with which he conceded this election."
"Not very long ago I received a telephone call from President Bush," the President-elect said. "It was a generous and forthcoming telephone call, of real congratulations and an offer to work with me in keeping our democracy running in an effective and important transition."
The crowd hailed the victor repeatedly with cries of "We love you, Bill," especially when he paid tribute to his home state, the object of Republican ridicule throughout the campaign.
Mr. Clinton credited much of his success to his wife, Hillary, who was also a target of Republican attacks. The Clintons and their daughter, Chelsea, were joined by Vice President-elect Al Gore and his family, creating once again the tableau of youth and generational change that they projected throughout the campaign. Mr. Gore and Mr. Clinton embraced in jubilant bear hug. Bush Gives Concession
Mr. Bush, looking weary but composed, made his concession speech shortly after 11 P.M. in Houston. "The people have spoken and we respect the majesty of the Democratic system," he said. Mr. Bush congratulated Mr. Clinton, but did not mention Mr. Perot, and promised that his own Administration would "work closely with his team to insure the smooth transition of power."
Vice President Dan Quayle made his concession speech in Indianapolis a few minutes later and like Mr. Bush congratulated Mr. Clinton and hushed the boos. "We must all pull together now. If he runs the country as well as he ran the campaign, we'll be all right."
Congressional leaders said they welcomed the new era beyond divided government. "We welcome the challenge and the responsibility," said Senator George Mitchell of Maine, the majority leader.
There were other signs of change: California elected two women to the Senate, in Representative Barbara Boxer and the former San Francisco Mayor Dianne Feinstein. Illinois also elected a woman, Carol Moseley Braun, to the Senate, as did Washington State, which chose Patty Murray..
Mr. Perot made his concession speech in remarkably good spirits and seemed intent on signaling that he was not leaving the political stage. "This is not the time to get discouraged," he said. "This is the time to redouble our efforts, to make sure we live in alabaster cities undimmed by human tears."
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In April 1993, the World Health Organisation declared which disease ‘A global health emergency’? | WHO Calls Tuberculosis a Global Emergency - latimes
WHO Calls Tuberculosis a Global Emergency
April 24, 1993 |Reuters
LONDON — The World Health Organization on Friday declared tuberculosis a global emergency, saying the disease will claim more than 30 million lives in the next decade unless action is taken now.
"Tuberculosis today is humanity's greatest killer, and it is out of control in many parts of the world," said Arati Kochi, manager of WHO's tuberculosis program, at a news conference announcing a plan to combat what has been dubbed the "forgotten epidemic."
"The disease, preventable and treatable, has been grossly neglected and no country is immune to it."
Once believed to be under control, TB, as tuberculosis is often called, is spreading worldwide because of the emergence of drug-resistant strains, changing research priorities and a link between TB and AIDS.
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| Tuberculosis |
Who won the World Chess Championship in December 1990, holding his title? | Global TB targets | DOTS & DOTS-Plus, failed Global Plans
Global TB Control – DOTS & DOTS-Plus, failed Global Plans
DOTS
DOTS sign
In 1994 the World Health Organisation (WHO) announced a new strategy, called DOTS, for the worldwide control of TB. DOTS was the Directly Observed Treatment Short course strategy. All countries with a TB problem were to provide standardized short course drug treatment to, at least, all sputum smear positive TB patients. Until 2006 DOTS was to be the internationally recommended approach to global TB control.
DOTS had five components which were initially as follows.1“What is DOTS? WHO Tuberculosis Factsheet”, WHO, 2006 What is dots?
Sustained political and financial commitment.
Diagnosis of TB by quality ensured sputum smear microscopy.
Standardized short course anti TB treatment (SCC) given under direct and supportive observation (DOTS).
A regular uninterrupted supply of high quality anti TB drugs.
Standardized recording and reporting.
Upside down DOTS sign
In 1996 the WHO claimed that “where the health system is working even moderately well, the DOTS strategy is extraordinarily effective achieving cure rates over 90%.” But where in sub-Saharan Africa were there TB programs reliably implementing all five parts of DOTS? There were certainly some places where DOTS was remarkably effective. For example, with the control of TB in China where the country achieved cure rates of more than 85% although case detection barely climbed above 50%.2C McMillen, “Discovering Tuberculosis”, Yale University Press, 2015
DOTS was not however the “magic bullet” it was thought to be, and a universal solution had not been found. However, the World Bank made support of TB programs contingent on the adoption of DOTS, and the “gospel” of DOTS spread far and wide. Five years after its emergence 120 countries had at least nominally adopted DOTS.
When it was first introduced DOTS did not take any account of HIV. In a 2006 interview Arata Kochi the former director of TB programs at the WHO said:
One thing that I didn’t do well is develop an additional strategy in addition to DOTS for HIV/TB . That is my regret.
Multi drug resistant TB
DOTS also did not take any account of drug resistant TB . Where resistance already exists to first line drugs such as isoniazid and rifampin, the DOTS program reverts to a short course of pyrazinamide and ethambutol. These are at doses insufficient to treat active TB, but in doses large enough to boost resistance. Further, if a patient’s TB was not cured, DOTS also called for retreatment with rifampin and isoniazid. So in these circumstances the DOTS programme could actually cause a worsening of the MDR TB situation.
DOTS-Plus
In 1999 WHO and their partners launched DOTS-Plus. DOT-Plus was to be developed as a comprehensive initiative that was to build upon the five elements of DOTS. However it would take into account specific issues such as the use of second line anti TB drugs, that needed to be used in resource limited settings where there were significant levels of MDR TB .
This new approach of DOTS Plus needed rapid assessment of its feasibility and effectiveness under programme conditions. So in 2000 the first DOTS-Plus pilot projects were launched and the Stop TB Working Group on DOTS-Plus for MDR-TB was also set up. One of the difficulties with the implementation of some of the DOTS-Plus pilot projects, was the need for quality second line anti TB drugs. These were normally very expensive and difficult to obtain. WHO and their partners made an arrangement with the pharmaceutical industry for preferential prices for the second line drugs used for the pilot projects.
A ward for patients being treated under DOTS Plus
However, it was considered important that these beneficial prices were only used in projects that were organised according to certain standards. So the Green Light Committee was established to review project applications.They had to decide whether the applications were sufficiently in accordance with the guidelines that had been established for the pilot projects.3“DOTS-Plus & the Green Light Committee”, www.who.int/tb/publications/2000/en/index.html
If programs were approved the drug purchasing took place through the Global Drug Facility.4“What is the GDF?”, www.stoptb.org/gdf/
By July 2005 36 DOTS-Plus pilot projects had been established in 27 countries for the treatment of more than 10,000 MDR-TB patients.
With the ending of the piloting phase of DOTS-Plus it was believed that there was evidence that MDR-TB management was both feasible and effective in resource limited settings. With additional resources being available for MRD-TB control, there was then a rapid increase in the number of countries implementing DOTS-Plus.
The Global Plan to Stop TB 2001–2005
By the year 2000 some global TB targets set in 1991 had still not been met. So further international meetings were held, and a new declaration was the Amsterdam Declaration to Stop TB. The same goals were once again set, but this time to be achieved by 2005.5“Amsterdam Declaration to Stop TB”, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 24th March 2000 www.stoptb.org/assets/documents/events/meetings/amsterdam_conference/decla.pdf
The Stop TB Partnership was set up in 2001 following the Amsterdam Conference in 2000. Initially the partnership comprised just six organisations. Three of its working groups were:
DOTS Expansion
TB/HIV
DOTS-Plus
By the time the first Stop TB Partners’ Forum took place in October 2001 the partnership had grown from six to over 120 organisations. At the Forum the launch took place of the Global Plan to Stop TB 2001–2005. Its aim was to provide a “roadmap” towards a TB free world, and it was considered that the 2005 TB control targets were realistic.6“First Stop TB Partners’ Forum”, Washington, 22 October 2001, 6 www.stoptb.org/events/meetings/partners_forum/2001/
The Global Plan to Stop TB 2001–2005 made a number of commitments including that:7“First Stop TB Partners’ Forum”, Washington, 22 October 2001, 6 www.stoptb.org/events/meetings/partners_forum/2001/
Within the next 50 months — by the end of 2005:
A global DOTS case detection rate of at least 70% would have been achieved, while maintaining a treatment success rate of at least 85%
Effective responses to TB/HIV and MDR TB would have been developed and scaled up
A Global Plan to Stop TB for the period 2006–2010 would have been developed.
The ending of DOTS Plus
In 2006 WHO decided on an expansion of DOTS. This was not though a geographical expansion. This was effectively a redefinition of DOTS. In future DOTS would be about the provision of diagnosis, treatment and care for all patients. This would include those with drug resistant TB, and also patients co-infected with TB and HIV. Effectively DOTS Plus would no longer exist, as its various parts for drug resistant TB, and for TB/HIV co-infection were included in a redefined DOTS program.
The Global Plan to Stop TB 2006–2015
Once again the targets set in a Global Plan to Stop TB had not been reached. This time it was the targets in the Global Plan to Stop TB 2001–2005. These targets had been considered realistic back when they were set in 2001.
In the new global plan for 2006–2015, the targets were no longer set in terms of the percentage of people reached in case detection rates, or a treatment success rate of at least 85%. Instead there were a range of targets covering specific areas such as the development of improved diagnostics and drugs, and the targets set in the Millenium Development Goals.
The Global Plan to Stop TB 2011–2015
Global Plan to Stop TB
In 2009 the Stop TB Partnership produced a report on the progress that had been made in global TB control between 2006 and 2008.8“The Global Plan to Stop TB 2006-2015: Progress Report 2006-2008”, WHO, 2009 www.stoptb.org/resources/publications/plans_strategies
Many different areas were highlighted and in some, significant progress had been made, whereas in others, such as screening HIV positive people for TB, it was noted that much less progress had been made. It was particularly noted that the provision of funding for TB was an area of particular difficulty with a funding gap still existing of over US$1 billion per year.
The Global Plan was subsequently updated in 2010, to become the “Global Plan to Stop TB 2011–2015”.9“The Global Plan to Stop TB 2011-2015”, WHO, Geneva, 2010 www.stoptb.org/global/plan/
After 2015 — Another Global Plan
This time the plan was to end TB, with the WHO End TB Strategy, and the Global Plan to End TB 2016 – 2020. Meetings were held, documents were written and targets set. It was said that there needed to be a paradigm shift, that there needed to be a radical change in how TB was viewed. A belief that this time it was different. The WHO End TB Strategy and the Global Plan to End TB 2016 – 2020 set out as other plans had before the resources needed and how the targets could be met.
Why is it going to be different?
However, what they did not explain was why this time it would be different. Except that at some point those people who can implement these changes might decide that they care. They care about the 1.5 million people who die each year from a curable disease. Resources were made available for Ebola, and how many people died? The answer is a fraction of the people who died in the same period from TB. This time lets all show that we care.
Read more
You can read more about the new plans to end TB .
References
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Which country won the 1996 Cricket World Cup? | Final: Australia v Sri Lanka at Lahore, Mar 17, 1996 | Cricket Scorecard | ESPN Cricinfo
Jayasuriya named player of the tournament after the 2nd semi final.
MA Taylor and RT Ponting 101, record 2nd wicket partnership in a World Cup final.
MA Taylor 74, highest score by an Australian captain in any World Cup match.
SK Warne, 1st player to be stumped in a World Cup final (by RS Kaluwitharana).
PA de Silva 107*, 3rd ever 100 in a World Cup final. (Previous two: CH Lloyd 102 in 1975, IVA Richards 138* in 1979).
Sri Lanka least wickets lost (3) in any World Cup final.
PA de Silva, man of the match for an unbeaten 107, 3 wickets, and 2 catches (most runs, most wickets, and equal most catches in the match).
Sri Lanka are the 1st host country to win a World Cup, and the 1st country to win a World Cup final batting second.
Sri Lanka win their 1st World Cup after only winning a total of 4 matches in the previous 5 World Cups.
| Sri Lanka |
What was the call sign of the eight-man British Army SAS patrol deployed into Iraq during the first Gulf War in January 1991? | Cricket World Cup Winners
Home > Events > Cricket > Cricket World Cup > Winners
World Cup Results
In the eleven ICC Cricket World Cups held so far, five different teams have won the tournament. Australia is the most successful World Cup team having won the tournament five times, and were runner up another two times.
West Indies won the first two tournaments, and India have also won it two times. Pakistan and Sri Lanka have won one tournament each. Sri Lanka (1996) and India (2011) are the only hosts to win, when they co-hosted the tournament.
Winners List
The following is a list of the winning country and runner up for each Cricket World Cup. Click on the country names for more country information, or click on the year for more information about the tournament for that year.
year
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In November 1990, British Satellite Broadcasting merged with which television service? | British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB)
Ceefax and Oracle
BSB
British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) was a television company headquartered in London, which provided direct broadcast satellite television services to the United Kingdom.
The company was merged with Sky Television plc. in November 1990 to form British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB). It started broadcasting on 25 March 1990.
Background
In 1977 the World Administrative Radio Conference assigned each country five high-powered channels for direct broadcast by satellite (DBS) for domestic use. In 1982 after being awarded two of the channels the BBC proposed its own satellite service, with two conditions:
Used a satellite built by “United Satellite”, a consortium of British Aerospace, Marconi and GEC, with cost estimated at £24M per year.
A supplementary charter was agreed in May 1983 which allowed the BBC to borrow up to £225M to cover the cost of the project as it was not allowed to call on public funds, nor use existing sources of revenue to fund the project.
During Autumn 1983, the cost of the Unisat had been greatly under estimated, and the new Home Secretary announced the three remaining channels would be given to the IBA to allow the private sector to compete against the BBC on the DBS. within a few months the BBC started talking with the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA), about providing a joint project to help cover the cost. Subsequently, government allowed the IBA to bring in private companies to help cover the costs (dubbed the “Club of 21”) BBC – 50% ITV companies – 30% Virgin / Thorn-EMI / Granada TV rentals / Pearson Longman and Consolidated Satellite Broadcasting – 20%
Within a year the consortium made it clear that the original launch date of 1986 was pushed back to 1988, while also asking the British government to allow them to tender out the building of the new satellite system, to help reduce cost. The project failed in May 1985 when the consortium concluded the cost set up and viewers were not justifiable.
The BBC stated the costs were prohibitive, because the government insisted that the BBC should pay for the costs of constructing and launching a dedicated satellite.
IBA Franchise
The IBA convinced the Home Secretary to revive the DBS project but under different conditions, (broadly based on a report drawn up by John Jackson) by inviting private sector companies to apply for a new television franchise via satellite, to provide a commercial service on three of the five DBS in April 1986. One of the conditions imposed on applicants by the IBA was that they use a new, untried transmission standard, D-MAC.
This standard was part of the European Community’s attempt to promote a high-definition television (HDTV) standard being developed by Philips and other European companies, HD-MAC. HD-MAC was still at the laboratory stage and was incompatible with previous standards: HD-MAC transmissions could not be received by existing television sets, which were based on PAL or SECAM standards in Europe. The conditions to use a High power (230 watts) Satellite was dropped, and no winner was precluded from buying a foreign satellite system.
The IBA received five serious bids for the Direct Broadcast Satellite franchises. It also received submission from the The Children’s Channel and ITN to make sure their programmes are used on any successful bid.
British Satellite Broadcasting: Consortium by Granada Television, Pearson, Virgin Group, ITN, Anglia Television and Amstrad.
BSB UK LTD: Consortium by Carlton Communications, LWT, Saatchi and Saatchi, Dixons and Robert Fleming Merchant Bank. It planned a sport/news/business channel, entertainment channel, and Super Channel.
Direct Broadcasting Limited: Consortium by British and Commonwealth shipping, Cambridge Electronic Industries, Electronics Rental Group, Rupert Murdoch’s News International and Sears. One channel was for families and children, second channel for films, 3rd channel would have broadcast Sky Channel.
National Broadcasting Service: Consortium by, James Lee – former head of Goldcrest Films and Robert Holmes à Court’s Bell Group. Promised schedules for children, sport fans along with a news channel.
SatUK Broadcasting: Created by Muir Sutherland and Jimmy Hartley, back by Australian financier Mr Alan Bond and Celtic Films. Proposed Free to air entertainment channel, £5 monthly film channel and a £2 monthly family channel.
Marco Polo House
Winning bid
British Satellite Broadcasting won the fifteen-year franchise in December 1986 to operate the Direct Broadcasting by Satellite System over four rival bids with a licence to operate three channels. BSB believed 400’000 homes would be equipped during by its first year, but some doubts were cast whether this was possible. The Cable Authority welcomed the service, believing it would encourage more users, especially with its dedicated movie channel.
BSB’s original satellite channels were:
Screen: film channel (subscription of £2.50)
Zigzag: kids and lifestyle channel, shared with Screen.
Galaxy from 6pm onwards
Now Original remit was for live 24-hour news:
Around the time of the licence award, Amstrad withdrew its backing as they believed it was not possible to sell a satellite dish for £250. Australian businessman Alan Bond joined the consortium along with Reed International, Chargeurs, Next plc and London Merchant Securities amongst others. BSB earmarked the bulk of the first round of financing for buying and launching two satellites (for redundancy and provision of further channels later) and planned a second round close to the commencement of broadcasting operations.
It commissioned Hughes Aircraft to provide two high-powered satellites using launch vehicles from McDonnell Douglas. Both companies were American and had established reputations for reliability. Crucially, Hughes was main contractor and offered a commercial space industry first, “in orbit delivery”, whereby BSB’s risk was reduced because payments were due after the satellites were launched and operational.
On 8 July 1988 rival tycoon Rupert Murdoch, having failed to gain regulatory approval for his own satellite service, and failing to become part of the BSB consortium announced that his pan-European television station, Sky Channel, would be relaunched as a four channel UK-based service called Sky Television, using the Astra system and broadcast in PAL with analogue sound. BSB had been aware of the impending launch of Astra when it submitted its proposal to the IBA in 1986, but had discounted it. Lazard Brothers, the Pearson subsidiary responsible for BSB’s first fundraising memorandum, reportedly regarded Astra as technology-led rather than programming-led and, therefore, an unlikely threat.
Jupiter Moon on Galaxy
The stage was set for a dramatic confrontation. BSB, anticipated as the UK’s only satellite service, was faced with an aggressive drive by Murdoch’s Sky to be the first service to launch.
As Britain’s official satellite television provider, BSB had high hopes, as the company planned to provide a mixture of highbrow programming and popular entertainment, from arts and opera to blockbuster movies and music videos.
The service would also be technically superior, broadcasting in the D-MAC (Multiplexed Analogue Components type D) system dictated by European Union regulations with potentially superior picture sharpness, digital stereo sound and the potential to show widescreen programming, rather than the existing PAL system. BSB criticised Sky’s proposals, claiming that the PAL pictures would be too degraded by satellite transmission, and that in any case, BSB would broadcast superior programming. SES had no regulatory permission to broadcast, had plans (initially) for only one satellite with no backup and the European satellite launch vehicle Ariane suffered repeated failures.
However SES used the resulting delay time to re-engineer the satellite to reduce the dish size needed which would otherwise have been larger than 60 cm (24″). To distance itself from Sky and its dish antennas, BSB announced a new type of flat-plate satellite antenna called a “Squarial” (i.e., “square aerial”). The illustrative model Squarial shown to the press was a dummy and BSB commissioned a working version which was under 45 cm (18″) wide. A conventional dish of the same diameter was also available. The company had serious technical problems with the development of ITT’s D-MAC silicon chips needed for its MAC receivers. BSB was still hoping to launch that September 1989, but eventually had to admit that the launch would be delayed.
During the summer, in a bid to gain more viewers BSB/BBC prepared a bid for a four-year deal for the rights to broadcast top league football, thus outbidding ITV £44m offer; BSB had also committed about £400 million to tying up Paramount, Universal, Columbia, and MGM/United Artists, with total up-front payments of about £85 million. These expenditures and commitments were budget-breakers because BSB had less money left for its other two channels than the BBC or ITV had for one.
BSB Menu
BSB’s costs had started to rocket, reaching £354million, while Chief Executive Anthony Goodings denied that BSB had gone over budget and would require more than the planned £625m it required to operate up to 1993.
In December 1988, Virgin pulled out of the BSB consortium, ostensibly because it was going private again. Virgin had also become increasingly concerned about BSB’s mounting costs.
The film-rights battle proved to be the final straw for Virgin, since it would necessitate a “supplementary first round” of financing of £131 million in January 1989 in addition to the initial £222.5 million. After unsuccessfully offering its stake in BSB to the remaining founders, Virgin sold it to Bond Corporation, already BSB’s largest shareholder, for a nominal profit.
Despite the delayed launch, BSB continued to invest heavily in marketing in 1989 to minimize the effects of Sky’s timing advantage. BSB also received a needed boost in June 1989 when they won the franchises for the two remaining British high-powered DBS channels; beating six other bidders when the BBC dropped all plans for use of the allocated channels.
BSB revised its line-up to include separate channels for films, sports, pop music, general entertainment and living/current affairs. Unfortunately, this increased the size of the dishes which the public had to purchase from 25 centimetres to 35–40 centimetres; subsidies from BSB helped maintain retail prices at £250.
Channels
BSB launched its service on 26 March 1990, with the slogan It’s Smart to be Square. The launch, six months late, was 14 months after Sky’s launch. BSB were due to start broadcasting in September 1989 but were delayed by problems with the design and manufacturing of its square receiver and because BSB wanted to avoid Sky’s experience of Sky launching when most shops had no equipment to sell.
Its D-MAC receivers were more expensive than Sky’s PAL equivalents and incompatible with them.
BSB claimed to have around 750,000 subscriptions while Sky had extended its reach into more than 1.5 million homes.
It was believe both companies could break even if subscriptions reached three million households, with most analysts expecting this to be reached in 1992.
The Movie Channel
The Movie Channel began in 1990, BSB signed an exclusive first-run deal with UIP Pay TV (which distributed Paramount, Universal and MGM/UA releases).
The channel was available on Marcopolo 1.
One of its first film premieres was the James Bond film, The Living Daylights, starring Timothy Dalton.
In 1990, BSB and Sky Television suffered heavy losses and merged, operating as the newly formed British Sky Broadcasting. The Movie Channel, along with The Sports Channel, remained on air, keeping its name.
The Sports Channel
The Sports Channel survived BSB’s merger with Sky Television to become one of the five channels operated by the consolidated British Sky Broadcasting.
The Sports Channel was renamed Sky Sports on 20 April 1991, and began broadcasting to Sky viewers via the newly launched Astra 1B satellite on that date, alongside its existing transmissions on BSB’s Marcopolo satellite.
The channel was sold as one of the major draws of the Sky system and initially aired sports such as rugby and golf in 1991, before acquiring rights to German and Italian league football in 1991 (both carried over from The Sports Channel).
The channel was initially encrypted but broadcast Free To View, requiring an analogue VideoCrypt decoder, though no paid subscription, to be viewed.
Since VideoCrypt decoders were only officially available within the UK, this measure was intended to prevent viewing of the service outside the UK and Ireland.
Galaxy
Galaxy was one of the five channels run by British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) and based at its Battersea Studios in the Marco Polo House Building.
In its short life, Galaxy broadcast a mix of American imports and home grown programming, such as the short-lived soap opera set in space, Jupiter Moon, and the magazine show 31 West, which got its name from the actual placing of the Marcopolo Satellite at 31 degrees west.
The station also transmitted repeats from the BBC library – Doctor Who, Secret Army, Grange Hill, Steptoe and Son, Till Death Us Do Part, Are You Being Served?, Dad’s Army and Porridge. American series broadcast on ‘Galaxy’ included The Outer Limits, China Beach and Murphy Brown.
The station also broadcast children’s programmes under the strand ‘Galaxy Club’, which featured home grown programming, mixed with imported cartoons and series such as the cartoons Denver, the Last Dinosaur, Spider-Man, Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles, and Underdog. Programmes specially made for the channel included ‘Cool Cube’ and ‘The Galaxy Club Show’.
The Power Station
The Power Station was a was a dedicated UK music channel. The channel was available on Marcopolo 1, 11.86174
This channel featured concerts from artists including the Inspiral Carpets, Belinda Carlisle, Jason Donovan, EMF and Phil Collins. Speakeasy featured Jazz with Rock music a feature of Raw Power. Power Up was the Power Station’s Breakfast Show hosted by Chris Evans, and Boy George presented a weekly three-hour chat show Blue Radio.
Programmes ran until 2 am with shows such as The Power Club, The Power Hour (a top 10 show, for example albums), Krush Rap, Rage where DJ Elayne presented funky rap, soul, acid house and funk, The Chart of Charts a two-hour chart pick with indie, dance, metal and US music, live concerts (such as Jerry Lee Lewis), Power Haus a ‘headbangers’ heaven’.
In November 1990, British Satellite Broadcasting and Sky Television merged. At first the Power Station gained a “British Sky Broadcasting” suffix on its logo.
The Power Station was closed down at 4 am on 8 April 1991 as it was decided that the American MTV would be used as the music channel on BSkyB’s Astra satellite service. “All Together Now” by The Farm is the last music video to be played at 03:56 and two hours later, Channel 4 for BSB viewers became Sky Movies at 05:59, a subscription based movie channel. It was given free to viewers of The Power Station, if they also subscribed to The Movie Channel, for the month of April 1991, after this channel ceased transmission.
Now
The Now channel was originally designed to be a live 24 hours news channel, with majority of the content provide by ITN. Between the award of the franchise and the launch the channel, its remit was changed to have lifestyle programmes in the day and current affairs shows evenings.
The channel was available on Marcopolo 1 11.93846.
The channel was promoted under the slogan “The Channel For Living”. Now was broadcast throughout BSB’s short spell on air from March to December 1990 on Marcopolo satellites.
In November 1990, BSB merged with Sky to form British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB). BSkyB decided to streamline the channels available on both services. Now was replaced with Sky News, which Sky Television had broadcast on the Astra 1A satellite.
Now ceased broadcasting on Saturday 1 December 1990 at 1am. The ending of Now was faded into the clock of Sky News, and the newsreader welcomed those watching on the Marcopolo satellite.
As there were still programmes yet to be shown on Now, BSkyB initially broadcast Arts programmes intended for “Now” on weekends, as Sky Arts opted out of the Sky News service on the Marcopolo satellite. Once all shows had been broadcast, Sky Arts closed.
Competition
Sky’s head start over BSB proved that the PAL system would give adequate picture quality and that many viewers would be happy to watch Sky’s more populist output as opposed to waiting for the promised quality programming pledged by BSB.
Sky had also launched their multi-channel service from studios at an industrial estate in Isleworth, west London with a 10-year lease on SES transponders for an estimated £50 million without backup.
BSB, on the other hand, would operate from more expensive headquarters at Marco Polo House in Battersea, south London with construction and launch of its own satellites costing an estimated £200 million.
When BSB finally went on air in March 1990, 13 months after Sky, the company’s technical problems were resolved and its programming was critically acclaimed. However its D-MAC receivers were more expensive than Sky’s PAL equivalents and incompatible with them.
Merger
In October 1990, an enterprising manufacturer came up with a dual satellite dish that could be used to receive both Sky and BSB services, although separate receivers would still be required – the following month this technology became effectively obsolete.
Both companies had begun to struggle with the burden of huge losses, rapidly increasing debts and ongoing start-up costs. In November 1990, a 50:50 merger was announced to form a single company, operating as British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB), marketed as Sky. The merger may have saved Sky financially as it had very few major advertisers at the time, so acquiring BSB’s healthier advertising contracts and equipment helped to solve the company’s problems.
Satellites
After the merger BSkyB had no use for the Marco Polo satellites, the company used the Astra system, which was not subject to IBA regulation, the Marcopolo satellites were withdrawn and eventually sold (Marcopolo I in December 1993 to NSAB of Sweden and Marcopolo II in July 1992 to Telenor of Norway). Sky News began broadcasting services to Scandinavia from the Thor satellites.
NSAB operated Marcopolo I (as Sirius 1) until successfully sending it to a safe disposal orbit in 2003 as it reached the normal end of its operational life when fuel ran out. Marcopolo II was operated (as Thor 1) until 2002 and disposed of successfully.
For more information see Marco Polo Satellites
Receivers
After the merger BSB DMAC receivers were sold off cheaply and some enthusiasts modified them to allow reception of D2MAC services available on other satellites.
BSB receivers, Ferguson in particular, could be modified by replacing a microprocessor. Upgrade kits from companies such as Trac Satellite allowed retuning whilst other kits allowed fully working menu systems and decoding of ‘soft’ encrypted channels, although this required the receiver to have one of the later MAC chipsets.
Some kits even included smart card readers and full D2MAC decoding capability.
The Squarial
The Squarial was a satellite antenna used for reception of the now defunct British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) television service. The Squarial was a flat plate satellite antenna, built to be unobtrusive and unique. BSB were counting on the form factor of the antenna to clearly differentiate themselves from their competitors at the time. At the time of development, satellite installations usually required an 80 cm dish in order to receive a clear signal from the transmitting satellite. The smaller antenna was BSB’s unique selling point and was heavily advertised in order to attract customers to their service.
History
The Squarial was launched at a high profile event in MarcoPolo house, BSB’s headquarters. The media were invited to a demonstration to see how much better MAC pictures could be than PAL. But MAC took a back seat when BSB unveiled the mock up Squarial, to replace the dish aerials usually needed for satellite reception. The Squarial was a surprise to everyone, including the four companies which had signed to manufacture the receivers which would have to work with the new aerial. The Squarial deal, with British company Fortel, had been struck only hours before the London event. BSB was itself surprised at the press reaction. Press and TV crews were in such palaver to report the news that they forgot to ask if it worked.
It did not, ll that existed was a wood-and-plastic dummy. Believing that someone would be able to make the Squarial work as well as a much larger dish, BSB built a whole advertising campaign on the Squarial. STC in Paignton was the first company to make a British Squarial. These were a little bigger, 38 cm across, to provide adequate reception throughout the UK, and more expensive than a dish.
Due to production delays and limited availability of the STC squarial and to save face at launch, BSB sourced already available Squarials from Matsushita in Japan who were producing them in quantity for the Japanese market, industry rumours at the time of launch suggested that BSB were buying in the squarials from Matsushita for several hundred pounds each and heavily subsidising the cost to the 4 manufacturers of DMAC receiver. The Matsushita squarial was of a slightly better build quality compared to the STC design and was used by Ferguson, Philips and Tatung while ITT-Nokia supplied the STC squarial. However all offered the 30 cm traditional mini dish for a slightly lower price (several dish manufacturers were used including Lenson Heath and Channel Master).
Technology
Technology-wise, the Squarial pioneered a system of layered circuitry, effectively thin sheets of plastic embedded with the conductive reception nodes. Three of these sheets were stacked upon each other, padded with polystyrene layers to add rigidity to the unit. This is now commonly known as a ‘phased array’ setup. All this was engineered into a 38 cm wide plastic body, presented in white and adorned with the BSB logo at the bottom. The low-noise block converter (LNB) was based in the center, behind the layers, and contained a simple reception unit in line with other satellite antennae of the time. It was manufactured by Matsushita and rated as a 10 GHz standard unit. The Squarial’s small size was possible thanks to the high power of the two Marcopolo DBS satellites, which simulcast the same channels on the same frequencies. The broadcast power was 59dBW, with a 0.05 degree accuracy.
Manufacturers of the DMAC receivers used with the Squarial included, Ferguson, Phillips, Nokia and Tatung.
Modification
The Squarial was a highly specified unit, designed specifically for operation on the Marco Polo satellites’ frequency range. As such the LNB can only tune a limited range of frequencies, and when utilised in modern circumstances the frequency is subsequently out of phase by around 100 MHz. Some owners modified the squarial to operate with the Thor satellite system (formerly BSB’s own satellites, Marcopolo) after the decline of BSB. This was due in large part to the highly discounted price of the unit during the final months of BSB’s existence. D2MAC programmes could be picked up from the Scandinavian satellites during the early 1990s and viewed using modified receivers. Once transmissions ceased from these satellites, Squarials could be used to receive broadcasts from the French terrestrial relay satellites at 5.0°W. BSB’s alternative dishes have also been used successfully to tune into modern broadcast transmissions, whilst testing has been limited, analogue transmissions from the Astra and Hotbird satellites are reported to have been tuned.
Design and brand
BSB placed the Squarial at the heart of its advertising campaign, using the diamond shape throughout all of its channel logos and on screen presentation. This square/diamond image extended down to BSB’s corporate logo and even printed and televisual advertising mediums. This led to the company’s slogan (used throughout the company’s existence) “It’s smart to be square”.[2] The unique appearance was a design first for satellite antennae, its flat plate measured only a few millimetres thick and the LNB unit protruded another 3 cm from the rear. It was built to a very high standard, featuring good quality plastics, weather resistant coatings and stainless steel mounting arm. Compared with the amstrad setups offered by SKY — made from cheap metal — the Squarial offered a much more attractive setup.
Alternatives
BSB offered two alternatives to the squarial, the cheaper more conventional looking mini-dish format and the rounded-rectangle format dish. The first revision was in the shape of a vertical ellipse of roughly 30 cm in diameter. The design employed a short LNB arm with a ‘spike’ design LNB operating at a frequency of 10 GHz. Essentially this design could be considered the forerunner to BSkyB’s minidish. The second revision took on the appearance of a perfectly circular dish (around 25 cm in diameter), using a standard LNB at 10 GHz. In essence both function like a normal satellite dish, only scaled down.
BSB Related Links
BSB, Squarials and all that Information on BSB by Colin McCormick. The site also has information on Betamax and Hifi.
Some of the material on this page is courtesy of Colin McCormick
Colin also operates a Video and Audio transfer service at www.video99.co.uk
British Satellite Broadcasting: the full responsibility Page about the failure of BSB at Terra Media.
| Sky Television plc |
In October 1992, which singer ripped up a photo of Pope John Paul II on Saturday Night Live, after performing a song protesting alleged child abuse by the Catholic Church? | British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB)
Ceefax and Oracle
BSB
British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) was a television company headquartered in London, which provided direct broadcast satellite television services to the United Kingdom.
The company was merged with Sky Television plc. in November 1990 to form British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB). It started broadcasting on 25 March 1990.
Background
In 1977 the World Administrative Radio Conference assigned each country five high-powered channels for direct broadcast by satellite (DBS) for domestic use. In 1982 after being awarded two of the channels the BBC proposed its own satellite service, with two conditions:
Used a satellite built by “United Satellite”, a consortium of British Aerospace, Marconi and GEC, with cost estimated at £24M per year.
A supplementary charter was agreed in May 1983 which allowed the BBC to borrow up to £225M to cover the cost of the project as it was not allowed to call on public funds, nor use existing sources of revenue to fund the project.
During Autumn 1983, the cost of the Unisat had been greatly under estimated, and the new Home Secretary announced the three remaining channels would be given to the IBA to allow the private sector to compete against the BBC on the DBS. within a few months the BBC started talking with the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA), about providing a joint project to help cover the cost. Subsequently, government allowed the IBA to bring in private companies to help cover the costs (dubbed the “Club of 21”) BBC – 50% ITV companies – 30% Virgin / Thorn-EMI / Granada TV rentals / Pearson Longman and Consolidated Satellite Broadcasting – 20%
Within a year the consortium made it clear that the original launch date of 1986 was pushed back to 1988, while also asking the British government to allow them to tender out the building of the new satellite system, to help reduce cost. The project failed in May 1985 when the consortium concluded the cost set up and viewers were not justifiable.
The BBC stated the costs were prohibitive, because the government insisted that the BBC should pay for the costs of constructing and launching a dedicated satellite.
IBA Franchise
The IBA convinced the Home Secretary to revive the DBS project but under different conditions, (broadly based on a report drawn up by John Jackson) by inviting private sector companies to apply for a new television franchise via satellite, to provide a commercial service on three of the five DBS in April 1986. One of the conditions imposed on applicants by the IBA was that they use a new, untried transmission standard, D-MAC.
This standard was part of the European Community’s attempt to promote a high-definition television (HDTV) standard being developed by Philips and other European companies, HD-MAC. HD-MAC was still at the laboratory stage and was incompatible with previous standards: HD-MAC transmissions could not be received by existing television sets, which were based on PAL or SECAM standards in Europe. The conditions to use a High power (230 watts) Satellite was dropped, and no winner was precluded from buying a foreign satellite system.
The IBA received five serious bids for the Direct Broadcast Satellite franchises. It also received submission from the The Children’s Channel and ITN to make sure their programmes are used on any successful bid.
British Satellite Broadcasting: Consortium by Granada Television, Pearson, Virgin Group, ITN, Anglia Television and Amstrad.
BSB UK LTD: Consortium by Carlton Communications, LWT, Saatchi and Saatchi, Dixons and Robert Fleming Merchant Bank. It planned a sport/news/business channel, entertainment channel, and Super Channel.
Direct Broadcasting Limited: Consortium by British and Commonwealth shipping, Cambridge Electronic Industries, Electronics Rental Group, Rupert Murdoch’s News International and Sears. One channel was for families and children, second channel for films, 3rd channel would have broadcast Sky Channel.
National Broadcasting Service: Consortium by, James Lee – former head of Goldcrest Films and Robert Holmes à Court’s Bell Group. Promised schedules for children, sport fans along with a news channel.
SatUK Broadcasting: Created by Muir Sutherland and Jimmy Hartley, back by Australian financier Mr Alan Bond and Celtic Films. Proposed Free to air entertainment channel, £5 monthly film channel and a £2 monthly family channel.
Marco Polo House
Winning bid
British Satellite Broadcasting won the fifteen-year franchise in December 1986 to operate the Direct Broadcasting by Satellite System over four rival bids with a licence to operate three channels. BSB believed 400’000 homes would be equipped during by its first year, but some doubts were cast whether this was possible. The Cable Authority welcomed the service, believing it would encourage more users, especially with its dedicated movie channel.
BSB’s original satellite channels were:
Screen: film channel (subscription of £2.50)
Zigzag: kids and lifestyle channel, shared with Screen.
Galaxy from 6pm onwards
Now Original remit was for live 24-hour news:
Around the time of the licence award, Amstrad withdrew its backing as they believed it was not possible to sell a satellite dish for £250. Australian businessman Alan Bond joined the consortium along with Reed International, Chargeurs, Next plc and London Merchant Securities amongst others. BSB earmarked the bulk of the first round of financing for buying and launching two satellites (for redundancy and provision of further channels later) and planned a second round close to the commencement of broadcasting operations.
It commissioned Hughes Aircraft to provide two high-powered satellites using launch vehicles from McDonnell Douglas. Both companies were American and had established reputations for reliability. Crucially, Hughes was main contractor and offered a commercial space industry first, “in orbit delivery”, whereby BSB’s risk was reduced because payments were due after the satellites were launched and operational.
On 8 July 1988 rival tycoon Rupert Murdoch, having failed to gain regulatory approval for his own satellite service, and failing to become part of the BSB consortium announced that his pan-European television station, Sky Channel, would be relaunched as a four channel UK-based service called Sky Television, using the Astra system and broadcast in PAL with analogue sound. BSB had been aware of the impending launch of Astra when it submitted its proposal to the IBA in 1986, but had discounted it. Lazard Brothers, the Pearson subsidiary responsible for BSB’s first fundraising memorandum, reportedly regarded Astra as technology-led rather than programming-led and, therefore, an unlikely threat.
Jupiter Moon on Galaxy
The stage was set for a dramatic confrontation. BSB, anticipated as the UK’s only satellite service, was faced with an aggressive drive by Murdoch’s Sky to be the first service to launch.
As Britain’s official satellite television provider, BSB had high hopes, as the company planned to provide a mixture of highbrow programming and popular entertainment, from arts and opera to blockbuster movies and music videos.
The service would also be technically superior, broadcasting in the D-MAC (Multiplexed Analogue Components type D) system dictated by European Union regulations with potentially superior picture sharpness, digital stereo sound and the potential to show widescreen programming, rather than the existing PAL system. BSB criticised Sky’s proposals, claiming that the PAL pictures would be too degraded by satellite transmission, and that in any case, BSB would broadcast superior programming. SES had no regulatory permission to broadcast, had plans (initially) for only one satellite with no backup and the European satellite launch vehicle Ariane suffered repeated failures.
However SES used the resulting delay time to re-engineer the satellite to reduce the dish size needed which would otherwise have been larger than 60 cm (24″). To distance itself from Sky and its dish antennas, BSB announced a new type of flat-plate satellite antenna called a “Squarial” (i.e., “square aerial”). The illustrative model Squarial shown to the press was a dummy and BSB commissioned a working version which was under 45 cm (18″) wide. A conventional dish of the same diameter was also available. The company had serious technical problems with the development of ITT’s D-MAC silicon chips needed for its MAC receivers. BSB was still hoping to launch that September 1989, but eventually had to admit that the launch would be delayed.
During the summer, in a bid to gain more viewers BSB/BBC prepared a bid for a four-year deal for the rights to broadcast top league football, thus outbidding ITV £44m offer; BSB had also committed about £400 million to tying up Paramount, Universal, Columbia, and MGM/United Artists, with total up-front payments of about £85 million. These expenditures and commitments were budget-breakers because BSB had less money left for its other two channels than the BBC or ITV had for one.
BSB Menu
BSB’s costs had started to rocket, reaching £354million, while Chief Executive Anthony Goodings denied that BSB had gone over budget and would require more than the planned £625m it required to operate up to 1993.
In December 1988, Virgin pulled out of the BSB consortium, ostensibly because it was going private again. Virgin had also become increasingly concerned about BSB’s mounting costs.
The film-rights battle proved to be the final straw for Virgin, since it would necessitate a “supplementary first round” of financing of £131 million in January 1989 in addition to the initial £222.5 million. After unsuccessfully offering its stake in BSB to the remaining founders, Virgin sold it to Bond Corporation, already BSB’s largest shareholder, for a nominal profit.
Despite the delayed launch, BSB continued to invest heavily in marketing in 1989 to minimize the effects of Sky’s timing advantage. BSB also received a needed boost in June 1989 when they won the franchises for the two remaining British high-powered DBS channels; beating six other bidders when the BBC dropped all plans for use of the allocated channels.
BSB revised its line-up to include separate channels for films, sports, pop music, general entertainment and living/current affairs. Unfortunately, this increased the size of the dishes which the public had to purchase from 25 centimetres to 35–40 centimetres; subsidies from BSB helped maintain retail prices at £250.
Channels
BSB launched its service on 26 March 1990, with the slogan It’s Smart to be Square. The launch, six months late, was 14 months after Sky’s launch. BSB were due to start broadcasting in September 1989 but were delayed by problems with the design and manufacturing of its square receiver and because BSB wanted to avoid Sky’s experience of Sky launching when most shops had no equipment to sell.
Its D-MAC receivers were more expensive than Sky’s PAL equivalents and incompatible with them.
BSB claimed to have around 750,000 subscriptions while Sky had extended its reach into more than 1.5 million homes.
It was believe both companies could break even if subscriptions reached three million households, with most analysts expecting this to be reached in 1992.
The Movie Channel
The Movie Channel began in 1990, BSB signed an exclusive first-run deal with UIP Pay TV (which distributed Paramount, Universal and MGM/UA releases).
The channel was available on Marcopolo 1.
One of its first film premieres was the James Bond film, The Living Daylights, starring Timothy Dalton.
In 1990, BSB and Sky Television suffered heavy losses and merged, operating as the newly formed British Sky Broadcasting. The Movie Channel, along with The Sports Channel, remained on air, keeping its name.
The Sports Channel
The Sports Channel survived BSB’s merger with Sky Television to become one of the five channels operated by the consolidated British Sky Broadcasting.
The Sports Channel was renamed Sky Sports on 20 April 1991, and began broadcasting to Sky viewers via the newly launched Astra 1B satellite on that date, alongside its existing transmissions on BSB’s Marcopolo satellite.
The channel was sold as one of the major draws of the Sky system and initially aired sports such as rugby and golf in 1991, before acquiring rights to German and Italian league football in 1991 (both carried over from The Sports Channel).
The channel was initially encrypted but broadcast Free To View, requiring an analogue VideoCrypt decoder, though no paid subscription, to be viewed.
Since VideoCrypt decoders were only officially available within the UK, this measure was intended to prevent viewing of the service outside the UK and Ireland.
Galaxy
Galaxy was one of the five channels run by British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) and based at its Battersea Studios in the Marco Polo House Building.
In its short life, Galaxy broadcast a mix of American imports and home grown programming, such as the short-lived soap opera set in space, Jupiter Moon, and the magazine show 31 West, which got its name from the actual placing of the Marcopolo Satellite at 31 degrees west.
The station also transmitted repeats from the BBC library – Doctor Who, Secret Army, Grange Hill, Steptoe and Son, Till Death Us Do Part, Are You Being Served?, Dad’s Army and Porridge. American series broadcast on ‘Galaxy’ included The Outer Limits, China Beach and Murphy Brown.
The station also broadcast children’s programmes under the strand ‘Galaxy Club’, which featured home grown programming, mixed with imported cartoons and series such as the cartoons Denver, the Last Dinosaur, Spider-Man, Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles, and Underdog. Programmes specially made for the channel included ‘Cool Cube’ and ‘The Galaxy Club Show’.
The Power Station
The Power Station was a was a dedicated UK music channel. The channel was available on Marcopolo 1, 11.86174
This channel featured concerts from artists including the Inspiral Carpets, Belinda Carlisle, Jason Donovan, EMF and Phil Collins. Speakeasy featured Jazz with Rock music a feature of Raw Power. Power Up was the Power Station’s Breakfast Show hosted by Chris Evans, and Boy George presented a weekly three-hour chat show Blue Radio.
Programmes ran until 2 am with shows such as The Power Club, The Power Hour (a top 10 show, for example albums), Krush Rap, Rage where DJ Elayne presented funky rap, soul, acid house and funk, The Chart of Charts a two-hour chart pick with indie, dance, metal and US music, live concerts (such as Jerry Lee Lewis), Power Haus a ‘headbangers’ heaven’.
In November 1990, British Satellite Broadcasting and Sky Television merged. At first the Power Station gained a “British Sky Broadcasting” suffix on its logo.
The Power Station was closed down at 4 am on 8 April 1991 as it was decided that the American MTV would be used as the music channel on BSkyB’s Astra satellite service. “All Together Now” by The Farm is the last music video to be played at 03:56 and two hours later, Channel 4 for BSB viewers became Sky Movies at 05:59, a subscription based movie channel. It was given free to viewers of The Power Station, if they also subscribed to The Movie Channel, for the month of April 1991, after this channel ceased transmission.
Now
The Now channel was originally designed to be a live 24 hours news channel, with majority of the content provide by ITN. Between the award of the franchise and the launch the channel, its remit was changed to have lifestyle programmes in the day and current affairs shows evenings.
The channel was available on Marcopolo 1 11.93846.
The channel was promoted under the slogan “The Channel For Living”. Now was broadcast throughout BSB’s short spell on air from March to December 1990 on Marcopolo satellites.
In November 1990, BSB merged with Sky to form British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB). BSkyB decided to streamline the channels available on both services. Now was replaced with Sky News, which Sky Television had broadcast on the Astra 1A satellite.
Now ceased broadcasting on Saturday 1 December 1990 at 1am. The ending of Now was faded into the clock of Sky News, and the newsreader welcomed those watching on the Marcopolo satellite.
As there were still programmes yet to be shown on Now, BSkyB initially broadcast Arts programmes intended for “Now” on weekends, as Sky Arts opted out of the Sky News service on the Marcopolo satellite. Once all shows had been broadcast, Sky Arts closed.
Competition
Sky’s head start over BSB proved that the PAL system would give adequate picture quality and that many viewers would be happy to watch Sky’s more populist output as opposed to waiting for the promised quality programming pledged by BSB.
Sky had also launched their multi-channel service from studios at an industrial estate in Isleworth, west London with a 10-year lease on SES transponders for an estimated £50 million without backup.
BSB, on the other hand, would operate from more expensive headquarters at Marco Polo House in Battersea, south London with construction and launch of its own satellites costing an estimated £200 million.
When BSB finally went on air in March 1990, 13 months after Sky, the company’s technical problems were resolved and its programming was critically acclaimed. However its D-MAC receivers were more expensive than Sky’s PAL equivalents and incompatible with them.
Merger
In October 1990, an enterprising manufacturer came up with a dual satellite dish that could be used to receive both Sky and BSB services, although separate receivers would still be required – the following month this technology became effectively obsolete.
Both companies had begun to struggle with the burden of huge losses, rapidly increasing debts and ongoing start-up costs. In November 1990, a 50:50 merger was announced to form a single company, operating as British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB), marketed as Sky. The merger may have saved Sky financially as it had very few major advertisers at the time, so acquiring BSB’s healthier advertising contracts and equipment helped to solve the company’s problems.
Satellites
After the merger BSkyB had no use for the Marco Polo satellites, the company used the Astra system, which was not subject to IBA regulation, the Marcopolo satellites were withdrawn and eventually sold (Marcopolo I in December 1993 to NSAB of Sweden and Marcopolo II in July 1992 to Telenor of Norway). Sky News began broadcasting services to Scandinavia from the Thor satellites.
NSAB operated Marcopolo I (as Sirius 1) until successfully sending it to a safe disposal orbit in 2003 as it reached the normal end of its operational life when fuel ran out. Marcopolo II was operated (as Thor 1) until 2002 and disposed of successfully.
For more information see Marco Polo Satellites
Receivers
After the merger BSB DMAC receivers were sold off cheaply and some enthusiasts modified them to allow reception of D2MAC services available on other satellites.
BSB receivers, Ferguson in particular, could be modified by replacing a microprocessor. Upgrade kits from companies such as Trac Satellite allowed retuning whilst other kits allowed fully working menu systems and decoding of ‘soft’ encrypted channels, although this required the receiver to have one of the later MAC chipsets.
Some kits even included smart card readers and full D2MAC decoding capability.
The Squarial
The Squarial was a satellite antenna used for reception of the now defunct British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) television service. The Squarial was a flat plate satellite antenna, built to be unobtrusive and unique. BSB were counting on the form factor of the antenna to clearly differentiate themselves from their competitors at the time. At the time of development, satellite installations usually required an 80 cm dish in order to receive a clear signal from the transmitting satellite. The smaller antenna was BSB’s unique selling point and was heavily advertised in order to attract customers to their service.
History
The Squarial was launched at a high profile event in MarcoPolo house, BSB’s headquarters. The media were invited to a demonstration to see how much better MAC pictures could be than PAL. But MAC took a back seat when BSB unveiled the mock up Squarial, to replace the dish aerials usually needed for satellite reception. The Squarial was a surprise to everyone, including the four companies which had signed to manufacture the receivers which would have to work with the new aerial. The Squarial deal, with British company Fortel, had been struck only hours before the London event. BSB was itself surprised at the press reaction. Press and TV crews were in such palaver to report the news that they forgot to ask if it worked.
It did not, ll that existed was a wood-and-plastic dummy. Believing that someone would be able to make the Squarial work as well as a much larger dish, BSB built a whole advertising campaign on the Squarial. STC in Paignton was the first company to make a British Squarial. These were a little bigger, 38 cm across, to provide adequate reception throughout the UK, and more expensive than a dish.
Due to production delays and limited availability of the STC squarial and to save face at launch, BSB sourced already available Squarials from Matsushita in Japan who were producing them in quantity for the Japanese market, industry rumours at the time of launch suggested that BSB were buying in the squarials from Matsushita for several hundred pounds each and heavily subsidising the cost to the 4 manufacturers of DMAC receiver. The Matsushita squarial was of a slightly better build quality compared to the STC design and was used by Ferguson, Philips and Tatung while ITT-Nokia supplied the STC squarial. However all offered the 30 cm traditional mini dish for a slightly lower price (several dish manufacturers were used including Lenson Heath and Channel Master).
Technology
Technology-wise, the Squarial pioneered a system of layered circuitry, effectively thin sheets of plastic embedded with the conductive reception nodes. Three of these sheets were stacked upon each other, padded with polystyrene layers to add rigidity to the unit. This is now commonly known as a ‘phased array’ setup. All this was engineered into a 38 cm wide plastic body, presented in white and adorned with the BSB logo at the bottom. The low-noise block converter (LNB) was based in the center, behind the layers, and contained a simple reception unit in line with other satellite antennae of the time. It was manufactured by Matsushita and rated as a 10 GHz standard unit. The Squarial’s small size was possible thanks to the high power of the two Marcopolo DBS satellites, which simulcast the same channels on the same frequencies. The broadcast power was 59dBW, with a 0.05 degree accuracy.
Manufacturers of the DMAC receivers used with the Squarial included, Ferguson, Phillips, Nokia and Tatung.
Modification
The Squarial was a highly specified unit, designed specifically for operation on the Marco Polo satellites’ frequency range. As such the LNB can only tune a limited range of frequencies, and when utilised in modern circumstances the frequency is subsequently out of phase by around 100 MHz. Some owners modified the squarial to operate with the Thor satellite system (formerly BSB’s own satellites, Marcopolo) after the decline of BSB. This was due in large part to the highly discounted price of the unit during the final months of BSB’s existence. D2MAC programmes could be picked up from the Scandinavian satellites during the early 1990s and viewed using modified receivers. Once transmissions ceased from these satellites, Squarials could be used to receive broadcasts from the French terrestrial relay satellites at 5.0°W. BSB’s alternative dishes have also been used successfully to tune into modern broadcast transmissions, whilst testing has been limited, analogue transmissions from the Astra and Hotbird satellites are reported to have been tuned.
Design and brand
BSB placed the Squarial at the heart of its advertising campaign, using the diamond shape throughout all of its channel logos and on screen presentation. This square/diamond image extended down to BSB’s corporate logo and even printed and televisual advertising mediums. This led to the company’s slogan (used throughout the company’s existence) “It’s smart to be square”.[2] The unique appearance was a design first for satellite antennae, its flat plate measured only a few millimetres thick and the LNB unit protruded another 3 cm from the rear. It was built to a very high standard, featuring good quality plastics, weather resistant coatings and stainless steel mounting arm. Compared with the amstrad setups offered by SKY — made from cheap metal — the Squarial offered a much more attractive setup.
Alternatives
BSB offered two alternatives to the squarial, the cheaper more conventional looking mini-dish format and the rounded-rectangle format dish. The first revision was in the shape of a vertical ellipse of roughly 30 cm in diameter. The design employed a short LNB arm with a ‘spike’ design LNB operating at a frequency of 10 GHz. Essentially this design could be considered the forerunner to BSkyB’s minidish. The second revision took on the appearance of a perfectly circular dish (around 25 cm in diameter), using a standard LNB at 10 GHz. In essence both function like a normal satellite dish, only scaled down.
BSB Related Links
BSB, Squarials and all that Information on BSB by Colin McCormick. The site also has information on Betamax and Hifi.
Some of the material on this page is courtesy of Colin McCormick
Colin also operates a Video and Audio transfer service at www.video99.co.uk
British Satellite Broadcasting: the full responsibility Page about the failure of BSB at Terra Media.
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Bombora, Iceberg, Eristoff and Chopin are all brands of which alcoholic drink? | Bombora Vodka Review
Bombora Vodka Review
February 2, 2014 Bombora , Vodka Brands
I was asked to examine Bombora vodka and I claimed I ‘d be happy to assist. (I have actually since learned from a people skills class that I’m a backing and I like aiding people.) Though I was upfront regarding my fondness to cocktails and my lack of experience with vodka \*, I will still like to believe I can determine a modest spirit.
This is as good of a location as any kind of for a quick aside. I’m not truly the target market for vodka. I have actually never ever been to a club. I such as strong drinks. I such as the taste of alcohol. Several of drinks I make have more than two components. The inverse of those declarations usually describes individuals that are in the target market for vodka. It is unfavorable that vodka has been taken in this instructions, but just what are you visiting do?
Bombora Vodka
Since the above statements are generally true, vodka has an unfavorable reputation in the compose cocktail world. Bartenders create beverages around other much more variable spirits and let the vodka rest. That said, I still believe vodka has a place in the drinks and a place on the rack.
Seeing as I have never done a “proper” assessment before, how was I visiting evaluate this stuff? I began with an absolutely unscientific blind sampling. I had someone else put some Tito’s Handmade Vodka, Bombora, and Cooranbong vodka in to some glasses. Not knowing which was which, I sampled them and attempted to determine them based on the information I learnt about each vodka. I chose the Cooranbong appropriately and mixed up the various other two.
Of the 3 I really preferred the Bombora. It had one of the most flavor. The Tito’s was the most medicinal tasting and least attractive. To ask me to describe that taste in even more specific is beyond my present abilities. Some people say they can recognize nuts or raisons or a large number of various other foods, but my taste buds is not that advanced. I understand what I such as though and of the 3, I liked the Bombora.
That was the degree of my orderly tasting of Bombora. I such as to drink bourbon and rum, and in some cases, cognac, as well as gin, but I’m not big on drinking vodka. I do like to make drinks though.
All you require for a tasty Moscow Mule. Limes, ginger ale, and vodka.
Among the first things I did was to look into the Bombora internet site to see just what cocktails they suggested. The majority of were means too sweet for my taste, however that didn’t stop me from attempting it in a few different cocktails.
I do not consume that vodka-Red Bull crap, so I started with where vodka started its introduction to The united state, the Moscow Mule. Back in the 1940s and 1950s, vodka was merely starting to appear in The united state, and the Moscow Mule was how Americans topped exposed to it. A Moscow Mule is a simple drink based on the Dark n Stormy, with three active ingredients: vodka, ginger drink, and lime.
Press a slice of lime into a highball glass with ice. Gather 2oz of vodka. Top with 3oz ginger beer. Offer it a fast rouse and you’re done. Not that I have actually attempted every vodka imaginable in a Moscow Mule, yet I’ll say that Bombora made a delicious drink. It had great flavor and was without any type of semblance to medication.
If it was looking for a brand-new container of vodka I will be greater than tempted to get a container and try it out.
Best Vodka Brands:
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Edward of Woodstock, The Black Prince, was the father of which English monarch? | Gluten-Free Alcoholic Beverages - Celiac.com
Gluten-Free Alcoholic Beverages
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Scott Adams
In 1994 I was diagnosed with celiac disease , which led me to create Celiac.com in 1995. I created this site for a single purpose: To help as many people as possible with celiac disease get diagnosed so they can begin to live happy, healthy gluten-free lives. Celiac.com was the first site on the Internet dedicated solely to celiac disease. In 1998 I founded The Gluten-Free Mall, Your Special Diet Superstore!, and I am the co-author of the book Cereal Killers , and founder and publisher of Journal of Gluten Sensitivity .
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Celiac.com 02/20/2015 - Here is Celiac.com's most up-to-date list of gluten-free beers and alcoholic beverages.
The gluten status of the products listed below is accurate at the present time. However, as product formulations can change without notice, it is best to verify gluten-free product status by checking the ingredients yourself, or by contacting the manufacturer.
Unless gluten is added after distillation, all distilled alcohols are gluten-free. However, US labeling laws prohibit beverages that use cereal grains at any point in the manufacturing process from advertising themselves as 'gluten-free.'
Many people with celiac disease choose to avoid distilled beverages that use cereal grains in the manufacturing process, while many others drink them with no adverse effects.
So, when you do see a 'gluten-free' label on a distilled beverage, it means that no gluten ingredients have been used at any point in the production process.
Gluten-Free Beer
A number of premium and craft brewers now produce specialty grain gluten-free beers using non-gluten ingredients such as buckwheat, sorghum, rice, corn, etc.
Beers brewed from Gluten-free Grains include:
Against the Grain by World Top Brewery
Birra 76 Bi-Aglut by Heineken Italy
Dragon's Gold by Bard's Tale
Element Plasma
Vermouth
Gluten-Free Distilled Alcohols
Unless gluten is added after distillation, all distilled alcohols are free of gluten. However, US labeling laws prohibit beverages that use cereal grains at any point in the manufacturing process from advertising themselves as 'gluten-free.'
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So, when you do see a 'gluten-free' label on a distilled beverage, it means that no gluten ingredients have been used at any point in the production process.
Gluten-Free Gin
Most gins are made with gluten-containing cereal grains. The final distilled product does not contain gluten, but cannot be advertised or labeled as gluten-free. Many people with celiac disease choose to avoid these beverages, while many others drink them with no adverse effects.
Gluten-free gin brands include:
Cold River Gin—distilled from potatoes
Brands of standard gin include:
Aviation American Gin
Sugar Cane—Downunder, DOT AU
Vodkas distilled from cereal grains include:
Many vodkas made with gluten-containing cereal grains. The final product does not contain gluten, but cannot be advertised or labeled as gluten-free. Many people with celiac disease choose to avoid these beverages, while many others drink them with no adverse effects.
Barley Vodka—Finlandia
Grain Vodka—Absolwent, Blavod, Bowman's, Fleischmann's, Orloff, Polonaise, SKYY, Smirnoff, Stolichnaya,
Wheat Vodka—Absolut, Bong Spirit, Danzka, Grey Goose, Hangar One, Ketel One, P.i.n.k Vodka
Rye Vodka—Belvedere, Biała Dama, Platinka, Sobieski, Starka, Wisent, Wyborowa, Xellent Swiss, Żubrówka
Gluten-Free Whiskey
Nearly all whiskeys are made with gluten-containing cereal grains. The final product does not contain gluten, but cannot be advertised or labeled as gluten-free. Many people with celiac disease choose to avoid whiskey, while many others drink it with no adverse effects.
Gluten-free whiskey brands include:
Queen Jennie Whiskey, by Old Sugar Distillery is made entirely from sorghum
Whiskeys distilled from cereal grains include:
Bourbon—Benjamin Prichard's, Booker's, Buffalo Trace, Jim Beam, Early Times, Ezra Brooks, Jefferson's Bourbon, Knob Creek, Makers Mark, Old Crow, Old Forester, Old Grand-Dad
Canadian Whiskey—Alberta Premium, Black Velvet, Canadian Club, Crown Royal,
Tenesse Whiskey—Jack Daniels, George Dickel.
Irish Whiskey—Bushmills, Jameson, Kilbeggan, Redbreast, Tullamore Dew
Japanese Blended Whiskey—Hibiki, Kakubin, Nikka,
Japanese Single Malt Whiskey—Hakushu, Yamazaki, Yoichi
Rye Whiskey—Alberta Premium, Bulleitt
Scotch Whiskey Blends—Ballentine's, Bell's, Black Grouse, Chivas Regal, Cutty Sark, Dewar's, Famous Grouse, Johnnie Walker, Teacher's, Whitehorse
Scotch Whiskey Single Malts—Bowmore, Glenfiddich, Glen Grant, The Glenlivet, Glenmorangie, Highland Park, Knockando, Lagavulin, Laphroaig, Macallan, Monkey Shoulder, Singleton, Talisker
Taiwanese Whiskey—Kavalan Classic
Club Extra Dry Martini (corn & grape)
Club Vodka Martini (corn & grape)
Coco Casa and Coco Lopez Brands: Cream of Coconut
Jose Cuervo Brand: Margarita Mix and All Jose Cuervo Blenders
Master of Mixes Brand: Tom Collins, Whiskey Sour, Strawberry Daiquiri, Sweet & Sour Mixer, and Margarita Mix
Mr. & Mrs. T—Except Bloody Mary Mix
TGI Friday's Brand: On The Rocks, Long Island Ice Tea, Margarita, Mudslide, Pina Colada, and Strawberry Daiquiri.
TGI Friday's Club Cocktails including: Gin Martini, Manhattan, Screwdriver, Vodka Martini, and Whiskey Sour mix.
Other Gluten-free Beverages Mixes & Cooking Alcohol
Club Tom Collins—made with corn
Diamond Jims Bloody Mary Mystery
Holland House - all EXCEPT Teriyaki Marinade and Smooth & Spicy Bloody Mary Mixes
Mead—made from honey
Mistico: Jose Cuervo Mistico—agave and cane
Ouzo - made from grapes and anise
Spice Islands - Cooking Wines - Burgundy, Sherry and White
Also Godiva products contain gluten as do Smirnoff FMB's, Twisted V, and Smirnoff Ice.
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Who played Tracy di Vicenzo in the 1969 James Bond film ‘On Her Majesty’s Secret Service’? | Bond Girls: On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969)
On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969)
Greatest Bond Girls in James Bond Films
Title Screen
Film Title/Year/Director, Bond Girl (Actress)
Screenshots
d. Peter Hunt
Teresa ("Tracy") Di Vicenzo / Bond (Diana Rigg)
Suicidal, lovelorn, tragic and daring Teresa (or "Tracy") first met up with Bond (George Lazenby) on a deserted coastal beach in Portugal, when he rescued her from committing suicide - she was walking fully clothed into the ocean to drown herself. Although Bond saved her, the troubled female sped off in her car and he didn't learn her identity until later - as Contessa Teresa Di Vicenzo, although she liked to be called Tracy.
Finding themselves at the same South of France hotel, Bond watched as the beautiful female approached his gambling table in the casino, in a provocatively revealing low-cut dress, and foolishly made a gambling bet. He covered her bet when she lost, after which she invited him to come to her room suite that evening.
After beating off a black assailant in her room, he found her in his own room, wearing his short hotel robe and lingerie underneath, and holding his own gun on him. She proposed: "Suppose I were to kill you for a thrill." He replied: "I can think of something more sociable to do." But then he knocked the gun away and ordered her to get dressed. Lying on his balcony's lounge-bed, she countered that she was there for "a business transaction" - to repay her debt of 20,000 Francs to him. Bond kissed her, and they slept together that night.
He was awakened the next morning and discovered she had left (and checked out). In his bedside drawer, Bond's gun had been replaced by two 10,000 Franc gambling chips, he had been "paid in full."
Teresa was the only child of crime syndicate head Draco (Gabriele Ferzetti), whom he raised alone from age 12 after his wife died. While unsupervised and finishing her education in Switzerland, she joined the "fast international set, one scandal after another." Draco's spoiled daughter had married an Italian Count who killed himself in a Maserati with one of his mistresses. Bond was offered $1 million pounds in gold (as a "personal dowry") by Draco if he would marry her to provide her fragile and troubled life with stability.
Tracy rightly sensed that her father was luring Bond to her by tempting him with information about the whereabouts of villainous, bald SPECTRE head Ernst Stavro Blofeld (Telly Savalas). Blofeld, wishing to bestow upon himself the title of Count, maintained a mountaintop hideaway Piz Gloria in Switzerland, an allergy clinic front for patients (Angels of Death), who were to help him in his scheme to blackmail the United Nations and the world with the threat of massive destruction by bacteriological means.
Headstrong, adventurous, independent-spirited, and spoiled as a Mafia heiress, Tracy initially resisted Bond because she distrusted her father's motivations, but she eventually succumbed to his sincere romantic interest in her and they became lovers. She helped Bond to evade Blofeld's pursuing guards on skis when he escaped from Piz Gloria and sought to hide in the village of Murren. She admitted a "new interest in life" and in him while driving wildly in her red Cougar, eventually escaping by sidetracking the pursuit in a stock car race.
That evening during a blinding snowstorm, they sought refuge in a barn, and Bond proposed marriage ("I know I'll never find another girl like you...Will you marry me?"). He called her "Mrs. James Bond" while kissing her, but then announced that they wouldn't make love: "The proper time for this is our wedding night, and that's my New Years' resolution." But then he collapsed her bed above him, so that she fell into his arms: "It's not New Year yet."
The next day, she was caught in a tremendous man-made avalanche and taken prisoner by Blofeld. However, she was later rescued during her father's massive assault on Piz Gloria, as she also displayed courageous fighting skills by killing henchman Grunther (Yuri Borienko).
After the end of Bond's mission, he and Tracy were reunited and married at her father's ranch in Portugal.
In the shocking and tearjerking ending of this film, the British Secret Service 007 agent senselessly lost his newly-wed wife Tracy Bond - the only Bond girl to every marry Bond - only moments after their Portugal wedding. As they left for their honeymoon in his flower-adorned dark-green Aston Martin DBS car, Tracy mentioned wanting a large family ("three girls, three boys"). He assured her: "But darling, now we have all the time in the world." When Bond parked the car on the side of the mountain road to remove some flowers to give her, she mentioned that the best wedding present she had already received was "a future." He kissed her with a flower between her lips.
Suddenly without warning, MP-40 submachine gun fire from a passing silver Mercedes 600 sedan strafed their car in a drive-by shooting, and then drove away. Blofeld was driving the vehicle in the attempt on Bond's life -- his henchwoman Irma Bunt (Ilse Steppat) had fired the shots from the back seat of the sedan. Bond ducked and avoided being hit. He shouted twice: "It's Blofeld" as he jumped into his car, realizing then that Tracy had been hit in the forehead by a bullet through the windshield and was instantly killed. He cradled her in his arms, and at first denied her death to a police officer on a motorcycle:
"It's alright. It's quite alright, really. She's having a rest. We'll be going on soon. There's no hurry, you see. We have all the time in the world."
Bond's mournful words were underscored by Louis Armstrong's beautiful and ironic rendition of "We Have All the Time in the World."
On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969)
Ruby Bartlett (Angela Scoular)
During Bond's (George Lazenby) investigation of SPECTRE head Ernst Stavro Blofeld (Telly Savalas), his tactic was to impersonate genealogy expert Sir Hilary Bray. He traveled to Blofeld's massive mountain-top headquarters in the Swiss Alps, Piz Gloria, to verify the villain's claim to the title. [Note: Blofeld was attempting to be granted the right to the hereditary title of Count Balthazar de Bleuchamp.]
After arriving, Bond (wearing a Scottish kilt) had dinner in the Alpine Room where he was introduced to a bevy of about a dozen beautiful clinic "patients" of an allergy treatment program gathered from around the world. They remarked: "It's a treat having a man here for once." Bond claimed falsely: "I've never had much to do with young ladies."
During dinner as he boringly lectured on genealogical matters, one of the flirtatious women sitting next to Bond, Ruby Bartlett (Angela Scoular) secretly wrote her room number (8) in lipstick on Bond's bare inner thigh under the table, after which he told villainous henchwoman Irma Bunt (Ilse Steppat) about his temporary discomfort: "Just a slight stiffness coming on in the shoulder. Due to the altitude, no doubt."
That evening, Bond escaped his room's door with an improvised tool and visited Room # 8, Ruby's room, where he found her naked in bed. He complimented her: "You're a picture yourself, and twice as lovely in the firelight." She replied: "You are funny, pretending not to like girls." He flattered her: "You're not usual. That lipstick was an inspiration. So are you...Call me 'Hilly.'" Her eyes widened and she giggled "It's true!" when he dropped his kilt.
After love-making, as she was explaining her allergy to chickens, he witnessed her hypnotic cure - a kaleidoscopic set of pulsating lights above her bed accompanied by the soothing recorded voice of Blofeld telling her to love chickens and that her cure was almost complete, putting her in a trance-like state and unable to communicate. Bond returned to his room, where he encountered another of the sex-starved clinic patients (see below).
The next evening when Bond was scheduled for a second nocturnal seduction of Ruby, the lascivious Bond found Irma Bunt hiding in Ruby's bed. His cover had been discovered - Sir Hilary Bray wouldn't have seduced patients. Bond was knocked out by Blofeld's henchman Grunther (Yuri Borienko), and exposed as the libidinous 007 before Blofeld.
After being found out, Bond learned that Blofeld was planning to dispense a killer virus around the world, and was training (or brain-washing/hypnotizing) his own "Angels of Death" - his female allergy patients, for the task of delivering the potent virus that would destroy entire species of crops.
On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969)
Nancy (Catherine Von Schell)
Upon his return to his own room from love-making with Ruby (see above), Bond - with lipstick on his right cheek - found a second patient, Nancy (Catherine Von Schell) hiding there in his bedroom. She greeted him: "It is me, yes?" She had escaped her room with a finger-nail file.
Bond used the same seductive lines on her that he had just used on Ruby ("You're a picture yourself, and twice as lovely in the firelight"). When she stated: "But I think you do not like girls, Hilly," he claimed: "Usually I don't, but you're not usual. Coming here like this was an inspiration - and so are you. You'll need to be....A miracle, our meeting like this."
When he asked her name, she collapsed in his arms on his bed, and replied: "I'll tell you all about myself later, in the morning."
Greatest Bond Girls in James Bond Films
(chronological, each Bond film a separate page)
| Diana Rigg |
Former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair was born in which British city? | On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969)
On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969)
James Bond Films
On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969)
d. Peter Hunt, 140 minutes
Opening Credits, Title Sequence
In the gun-barrel sequence, Lazenby (as Bond) was the only one to kneel when he fired. His image also disappeared as the blood washed over the barrel, leaving a red circle - the sole instance. At the end of the pre-title credits sequence, Bond joked to the camera: "This never happened to the other fellow." This was the first film since Dr. No (1962) featuring an instrumental track during the main title sequence. During the title credits, stills from previous Bond films were seen.
Gun-barrel Sequence: Designed by Maurice Binder
Main Title Sequence: Designed by Maurice Binder
Title Song: "On Her Majesty's Secret Service" (instrumental, John Barry)
Film Plot Summary
The pre-title credits sequence opened at Universal Exports (London), where "M" (Bernard Lee) was having difficulty locating Bond (George Lazenby). He was in Portugal, driving along the coast in his 1969 Aston Martin DBS (with telescopic rifle built into glove compartment), when passed by a speeding car (red Ford-Mercury Cougar convertible) driven by a beautiful woman. Shortly later, he came upon the same woman who had hurriedly parked her car. With the telescopic sight from the rifle, he spied on the woman on the beach, who was attempting to commit suicide in the ocean. As she walked fully dressed into the water after removing her shoes, he raced to her side and saved her from drowning. After carrying her back to the sand and reviving her, he introduced himself: "Good morning. My name's Bond, James Bond." But then the two were confronted by two men - at gun-point. Bond was ordered to lie down in a fishing boat, while the woman was dragged away at knife-point. To defend himself, Bond threw a grappling hook at the man and they engaged in a vicious fight both on the beach and in the water. The second man released the woman and joined in the fight against Bond. While Bond incapacitated them, the woman ran away, raced off in Bond's car to the road above the beach, and then transferred to her own car. Bond was left holding her discarded shoes as he joked with the audience (breaking the "fourth wall") when he said to the camera, smirking: "This never happened to the other fellow." To establish continuity with the previous Connery-Bond films, scenes from several previous installments were seen during the title sequence.
When Bond arrived at his hotel across the border in the South of France, he realized that the suicidal woman's red Ford Cougar was parked outside, and she was also a guest there. The hotel manager identified its owner as Contessa Teresa Di Vicenzo (Diana Rigg). When she appeared with a revealing low-cut dress at Bond's gambling table at the hotel's casino, and then lost a bet, he offered to pay her gambling debt. He followed her to the bar, where she asked: "Why do you persist in rescuing me, Mr. Bond?" He learned that she liked to be called Tracy. She threw her room key at him, and invited him to come later. When he entered her suite, he was assailed by a powerful black man whom he knocked out. When Bond returned to his own room, Tracy was there wearing his short hotel robe and lingerie underneath, holding his own gun on him and proposing: "Suppose I were to kill you for a thrill." He replied: "I can think of something more sociable to do." But then he knocked the gun away and ordered her to get dressed. Lying on his balcony's lounge-bed, she countered that she was there for "a business transaction" - to repay her debt of 20,000 Francs to him - she kissed Bond (# 1 tryst). After spending the night with Bond, he was awakened the next morning and discovered she had left (and checked out). In his bedside drawer, Bond's gun had been replaced by two 10,000 Franc gambling chips, he had been "paid in full."
On his way out of the hotel for a game of golf, Bond was confronted by the two men he had fought on the beach, and the black assailant. He was kidnapped and driven away to a demolition dock-yard for an appointment. After fighting off the three men, he entered the plush office of the head of Draco Construction (located in Portugal), Marc Ange Draco (Gabriele Ferzetti) - a European Mafia-like crime syndicate king-pin (of Corsican descent) of Union Corse. He identified himself as the father of wayward daughter Teresa, his only child whom he raised alone from age 12 after his wife died. While unsupervised and finishing her education in Switzerland, she joined the "fast international set, one scandal after another." His spoiled daughter had married an Italian Count who killed himself in a Maserati with one of his mistresses. Draco knew of Bond's dealings with his rambunctious daughter and was grateful to Bond for saving Tracy's life. He wanted Bond to further help her (Bond replied: "She needs a psychiatrist, not me"). Bond was offered $1 million pounds in gold (as a "personal dowry") if he would marry her to provide her fragile and troubled life with stability. Bond declined, arguing that he didn't need the money, and that a wife would be a liability for someone in his profession. Their conversation drifted to Draco's competition, SPECTRE villain Ernst Stavro Blofeld (Telly Savalas). Draco temptingly noted that he wouldn't tell "Her Majesty's Secret Service" the whereabouts of Blofeld, but he might tell his future son-in-law. Bond agreed to attend the next weeks' birthday celebration for Draco - an event Tracy was guaranteed to attend (Bond: "Let's say I'll sleep on the idea"), where Bond could become better acquainted.
Bond returned to London, England for a briefing with "M" - where he was told that he had been released from "Operation Bedlam" - the code name for the search for Blofeld. "M" was frustrated that Bond's two-year search for the criminal was not going well. In anger, Bond promptly threatened to resign with a dictated note to "M's" secretary Miss Moneypenny (Lois Maxwell), and as he packed up his office, he was reminded of previous missions - Honey Ryder's knife from Dr. No (1962), and Red Grant's garrotte-wrist-watch from From Russia With Love (1963). Miss Moneypenny acted as a go-between to resolve differences between Bond and his superior, and Bond's "request" was granted. Moneypenny had resolved the crisis by altering Bond's request, changing it to "two weeks leave," during which time Bond would still have the opportunity to pursue Blofeld. As he left the office, he kissed the surprised secretary on the lips.
Acting haughty and headstrong, Tracy was reacquainted with Bond at her father's birthday party at his ranch in Portugal, but she was suspicious of her father's "business arrangement" or deal with Bond - the swap of information for being with her. She demanded that Draco tell Bond what he wanted to know ("Tell him, Papa, or you'll never see me again"). Bond learned from Draco that Blofeld was linked to a Swiss lawyer named Gumbold (James Bree) with offices in Bern. Tracy then ran off, feeling used, but Bond pursued her and wiped away her tears, calling her a friend and a lover. In a montage of scenes, Tracy and Bond became romantically involved, to the tune of Louis Armstrong's "We Have All the Time in the World."
Bond traveled to Bern, Switzerland where he broke into Gumbold's high-rise law office during lunchtime. With assistance from a crane at the Draco Construction Company nearby, he had MI6 agent Campbell (Bernard Horsfall) hoist up to him a full-sized photocopier and a small safecracker device to break into the office's safe. While patiently waiting, Bond looked at the centerfold in a copy of the February 1969 Playboy Magazine (and later left with the issue). He photocopied correspondence, including a letter from genealogy expert Sir Hilary Bray of the Royal College of Arms in London. [Through Gumbold, client Blofeld had hired Bray to trace his family tree. Blofeld was attempting to be granted the right to the hereditary title of Count Balthazar de Bleuchamp.] Bond then returned to England and visited Quarterdeck, the home of "M," where his superior was engaged in his favorite hobby, lepidoptery (study of moths and butterflies). Bond requested and was given authorization to recommence his investigation of Blofeld, by impersonating Sir Hilary Bray. He had already contacted the College of Arms and received their consent for the deception, assured that it was a matter of "national importance." Bond would travel to Blofeld's massive mountain-top headquarters in the Swiss Alps, Piz Gloria, to verify the villain's claim to the title.
He was met at the Murren train station by Blofeld's personal secretary Irma Bunt (Ilse Steppat), and transported by a horse-drawn sleigh and then a helicopter to Blofeld's private hideaway. The bald Blofeld (identified at first by a Persian cat in his lap), referred to as "The Count" by Bunt, appeared to be the director of the non-profit allergy clinic, treating allergies, hayfever and reactions to oysters, among other things, with vaccines. At 7 pm dinner in the Alpine Room, Bond (wearing a Scottish kilt) was met by Bunt, and introduced to a bevy of about a dozen beautiful clinic "patients" from around the world. During dinner, one of the women, Ruby Bartlett (Angela Scoular) secretly wrote her room number (8) in lipstick on Bond's bare thigh under the table, after which he told Irma about his temporary discomfort: "Just a slight stiffness coming on - in the shoulder due to the altitude, no doubt." Bond was dismissed from the meal to see the Count, who described how he was undoubtedly of Bleuchamp ancestry, born without earlobes, although Bond (as Bray) insisted on further research and confirmation. Bond tried to convince Blofeld to leave his fortress and visit Augsburg (Germany) Cathedral where the Bleuchamp ancestral tombs were located (although Bond's error about the location of the tombs, actually located at St. Anna Kirche, eventually betrayed him).
That evening, Bond escaped his room's door with an improvised tool and visited Room # 8, Ruby's room, where he found her naked in bed, and soon seduced her (# 2 tryst). After love-making, as she was explaining her allergy to chickens, he witnessed her hypnotic cure - a kaleidoscopic set of pulsating lights above her bed accompanied by the soothing recorded voice of Blofeld telling her to love chickens. Upon his return to his room, Bond found a second patient, Nancy (Catherine Von Schell), who had escaped her room with a finger-nail file. As she collapsed in his arms on his bed, she said: "I'll tell you all about myself later, in the morning." (# 3 tryst).
The next day, MI6 agent Campbell shadowed Bond by impersonating a climber and attempting to gain access to Blofeld's institute, but he was captured on the rock cliff and charged with trespassing. That evening at 8 pm for his scheduled second nocturnal seduction of Ruby, the lascivious Bond found Irma Bunt hiding in Ruby's bed. He was knocked out by Blofeld's henchman Grunther (Yuri Borienko), and exposed as the libidinous 007 before Blofeld. The megalomaniac then described his plan for biochemical (or bacteriological) terror - he was going to ransom-blackmail the entire world through the United Nations, by threatening to distribute a deadly "Omega Virus" that would cause "total infertility" for all flora and fauna - the world's food supply. To dispense the killer virus around the world, he admitted training (or brain-washing/hypnotizing) his own "Angels of Death" - his female allergy patients, for that task. Blofeld claimed that his extortionist ransom would not be for millions of dollars. As Bond was led to a prison cell (the gear-works for the cable-car gondola), Blofeld exhibited Campbell's body hanging by his heels (# 1 death).
Blofeld's cured patients, Angels of Death, were gathered together to receive their going-away Yuletide gifts. Meanwhile, Bond escaped via the cable, snuck back into Piz Gloria, and overheard Blofeld delivering instructions to his girls, via hypnosis, about their gifts. Their main present was a make-up case: with a perfume atomizer containing the Virus Omega, and a hidden radio receiver with antenna installed in the compact mirror. As the girls were taken off the mountain via cable-car gondola, Bond knocked out one guard, stole some skis, and fled down the mountain - avoiding machine-gun fire. Guards in pursuit chased downhill after him, as he made his way into a small town of Murren in the valley. Two henchmen fell to their deaths from a steep precipice (# 2-3 deaths, # 1-2 Bond kills). In the village, Bond joined crowds celebrating the Grand Ice Carnival in order to be inconspicuous, but he found himself trapped by Bunt and her henchmen. Suddenly Tracy (who had followed him with a "new interest in life") pleasantly appeared in front of him on skates and helped him to escape by car in her red Cougar, leading to an exciting car chase from Murren. They soon merged onto the snowy race track of a stock-car race. After the demolition derby on the track, Bunt's car overturned and exploded, although everyone survived. Bond and Tracy continued on, encountered a blinding snowstorm, and sought refuge for the night in a barn. As they kissed and spoke intimately to each other, Bond considered finding another profession and confessed his love for Tracy - and then proposed marriage ("I know I'll never find another girl like you...Will you marry me?"). He called her "Mrs. James Bond" while kissing her, but then announced that they wouldn't make love: "The proper time for this is our wedding night, and that's my New Years' resolution." But then he collapsed her bed above him, so that she fell into his arms: "It's not New Year yet." (# 4 tryst).
The next morning, they skied downhill, away from Blofeld and his men who had traced them to the barn. One of Blofeld's men was chewed up in a snow-blowing grooming machine (# 4 death). Blofeld caused a man-made avalanche, which engulfed and killed three of Blofeld's own men (# 5-7 deaths), and Tracy was also partially buried. She was dug out of the snow and taken prisoner, while Bond escaped. Back in London, "M" informed Bond that Blofeld's two modest demands were going to be met: (1) a full pardon of his past criminal activity, and (2) legal recognition of his title as Count. Bond insisted on destroying Blofeld's Piz Gloria Institute and Blofeld himself (and his virus), but it was considered too risky ("Operation Bedlam is dead"). To rescue Tracy himself, Bond organized a dawn military raid ("a demolition deal") upon Piz Gloria with Draco's help via a fleet of helicopters (disguised as a "mercy" medical flight). Meanwhile, inside Blofeld's headquarters, Tracy fended off Blofeld's romantic advances, and courageously fought off Grunther with a champagne bottle. She killed him by thrusting his back into a set of ornamental spikes hanging on a wall (# 8 death). Many of Blofeld's men were killed during the assault (unknown number of deaths). Bond machine-gunned one of Blofeld's henchmen (# 9 death, # 3 Bond kill), then headed for the laboratory and killed a technician who hurled acid at him (# 10 death, # 4 Bond kill). Draco's men threw hand-grenades and set explosive charges throughout Piz Gloria, set to detonate in only a few minutes. In Blofeld's office, Bond took photographs (with a pocket-sized camera) of the Angels of Death and their worldwide locations. Resistant about leaving without Bond, Tracy was knocked out by her father and dragged to the safety of a departing helicopter.
The last two left inside the institute, Blofeld and Bond were forced to leap from the building as Piz Gloria blew up. Bond pursued Blofeld downhill on a racing bobsled, but Bond was blown off his bobsled by a thrown hand-grenade. They engaged in a brutal hand-to-hand fight when Bond jumped onto the back of Blofeld's bobsled - and the SPECTRE chief was severely injured when he became snared and entangled in the low-bough of a tree, breaking his neck in the V-shaped branch (Bond: "He's branched off").
Afterwards, Bond and Tracy were reunited and married at her father's ranch in Portugal. In the shocking and tearjerking ending of this film, the British Secret Service 007 agent senselessly lost his newly-wed wife Tracy Bond - the only Bond girl to every marry Bond - only moments after their Portugal wedding. As they left for their honeymoon in his flower-adorned Aston Martin DBS car, Tracy mentioned wanting a large family ("three girls, three boys"). He assured her: "But darling, now we have all the time in the world." When Bond parked the car on the side of the mountain road to remove some flowers to give her, she mentioned that the best wedding present she had already received was "a future." He kissed her with a flower between her lips. Suddenly without warning, MP-40 submachine gun fire from a passing silver Mercedes 600 sedan strafed their car in a drive-by shooting. Blofeld (with a neck brace) was driving the vehicle in the attempt on Bond's life -- his henchwoman Irma Bunt had fired the shots from the back seat of the sedan. Bond ducked and avoided being hit. He shouted twice: "It's Blofeld" as he jumped into his car, realizing then that Tracy had been hit in the forehead by a bullet through the windshield and was instantly killed (# 11 death). He cradled her in his arms, and at first denied her death to a police officer on a motorcycle: "It's alright. It's quite alright, really. She's having a rest. We'll be going on soon. There's no hurry, you see. We have all the time in the world." Bond's mournful words were underscored by another rendition of Louis Armstrong's beautiful and ironic rendition of "We Have All the Time in the World."
Film Notables (Awards, Facts, etc.)
The sixth film in the series. With a very long running time (2 hours, 20 minutes), the longest Bond film to date, bested by Casino Royale (2006) at 2 hours, 24 minutes.
The first (and last) film with Australian-born actor George Lazenby as Agent 007, the youngest (at age 29) of the actors to portray Bond at the time of filming. This was the only film in which Bond married one of his romantic conquests - although his bride was murdered in a drive-by shooting shortly afterwards on her wedding day by Blofeld's assistant Irma Bunt (Ilse Steppat).
This film marked the directorial debut of long-time Bond editor Peter Hunt. It was his sole Bond film.
This was the second of the so-called "Blofeld Trilogy" of films, beginning with You Only Live Twice (1967) (with Donald Pleasence as the villain), and Diamonds Are Forever (1971) (with Charles Gray as the villain).
With a production budget of $7 million, and gross revenue of $22 million (domestic) and $87 million (worldwide). The film performed weakly compared to the previous Bond films, but was still a box-office hit.
This Bond film was entirely set in Europe, and filmed there.
This film was one of the closest adaptations to the Ian Fleming novel, with a screenplay adapted by Richard Maibaum, and less emphasis on gadgetry, vehicles, and hardware.
Set-pieces: the pre-credits sequence on a Portugal beach, the multi-stage chases (ski and car) - especially the one onto a snowy stock-car race track, the avalanche, and the concluding fleet of helicopters' attack on Piz Gloria.
Bond Villains: Ernst Stavro Blofeld or "The Count" (Telly Savalas), Irma Bunt (Ilse Steppat), Grunther (Yuri Borienko)
Bond Girls: Countess Teresa ("Tracy") Di Vicenzo (Diana Rigg), Ruby Bartlett (Angela Scoular), Nancy (Catherine Von Schell)
Number of Love-Making Encounters: 4
Film Locales: London, England, coastline of Portugal, The South of France, Switzerland: Bern, the Swiss Alps (mountaintop Piz Gloria), Murren (train station and village near Interlaken) and surrounding areas
Gadgets: radioactive lint tracking device in plastic container, Aston-Martin glove compartment telescopic rifle, dagger thrown by Bond at Draco's calendar page, small safecracker device attached to full-sized photocopier, improvised door escape tool, Angel of Death make-up case: with a perfume atomizer containing the deadly Virus Omega, and a hidden radio receiver with antenna installed in the compact mirror, pocket-sized Minox B spy camera, and Tracy's wedding ring
Vehicles: 1969 dark-green Aston Martin DBS (with telescopic rifle built into glove compartment), Tracy's red Ford-Mercury Cougar (convertible), Draco's Rolls-Royce, Murren train, horse-drawn sleigh, Blofeld's Bell 206 JetRanger helicopter, a cable car gondola, stock cars in the stock car rally, two bobsleds, Blofeld's silver Mercedes-Benz 600 sedan
Number of Deaths (Bond Kills): 11 (4)
James Bond:
| i don't know |
In June 1972, Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney founded which electronics and video games company? | Atari - Woodhorn.com
Woodhorn.com
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the corporate brand. For other uses, see Atari (disambiguation) .
Atari
Atari, SA
Atari (from a Japanese verb meaning "to hit the target") is a corporate and brand name owned by several entities since its inception in 1972, currently by Atari Interactive , a subsidiary of the French publisher Atari, SA (ASA). [1] [2] [3] The original Atari, Inc. founded in 1972 by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney was a pioneer in arcade games , home video game consoles , and home computers . The company's products, such as Pong and the Atari 2600 , helped define the electronic entertainment industry from the 1970s to the mid-1980s.
In 1984, the original Atari Inc. was split due to its role in the video game crash of 1983 , and the arcade division was turned into Atari Games Inc . [4] Atari Games received the rights to use the logo and brand name with appended text "Games" on arcade games, as well as rights to the original 1972–1984 arcade hardware properties. The Atari Consumer Electronics Division properties were in turn sold to Jack Tramiel's Tramel Technology Ltd., which then renamed itself to Atari Corporation . [5] [6] In 1996, Atari Corporation reverse merged with disk drive manufacturer JT Storage (JTS), [7] becoming a division within the company.
In 1998, Hasbro Interactive acquired all Atari Corporation related properties from JTS, [8] creating a new subsidiary, Atari Interactive. [9] Infogrames Entertainment (IESA) bought Hasbro Interactive in 2001 and renamed it to Infogrames Interactive, later Atari Interactive in 2003, when Infogrames Inc. licensed the Atari name and logo from the latter and changed its name to Atari Inc., [2] [10] [11] a name used for a company founded in 1993 as GT Interactive , which IESA also renamed to Infogrames, Inc. and acquired a 62% controlling interest in by 1999. [12] After IESA's acquisition of Hasbro Interactive, Infogrames, Inc. intermittently published Atari branded titles for Infogrames Interactive. On October 11, 2008, Infogrames completed its acquisition of Atari, Inc., making it a wholly owned subsidiary. [13]
Contents
Main article: Atari, Inc.
In 1971, Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney founded an engineering firm, Syzygy Engineering, [14] that designed and built Computer Space , the world's first arcade video game, for Nutting Associates. On June 27, 1972 Atari, Inc. was incorporated and soon hired Al Alcorn as their first design engineer. Bushnell decided to have Alcorn produce as a test of his abilities, an arcade version of the Magnavox Odyssey 's Tennis game, [15] which would be named Pong . While Bushnell incorporated Atari in June 1972, Syzygy Company was never formally incorporated. Before Atari's official incorporation, Bushnell wrote down several words from the game go , eventually choosing atari , a term which in the context of the game means a state where a stone or group of stones is imminently in danger of being taken by one's opponent. In Japanese, atari (当たり, あたり, or アタリ) is the nominalized form of ataru （当たる, あたる, or アタル） (verb), meaning "to hit the target" or "to receive something fortuitously". The word 'atari' is used in Japanese when a prediction comes true or when someone wins a lottery. Atari was incorporated in the state of California on June 27, 1972. [16]
The third version of the Atari Video Computer System sold from 1980 to 1982
In 1973, Atari secretly spawned a "competitor" called Kee Games , headed by Nolan's next door neighbor Joe Keenan, to circumvent pinball distributors' insistence on exclusive distribution deals; both Atari and Kee could market virtually the same game to different distributors, with each getting an "exclusive" deal. Though Kee's relationship to Atari was discovered in 1974, Joe Keenan's management of the subsidiary led to him being promoted president of Atari that same year. [17]
In 1976, Bushnell, through a Grass Valley, CA . engineering firm—Cyan Engineering, started an effort to produce a flexible video game console that was capable of playing all four of Atari's then-current games. The result was the Atari Video Computer System , or "VCS" (Later renamed the Atari 2600 when the Atari 5200 was released). Bushnell knew he had another potential hit on his hands, but bringing the machine to market would be extremely expensive. Looking for outside investors, in 1976 Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications for an estimated $28–32 million, using part of the money to buy the Folgers Mansion. Nolan continued to have disagreements with Warner Management over the direction of the company, the discontinuing of the Pinball division and most importantly, he felt that the Atari 2600 should be discontinued. In 1978, the Kee Games brand was dropped. [18] In December of that year during a heated argument between Nolan Bushnell and Manny Gerard, Bushnell was fired. "[W]e started fighting like cats and dogs. And then the wheels came off that fall. Warner claimed they fired me," recalled Bushnell. "I say I quit. It was a mutual separation." [19]
A project to design a successor to the 2600 started as soon as the system shipped. The original development team estimated the 2600 had a lifespan of about three years, and decided to build the most powerful machine they could, given that time frame. Mid-way into the effort's time-frame, the home computer revolution was taking off, so the new machines were adapted, with the addition of a keyboard and various inputs, to produce the Atari 800 , and its smaller cousin, the 400. Although a variety of issues made them less attractive than the Apple II for some users, the new machines had some success when they finally became available in quantity in 1980. In 1982, the Atari 5200 was released, based heavily on the 400 and 800 models, but without a keyboard.
Under Warner and the Chairman and CEO they chose to run Atari, Raymond Kassar , Atari Inc. achieved its greatest success, selling millions of 2600s and computers. At its peak, Atari accounted for a third of Warner's annual income and was the fastest-growing company in the history of the United States at the time. However, Atari Inc. ran into problems in the early 1980s as interference from the New York-based Warner management increasingly affected daily operations. Its home computer , video game console , and arcade divisions operated independently of one another and rarely cooperated. Faced with fierce competition and price wars in the game console and home computer markets, Atari was never able to duplicate the success of the 2600.
These problems were followed by the video game crash of 1983 , with losses that totaled more than $500 million. Warner's stock price slid from $60 to $20, and the company began searching for a buyer for its troubled division. In 1983, Ray Kassar was forced to resign, and executives involved in the Famicom lost track of the negotiations, and the deal eventually died. With Atari's further financial problems and the Famicom's runaway success in Japan after its July 16, 1983 release date, Nintendo decided to go it alone.
Financial problems continued to mount and Kassar's successor, James J. Morgan , had less than a year in which to tackle the company's problems, he began a massive restructuring of the company and worked with Warner Communications in May 1984 to create "NATCO" which stood for New Atari Company which would further lean the company facilities, personnel and spending and make the company profit. Unknown to James Morgan and the senior management of Atari, Warner had been in talks with Tramel Technology to buy Atari's Consumer electronics and Home Computer divisions. Negotiating up until close to midnight of July 1, 1984 Jack Tramiel purchased Atari. Warner sold the home computing and game console divisions of Atari to Tramiel for $50 cash and $240 million in promissory notes and stocks, giving Warner a 20% stake in Atari Corporation [20] who then used it to create a new company under the name Atari Corporation. Warner retained the arcade division, continuing it under the name Atari Games , but sold it to Namco in 1985. Warner also sold the fledgling Ataritel to Mitsubishi .
Atari Corporation (1984–1996)[ edit ]
Main article: Atari Corporation
Atari ST
Under Tramiel's ownership, Atari Corp. used the remaining stock of game console inventory to keep the company afloat while they finished development on a 16/32-bit computer system, the Atari ST . ("ST" stands for "sixteen/thirty-two", referring to the machines' 16-bit bus and 32-bit processor core.) In April 1985, they released the first update to the 8-bit computer line — the Atari 65XE, the Atari XE series. June 1985 saw the release of the Atari 130XE, Atari User Groups received early sneak-preview samples of the new Atari 520ST's, and major retailer shipments hit store shelves in September 1985 of Atari's new 32-bit Atari ST computers. In 1986, Atari launched two consoles designed under Warner — the Atari 2600jr and the Atari 7800 console (which saw limited release in 1984). Atari rebounded, earning a $25 million profit that year.
In 1987, Atari acquired Federated Group for $67.3 million to have their own retail store shelf space, [21] which was sold to Silo in 1989. [22]
In 1989, Atari released the Atari Lynx , a handheld console with color graphics, to much fanfare. A shortage of parts kept the system from being released nationwide for the 1989 Christmas season, and the Lynx lost market share to Nintendo's Game Boy which, despite only having a black and white display, was cheaper, had better battery life and had much higher availability. Tramiel emphasized computers over game consoles but Atari's proprietary computer architecture and operating system fell victim to the success of the Wintel platform while the game market revived. In 1989, Atari Corp. sued Nintendo for $250 million, alleging it had an illegal monopoly. [23] Atari eventually lost the case when it was rejected by a US district court in 1992. [24]
In 1993, Atari positioned its Jaguar as the only 64-bit interactive media entertainment system available but it sold poorly.
By 1996, a series of successful lawsuits [25] had left Atari with millions of dollars in the bank, but the failure of the Lynx and Jaguar left Atari without a product to sell. Tramiel and his family also wanted out of the business. The result was a rapid succession of changes in ownership. In July 1996, Atari merged with JTS Inc. , a short-lived maker of hard disk drives, to form JTS Corp. [26] [27] [28] Atari's role in the new company largely became that of holder for the Atari properties and minor support, and consequently the name largely disappeared from the market.
As a division of Hasbro (1998–2000)[ edit ]
Main article: Atari Interactive
In March 1998, JTS sold the Atari name and assets to Hasbro Interactive for $5 million—less than a fifth of what Warner Communications had paid 22 years earlier. [29] This transaction primarily involved the brand and intellectual property, which now fell under the Atari Interactive division of Hasbro Interactive. The brand name changed hands again in December 2000 when French software publisher Infogrames took over Hasbro Interactive . [30]
Main article: Atari, SA
In October 2001 Infogrames (now Atari, SA ) announced that it was "reinventing" the Atari brand with the launch of two new games featuring a prominent Atari branding on their boxarts : Splashdown and MX Rider. [31] On May 7, 2003, Infogrames had its majority-owned, but discrete US subsidiary Infogrames NA officially renamed Atari, Inc., [32] renamed its European operations to Atari Europe but kept the original name of the main company Infogrames Entertainment . The original Atari holdings division purchased from Hasbro, Hasbro Interactive , was also made a separate corporate entity renamed as Atari Interactive .
On March 6, 2008, Infogrames made an offer to Atari Inc. to buy out all remaining public shares for a value of $1.68 per share, or $11 million total. [33] The offer would make Infogrames sole owner of Atari Inc., thus making it a privately held company. [34] On April 30, 2008, Atari Inc. announced its intentions to accept Infogrames' buyout offer and to merge with Infogrames. [35] [36] On October 8, 2008, Infogrames completed its acquisition of Atari Inc., making it a wholly owned subsidiary. [13] [37]
On December 9, 2008, Atari announced that it had acquired Cryptic Studios , an MMORPG developer. [38]
Namco Bandai has purchased a 34% stake in Atari Europe on May 14, 2009, paving the way for its acquisition from Infogrames. [39] Atari has had significant financial issues for several years now, posting losses in the tens of millions since 2005. [40]
In May 2009 Infogrames Entertainment, SA, the parent company of Atari Inc. and Atari Interactive Inc., announced it would change its name to Atari, SA.
In April 2010, Atari SA board member and former CEO David Gardner resigned. Original Atari Inc. co-founder Nolan Bushnell joined the board as a representative for Blubay holdings. [41]
As of March 31, 2011, the Board of Directors consisted of Frank Dangeard, Jim Wilson, Tom Virden, Gene Davis, Alexandra Fichelson. [3]
On January 21, 2013, Atari Inc., Atari Interactive Inc., Humongous, Inc. and California US Holdings, Inc. (collectively, the "Companies") filed petitions for relief under chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code in the United States Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York. [42] All three Ataris emerged from bankruptcy one year later and the entering of the social casino gaming industry with Atari Casino. [43] Frederic Chesnais, who now heads all three companies, stated their entire operations consist of a staff of 10 people. [44]
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Which British Olympic swimmer has a pub named after them in the town of Mansfield? | Atari | Act of War Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Founded
New York City, New York, United States
Atari is a corporate and brand name owned by several entities since its inception in 1972. As of 2012, it is owned by Atari Interactive, a subsidiary of the French publisher Atari, SA (ASA).
History
Edit
The original Atari, Inc. was founded in 1972 by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney. It was a pioneer in arcade games, home video game consoles, and home computers. The company's products, such as Pong and the Atari 2600, helped define the computer entertainment industry from the 1970s to the mid 1980s.
In 1984, the original Atari Inc. was split, and the arcade division was turned into Atari Games Inc. Atari Games received the rights to use the logo and brand name with appended text "Games" on arcade games, as well as rights to the original 1972 - 1984 arcade hardware properties. The Atari Consumer Electronics Division properties were in turn sold to Jack Tramiel's Tramel Technology Ltd., which then renamed itself to Atari Corporation. In 1996, Atari Corporation reverse merged with disk drive manufacturer JT Storage (JTS), becoming a division within the company.
In 1998, Hasbro Interactive acquired all Atari Corporation related properties from JTS, creating a new subsidiary, Atari Interactive. IESA bought Hasbro Interactive in 2001 and renamed it to Infogrames Interactive. IESA changed the company name entirely to Atari Interactive in 2003.
The company that currently bears the name Atari Inc. was founded in 1993 under the name GT Interactive. IESA acquired a 62% controlling interest in GT Interactive in 1999, and renamed it Infogrames, Inc.[11] Following IESA's acquisition of Hasbro Interactive, Infogrames, Inc. intermittently published Atari branded titles for Infogrames Interactive. In 2003, Infogrames Inc. licensed the Atari name and logo from Atari Interactive and changed its name to Atari Inc. On October 11, 2008, Infogrames completed its acquisition of Atari, Inc., making it a wholly owned subsidiary.
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Children with the medical condition hyperlexia have an advanced ability to do what? | Hyperlexia: Reading Precociousness or Savant Skill?
Hyperlexia: Reading Precociousness or Savant Skill?
Distinguishing autistic-like behaviors from Autistic Disorder
By Darold A. Treffert, MD
Note: This article about Hyperlexia is available in print here from a December, 2011 article in WMJ, Volume 110(6) . This is a journal published by the Wisconsin Medical Society.
Hyperlexia: children who read early—identifying the subtypes
Hyperlexia— precocious reading ability in very young children—can present itself in several ways. In one group some “normal” (neurotypical is the proper term these days) children simply read early; they may be reading at a sixth grade level at age 3 for example with no behavioral or other concerns. Eventually their classmates catch up in reading skills, but such advanced reading at a very early age understandably draws attention. This form of “hyperlexia” is not a disorder; it does not require treatment. These children, usually very bright, go on to have very typical, successful lives. I refer to this group as Hyperlexia I.
A second group of children who read early are some with autistic disorder where the hyperlexia is in fact sometimes viewed as a savant-like “splinter skill” associated with the autism. These children have other signs and symptoms of Autistic Disorder and the early reading is but one facet of that more pervasive disorder. Intervention and treatment in this group is directed at the underlying Autistic Disorder. However the precocious reading ability can itself be a valuable treatment tool for teaching language and social skills and should not be marginalized or disregarded as unimportant or frivolous. I refer to this group as Hyperlexia II. Unfortunately, as I will point out, some clinicians and other specialists hold that when precocious reading ability is present, and when coupled with comprehension, language and social difficulties, it is always part of an autistic spectrum disorder. I do not subscribe to that view.
Instead, there is a third group of children, many of whom have been brought to my attention through “I’ve got a son or daughter who…….” inquiries from the savant syndrome web site at www.savantsyndrome.com. This third group of children who read early present with a startling precocious ability to read, well beyond that expected at the child’s chronological age. The hyperlexia is coupled with an intense fascination with letters or numbers. Yet in spite of the intense preoccupation and ability with words, there are, correspondingly, significant problems in understanding verbal language. Comprehension of that which is masterfully read is often poor, and thinking is concrete and literal. There is difficulty with, and paucity of, abstract thinking. There may be some behaviors and symptoms commonly associated with autism spectrum disorders as well including echolalia (repeating rather than initiating conversation), pronoun reversals, intense need to keep routines (obsession with sameness), auditory or other sensory hypersensitivity, specific intense fears, strong auditory & visual memory, and selective listening with the appearance of suspected deafness. In this group of children these latter “autistic” traits and behaviors are only “autistic-like” however, mirroring those seen in autistic disorder itself. However, in contrast to those in Autistic Disorder, these “autistic-like” symptoms fade over time as the child “outgrows” his or her “autism” as some parents have described that transition. I call this group Hyperlexia III.
The purpose of this posting is to describe these different types of hyperlexia and to point out the necessity for careful differential diagnosis among them because of differing treatment and outcome implications, along with alleviating some of the unnecessary distress and worry in parents when a diagnosis of Autistic Disorder is applied prematurely and in error to some children who read early.
Background
The literature on “hyperlexia” is really quite scant, beginning as recently as 1967, when the term was first used by Silberberg & Silberberg (Exceptional Children 34:41-42). Generally these children have learned to read before age 5 with little or no training, and have this precocious reading ability combined with language difficulties (in spite of accelerated reading ability) and display significant difficulty in social relationships. These children come to speech and language disorder clinics with a variety of diagnoses such as “autism, behavior disorder, language disorder, gifted, precocious reading ability seen often as rote learning, splinter skills or savant idiosyncrasy” according to one such clinic, the Center for Speech and Language Disorders in Elmhurst, Illinois.
Usually parents of hyperlexic children, when they inquire of this website, have had their children go through numerous evaluations, with various confusing and contradictory diagnoses applied ranging from Autistic Disorder to Pervasive Developmental Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder, Attention Deficit Disorder or language disorder, for example. In other instances there is no diagnosis applied except “precociousness.” Controversy exists as to whether hyperlexia is a serious developmental disorder such as autism, or whether it is in fact a speech or language disorder of a distinct and separate type, or, in some cases, it is simply advanced word recognition skills in a normal (neurotypical) child especially when sometimes accompanying “autistic-like” symptoms are present.
The literature to date is not a great deal of help in making the distinction between hyperlexia being an Autistic Spectrum Disorder, or a separate, distinct language disorder. Importantly, though, it appears that in the latter instance the prognosis overall is quite good. According to Phyllis Kupperman and her co-workers at the Center for Speech and Language Disorders clinic in Elmhurst, Illinois, when such children were first seen at the clinic at age 2 or 2½ they had difficulty understanding language. They may use a few words but often they were echolalic. Their behavior in some ways looked “autistic”. However on follow-up these children emerged out of that “autism”, although some did retain some aloofness or antisocial or oppositional behaviors. But over time the aloneness and self-stimulating behaviors decreased dramatically as language comprehension and expressive language improved. By the time many of the hyperlexic children were in the first or second grade many of the ‘”autistic” behaviors had diminished and while remaining aloof, the children did begin to socialize more. In short, they emerged significantly from their “autism” because it was not Autistic Disorder at all.
An article entitled “Reading Skills in Hyperlexia: A Developmental Perspective” by Kate Nation is another source of information on this condition (Psychological Bulletin 125:338-355, 1999). The lengthy article is a comprehensive review of the literature to that date. One section of the article examines the relationship of hyperlexia to developmental disorders such as autism. The author concludes that hyperlexia, while present in some children with Autistic Disorder, is not specific to Autistic Disorder or confined to that condition. Instead, hyperlexia can be seen in non-autistic persons, many of whom, however, do have transient autistic-like symptoms and behaviors.
It has been my experience, based on cases that continue to come to my attention, that hyperlexia needs to be subdivided into three distinct categories: type I, type II and type III. In so doing the often expressed view that “hyperlexia” is, in all cases, a form of “autism” can be properly dispelled and prognoses appropriately applied much to the relief of many concerned and distressed parents.
Hyperlexia, type I
These are very bright, neurotypical children who simply read early to the amazement of their parents, grandparents, teachers, peers and parents of their peers. Usually one or both parents have read often and patiently to their children. Very early the child begins to “read” the book which is actually rather prolific memorization of the book triggered by the words and pictures on the pages themselves. Soon however the child is actually reading the words in the book, rather than just memorizing them, and that reading ability can then be transferred to other books. The child is a precocious reader at that point and is reading at a first or second grade level in pre-school, kindergarten or even before. At some point, of course, most of the other children in the class catch up as they begin to read. This group of hyperlexic children constitute what I call early, or precocious readers. They are bright, neurotypical children who happen to read early. My youngest daughter Jill was such a child.
Case Example 1
JT’s mother read regularly to all her children at nap time and bedtime. At age 3 JT remembers wanting to read the book “Little Black, The Pony” herself and would watch her mother’s lips intently as mother read to the book to her. Then one day it happened; JT read the book to her mother instead of the other way around. Dad was skeptical, and indicated JT had probably just “memorized” the book. Not so. Mother gave JT a newspaper article she had never seen before and JT read it perfectly.
At nursery school, JT read to her classmates to the astonishment of the teachers. With formal testing JT was reading at a 6th grade level at age 3 with full comprehension ability and certainly nothing other than neurotypical functioning. As time went on her classmates eventually caught up with JT’s reading ability. But her advanced reading skills continued to serve her well. She went on to become a successful attorney, and, of course, a mother who now reads regularly to children of her own.
Occasionally I will get inquires regarding what happens to neurotypical hyperlexic children when they grow up. I do have messages from persons in their 50’s or older who wrote to tell me they were in my hyperlexic I category as children and then “grew up” perfectly normally with no lingering residuals of any “autistic-like” traits or behaviors whatsoever. This is how one such individual summarized his lifelong experience after having been hyperlexic as a child.
Case Example 2
LM, now 34, began to read shortly before age 3. She was obsessed with words and letters and was never without a book. She pointed out signs and other lettering everywhere and pointed out spelling errors and typos wherever they occurred. While perhaps not understanding entirely what she was reading, the enjoyment she got from reading was the ‘music of the language’. She would sometimes begin reading in the middle of book; it didn’t really matter. Reading was soothing no matter the story.
LM was good at math and had musical talent as well, including perfect pitch. Psychological testing was carried out to see if LM was a child prodigy; “I was not but at the end of it was proclaimed “normal”. Social awkwardness was a problem as a child and LM had few friends.
LM’s family immigrated to the United States when she was 13. She was enrolled in a private school through a scholarship and without any formal instruction in English became fluent in English within that first year. Following high school LM completed a Master’s degree in Engineering and then obtained a law degree and is now a patent attorney at a large law firm. Her social skills have largely normalized. LM finds her advanced reading skills continue and are incredibly useful in her profession. Her memory for verbatim sketches of text are very useful in legal research. Her colleagues admire her ability to spot typos at a glance and the very rapid reading ability continues to be an asset in her work.
LM indicates, appropriately, that she hesitates to label her early reading ability—her type of “hyperlexia”—a “disorder” at all. She feels, instead, her early reading ability was an asset, not a liability, and certainly not a “disorder”. “I was fortunate to have grown up when that diagnosis did not exist. The only label that my parents even thought of was “gifted”.
Others share that hesitation to label what I call Hyperlexia I as “hyperlexia” at all lest it be considered some sort of abnormal condition or “disorder” in perfectly neurotypical, “normal” children. I share that reservation but in recent years the term “hyperlexia”—early reading ability—has been too often mistakenly identified as being a “splinter skill” in children with autism, which, in most instances, as I point out in this paper, it is not. Therefore I have proposed the Hyperlexia I, II and III categories so that a vital distinction can be made between normal variants and skills in children who happen to read early, and those with true disorders.
In short Hyperlexia I is not a ‘disorder’; it requires no treatment. Rather it is a very interesting phenomenon in otherwise usually very bright, “normal”, young children who startle their parents and others with precocious reading ability. While peers eventually catch up in reading skills, hyperlexia I ability bodes well for future academic success in those children with this special ability.
Hyperlexia, type II
This is a group of children who do have hyperlexia as a “splinter skill” as a part of an autistic spectrum disorder. They read voraciously usually with astonishing memory for what they read, often accompanied by other memorization tasks and abilities, sometimes linked with number or even calendar calculating skills. These “splinter skills” are seen along with, and in the midst of, the characteristic language, social and behavioral symptoms seen in autistic spectrum disorders. They usually carry a diagnosis of autistic disorder, Asperger’s disorder or pervasive developmental disorder (PPD/NOS) for example. These cases include the several sub-types of autistic disorder such as classic early infantile autism, early onset autism or late onset, regressive autism to name several.
In this group it is the hyperlexia that raises the “savant syndrome” questions with some clinicians labeling the hyperlexia a “splinter skill”. Clinical presentation, course of the illness and prognosis are those seen in autistic spectrum disorders. However, as pointed out earlier, the precocious reading ability can be a valuable tool for teaching language and social skills. As such, rather than being marginalized or trivialized as a “splinter skill”, clinicians should embrace the hyperlexia and capitalize on its value as a treatment tool. Such a “splinter skill” can be what I refer to as an “island of intactness” in such a child and it is a process of identifying, engaging and enlarging those “islands of intactness”,in my view, that constitutes effective treatment in autistic spectrum disorders.
Thus, hyperlexia can be a splinter skill in savant syndrome in a child with an underlying Autistic Spectrum Disorder, but it is not necessarily so and the differentiation of Autistic Spectrum Disorder from “autistic-like” behaviors is a critical one in terms of intervention, treatment and outcome.
Hyperlexia, type III
This is a less frequently recognized form of hyperlexia overall. It is not an Autistic Spectrum Disorder even though there are some “autistic-like” traits and behaviors which gradually fade as the child gets older.
These children also read early, often show striking memorization abilities, and sometimes have precocious abilities in other areas as well. They may have “autistic-like” behaviors, but, in my experience, they do not have Autistic Disorder. For example, they may show unusual sensory sensitivity (to sounds or touch or taste). Unlike children with Autistic Disorder, they are often very outgoing and affectionate with family, but reserved and distant with peers and would be playmates. They do tend to make eye contact and can be very interactive with persons close to them. There may be fascination with, or intense insistence on, routine and resistance to change. These children seem quite bright, inquisitive and precocious in some areas overall. Interest in, and mastery of, reading coupled with memory powers memorization is conspicuous and often quite amazing. There may other “autistic-like” symptoms or behaviors as well. But these symptoms and behaviors, prognosis ultimately shows, are indeed “autistic-like” and are not Autistic Disorder as such. Over time the autistic behaviors and symptoms fade and, as it turns out, these children then are quite normal (neurotypical) for their age. These are children who “outgrow” their autism, or, more accurately in my view, did not have Autistic Disorder or any of its variants to begin with. The prognosis for these children excellent and I have followed now a number of such cases via correspondence where the outcome has been just that—excellent.
Case Example 1
A mother wrote: “Reading the summary on your web site is like reading the description of my daughter in every way. She was a late talker, socially-avoidant with those she didn’t know well, and began reading at age 2 ½ or so (it’s hard for me to tell when she started as I assumed she was memorizing books until this point). In your words she was ‘autistic-like’ but the diagnosis never seemed right on a number of measures. She was diagnosed with autism a few months before she turned three but it never quite fit. After 15 months of interventions, she is now a normal (whatever that means) 4½ year old and the consensus is that she was misdiagnosed. That said, she continues to display a number of precocious skills (reading, math, spatial skills, expressive language, etc) and, while not delayed in any measurable sense, she is also an unusual child with respect to social relationships (precocious these days), sensory issues and activity level.” This mother indicated that while she was “relieved that autism is no longer an issue,” she was having difficulty making educational choices for her daughter, including whether to send her to kindergarten early based on her advanced academic functioning (generally at a 2nd grade level) or to hold her back one year because her social and emotional skills (while no longer delayed) were not entirely consonant, as yet, with her academic abilities. She was in the process of exploring various educational settings to see what might work out best. But at least “autism” was, to her great relief, out of the picture.
Case Example 2
After reading the original hyperlexia posting on this website a mother sent me a video of her son, NS, reciting the alphabet at age 23 months. He “sees letters and numbers everywhere and spells out the names of the stores” as he and his Mom visit the mall, for example.
NH was given a “clear” diagnosis of “autism” by a psychologist after referral by a neurologist when the child was 12 months old because he never pointed, clapped or waved. But before he turned 2 NS had about 100 words and by his 2nd birthday he was putting two words together and “was doing great and was gaining more and more skills every month. He was happy and loved to learn.” In spite of the diagnosis of “autism” NS was communicating well at age 2, and while content playing alone he did copy and imitate other children and especially enjoyed older children ages 4-6, for example. He would give his family plentiful hugs and kisses. He knew all of his colors. At that point mother wrote “Many people who meet NS and I tell them he has autism are surprised, I think because for the most part he is engaged and social. He has done well with the ABA. The fascination with the letters, and numbers is strange however.”
About six months later I got a follow-up on NS: “I wanted to thank you for your words of encouragement. You were right. NS is doing very well. He has caught up and is at age level for his language. He continues to be VERY social and affectionate. He still loves letters and numbers. His skills have increased and at age 2½ months he counts and recognizes up to 40 and can tell you what starts with the letter “b,” “a,” “z” and so on. He is mimic reading also. He doesn’t know how to read, but for example will read “b…l…u…e” and then say “Yes, it’s blue,” He is social, however, he doesn’t do much of the whole pretend play. He loves to play with his cousins, run around the house, go to the park and play with other kids. From my account right now, I have a regular 2 year old who had some special extras!!”
Case Example 3
GM was 5 years old when his mother first wrote to me in 2002. “GM was hyperlexic as a child. He showed “autistic-like symptoms early on but as language emerged, they have all but disappeared. He still struggles with vocabulary and usage, but thankfully he is a motivated child who is trying so hard to develop coping mechanisms to manage this unique learning style. As you know, there is much debate about hyperlexia and into which diagnostic category it falls. You have outlined them very well I think. It was a long and difficult road for me as a mother trying to get a handle on things. I wish I had seen the article sooner.” I received an 8 year follow-up from GM’s mother in 2010 in gratitude for that earlier hyperlexia article. GM is now 13½. “and doing exceptionally well.” GM is an A/B student. He is “on the quiet side until he is comfortable.” He has no sensory issues and does fine with friends and when in groups. “Earning a black belt in tae kwon do helped with confidence on many fronts. Skills-wise GM is a musical whiz. He has what you referred to once as super-abilities. He took piano lessons for 5 years and played beautiful music, but the rock star in him loves drums. Once he discovered percussion, you’d think her had been playing them forever. His talent is innate.”
“GM knows he is hyperlexic. Sometimes when there is a big group talking all at once he has difficulty following the chatter. He experiences the same when there is a lot of unfamiliar information to digest in certain subjects like history and science. That said, he copes very well and is exceptionally comfortable asking for help or clarity. He is the sweetest, most thoughtful kid. He has a very kind heart that melts mine. I couldn’t be more pleased with his management of hyperlexia. He undoubtedly falls into the third group you described. Though the early years were very challenging and often lonely, I treasure his leaps and tenacity. He is my hero.”
Case example 4
When AB was 2.3 years old he was diagnosed by a speech therapist as having PDD-NOS in that he was reading sight words but had very little pragmatic language and delayed social skills. His parents took him to two developmental pediatricians both of whom felt that while AB did have many autistic-like flags—poor eye contact, expressive/receptive language delays, lining/stacking behaviors, under sensitivity to pain and early reading, he did not fit the PDD-NOS clinical picture.
His mother recently wrote “that through whatever research I could find, your type III hyperlexia seemed like the best fit description of AB—and gave me some optimism. Now a year later, with the help of speech therapy and a small preschool for kids with special needs, AB is speaking in full sentences, initiating conversations, developing pretend play and is very engaged. His language is still out of sync with his reading ability—he’s not quite there with questions words and I expect that he is still not quite at age level for expressive/receptive language, while he is easily reading at a 1st/2nd grade level. I am sure we will continue to face challenges, but it is truly remarkable how much he has changed now that his language has improved.”
In subsequent correspondence AB’s mother listed some of the other “autistic-like” behaviors AB did show for a period of time: rituals and insistence on sameness, knew letters and numbers to 100 before he said “mama,” more interested in page numbers in a book or the color of the page than the pictures or the story, obsessed with letters and numbers, atypical language development with a large collections of nouns by age 2 but not spontaneously combining words (like centipede or octagon), at age 9 months he would carry his magnetic alphabet letters from one room to another, always in the same (non-alphabetical) order and at age 2 did 24-piece jigsaw puzzles in the same order each time.
AB’s parents just had their first conference after AB had attended his new preschool. Mother reports that “socially AB was described as ‘the ring leader’ and ‘concerned about how all the kids are feeling’ and ‘adaptable’. Ironically his language was rated higher than his gross motor skills (which are perfectly fine—he has never been in O.T.” She went on to say that “I am truly grateful for your interest and insights into hyperlexia. It’s been incredibly helpful for our family.” In her correspondence with me AB’s mother indicated she had learned tremendous amount through this whole process: how to cope with experts insisting your child is classically autistic; how to navigate insurance, and how to deal with parents on the playground staring when your toddler reads all the signs for example. She offers “if I can be of any help to other parents in a similar situation” she would be glad to do so.
Any parents who wish to take her up on this kind offer can send such questions to me at [email protected] and I would be glad to forward them to her for reply. Because often, in my experience, the true ‘experts’ in handling specific problematic behaviors in their children with hyperlexia and autistic-like behaviors are the loving Mom’s and Dad’s themselves.
Other conditions where “autistic-like” traits and behaviors occur
Hyperlexia is not the only circumstance where a distinction between “autism” and “autistic-like” is a critical one; that same differential diagnosis is important in children who are visually impaired. Teachers of visually impaired children, and parents, often refer to what are called “blindisms” in such children. In a 1998 article Ek, Ferrell, Jacobson and Gilberg (Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 40: 297-301) point out that “blindisms”—stereotypical movements, language problems and certain other behaviors–are common in children with congenital or other types of blindness: “Hobson (1993) described the similarities in development during pre-school age (3-4 years) between blind children and those with autism. In both groups impairments in symbolic play, confusion in the use of language and stereotypies were frequent. Many of the autistic features observed in the young, blind child without cerebral damage disappeared with age; as the child acquired a better understanding of the surrounding world, and with the development of language, a basis for sharing experiences and feelings with other people developed. According to Hobson ‘blindness seem to delay rather than prevent development in these respects” (emphasis mine).
Other researchers have concluded as well that “autism,” “autistic symptoms” and “blindisms” are often confused with each other and may be difficult to separate in blind children. But that distinction in visually impaired children, just as in children with hyperlexia, is critical if parents are to be spared unnecessary distress from a diagnosis improperly applied and, equally important, if the right course of treatment is to be applied to the right patient.
There are other conditions where a particular illness- “like” would be an appropriate qualification and caveat. For example some patients on certain medications may have “Parkinson-like” side effects but do not have Parkinson’s disease. Or certain medication side effects or other brain conditions, some transient, can produce “Alzheimer’s-like” signs and symptoms but not be actual Alzheimer’s Disorder. In such cases exceedingly careful history, observation and examination is critical, and sometime it is necessary to let the ‘natural history of the disorder’ emerge before applying a definitive diagnosis or ‘label’ that can have important, lasting consequences. Treatment can still be applied to target symptoms, but parents or others can, in those cases, be spared the unnecessary worry and fear that can accompany certain diagnoses prematurely applied.
The first step in treatment is to make the proper diagnosis: management follows.
The point of this posting on hyperlexia is not to exhaustively discuss the disorder. Rather it is to point out that when precocious reading ability and extraordinary fascination with words presents itself in a very young child, especially when accompanied by other language or social problems that might suggest an autistic spectrum disorder, a comprehensive assessment by a knowledgeable professional or team familiar with the differential diagnosis of the various forms of hyperlexia is indicated.
The first step in treatment is to make the proper diagnosis; an evaluation by a skilled clinician can accomplish that. What I have tried to point out is that in some cases hyperlexia can be a “splinter skill” in Autistic Disorder and that is the appropriate diagnosis; I simply advise caution in applying that diagnosis in children with hyperlexia as a presenting symptom. That caution stems from the pervasive, mistaken notion that hyperlexia in a very young child is always linked to autism or that hyperlexia is by definition, in all cases, a part of autism spectrum disorders. It is not in all cases. When a diagnosis or label of “autism” is prematurely and erroneously applied to a group of children I identify as Hyperlexia III, it produces much unwarranted stress, burden, and worry on part of the parents along with mistaken predictions regarding prognosis.
The “abundance of caution” and “watchful observation” I recommend in children with Hyperlexia III does not preclude intervention and treatment while the “natural history” of the disorder separates out Hyperlexia III from Autistic Disorder. Speech and Language treatment to deal with the speech and comprehension problems, Occupational Therapy to deal with some of the sensory and social isolation issues, and ABA intervention to deal with some of the ritual issues, for example, can all help with the “autistic-like” symptoms just as they do in those children with actual Autistic Disorder. Several parents who had inquired on this site about their child with accelerated, savant-like precocious reading ability, obtained considerable help, and relief, when, in those particular instances, the diagnostic and treatment approaches consistent with the above were followed. That then was an especially grateful group of parents their when their hyperlexic child, as it turned out, was in group III above with “autistic-like” symptoms rather than Autistic Disorder.
But the “abundance of caution” works in the other direction as well. Just as there is risk in making false positive diagnoses of Autistic Disorder in children with Hyperlexia III, there is also the risk of giving false hope in those instances where the hyperlexia is indeed a part of an Autistic Spectrum Disorder. My answer to both those risks: Careful, comprehensive evaluation by skilled clinicians knowledgeable about both Autistic Disorder and what I have come to call Hyperlexia II and III. From such an informed consultation equally informed intervention strategies will emerge whatever the correct diagnosis.
From my correspondence with parents in both Hyperlexia II and III groups, I found that even those parents in group II whose children did have Autistic Disorder in which hyperlexia was a presenting sign or symptom, were also helped, and relieved, when directed to knowledgeable treatment resources in their community. Hopefully, as the literature continues to evolve on hyperlexia, there will be more clarification regarding the classification of hyperlexia into its component sub-groups, and then even more resources will emerge for comprehensive evaluation and then application of appropriate treatment principles to those children into whichever sub-group they belong.
In the meantime I continue to solicit information from parents about more cases, particularly in group III, above, so I can share those stories that have turned out so well, as reassurance, with other parents who are in the beginnings of a search for the appropriate diagnosis and treatment regimen for their child. Letters that I continue to receive, like the one from a mother today outlining how her now 12-year-old-son “is more-or-less outgrowing the “minor traits” that had led to an earlier diagnosis of Asperger’s Disorder is what prompts me to continue writing about hyperlexia and its sub-groups. The beginning of wisdom is to call things by their right names, and the first step in treatment is to make an accurate diagnosis. It is in that spirit that I make the distinction between the several forms of hyperlexia, and the vital distinction between “autistic-like” symptoms and Autistic Disorder. Hopefully that will be of help to other parents as it has been already to so many.
Addendum: Children who talk late and children who read early
In my research on hyperlexia I came across the work of Thomas Sowell and particularly his book Late-talking Children. In doing so I was struck by the similarity of Mr. Sowell’s experience with late talking children and my experience with children who read early. In a follow-up book four years later titled The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk Late, Sowell made the following observation: “Many parents wrote to me to say that they were astonished to read about things that seemed like an eye-witness description of their own child and their own family. One mother said that she got goose-bumps reading descriptions that fit her child and her family so closely, while other mothers have reported simply weeping as they read for the first time something that so obviously fitted their own puzzling child.”
Many parents, likewise, having read about Hyperlexia III have written me the same thing.
What Sowell found was that many cases of children who had delayed speech were being inappropriately diagnosed as “autistic” sometimes by persons not particularly qualified to do so. But also “Then there are the experts specializing in autism. They are in one sense particularly well qualified for saying whether a given child does or does not fit this category. On the other hand, to some of the experts “autism” is just a label to be used for the sake of expediency in getting government funding of help that the child needs on other grounds. Others are engaged in a campaign to downgrade the shock of the term by applying it widely. Still others may simply have a specialist’s bias, expressed by one of the persons in our group as: ‘To a hammer, everything looks like a nail.”
Yet Sowell is careful to point out that in some cases the diagnosis of ASD was the proper one and delayed speech can be, in certain instances, a part of ASD or from other physical causes. But what he also found, based on correspondence with a significant number of parents, was that in some instances children with delayed speech were being diagnosed as “autistic” when in fact some of them, like children with “hyperlexia” did have transient “autistic-like” symptoms that faded over time indicating a diagnosis of ‘autism’ had been prematurely and mistakenly applied. With that error came the same worry, concern and pessimism that some of the parents of hyperlexic children were experiencing as expressed in correspondence with me.
Sowell’s 1997 book was about 46 cases of children who talked late. Four years later, in 2001, his follow-up book, The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk Late provided follow-up on many in that original group, based on correspondence with the parents of those children. But in the interim he had received a great deal of correspondence from other parents whose children talked late and from all those cases he came to the conclusion that some of those children, but not all, fell into a condition that he named “The Einstein Syndrome”: children who were exceptionally bright but at the same time were exceptionally late in beginning to speak. This subgroup of children who talked late had a distinctive set of characteristics—“speech development lags far behind that of other children their age, while their intellectual development surges ahead of their peers. The most famous such person was Albert Einstein, but that have been many others,” according to Sowell.
I am not going to describe The Einstein Syndrome here in any detail; I leave that to Sowell’s excellent book. But his journey with parents of children who talk late, some of whom do have that syndrome, while others have different causes for their difficulties including autism in some instances, is very similar in many respects to my journey, and enlightenment, from parents whose children read early. And some of Sowells’s “conclusions and questions” at the end of his first book mirror some conclusions of my own with respect to hyperlexia and “hyperlexia” could, as far as I am concerned often be substituted for “children who talk late.”
“There are many reasons why children talk late and very different reasons why they do….whether a given child is simply delayed in speaking or has serious mental or other disabilities is a crucial question for which good professional evaluation is necessary.”
“The kinds of children who talk late but then go on to do well in schools and colleges, and to have careers in demanding fields may be more common than I would have suspected a year or two ago,”
“where late-talking is a transient phenomenon, it is almost as if it never happened, as far as the experiences of people outside the family are concerned. In adulthood, the individual himself is often unaware that he talked late—something which usually had nothing like the ominous meaning and emotional stress for the child that it did for the parent.”
“The experiences of the parents and children in our group may help fill some of the void, both for parents and for those who might otherwise be quick to label a child, risking needless anguish for the parents and long-run damage to the child, especially if he gets swallowed up by one of the many special programs from which few emerge into a normal school setting. Parents must also be prepared to fight for their children’s interests and not be manipulated or intimidated by the education system’s ‘experts’ and smooth talkers. If you need a real expert, hire your own.”
“If competent medical authorities discover some recognizable reason for the child’s delay in talking, they are likely also to be the best source of advice on what to do about it.”
“But what if medical science ends up as baffled as the parents, because specialists can find nothing wrong and the child seems obviously bright? There are no miracle methods for getting the child talking, but patience, love and attention may be the best help for this, as for many other things.”
In short, lessons from Sowell’s experience with children who talk late mirror in many ways my experience with children who read early. Thus hyperlexia, like delayed speech, can be from a variety of causes in several sub-groups. While “autism” can be one of those causes in both delayed speech and hyperlexia, that diagnosis is sometimes applied prematurely or inappropriately in both conditions causing undo pessimism and unnecessary stress on the parents already concerned about particular behaviors. The way to avoid that, when there is concern about a particular bit of behavior, is to have a comprehensive evaluation, physical and psychological, by a skilled clinician familiar with both autism and delayed speech, or hyperlexia, or whatever the presenting behavior of concern. Even then sometimes “watchful expectation” will be recommended the best course as the ‘natural history’ of the behavior emerges without applying an “autism,” or any other diagnosis, when not warranted. As it turns out, even in the absence of a diagnosis of autism, “treatment” during that period of observation is the same—attention to sensory, social and behavioral symptoms of concern by formal speech and language or ABA interventions, for example, along with the “patience, love and attention” from caring and involved parents that both Sowell and I would recommend. In matters such as this, as in many other matters, love is a pretty good therapist too.
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Who plays Jack Regan in the 2012 film ‘The Sweeney’? | Related conditions - NAS
Related conditions
Last updated: 13th October 2016
Related conditions
Autism is often diagnosed alongside other conditions. It's important to support people with more than one condition in a way that meets all their needs, while understanding that the needs arising from autism are distinct.
ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)
Most people with ADHD have difficulty with both inattentiveness and hyperactivity-impulsivity. For some people with ADHD, their difficulties mainly lie in just one of these two areas. ADHD has an impact on day-to-day life, including school, work and relationships.
ADHD tends to run in families, and most children who are diagnosed get the diagnosis between the ages of 6 and 12.
There can be confusion about the links between ADHD and autism .
Find out more at ADDISS , YoungMinds , The ADHD Foundation and ADDUK (a site by and for adults with ADHD).
Hearing impairment
The NHS offers hearing screening for all newborn babies in their first few weeks. Early diagnosis increases their chances of good communication and language development.
Some autistic people have sensory processing difficulties. If you or the person you are care for or support is sensitive to noise, arrange a hearing test through your GP.
Professionals who specialise in autism and hearing impairment do not always agree on the best approaches. But many professionals have found that when parents teach their child sign language at an early stage, it can help them to communicate and assist their learning as they grow up. Some communication approaches to try include: visual supports , objects of reference, British Sign Language (BSL) and Makaton .
Find out more about deafness, hearing loss and hearing impairment from Action on Hearing Loss (0808 808 0123).
Down's syndrome
Down's syndrome is a lifelong condition that causes delays in learning and development. It cannot be cured, but people with the condition can be supported to live a happy and independent life.
Most parents find out that their baby has Down's syndrome soon after their birth. It occurs because some babies' cells contain an extra chromosome 21.
All people with Down's syndrome will have some degree of learning disability. Children with Down's syndrome do learn to walk, talk and be toilet trained but in general will meet these developmental milestones later than children who do not have Down's syndrome. They may find it easier to learn visually, like many people on the autism spectrum, and learn to talk more easily if the main words are signed as well as spoken.
Some people have a dual diagnosis of Down’s syndrome and autism. You can find out more from the Down’s Syndrome Association (0333 1212 300).
Reproduced by kind permission of the Down's Syndrome Association
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a lifelong specific learning difficulty which mainly affects the development of literacy and language related skills. It affects the way information is processed, stored and retrieved, with problems of memory, speed of processing, time perception, organisation and sequencing.
Get more information about dyslexia, screening and diagnosis, and tips for teachers, from the British Dyslexia Association (0333 405 4567)
Dyspraxia
Dyspraxia is thought to be caused by the way that the brain processes information, which results in messages not being properly or fully transmitted. It affects the planning of what to do and how to do it, and is associated with problems of perception, language and thought. Dyspraxia sometimes runs in families.
Autistic people often have difficulties with motor co-ordination and, if they are significantly affected in this way, may also be given a formal diagnosis of dyspraxia. As with autism, people with dyspraxia may be over- or under-sensitive to certain sensory stimuli .
Find out more from the Dyspraxia Foundation (01462 454986).
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a condition in which a person has recurrent seizures due to an imbalance in brain chemistry. One in 103 people has epilepsy. Many types of seizure can occur and epilepsy can affect anyone at any age.
People who are on the autism spectrum are more likely to have epilepsy than people who aren’t. People who have epilepsy are more likely to be on the autism spectrum than those without epilepsy. One does not cause the other. Autistic people who have intellectual disability are more likely to develop epilepsy than others on the spectrum.
Some behaviours associated with autism can look like seizures, eg staring or repetitive movements. Any concerns should be explored by a specialist.
For more information about epilepsy from Epilepsy Action (0808 800 5050) or the Epilepsy Society (01494 601400).
Fetal anti-convulsant syndrome (FACS)
Fetal anti-convulsant syndrome (FACS) can occur when a woman takes epilepsy medications (anti-convulsants) during pregnancy. Not every child who is exposed to these medicines will have FACS. A child with FACS may have a delay in developing speech and language or may have difficulties with social interaction, memory and attention. Some may also have other conditions, such as spina bifida. A number of children with FACS also have a diagnosis of autism.
Find out more from the Fetal Anti Convulsant Syndrome Association (FACSA) and the Organisation for Anti-Convulsant Syndromes (OACS) .
Fragile X syndrome
Fragile X Syndrome is the most common known cause of inherited learning disability, affecting one in 4,000 men or boys and one in 6,000 women or girls. People with Fragile X can have mild to severe learning disabilities. Their speech and language development may be delayed and they can experience anxiety in social situations.
Behaviours associated with Fragile X can include a short attention span, impulsiveness, overactivity, dislike of eye contact, difficulty in relating to other people, the need for a familiar routine, repetitive speech and hand flapping or hand biting.
Some of these are similar to difficulties that autistic people may experience. However, autism and Fragile X syndrome are two different diagnoses. Some people are diagnosed with both.
For more information, visit The Fragile X Society (01371 875100).
Adapted and reproduced by kind permission of the Fragile X Society
Hyperlexia
Hyperlexia is characterised by an intense fascination with letters or numbers or, in younger people, an ability to read far beyond their age. People with hyperlexia may, nevertheless, have difficulty understanding verbal language and interacting and socialising with others. Find out more at Hyperlexia UK .
Learning disabilities
Autistic people can have different 'degrees' of learning disability, which can affect all aspects of their life, from studying in school to learning how to wash themselves or make a meal. Some people will be able to live fairly independently - although they may need a degree of support to achieve this - while others may require lifelong, specialist support. People with a diagnosis of Asperger syndrome do not usually have accompanying learning disabilities, but may still have specific learning difficulties, such as dyslexia.
Find out more from BILD , Foundation for people with Learning Disabilities , and Mencap (0808 808 1111).
Social Communication Disorder
This diagnosis might be given where someone exhibits the social communication and interaction aspects of autism, but does not show restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests or activities.
A person with social communication disorder will have difficulties with verbal and non-verbal communication that cannot be explained by low cognitive ability, will have difficulties in learning and using spoken and written language, and will give inappropriate responses in conversation. Social relationships, academic achievement and occupational performance can be affected.
Some people with these characteristics may have been given a diagnosis of Semantic Pragmatic Disorder or Pragmatic Language Impairment.
Find out more at Afasic and I CAN .
Visual impairment
Visual impairment is 'a profound permanent reduction or absence of vision that cannot be corrected with spectacles or contact lenses'. A child may be found to have a visual impairment in the first few months of life, before it is possible to diagnose autism; start life sighted but later lose their sight; or lose their sight through self-injury. There are no published tools for diagnosing autism in people with visual impairment.
We do not know how many autistic people have visual impairment. Visual impairment itself is low incidence, so visual impairment and autism must be very low incidence.
However, for the people concerned, for their families and for the practitioners working with them, the impact is very high. When visual impairment and autism occur together, it is not a question of simply adding together the impact of the two disabilities - the impact is much greater because the difficulties arising from each disability interact with each other.
Autistic people who have visual impairment will all have individual characteristics, abilities and needs. Commonly-used approaches will not always be suitable.
Find out more from RNIB’s Visual impairment and autism resource pack (0303 123 9999).
Did you find this information helpful?
Tel: +44 (0)20 7833 2299
Fax: +44 (0)20 7833 9666
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Xuan (or Shuen) paper is commonly known by what name? | Chinese Painting Rice Paper and Supplies @ BlueHeronArts
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Large sheet size 27.5"x54"(69x138cm) *Sold in bundles of 5. 10, 50, 100. Please see quantity prices below to order.
This government-owned "Red Star" brand, Single ply raw xuan(Sheng xuan) paper is the best known brand name of brush painting paper in China.
The handmade Red Star Xuan Paper in Jing Country Anhui, or Rice paper as it is known to the west, is not made from rice straw or bamboo pulp. Rather it's from the bark fiber of a special tree called Qintan or Than trees(Pteroceltis Tatarinowii Maxim). This tree's bark fiber can be peeled and grow back again and again. Because of these special fiber, top quality xuan paper can last for hundreds of years.
The Red Star paper belongs to the Clean-Bark or Fine-Bark category which contains more than 60% Qintan fibers. When light ink is applied on it, the ink would get rich tones, kept fresh but not turning gray; when watercolors are applied, it would show mellowness but not stiff; smear smoothly, with good absorbent capability. In cotton white and firm texture, it is good for both calligraphy and painting, perfect for painting flower and birds, figures, animals and landscape painting. Red Star Xuan is very sensitive with superb absorbency. Strong Qintan fiber makes it very strong during repeated washing or wet mounting. I would strongly recommend it to experienced Chinese painting artist and advanced sumi-e students to try and see what's authentic Chinese Xuan paper.
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Who was the father of American singer-songwriter Norah Jones? | Cheng-Khee Chee: Asian Art Papers
By: Holly Davis |
February 12, 2015
This article by Cheng-Khee Chee first appeared in the April 2014 Ask the Experts column of The Artist’s Magazine .
Q: I’m confused by the different types of Asian art papers, such as masa, kozo and mulberry, not to mention those with more exotic-sounding names like “kinwashi.” Can you help me sort out the different types?
Cheng-Khee Chee’s Answer:
The term “Asian art papers,” as used here, means the painting papers made in China, Japan and Korea for ink/brush painting. These papers are made from a great variety of plant fibers, such as bamboo, mulberry bark, cotton, hemp, linen and rice straw (dried stalks of the rice plant). Perhaps it was the rice straw paper that gave Westerners the idea to describe all Asian painting papers as “rice papers.”
Asian painting papers come in various thicknesses and sizes, and have different degrees of absorbency, created by adding sizing such as starch, alum, glue or gelatin in the manufacturing process. The sized papers give artists more control; therefore, they’re more suitable for a detailed-style of painting. Unsized papers are very absorbent and, therefore, are more suitable for a spontaneous and expressive style of painting. Semi-sized papers fall between the other two levels of absorbency.
The best and most desirable paper for Chinese ink/brush painting and calligraphy is Xuan (also “Shuan” or “Shuen”) paper. It was originally made in the Xuan County of Anhui Province in Southern China. The main ingredient was the bark of blue sandalwood, to which other fibers, such as mulberry bark, bamboo, hemp, linen and rice straw, might be added. Now any paper that is made in a similar manner is called Xuan paper, regardless of where it’s manufactured.
Chinese masters prefer single (one-ply) Xuan paper because this somewhat translucent material has a smooth and sensitive surface that’s receptive to brushstrokes. The paper also allows for vivid colors and exquisite ink tones, although the smooth, thin surface makes inks and watercolors harder to control. Double (two-ply) Xuan paper is slightly thicker, which allows for easier control of inks and watercolors; therefore, it’s more suitable for beginners. Sized Xuan paper is much less absorbent than the unsized version, so the sized paper is most suitable for a detailed-style of painting.
Because Xuan paper is made with short fibers, it has an exquisite, fragile quality and easily falls apart when wet. This paper must be handled with care.
On the other hand, Chinese mao bian (hairy-edged) paper, is made with longer fibers that you can pull from the paper’s “hairy” edges. The longer fibers add strength, so the paper won’t fall apart when wet. For this reason, mao bian paper is also called pi (skin or leather) paper.
Comparison of paper fibers: Short-fibered Xuan paper has a clean edge, smooth surface and fragile consistency. Long-fiered mao bian or pi paper has a “hairy” edge, coarsr texture and relatively strong consistency. Both are Chinese papers.
The Japanese papers best known to Americans are the following:
Masa paper is machine made from sulfite pulp (the almost pure cellulose fiber produced by what is called “the sulfite process,” which involves the use of sulfite and salt), is heavily sized and very strong. I use it for my crinkled paper technique and also as a backing sheet on which to paste paintings done on fragile paper.
Kozo paper is handmade from long kozo fibers. It’s lightly sized and very strong. I used it for ink/brush painting, mono-printing and marbleizing.
Mulberry paper is handmade from mulberry fiber and sulfite and is very strong. I use it for ink/brush painting.
Kinwashi paper is machine made from Manila hemp embedded with short fibers. This paper is generally intended for decorative use; I use it occasionally for painting because of the added interest of the embedded fiber.
Overall, Asian painting papers, regardless of the manufacturer, thickness, size of sheet or absorbency, are much thinner and more delicate than Western watercolor papers. —Cheng-Khee Chee
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