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Dorado is Spanish for which colour? | color dorado - English translation – Linguee
El bello y elegante color dorado del vermeil, labrado [...]
cuidadosamente, deja al descubierto la base de plata de ley.
parker-51.com
The beautifully refined gold colour of the vermeil is [...]
expertly chiselled, revealing the sterling silver base beneath.
parker-51.com
Ya se estￜ buscando la manera de
[...]
optimizar la iluminaciï¿œn, que tiene que integrarse en el armazï¿œn,
[...] justo en el tubo de color dorado situado junto al asiento.
ottobock.com
Optimising the lamps is already in
[...]
the works. They are going to be integrated into the frame
[...] components, right into the gold-coloured tube next to the seat.
ottobock.com
Los tubos exteriores de la
[...] horquilla delantera eran de color dorado.
yamaha-motor-europe.com
Poner abundante aceite en la sartï¿œn y
[...]
freï¿œr en el aceite la masa echando la cantidad de una cuchara por cada
[...] croqueta, hasta que tomen un color dorado castaï¿œo.
jumboeurope.com
Pour plenty of oil in the frying-pan and fry the paste in the oil, using 1 tsp.
[...] per croquette, until golden-brown in colour.
jumboeurope.com
Las especiales condiciones climï¿œticas y orogrï¿œficas de esta zona y un
[...]
tradicional proceso de producciï¿œn del aceite, dan lugar a
[...] un producto ï¿œnico, de color dorado, sabor intenso y ligeramente dulce.
spain.info
The special climate and topographic conditions of the area
[...]
and a traditional production process result in
[...] a unique product, golden in colour, intense in flavour [...]
and slightly sweet.
La crï¿œtica lo ha calificado con un 98 y de ï¿œl se ha
[...] destacado su intenso color dorado, su fino aroma y su [...]
capacidad para construir "una perfecta sinfonï¿œa" en la boca.
guialomejordelmundo.com
It was awarded 98 points by a panel of prestigious critics, who
[...] highlighted its deep golden colour, fine bouquet and [...]
capacity to develop "a perfect symphony" in the mouth.
guialomejordelmundo.com
Cuando sea un dï¿œa festivo, los ornamentos sagrados de color dorado o plateado pueden sustituir a los de otros colores, [...]
pero no a los de color morado o negro.
pcf.va
pcf.va
On the occasion of a feastday, sacred
[...] vestments of a gold or silver colour can be substituted as appropriate for others of various colours, but [...]
not for purple or black.
pcf.va
Cuando el contacto se agrega a la lista de favoritos, la estrella serￜ de color dorado.
revol.com
When the contact is added to your favorites list, the star will be goldcolored.
revol.com
| Gold |
Who became the youngest winner of FHM’s ‘Sexiest Woman in the World’ award in 2006? | dorado - Diccionario Inglés-Español WordReference.com
dorado adjadjetivo: Describe el sustantivo. Puede ser posesivo, numeral, demostrativo ("casa grande", "mujer alta").
(de color oro)
gold adjadjective: Describes a noun or pronoun--for example, "a tall girl," "an interesting book," "a big house."
(US)
gold-colored adjadjective: Describes a noun or pronoun--for example, "a tall girl," "an interesting book," "a big house."
(UK)
gold-coloured adjadjective: Describes a noun or pronoun--for example, "a tall girl," "an interesting book," "a big house."
(formal, literary)
golden adjadjective: Describes a noun or pronoun--for example, "a tall girl," "an interesting book," "a big house."
Le regaló un reloj dorado.
He gave him a gold watch.
dorado adjadjetivo: Describe el sustantivo. Puede ser posesivo, numeral, demostrativo ("casa grande", "mujer alta").
(tiempo feliz) (days, years)
golden adjadjective: Describes a noun or pronoun--for example, "a tall girl," "an interesting book," "a big house."
Los años que vivieron juntos fueron años dorados.
The years that they lived together were golden years.
Spanish
English
dorar ⇒ vtrverbo transitivo: Verbo que requiere de un objeto directo ("di la verdad", "encontré una moneda").
(cubrir con oro)
gild vtrtransitive verb: Verb taking a direct object--for example, "Say something." "She found the cat."
El joyero dora las joyas en su taller.
The jeweler gilds the jewelry in his shop.
dorar vtrverbo transitivo: Verbo que requiere de un objeto directo ("di la verdad", "encontré una moneda").
(comida: tostar)
brown vtrtransitive verb: Verb taking a direct object--for example, "Say something." "She found the cat."
Doró el pollo en el horno.
He browned the chicken in the oven.
Spanish
English
dorar vtrverbo transitivo: Verbo que requiere de un objeto directo ("di la verdad", "encontré una moneda").
(dar color dorado)
bronze, gild vtrtransitive verb: Verb taking a direct object--for example, "Say something." "She found the cat."
Los rayos del Sol doran la piel de los bañistas en el balneario.
ⓘEsta oración no es una traducción de la original. The sun bronzed my skin last weekend at the beach.
dorarse v prnlverbo pronominal: Verbo que se conjuga con un pronombre átono ("me", "te", "se") que concuerda con el sujeto ("lavarse", "irse", "enojarse").
(tomar color dorado) (skin)
tan viintransitive verb: Verb not taking a direct object--for example, "She jokes." "He has arrived."
En 3 días que estuvo en la playa, se le doró la piel.
Her skin tanned in the three days they spent at the beach.
dorarse v prnlverbo pronominal: Verbo que se conjuga con un pronombre átono ("me", "te", "se") que concuerda con el sujeto ("lavarse", "irse", "enojarse").
(comida: tostarse) (stove)
brown vtrtransitive verb: Verb taking a direct object--for example, "Say something." "She found the cat."
toast vtrtransitive verb: Verb taking a direct object--for example, "Say something." "She found the cat."
La carne se dora mejor en el asador que en la cocina.
It is better to brown the meat on the grill than on the stove.
| i don't know |
Which British entertainer, born June 1960, played football for Barnet FC at the same time as Jimmy Greaves? | Bradley Walsh - TV Celebrities - ShareTV
[Complete List]
BIOGRAPHY:
Bradley Walsh (born 4 June 1960) is an English Light Entertainer, television actor, comedian and former professional footballer
Background
Bradley Walsh grew up in Leavesden, near Watford. He attended Francis Combe, a comprehensive school in Garston, Hertfordshire.[1]
Football
In the early 1980s, Walsh played professional football for Brentford F.C., although he failed to make the first team. An injury finished his career in the game. He also played for Barnet FC at the same time as Jimmy Greaves
Television
He first came to prominence on television in 1994 as a presenter of the National Lottery before going on to host the British version of Wheel of Fortune in 1997. In 1998, he presented another ITV1 game show, Win, Lose or Draw (both made by Scottish Television) before turning his attention to acting.
Walsh was in the cast of short lived British soap opera Night and Day in 2002. He appeared as Burglar Bill at the Children's Party at the Palace in 2006.
Walsh took part in Northern Rock's All Star Golf Tournament on ITV, which his team, Team Europe, won. Walsh said that he has been playing golf since he was 20.
On 9 September 2006, he hosted the 50 Greatest Stars Polls. He appeared in the three part TV drama Torn. He hosted No. 1 Soap Fan on 29 December 2007 for ITV. In August 2008, Walsh appeared in the reality talent show television series, Maestro on BBC Two.
Walsh is also making a series for ITV called 'My Little Soldier', in which the young contestants are required to do "grown-up things" such as travelling on their own by train.
Walsh was confirmed as the host of a new ITV1 game show called Spin Star that aired from 10 November - 19 December 2008.
Walsh joined the Doctor Who universe by playing three roles in the 2008 Sarah Jane Adventures story The Day of the Clown. Including a sinister clown called Odd Bob, and a mysterious European sounding ringmaster named Elijah Spellman, and the infamous Pied Piper of Hamelin.
Along with his son Barney, he is also featured in one edition of a factual TV series for Five, Dangerous Adventures for Boys, based on the best-selling book written by Conn and Hal Iggulden, The Dangerous Book for Boys.
In June 2009, Bradley hosted a game show for ITV called The Chase. The first series had 10 shows and a second series ended on Friday 23 July 2010.
He can currently been seen as the host on the ITV Saturday night gameshow Odd One In with Peter Andre and Jason Manford. The show has 8 shows which will be on each week, with the last of the series on 4 September 2010.
Coronation Street
On 31 May 2004, he began playing the role of factory boss, Danny Baldwin, in the Granada TV soap opera, Coronation Street, for which he is now best known. Danny was originally going to be called Vic, but Walsh asked for the name to be changed to Danny after his late father. People had previously called him Young Danny, so he thought it would not be so bad when people called him by his character's name.
He won the 'Best Dramatic Performance' award at the British Soap Awards in May 2006 for his role. He was written out of the serial at his own request at the end of that year, however he was not killed off.
Law & Order UK
Bradley has filmed the third series to be aired later this year on ITV1 playing DS Ronnie Brooks in Law & Order: UK.
Film
Walsh starred in the 2001 film Mike Bassett: England Manager. He also appeared in the TV series, Lock, Stock....
Books
Walsh has co-authored a series of personalised Football Story Books in the series 'My Dream Cup Final with...'.
Personal life
Walsh married choreographer Donna in 1997, and they have one son, Barney (born 1998). The family live in Epping, Essex. He has a daughter Hayley (born 1982), from a previous relationship.
Walsh is currently in training as he will be cycling from the North of France to Portugal to raise money for Sane. He appeared on 'That's What I Call Television' with Fern Britton and declared that he is an Arsenal FC fan, On 22 October 2010, Walsh was in attendance at the funeral of fellow actor and comedian Sir Norman Wisdom
Current projects
As of July 2010 Bradley has just finished a tour of stand-up/singing gigs in UK theatres. In a nod to Peter Kay's Mum Wants A Bungalow Tour, this tour was entitled The Wife's New Shoes.
Bradley will be appearing again in Christmas pantomime (Peter Pan) at Cliffs Pavilion, Southend from 11 Dec 2010 - 9 Jan 2011
TRIVIA:
The coach in the English hit movie "Mike Bassett: England manager", he has real football background, having played for Brentford FC.
Related sites for this celeb
| Bradley Walsh |
Who returned to office as Canadian Prime Minister in March 1980? | Bradley Walsh (Actor) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News
Bradley Walsh
Male
Born Jun 4, 1960
Bradley Walsh is an English entertainer, actor, television presenter and former professional footballer. He has presented shows such as The Chase and Odd One In, he currently stars in the ITV Drama series Law & Order: UK. Walsh rose to fame in the mid 1990s after he became a presenter on The National Lottery.… Read More
related links
News + Updates
Browse recent news and stories about Bradley Walsh.
A Decade Of Crime: The Unchanging Scowl Of Man Jailed For Killing Pub Landlord 10 Years Ago And Who Police Are Speaking To Over Another Murder
Daily Mail (UK) - Feb 04, 2013
'Salford gang boss <mark>Bradley Walsh</mark>, who served four years for killing a pub landlord in 2003, has been jailed again after being caught with a kilo of cocaine, and is set to be questioned over the murder of a personal trainer.'
Boxing: Forsyth Plots Next Chapter In His Capital Boxing Saga
Scotsman - Apr 19, 2012
' He may have just won his first Scottish amateur boxing championship title, but already Brian Forsyth is raising the bar with aspirations for bigger and better things â including starring for Scotland at the Commonwealth Games in 2014. The Holyrood gym star was recently successful in the menâs 81kg Scottish finals at Meadowbank, which automatically earned him an international call-up for the forthcoming Belgrade Winners Tournament in Serbia at the beginning of next month. The intensity of...
What's On Today
NYTimes - Sep 07, 2011
'8 P.M. (ESPNU) SEC: STORIED Four hourlong documentaries analyze the traditions and rivalries of Southeastern Conference football, starting with this look at Herschel Walker (above, in 1981), who won the Heisman Trophy at the University of Georgia before playing for the Dallas Cowboys, the Minnesota Vikings, the Philadelphia Eagles and the New York'
'law & Order: Uk' 5.02 'safe' Review Starpulse.Com (Blog)
Google News - Aug 25, 2011
'For the most part, this is <mark>Bradley Walsh</mark>'s episode, and he delivers a fantastic performance, keeping Ronnie Brooks on an even keel and allowing him a certain measure of empathy, rather than having him (and therefore the audience) pass judgment on the'
Learn about the memorable moments in the evolution of Bradley Walsh.
CHILDHOOD
1960 Birth Born on June 4, 1960.
TEENAGE
Show Less
In late 1978, at the age of 18, Walsh became a professional football player for Brentford and although he failed to make the first team, he was regularly a member of the reserves. … Read More
Separate ankle fracture injuries finished his career in the game in the early 1980s after a promising loan spell with non-league Dunstable Town, for whom he scored 15 goals in 25 league appearances. Read Less
Walsh's time at Brentford also saw him play for Barnet on loan, making five league appearances in the 1978â79 season. … Read More
He also played for Tring Town, Boreham Wood and Chalfont St Peter. Read Less
THIRTIES
1994 34 Years Old Following his football career, Walsh had a variety of jobs including working as a bluecoat at Pontins in Morecambe for three months. He first came to prominence on television in 1994 after he won a role as one of the presenting team on the National Lottery which was regularly broadcast on Saturday and Wednesday evenings on BBC One. … Read More
After Walsh became a public favourite, he was quickly snapped up by rival television channel ITV, who offered him the role as presenter on one of the network's new game shows, Midas Touch. Read Less
Show Less
In 1997, Walsh was asked to front the British adaptation of the popular US game show Wheel of Fortune following the decision of long-time presenter Nicky Campbell to leave the show after more than eight years. … Read More
Walsh's tenure on Wheel of Fortune lasted just one year, when he decided to turn his hand to acting. He also appeared on Lily Savage's Blankety Blank.<br /><br /> Walsh's first acting job was a minor role in the Channel 4 series, Lock, Stock. Channel 4 later approached him for a role in their 2001 TV film Mike Bassett: England Manager. Read Less
…
In 2007, Walsh took part in Northern Rock's All Star Golf Tournament on ITV, in which his team, Team Europe, won. Walsh stated that he has been playing golf since he was twenty years old. <br /><br />In August 2008, Walsh appeared in talent show Maestro on BBC Two where he placed sixth. <br /><br />Since 2015, Bradley has been a team captain on the sports-based panel show Play to the Whistle. Hosted by Holly Willoughby, the first series lasted for seven episodes, beginning in April 2015. The second series began in April 2016. <br /><br />Walsh is the son of Margaret (née O'Connell) and Daniel Terence Walsh (8 August 1934 â 12 November 1993). Read Less
Walsh married choreographer Donna Derby in 1997, and they have one son, Barney (born 1997). … Read More
The family live in Chigwell, Essex. He has a daughter Hayley (born 1982), from a previous relationship. During his appearance on That's What I Call Television with Fern Britton, Walsh declared that he is an Arsenal fan. During the first quarter of 2010, Walsh completed a stand-up comedy tour throughout theatres in the UK.<br /><br /> In 2011, Walsh co-wrote a series of personalised football story books entitled My Dream Cup Final with, which were published in June 2011. In January 2012, Walsh took part in a public charity event in which he cycled from Northern France to Portugal to raise money for Sane.<br /><br /> On an episode of The Chase, Walsh revealed that he used to be a member of Cubs and the Salvation Army.<br /><br /> Walsh is a supporter of UK charity Make-A-Wish Foundation, which he claims to be his favourite. Read Less
FORTIES
2002 42 Years Old Walsh returned to ITV in 2002, after landing a regular role in the short lived British soap opera Night and Day. … Read More
He featured in a total of 52 episodes. Read Less
2003 43 Years Old In 2003, Walsh played a minor role in an episode of The Bill spin-off M.I.T.: Murder Investigation Team. … Read More
In October 2007, he appeared in TV drama Torn.<br /><br /> In 2008, Walsh appeared in two episodes of Doctor Who spin-off The Sarah Jane Adventures, in the second story of series two, The Day of the Clown, as a sinister entity that fed off other people's fear. In his role, he played three parts of the same ego - a sinister American-sounding clown called Odd Bob, a mysterious European-sounding ringmaster called Elijah Spellman, and the infamous Pied Piper of Hamelin.<br /><br /> In January 2009, Walsh and his son Barney featured in a special edition of the Channel 5 TV series, Dangerous Adventures for Boys, based on the best-selling book by Conn and Hal Iggulden, The Dangerous Book for Boys. Walsh and his son took part in hill-climbing before learning how to pilot a biplane.<br /><br /> In January 2009, Walsh began appearing in ITV crime drama Law & Order: UK. Walsh plays the character of DS Ronnie Brooks, a recovering alcoholic who has been in the police force for more than twenty years. From 2009 until 2014, Walsh starred in a total of 53 episodes. After the eighth series, Walsh decided to take a break from the programme and ITV decided to rest the show, but it has not been cancelled and is simply on a hiatus. Walsh said he would "like the opportunity to pursue other drama projects which ITV are developing." Read Less
In August 2008, Walsh fronted his own ITV series entitled My Little Soldier, in which young contestants are required to do "grown-up things" such as travelling on their own by train.
In November and December 2008, Walsh hosted another game show for ITV called Spin Star.
2009 49 Years Old In June 2009, Walsh became the presenter of ITV game show The Chase as well as the celebrity editions of the programme. … Read More
The Chase has become very popular, beating rival BBC quiz show Pointless regularly. The show features contestants who take on the "Chaser" in a series of general knowledge quiz rounds. The Chasers are Mark Labbett (a.k.a. "The Beast"), Shaun Wallace (a.k.a. "The Dark Destroyer"), Anne Hegerty (a.k.a. "The Governess"), Paul Sinha (a.k.a. "The Sinnerman"), and Jenny Ryan (a.k.a. "The Vixen"). There have also been a number of series of celebrity versions of the show, also hosted by Walsh and featuring the same Chasers.<br /><br /> Walsh hosted a pilot for an American version of The Chase in 2012. However, it was decided that Brooke Burns would host the show instead. Read Less
FIFTIES
2010 - 2013 2 More Events
2010 50 Years Old Between 2010 and 2011, Walsh was the presenter of Saturday panel show Odd One In, with regular panellists Peter Andre and Jason Manford. … Read More
Since 2012, Walsh has hosted the Crime Thriller Awards on ITV3. Read Less
2013 53 Years Old He also hosted the Crime Thriller Club on ITV3 in 2013. … Read More
Walsh also narrated a one-off documentary for ITV called The Circus. Read Less
| i don't know |
Which electronics company released the world’s first all-electric compact calculator in 1957? | History | Corporate | CASIO
Corporate
Kashio Seisakujo founded in Mitaka, Tokyo
April 1946: Kashio Seisakujo founded in Mitaka, Tokyo
The late Kashio Tadao, founder of Casio Computer Co., Ltd., was born in Kureta-mura (now Nankoku City) in Kochi Prefecture, Japan, in 1917. In 1923, after the Great Kanto Earthquake, the whole Kashio family moved to Tokyo at the invitation of an uncle working there. After graduating from high school, Tadao began working as an apprentice to a lathe operator. The factory owner recognized Tadao’s skill and encouraged him to begin studies at Waseda Koshu Gakko (now Waseda University), while still working at the factory. He gained experience in a variety of jobs, making pots, pans, and bicycle generator lamps, and soon earned a reputation for himself and received subcontracts to process parts. In 1946, Tadao set up his own business called Kashio Seisakujo, in Mitaka, Tokyo.
1954
Prototype of all-electric compact calculator (solenoid model) completed
December 1954: Prototype of all-electric compact calculator (solenoid model) completed
Kashio Seisakujo was a small subcontractor factory that made microscope parts and gears. Tadao had three younger brothers, Toshio, Kazuo, and Yukio. Toshio initially worked at the Tokyo office of the Ministry of Communications (now NTT) as a technician, building and equipping telegraph and telephone facilities. However, when Toshio saw how Tadao was toiling every day at his job, he began to wonder if he could come up with something to help his older brother with his career. As a child, the thoughtful Toshio had admired Edison, and told his family that he wanted to become an inventor when he grew up. With his extensive electrical knowledge, Toshio had already achieved results in system improvement at his workplace; however he decided to quit his job to go work at Kashio Seisakujo in order to really test his own abilities for innovation.
Utilizing his natural inventiveness, Toshio tried out several new ideas. One of these was “the yubiwa (finger ring) pipe.” At that time in postwar Japan, commodities were in short supply, and people smoked their cigarettes down to the very nub. For this reason, Toshio came up with a ring-mounted cigarette holder so that he could also smoke while doing his work. Tadao produced it on a lathe, and their father Shigeru went out to market it. Orders gradually began to pour in and the yubiwa pipe became a hit product soon after it was produced. The profits from this invention would later go towards the capital needed for development of a new kind of calculator.
Looking for a new product to follow the yubiwa pipe, the Kashio brothers laid eyes on foreign-made electric calculators at the first Business Show held in Ginza, Tokyo, in 1949. Most calculators at that time used mechanical gears, and there were none that employed electronic circuits like today’s devices. The main type of calculator used in Japan at that time was the hand-operated calculator, which employed gears and a hand crank. Although electric calculators using a small motor to turn the gears had already appeared overseas, they could not be manufactured in Japan, as a high level of technical expertise and special quality materials were needed in order to process the parts. Although the electric calculator was faster than the hand-operated model, it was still much slower than calculators today, and since the gears turned at a high speed, it made a shrill noise. With his electrical knowledge, Toshio thought that he could resolve a lot of the problems by using all electrical circuits instead of mechanical parts, and decided to try to make his own calculator. Toshio used a type of electromagnet called a solenoid, and began development of an electric calculator without gears.
Tadao and Toshio soon found themselves working all day on subcontracting work to make a living, and then spending their evening hours absorbed in developing the calculator. They showed the prototype to people and then made improvements after getting feedback, and in this way worked out the various problems and bugs in the invention. After making ten or more prototypes, they completed Japan’s first electric calculator in 1954. The following year, the Kashio brothers proudly took their finished product to Bunshodo Corporation, the trading company handling office supplies, including calculators. Unfortunately, the Bunshodo representative told them that their calculator was out of date because it could not do continuing multiplication, wherein a multiplication product could be subsequently multiplied by another number.
Tadao and Toshio once again began spending their days working out the problems with the next prototypes. Around that time, both younger brothers, Kazuo and Yukio, also quit their jobs, and began working at Kashio Seisakujo. Toshio came up with the ideas, Yukio, who had taken mechanical engineering at university, drew the plans, and Tadao and Kazuo did the production. In 1956, six years after the start of development, they were close to completing a calculator with a continuing multiplication function, and all they had left to do was figure out how to mass-produce it. At this point, Toshio suddenly stated that he wanted to completely redesign the calculator. The solenoid design with its complicated mechanical structure meant potential difficulties for mass production. Toshio wanted to eliminate the solenoid design and use relays like those employed in the telephone exchange equipment of those days, in order to make a completely electric calculator.
Although computers using relays had already appeared by the late 1950s, they were so large that they required a whole room to themselves, complete with an air purification system. The disadvantage of relays was that they were easily affected by fine particles and dust. In order to solve this problem, special ingenuity was needed to bring electronic calculation to regular offices. First, the four Kashio brothers worked to reduce the number of relays from the several thousand (sometimes over ten thousand) used in the giant computers of the day to just 341, through improvements in the circuit design. They also developed an original new type of relay that was hardly affected by dust.
The greatest feature of the four brothers¡ new invention was the adoption of the ten-key format. The calculators at that time used what was called a “full keypad” with just the numerals 0 to 9 for all the digit places. This newly developed relay-type calculator used only 10 number keys, just like pocket calculators today.
A unique design was also adopted for the display. Calculators at that time had three display windows, and when calculating “100 + 200 = 300” the numerals “100,” “200,” and “300” were all displayed at the same time. However, with the relay calculator, the numbers disappeared after the next number was entered, and just the final answer appeared at the end. Today this seems like common sense, but at that time it was a revolutionary new idea, and it required a lot of hard work to get it accepted. With these innovations however, compact calculators were realized, and the office calculator was born.
Main functions
Release of the 001, an electronic desktop calculator with onboard memory
September 1965: Release of the 001, an electronic desktop calculator with onboard memory
Just as the company was achieving strong earnings with the relay calculator, a new wave of technological innovation arrived. An electronic calculator with vacuum tubes first appeared in Great Britain, and before long, many Japanese manufacturers followed with calculators using the newly invented transistors. Electronic calculators were much faster than relay models, completely silent, and were even small enough to fit on top of a desk. With the arrival of this electronic model, sales of relay calculators fell dramatically, leaving a mountain of unsold inventory. Casio had done some research on transistor-based electronic calculators, but accustomed to strong sales of relay calculators, the company had fallen behind others in transistor development, and now found itself in the first crisis since its establishment.
When it was announced that newly developed relay calculators were intended to compete with electronic models, the dealers who were there insisted that the relay era was over and wanted to know why Casio was not coming out with an electronic model. After much internal debate, the company decided to exhibit a transistor model prototype that had been secretly developed. Even though the prototype still had wiring sticking out, it won overwhelmingly enthusiastic approval. From that day on, Casio put all its energy into electronic calculators, and Casioês first electronic product, the 001, was released in 1965. This product, with a memory function not found in competing calculators, was well received, and the companyês calculator business was back on the road to recovery.
Tadao and Toshio soon found themselves working all day on subcontracting work to make a living, and then spending their evening hours absorbed in developing the calculator. They showed the prototype to people and then made improvements after getting feedback, and in this way worked out the various problems and bugs in the invention. After making ten or more prototypes, they completed Japan's first electric calculator in 1954. The following year, the Kashio brothers proudly took their finished product to Bunshodo Corporation, the trading company handling office supplies, including calculators. Unfortunately, the Bunshodo representative told them that their calculator was out of date because it could not do continuing multiplication, wherein a multiplication product could be subsequently multiplied by another number.
Main functions
Kofu Factory completed in Tamaho-mura, Nakakoma-gun, Yamanashi
October 1969: Kofu Factory completed in Tamaho-mura, Nakakoma-gun, Yamanashi
Due to strong sales in Japan, offers began to come in from overseas for the Casio 001 desktop electronic calculator. Seeing a good opportunity to expand abroad, Casio developed the Casio 101 with improvements for the overseas market, and in 1966 exported its first calculator to Australia. In the following year, Casio established a European office in Switzerland, followed by an overseas sales company in the US (Casio, Inc.) in 1970. In 1972, Casio established Casio Computer Co. G.m.b.H. Deutschland (now Casio Europe G.m.b.H.) in Germany, and the company began growing worldwide.
| Casio |
The original lyrics of the folk song ‘Waltzing Matilda’ were written by which Australian poet in 1895? | Computers | Timeline of Computer History | Computer History Museum
Timeline of Computer History
Bell Laboratories scientist George Stibitz uses relays for a demonstration adder
“Model K” Adder
Called the “Model K” Adder because he built it on his “Kitchen” table, this simple demonstration circuit provides proof of concept for applying Boolean logic to the design of computers, resulting in construction of the relay-based Model I Complex Calculator in 1939. That same year in Germany, engineer Konrad Zuse built his Z2 computer, also using telephone company relays.
Hewlett-Packard is founded
Hewlett and Packard in their garage workshop
David Packard and Bill Hewlett found their company in a Palo Alto, California garage. Their first product, the HP 200A Audio Oscillator, rapidly became a popular piece of test equipment for engineers. Walt Disney Pictures ordered eight of the 200B model to test recording equipment and speaker systems for the 12 specially equipped theatres that showed the movie “Fantasia” in 1940.
The Complex Number Calculator (CNC) is completed
Operator at Complex Number Calculator (CNC)
In 1939, Bell Telephone Laboratories completes this calculator, designed by scientist George Stibitz. In 1940, Stibitz demonstrated the CNC at an American Mathematical Society conference held at Dartmouth College. Stibitz stunned the group by performing calculations remotely on the CNC (located in New York City) using a Teletype terminal connected via to New York over special telephone lines. This is likely the first example of remote access computing.
Konrad Zuse finishes the Z3 Computer
The Zuse Z3 Computer
The Z3, an early computer built by German engineer Konrad Zuse working in complete isolation from developments elsewhere, uses 2,300 relays, performs floating point binary arithmetic, and has a 22-bit word length. The Z3 was used for aerodynamic calculations but was destroyed in a bombing raid on Berlin in late 1943. Zuse later supervised a reconstruction of the Z3 in the 1960s, which is currently on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich.
The first Bombe is completed
Bombe replica, Bletchley Park, UK
Built as an electromechanical mechanical means of decrypting Nazi ENIGMA-based military communications during World War II, the British Bombe is conceived of by computer pioneer Alan Turing and Harold Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company. Hundreds of bombes were built, their purpose to ascertain the daily rotor start positions of Enigma cipher machines, which in turn allowed the Allies to decrypt German messages.
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) is completed
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer
After successfully demonstrating a proof-of-concept prototype in 1939, Professor John Vincent Atanasoff receives funds to build a full-scale machine at Iowa State College (now University). The machine was designed and built by Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry between 1939 and 1942. The ABC was at the center of a patent dispute related to the invention of the computer, which was resolved in 1973 when it was shown that ENIAC co-designer John Mauchly had seen the ABC shortly after it became functional.
The legal result was a landmark: Atanasoff was declared the originator of several basic computer ideas, but the computer as a concept was declared un-patentable and thus freely open to all. A full-scale working replica of the ABC was completed in 1997, proving that the ABC machine functioned as Atanasoff had claimed. The replica is currently on display at the Computer History Museum.
Bell Labs Relay Interpolator is completed
George Stibitz circa 1940
The US Army asked Bell Laboratories to design a machine to assist in testing its M-9 gun director, a type of analog computer that aims large guns to their targets. Mathematician George Stibitz recommends using a relay-based calculator for the project. The result was the Relay Interpolator, later called the Bell Labs Model II. The Relay Interpolator used 440 relays, and since it was programmable by paper tape, was used for other applications following the war.
Curt Herzstark designs Curta calculator
Curta Model 1 calculator
Curt Herzstark was an Austrian engineer who worked in his family’s manufacturing business until he was arrested by the Nazis in 1943. While imprisoned at Buchenwald concentration camp for the rest of World War II, he refines his pre-war design of a calculator featuring a modified version of Leibniz’s “stepped drum” design. After the war, Herzstark’s Curta made history as the smallest all-mechanical, four-function calculator ever built.
Project Whirlwind begins
Whirlwind installation at MIT
During World War II, the US Navy approached the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) about building a flight simulator to train bomber crews. The team first builds a large analog computer, but found it inaccurate and inflexible. After designers saw a demonstration of the ENIAC computer, they decided instead on a digital approach, while at the same time the project changed from a flight simulator to an air defense system. By the time Whirlwind was completed in 1951, the Navy had lost interest in the project, though the US Air Force eventually supported “Whirlwind II,” a new air defense computer to be used as part of the SAGE continental air defense system.
First Colossus operational at Bletchley Park
The Colossus at work at Bletchley Park
Designed by British engineer Tommy Flowers, the Colossus is designed to break the complex Lorenz ciphers used by the Nazis during World War II. A total of ten Colossi were delivered, each using as many as 2,500 vacuum tubes. A series of pulleys transported continuous rolls of punched paper tape containing possible solutions to a particular code. Colossus reduced the time to break Lorenz messages from weeks to hours. Most historians believe that the use of Colossus machines significantly shortened the war by providing evidence of enemy intentions and beliefs. The machine’s existence was not made public until the 1970s.
Harvard Mark 1 is completed
Harvard Mark 1 is completed
Conceived by Harvard physics professor Howard Aiken, and designed and built by IBM, the Harvard Mark 1 is a room-sized, relay-based calculator. The machine had a fifty-foot long camshaft running the length of machine that synchronized the machine’s thousands of component parts and used 3,500 relays. The Mark 1 produced mathematical tables but was soon superseded by electronic stored-program computers.
John von Neumann writes First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC
John von Neumann
In a widely circulated paper, mathematician John von Neumann outlines the architecture of a stored-program computer, including electronic storage of programming information and data -- which eliminates the need for more clumsy methods of programming such as plugboards, punched cards and paper. Hungarian-born von Neumann demonstrated prodigious expertise in hydrodynamics, ballistics, meteorology, game theory, statistics, and the use of mechanical devices for computation. After the war, he concentrated on the development of Princeton´s Institute for Advanced Studies computer.
Moore School lectures take place
The Moore School Building at the University of Pennsylvania
An inspiring summer school on computing at the University of Pennsylvania´s Moore School of Electrical Engineering stimulates construction of stored-program computers at universities and research institutions in the US, France, the UK, and Germany. Among the lecturers were early computer designers like John von Neumann, Howard Aiken, J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, as well as mathematicians including Derrick Lehmer, George Stibitz, and Douglas Hartree. Students included future computing pioneers such as Maurice Wilkes, Claude Shannon, David Rees, and Jay Forrester. This free, public set of lectures inspired the EDSAC, BINAC, and, later, IAS machine clones like the AVIDAC.
Public unveiling of ENIAC
ENIAC
Started in 1943, the ENIAC computing system was built by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania. Because of its electronic, as opposed to electromechanical, technology, it is over 1,000 times faster than any previous computer. ENIAC used panel-to-panel wiring and switches for programming, occupied more than 1,000 square feet, used about 18,000 vacuum tubes and weighed 30 tons. It was believed that ENIAC had done more calculation over the ten years it was in operation than all of humanity had until that time.
First Computer Program to Run on a Computer
University of Manchester researchers Frederic Williams, Tom Kilburn, and Geoff Toothill develop the Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), better known as the Manchester "Baby." The Baby was built to test a new memory technology developed by Williams and Kilburn -- soon known as the Williams Tube – which was the first electronic random access memory for computers. The first program, consisting of seventeen instructions and written by Kilburn, ran on June 21st, 1948. This was the first program to ever run on an electronic stored-program computer.
SSEC goes on display
The Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) project, led by IBM engineer Wallace Eckert, uses both relays and vacuum tubes to process scientific data at the rate of 50 14 x 14 digit multiplications per second. Before it’s decommissioning in 1952, the SSEC produced the moon-position tables used for plotting the course of the 1969 Apollo flight to the moon. The SSEC was one of the few and last of the generation of ‘super calculators’ to be built using electromechanical technology.
CSIRAC runs first program
CSIRAC
While many early digital computers were based on similar designs, such as the IAS and its copies, others are unique designs, like the CSIRAC. Built in Sydney, Australia by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research for use in its Radio physics Laboratory in Sydney, CSIRAC was designed by British-born Trevor Pearcey, and used unusual 12-hole paper tape. It was transferred to the Department of Physics at the University of Melbourne in 1955 and remained in service until 1964.
EDSAC completed
EDSAC
The first practical stored-program computer to provide a regular computing service, EDSAC is built at Cambridge University using vacuum tubes and mercury delay lines for memory. The EDSAC project was led by Cambridge professor and director of the Cambridge Computation Laboratory, Maurice Wilkes. Wilkes' ideas grew out of the Moore School lectures he had attended three years earlier. One major advance in programming was Wilkes' use of a library of short programs, called “subroutines,” stored on punched paper tapes and used for performing common repetitive calculations within a lager program.
MADDIDA developed
MADDIDA (Magnetic Drum Digital Differential Analyzer) prototype
MADDIDA is a digital drum-based differential analyzer. This type of computer is useful in performing many of the mathematical equations scientists and engineers encounter in their work. It was originally created for a nuclear missile design project in 1949 by a team led by Fred Steele. It used 53 vacuum tubes and hundreds of germanium diodes, with a magnetic drum for memory. Tracks on the drum did the mathematical integration. MADDIDA was flown across the country for a demonstration to John von Neumann, who was impressed. Northrop was initially reluctant to make MADDIDA a commercial product, but by the end of 1952, six had sold.
Manchester Mark I completed
Manchester Mark I
Built by a team led by engineers Frederick Williams and Tom Kilburn, the Mark I serves as the prototype for Ferranti’s first computer – the Ferranti Mark 1. The Manchester Mark I used more than 1,300 vacuum tubes and occupied an area the size of a medium room. Its “Williams-Kilburn tube” memory system was later adopted by several other early computer systems around the world.
ERA 1101 introduced
ERA 1101
One of the first commercially produced computers, the company´s first customer was the US Navy. The 1101, designed by ERA but built by Remington-Rand, was intended for high-speed computing and stored 1 million bits on its magnetic drum, one of the earliest magnetic storage devices and a technology which ERA had done much to perfect in its own laboratories. Many of the 1101’s basic architectural details were used again in later Remington-Rand computers until the 1960s.
NPL Pilot ACE completed
Pilot ACE
Based on ideas from Alan Turing, Britain´s Pilot ACE computer is constructed at the National Physical Laboratory. "We are trying to build a machine to do all kinds of different things simply by programming rather than by the addition of extra apparatus," Turing said at a symposium on large-scale digital calculating machinery in 1947 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The design packed 800 vacuum tubes into a relatively compact 12 square feet.
Plans to build the Simon 1 relay logic machine are published
Simon featured on the November 1950 Scientific American cover
The hobbyist magazine Radio Electronics publishes Edmund Berkeley's design for the Simon 1 relay computer from 1950 to 1951. The Simon 1 used relay logic and cost about $600 to build. In his book Giant Brains, Berkeley noted - “We shall now consider how we can design a very simple machine that will think. Let us call it Simon, because of its predecessor, Simple Simon... Simon is so simple and so small in fact that it could be built to fill up less space than a grocery-store box; about four cubic feet.”
SEAC and SWAC completed
The Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) is among the first stored-program computers completed in the United States. It was built in Washington DC as a test-bed for evaluating components and systems as well as for setting computer standards. It was also one of the first computers to use all-diode logic, a technology more reliable than vacuum tubes. Magnetic tape in the external storage units (shown on the right of this photo) stored programming information, coded subroutines, numerical data, and program results. The NBS also built the Standards Western Automatic Computer (SWAC) at the Institute for Numerical Analysis on the UCLA campus. Rather than testing components like the SEAC, the SWAC was built using already-developed technology. SWAC was used to create the first computer-scanned image as well as to discover five previously unknown Mersenne prime numbers.
Ferranti Mark I sold
Ferranti Mark 1
The title of “first commercially available general-purpose computer” probably goes to Britain’s Ferranti Mark I for its sale of its first Mark I computer to Manchester University. The Mark 1 was a refinement of the experimental Manchester “Baby” and Manchester Mark 1 computers, also at Manchester University. A British government contract spurred its initial development but a change in government led to loss of funding and the second and only other Mark I was sold at a major loss to the University of Toronto, where it was re-christened FERUT.
First Univac 1 delivered to US Census Bureau
Univac 1 installation
The Univac 1 is the first commercial computer to attract widespread public attention. Although manufactured by Remington Rand, the machine was often mistakenly referred to as “the IBM Univac." Univac computers were used in many different applications but utilities, insurance companies and the US military were major customers. One biblical scholar even used a Univac 1 to compile a concordance to the King James version of the Bible. Created by Presper Eckert and John Mauchly -- designers of the earlier ENIAC computer -- the Univac 1 used 5,200 vacuum tubes and weighed 29,000 pounds. Remington Rand eventually sold 46 Univac 1s at more than $1 million each.
J. Lyons & Company introduce LEO-1
The LEO
Modeled after the Cambridge University EDSAC computer, the president of Lyons Tea Co. has the LEO built to solve the problem of production scheduling and delivery of cakes to the hundreds of Lyons tea shops around England. After the success of the first LEO, Lyons went into business manufacturing computers to meet the growing need for data processing systems in business. The LEO was England’s first commercial computer and was performing useful work before any other commercial computer system in the world.
IAS computer operational
MANIAC at Los Alamos
The Institute of Advanced Study (IAS) computer is a multi-year research project conducted under the overall supervision of world-famous mathematician John von Neumann. The notion of storing both data and instructions in memory became known as the ‘stored program concept’ to distinguish it from earlier methods of instructing a computer. The IAS computer was designed for scientific calculations and it performed essential work for the US atomic weapons program. Over the next few years, the basic design of the IAS machine was copied in at least 17 places and given similar-sounding names, for example, the MANIAC at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory; the ILLIAC at the University of Illinois; the Johnniac at The Rand Corporation; and the SILLIAC in Australia.
Grimsdale and Webb build early transistorized computer
Manchester transistorized computer
Working under Tom Kilburn at England’s Manchester University, Richard Grimsdale and Douglas Webb demonstrate a prototype transistorized computer, the "Manchester TC", on November 16, 1953. The 48-bit machine used 92 point-contact transistors and 550 diodes.
IBM ships its Model 701 Electronic Data Processing Machine
Cuthbert Hurd (standing) and Thomas Watson, Sr. at IBM 701 console
During three years of production, IBM sells 19 701s to research laboratories, aircraft companies, and the federal government. Also known inside IBM as the “Defense Calculator," the 701 rented for $15,000 a month. Programmer Arthur Samuels used the 701 to write the first computer program designed to play checkers. The 701 introduction also marked the beginning of IBM’s entry into the large-scale computer market, a market it came to dominate in later decades.
RAND Corporation completes Johnniac computer
RAND Corporation’s Johnniac
The Johnniac computer is one of 17 computers that followed the basic design of Princeton's Institute of Advanced Study (IAS) computer. It was named after John von Neumann, a world famous mathematician and computer pioneer of the day. Johnniac was used for scientific and engineering calculations. It was also repeatedly expanded and improved throughout its 13-year lifespan. Many innovative programs were created for Johnniac, including the time-sharing system JOSS that allowed many users to simultaneously access the machine.
IBM 650 magnetic drum calculator introduced
IBM 650
IBM establishes the 650 as its first mass-produced computer, with the company selling 450 in just one year. Spinning at 12,500 rpm, the 650´s magnetic data-storage drum allowed much faster access to stored information than other drum-based machines. The Model 650 was also highly popular in universities, where a generation of students first learned programming.
English Electric DEUCE introduced
English Electric DEUCE
A commercial version of Alan Turing's Pilot ACE, called DEUCE—the Digital Electronic Universal Computing Engine -- is used mostly for science and engineering problems and a few commercial applications. Over 30 were completed, including one delivered to Australia.
Direct keyboard input to computers
Joe Thompson at Whirlwind console, ca. 1951
At MIT, researchers begin experimenting with direct keyboard input to computers, a precursor to today´s normal mode of operation. Typically, computer users of the time fed their programs into a computer using punched cards or paper tape. Doug Ross wrote a memo advocating direct access in February. Ross contended that a Flexowriter -- an electrically-controlled typewriter -- connected to an MIT computer could function as a keyboard input device due to its low cost and flexibility. An experiment conducted five months later on the MIT Whirlwind computer confirmed how useful and convenient a keyboard input device could be.
Librascope LGP-30 introduced
LGP-30
Physicist Stan Frankel, intrigued by small, general-purpose computers, developed the MINAC at Caltech. The Librascope division of defense contractor General Precision buys Frankel’s design, renaming it the LGP-30 in 1956. Used for science and engineering as well as simple data processing, the LGP-30 was a “bargain” at less than $50,000 and an early example of a ‘personal computer,’ that is, a computer made for a single user.
MIT researchers build the TX-0
TX-0 at MIT
The TX-0 (“Transistor eXperimental - 0”) is the first general-purpose programmable computer built with transistors. For easy replacement, designers placed each transistor circuit inside a "bottle," similar to a vacuum tube. Constructed at MIT´s Lincoln Laboratory, the TX-0 moved to the MIT Research Laboratory of Electronics, where it hosted some early imaginative tests of programming, including writing a Western movie shown on television, 3-D tic-tac-toe, and a maze in which a mouse found martinis and became increasingly inebriated.
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) founded
The Maynard mill
DEC is founded initially to make electronic modules for test, measurement, prototyping and control markets. Its founders were Ken and Stan Olsen, and Harlan Anderson. Headquartered in Maynard, Massachusetts, Digital Equipment Corporation, took over 8,680 square foot leased space in a nineteenth century mill that once produced blankets and uniforms for soldiers who fought in the Civil War. General Georges Doriot and his pioneering venture capital firm, American Research and Development, invested $70,000 for 70% of DEC’s stock to launch the company in 1957. The mill is still in use today as an office park (Clock Tower Place) today.
RCA introduces its Model 501 transistorized computer
RCA 501 brochure cover
The 501 is built on a 'building block' concept which allows it to be highly flexible for many different uses and could simultaneously control up to 63 tape drives—very useful for large databases of information. For many business users, quick access to this huge storage capability outweighed its relatively slow processing speed. Customers included US military as well as industry.
SAGE system goes online
SAGE Operator Station
The first large-scale computer communications network, SAGE connects 23 hardened computer sites in the US and Canada. Its task was to detect incoming Soviet bombers and direct interceptor aircraft to destroy them. Operators directed actions by touching a light gun to the SAGE airspace display. The air defense system used two AN/FSQ-7 computers, each of which used a full megawatt of power to drive its 55,000 vacuum tubes, 175,000 diodes and 13,000 transistors.
DEC PDP-1 introduced
Ed Fredkin at DEC PDP-1
The typical PDP-1 computer system, which sells for about $120,000, includes a cathode ray tube graphic display, paper tape input/output, needs no air conditioning and requires only one operator; all of which become standards for minicomputers. Its large scope intrigued early hackers at MIT, who wrote the first computerized video game, SpaceWar!, as well as programs to play music. More than 50 PDP-1s were sold.
NEAC 2203 goes online
NEAC 2203 transistorized computer
An early transistorized computer, the NEAC (Nippon Electric Automatic Computer) includes a CPU, console, paper tape reader and punch, printer and magnetic tape units. It was sold exclusively in Japan, but could process alphabetic and Japanese kana characters. Only about thirty NEACs were sold. It managed Japan's first on-line, real-time reservation system for Kinki Nippon Railways in 1960. The last one was decommissioned in 1979.
IBM 7030 (“Stretch”) completed
IBM Stretch
IBM´s 7000 series of mainframe computers are the company´s first to use transistors. At the top of the line was the Model 7030, also known as "Stretch." Nine of the computers, which featured dozens of advanced design innovations, were sold, mainly to national laboratories and major scientific users. A special version, known as HARVEST, was developed for the US National Security Agency (NSA). The knowledge and technologies developed for the Stretch project played a major role in the design, management, and manufacture of the later IBM System/360--the most successful computer family in IBM history.
IBM Introduces 1400 series
IBM 1401
The 1401 mainframe, the first in the series, replaces earlier vacuum tube technology with smaller, more reliable transistors. Demand called for more than 12,000 of the 1401 computers, and the machine´s success made a strong case for using general-purpose computers rather than specialized systems. By the mid-1960s, nearly half of all computers in the world were IBM 1401s.
Minuteman I missile guidance computer developed
Minuteman Guidance computer
Minuteman missiles use transistorized computers to continuously calculate their position in flight. The computer had to be rugged and fast, with advanced circuit design and reliable packaging able to withstand the forces of a missile launch. The military’s high standards for its transistors pushed manufacturers to improve quality control. When the Minuteman I was decommissioned, some universities received these computers for use by students.
Naval Tactical Data System introduced
Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS)
The US Navy Tactical Data System uses computers to integrate and display shipboard radar, sonar and communications data. This real-time information system began operating in the early 1960s. In October 1961, the Navy tested the NTDS on the USS Oriskany carrier and the USS King and USS Mahan frigates. After being successfully used for decades, NTDS was phased out in favor of the newer AEGIS system in the 1980s.
MIT LINC introduced
Wesley Clark with LINC
The LINC is an early and important example of a ‘personal computer,’ that is, a computer designed for only one user. It was designed by MIT Lincoln Laboratory engineer Wesley Clark. Under the auspices of a National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant, biomedical research faculty from around the United States came to a workshop at MIT to build their own LINCs, and then bring them back to their home institutions where they would be used. For research, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) supplied the components, and 50 original LINCs were made. The LINC was later commercialized by DEC and sold as the LINC-8.
The Atlas Computer debuts
Chilton Atlas installation
A joint project of England’s Manchester University, Ferranti Computers, and Plessey, Atlas comes online nine years after Manchester’s computer lab begins exploring transistor technology. Atlas was the fastest computer in the world at the time and introduced the concept of “virtual memory,” that is, using a disk or drum as an extension of main memory. System control was provided through the Atlas Supervisor, which some consider to be the first true operating system.
CDC 6600 supercomputer introduced
CDC 6600
The Control Data Corporation (CDC) 6600 performs up to 3 million instructions per second —three times faster than that of its closest competitor, the IBM 7030 supercomputer. The 6600 retained the distinction of being the fastest computer in the world until surpassed by its successor, the CDC 7600, in 1968. Part of the speed came from the computer´s design, which used 10 small computers, known as peripheral processing units, to offload the workload from the central processor.
Digital Equipment Corporation introduces the PDP-8
PDP-8 advertisement
The Canadian Chalk River Nuclear Lab needed a special device to monitor a reactor. Instead of designing a custom controller, two young engineers from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) -- Gordon Bell and Edson de Castro -- do something unusual: they develop a small, general purpose computer and program it to do the job. A later version of that machine became the PDP-8, the first commercially successful minicomputer. The PDP-8 sold for $18,000, one-fifth the price of a small IBM System/360 mainframe. Because of its speed, small size, and reasonable cost, the PDP-8 was sold by the thousands to manufacturing plants, small businesses, and scientific laboratories around the world.
IBM announces System/360
IBM 360 Model 40
System/360 is a major event in the history of computing. On April 7, IBM announced five models of System/360, spanning a 50-to-1 performance range. At the same press conference, IBM also announced 40 completely new peripherals for the new family. System/360 was aimed at both business and scientific customers and all models could run the same software, largely without modification. IBM’s initial investment of $5 billion was quickly returned as orders for the system climbed to 1,000 per month within two years. At the time IBM released the System/360, the company had just made the transition from discrete transistors to integrated circuits, and its major source of revenue began to move from punched card equipment to electronic computer systems.
SABRE comes on-line
Airline reservation agents working with SABRE
SABRE is a joint project between American Airlines and IBM. Operational by 1964, it was not the first computerized reservation system, but it was well publicized and became very influential. Running on dual IBM 7090 mainframe computer systems, SABRE was inspired by IBM’s earlier work on the SAGE air-defense system. Eventually, SABRE expanded, even making airline reservations available via on-line services such as CompuServe, Genie, and America Online.
Teletype introduced its ASR-33 Teletype
Student using ASR-33
At a cost to computer makers of roughly $700, the ASR-33 Teletype is originally designed as a low cost terminal for the Western Union communications network. Throughout the 1960s and ‘70s, the ASR-33 was a popular and inexpensive choice of input and output device for minicomputers and many of the first generation of microcomputers.
3C DDP-116 introduced
DDP-116 General Purpose Computer
Designed by engineer Gardner Hendrie for Computer Control Corporation (CCC), the DDP-116 is announced at the 1965 Spring Joint Computer Conference. It was the world's first commercial 16-bit minicomputer and 172 systems were sold. The basic computer cost $28,500.
Olivetti Programma 101 is released
Olivetti Programma 101
Announced the year previously at the New York World's Fair the Programma 101 goes on sale. This printing programmable calculator was made from discrete transistors and an acoustic delay-line memory. The Programma 101 could do addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, as well as calculate square roots. 40,000 were sold, including 10 to NASA for use on the Apollo space project.
HP introduces the HP 2116A
HP 2116A system
The 2116A is HP’s first computer. It was developed as a versatile instrument controller for HP's growing family of programmable test and measurement products. It interfaced with a wide number of standard laboratory instruments, allowing customers to computerize their instrument systems. The 2116A also marked HP's first use of integrated circuits in a commercial product.
ILLIAC IV project begins
ILLIAC IV
A large parallel processing computer, the ILLIAC IV does not operate until 1972. It was eventually housed at NASA´s Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California. The most ambitious massively parallel computer at the time, the ILLIAC IV was plagued with design and production problems. Once finally completed, it achieved a computational speed of 200 million instructions per second and 1 billion bits per second of I/O transfer via a unique combination of its parallel architecture and the overlapping or "pipelining" structure of its 64 processing elements.
RCA announces its Spectra series of computers
Image from RCA Spectra-70 brochure
The first large commercial computers to use integrated circuits, RCA highlights the IC's advantage over IBM’s custom SLT modules. Spectra systems were marketed on the basis of their compatibility with the IBM System/360 series of computer since it implemented the IBM 360 instruction set and could run most IBM software with little or no modification.
Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) makes its debut
DSKY interface for the Apollo Guidance Computer
Designed by scientists and engineers at MIT’s Instrumentation Laboratory, the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) is the culmination of years of work to reduce the size of the Apollo spacecraft computer from the size of seven refrigerators side-by-side to a compact unit weighing only 70 lbs. and taking up a volume of less than 1 cubic foot. The AGC’s first flight was on Apollo 7. A year later, it steered Apollo 11 to the lunar surface. Astronauts communicated with the computer by punching two-digit codes into the display and keyboard unit (DSKY). The AGC was one of the earliest uses of integrated circuits, and used core memory, as well as read-only magnetic rope memory. The astronauts were responsible for entering more than 10,000 commands into the AGC for each trip between Earth and the Moon.
Data General Corporation introduces the Nova Minicomputer
Edson deCastro with a Data General Nova
Started by a group of engineers that left Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Data General designs the Nova minicomputer. It had 32 KB of memory and sold for $8,000. Ed de Castro, its main designer and co-founder of Data General, had earlier led the team that created the DEC PDP-8. The Nova line of computers continued through the 1970s, and influenced later systems like the Xerox Alto and Apple 1.
Amdahl Corporation introduces the Amdahl 470
Gene Amdahl with 470V/6 model
Gene Amdahl, father of the IBM System/360, starts his own company, Amdahl Corporation, to compete with IBM in mainframe computer systems. The 470V/6 was the company’s first product and ran the same software as IBM System/370 computers but cost less and was smaller and faster.
First Kenbak-1 is sold to a private girl’s school
Kenbak-1
One of the earliest personal computers, the Kenbak-1 is advertised for $750 in Scientific American magazine. Designed by John V. Blankenbaker using standard medium-- and small-scale integrated circuits, the Kenbak-1 relied on switches for input and lights for output from its 256-byte memory. In 1973, after selling only 40 machines, Kenbak Corporation closed its doors.
Hewlett-Packard introduces the HP-35
HP-35 handheld calculator
Initially designed for internal use by HP employees, co-founder Bill Hewlett issues a challenge to his engineers in 1971: fit all of the features of their desktop scientific calculator into a package small enough for his shirt pocket. They did. Marketed as “a fast, extremely accurate electronic slide rule” with a solid-state memory similar to that of a computer, the HP-35 distinguished itself from its competitors by its ability to perform a broad variety of logarithmic and trigonometric functions, to store more intermediate solutions for later use, and to accept and display entries in a form similar to standard scientific notation. The HP-35 helped HP become one of the most dominant companies in the handheld calculator market for more than two decades.
Advertisement for Intel's 4004
Computer History Museum
The first advertisement for a microprocessor, the Intel 4004, appears in Electronic News. Developed for Busicom, a Japanese calculator maker, the 4004 had 2250 transistors and could perform up to 90,000 operations per second in four-bit chunks. Federico Faggin led the design and Ted Hoff led the architecture.
Laser printer invented at Xerox PARC
Dover laser printer
Xerox PARC physicist Gary Starkweather realizes in 1967 that exposing a copy machine’s light-sensitive drum to a paper original isn’t the only way to create an image. A computer could “write” it with a laser instead. Xerox wasn’t interested. So in 1971, Starkweather transferred to Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), away from corporate oversight. Within a year, he had built the world’s first laser printer, launching a new era in computer printing, generating billions of dollars in revenue for Xerox. The laser printer was used with PARC’s Alto computer, and was commercialized as the Xerox 9700.
Micral is released
Micral
Based on the Intel 8008 microprocessor, the Micral is one of the earliest commercial, non-kit personal computers. Designer Thi Truong developed the computer while Philippe Kahn wrote the software. Truong, founder and president of the French company R2E, created the Micral as a replacement for minicomputers in situations that did not require high performance, such as process control and highway toll collection. Selling for $1,750, the Micral never penetrated the U.S. market. In 1979, Truong sold R2E to Bull.
The TV Typewriter plans are published
TV Typewriter
Designed by Don Lancaster, the TV Typewriter is an easy-to-build kit that can display alphanumeric information on an ordinary television set. It used $120 worth of electronics components, as outlined in the September 1973 issue of hobbyist magazine Radio Electronics. The original design included two memory boards and could generate and store 512 characters as 16 lines of 32 characters. A cassette tape interface provided supplementary storage for text. The TV Typewriter was used by many small television stations well in the 1990s.
Wang Laboratories releases the Wang 2200
Wang 2200
Wang was a successful calculator manufacturer, then a successful word processor company. The 1973 Wang 2200 makes it a successful computer company, too. Wang sold the 2200 primarily through Value Added Resellers, who added special software to solve specific customer problems. The 2200 used a built-in CRT, cassette tape for storage, and ran the programming language BASIC. The PC era ended Wang’s success, and it filed for bankruptcy in 1992.
Scelbi advertises its 8H computer
Scelbi 8H
The first commercially advertised US computer based on a microprocessor (the Intel 8008,) the Scelbi has 4 KB of internal memory and a cassette tape interface, as well as Teletype and oscilloscope interfaces. Scelbi aimed the 8H, available both in kit form and fully assembled, at scientific, electronic, and biological applications. In 1975, Scelbi introduced the 8B version with 16 KB of memory for the business market. The company sold about 200 machines, losing $500 per unit.
The Mark-8 appears in the pages of Radio-Electronics
Mark-8 featured on Radio-Electronics July 1974 cover
The Mark-8 “Do-It-Yourself” kit is designed by graduate student John Titus and uses the Intel 8008 microprocessor. The kit was the cover story of hobbyist magazine Radio-Electronics in July 1974 – six months before the MITS Altair 8800 was in rival Popular Electronics magazine. Plans for the Mark-8 cost $5 and the blank circuit boards were available for $50.
Xerox PARC Alto introduced
Xerox Alto
The Alto is a groundbreaking computer with wide influence on the computer industry. It was based on a graphical user interface using windows, icons, and a mouse, and worked together with other Altos over a local area network. It could also share files and print out documents on an advanced Xerox laser printer. Applications were also highly innovative: a WYSISYG word processor known as “Bravo,” a paint program, a graphics editor, and email for example. Apple’s inspiration for the Lisa and Macintosh computers came from the Xerox Alto.
MITS Altair 8800 kit appears in Popular Electronics
Altair 8800
For its January issue, hobbyist magazine Popular Electronics runs a cover story of a new computer kit – the Altair 8800. Within weeks of its appearance, customers inundated its maker, MITS, with orders. Bill Gates and Paul Allen licensed their BASIC programming language interpreter to MITS as the main language for the Altair. MITS co-founder Ed Roberts invented the Altair 8800 — which sold for $297, or $395 with a case — and coined the term “personal computer”. The machine came with 256 bytes of memory (expandable to 64 KB) and an open 100-line bus structure that evolved into the “S-100” standard widely used in hobbyist and personal computers of this era. In 1977, MITS was sold to Pertec, which continued producing Altairs in 1978.
MOS 6502 is introduced
MOS 6502 ad from IEEE Computer, Sept. 1975
Chuck Peddle leads a small team of former Motorola employees to build a low-cost microprocessor. The MOS 6502 was introduced at a conference in San Francisco at a cost of $25, far less than comparable processors from Intel and Motorola, leading some attendees to believe that the company was perpetrating a hoax. The chip quickly became popular with designers of early personal computers like the Apple II and Commodore PET, as well as game consoles like the Nintendo Entertainment System. The 6502 and its progeny are still used today, usually in embedded applications.
Southwest Technical Products introduces the SWTPC 6800
Southwest Technical Products 6800
Southwest Technical Products is founded by Daniel Meyer as DEMCO in the 1960s to provide a source for kit versions of projects published in electronics hobbyist magazines. SWTPC introduces many computer kits based on the Motorola 6800, and later, the 6809. Of the dozens of different SWTP kits available, the 6800 proved the most popular.
Tandem Computers releases the Tandem-16
Dual-processor Tandem 16 system
Tailored for online transaction processing, the Tandem-16 is one of the first commercial fault-tolerant computers. The banking industry rushed to adopt the machine, built to run during repair or expansion. The Tandem-16 eventually led to the “Non-Stop” series of systems, which were used for early ATMs and to monitor stock trades.
VDM prototype built
The Video Display Module (VDM)
The Video Display Module (VDM) marks the first implementation of a memory-mapped alphanumeric video display for personal computers. Introduced at the Altair Convention in Albuquerque in March 1976, the visual display module enabled the use of personal computers for interactive games.
Cray-1 supercomputer introduced
Cray I 'Self-portrait'
The fastest machine of its day, The Cray-1's speed comes partly from its shape, a "C," which reduces the length of wires and thus the time signals need to travel across them. High packaging density of integrated circuits and a novel Freon cooling system also contributed to its speed. Each Cray-1 took a full year to assemble and test and cost about $10 million. Typical applications included US national defense work, including the design and simulation of nuclear weapons, and weather forecasting.
Zilgo Z-80 microprocessor
Image by Gennadiy Shvets
Intel and Zilog introduced new microprocessors. Five times faster than its predecessor, the 8008, the Intel 8080 could address four times as many bytes for a total of 64 kilobytes. The Zilog Z-80 could run any program written for the 8080 and included twice as many built-in machine instructions.
Steve Wozniak completes the Apple-1
Apple-I
Designed by Sunnyvale, California native Steve Wozniak, and marketed by his friend Steve Jobs, the Apple-1 is a single-board computer for hobbyists. With an order for 50 assembled systems from Mountain View, California computer store The Byte Shop in hand, the pair started a new company, naming it Apple Computer, Inc. In all, about 200 of the boards were sold before Apple announced the follow-on Apple II a year later as a ready-to-use computer for consumers, a model which sold in the millions for nearly two decades.
Apple II introduced
Apple II
Sold complete with a main logic board, switching power supply, keyboard, case, manual, game paddles, and cassette tape containing the game Breakout, the Apple-II finds popularity far beyond the hobbyist community which made up Apple’s user community until then. When connected to a color television set, the Apple II produced brilliant color graphics for the time. Millions of Apple IIs were sold between 1977 and 1993, making it one of the longest-lived lines of personal computers. Apple gave away thousands of Apple IIs to school, giving a new generation their first access to personal computers.
Tandy Radio Shack introduces its TRS-80
TRS-80
Performing far better than the company projections of 3,000 units for the first year, in the first month after its release Tandy Radio Shack´s first desktop computer — the TRS-80 — sells 10,000 units. The TRS-80 was priced at $599.95, included a Z80 microprocessor, video display, 4 KB of memory, a built-in BASIC programming language interpreter, cassette storage, and easy-to-understand manuals that assumed no prior knowledge on the part of the user. The TRS-80 proved popular with schools, as well as for home use. The TRS-80 line of computers later included color, portable, and handheld versions before being discontinued in the early 1990s.
The Commodore PET (Personal Electronic Transactor) introduced
Commodore PET
The first of several personal computers released in 1977, the PET comes fully assembled with either 4 or 8 KB of memory, a built-in cassette tape drive, and a membrane keyboard. The PET was popular with schools and for use as a home computer. It used a MOS Technologies 6502 microprocessor running at 1 MHz. After the success of the PET, Commodore remained a major player in the personal computer market into the 1990s.
The DEC VAX introduced
DEC VAX 11/780
Beginning with the VAX-11/780, the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) VAX family of computers rivals much more expensive mainframe computers in performance and features the ability to address over 4 GB of virtual memory, hundreds of times the capacity of most minicomputers. Called a “complex instruction set computer,” VAX systems were backward compatible and so preserved the investment owners of previous DEC computers had in software. The success of the VAX family of computers transformed DEC into the second-largest computer company in the world, as VAX systems became the de facto standard computing system for industry, the sciences, engineering, and research.
Atari introduces its Model 400 and 800 computers
Early Atari 400/800 advertisement
Shortly after delivery of the Atari VCS game console, Atari designs two microcomputers with game capabilities: the Model 400 and Model 800. The 400 served primarily as a game console, while the 800 was more of a home computer. Both faced strong competition from the Apple II, Commodore PET, and TRS-80 computers. Atari's 8-bit computers were influential in the arts, especially in the emerging DemoScene culture of the 1980s and '90s.
Die shot of Motorola 68000
Image by Pauli Rautakorpi
The Motorola 68000 microprocessor exhibited a processing speed far greater than its contemporaries. This high performance processor found its place in powerful work stations intended for graphics-intensive programs common in engineering.
Texas Instruments TI 99/4 is released
Texas Instruments TI 99/4 microcomputer
Based around the Texas Instruments TMS 9900 microprocessor running at 3 MHz, the TI 99/4 has one of the fastest CPUs available in a home computer. The TI99/4 had a wide variety of expansion boards, with an especially popular speech synthesis system that could also be used with TI's Speak & Spell educational game. The TI 99/4 sold well and led to a series of TI follow-on machines.
Commodore introduces the VIC-20
Commodore VIC-20
Commodore releases the VIC-20 home computer as the successor to the Commodore PET personal computer. Intended to be a less expensive alternative to the PET, the VIC-20 was highly successful, becoming the first computer to sell more than a million units. Commodore even used Star Trek television star William Shatner in advertisements.
The Sinclair ZX80 introduced
Sinclair ZX80
This very small home computer is available in the UK as a kit for £79 or pre-assembled for £99. Inside was a Z80 microprocessor and a built-in BASIC language interpreter. Output was displayed on the user’s home TV screen through use of an adapter. About 50,000 were sold in Britain, primarily to hobbyists, and initially there was a long waiting list for the system.
The Computer Programme debuts on the BBC
Title card- BBC’s The Computer Programme
The British Broadcasting Corporation’s Computer Literacy Project hoped “to introduce interested adults to the world of computers.” Acorn produces a popular computer, the BBC Microcomputer System, so viewers at home could follow along on their own home computers as they watched the program. The machine was expandable, with ports for cassette storage, serial interface and rudimentary networking. A large amount of software was created for the “BBC Micro,” including educational, productivity, and game programs.
Apollo Computer unveils its first workstation, its DN100
Apollo DN100
The DN100 is based on the Motorola 68000 microprocessor, high-resolution display and built-in networking - the three basic features of all workstations. Apollo and its main competitor, Sun Microsystems, optimized their machines to run the computer-intensive graphics programs common in engineering and scientific applications. Apollo was a leading innovator in the workstation field for more than a decade, and was acquired by Hewlett-Packard in 1989.
IBM introduces its Personal Computer (PC)
IBM PC
IBM's brand recognition, along with a massive marketing campaign, ignites the fast growth of the personal computer market with the announcement of its own personal computer (PC). The first IBM PC, formally known as the IBM Model 5150, was based on a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 microprocessor and used Microsoft´s MS-DOS operating system. The IBM PC revolutionized business computing by becoming the first PC to gain widespread adoption by industry. The IBM PC was widely copied (“cloned”) and led to the creation of a vast “ecosystem” of software, peripherals, and other commodities for use with the platform.
Osborne 1 introduced
Osborne I
Weighing 24 pounds and costing $1,795, the Osborne 1 is the first mass-produced portable computer. Its price was especially attractive as the computer included very useful productivity software worth about $1,500 alone. It featured a 5-inch display, 64 KB of memory, a modem, and two 5.25-inch floppy disk drives.
Commodore introduces the Commodore 64
Commodore 64 system
The C64, as it is better known, sells for $595, comes with 64 KB of RAM and features impressive graphics. Thousands of software titles were released over the lifespan of the C64 and by the time it was discontinued in 1993, it had sold more than 22 million units. It is recognized by the 2006 Guinness Book of World Records as the greatest selling single computer of all time.
Franklin releases Apple II “clones”
Franklin Ace 100 microcomputer
Created almost five years after the original Apple II, Franklin's Ace 1000 main logic board is nearly identical to that in the Apple II+ computer, and other models were later cloned as well. Franklin was able to undercut Apple's pricing even while offering some features not available on the original. Initially, Franklin won a court victory allowing them to continue cloning the machines, but in 1988, Apple won a copyright lawsuit against Franklin, forcing them to stop making Apple II “clones.”
Sun Microsystems is founded
Sun-1 workstation
When Xerox PARC loaned the Stanford Engineering Department an entire Alto Ethernet network with laser printer, graduate student Andy Bechtolsheim re-designed it into a prototype that he then attached to Stanford’s computer network. Sun Microsystems grows out of this prototype. The roots of the company’s name came from the acronym for Stanford University Network (SUN). The company was incorporated by three 26-year-old Stanford alumni: Bechtolsheim, Vinod Khosla and Scott McNealy. The trio soon attracted UC Berkeley UNIX guru Bill Joy, who led software development. Sun helped cement the model of a workstation having an Ethernet interface as well as high-resolution graphics and the UNIX operating system.
Apple introduces the Lisa computer
Apple Lisa
Lisa is the first commercial personal computer with a graphical user interface (GUI). It was thus an important milestone in computing as soon Microsoft Windows and the Apple Macintosh would soon adopt the GUI as their user interface, making it the new paradigm for personal computing. The Lisa ran on a Motorola 68000 microprocessor and came equipped with 1 MB of RAM, a 12-inch black-and-white monitor, dual 5.25-inch floppy disk drives and a 5 MB “Profile” hard drive. Lisa itself, and especially its GUI, were inspired by earlier work at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center.
Compaq Computer Corporation introduces the Compaq Portable
Compaq Portable
Advertised as the first 100% IBM PC-compatible computer, the Compaq Portable can run the same software as the IBM PC. With the success of the clone, Compaq recorded first-year sales of $111 million, the most ever by an American business in a single year. The success of the Portable inspired many other early IBM-compatible computers. Compaq licensed the MS-DOS operating system from Microsoft and legally reverse-engineered IBM’s BIOS software. Compaq's success launched a market for IBM-compatible computers that by 1996 had achieved an 83-percent share of the personal computer market.
Apple Computer launches the Macintosh
Apple Macintosh
Apple introduces the Macintosh with a television commercial during the 1984 Super Bowl, which plays on the theme of totalitarianism in George Orwell´s book 1984. The ad featured the destruction of “Big Brother” – a veiled reference to IBM -- through the power of personal computing found in a Macintosh. The Macintosh was the first successful mouse-driven computer with a graphical user interface and was based on the Motorola 68000 microprocessor. Its price was $2,500. Applications that came as part of the package included MacPaint, which made use of the mouse, and MacWrite, which demonstrated WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) word processing.
IBM releases its PC Jr. and PC/AT
IBM PC Jr.
The PC Jr. is marketed as a home computer but is too expensive and limited in performance to compete with many of the other machines in that market. It’s “chiclet” keyboard was also criticized for poor ergonomics. While the PC Jr. sold poorly, the PC/AT sold in the millions. It offered increased performance and storage capacity over the original IBM PC and sold for about $4,000. It also included more memory and accommodated high-density 1.2-megabyte 5 1/4-inch floppy disks.
PC's Limited is founded
PC’s Limited founder Michael Dell
In 1984, Michael Dell creates PC's Limited while still a student of the University of Texas at Austin. The dorm-room headquartered company sold IBM PC-compatible computers built from stock components. Dell dropped out of school to focus on his business and in 1985, the company produced the first computer of its own design, the Turbo PC, which sold for $795. By the early 1990s, Dell became one of the leading computer retailers.
The Amiga 1000 is released
Music composition on the Amiga 1000
Commodore’s Amiga 1000 is announced with a major event at New York's Lincoln Center featuring celebrities like Andy Warhol and Debbie Harry of the musical group Blondie. The Amiga sold for $1,295 (without monitor) and had audio and video capabilities beyond those found in most other personal computers. It developed a very loyal following while add-on components allowed it to be upgraded easily. The inside of the Amiga case is engraved with the signatures of the Amiga designers, including Jay Miner as well as the paw print of his dog Mitchy.
Compaq introduces the Deskpro 386 system
Promotional shot of the Compaq Deskpro 386s,
Compaq beats IBM to the market when it announces the Deskpro 386, the first computer on the market to use Intel´s new 80386 chip, a 32-bit microprocessor with 275,000 transistors on each chip. At 4 million operations per second and 4 kilobytes of memory, the 80386 gave PCs as much speed and power as older mainframes and minicomputers.
The 386 chip brought with it the introduction of a 32-bit architecture, a significant improvement over the 16-bit architecture of previous microprocessors. It had two operating modes, one that mirrored the segmented memory of older x86 chips, allowing full backward compatibility, and one that took full advantage of its more advanced technology. The new chip made graphical operating environments for IBM PC and PC-compatible computers practical. The architecture that allowed Windows and IBM OS/2 has remained in subsequent chips.
IBM releases the first commercial RISC-based workstation
IBM PC-RT
Reduced instruction set computers (RISC) grow out of the observation that the simplest 20 percent of a computer´s instruction set does 80 percent of the work. The IBM PC-RT had 1 MB of RAM, a 1.2-megabyte floppy disk drive, and a 40 MB hard drive. It performed 2 million instructions per second, but other RISC-based computers worked significantly faster.
The Connection Machine is unveiled
Connection Machine CM-1
Daniel Hillis of Thinking Machines Corporation moves artificial intelligence a step forward when he develops the controversial concept of massive parallelism in the Connection Machine CM-1. The machine used up to 65,536 one-bit processors and could complete several billion operations per second. Each processor had its own small memory linked with others through a flexible network that users altered by reprogramming rather than rewiring. The machine´s system of connections and switches let processors broadcast information and requests for help to other processors in a simulation of brain-like associative recall. Using this system, the machine could work faster than any other at the time on a problem that could be parceled out among the many processors.
Acorn Archimedes is released
Acorn Archimedes microcomputer
Acorn's ARM RISC microprocessor is first used in the company's Archimedes computer system. One of Britain's leading computer companies, Acorn continued the Archimedes line, which grew to nearly twenty different models, into the 1990s. Acorn spun off ARM as its own company to license microprocessor designs, which in turn has transformed mobile computing with ARM’s low power, high-performance processors and systems-on-chip (SoC).
IBM introduces its Personal System/2 (PS/2) machines
IBM PS/2
The first IBM system to include Intel´s 80386 chip, the company ships more than 1 million units by the end of the first year. IBM released a new operating system, OS/2, at the same time, allowing the use of a mouse with IBM PCs for the first time. Many credit the PS/2 for making the 3.5-inch floppy disk drive and video graphics array (VGA) standard for IBM computers. The system was IBM's response to losing control of the PC market with the rise of widespread copying of the original IBM PC design by “clone” makers.
Apple co-founder Steve Jobs unveils the NeXT Cube
NeXT Cube
Steve Jobs, forced out of Apple in 1985, founds a new company – NeXT. The computer he created, an all-black cube was an important innovation. The NeXT had three Motorola microprocessors and 8 MB of RAM. Its base price was $6,500. Some of its other innovations were the inclusion of a magneto-optical (MO) disk drive, a digital signal processor and the NeXTSTEP programming environment (later released as OPENSTEP). This object-oriented multitasking operating system was groundbreaking in its ability to foster rapid development of software applications. OPENSTEP was used as one of the foundations for the new Mac OS operating system soon after NeXT was acquired by Apple in 1996.
Laser 128 is released
Laser 128 Apple II clone
VTech, founded in Hong Kong, had been a manufacturer of Pong-like games and educational toys when they introduce the Laser 128 computer. Instead of simply copying the basic input output system (BIOS) of the Apple II as Franklin Computer had done, they reversed engineered the system and sold it for US $479, a much lower price than the comparable Apple II. While Apple sued to remove the Laser 128 from the market, they were unsuccessful and the Laser remained one of the very few Apple “clones” for sale.
Intel 80486 promotional photo
Computer History Museum
Intel released the 80486 microprocessor and the i860 RISC/coprocessor chip, each of which contained more than 1 million transistors. The RISC microprocessor had a 32-bit integer arithmetic and logic unit (the part of the CPU that performs operations such as addition and subtraction), a 64-bit floating-point unit, and a clock rate of 33 MHz.
The 486 chips remained similar in structure to their predecessors, the 386 chips. What set the 486 apart was its optimized instruction set, with an on-chip unified instruction and data cache and an optional on-chip floating-point unit. Combined with an enhanced bus interface unit, the microprocessor doubled the performance of the 386 without increasing the clock rate.
Macintosh Portable is introduced
Macintosh Portable
Apple had initially included a handle in their Macintosh computers to encourage users to take their Macs on the go, though not until five years after the initial introduction does Apple introduce a true portable computer. The Macintosh Portable was heavy, weighing sixteen pounds, and expensive (US$6,500). Sales were weaker than projected, despite being widely praised by the press for its active matrix display, removable trackball, and high performance. The line was discontinued less than two years later.
Intel's Touchstone Delta supercomputer system comes online
Intel Touchstone Delta supercomputer
Reaching 32 gigaflops (32 billion floating point operations per second), Intel’s Touchstone Delta has 512 processors operating independently, arranged in a two-dimensional communications “mesh.” Caltech researchers used this supercomputer prototype for projects such as real-time processing of satellite images, and for simulating molecular models in AIDS research. It would serve as the model for several other significant multi-processor systems that would be among the fastest in the world.
Babbage's Difference Engine #2 is completed
The Difference Engine #2 at the Science Museum, London
Based on Charles Babbage's second design for a mechanical calculating engine, a team at the Science Museum in London sets out to prove that the design would have worked as planned. Led by curator Doron Swade the team built Babbage’s machine in six years, using techniques that would have been available to Babbage at the time, proving that Babbage’s design was accurate and that it could have been built in his day.
PowerBook series of laptops is introduced
PowerBook 100 laptop computer
Apple's Macintosh Portable meets with little success in the marketplace and leads to a complete redesign of Apple's line of portable computers. All three PowerBooks introduced featured a built-in trackball, internal floppy drive, and palm rests, which would eventually become typical of 1990s laptop design. The PowerBook 100 was the entry-level machine, while the PowerBook 140 was more powerful and had a larger memory. The PowerBook 170 was the high-end model, featuring an active matrix display, faster processor, as well as a floating point unit. The PowerBook line of computers was discontinued in 2006.
DEC announces Alpha chip architecture
DEC Alpha chip die-shot
Designed to replace the 32-bit VAX architecture, the Alpha is a 64-bit reduced instruction set computer (RISC) microprocessor. It was widely used in DEC's workstations and servers, as well as several supercomputers like the Chinese Sunway Blue Light system, and the Swiss Gigabooster. The Alpha processor designs were eventually acquired by Compaq, which, along with Intel, phased out the Alpha architecture in favor of the HP/Itanium microprocessor.
Intel Paragon is operational
Intel Paragon system
Based on the Touchstone Delta computer Intel had built at Caltech, the Paragon is a parallel supercomputer that uses 2,048 (later increased to more than four thousand) Intel i860 processors. More than one hundred Paragons were installed over the lifetime of the system, each costing as much as five million dollars. The Paragon at Caltech was named the fastest supercomputer in the world in 1992. Paragon systems were used in many scientific areas, including atmospheric and oceanic flow studies, and energy research.
Apple ships the first Newton
The Apple Newton Personal Digital Assistant
Apple enters the handheld computer market with the Newton. Dubbed a “Personal Data Assistant” by Apple President John Scully in 1992, the Newton featured many of the features that would define handheld computers in the following decades. The handwriting recognition software was much maligned for inaccuracy. The Newton line never performed as well as hoped and was discontinued in 1998.
HP Netserver LM, one of the first to use Intel's Pentium
Computer History Museum
The Pentium is the fifth generation of the ‘x86’ line of microprocessors from Intel, the basis for the IBM PC and its clones. The Pentium introduced several advances that made programs run faster such as the ability to execute several instructions at the same time and support for graphics and music.
RISC PC is released
Acorn RISC PC
Replacing their Archimedes computer, the RISC PC from UK's Acorn Computers uses the ARMv3 RISC microprocessor. Though it used a proprietary operating system, RISC OS, the RISC PC could run PC-compatible software using the Acorn PC Card. The RISC PC was used widely in UK broadcast television and in music production.
BeBox is released
BeBox computer
Be, founded by former Apple executive Jean Louis Gassée and a number of former Apple, NeXT and SUN employees, releases their only product – the BeBox. Using dual PowerPC 603 CPUs, and featuring a large variety of peripheral ports, the first devices were used for software development. While it did not sell well, the operating system, Be OS, retained a loyal following even after Be stopped producing hardware in 1997 after less than 2,000 machines were produced.
IBM releases the ThinkPad 701C
IBM ThinkPad 701C
Officially known as the Track Write, the automatically expanding full-sized keyboard used by the ThinkPad 701 is designed by inventor John Karidis. The keyboard was comprised of three roughly triangular interlocking pieces, which formed a full-sized keyboard when the laptop was opened -- resulting in a keyboard significantly wider than the case. This keyboard design was dubbed “the Butterfly.” The need for such a design was lessened as laptop screens grew wider.
Palm Pilot is introduced
Ed Colligan, Donna Dubinsky, and Jeff Hawkins
Palm Inc., founded by Ed Colligan, Donna Dubinsky, and Jeff Hawkins, originally created software for the Casio Zoomer personal data assistant. The first generation of Palm-produced devices, the Palm 1000 and 5000, are based around a Motorola microprocessor running at 16MHz, and uses a special gestural input language called “Graffiti,” which is quick to learn and fast. Palm could be connected to a PC or Mac using a serial port to synchronize – “sync” – both computer and Palm. The company called it a ‘connected organizer’ rather than a PDA to emphasize this ability.
Sony Vaio series is begun
Sony Vaio laptop
Sony had manufactured and sold computers in Japan, but the VAIO signals their entry into the global computer market. The first VAIO, a desktop computer, featured an additional 3D interface on top of the Windows 95 operating system as a way of attracting new users. The VAIO line of computers would be best known for laptops were designed with communications and audio-video capabilities at the forefront, including innovative designs that incorporated TV and radio tuners, web cameras, and handwriting recognition. The line was discontinued in 2014.
ASCI Red is operational
ASCI Red supercomputers
The Advanced Strategic Computing Initiative (ASCI) needed a supercomputer to help with the maintenance of the US nuclear arsenal following the ban on underground nuclear testing. The ASCI Red, based on the design of the Intel Paragon, was built by IBM and delivered to Sandia National Laboratories. Until the year 2000, it was the world's fastest supercomputer, able to achieve peak performance of 1.3 teraflops, (about 1.3 trillion calculations per second).
The iMac, a range of all-in-one Macintosh desktop computers, is launched
iMac poster
Apple makes a splash with its Bondi Blue iMac, which sells for about $1,300. Customers got a machine with a 233-MHz G3 processor, 4GB hard drive, 32MB of RAM, a CD-ROM drive, and a 15" monitor. The machine was noted for its ease-of-use and included a 'manual' that contained only a few pictures and less than 20 words. As Apple’s first new product under the leadership of a returning Steve Jobs, many consider this the most significant step in Apple's return from near-bankruptcy in the middle 1990s.
First camera phone introduced
Sony-built J-Phone J-SH04
Japan's SoftBank introduces the first camera phone, the J-Phone J-SH04; a Sharp-manufactured digital phone with integrated camera. The camera had a maximum resolution of 0.11 megapixels a 256-color display, and photos could be shared wirelessly. The J-Phone line would quickly expand, releasing a flip-phone version just a month later. Cameras would become a significant part of most phones within a year, and several countries have even passed laws regulating their use.
Earth Simulator is world's fastest supercomputer
Earth Simulator Supercomputer
Developed by the Japanese government to create global climate models, the Earth Simulator is a massively parallel, vector-based system that costs nearly 60 billion yen (roughly $600 million at the time). A consortium of aerospace, energy, and marine science agencies undertook the project, and the system was built by NEC around their SX-6 architecture. To protect it from earthquakes, the building housing it was built using a seismic isolation system that used rubber supports. The Earth Simulator was listed as the fastest supercomputer in the world from 2002 to 2004.
Handspring Treo is released
Colligan, Dubinsky, Hawkins (left to right)
Leaving Palm Inc., Ed Colligan, Donna Dubinsky, and Jeff Hawkins found Handspring. After retiring their initial Visor series of PDAs, Handspring introduced the Treo line of smartphones, designed with built-in keyboards, cameras, and the Palm operating system. The Treo sold well, and the line continued until Handspring was purchased by Palm in 2003.
PowerMac G5 is released
PowerMac G5 tower computer
With a distinctive anodized aluminum case, and hailed as the first true 64-bit personal computer, the Apple G5 is the most powerful Macintosh ever released to that point. While larger than the previous G4 towers, the G5 had comparatively limited space for expansion. Virginia Tech used more than a thousand PowerMac G5s to create the System X cluster supercomputer, rated #3 in November of that year on the world’s TOP500 fastest computers.
Arduino
Arduino starter kit
Harkening back to the hobbyist era of personal computing in the 1970s, Arduino begins as a project of the Interaction Design Institute, Ivrea, Italy. Each credit card-sized Arduino board consisted of an inexpensive microcontroller and signal connectors which made Arduinos ideal for use in any application connecting to or monitoring the outside world. The Arduino used a Java-based integrated development environment and users could access a library of programs, called “Wiring,” that allowed for simplified programming. Arduino soon became the main computer platform of the worldwide “Maker” movement.
Lenovo acquires IBM's PC business
IBM and Lenovo logos
Nearly a quarter century after IBM launched their PC in 1981, they had become merely another player in a crowded marketplace. Lenovo, China's largest manufacturer of PCs, purchased IBM's personal computer business in 2005, largely to gain access to IBM's ThinkPad line of computers and sales force. Lenovo became the largest manufacturer of PCs in the world with the acquisition, later also acquiring IBM's server line of computers.
NASA Ames Research Center supercomputer Columbia
Columbia Supercomputer system made up of SGI Altix
Named in honor of the space shuttle which broke-up on re-entry, the Columbia supercomputer is an important part of NASA's return to manned spaceflight after the 2003 disaster. Columbia was used in space vehicle analysis, including studying the Columbia disaster, but also in astrophysics, weather and ocean modeling. At its introduction, it was listed as the second fastest supercomputer in the world and this single system increased NASA's supercomputing capacity 10-fold. The system was kept at NASA Ames Research Center until 2013, when it was removed to make way for two new supercomputers.
One Laptop Per Child initiative begins
OLPC XO laptop computer
At the 2006 World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) announces it will create a program to deliver technology and resources to targeted schools in the least developed countries. The project became the One Laptop per Child Consortium (OLPC) founded by Nicholas Negroponte, the founder of MIT's Media Lab. The first offering to the public required the buyer to purchase one to be given to a child in the developing world as a condition of acquiring a machine for themselves. By 2011, over 2.4 million laptops had been shipped.
The Amazon Kindle is released
Amazon Kindle
Many companies have attempted to release electronic reading systems dating back to the early 1990s. Online retailer Amazon released the Kindle, one of the first to gain a large following among consumers. The first Kindle featured wireless access to content via Amazon.com, along with an SD card slot allowing increased storage. The first release proved so popular there was a long delay in delivering systems on release. Follow-on versions of the Kindle added further audio-video capabilities.
The Apple iPhone is released
Apple iPhone
Apple launches the iPhone - a combination of web browser, music player and cell phone - which could download new functionality in the form of "apps" (applications) from the online Apple store. The touchscreen enabled smartphone also had built-in GPS navigation, high-definition camera, texting, calendar, voice dictation, and weather reports.
The MacBook Air is released
Steve Jobs introducing MacBook Air
Apple introduces their first ultra notebook – a light, thin laptop with high-capacity battery. The Air incorporated many of the technologies that had been associated with Apple's MacBook line of laptops, including integrated camera, and Wi-Fi capabilities. To reduce its size, the traditional hard drive was replaced with a solid-state disk, the first mass-market computer to do so.
IBM's Roadrunner supercomputer is completed
Computer-enhanced image of IBM’s Roadrunner
The Roadrunner is the first computer to reach a sustained performance of 1 petaflop (one thousand trillion floating point operations per second). It used two different microprocessors: an IBM POWER XCell L8i and AMD Opteron. It was used to model the decay of the US nuclear arsenal, analyze financial data, and render 3D medical images in real-time. An offshoot of the POWER XCell8i chip was used as the main processor in the Sony PlayStation 3 game console.
Jaguar Supercomputer at Oak Ridge upgraded
Originally a Cray XT3 system, the Jaguar is a massively parallel supercomputer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, a US science and energy research facility. The system cost more than $100 million to create and ran a variation of the Linux operating system with up to 10 petabytes of storage. The Jaguar was used to study climate science, seismology, and astrophysics applications. It was the fastest computer in the world from November 2009 to June 2010.
Apple Retina Display
Introduction of the iPhone 4 with retina display
Since the release of the Macintosh in 1984, Apple has placed emphasis on high-resolution graphics and display technologies. In 2012, Apple introduced the Retina display for the MacBook Pro laptop and iPad tablet. With a screen resolution of up to 400 pixels-per-inch (PPI), Retina displays approached the limit of pixel visibility to the human eye. The display also used In Plane Switching (IPS) technology, which allowed for a wider viewing angle and improved color accuracy. The Retina display became standard on most of the iPad, iPhone, MacBook, and Apple Watch product lines.
China's Tianhe supercomputers are operational
Tianhe-1A Supercomputer
With a peak speed of over a petaflop (one thousand trillion calculations per second), the Tianhe 1 (translation: Milky Way 1) is developed by the Chinese National University of Defense Technology using Intel Xeon processors combined with AMD graphic processing units (GPUs). The upgraded and faster Tianhe-1A used Intel Xeon CPUs as well, but switched to nVidia's Tesla GPUs and added more than 2,000 Fei-Tang (SPARC-based) processors. The machines were used by the Chinese Academy of Sciences to run massive solar energy simulations, as well as some of the most complex molecular studies ever undertaken.
The Apple iPad is released
Steve Jobs introducing the iPad
The iPad combines many of the popular capabilities of the iPhone, such as built-in high-definition camera, access to the iTunes Store, and audio-video capabilities, but with a nine-inch screen and without the phone. Apps, games, and accessories helped spur the popularity of the iPad and led to its adoption in thousands of different applications from movie making, creating art, making music, inventory control and point-of-sale systems, to name but a few.
IBM Sequoia is delivered to Lawrence Livermore Labs
Built by IBM using their Blue Gene/Q supercomputer architecture, the Sequoia system is the world's fastest supercomputer in 2012. Despite using 98,304 PowerPC chips, Sequoia's relatively low power usage made it unusually efficient. Scientific and defense applications included studies of human electrophysiology, nuclear weapon simulation, human genome mapping, and global climate change.
Nest Learning Thermostat is Introduced
Nest Learning Thermostat
The Nest Learning Thermostat is an early product made for the emerging “Internet of Things,” which envisages a world in which common everyday devices have network connectivity and can exchange information or be controlled. The Nest allowed for remote access to a user’s home’s thermostat by using a smartphone or tablet and could also send monthly power consumption reports to help save on energy bills. The Nest would remember what temperature users preferred by ‘training’ itself to monitor daily use patterns for a few days then adopting that pattern as its new way of controlling home temperature.
Raspberry Pi, a credit-card-size single board computer, is released as a tool to promote science education
Raspberry Pi computer
Conceived in the UK by the Raspberry Pi Foundation, this credit card-sized computer features ease of use and simplicity making it highly popular with students and hobbyists. In October 2013, the one millionth Raspberry Pi was shipped. Only one month later, another one million Raspberry Pis were delivered. The Pi weighed only 45 grams and initially sold for only $25-$35 U.S. Dollars.
University of Michigan Micro Mote is Completed
The University of Michigan Micro Mote (M3) is the smallest computer in the world at the time of its completion. Three types of the M3 were available – two types that measured either temperature or pressure and one that could take images. The motes were powered by a tiny battery and could gain light energy through a photocell, which was enough to feed the infinitesimally small amount of energy a mote consumes (1 picowatt). Motes are also known as “smart dust,” since the intention is that their tiny size and low cost make them inexpensive enough to “sprinkle” in the real world to as sensors. An ecologist, for example, could sprinkle thousands of motes from the air onto a field and measure soil and air temperature, moisture, and sunlight, giving them accurate real-time data about the environment.
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What is the nickname of the UFC (Uniting For Consensus), which was developed in the 1990’s in opposition to the possible expansion of the United Nations Security Council? | About: Uniting for Consensus
About: Uniting for Consensus
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Uniting for Consensus (UfC) is a movement, nicknamed the Coffee Club, that developed in the 1990s in opposition to the possible expansion of permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. Under the leadership of Italy, it aims to counter the bids for permanent seats proposed by G4 nations (Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan) and is calling for a consensus before any decision is reached on the form and size of the Security Council.
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abstract
Uniting for Consensus es un movimiento (apodado en inglés Coffee Club), que se desarrolló en la década de 1990 en oposición a la posible ampliación del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas. Recientemente revivido por Italia, es un grupo de consenso que ahora tiene cerca de 40 miembros. Su objetivo es el de contrarrestar las ofertas de los miembros del Grupo de los cuatro para su postura por puestos permanentes dentro del Consejo de seguridad de la ONU. Lo lidera Italia, y sus miembros son Pakistán, México, España, Argentina, Colombia, Canadá, Costa Rica, Malta, San Marino, Turquía y Corea del Sur.
(es)
Uniting for Consensus (UfC) è un gruppo costituito a New York l'11 aprile 2005 per promuovere la riforma del Consiglio di sicurezza dell'ONU attraverso l'aumento dei seggi non permanenti. Il gruppo è presieduto dall'Italia.
(it)
Uniting for Consensus (UfC) is a movement, nicknamed the Coffee Club, that developed in the 1990s in opposition to the possible expansion of permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. Under the leadership of Italy, it aims to counter the bids for permanent seats proposed by G4 nations (Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan) and is calling for a consensus before any decision is reached on the form and size of the Security Council.
(en)
Uniting for Consensus (UfC) (auch Coffee Club genannt) ist eine Gruppe von Staaten, die in den 1990er Jahren als Reaktion auf die mögliche Erweiterung des UN-Sicherheitsrats entstand. Uniting für Consensus richtet sich insbesondere gegen das Bestreben der G4-Staaten nach einem ständigen Sitz im Sicherheitsrat der Vereinten Nationen. Hauptakteure der Bewegung sind Argentinien, Italien, Mexiko und Pakistan. Insbesondere Brasilien, Deutschland, Indien und Japan haben Ansprüche auf einen ständigen Sitz im UN-Sicherheitsrat angemeldet. Japan und Deutschland als zweit- und drittgrößte Geldgeber der UN, Brasilien und Indien als die zwei Länder mit den größten Kontingenten an UN-Friedenstruppen. Brasilien ist außerdem (nach Einwohnern) die größte Nation in Lateinamerika und Indien die weltgrößte Demokratie und nach China der Staat mit der zweitgrößten Bevölkerung der Erde. Im Jahr 2005 legten Repräsentanten von Uniting for Consensus - Italien, Kanada, Kolumbien und Pakistan ein Text der Generalversammlung der Vereinten Nationen einen Antragstext vor, der die Erweiterung der Anzahl ständiger Sitze im Sicherheitsrat ablehnt. Weitere Unterstützer des Textes sind Argentinien, Costa Rica, Malta, Mexiko, San Marino, Spanien und die Türkei. Die Motive der Mitgliedsstaaten von Uniting for Consensus sind verschieden:
(de)
コンセンサス連合（こんせんさすれんごう,コーヒークラブとも通称される）は、1990年代、国際連合安全保障理事会常任理事国の拡大の可能性に反対するために起こった動きである。近年はイタリアにより主導され、常任理事国入りを目指しているG4諸国（日本、ドイツ、インド、ブラジル）の活動を阻止することを目的としている。。 コンセンサス連合の主要国は次のようだ。 G4諸国について、日本とドイツはそれぞれ国際連合の分担金の世界2位、3位の拠出国であり、インド、ブラジルは国際連合平和維持活動への2大兵力拠出国である。ブラジルは南アメリカで最大の人口・面積を有している。インドは民主主義国家として最大の人口を持ち、核保有国でもある。 コンセンサス連合に参加している主な国は、以下の通りである。
(ja)
União pelo Consenso (UfC na sigla em inglês), com apelido de Coffee Club (Clube do Café em português) é um grupo de países nascido na década de 1990 em oposição a uma possível expansão do Conselho de Segurança da Organização das Nações Unidas. Recentemente reavivado pela Itália, ele objetiva conter os pedidos do G4 para assentos permanentes. Os países líderes do grupo são Itália, Paquistão, México e Argentina. Em fevereiro de 2011, foi reportado que o número de membros passou a meia-dúzia. Os países que mais reivindicaram posições permanentes nos assentos foram o Brasil, Alemanha, Índia e Japão. Japão e Alemanha são o segundo e terceiro maiores financiadores das Nações Unidas, respectivamente, enquanto Brasil e Índia são dois dos maiores contribuintes de tropas para missões da ONU, com mandato de manutenção da paz. O Brasil também é a maior nação da América Latina, e a Índia é o segundo país mais populoso do mundo. A Assembléia Geral da ONU em setembro de 2005 marcou o 60º aniversário da ONU e os membros foram para decidir sobre uma série de reformas necessárias, incluindo a conselho de segurança alargado. No entanto, a falta de vontade de encontrar uma posição negociável tem parado mesmo as reformas mais urgentes de Setembro de 2005 da Assembleia Geral, e foi um revés para a ONU. A ONU anunciou em 2005 que recebeu uma proposta se opondo uma expansão de assentos permanentes pelos representantes de quatro membros do Unidos pelo Consenso - Canadá, Itália, Colômbia e Paquistão. Outros membros e co-autores do texto, intitulado “Reform of the Security Council”, são listados como Argentina, Costa Rica, Malta, México, San Marino, Espanha e Turquia. O G4 retém sua meta de adesão ao CSNU permanente para todos os quatro países (além de duas nações africanas). No entanto, o Japão anunciou em Janeiro de 2006 que não iria apoiar uma resolução a ser apresentada novamente do G4 e estava trabalhando em uma resolução própria. Alguns membros do Coffee Club são:
(pt)
团结谋共识（英语：Uniting for Consensus），也被稱為咖啡俱樂部，於1990年代發展，反對擴大聯合國安理會的可能。由意大利發起，大約有五十個國家加入，以反對四國聯盟爭取加入安理會的要求。領導國家為意大利、韓國、墨西哥、阿根廷和巴基斯坦。四國聯盟成員為巴西、日本、德國、印度，這四個國家有強烈意願加入聯合國安全理事會常任理事國。
(zh)
comment
Uniting for Consensus es un movimiento (apodado en inglés Coffee Club), que se desarrolló en la década de 1990 en oposición a la posible ampliación del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas. Recientemente revivido por Italia, es un grupo de consenso que ahora tiene cerca de 40 miembros. Su objetivo es el de contrarrestar las ofertas de los miembros del Grupo de los cuatro para su postura por puestos permanentes dentro del Consejo de seguridad de la ONU. Lo lidera Italia, y sus miembros son Pakistán, México, España, Argentina, Colombia, Canadá, Costa Rica, Malta, San Marino, Turquía y Corea del Sur.
(es)
Uniting for Consensus (UfC) è un gruppo costituito a New York l'11 aprile 2005 per promuovere la riforma del Consiglio di sicurezza dell'ONU attraverso l'aumento dei seggi non permanenti. Il gruppo è presieduto dall'Italia.
(it)
Uniting for Consensus (UfC) is a movement, nicknamed the Coffee Club, that developed in the 1990s in opposition to the possible expansion of permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. Under the leadership of Italy, it aims to counter the bids for permanent seats proposed by G4 nations (Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan) and is calling for a consensus before any decision is reached on the form and size of the Security Council.
(en)
团结谋共识（英语：Uniting for Consensus），也被稱為咖啡俱樂部，於1990年代發展，反對擴大聯合國安理會的可能。由意大利發起，大約有五十個國家加入，以反對四國聯盟爭取加入安理會的要求。領導國家為意大利、韓國、墨西哥、阿根廷和巴基斯坦。四國聯盟成員為巴西、日本、德國、印度，這四個國家有強烈意願加入聯合國安全理事會常任理事國。
(zh)
Uniting for Consensus (UfC) (auch Coffee Club genannt) ist eine Gruppe von Staaten, die in den 1990er Jahren als Reaktion auf die mögliche Erweiterung des UN-Sicherheitsrats entstand. Uniting für Consensus richtet sich insbesondere gegen das Bestreben der G4-Staaten nach einem ständigen Sitz im Sicherheitsrat der Vereinten Nationen. Hauptakteure der Bewegung sind Argentinien, Italien, Mexiko und Pakistan.Die Motive der Mitgliedsstaaten von Uniting for Consensus sind verschieden:
(de)
コンセンサス連合（こんせんさすれんごう,コーヒークラブとも通称される）は、1990年代、国際連合安全保障理事会常任理事国の拡大の可能性に反対するために起こった動きである。近年はイタリアにより主導され、常任理事国入りを目指しているG4諸国（日本、ドイツ、インド、ブラジル）の活動を阻止することを目的としている。。コンセンサス連合の主要国は次のようだ。G4諸国について、日本とドイツはそれぞれ国際連合の分担金の世界2位、3位の拠出国であり、インド、ブラジルは国際連合平和維持活動への2大兵力拠出国である。ブラジルは南アメリカで最大の人口・面積を有している。インドは民主主義国家として最大の人口を持ち、核保有国でもある。コンセンサス連合に参加している主な国は、以下の通りである。
(ja)
União pelo Consenso (UfC na sigla em inglês), com apelido de Coffee Club (Clube do Café em português) é um grupo de países nascido na década de 1990 em oposição a uma possível expansão do Conselho de Segurança da Organização das Nações Unidas. Recentemente reavivado pela Itália, ele objetiva conter os pedidos do G4 para assentos permanentes. Os países líderes do grupo são Itália, Paquistão, México e Argentina. Em fevereiro de 2011, foi reportado que o número de membros passou a meia-dúzia.Alguns membros do Coffee Club são:
(pt)
| The Coffee Club |
What is the highest number on a UK National Lottery ticket? | Uniting for Consensus - Free definitions by Babylon
Uniting for Consensus
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Uniting for Consensus
Uniting for Consensus (UfC) is a movement, nicknamed the Coffee Club, that developed in the 1990s in opposition to the possible expansion of permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council . Under the leadership of Italy, it aims to counter the bids for permanent seats proposed by G4 nations (Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan) and is calling for a consensus before any decision is reached on the form and size of the Security Council.
Video results for the word "Uniting for Consensus"
The following video provides you with the correct English pronunciation of the word "Uniting for Consensus", to help you become a better English speaker.
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The Henley Royal Regatta takes place over the first weekend of which month? | Henley Royal Regatta 2016
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Henley Royal Regatta
Henley Royal Regatta is undoubtedly the best known regatta in the world and is both one of the highlights of the summer sporting calendar and the social season.
It attracts thousands of visitors over a 5-day period and spectators will be thrilled by over 200 races of an international standard, including Olympians and crews new to the event.
Aside from the rowing, visitors can take in the ambience enjoying the facilities within the enclosures.
Watch all of the videos from the Regatta on our YouTube Channel .
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2017 - 28th June - 2nd July
2018 - 4th July - 8th July
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| July |
The name of which region in India means ‘Land of Five Rivers’? | Success for Obreno over Drysdale at Henley Royal Regatta - worldrowing.com
Success for Obreno over Drysdale at Henley Royal Regatta
04 July 2016
In a surprising turn of events at the Henley Royal Regatta in Great Britain, Olympic Champion Mahe Drysdale of New Zealand was knocked off the top of the men's single sculls by Belgium’s Hannes Obreno.
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2016 Henley Royal Regatta at the start
© FISA
Obreno’s win denied Drysdale of matching Australian Stuart MacKenzie’s record six wins in the Diamond Challenge Sculls, the men's single sculling race, leaving Drysdale's tally at five.
The scullers faced difficult headwind conditions and went stroke-for-stroke for the majority of the two-boat final. Coming into the final sprint, Obreno raised his stroke rate and managed to push out to a full two-length lead over the 37-year-old Drysdale. Obreno qualified his boat for the Rio Olympic Games at the Final Olympic Qualification Regatta in Lucerne just six weeks ago. He will thus compete again against Drysdale in Rio. Drysdale will be looking to defend his Olympic title.
“Obviously I’m a little disappointed how I rowed today," said Drysdale after the race. "I really wanted to win that one, but I’ve learned a few things here this week that I can now take into my preparation for Rio. I’d love to come back to Henley. It is no surprise that the record (by MacKenzie) has stood for so long, it’s immensely competitive every year here.”
The Henley Royal Regatta saw record numbers this year, with 629 crews participating from 27 nations. Racing began on Thursday 30 June with the first round of dual races. Those 629 crews were boiled down to just 40 racing in 20 finals on Sunday 3 July. The finals day saw warm, but windy conditions, presenting an extra challenge for the competitors.
The Netherlands brought the largest contingent of Olympic bound crews, including their men’s pair, men’s four and men’s eight. The men’s eight raced the final against a British development eight. The young British eight put up quite a fight against Olympic favourites, the Netherlands, but ended up losing by ¾ of a length.
Dutch Head Coach Mark Emke said, “It is lovely to come to Henley and be able to race and win prior to Rio. This will be a big mental and morale booster for the crew and myself and we can only hope for the best in Rio."
The Netherlands also took home the trophy in the Princess Royal Challenge Cup (women’s single sculls) when Lisa Scheenaard beat Germany’s Anne Beenken. Scheenaard got off to the better start and led from start to finish. She narrowly missed out on qualifying for the Rio Olympic Games at the Final Olympic Qualification Regatta, but raced to a fourth place finish at the World Rowing Cup in Poznan just a few weeks ago.
“Winning this was actually really high on my bucket list." said Scheenaard. "Three years ago I debuted in the Remenham Cup (women's eight) and lost the final. To finally win is huge for me. It really means something to me to be in a list with people like Knapkova."
In the Remenham Challeng Cup it was a victory for the Princeton Training Centre, USA crew. This was not the United States’ top crew that will race next month at the Olympic Games, but they nonetheless showed their power by beating the British composite crew from Leander Club and Tees Rowing Club by 4 ¾ lengths.
The regatta wrapped up with the prize giving where Sir Steve Redgrave and double Olympic Champion in cycling, Victoria Pendleton presented the trophies.
Redgrave said, “This has been a record breaking Henley Royal Regatta in every sense of the word. We get bigger and bigger and it has been a fantastic event.”
Quotes thanks to Henley Royal Regatta (www.hrr.co.uk)
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Provolone is what type of foodstuff? | Patent US3924014 - Provolone cheese flavor - Google Patents
Provolone cheese flavor
US 3924014 A
Abstract
A foodstuff having a flavor in the direction of ripe Provolone cheese can be prepared by incorporating a mixture of I. ALKANOIC ACIDS HAVING 2-10 CARBON ATOMS, CONTAINING 35-70 PERCENT BUTYRIC ACID, 15-35 PERCENT HEXANOIC ACID, 15-30 PERCENT OCTANOIC AND/OR DECANOIC ACID, AND THE BALANCE BEING OTHER ALKANOIC ACIDS HAVING 2-10 CARBON ATOMS, II. ALKYL ALKANOATES HAVING AN ALKYL GROUP OF 1-4 CARBON ATOMS AND AN ALKANOYL GROUP OF 4-8 CARBON ATOMS, AND III. ALKYL AMINES AND DIALKYLAMINES HAVING 2-8 CARBON ATOMS, AND OPTIONALLY OTHER CHEESE FLAVOR INGREDIENTS. The ripe Provolone cheese flavor of a foodstuff is further improved if a mixture of amino acids is added in addition to a flavoring mixture. A preferred flavoring mixture comprises 75-99 parts alkanoic acids, 0.01-0.2 parts alkyl alkanoates, 0.05-0.5 parts alkyl and dialkyl amines and 0.01-20 parts other cheese flavor ingredients.
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Description (OCR text may contain errors)
United States Patent [191 Ney et al.
1 51 Dec. 2, 1975 I PROVOLONE CHEESE FLAVOR [73] Assignee: Lever Brothers Company, New
York, NY.
[22] Filed: Jan. 24, 1975 [2]] Appl. No.: 543,838
Related U.S. Application Data [63] Continuation-in-part of Ser. No. 345,058,
abandoned.
[30] Foreign Application Priority Data Mar. 24, 1972 Luxembourg 65039 [52] U.S. C1. 426/534; 426/535; 426/536;
426/537; 426/538 [51] Int. C1. A23L 1/226 [58] Field of Search 426/65 [56] References Cited UNITED STATES PATENTS 3,520,699 8/1970 Henning 426/65 OTHER PUBLICATIONS Harper et al., Italian Cheese Ripening... J. Dairy Science, 39, (1956), pp. 129-137. Iyer et a1, Improved Technique for Analysis of Free Fatty Acids in Butteroil and Provolone Cheese, .1.
Dairy Science, 50, (1967), pp. 285-291.
Fenarolis Handbook of Flavor Ingredients, 1971. Edited by Furia et al. The Chemical Rubber Co., Cleveland, pp. 741-742.
Primary E.raminerJoseph M. Golian Attorney, Agennor Firm lames J. Farrell, Esq.
[57] ABSTRACT A foodstuff having a flavor in the direction of ripe Provolone cheese can be prepared by incorporating a mixture of i. alkanoic acids having 2-10 carbon atoms, containing 35-70percent butyric acid, 15-35 percent hexanoic acid. 15-30 percent octanoic and/or decanoic acid, and the balance being other alkanoic acids having 2-10 carbon atoms,
ii. alkyl alkanoates having an alkyl group of 1-4 carbon atoms and an alkanoyl group of 4-8 carbon atoms, and
iii. alkyl amines and dialkylamines having 2-8 carbon atoms, and optionally other cheese flavor ingredients. The ripe Provolone cheese flavor of a foodstuff is further improved if a mixture of amino acids is added in addition to a flavoring mixture. A preferred flavoring mixture comprises 75-99 parts alkanoic acids, 0.0l-O.2 parts alkyl alkanoates. 0.05-05 parts alkyl and dialkyl amines and 0.01-20 parts other cheese flavor ingredients.
10 Claims, N0 Drawings PROVOLONE CHEESE FLAVOR This application is a Continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 345,058, and now abandoned, which claims convention priority of Luxembourg patent application No. 65,039 dated Mar. 24, 1972.
The present invention relates to a process for preparing a foodstuff having a flavor in the direction of Provolone cheese, to cheese flavoring compositions to be used for such a process and to a foodstuff prepared with such a process.
In this specification Provolone Cheese is understood to be'a hard cheese which is mainly produced in Southern Italy and Lombardy from cows milk by natural souring. Provolone belongs to the group of the pastafllata cheeses, by which are understood cheeses prepared from curd which had been made plastic. In this particular mode of preparation the cheese curd is heated in the whey at temperatures above 60C, which renders it soft to viscous, so that a plastic, thread-like curd structure is formed.
On account of its intensive flavor. Provolone is popular in Italy for use as an additive in the preparation of special processed cheeses. However, in comparison with other kinds of cheese, e.g. Cheddar, Provolone is relatively expensive.
In spite of the existence of commercial interest, attempts to find a flavoring preparation the addition of which makes it possible to impart to foodstuffs, in particular relatively tasteless young cheese, a ripe Provolone taste and flavor, were not successful so far. As to the individual components which contribute to the flavor and taste of ripe Provolone, little has become known so far in the literature. It is known that the free fatty acids are involved in the taste and smell of dairy produce and in particular also of cheese. It is further known that the proportion of short-chain free fatty acids in Provolone is very high and that among the short-chain free fatty acids butyric acid takes a prominent place (J. Dairy Science 50 (1967) 285-291). In view of the flavor formation also the free amino acid content in Provolone has been investigated and discussed (J. Dairy Science 39 (1956) 129-137).
The problem underlying the present invention is to impart to foodstuffs, preferably cheese products, in particular processed cheese which has been prepared from young, relatively tasteless raw cheese, for example young Cheddar cheese, a flavor and taste of ripe Provolone, by incorporating certain flavoring preparations, without the addition of ripe Provolone being required.
It has now been found that a foodstuff, in particular young cheese, processed cheese and processed cheese preparations with a flavor in the direction of ripe Provolone cheese can be obtained when a food composition is admixed with an effective amount of a Provolone cheese flavoring composition containing alkanoic acids with 2-10 carbon atoms, comprising 35-70 percent butyric acid, 1565 percent hexanoic acid, -30 percent octanoic acid and/or decanoic acid, and the balance being other alkanoic acids with 2-10 carbon atoms.
Preferably the amount of alkanoic acids is such that the concentration of butyric acid in the final foodstuff is at least 500 mg/kg. For an extra piquante type of Provolone cheese product at least 1500 mg/kg butyric acid should preferably be present. The Provolone cheese flavor of a foodstuff is further improved if a food composition is admixed with a Provolone cheese flavoring composition containing alkyl alkanoates of the formula R COOR having an alkyl group R" with l-4 carbon atoms and an alkanoyl group RCO having 4-8 carbon atoms, and/or containing alkyl amines and dialkyl amines having 2-8 carbon atoms. If a Provolone cheese flavoring composition is used containing alkyl amines having 3-5 carbon atoms, this is a particular embodiment of the invention described in our co-pending application Ser. No. 407,701, and now abandoned, a Continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 240,8 I 6, now abandoned, claiming priority of Luxembourg patent applications No. 62,955 and No. 62,954 of Apr. 8th 1971.
Effective amounts of Provolone cheese flavoring compositions are in the range of from 100 to 30,000 mg/kg, preferably from 600 to 10,000 mg/kg. The Provolone cheese flavoring composition can be improved by small amounts of other cheese flavoring ingredients. A preferred Provolone cheese flavoring composition is one prepared by admixing from to 99 parts, preferably from to 98 parts, alkanoic acids having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, consisting of from 35 to 70 percent butyric acid, from 15 to 35 percent hexanoic acid, from 15 to 30 percent of an alkanoic acid selected from the group consisting of octanoic acid, decanoic acid and mixtures thereof, and the balance being other alkanoic acids with from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, from 0.01 to 0.2 parts, preferably from 0.03 to 0.1 parts alkyl alkanoates having an alkyl group with from 1 to 4 carbon atoms and an alkanoyl group with from 4 to 8 carbon atoms, from 0.05 to 0.5 parts, preferably from 0.07 to 0.2 parts alkyl amines and dialkyl amines having from 2 to 8 carbon atoms, and from 0 to 20 parts, preferably from I to 10 parts, other cheese flavoring ingredients, such as 2- alkanones with from 4 to 11 carbon atoms, aldehydes with from 2 to 5 carbon atoms, primary and secondary aliphatic alcohols with from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, diacetyl, phenylacetaldehyde, methional, dimethylsulfide, indole, skatole and 5-alkanolides having from 8 to 16 carbon atoms.
The Provolone taste of a foodstuff is further intensified if a mixture of amino acids is admixed with the food composition. It has been found that an effective and commercially attractive mixture is one which comprises glutamic acid, glycine, lysine and methionine. It is preferred that such a mixture contains not more than 10 percent of amino acids other than glutamic acid, glycine, lysine and methionine. Instead of the amino acids their salts can be used. A preferred mixture to be used for improving the Provolone cheese flavor of a foodstuff comprises from 40 to 60 percent sodium glutamate, from 5 to 25 percent glycine, from 10 to 40 percent lysine. I-ICI, from 5 to 20 percent methionine and from 0 to 10 percent by weight of other amino acids admixed with the food composition in an amount of from 400 to 60,000 mg of amino acids per kg of said food composition.
If a mixture of the above described amino acids is admixed with a food composition containing no free amino acids, the relative proportions of glutamic acid, glycine, lysine and methionine in the food composition will become (35-52):(5-25):(8-32):(5-20). If a mixture of amino acids is added to a food composition already containing free amino acids it is preferred that the amino acids are admixed with the food composition in such amounts that the relative proportions of glutamic acid, glycine, lysine and methionine in the foodstuff are also in this range of (3552):(525):(832):- (-20). It is further preferred that the amount of amino acids is such that in the final foodstuff at least one, but
4 Butanone, 2-pentanone, Z-heptanone, 2-nonanone and Z-undecanone have proved to be satisfactory representatives of the group of 2-alkanones with 4-1 1 carbon atoms.
more preferably at least three, of glutamic acid, gly- 5 Suitable alkanals with from 2 to 5 carbon atoms are cine, lysine and methionine are present in a concentraethanal, propanal, butanal, pentanal, 2-methylpropation which is at least twice as large as that of each nal, Z-methylbutanal and S-methylbutanal. amino acid present in the foodstuff other than glutamic Suitable primary and secondary aliphatic alcohols acid, glycine, lysine and methionine. Good results have with from 2 to carbon atoms are ethanol, propanol, been obtained in a process for preparing a foodstuff 10 isobutanol, 2-butanol, 2-pentanol, 2-heptanol, 2- having a Provolone cheese flavor when the mixture of nonanol and l-octen-3-ol. The secondary alcohols, in amino acids was added in an amount of from 400 to particular 1-0cten-3-ol, are at least partly present as ra- 60,000 mg/kg, preferably from 1,000 to 20,000 mg/kg. cemic mixtures. It will be clear that the lower amounts are used when Suitable 5-alkanolides having from 8 to 16 carbon the food composition contains already an appreciable atoms are S-decanolide (S-decalactone) and 5- amount of amino acids, for example, when a young dodecanolide (S-dodecalactone). Cheddar cheese of 6-10 weeks old is used as a starting Among the food compositions to which a ripe Provomaterial in the preparation of a processed cheese havlone flavor is imparted according to the invention by ing a Provolone cheese flavor. incorporation of the present flavoring compositions, It has been found that for obtaining a product with an 20 the first place is given to cheese products, in particular intensive and rounded Provolone flavor both a Provoprocessed cheese which is prepared from young, relalone cheese flavoring composition and a mixture of tively tasteless raw cheese, preferably young Cheddar amino acids should be added. cheese, and further to processed cheese preparations, The addition of amino acids for improving the ripe fresh cheese, margarine cheese and creamed cheeses, Provolone cheese flavor is an embodiment of the invencheese fondu, cheese powder or suchlike. However, the tion described in our co-pending application Ser. No. present flavoring compositions can also be incorpo- 407,702, and now abandoned, a Continuation-in-part rated into other foodstuffs in which a cheese flavor is of application Ser. No. 240,81 1 now abandoned, advantageous, as for example soups, sauces, pies, sandclaiming priority of Luxembourg patent application wich spreads, cheese pastries, pizza or similar food- 62,953, filed Apr. 8, 1971. stuffs. The process according to the invention prefera- Suitable alkanoic acids with from 2 to 10 carbon bly serves for the flavoring of cheese products consistatoms are acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, pening entirely or partly of nonripened or not fully ripened tanoic acid, hexanoic acid, heptanoic acid, octanoic cheese. acid, nonanoic acid and decanoic acid. Selected mix- In this specification the term flavor relates to both tures of acids such as, for example, a mixture of octataste and smell. Percentages and parts are by weight noic and decanoic acids containing about equal unless otherwise indicated. amounts by weight of each may be utilized; quantita- In the following Examples the invention is further iltively, butyric acid and hexanoic acid predominate in lustrated without being limited thereto. the Provolone cheese flavoring composition.
Suitable alkyl alkanoates having an alkyl group with EXAMPLE I from 1 to 4 carbon atoms and an alkanoyl group with A Provolone cheese flavoring composition was pre- 48 carbon atoms are methyl, ethyl, propyl and butyl pared by mixing of acetic acid 150 hexanoic acid 3000 propionic acid 20 heptanoic acid 25 butyric acid 4000 octanoic acid 1000 pentanoic acid 40 decanoic acid 1 I methyl hexanoate 0.5 ethyl hexanoate 2.5 ethyl butanoate 1.0 ethyl octanoate 1.0 ethyl amine (33%) 1.0 1-amino-3-methyl-butane 1.0 hexyl amine 2.0 dimethyl amine (40%) 1.0 2-amino-propane 1.0 dipropyl amine 1.0 butanone 2.3 ethanal 30.0 2-pentanone 0.9 propanol 15.0 2-heptanone l .3 butanal l5 .0 Z-nonanone 1.6 pentanal 15.0 Z-undecanone 0.9 3-methylbutanal 7.5 ethanol 80.0 phenyl-acetaldehyde 7.5 isobutanol 45 .0 S-decanolide 18.0 l-octen-3-ol 5.0 5 -dodecanolide 18.0 methional 1.0 indole 2.0 diacetyl l5 .0 skatole 2.0 dimethylsulfide 1.0
amine (2-amino-propane), isobutyl amine (l-amino-Z- methylpropane), 1-amino-3-methylbutane, hexyl amine, dimethyl amine, dipropyl amine and dibutyl amine.
The figures indicate parts by weight.
EXAMPLE ll g of a young, non-ripened Cheddar cheese were mixed with 2,000 mg/kg of a flavoring composition according to Example 1. A product was obtained which showed a distinct Provolone-like flavor.
EXAMPLE I11 100 g of a young, non-ripened cheese were flavored as in Example 11, but additionally mixed with 6,000 mg/kg of an amino acid mixture prepared by mixing 500 parts mono-sodium L-glutamate, 200 parts glycine, 200 parts lysine. l-lCl and 100 parts DL-methionine. A product was obtained having a rounded Provolone flavor.
EXAMPLE IV From 100 g Cheddar cheese, 64 g water and 3 g melting salt consisting of a commercial mixture of polyphosphates, a processed cheese was prepared in a casserole with stirring and careful heating at 80C. Stirring at 80C was continued for 10 min., after which 2,000 mg/kg of the flavoring composition according to Example I was added to the cooling melt. A processed cheese was obtained having a Provolone flavor, which, however, was not yet fully rounded.
EXAMPLE V A processed cheese was prepared as in Example 11, but with addition of 4,500 kg/kg of the flavoring composition according to Example I and 16.000 mg/kg of the amino acid mixture described in Example III. The product obtained possessed an excellent rounded flavor like a processed cheese prepared with Provolone.
EXAMPLE VI EXAMPLE VII a. A processed cheese was prepared as in Example V, but the decanoic acid in the flavoring composition of Example I was completely substituted by octanoic acid. The product obtained had the typical flavor of a processed cheese made from ripe Provolone cheese, but was slightly milder than the product of Example V. b. A processed cheese was prepared as in Example V, but octanoic acid in the flavoring composition of Example I was completely substituted by decanoic acid. The product obtained had the typical flavor of a processed cheese made from ripe Provolone cheese, but had a slight soapy note as compared to Example V.
EXAMPLE VIII a. A processed cheese was prepared as in Example V, but the decanoic acid in the flavoring composition of Example I was omitted. The product obtained had a slightly milder Provolone cheese flavor than that of Example V.
b. A processed cheese was prepared as in Example V, but the octanoic acid in the flavoring composition of Example I was omitted. The product obtained had a more soapy taste than that of Example VIIIa, but was still weaker than Example V.
Examples V, VII and VIII show that either octanoic acid or decanoic acid or a mixture thereof can be used.
EXAMPLE IX A processed cheese was prepared as in Example V with a flavoring composition comprising only fatty acids, esters and amines in the amounts of Example I. The. product obtained had a typical flavor of a processed cheese made from ripe Provolone cheese, but was not so rounded as the product from Example V.
What is claimed is:
1. A process for imparting an improved ripe Provolone cheese flavor to a food composition selected from the group consisting of processed cheese, processed cheese preparations, fresh cheese, margarine cheese, creamed cheese, cheese fondu, and cheese powder, which comprises:
a. preparing a Provolone cheese flavoring composition by admixing i. from 75 to 99 parts by weight of alkanoic acids having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and consisting of from 35 to percent by weight of butyric acid, from 15 to 35 percent by weight of hexanoic acid, from 15 to 30 percent by weight of an alkanoic acid selected from the group consisting of octanoic acid, decanoic acid and mixtures thereof, and the balance being other alkanoic acids having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms;
ii. from 0.01 to 0.2 parts by weight of alkyl alkanoates having an alkyl group with from 1 to 4 carbon atoms and an alkanoyl group with from 4 to 8 carbon atoms;
iii. from 0.05 to 0.5 parts by weight of alkyl amines and dialkyl amines having from 2 to 8 carbon atoms; and
iv. from 0 to 20 parts by weight of other cheese flavoring ingredients selected from the group consisting of 2-alkanones having from 4 to 1 1 carbon atoms, aldehydes having from 2 to 5 carbon atoms, primary and secondary aliphatic alcohols having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, diacetyl, phenylacetaldehyde, methional, dimethylsulfide, indole, skatole, and S-alkanolides having from 8 to '16 carbon atoms; and
b. admixing the mixture obtained by step (a) with said food composition in an amount of from 100 to 30,000 mg of cheese flavoring composition per kg of foodstuff.
2. A process according to claim 1, in which additionally a mixture of amino acids, consisting of from 40 to 60 percentby weight of sodium glutamate, from 5 to 25 percent by weight of glycine, from 10 to 40 percent by weight of lysine. HCl, from 5 to 20 percent by weight of methionine and from 0 to 10 percent by weight of other amino acids, is admixed with the food composition in an amount of from 400 to 60,000 mg of amino acids per kg of said food composition.
3. A Provolone cheese flavoring composition, prepared by admixing:
i. from to 99 parts by weight of alkanoic acids having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and consisting of from 35 to 70 percent by weight of butyric acid, from 15 to 35 percent by weight of hexanoic acid, from 15 to 30 percent by weight of an alkanoic acid selected from the group consisting of octanoic acid, decanoic acid and mixtures thereof, and the balance being other alkanoic acids having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms;
ii. from 0.01 to-0.2 parts by weight of alkyl alkanoates having an alkyl group with from 1 to 4 carbon atoms and an alkanoyl group with from 4 to 8 carbon atoms;
iii. from 0.05 to 0.5 parts by weight of alkyl amines and dialkyl amines having from 2 to 8 carbon atoms; and
iv. from to 20 parts by weight of other cheese flavoring ingredients selected from the group consisting of 2-alkanones having from 4 to 11 carbon atoms, aldehydes having from 2 to 5 carbon atoms, primary and secondary aliphatic alcohols having from 2 to carbon atoms, diacetyl, phenylacetaldehyde, methional, dimethylsulfide, indole, skatole, and S-alkanolides having from 8 to 16 carbon atoms.
4. A foodstuff prepared by a process according to claim 1.
5. A foodstuff according to claim 4, containing additionally glutamic acid, glycine, lysine and methionine in relative proportions of (3552):(5-25 ):(8-32):(520), 20
and whereby each of at least three of these amino acids is present in a concentration which is at least twice as large as that of each amino acid present in the foodstuff other than glutamic acid, glycine, lysine and methionine.
6. A process for imparting an improved ripe Provolone cheese flavor to a food composition selected from the group consisting of processed cheese, processed cheese preparations, fresh cheese, margarine cheese, creamed cheese, cheese fondu, and cheese powder, which comprises:
a. preparing a Provolone cheese flavoring composition by admixing i. from 75 to 99 parts by weight of alkanoic acids having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and consisting of from 35 to 70 percent by weight of butyric acid, from to 35 percent by weight of hexanoic acid, from 15 to 30 percent by weight of octanoic acid and decanoic acid in about equal amounts, and the balance being other alkanoic acids having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms;
ii. from 0.01 to 0.2 parts by weight of alkyl alkanoates having an alkyl group with from 1 to 4 carbon atoms and an alkanoyl group with from 4 to 8 carbon atoms;
iii. from 0.05 to 0.5 parts by weight of alkyl amines and dialkyl amines having from 2 to 8 carbon atoms; and
iv. from 0 to parts by weight of other cheese flavoring ingredients selected from the group consisting of 2-alkanones having from 4 to l 1 carbon atoms, aldehydes having from 2 to 5 carbon atoms, primary and secondary aliphatic alcohols having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, diacetyl, phe- 8 nylacetaldehyde, methional, dimethylsulfide, in dole, skatole, and S-alkanolides having from 8 to 16 carbon atoms; and
b. admixing the mixture obtained by step (a) with said food composition in an amount of from 100 to 30,000 mg of cheese flavoring composition per kg of foodstuff.
7. A process according to claim 6, in which additionally a mixture of amino acids, consisting of from 40 to 60 percent by weight of sodium glutamate, from 5 to 25 percent by weight of glycine, from 10 to 40 percent by weight of lysine. l-lCl, from 5 to 20 percent by weight of methionine and from 0 to 10 percent by weight of other amino acids, is admixed with the food composition in an amount of from 400 to 60,000 mg of amino acids per kg of said food composition.
8. A Provolone cheese flavoring composition, prepared by admixing:
i. from 75 to 99 parts by weight of alkanoic acids having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and consisting of from 35 to percent by weight of butyric acid, from 15 to 35 percent by weight of hexanoic acid, from 15 to 30 percent by weight of octanoic acid and decanoic acid in about equal amounts, and the balance being other alkanoic acids having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms;
ii. from 0.01 to 0.2 parts by weight of alkyl alkanoates having an alkyl group with from 1 to 4 carbon atoms and an alkanoyl group with from 4 to 8 carbon atoms;
iii. from 0.05 to 0.5 parts by weight of alkyl amines and dialkyl amines having from 2 to 8 carbon atoms; and
iv. from O to 20 parts by weight of other cheese flavoring ingredients selected from the groupconsisting of 2-alkanones having from 4 to l 1 carbon atoms, aldehydes having from 2 to 5 carbon atoms, primary and secondary aliphatic alcohols having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, diacetyl, phenylacetaldehyde, methional, dimethylsulfide, indole, skatole, and 5-alkanolides having from 8 to 16 carbon atoms.
9. A foodstuff prepared by a process according to claim 6.
A foodstuff according to claim 9, containing additionally glutamic acid, glycine, lysine and methionine in relative proportions of (35-52):(5-25):(8-32):- (520), and whereby each of at least three of these amino acids is present in a concentration which is at least twice as large as that of each amino acid present in the foodstuff other than glutamic acid, glycine, lysine and methionine.
Patent Citations
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What is the name of the poltergeist which haunts Hogwarts School in the Harry Potter series of novels? | List of Vegetarian cheeses
List of Vegetarian cheeses
According to the following cheese companies, these cheeses do not contain rennet or any other nonvegetarian enzymes:
Kraft
County Line: Old World Swiss, Colby, Monterey Jack
Giant Cream Cheese
Giant Natural Muenster slices
Biery cheese
Giant Chunk Cheese: New York Sharp, Wisconsin Cheddar, Longhorn, Swiss, Danish Havarti, Monterey Jack, Pepper Jack
Sargento
Cabot
all cheeses
Remember to check the ingredient list of the cheese if you're not sure. Look out for rennet or enzymes. Many packaged cheeses and other foods contain Vitamin A Palmitate, which is made from fish gelatin. Also, check for whey, since this is a byproduct of the cheese-making process.
Refer to the list of common animal ingredients for a more comprehensive list of things to avoid. If you have additional information or corrections to the above list, send email to
[email protected]
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Who succeeded Henry Cooper as British Heavyweight Boxing Champion? | Sir Henry Cooper obituary | Sport | The Guardian
Sir Henry Cooper obituary
British heavyweight boxing champion known for his warmth, indomitable spirit and a left hook dubbed 'Enry's 'Ammer
Muhammad Ali and Henry Cooper before their world heavyweight title fight in London. Photograph: Aubrey Hart/Getty Images
Sunday 1 May 2011 17.31 EDT
First published on Sunday 1 May 2011 17.31 EDT
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Sir Henry Cooper , beloved of British postwar generations as no heavyweight boxer before him, has died aged 76. His warmth and indomitable personality, together with his rise from humble roots, gave him a popularity far beyond his sport's normal boundaries. He was never world champion, but his good spirits seemed to hold a gift for everyone, even for his most notable conqueror, Muhammad Ali.
At Wembley stadium, on 18 June 1963, Cooper landed Ali, then known as Cassius Clay, on his pants with a punch that made boxing history – a left hook travelling five and a half inches at 30mph with 60 times the force of gravity, striking the side of the American's jaw. The world came to know it as 'Enry's 'Ammer, and it felled Ali as never before. However, in front of 55,000 people, Ali was "saved by the bell" amid unique controversy.
Ali, then 21, had fought only one major figure, the ageing Archie Moore, before his arrival in London to meet Cooper, the experienced 29-year-old British and Commonwealth heavyweight champion, over 10 rounds. With a multimillion-dollar syndicate behind Ali's world championship ambition, and Cooper in his prime, it was a fight attracting worldwide interest.
Already, the Kentucky fighter's braggadocio ("I am the prettiest ... I am the greatest") had brought him the title of the Louisville Lip. But, after Cooper's hammer blow, Ali's corner were up to various tricks before the Englishman fell victim to a cut eye in the fifth round. In later years, Ali's trainer, Angelo Dundee, admitted tweaking the loose stitching of his fighter's right glove so that the formal minute interval was stretched by six seconds before a replacement was found. His use of smelling salts also defied the rules. "For a fit man," Cooper said later, "seconds are a lifetime. When you are really trained up, you need only 20 seconds and you are back to your old self."
Ali's long reach and quickness posed Cooper, himself the lightest of heavyweights, 13st 13lb at his heaviest, some early problems. "For my money, he was the fastest heavyweight of all time, and a stone and a half heavier than me," Cooper acknowledged. "There was never a still target in front of you. He wasn't a counter-puncher, nothing to compare with Floyd Patterson . Nor a puncher like Rocky Marciano. It was a flicker with the left, or a long-arm right that could drag and tear your skin."
Ali caught Cooper with a typical blow in the third round. Jim Wicks, Cooper's manager, known as "The Bishop" and always protective of his man, was all for ending the fight as the blood flowed down his fighter's cheek. Cooper, in the corner interval, pleaded for one more round as his "cuts" man, Danny Holland, applied an adrenalin-Vaseline compound.
In Cooper's view, he could still take his man – and he very nearly did. The 'Ammer smacked into Ali's chin as he backed into the ropes, the American's speed for once not saving him. Ali slid down the ropes, the slowness helping him. The referee, Tommy Little, reached a count of five, then Ali rose, in Cooper's view like an amateur, his arms dangling, an open target. But the bell rang, and boxing history took another turn. "Oh boy!" was Cooper's autobiographical note. "If it had only happened in the second minute." As it was, Ali took the world title in his next fight, against Sonny Liston.
Cooper was to meet Ali – by then, his name had been formally changed after his conversion to Islam – for a world title fight at Arsenal's Highbury stadium, London, on 21 May 1966. Again the fight had to be stopped for a cut eye, this time in the sixth round. The gash was deeper and longer than any of Cooper's career. The Englishman reckoned himself narrowly ahead on points, but the blow was typically Ali, a long punch grazing with the heel of the glove. "It was a physical thing that let me down," Cooper said. "Prominent bones and weak tissue around the eyes. But I was never as bad as my brother, George. After all, I went on until I was 37." For years afterwards, Ali would pay tribute to Cooper. British boxing writers visiting him in the US would be told: "Give my regards to Henry."
Overall, Cooper's record was unmatched by any British fighter of his or any other time – winner of 40 of his 55 contests, 27 by knockout, one drawn, in a 17-year career from 1954 to 1971; winner of three Lonsdale belts for three successive British heavyweight title victories; holder of European and Commonwealth/Empire titles for sustained periods, the British for about 11 years. Many thought him unlucky to lose his last fight, and all three titles, to Joe Bugner, with a controversial points decision by the referee Harry Gibbs at Wembley stadium, on 16 March 1971.
Cooper had a strong regard for the boxers of his time, men such as Brian London, Joe Erskine, Joe Bygraves, Dick Richardson, Jack Bodell and, at the last, Bugner. In his later years, he came to despise what he saw as tawdry dealings in overweight punch slingers with little of the skill that he had prized.
Even for his times, he was nearer the cruiserweight mark than a true heavyweight, but the weight of his left hook was that of a champion, and the postwar sporting world provided him with a multitude of fans, to whom he was ever attached. "Old mums and good-looking young girls, it didn't matter," he said. "Running along the street for your Ali training, they'd shout at you, 'Button his lip.' Not that I minded. His lip earned me good money."
Cooper, too, could be swift and able with the spoken word. In a 1970 TV debate, Lady (Edith) Summerskill, a notable opponent of boxing, inquired: "Mr Cooper, have you looked in the mirror and seen the state of your nose?" Quickly, he replied: "Well, have you? Boxing is my excuse – what's yours?" It was ungallant, he acknowledged afterwards, but after a pleasant-enough discussion she had rather ambushed him.
Cooper's career coincided with the dawn of the black-and-white TV era, and he was soon to stand with Stanley Matthews , Lester Piggott, Bobby Charlton, Roger Bannister, Leonard Hutton and Denis Compton as a national sporting hero. In his case, too, it extended to a long semi-retirement in which charity and public entertainment played a significant part. He was knighted in 2000 as much for public services as for his boxing skill and courage. They were qualities much leavened by a natural humour and modesty. He was an unabashed royalist, and made no secret of his pleasure in attending lunch at Buckingham Palace with the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh.
Cooper loved to tell of his beginnings, and the tales were later repeated in pubs and civic halls all over the country. "We were born, George and me, on 3 May 1934 ... the biggest surprise of my mother's life. Not wanting to see the x-rays beforehand, she was going to call us Walter. Then one of the nurses took a peep at us and said, 'They're a proper little Henry and George. They're going to be six-footers.' And that's how it stuck." George was to fight professionally as Jim because of another George Cooper boxing at the time. He retired long before Henry because of his more prominent brow and more vulnerable skin.
Born in Southwark, south-east London, Cooper always saw himself as an "Elephant" boy, meaning the Elephant and Castle area, famous in the early part of the century for horse-trading. There, his half-Irish grandfather bought and sold horses. The Thomas a Becket gym, where Cooper trained for the Ali world title fight, was part of that heritage.
Cooper's father, also called Henry, had been a Royal Artillery regular from 1919. A useful amateur boxer, he had inherited a gift with horses and was a driver in gun teams inspected by King George V. He served in Burma from 1942, leaving Lily, his wife, to fend for the twins and their elder brother, Bern.
The family had moved to a council estate in Bellingham, south-east London, in 1940, but the twins were soon evacuated to Lancing, West Sussex. The boys returned to Athelney Road school, queueing for rations, chopping wood, doing paper rounds and generally living off their wits. "Golf balls were scarce so we'd nick them off the fairway, run round the clubhouse and sell 'em back to grateful members for a tanner," said Cooper, who later became a chairman of the Variety Club golf section.
A natural left-hander, Cooper started to box as a normal right-hander, not a "southpaw", when a neighbour, Bob Hill, a local fireman, took the brothers along to Bellingham Boxing Club. As an amateur with Eltham Boxing Club, Cooper won 73 of 84 contests, including the ABA light-heavyweight championship in 1952. That year, at the Olympic Games in Helsinki, he suffered a second-stage points defeat to a Soviet boxer, Anatoli Petrov. The French judge awarded Cooper the verdict, but the other two, from communist countries, came down the other way.
The twins turned professional after completing their national service with the "boxers' battalion" of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Under the astute, paternal Wicks, Cooper won his first nine fights, the ninth against an old foe, the 15-stone Bygraves, which was especially rewarding.
The next ended with a cut-eye retirement after a clash of heads with the Italian Uber Bacilieri. Early title challenges to Bygraves, Erskine and Ingemar Johansson ended in defeat, but his career took off with a points victory over the highly rated American Zora Folley, followed in December 1959 by the capture of the British and Empire belts from Brian London. Next came successful defences against Dick Richardson, Erskine, Johnny Prescott and London again.
In a 1969 European title defence at the Palazzo dello Sport in Rome, against another Italian, Piero Tomasoni, Cooper suffered the lowest blow of his career – a dent seven inches below his navel in the aluminium cup covering his genitals. He fell to the canvas, only for the referee to carry on counting. He recovered to win on a fifth-round knockout, but kept the cup as a souvenir. There were three dents in it.
The world heavyweight fight in which Ali wounded Cooper's eye was the only one watched by his Italian-born wife, Albina. They had met while Albina, born in an Apennine village, was a 16-year-old serving in an Italian restaurant in Soho, central London. They married in 1960 and had two sons, Henry Marco and John Pietro.
Appointed OBE in 1969, Cooper was voted BBC sports personality of the year in 1967 and 1970. He made no great fortune out of boxing. His decision to retire was already established before his last fight, against Bugner in July 1971. Modestly comfortable, he still needed to auction off his Lonsdale belts after the collapse of a Lloyd's of London syndicate lost him a huge lump of his savings. The Canterbury auction made only £40,000 where £100,000 was expected. He collaborated on books, including one with me in 1972, a taped and edited life story that succeeded David Niven's The Moon's a Balloon as a paperback bestseller, at 40p a copy.
For three years, Cooper chaired a team in the BBC's Question of Sport quizshow, his knowledge of sport proving encyclopedic. Advertisers homed in. For Brut, he would become associated with aftershave, for the NHS, he was a face to encourage flu jabs for the elderly. His charity work included raising funds for more than 100 Sunshine coaches for children who were ill or had disabilities. One of the coaches was named after Albina.
In 1998, he famously suffered a snake bite in the golfing rough, which led to a spell in hospital over the Christmas holiday. More seriously, an obscure heart condition developed which latterly restricted both his golf and his charity work. His fighting spirit kept him going throughout. It was never in Cooper's nature to turn people away. Just before the referee Harry Gibbs died, in 1999, they shook hands. "For charity," Cooper said with a laugh. Hard as it might have been, that was the measure of the man.
Albina's death from a sudden heart attack in 2008 was a profound blow to the family. George died in 2010. Cooper is survived by his sons.
John Rawling writes: Our 'Enry was undoubtedly something of a national treasure, but the story regarding the supposed splitting of the glove by Angelo Dundee – happily corroborated by Henry in his second career as an after-dinner speaker – was a mischievous manipulation of the truth which allowed Dundee to paint himself as the master trainer who pulled a stroke to help young Cassius Clay survive the knockdown.
For his part, Henry was only too happy to acquiesce to a tale which added to the legend of 'Enry's 'Ammer, which so nearly defeated the heavyweight who would ultimately be recognised as the greatest of all time.
In reality, analysis of the television recording and the radio broadcast, which survives in its entirety, reveals a somewhat more prosaic truth. Dundee did indeed call the referee to his corner to inspect Clay's glove, but the referee made no instruction for the glove to be changed and instead ruled that the contest could continue. The minute's interval was not stretched by 66 seconds, as some tales had it, but actually lasted a little longer than 66 seconds in total.
The matter was pointed out to me by the respected commentator and journalist Reg Gutteridge , who died in 2009, and was at ringside reporting the fight. It was supported by the first-hand accounts of those who were there and by Simon Smith's famous BBC radio commentary. The fact is that the glove incident was an embellishment of the truth that has entered sporting mythology as fact.
For several years, I commentated with Henry at major fights for BBC radio. His iconic status meant that he was mobbed by autograph hunters wherever we were, to the extent that I would frequently feel more like a minder than a colleague. "Come on, Henry, we've got to get out of here to record that interview," was the advice that I would give to let him eventually walk away and make his exit from the arena.
Unquestionably, Henry became increasingly irritated by the hype surrounding fighters such as Chris Eubank and especially Frank Bruno, whom he saw as a strong but limited fighter who was lucky to have ever had a chance to challenge once for a world title, let alone be given four opportunities.
It was after Bruno's 1995 victory against the similarly limited Oliver McCall, which brought the Englishman the WBC version of the heavyweight title, that Henry walked away from commentary. He had not gone along with the jingoistic adulation of Bruno in his moment of triumph, and was criticised in some quarters for giving what was seen as only grudging praise.
Thereafter, Henry filled his time making numerous public appearances and playing a very decent, if less than aesthetically pleasing, game of golf. He was a charming companion, and always prepared to give his time to young and old.
When asked to explain Henry's enduring popularity, I would explain that if he were to be offered £10,000 to make an after-dinner speech, and it clashed with an unpaid appearance at a boys' club when he had given his word that he would attend, Henry would unhesitatingly refuse the fat cheque and be there for the youngsters. He was a good boxer, but an outstanding man.
• Henry Cooper, boxer, born 3 May 1934; died 1 May 2011
| Joe Bugner |
Who wrote the novel ‘Looking for Mr Goodbar’? | When Henry Cooper hit the big time - Telegraph
Boxing
When Henry Cooper hit the big time
Fifty years ago on Monday, Henry Cooper defeated Brian London in a bloody 15-round battle at Earl's Court, to start a glorious, unbeaten reign of just over 12 years as British heavyweight champion.
Not bowed: a bloodied Henry Cooper surprises Brian London with a left at Earl's Court in 1959 Photo: PA
By Gareth A Davies
7:30AM GMT 12 Jan 2009
Harold Macmillan was Prime Minister, Fidel Castro was taking control of Cuba, and Charles de Gaulle had just been sworn in as President of France.
If the political scene was far removed from today, so too was the sporting landscape.
In those days, the British heavyweight champion was a major figure in British sport. American champions were also popular – Floyd Patterson, Archie Moore, Carmen Basilio, Sugar Ray Robinson, all had huge followings in the UK.
Cooper remembers: "The British heavyweight scene was very strong in those days. The public could always name the best heavyweights around. These days, a lot of people don't even know who the British champion is.
"There were always between 10 and 20 very decent heavyweights around. At the time, we had London, Dick Richardson, Joe Bygraves and Joe Erskine."
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Through the Sixties, Cooper became hugely popular, his standing enhanced as he made nine successful defences of the British title. Indeed, he is still the only champion to be awarded three Lonsdale belts outright by the British Boxing Board of Control. A rule change in 1987 allowing the Lonsdale belt to be awarded only once in any one division to a fighter means that Cooper will forever be the only boxer to achieve the Lonsdale treble.
Cooper's familiar, rugged, face and dignified bearing, along with his hammer of a left hook, became etched in British sporting folklore. He was twice the BBC Sports Personality of the Year and became Sir Henry in 2000.
But back on that night – Jan 12, 1959 –plain Henry Cooper, from Bellingham, in south east London, was far from the finished article, with a professional record of 17 wins, seven losses, and one draw. He was already renowned for his left hook, and also his resilience, and heart. More than once he had got up off the canvas to win.
Victory against London, a bitter rival, also meant he was able to wrap the belts for the European and Commonwealth titles around his waist. The previous year, London, known as the 'Blackpool Rock', had won the British and Commonwealth titles from Erskine, who had beaten Cooper, on points, in 1957. As champion, Cooper went on to beat Erskine three times.
"Can it really be 50 years?" Cooper, now 74, wondered. . . . He had weighed in at 13st 8lb. London was 16lb heavier. "I can remember the night. Perhaps not the detail. Yes, the old Earl's Court. There must have been 10 or 11,000 people in there. Brian was much bigger than me weight-wise, but I always thought that I could beat him," Cooper recalled.
"I was a better boxer than him – he used to leave himself open. I had stopped him a couple of years earlier in the first round. I poked his head off for 15 rounds with my left hand to win those belts. Brian was a big strong guy, and if you let him get on top, he could dominate, so I went at him from the start. He was always a rough handful. He came at me with his heart in it. We were both exhausted after the fight. I could barely stand up."
How time has healed the wounds and softened the memories of what was in fact, a brutal fight. Cooper finished with his face a mask of blood, with cuts above and below his left eye, and a gash above his right eye, while London could barely stand.
Donald Saunders, the Daily Telegraph boxing correspondent, wrote that at the end "they looked as if they had been hitting each other with meat axes."
It was a blue-riband title in those days, and Cooper's success, and his two fights with Muhammad Ali, one for the world title in 1966, made 'Our 'Enery' a household name throughout the 1960s.
The winner of the Cooper-London bout was pencilled in to get a shot at Floyd Patterson's heavyweight title. However, Cooper's manager, Jim Wicks, turned down the chance. London went instead, against the wishes of the Board, and was fined £1,000.
"It was the first chance I had been offered at a world title, and I was still learning the trade then," Cooper explained. "Jim thought it wasn't the right time. What I do remember is with my winnings, I bought a three-bedroom semi-detached house in Wembley for £5,200.
"I've been retired 38 years now, and my diary is as full as ever. I have been on the after-dinner speaking circuit for 25 years. The nice thing is that people always seem pleased to see me," explained one of Britain's enduring sporting icons.
Cooper explained he has long since given up following the British, or even world heavyweight scene closely, though he does believe emerging heavyweight David Haye has something promising about him.
"You see, the boxing game is a different game now, money is god. Ricky Hatton and Joe Calzaghe get millions of pounds for fighting, I could have been boxing until I was 60," he joked. "Good luck to them. I'm not jealous. I'm very proud of my achievements. I held the title until my last fight against Joe Bugner, in 1971."
With that loss, Cooper retired, having held the British championship two months short of 11 years, and with a professional record of 40 wins (27 by knockout) 14 defeats and one draw.
Our 'Enery, still revered by a generation, remains what he always has been. A one-off.
Cooper’s heavyweight reign
Defeats Brian London on Jan 12 1959 to take British, European and Commonwealth titles.
Defends against Joe Erskine three times: Nov 1959 (TKO 12); March 1961 (TKO 9) and April 1962 (KO 9) .
Further defences followed against Dick Richardson in March 1963 (KO 5), London Feb 1964 (Pts15 ), Johnny Prescott June 1965 (TKO 10), Jack Bodell June 1967 (TKO 2), Billy Walker Nov 1967 (TKO 6) and Bodell March 1970 (Pts 15).
Cooper controversially lost to Bugner on points in March 1971, and announced his retirement.
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Which British monarch was the grandfather of Queen Victoria? | Queen Victoria
Queen Victoria
The Life & Issue of Queen Victoria
by Ilana Miller
In 1817, a great calamity befell the British Royal Family. The heir to the throne, Princess Charlotte, was dead after giving birth to a stillborn child. The daughter of the infamous Prinny, soon to be George IV, Charlotte was the hope of the nation. She was married to a handsome prince, Leopold of Saxe Coburg Saalfeld (later King Leopold I of Belgium), and she was extremely well-liked. This kind of popularity was a major accomplishment for the Royal Family, and, unfortunately, the same could not be said for Prinny's eleven other brothers and sisters. More importantly none of these siblings, including seven brothers, had had legitimate issue to succeed to the throne after the death of Charlotte.
The race was on. George's middle-aged brothers scrambled to make legitimate alliances, and thence, to produce - mostly so that Parliament would pay their overwhelming debts. Two years later, the race was just barely won by Edward, Duke of Kent, who, married to Victoria of Saxe Coburg Saalfeld (the sister of Leopold), finally give the nation the much desired heir -- little Alexandrina Victoria, in 1819.
Drina, as she was known, grew up in a fatherless household, (Edward died before she was two.) where she was smothered and bullied by her mother, the duchess, but brought up lovingly by Baroness Lenhzen, her nanny/governess.
In 1820, George III (The Madness of King George) finally died after a long and tumultuous reign. His son, George succeeded him. Very little marks George's tenure. He was far more interesting when he was the Prince Regent. He is best known for his mistresses, his social life, and his tremendously disastrous marriage (which produced Charlotte) rather than for his governance. The nation actually drew a sigh of relief when George died in 1830.
George was succeeded by his brother, William. William IV was an ignorant, tactless, but good natured man, who had spent most of his life in the navy and had the tattoos and vocabulary to prove it. He also had a mistress, Mrs. Dorothy Jordan (the Mrs. was honorary), and with her, ten little Fitzclarences. In the race to produce an heir, Mrs. Jordan was summarily jettisoned, and William was able to convince Adelaide of Saxe Meiningin, to marry him. Considering the thirty year age difference, the illegitimate children falling out of the bushes, and William's recorded unattractiveness, Adelaide must have been someone more imbued with a sense of royal duty than, even, Queen Mary. Be that as it may, Adelaide tried desperately to have living children - all those Fitzclarences seemed to be a living reproach to her. She never succeeded.
Adelaide was a good aunt to Drina. She thought her a nice little girl, and would have loved to see more of her. The Duchess of Kent, however, would have none of this. She was determined to keep sweet little Drina away from the dissolute Hanoverians . . . .
William, whose reign began with great promise (any reign after George's could start with nothing but), ended ignominiously, and without fanfare. He died in 1837, with the country, again, relieved. It was now over and the sons and daughters of King George III, would no longer be the primary worry of the nation.
Little Drina, now Victoria, became Queen, and celebrated this milestone by taking her bed out of her mother's room, and announcing that from now on she would sleep alone. She did, when awakened and told of the death of her Uncle, say , "I will be good", but most historians don't think she was speaking about eating her vegetables or getting to bed on time. Rather, they believe she was speaking about the basic fact that she was determined to be a good ruler. A marked contrast, then, to her Uncles and Grandfather.
And so she was. Queen Victoria reigned from 1837 to 1901, the longest reign by a British Monarch. She was also probably one of the most beloved of them, a true symbol of the nation. She had only just reached her majority when she became queen, and was, naturally, seeking advice outisde the confines of her smothering "handlers". That advice came in the form of Victoria's first romantic attachment, Lord Melbourne. Lord M., the unhappy husband of Lady Caroline Lamb, was Victoria's first prime minister. Almost from the beginning, dear Lord M. took the job of molding the young Queen, and it was, for him, a labor of love. Many compare it to the role that Winston Churchill played for the young Queen Elizabeth II. Lord M., however, was more attached, and stepped back regretfully when dear Albert came on the scene. She married her beloved Albert (also of Saxe Coburg Saalfeld, and who was her first cousin) in 1840. Unlike her predecessors, Victoria had no problem producing the heir and many spares. She and Albert had nine children and more than forty-four grandchildren.
The Queen's first child was the Princess Royal, Victoria (1840-1901). She was an incredibly brilliant child, the apple of her father's eye, who far outshone her brothers and sisters. She was given a liberal education under the benign care of her father and excelled in all her lessons. A difficult act for the rest of the children to follow. She married Prince Frederick of Prussia in 1858 and had eight children of her own - the most significant of which was William II), the infamous Kaiser Wilhelm who led his country and the world into the Great War of 1914. Vicky, as she was known, eventually became Empress, herself, in 1888 - for three months. After Fritz's death, Vicky was continually badgered by Willy, who had a love-hate relationship with his mother. She eventually died the same year as her mother, from cancer of the spine.
The second child was the wished for heir, Albert Edward (1841-1910). Bertie, later Edward VII, was not as brilliant as his sister. Although bright enough, he was a continual disappointment to his father. His mother worried constantly that he was a throw-back to his Hanoverian Uncles. It seemed a self-fulfilling prophecy, and Bertie lived, if not a dissolute life, a highly social one, full of mistresses, parties, and very little statecraft. (This last was not entirely his fault since Victoria would never consent to let him see state papers, nor would she give him any useful job.) He married the beautiful Princess Alexandra of Denmark, and they had five children, two boys and three girls. The first son, Prince Albert Edward, known as Eddy, died as a young man - to the relief of the nation. Not only was Eddy slow (his tutors said he seemed to barely know the meaning of the word "read"), but he was involved in several homosexual scandals that were immediately hushed up. He was, poor man, even suspected as the serial murderer, Jack the Ripper. Frankly, he was much too stupid to have committed these crimes.
The second son was George - a nice, healthy young man, who took over the succession when his brother died, and also his brother's fiancee - Princess Mary of Teck, later Queen Mary.
The next child in the Wettin family, (this was actually Albert's family name) was a girl - Alice (1843-1878). A bright child, she would have shone in any family who didn't have the brilliant Vicky as a sibling. She was married to the heir to the Grand Duchy of Hesse, Louis, and had five children that grew to adulthood. The princesses of Hesse, Victoria, Elizabeth and Irene, were renowned for their beauty and called "the Three Graces". A much younger fourth sister was also an incredible beauty - the future doomed Empress Alexandra of Russia. The oldest sister, Victoria, is significant as the mother of Lord Mountbatten and grandmother of the present Duke of Edinburgh. Alice, a tireless social reformer and follower of Florence Nightingale, had the sad distinction of the being the first of Queen Victoria's children to die at the age of 35.
Following Alice, came Alfred ("Affie") (1844-1900), later Duke of Edinburgh and Saxe-Coburg Gotha. Affie married the only daughter of Emperor Alexander II of Russia, the Grand Duchess Marie, the richest princess in the world. They had four daughters and one son. One of their daughters, Marie ("Missy"), eventually became Queen of Romania. She thought herself the most beautiful queen in Europe, and she was probably right. She also wrote perhaps the most entertaining and best written set of royal memoirs. Her sister, Victoria Melita ("Ducky"), became the Grand Duchess Kyril of Russia, and it is her great-grandson that is one of the foremost contenders to the Romanov throne.
Helena was born in 1846 and died in 1923. She had four children, none of which produced any legitimate issue. She was married to the much older and very bald Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. Her life was spent alternating with her younger sister, as companion to her mother, the Queen.
Louise followed in 1848. She had the distinction of marrying a commoner - John Campbell, the Duke of Argyll. The marriage, unfortunately, was not a success. It is implied in many sources that the Duke was homosexual, and there was no issue to the marriage. Louise was probably the prettiest of Queen Victoria's daughters and wasn't above making mischief in the family. She died in 1939.
Queen Victoria's favorite son, Arthur was born in 1850 and died in 1942. He was married to Princess Louise of Prussia producing two daughters and a son. His daughters, like the Hesses and the Edinburghs, were quite beautiful. Princess Margaret ("Daisy") went on to become Crown Princess of Sweden, while Princess Patricia ("Pat") married a commoner, Sir Alexander Ramsay and enjoyed a long and happy marriage.
Leopold (1853-1884) was the Queen's last son. It was here that the infamous strain of hemophilia appeared. There are many theories as to how and where the gene originated, none of them conclusive. The Queen, for one, insisted that no one in her family was responsible. Others suggested that it may have come from somewhere in the Prince's family. Many today, however, hypothecate that somehow the gene mutated in the Queen and was then passed on to her son Leopold, and to the progeny of three of her daughters. Alice of Hesse passed it on to at least two of her daughters - Alexandra, of course, and Irene, who had three boys, two of whom had the disease. Beatrice, the youngest of the queen's children, also passed it on to two of her three sons. Vicky was said to be a carrier, but neither of her living sons had the disease. Leopold, living a very quiet life, was, perhaps, the most intellectual of the Queen's sons, the most cultured and artistic, and more important, a favorite to all. Leopold married Helen of Waldeck-Pyrmont, and had two children, Alice, who was the last grandchild to die in 1981, and Charles Edward, who eventually succeeded to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg Gotha - inherited from his Uncle Affie and his grandfather, Albert. Leopold died at the age of 31 after falling down the stairs.
Lastly, (and the Queen must have breathed a sigh of relief - she absolutely hated being pregnant and giving birth - she thought it so animalistic), there was Beatrice (1857-1947). This last child was petted and spoiled and expected to stay home with mama as her lifelong companion. Victoria saw no need for Beatrice to marry, and every need for her to share her eternal mourning of dear Albert, who died in 1861. (If you understand that Victoria kept herself in mourning for forty years, and that her grandson patterned himself after her, rather than his father, you may understand the demeanor of today's Windsors better.) Beatrice, however, defied her mother. When she and Prince Henry of Battenburg met, it was easy to understand. Henry ("Liko") was one of the handsomest princes in Europe - by any standard. It always seems that when a prince or princess is called handsome or beautiful, one can expect them to be passably or even mildly good-looking. However, in the case of the Battenburg Princes, no such dissembling was necessary. They were called the most handsome princes in Europe - and there were four of them (count 'em). One married one of the beautiful Hessian Princesses, Victoria, and was the grandfather of Prince Philip, and Henry was given permission to marry Beatrice, after promising to live with the Queen at Windsor.
The Queen was thrilled with this last son-in-law. He was so good-looking, and the Queen loved good-looking men. In some ways, he took the place of her beloved John Brown, who had died in 1883. She was, therefore, as devastated as her daughter when he died in 1896. (Henry had finally managed to get away from Windsor, going on an expedition to the Gold Coast - he caught malaria and died . . . and was sent home in a barrel of rum.)
Here, perhaps, a few words about the somewhat infamous Brown would be in order. After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria went into deep Victorian mourning. Looking into mourning of the time, you can only imagine how deep that was. In the Queen's case, some feared for her sanity. Then, in 1864, she brought the gillie, John Brown, down from Balmoral, to be her personal attendant (a gillie is a male attendant on a Highland Chieftain - today it's mostly an attendant on sportsman). Initially, he was summoned because dear Albert liked him, however, later, he began to play an extremely positive role in slowly pulling the Queen out of seclusion. During Brown's tenure, there were many rumors of romance and marraige. One need only look at the Queen's character more than cursorily to know that this was nonsense. Nevertheless, the aristocracy of the time, bored with no glittering court to attend (except Bertie's Marlborough House Set), maliciously ate up the gossip. It was true that Brown was powerful in the Queen's household and that he spoke to the Queen and members of her family any way he wished. It was also true that Victoria considered him a close personal friend, as she did her dresser, Annie Macdonald. At his death, she asked Tennyson to immortalize him in verse, and had to be tactfully restrained from publishing her own personal memories of John Brown.
After the longest reign in British history, Queen Victoria died in January of 1901, several months shy of her eighty-second birthday. Her contributions to both the public life of Britain and the private lives of the royal families of Europe were immense.
To the Empire, she brought a dignity, style, and most important, a validation of the monarchy that had not been witnessed since, perhaps, Elizabeth I. She wisely used her powerless position to unite the purposes of much of the political strife that went on during the 19th century - her style of working with her prime ministers, especially Disraeli and Melbourne, and took the Royal Family and put it on the level of the Middle Class. They had the distince impression that she was like them, and her family was, too. One has only to look at the lithographs of the 1840's and '50s to see this "typical" middle class family, imparting and symbolizing middle class values for Britain, although, of course, nothing could be further than the truth.
Today it is her great-great granddaughter that rules the United Kingdom, and Elizabeth's consort, Philip, is Victoria's great-great grandson. Whether or not the "normalcy" of Victoria's reign, which was brilliantly illuminated by the late Princess Diana, will ever return to the monarchy, perhaps in the person of Prince William, is debatable, but many in England are hopeful.
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US actor/director Jerome Silberman is better known by what name? | Queen Elizabeth passes Victoria as longest-reigning monarch - TODAY.com
Queen Elizabeth makes her first public appearance since illness
Elizabeth II inherited the throne at age 25 upon the 1952 passing of her father, King George VI. She vowed to carry out her responsibilities until death and has never wavered in her promise over the past 63 years and 217 days.
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“She has stayed the course. It’s not that every year has been successful for her and for her family, it’s that she has never given up,” said Arianne Chernock, an associate professor of history at Boston University. “She’s a complement to the younger royals, who are much more willing to experiment with their limits and the royal template.”
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The coronation of Queen Elizabeth II was held on June 2, 1953, more than a year after she ascended the throne.
Elizabeth's coronation was the first to be televised in British history, providing the nation, and most of the world, a rare peek into royal life. Since she has taken the throne, 11 American presidents and 12 British prime ministers have been elected. She also has become the most well-traveled monarch in history, visiting 116 countries, including numerous visits to the 16 Commonwealth nations where she serves as head of state.
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Queen Elizabeth makes her first public appearance since illness
Back in the United Kingdom, however, there won't be much ado on her new crowning milestone. The 89-year-old queen currently is on her annual vacation at Scotland’s Balmoral Castle. British royals expert Carolyn Harris noted that Queen Victoria also was at Balmoral when she became the longest-reigning monarch, after surpassing her grandfather, George III, in 1896.
RELATED: Don't expect Queen Elizabeth to get off the throne: Here's why
Harris said that neither Elizabeth, nor Victoria before her, have marked anniversaries related to their accession to the throne. That's primarily because those dates also represent anniversaries of the deaths of their fathers.
“For both Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II, public celebrations occurred for other events instead of the occasion of becoming longest-reigning monarch,” said Harris, author of the upcoming book, “Queenship and Revolution in Early Modern Europe.”
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Britain's Queen Elizabeth (4th L) stands with Sophie, Countess of Wessex, Prince Edward, Prince William, Prince Philip, Prince Andrew, the Duke of Kent and Prince Michael of Kent (L-R) as they prepare to view a RAF flypast to mark the 75th anniversary of the Battle of Britain, from the balcony of Buckingham Palace in London, Britain July 10, 2015. REUTERS/Peter Nicholls
“Queen Victoria preferred that public celebrations mark her Diamond Jubilee in 1897, and there will be public celebrations to mark Elizabeth II's 90th birthday next year.”
Even through various low points of her reign — such as the very public divorces of her children, or the way the public perceived she mishandled the death of the beloved Princess Diana — Queen Elizabeth has managed to emerge stronger, and more popular.
TODAY
On Monday, September 7th, Queen Elizabeth II becomes the longest reigning monarch in Britian’s history. For TODAY, NBC’s Keir Simmons looks back at her 63-year rule.
“People still feel affection and admiration for her. I don’t think she excites people, but that’s not the point. She doesn’t want to excite people. She wants to maintain traditions,” Chernock said.
For many, Elizabeth represents a tie to the past and to tradition.
“It’s not so much what Elizabeth has done but the fact that people feel like she’s been there with them throughout their lives,” she said. "She’s just kind of stuck with the plan and she’s maintained it with a good deal of grace, calm and a resoluteness that people do admire.”
Five facts about Queen Elizabeth II, Britain's longest-reigning monarch:
1. An unexpected rise to rule: Elizabeth was the oldest daughter of a king’s second son. But when her uncle Edward VIII, abdicated to marry a twice-divorced American, she suddenly became next in line to the throne after her father, King George VI.
2. She has “two” birthdays. Elizabeth was born on April 21, 1926, but her birthday is officially celebrated on a Saturday in June along with a parade and ceremony known as Trooping the Colours.
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Queen Elizabeth II, with her retinue of corgis, meets the New Zealand All Blacks rugby team at Buckingham Palace, 05 November 2002. AFP PHOTO PA POOL/KIRSTY WIGGLESWORTH/mda (WPA ROTA) (Photo credit should read KIRSTY WIGGLESWORTH/AFP/Getty Images)
3. She is crazy for corgis. The queen has owned more than 30 corgis during her reign, starting with Susan, who was a present for her 18th birthday in 1944. A good number of her corgis have been Susan’s direct descendants. Elizabeth also introduced a new breed of dog known as the "dorgi" when one of the queen’s corgis mated with a dachshund named Pipkin, which belonged to the queen’s sister, Princess Margaret.
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Then-Princess Elizabeth driving an ambulance during her wartime service in the Auxiliary Territorial Service in 1945.
4. She can wield a mean wrench. As a princess, Elizabeth trained as a mechanic and military truck driver during World War II, when she joined the women’s branch of the British Army known as the Auxiliary Territorial Service.
5. She has traveled the world, yet doesn't have a single stamp in her passport. That’s because the queen doesn’t own a passport. Because British passports are issued in her name, she’s not required to have one of her own. All other members of the royal family, including the queen’s husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, and son, Prince Charles, have passports.
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Bole International Airport is in which African country? | Profile on Addis Ababa Bole International Airport | CAPA - Centre for Aviation
LATAM Airlines Group continues its international push, after slashing Brazil growth targets
28-Oct-2015 6:21 PM
LATAM Airlines group continues to expand internationally as weak economic conditions within Latin America linger. The company has already slashed growth targets for Brazil, which is LATAM’s largest domestic market, and one of the weakest economies within the region.
LATAM’s latest round of international flights includes linking its Lima hub to Washington DC and proposed new service from Sao Paulo to Johannesburg. The company also aims to bolster its connections to the Caribbean with flights from Bogota and Brasilia to Punta Cana. Those new routes join other long haul additions in 2015 including Sao Paulo to Barcelona, Toronto and Cancun, Lima to Orlando and Santiago to Milan.
The moves show the balance LATAM is attempting to strike in building its network utility and deploying capacity to stronger markets while managing falling demand in weaker regions. Unfortunately, it appears the challenges within Latin America will remain in place for the short term as growth prospects for the region’s major economies have been refined downward for 2015, and modest growth is predicted for 2016.
Ethiopian Airlines plans further growth in Asia and US, starting with Chengdu and New York
21-Oct-2015 12:40 PM
Ethiopian Airlines is planning further long-haul network expansion in 2016 with new destinations in Asia and North America. The expansion is made possible by the delivery of Ethiopian’s first batch of 343-seat A350-900s along with additional 270-seat Boeing 787-8s.
New York is in line to become Ethiopian’s fourth destination in North America in Jun-2016, joining Toronto, Washington Dulles and recently launched Los Angeles. Ethiopian is also looking at Chicago and Houston, which could be launched in 2017.
In Asia Ethiopian is planning to launch services to Chengdu, Ho Chi Minh, Jakarta and Singapore. East Asia has been the main driver of Ethiopian’s rapid expansion in recent years – with two destinations added in 2015 for a total of nine – and will continue to be a focus as Africa’s largest airline doubles its fleet over the next decade.
Ethiopian Airlines 2015 outlook: more rapid expansion as it becomes Africa’s largest airline
13-Jan-2015 1:40 PM
Ethiopian Airlines is planning further fleet and network expansion in 2015, enabling the flag carrier to widen the gap with other leading African carriers. Ethiopian has already become the largest airline in Africa based on fleet size and could overtake South African Airlines (SAA) in 2015 as the largest based on passengers carried.
Ethiopian has doubled in size since the beginning of the decade while most other major African carriers have grown only slightly or not at all. Asia and Africa have been, and will continue to be, the primary drivers as Ethiopian taps the booming Asia-Africa market.
Ethiopian plans to launch services to Tokyo in Apr-2015, which will become its 11th destination in Asia. The carrier will also add its second US destination in Jun-2015 as service to Los Angeles is launched.
Star reaffirms position as strongest alliance in Africa with Ethiopian and potentially ASKY
14-Dec-2011 1:50 AM
Star Alliance has further cemented its position as the leading alliance in Africa after Ethiopian Airlines officially became a member on 13-Dec-2011. Ethiopian, which has been working on joining Star since being accepted as a new member in Sep-2010, becomes the third African carrier in Star following South African Airways (SAA) and EgyptAir. Ethiopian’s membership significantly boosts Star’s presence on the continent, adding 23 African destinations to the Star Alliance network. Four of the top five African carriers are now aligned, and three of these four are in Star.
Overall the African continent remains largely unaligned. But Star is currently not looking to recruit another African carrier. Instead Star is looking forward to Ethiopian subsidiary ASKY later joining the alliance. Togo-based ASKY would improve Star’s connections in West Africa, the alliance’s weakest region within Africa. Ethiopian gives Star a stronghold in East Africa and Africa overall as Ethiopian has the largest African network among any African carrier, with 40 destinations. Star is already strong in southern Africa, where SAA is based, while EgyptAir is based in North Africa.
Ethiopian Airlines aims to become the largest carrier in Africa by 2025
4-Nov-2011 4:05 PM
Ethiopian Airlines is one of the largest and most profitable carriers in Africa. It has 34 aircraft on order, including 10 B787-8s with a network of 56 international destinations and 17 codeshare partners.
It plans to join Star Alliance and in 2010 had an operating profit of ETB1.6 billion (USD92 million). Ethiopian has forged a successful path for its expansion plans and has come a long way since its beginnings as a joint venture between the Ethiopian Government and Trans World Airlines.
The carrier has set an ambitious, but realistic, 15-year strategic plan that includes becoming the single largest airline in Africa. It intends to generate revenues of ETB171 billion (USD10 billion) per year, acquire a fleet of 70 aircraft and improve its Skytrax customer service ranking from three to four stars.
If successful, the plan would make Ethiopian Airlines the largest and most profitable carrier in Africa.
| Ethiopia |
In the US, which state borders the south of Kansas? | Bole Int�l Airport to Offer Free Wireless Internet Service
, September 21, 2010 (
Addis Ababa
) - The Ethiopian Airport Enterprise (EAE) said it is to start providing free wireless internet service at
Bole
Airport
.
In a press conference she gave here on Tuesday EAE Information and technology service acting head, Birhane Sisay said the service will be launched within a month.
The head said passengers will have access to free internet services in both the old and new terminals.
She said the Ethiopian Information Network Security Agency (INSA) and the Ethiopian Information Technology Agency have been working to launch the service.
EAE public relations head, Wondim Teklu on his part said
Bole
International
Airport
has been chosen among the eastern African countries. Thus, he said the commencement of the service will further enhance its services.
It was noted that
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Which is the seventh planet from the sun? | The Planet Uranus - Seventh Planet From the Sun
The Planet Uranus
By John P. Millis, Ph.D
Updated March 04, 2016.
Discovery of Uranus
The planet Uranus (pronounced either ū·rā′·nəs or ūr′·ə·nəs) is visible to the naked eye, and has therefore been watched by mankind for thousands of years. However, because it is so distant from us it moves much more slowly across the sky than the other planets visible from Earth .
As a result, it wasn't identified as a planet until 1781 when Sir William Herschel , using a telescope, discovered that it was, indeed in orbit around our Sun . Curiously, Herschel initially insisted that this newly re-discovered object was in fact a comet . Though when pressed he made illusions to the fact that it may be more similar to objects like Jupiter or Saturn.
Naming the 7th Planet from the Sun
Herschel initially named the new planet Georgium Sidus (literally George's Star, but taken as George's Planet) in honor of Britain's newly minted King George III.
Unsurprising, however, this name was not met with the same warm reception as it had on the Isle of Britain.
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What are the Seven Wonders of the World
Therefore other names were suggested, including Herschel, in honor of its discoverer.
Another suggestion was Neptune, which of course ended up getting used later.
The name Uranus was suggested by Johann Elert Bode, which is the Latin translation of the Greek God Ouranos. The thinking went that Saturn was the father of Jupiter, so the next world out when be the father of Saturn: Uranus.
This line of thinking was well received by the international astronomy community, and eventually became the sole name recognized for the planet in 1850.
Orbit and Rotation
Uranus has a not-insignificant eccentricity, giving it a spread in radial distance from the Sun of more than 150 million miles. But on average Uranus is about 1.8 billion miles from the Sun, orbiting the center of our solar system every 84 Earth-years.
The interior of Uranus (that is, the surface area below the atmosphere) rotates every 17 Earth-hours of so, while the atmosphere, with its intense winds makes it around the planet in as little as 14 hours.
The most unique feature of the faint-blue world is the fact that it has a highly tilted orbit. At nearly 98 degrees with respect to the orbital plane, the planet appears to at times "roll" along its orbit.
Structure
Determining the structure of planets is a tricky business since we can't just drill deep inside and see what times out. We have to take measurements of what elements are present, typically using techniques such as reflection spectra, then using information such as its size and mass to estimate how much (and in what states) the various elements exist.
While not all models agree on the details, the general consensus is that Uranus has three distinct layers:
Rocky Core: With less than 4% of the planet's total mass the rocky core is relatively small.
Mantel: At more than 90% of the Uranus's total mass, the mantel makes up the majority of the planet. The primary molecules include water, ammonia and methane (among others) in a semi-ice-liquid state.
Atmosphere: Containing the outer 20% of Uranus' radius, the atmosphere contains less than 4% of the planetary mass making it the least dense of the layers. It consists primarily of elemental hydrogen and helium.
Rings
Everyone knows about the rings of Saturn , but actually the outer four planets all have rings. Uranus was the second world discovered to have such phenomena.
Like the brilliant rings of Saturn, those around Uranus are tiny individual particles of dark ice and dust. The material in these rings may have one been the building blocks of a nearby moon that was destroyed by impacts from asteroids , or perhaps even by gravitational interactions from the planet itself.
Uranus By the Numbers
Equatorial Radius: 25,559 ± 4 km (about 4 Earth Radii)
Polar Radius: 24,973 ± 20 km
Mass: Approximately 8.6810 × 1025 kg(about 14.5 Earths)
Volume: 6.833×1013 km3 (about 63 Earths)
Average Distance from the Sun: 1.79 billion miles
Surface Gravity (at Equator): 88.6% of Earth's gravity at the equator
Rotational Period (length of a day on Uranus): 17 hours, 14 minutes, 24 seconds
Orbital Period (length of a year on Uranus): 84.3 Earth Years
| Uranus |
In the Jewish calendar, what is the ninth month of the civil year called? | Uranus Fun Facts for Kids
Uranus has 11 rings, made of dust, ice and bits of rock.
Fun Facts about Uranus for Kids
Because itâs tipped, Uranus has seasons that last 20 years. Can you imagine 20 years of summer? That wouldnât be bad, but how about 20 years of winter?
The temperature is almost always the same, whether its winter or summer because the planet is so far from the sun.
Uranus has 11 rings, made of dust, ice and bits of rock.
Uranus has 27 known moons . They are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare.
Uranus has 27 known moons.
Uranus Vocabulary
Learn More All About Uranus, the Seventh Planet from Sun
Watch this awesome video all about Uranus:
A video documentary of the facts about Uranus.
Uranus Questions & AnswersÂ
Question 1: What is the temperature on Uranus?
Answer 1: Uranus is so far from the Sun that it never gets very warm. The gas atmosphere also reflects back most of the sunlight that does reach the planet. Uranus is -357 degrees.
Question 2Â Â How much would I weigh on Uranus?
Answer 2: If you weigh 60 pounds on Earth, youâd weigh 41 pounds on Uranus.
Question 3: Has Uranus got many many moons?
Answer 3: Yes Uranus has 27 moons
Question 4: How far away is Uranus from the Earth?
Answer 4: Not too far at all, only joking, Uranus is a whopping 2.57 billion km from the Earth or in miles that is 1.6 billion.
Question 5: What is the length of day in Uranus?
Answer 5: While the earth as we know is 24 hours, Uranus is 17.24 hours.
Question 6:Â Is Uranus larger than Earth?
Answer 6:Â Uranus is about 4 times larger than the Earth.
Question 7: Who discovered Uranus?
Answer 7: William Herschel discovered Uranus back on March 13th 1781. William was a British astronomer
Question 8:Â How long is a year on Uranus?
Answer 8: It takes Uranus a lot longer to rotate around the sun than it does Earth. Our year as we know is 365 days but Uranus takes 84 of our Earth years to complete its revolution around the sun.
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In which year did the British government decriminalise homosexuality? | ILLAWARRA Q INFO - Australian Homosexual History
Australian Homosexual History
Contact us
A Brief history of homosexuality in Australia
Australian Lesbian and Gay Archives - The Archives are the only community group in Australia that actively collects and preserves lesbian and gay material from across the country, and makes it readily accessible.
HISTORY OF HOMOSEXUALITY IN AUSTRALIA - DNA Magazine, 100th Edition
Australia's gay and lesbian history dates back well before the colonial era. As long as there have been humans living on this continent, there have been gay, lesbian and bisexual Australians, writes Andrew M Potts.
BEFORE THE COMING OF THE WHITE MEN
Indigenous Australia includes hundreds of different clans and peoples, each with their own language or dialect, and each with their own unique cultures and spiritual beliefs that have evolved over the 50,000-plus years their ancestors have inhabited this continent.
Before colonisation by Europeans, a wide variety of codes and laws operated across the land mass and islands of Australia. In many tribes, homosexual acts were completely forbidden but among some tribes, similar to practices in ancient Greece, unmarried men entered into sexual relationships with youths with the expectation that the relationships would end once they married.
Other groups believed certain people possessed both male and female spirits in one body. The were referred to as "Two-One" people - similar to the concept of "Two Spirit" people in North American Indigenous culture. Because of this, they were allowed to engage in relationships where others would not have been.
In some groups, anal sex seems to have been acceptable in male-to-male relationships, but it was forbidden or deeply frowned upon in others. The same complex rules that existed in Aboriginal culture governing heterosexual relationships also applied to homosexual ones.
SHIPWRECKS AND DUTCHMEN
Although the British dominate Australia's colonial history, it was a lost Dutchmen and ill winds that first put us on the map.
On October 25, 1616, Dirk Hartog became the first white man to set eyes on the continent of Australia after being blown off course on his way to the Dutch colonies in the Spice Islands of Indonesia. Landing at what is now Shark Bay in Western Australia, he nailed a pewter plate to a post as proof of his journey.
Twenty-six years later, another Dutchman, Abel Tasman, returned to map the southern island of Tasmania and, on a second voyage, the north of the mainland, giving Europeans their first notions of its size and shape.
But it is another ship from Holland that sets the first date in the recorded gay history of Australia.
The merchant vessel Zeewijk wrecked itself on the Houtman Abrolhos islands off the coast of Western Australia on the 9th of June, 1727. Hitting a submerged reef, ten men drowned and two weeks passed before the crew could even launch a rescue boat. The desperate survivors used a single longboat to send 11 of their strongest men to Java for rescue - but they were never seen or heard from again. In the months that followed, the remaining crew were forced to build a new boat from scratch, using wood from the Zeewijk and material from surrounding islands.
During this time, two young sailors, Adriaen Spoor and Pieter Engels, were caught by their crewmen in "the abominable and god-forsaken deeds of Sodom and Gomorrah" and sentenced to death. They were abandoned on separate rocky islands and left to starve while the others escaped in their patchwork ship.
CONVICTS AND COLONIES
Australia did not attract serious attention from Britain until it lost the American War Of Independence in 1783.
Between the years 1680 and 1780, the population of England doubled, with the Industrial Revolution bringing hordes of people into its cities. With no social security, the resulting slums and urban poverty led to an epidemic of crime. By 1770, over 200 separate offences had been made eligible for the death penalty.
Transportation of convicts to America for use as indentured labour was believed a more humane alternative to the problem and a solution to clearing the nation's overcrowded jails.
Following Captain James Cook's claiming of Australia as a British possession, the decision was made to direct the flow of convicts Down Under through the establishment of a colony in New South Wales.
The First Fleet arrived at Port Jackson to found what would become Sydney in 1788, and a second settlement on the southern island of Tasmania was established in 1803 - reserved for repeat offenders and the worst criminals.
From the early 18th Century, the United Kingdom developed its own distinct underground gay subculture, with men gathering secretly in so-called "Molly houses" - illegal bars and taverns that were the precursors of modern gay bars.
Molly culture was closely associated with cross-dressing and drag, and rather than seeking out 'rough trade', most Mollies seemed to have preferred other effeminate men as partners. Of course, when civil society found out about the existence of the Molly houses, they were outraged, and a vigorous police crackdown ensued.
When Mollies were arrested and thrown into London's floating prison hulks, they would have encountered an entirely darker kind of male-to-male sexuality - prison rape and sex traded for protection and favours.
During the First and Second Fleet, little effort was made to segregate the young and vulnerable from the older men, and with prisoners sleeping six to each tiny cell, it's not hard to imagine what must have gone on. Later fleets corrected this problem - placing the younger men and teens in separated lodging.
The term Molly has been found in early accounts from the colony while others commented on the unseemliness of a certain class of convict - young men who gave themselves feminine nicknames and wore their hair in women's styles. With only 189 women convicts amongst the 1,373 British to land at Port Jackson, both would have found themselves in considerable demand - and this gender imbalance would not be corrected for many decades.
Lesbianism among female convicts, kept mostly segregated from the males, is also recorded, but was viewed simply as a curiosity - girl-on-girl action not being viewed as real sex at the time.
These early days of the colony seem to have included a fairly lax attitude to male homosexuality. Although it's first governor, Arthur Phillip, stated the only two offences deserving death were murder and sodomy, the first trial for such a crime did not occur until 1796 and that penalty was not prescribed. Phillip even went so far as to say that sodomites should be given to cannibals to be eaten, writing, "I would wish to confine the criminal until an opportunity offered of delivering him to the natives of New Zealand, and let them eat him. The dread of this will operate much stronger than the fear of death."
Despite this, the first recorded execution for a homosexual act did not occur until 1828, when Alexander Brown, chief officer on the whaling ship Royal Sovereign, and crewmember Richard Lister were ordered to hang by the neck by a Sydney court. Lister was given a last minute reprieve and deported from the colony, but Brown did not fair so well.
Gay convicts lucky enough to be sent to Norfolk Island (an otherwise notoriously harsh and remote penal settlement) during the rule of the prison reformer Alexander Maconochie, led a much different life. On an island known for its food shortages and harsh punishments, Maconochie instituted a regime based on reward and tolerance rather than cruelty.
According to Robert Stuart, a magistrate who visited the island during Maconochie's rule, it was common for convicts to live together as couples - referring to each other as "husband and wife", and there may have been well over 100 such pairs on the island at any one time. Stuart observed, "These parties manifest as much eagerness for the society of each other as members of the opposite sex." Under Maconochie, convicts caught having sex still faced flogging but, compared to the rest of the British Empire, the punishment was mild.
Around this time, the colony's first known beat was mentioned in the Sydney Gazette as being located at Mrs Macquarie's Chair [now a famous and respectable landmark in Sydney's Royal Botanical Gardens]. Formerly the favourite ship watching spot of Elizabeth, wife of the colony's sixth Governor, Lachlan Macquarie, by the 1830s it was reported to be unsafe because of the unsavoury acts occurring there. Reportedly, gay men were still cruising each other at the spot over a century later in the 1950s.
The last gay execution occurred in Tasmania in 1863, when a black South African convict named Hendrick Witnalder and an unnamed 14-year-old boy were charged with sodomy. The boy was eventually set free but Witnalder, of tiny stature, was hanged with weights tied to his feet in case his body was too light to break his neck.
Surprisingly, Australia's highest-ranking gay leader to date may have predated this. In 1859, Robert Herbert became the first Colonial Secretary (the equivalent of Premier) of Queensland. His Attorney General was John Bramston and both had lived together since meeting at Oxford University as students in the early 1850s.
The two most powerful men in the state shared a grand house and gardens they built together named "Herston" - a combination of their last names. Their friendship lasted over 50 years during which they were rarely apart. Herbert's explanation for his lifelong bachelorhood: "It does not seem to me reasonable to tell a man who is happy and content, to marry a woman who may turn out to be a great disappointment".
Looking back, it seems odd people didn't ask questions but during this period, and right up until World War I, presumably straight men were allowed a closeness and affection for each other rarely seen today. Referred to by historians as "romantic friendships", it was not uncommon for such men to write what would today seem like love letters to each other and to pose for portraits together holding hands or embracing - even reclining in each other's arms on couches. Many of these friendships were only that but they must have presented the perfect cover for gay men of the time.
The campaign to end convict transportation - finally won in 1868, led to a worsening cultural cringe against homosexuality in Australia, as homosexual relations and male rape among prisoners were reasons cited for its immorality. Despite this, as Australia's free settler population grew and the number of convicts working off their sentences declined, a new set of gay and lesbian figures began to appear - the "passing women", who impersonated male lives in order to take advantage of the opportunities denied to women, and a growing subculture of urban gay men who found their partners at certain theatres, cafés, bars, parks and lavatories, despite state persecution and the disapproval of society.
Out bush, on the frontiers of law and order, where gold rushes and the taming of the land led to mass migrations of single men, other opportunities presented themselves.
Arriving in Australia at the age of 26, Andrew Scott, an engineer and wanderer with a radical streak, had already fought in three wars - Garibaldi in Italy, New Zealand's Maori Wars and under the American Civil War.
Perhaps weary of fighting, or from a sense of guilt, Scott decided to follow in his father's footsteps and join the Anglican clergy, becoming a lay reader in the Victorian goldfields at Edgerton.
However, in 1869, Ludwig Bruun - an attractive young clerk whom Scott had befriended, accused him of robbing the local bank.
Bruun described being robbed by a fantastic masked figure who signed his name "Moonlite" but claimed he recognised Scott's slightly Irish-American accent and limp from a war wound.
Scott denied the charges, and for a time Bruun and a local school teacher were pursued as suspects, but Scott was eventually charged and imprisoned after passing bad cheques in New South Wales. Scott would go to his grave claiming his innocence in this crime.
Released in 1879, Scott's reputation as the dashing Captain Moonlight was awaiting him on the outside and the Melbourne tabloids immediately began inventing fantastic tales of crimes he was supposedly masterminding.
Scott tried to rebuild his life by touring as a public speaker on prison reform but constant hounding by press and police seem to have convinced him to finally live up to the legend he already carried. Teaming up with 23-year-old James Nesbitt (believed to be his lover), whom he'd met in jail, the handsome Scott assembled a ragtag gang of young men who he'd met at bars and brothels.
Sending word to Ned Kelly that he wanted to join forces, Scott trained his boys in military fashion - giving them ranks and numbers and, often mistaken for the Kelly Gang, they seized guns and horses on their way. Scott never received Ned's reply, which was that if "Scott or his band approached him, he would shoot them down".
Religion and class, not sexuality, were the likely sources of the refusal - Ned's brother Dan is thought to have been gay (a reported cross-dresser who chose to dance with men before the shootout at Glenrowan) but Ned was an Irish Catholic of convict stock, while Scott was from a wealthy Protestant family.
Scott's gang bailed up the estate of a rich squatter near Wagga, taking 36 hostages and raiding a nearby pub before repelling a police assault and fleeing to a nearby farmstead, where a superior police force trapped them and won the shootout. Nesbitt was shot dead trying to lead police away so Scott could escape.
Following a trial in which he represented himself and tried to take all the blame in the hope of getting his boys lighter sentences, Scott was sentenced to death and hanged at Darlinghurst Gaol in what is now the heart of Sydney's gay precinct.
Scott's dying wish was to be buried next to his "beloved James Nesbitt, the man with whom I was united by every tie which could bind human friendship", and whose woven hair he wore as a ring.
His wish to be buried next to Nesbitt was not honoured until 115 years later. The couple's remains are now together in the cemetary of the town of Gundagai, a forgotten regional spot on the map south of Sydney.
FROM SIN TO SICKNESS
Prior to the 20th Century, homosexuality was regarded as a wilful rebellion against morality and godliness and a depraved criminal perversion.
However, as new theories on psychology filtered in from abroad and as the idea of separation of church and state became stronger in the public mind in a newly independent Australia (granted in 1901), people began to ask questions as to what might drive a person to commit homosexual acts - beginning the medicalisation of homosexuality.
This switch in thinking led to lighter sentences but although society began to slowly accept that homosexuals didn't choose their sexuality, there was concern that homosexuals might be able to corrupt the young.
A shining exception during this period was the work of Dr Robert Storer. Influenced by the new thinking in Europe, Storer completed his training in London and undertook postgraduate studies on venereal disease in Vienna until 1925.
Returning to Australia, he began a medical practice and became a strong advocate of sex education and family planning - publishing two of the first Australian books on sexuality and sexual health for a general reading audience. Controversially, Storer asserted that homosexuality was part of the normal spectrum of human sexuality and argued that most people felt some degree of bisexual urge.
As a result, Storer was charged with publishing obscene material - charges which he fought and won, setting an important legal precedent that allowed franker discussion of sexuality in Australia for years to come.
However, despite being married and a father, Storer was himself bisexual and had two convictions for homosexual acts that would eventually be his undoing. Following years of attacks in the tabloids and a number of short-lived attempts to restart his career, Storer died of a heart attack in 1958, a broken man.
As a result of pioneering ideas such as Storer's, however, some judges began to show lenience when dealing with homosexuals.
In 1935, a Melbourne cross-dresser named Percy Haynes attempted to pass as a woman for an afternoon on the town. After some window-shopping and a visit to the pictures, Percy caught the attention of a detective who followed him home on the train - unmasking him at his front gate in full view of his neighbours. Surprisingly, the case was thrown out - the magistrate ruling that the fashion of the day was for young women to wear jodhpurs and that Percy's choice of dress had been respectful in its own way.
In 1942, two men who were arrested after their names were found in the address book of another gay man. They were sentenced to just 30 minutes imprisonment for their offence, as the testimony of a well respected psychiatrist led the judge to believe the men were simply acting on their natural instinct.
However, harsh sentences continued to be handed out, and the medicalisation of homosexuality would have serious consequences for many in later years, with gay men committed to mental institutions, subjected to aversion therapy using electric shocks and even lobotomised. These attempts at 'cures' would continue up to the very cusp of decriminalisation.
From the late '40s to the late '60s, many gay men, particularly artists and writers, fled Australia for a more tolerant climate in Europe. During the 1950s, Australia's foreign intelligence service, ASIO, kept files on known and suspected homosexuals - fearing they might be Communist sympathisers. They even produced a briefing document containing a glossary of gay terms and signs a subject who may be gay would use. In 1963, ASIO conducted an investigation into a "lesbian fraternity" in the ranks of the Women's Royal Australian Air Force, even though lesbianism had never been a crime!
PROTESTS, PARTIES & VICTORIES
Also in 1963, Australia's first official gay bar - The Purple Onion - was established in the Sydney suburb of Kensington. High Court Judge, Justice Michael Kirby, recalls, "I regularly visited the Purple Onion in early 1969 with my handsome new Dutch partner, Johan. Nearly 40 years later, we are still together. "The Purple Onion was a glitzy cabaret, with grossly overpriced drinks, a glamorous crowd, lots of smoking, a packed dance floor, strobe lights and a twice nightly show that changed every few months. The shows were gloriously costumed, with brilliant choreography on a tiny stage. It was great fun and a respite from the oppression that went on outside the doors. The place was magical, intimate and democratic. If only we could reverse the time machine and go back to those delicious nights."
One year later, a debate on the legal status of homosexuality held at Melbourne University sparked national headlines and started a broader community discussion. In front of an audience of 500, psychiatrist AA Bartholemew and students Patrick McCaughy and Gareth Evans (later an Australian Foreign Minister) argued for decriminalisation, while lawyer Clifford Pannam and two others argued the negative.
The debate was covered by Rupert Murdock's newly founded The Australian newspaper and those arguing in favour of decriminalisation won the debate on a vote of 281 to 98. Coverage in the weeks to come spurred a number of public figures to voice support for decriminalisation - including the then Anglican Archbishop of Melbourne.
Decriminalisation in Britain in 1967 brought further pressure and the 1969 Stonewall Riots in New York inspired gay and lesbian Australians into thinking a loud and proud gay rights movement could exist here, too. Before the end of 1969, an Australian wing of lesbian group The Daughters Of Bilitis was founded. The Campaign Against Moral Persecution (CAMP) in Sydney and Society Five in Melbourne formed soon after.
It would take until 1975, however, for an Australian state to decriminalise homosexuality - under South Australia's then closeted gay Premier, Don Dunstan. The ACT followed in 1976, Victoria in 1980, with others following in years to come. New South Wales, which now has the country's largest gay community, refused to come to the table. It all came to a head on June 24, 1978, when Sydney's gay and lesbian community decided to hold a march commemorating the ninth anniversary of the Stonewall riots - and dubbed it "Mardi Gras".
Although organisers had a permit and intended the parade to be a colourful and non-violent call for rights, police dispersed the march at Hyde Park and confiscated a truck. The 1,500 people assembled then made their way to Kings Cross - at that time the other gay area in Sydney. Police then blocked off both ends of Darlinghurst Road, hemming in the crowd, and started making mass arrests.
As people tried to stop friends and loved ones from being thrown into police wagons, things turned violent and police began to beat and kick demonstrators. Fifty-three people were arrested, with many later being bashed by police in their cells. In the days that followed, the Sydney Morning Herald published their full names and occupations - outing many and costing them their jobs.
Outrage over the violence and the banning of a legal protest galvanised public opinion and eventually forced the government's hand. The NSW Government relented in 1984 and legalised homosexuality, with the Australian Medical Association removing homosexuality from its list of disorders that same year, though the age of consent in NSW would remain unequal until 2003.
Queensland became the last mainland state to decriminalise homosexuality in 1990 but the southern island of Tasmania held out until 1997 - only changing the law after being ruled against by the United Nations Human Rights Committee. Strangely, Tasmania has moved ahead in leaps and bounds to become the first state to introduce a statewide relationship recognition scheme for same-sex couples followed this year by Victoria.
Through the intervening years, the states have passed anti-discrimination laws to protect gays and lesbians in the workplace and most have moved to give gay parents some level of recognition. But the election of John Howard's conservative government in 1996 set in place a deep freeze on gay rights at a national level which is only just beginning to thaw.
There was a liberal undercurrent to these deeply conservative years, however. The same election that saw Howard take power also saw the election of the first openly gay leader of a political party to the Federal Parliament in the form of the Greens' Senator Bob Brown. The same year, Giz Watson became the first lesbian to be elected to an Australian Parliament for the Greens in Western Australia.
But gay and lesbian Australians were shocked in 2004 when, following the lead of America, both the Australian Government and the Labor Opposition joined forces to ban same-sex marriage - the first time a new law aimed against gay people had been passed by an Australian Parliament since decriminalisation.
But with this the 30th anniversary year of the original Gay And Lesbian Mardi Gras, the new Labor Government has promised to address equality for homosexuals - short of gay marriage and full parental rights - with national anti-discrimination laws on the agenda.
On that note, gay and lesbian Australia's history draws to a close as we look to a future where we are the full citizens of this country we deserve to be - and that future seems more tangible with each passing year.
Homophobis: An Australian History (Published October, 2008)
Edited by Shirleene Robinson
Homophobia is a prejudice with effects that extend far beyond the gay and lesbian community. While its physical, emotional and social effects have been charted to some extent, the development of homophobia in Australia has yet to be fully explored.
Homophobia: An Australian History is the first book to consider homophobia in a distinctively Australian context. In this collection, thirteen well-known scholars examine the embedded homophobic attitudes that Australian gay and lesbian activists have fought to change. The book traces the evolution of homophobia, from its expression in Australia’s past as a colonial settler society, through to manifestations in present day society.
The compilation of this text is timely, given the 2007 release of the Same Sex: Same Entitlements report of the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. The release of this report, which focused on institutionalised and legal homophobia, has raised public awareness of these issues and sparked broader debates about homosexual rights. The thirtieth anniversary of Sydney's Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras earlier this year also offers an ideal opportunity to reflect on the past gains and future goals of the gay and lesbian rights movement.
The collected chapters in this book argue that homophobia developed in conjunction with the growth of a modern homosexual identity in the second half of the nineteenth century. To various extents, the legal and medical professions and other social institutions have perpetuated homophobic attitudes. Homophobia: An Australian History raises awareness of the devastating impact these attitudes can have on individuals and on society.
Parting with my sex: cross-dressing, inversion and sexuality in Australian cultural life
Lucy Chesser
Sydney University Press
ISBN: 9781920898311
In this original and unusual work, Lucy Chesser explores the persistent recurrence of cross-dressing and gender inversion within Australian cultural life. Examples of cross-dressing are to be found in almost every area of Australian historical enquiry, including Aboriginal-European relations and conflict, convict societies, the goldrushes, bushranging, the 1890s and its nationalist fiction, and World War One. The book compares and contrasts sustained life-long impersonations where women lived, worked and sometimes married as men, with other forms of cross-dressing such as public masquerades, cross-dressing on the stage, and the prosecution of men who sought sexual encounters while disguised as women.
This book, pubulished October, 2008 can be purchased at Sydney University Press
The Hidden History of Homosexual Australia dvd takes a panoramic look at the history of gays and lesbians in Australia, from settlement convict days right through to the present.
It uses dramatic archives and interviews with experts alongside TV News and excerpts from cinema features to show how gays and lesbians have been treated or viewed in this country for more than two hundred years.
The Hidden History of Homosexual Australia looks at the three main periods of gay and lesbian Australian history. The convict era: the period when it was considered a sin against God. The medical period which lasted from the turn of the century until the nineteen sixties. And the third period when homosexuality came to be seen as a political, cultural, and personal issue by looking at activism and the liberation struggles of the sixties ? through to Mardi Gras and the general public acceptance that came about as a result of the Aids crisis in the eighties.
The Hidden History of Homosexual Australia asks though; have gay and lesbian Australians really reached a sunny dawn for themselves in Australia today? Or like gays everywhere, are they still living out the same stories of persecution and oppression of the past but in subtler contemporary models?
Interviewees: John Mardsen, David Marr, Steven Cheung, Edward Young, Sue Wills, Gary Wotherspoon, Robert French, Clive Moore, Dennis Altman, Basil Donovan, Ruth Ford, Lucy Chesser, Graham Willet
DVD released February, 2007
Source: glbtq
Although Australia has a human history stretching back some 60,000 years, dating from the arrival of the indigenous peoples, recorded history begins with the arrival of British settlers in 1788 at what is now Sydney. In the subsequent 200 years, Australians have occupied and unified a continent as large as Europe or the continental United States, created the world's eleventh largest economy (with a population of about 20 million, or two percent of the world's total), and have forged a vibrant, cosmopolitan, and strikingly gay-friendly society.
Despite its image as a land of beaches, deserts, and Outback-dwelling Crocodile Dundees, Australia is in fact highly urbanized, with most of its population living in six major cities.
History
Australia's history is a very queer one, in most senses of the word. Three-quarters of those on the First Fleet, which arrived in January 1788, were prisoners, convicted of various offenses and sentenced by way of punishment to be transported to the other side of the world to found and to live in a penal settlement, essentially a sprawling outdoor prison. Until the end of this system of convict transportation in the 1840s, about half of all those who came to Australia came in chains.
The colonists (by the mid-nineteenth century the continent had been divided into six self-governing colonies) brought with them British law and British attitudes and until the 1860s the crime of sodomy was punishable by death. In New South Wales, there were only four executions, all in the decade after 1828, after which the practice fell into disuse. In Tasmania, however, a dozen men were executed, the last in the 1860s.
The horror of sodomy and "unnatural connection" generally - between men and between women - figures strongly in the colonies during the convict era and one of the strongest arguments against the transportation of convicts (the vast majority of whom were men) was that it encouraged homosexuality. With "No prospect being afforded them of a woman's Love,--without hope of Heaven or fear of Hell, their already darkened reason became more clouded. Their lax morals gave way and they indulged with apparent delight in every filthy and unnatural propensity . . . ," as one campaigner put it.
Over the course of the nineteenth century as the British parliament amended its laws, the colonial legislatures tended to follow suit--reducing the penalties for homosexual acts from death to relatively short terms of imprisonment, but expanding the number of offenses from the initial crime of buggery to include eventually all sexual contact, attempted sexual contact, and soliciting for sexual contact between men. (As was usual in the British world, there were no offenses pertaining to sexual acts between women).
Australia Today
Given this history, it is surprising perhaps that Australia now has exceptionally gay-friendly laws and public attitudes. All six states and both territories have now decriminalized male homosexual acts--a process that stretched over twenty-five years from South Australia's reforms of 1972 and 1975, to Tasmania's in 1997.
All jurisdictions have now outlawed discrimination on the basis of sexuality and all the special rights enjoyed by opposite-sex couples have been extended, to a greater or lesser degree, to same-sex relationships. This has been done primarily through the extension of de facto or common-law rights and responsibilities (well-entrenched in Australian law) to gay couples, rather than through marriage, which has very little resonance in Australian public life anyway.
Gay men and lesbians can serve openly in the armed forces and the same-sex partners of gay and lesbian citizens have immigration rights. Since very shortly after its establishment in 1976, the Family Court (which deals with divorce and its associated disputes) has tended to ignore sexuality as an issue in the granting of custody of children. Real legal equality, then, is now well within our grasp, with only a conservative federal government holding out on some areas, such as retirement funds. It is widely assumed that the remaining areas of discrimination will be addressed after the retirement of the current Prime Minister or the election of a Labor government.
In terms of public policy, state agencies are actively challenging the remnants (often rather potent remnants) of their homophobic past. Police-gay liaison has been institutionalized, challenging what one commentator has called the "loathing of generations" between these two groups. The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission has special outreach programs to address the needs of same-sex attracted young people in rural Australia (which tends, in general, to be somewhat --but only somewhat--more conservative on moral issues). Trade unions and professional organizations have long recognized their responsibilities to their gay (and more recently bisexual, transgender , and intersex) members and constituencies. (GLBTI is the current abbreviation employed in Australia.)
There is widespread public tolerance--even, arguably, acceptance--of gay people and the gay community in Australia. Sydney's Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras has been one of the great spectacles in that city's annual calendar for fifteen of its twenty-five years, with scores of thousands of people, many of them family groups, gathering in the streets to watch the parade. Almost all cities now have annual festivals and marches and it is the politicians and community leaders who fail to send messages of support who are expected to explain themselves. The embrace of the gay community owes much to modern Australia's sense of itself as a multicultural nation--a nation of communities, one of which is the gay community.
How and Why Change Occurred
In the past forty years gay people have gone from being marginalized and vilified to being one of the elements of a modern, open, and celebratory society. We are now, variously, a market to be exploited, voters to be wooed, and (since the publication of Richard Florida's The Rise of the Cultural Class) a community asset to be nurtured.
A number of factors help us to understand these developments. In the first place, the Christian Right has never really managed to make itself a significant political force in Australia. Australia has a remarkably secular public life. While some 70% of Australians claim to believe in God, there is very little acceptance of the idea that religious values ought to influence public acts. Australian politicians do not invoke God's blessing; sports heroes and celebrities keep their beliefs (if they have them) to themselves. Even our currency does not trust in God. Attempts therefore to import American-style faith-based politics have never been successful and all recent attempts to invoke God's disapproval of homosexuality as a basis for law and public policy have proved unavailing.
Secondly, although Australia experienced to some extent the Cold War panic around homosexuals as security threats, this panic was largely confined to governing circles--the Cabinet, the security and intelligence organizations, the police and armed services. Homosexuals were restricted in their career choices, arrested in reasonably large numbers, subject to rejection by employers and family and friends in this period, but there was nothing like the McCarthyite witch-hunts of the early 1950s in the United States, which brought the homosexual threat to public attention not merely at the national level but down into local communities.
It is likely that, prior to the rise of the gay rights movement in the 1970s, most Australians never gave a moment's thought to homosexuality from one year to the next unless they happened to know a homosexual. And in that case, a rather interesting process kicked in. Australians have a remarkable capacity to dislike groups of people in the abstract while exempting from their opprobrium members of those groups that they actually know. They may not have liked homosexuals in general but if Uncle Bob happened to be "like that," then as long as he kept it to himself, well, that was all right.
The homosexual subculture (the "camp scene" it called itself, though in Australia "camp" lacked the connotations of high theatricality that it had in Britain and North America) existed in Australian cities as it did in sizable cities around the world. Garry Wotherspoon has tracked its existence in Sydney back to the 1920s and in most other cities it seems to have existed by then, or shortly afterwards. Organized around more or less discreet gatherings in pubs and cafes, in friendship circles and private parties, and in the bohemian world of theater (with its shading over into the worlds of petty crime and left-wing politics), the camp scene was one in which women and men lived reasonably happy--if rather careful--lives.
This started to change with the emergence of a liberal politics that argued for decriminalization and greater public tolerance. These ideas found ready acceptance in Australia. This politics drew upon British precedents (especially the law reform ideas of Britain's Wolfenden Report of 1957) and it tapped into the idea that Australia needed to reform and modernize itself in a host of ways, one of which was in relation to archaic sex laws (abortion, prostitution, and homosexuality, in particular).
The liberalizing trend accelerated with the foundation of the first national homosexual rights organization, established in Sydney in 1970, the Campaign Against Moral Persecution (CAMP). Intended as a small group to monitor the media and correct misinformation, CAMP found itself inundated by homosexuals ready to take to the public stage, and within a year had branches in all state capital cities as well as on many university campuses.
By 1972 the import of gay rights and gay liberation ideas had propelled the movement well beyond the existing homosexual politics. Demands for radical social change and self-transformation took center stage, facilitated by the return to Australia of Dennis Altman, whose Homosexual: Oppression and Liberation expressed international gay liberation ideas in their purest form. From this point on Australian gay and lesbian politics tended to follow the U. S. model, but there were significant divergences. Some of these have been discussed in relation to the failure of the Right to resist the advances of the gay movement.
AIDS in Australia
But the most important difference is undoubtedly the experience of AIDS in Australia. The first cases were transmitted in Australia in 1981. Three years later, there were 2,500 new infections. But then a surprising thing happened. Infection rates dropped. And kept on dropping. In 1988 there were 750 infections. In 1992 there were 500, an annual rate that has been maintained ever since. As a result of this, Australia's HIV-positive population is about 14 per 100,000 people (in the U. S. it is 167); and it is largely confined to gay men.
Australia's remarkable success in containing AIDS relies heavily upon the specifics of Australia's political culture. A newly elected Labor Party government, a gay community leadership that knew what was coming and what had to be done (having watched the first year or two of the epidemic in the U. S. with fascination and horror), a willingness on both sides to trust the other and to cooperate, the existence of a national health system (including universal health insurance and universal access to subsidized pharmaceuticals): all these factors came together in a truly daring experiment.
Sexually explicit information, discussed in the language of the real world, voiced by people who were in and of the gay community, was the key element in bringing about an extremely rapid and widespread adoption of safer sex practices. When gay men spoke to gay men and told them what they needed to do to save their lives, it worked. When they did so with millions of dollars of government funding, they saved even more lives. And if the government could stand at arm's length, denying all responsibility for (sexually-explicit and therefore politically explosive) content, then the truth could be told in an unvarnished form without public controversy and at very little political cost.
By the end of the crisis phase of AIDS the gay community was in a stronger position vis-á-vis the state and opinion-makers than it had ever been. It had proved itself to be a responsible and well-organized part of the national community; it had saved thousands of lives, generated goodwill, and avoided social and political backlash.
It could well be argued that for the last fifteen years, the Australian gay and lesbian movement has been reaping the benefits of this achievement.
| one thousand nine hundred and sixty seven |
Which ball game was invented by Dr James Naismith in Massachusetts USA in 1891? | The Origins of "Sodomy" Laws in British Colonialism | HRW
The Origins of "Sodomy" Laws in British Colonialism
September 2, 2015
Condemn Official’s Anti-Gay Statements
I. Introduction
Three Trials
In 2008, a case stood unresolved before India's High Court, calling for reading down Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code. That provision, almost 150 years old, punishes "carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal" with imprisonment up to life. [1] This law, understood to criminalize consensual homosexual conduct, allows the state to invade the lives and intimacies of millions of adult Indians.
Five years earlier in the long-running case, India's Ministry of Home Affairs had submitted an affidavit supporting Section 377. It said: "The law does not run separately from society. It only reflects the perception of the society…. When Section 377 was brought under the statute as an act of criminality, it responded to the values and mores of the time in the Indian society." The ministry claimed that, by comparison to the United Kingdom and the United States of America, "Objectively speaking, there is no such tolerance to [the] practice of homosexuality/lesbianism in the Indian society." [2]
This was sheer amnesia. Section 377, at its origin, did not respond to Indian society or its "values or mores" at all. British colonial governors imposed it on India undemocratically. It reflected only "the British Judeo-Christian values of the time," as the petitioners in the case told the court in reply. [3] Indeed, on August 16, 2008-the sixty-first anniversary of India's freedom-the law's opponents marched in Mumbai and demanded the UK government "apologise for the immense suffering that has resulted from their imposition of Section 377. And we call on the Indian government to abandon this abhorrent alien legacy … that should have left our shores when the British did." [4] They chose the day because while "India had got its independence from the British on this date in 1947, queer Indians were still bound by a British Raj law." [5]
In a second case in the same month, in Malaysia, a court arraigned Anwar Ibrahim, former deputy prime minister and now a leader of the opposition. He stood charged with sexual relations with a male former aide, under Section 377 of Malaysia's penal code, which also criminalizes "carnal intercourse against the order of nature."
It was Anwar's second trial for what the Malaysian press universally called "sodomy." Like the first charges, nine years earlier, these showed every sign of a political frame-up. Anwar had been preparing to return to political life in a parliamentary by-election when the allegations broke. If Malaysia's government believed, as India's apparently did, that the colonial-era law mirrored deep social prejudices, then the case was a perfect tool to discredit him.
Yet according to an opinion poll, two-thirds of Malaysians thought politics lurked behind the charges, and only one-third believed the criminal-justice system could handle Anwar's case fairly. [6] Regardless of how Malaysians felt about homosexual conduct, they did not trust the government to administer the law. The state's handling of the evidence fed suspicions. Police had sent the man who filed the complaint to a hospital, for anal examinations designed to prove the charges: standard procedure in many countries. Embarrassingly, however, the tests-later leaked on the internet-apparently found no proof. The government vacillated, too, between charging Anwar with consensual and non-consensual "sodomy." The uncertainty came easy. The law had only relatively recently made a distinction between the two-and it still provided virtually identical punishments, regardless of consent.
A third case came in Uganda, where three members of an organization defending lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people's rights faced trial. They had staged a peaceful protest at an AIDS conference in Kampala, drawing attention to the government's refusal to respond to the pandemic among the country's lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities. Police promptly arrested them and charged them with criminal trespass.
Seemingly the case had nothing to do with "sodomy" or sex, but over it hung the shadow of Uganda's law punishing "carnal knowledge against the order of nature." That law, Section 140 of the criminal code, was also a British colonial inheritance, though in 1990 legislators had strengthened it, raising the highest penalty to life imprisonment. The government used the revised law to harass both individuals and activists who were lesbian or gay, censoring their speech, threatening them with prison, raiding their homes. Officials also relied on the law to explain, or excuse, their failure to support HIV/AIDS prevention efforts among LGBT people-the inaction that sparked the protest. Four years earlier, the Minister of Information had demanded that both the United Nations and national AIDS authorities shut out all LGBT people from HIV/AIDS programs and planning. He cited the law against homosexual conduct. [7] A spokesman for the Uganda AIDS Commission, the central national clearinghouse for prevention and treatment, conceded in 2006: "There's no mention of gays and lesbians in the national strategic framework, because the practice of homosexuality is illegal." [8]
There was no doubt, then, that the "trespass" charges against the protesters aimed not just to suppress dissent, but to send a message that some people-"sodomites," violators of the "carnal knowledge" law-should not be seen or heard in public at all. President Yoweri Museveni, who had campaigned against LGBT people's rights for a decade, reinforced that message at every opportunity. He called homosexuality "a decadent culture … being passed by Western nations," warning: "It is a danger not only to the [Christian] believers but to the whole of Africa." [9] He praised Ugandans for "rejecting" it, and claimed that "having spinsters and bachelors was quite alien to Ugandan traditions." [10]
The law primed the whole populace to help extirpate the "danger." For instance, one influential pastor-famous for his campaigns against condom use-urged that "Homosexuals should absolutely not be included in Uganda's HIV/AIDS framework. It is a crime, and when you are trying to stamp out a crime you don't include it in your programmes." [11] The same minister listed Ugandan LGBT rights activists by name on a website, posting pictures and addresses of the "homosexual promoters"-making them bullseyes for brute vengeance. The atmosphere crackled with explosive menace. Hundreds marched in 2007 to threaten punishment for LGBT people, calling them "criminal" and "against the laws of nature." [12] Yet government ministers still warned that tougher anti-gay measures were needed. "Satan," one said, "is having an upper hand in our country." [13]
Colonial Laws and Contemporary Defenders
More than 80 countries around the world still criminalize consensual homosexual conduct between adult men, and often between adult women. [14]
These laws invade privacy and create inequality. They relegate people to inferior status because of how they look or who they love. They degrade people's dignity by declaring their most intimate feelings "unnatural" or illegal. They can be used to discredit enemies and destroy careers and lives. They promote violence and give it impunity. They hand police and others the power to arrest, blackmail, and abuse. They drive people underground to live in invisibility and fear. [15]
More than half those countries have these laws because they once were British colonies.
This report describes the strange afterlife of a colonial legacy. It will tell how one British law-the version of Section 377 the colonizers introduced into the Indian Penal Code in 1860-spread across immense tracts of the British Empire.
Colonial legislators and jurists introduced such laws, with no debates or "cultural consultations," to support colonial control. They believed laws could inculcate European morality into resistant masses. They brought in the legislation, in fact, because they thought "native" cultures did not punish"perverse" sex enough. The colonized needed compulsory re-education in sexual mores. Imperial rulers held that, as long as they sweltered through the promiscuous proximities of settler societies, "native" viciousness and "white" virtue had to be segregated: the latter praised and protected, the former policed and kept subjected.
Section 377 was, and is, a model law in more ways than one. It was a colonial attempt to set standards of behavior, both to reform the colonized and to protect the colonizers against moral lapses. It was also the first colonial "sodomy law" integrated into a penal code-and it became a model anti-sodomy law for countries far beyond India, Malaysia, and Uganda. Its influence stretched across Asia, the Pacific islands, and Africa, almost everywhere the British imperial flag flew.
In Asia and the Pacific, colonies and countries that inherited versions of that British law were: Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei, Fiji, Hong Kong, India, Kiribati, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Myanmar (Burma), Nauru, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Western Samoa.
In Africa, countries that inherited versions were: Botswana, Gambia, Ghana [16] , Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Nigeria, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Swaziland, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. [17]
Among these, only New Zealand (in 1986), Australia (state by state and territory by territory), Hong Kong (in 1990, before the colony was returned to China), and Fiji (by a 2005 high court decision) have put the legacy, and the sodomy law, behind them.
Other colonial powers had far less impact in spreading so-called sodomy laws. France decriminalized consensual homosexual conduct in 1791. [18] (It did, however, impose sodomy laws on some French colonies as means of social control, and versions of these survive in countries such as Benin, Cameroon, and Senegal.) Germany's notorious Paragraph 175 punished homosexual acts between men from Bismarck's time till after the Nazi period. [19] German colonies were few, however, and the legal traces of its presence evanescent. [20]
This report does not pretend to be a comprehensive review of "sodomy" and European colonial law. It concentrates on the British experience because of the breadth and endurance of its impact. Nor does this report try to look at the career of "sodomy" and law in all the British colonies. For clarity, it focuses on the descendants of India's Section 377. (Britain's Caribbean possessions received the criminalization of "buggery" in British law, but by a different process relatively unaffected by the Indian example. They are not discussed here. [21] )
As Britain tottered toward the terminal days of its imperial power, an official recommendation by a set of legal experts-the famous Wolfenden Report of 1957-urged that "homosexual behaviour between consenting adults in private should no longer be a criminal offence." The report said:
The law's function is to preserve public order and decency, to protect the citizen from what is offensive or injurious, and to provide sufficient safeguards against exploitation and corruption of others ... It is not, in our view, the function of the law to intervene in the private life of citizens, or to seek to enforce any particular pattern of behaviour. [22]
England and Wales decriminalized most consensual homosexual conduct in 1967. [23] That came too late for most of Britain's colonies, though. When they won independence in the 1950s and 1960s, they did so with the sodomy laws still in place.
Few of those independent states have undertaken repeal since then. This flies in the face of a growing body of international human rights law and precedents demanding that they do so. They disregard, too, the example of formerly colonized states like Ecuador, Fiji, and South Africa that have actually enshrined protections for equality based on sexual orientation in their constitutions.
Still more striking is how judges, public figures, and political leaders have, in recent decades, defended those laws as citadels of nationhood and cultural authenticity. Homosexuality, they now claim, comes from the colonizing West. They forget the West brought in the first laws enabling governments to forbid and repress it.
Addressing the sodomy law in 1983, India's Supreme Court proudly declared that "neither the notions of permissive society nor the fact that in some countries homosexuality has ceased to be an offence has influenced our thinking." [24] Courts there have deliberately distanced themselves from conclusions like those of the Wolfenden report, finding-in the ultimate paradox-that England now embodies the sexual decadence against which India must be defended. "Various fundamental differences in both the societies [England and India] must be realised by all concerned, especially in the area of sexual offences," one judge held. [25]
Opponents of change have mounted the same argument elsewhere. While Hong Kong was still a British colony, its authorities fought Wolfenden-like law reforms. [26] Commissions deputed to investigate the issue heard opinions such as "Homosexuality may be very common in Britain, but it is definitely not common in Hong Kong. Even if it is, it is still wrong to legalize activities that are in clear breach of our morals." [27] Only in 1990, after long advocacy by the LGBT community, did the colony decriminalize consensual homosexual sex. [28]
After fiery debate, Singapore's government refused to rid itself of its colonial law against homosexual conduct in 2007. The supporters of this position cited the "communal cohesiveness" that the British statute supposedly defended. [29] A petition to the prime minister called the law, forced on the colony decades before, "a reflection of the sentiments of the majority of society. … Repealing [it] is a vehicle to force homosexuality on a conservative population that is not ready for homosexuality." [30] In November 2001, the then prime minister of neighboring Malaysia, who had encouraged Anwar Ibrahim's first "sodomy" trial, blamed homosexuality on the former colonial power: "The British people accept homosexual [government] ministers," he said. "But if they ever come here bringing their boyfriend along, we will throw them out. We will not accept them." [31]
Extreme and extraordinary, however, have been the law's defenses from sub-Saharan Africa. Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe launched the long ferocity in the early 1990s, vilifying lesbians and gays as "un-African" and "worse than dogs and pigs." "We are against this homosexuality and we as chiefs in Zimbabwe should fight against such Western practices and respect our culture," he berated crowds. [32] President Daniel Arap Moi of Kenya blasted homosexuality as "against African tradition and biblical teachings. We will not shy away from warning Kenyans against the dangers of the scourge." [33] In Zambia, a government spokesman proclaimed in 1998 that it was "un-African and an abomination to society which would cause moral decay"; the vice-president warned that "if anybody promotes gay rights after this statement the law will take its course. We need to protect public morality." [34]
Some reasoned voices spoke up. Nelson Mandela, steering a country proud of its human rights reforms, told a gathering of southern African leaders that homosexuality was not "un-African," but "just another form of sexuality that has been suppressed for years … Homosexuality is something we are living with." [35] Over the years, though, the desperate defense of Western mores in indigenous clothing grew more enraged, and influential. Nigeria's President Olusegun Obasanjo perorated to African Bishops in 2004 that "homosexual practice" was "clearly un-Biblical, unnatural, and definitely un-African." A Nigerian columnist echoed him, claiming those who "come in the garb of human rights advocates" are "rationalizing and glamourising sexual perversion, alias homosexuality and lesbianism … The urgent task now is to put up the barricades against this invading army of cultural and moral renegades before they overwhelm us." [36]
From Singapore to Nigeria, much of this fierce opposition stemmed from Christian churches-themselves, of course, hardly homegrown in their origins. Archbishop Peter Akinola, head of the Anglican Church of Nigeria, has threatened to split his global denomination over some Western churches' acceptance of lesbians and gays. He acknowledges that the missionaries who converted much of Africa in colonial days "hardly saw anything valid in our culture, in our way of life." [37] Yet he also interprets the most stringent moral anathemas of the missionaries' faith, along with an imported law against homosexuality, as essential bulwarks of true African identity.
But the embrace of an alien legal legacy is founded on falsehood. This report documents how it damages lives and distorts the truth. Sodomy laws throughout Asia and sub-Saharan Africa have consistently been colonial impositions. No "native" ever participated in their making. Colonizers saw indigenous cultures as sexually corrupt. A bent toward homosexuality supposedly formed part of their corruption. Where precolonial peoples had been permissive, sodomy laws would cure them-and defend their new, white masters against moral contagion.
Chapter IIof this report traces the history of Britain's law on "sodomy," or "buggery," from its medieval origins to the nineteenth-century attempt to rationalize the chaos of common law. The draft Indian Penal Code, the first experiment in producing a criminal code anywhere in the Empire, was a test of how systematizing law would work. Colonial officials codified sodomy as a criminal offense-and refined its meaning-in the process of writing comprehensive codes. This began in India, and traveled from Nigeria to the Pacific in the imperial bureaucrat's baggage.
Chapter IIIshows how the sodomy provisions connected to other laws and practices that strengthened the colonial state's authority: laws that marked out whole populations as "criminal," and medical practices that marked off some bodies as intrinsically, physiologically perverse. Both assumed that laws should not just punish specific sexual acts, but help control certain types of dangerous persons. [38]
Chapter IVtraces how courts, under colonialism and in the newly independent states, interpreted the vague language laid down in the colonial codes. Three themes emerge.
First, judges tried to bring an ever wider range of sexual acts within the laws' punitive reach: descending, while doing it, into almost-comical obsessions with orifice and organ, desire and detail.
Second, the sodomy laws almost universally made no distinction on the basis of consent, or the age of the partners. The horror lawmakers and judges felt for homosexual conduct simply obliterated these issues. The "homosexual" therefore emerged before the law deeply tarnished by the association with pedophilia and rape-as a sexual monster.
Finally, British provisions on "gross indecency" gave police opportunities to arrest people on the basis of suspicion or appearance. And they were an opening for governments looking to criminalize sex between women as well.
Chapter Vconcludes by looking at the actual effects of sodomy laws in these countries. They do not aim just at punishing acts. They post broad moral proclamations that certain kinds of people, singled out by presumption and prejudice, are less than citizens-or less than human.
Eliminating these laws is a human rights obligation. It means freeing part of the population from violence and fear. It also means, though, emancipating post-colonial legal systems themselves from imported, autocratically imposed, and artificial inequalities.
II. "Sodomy," Colonialism, and Codification
The laws that the Europeans brought dragged a long prehistory behind them. The first recorded mentions of "sodomy" in English law date back to two medieval treatises called Fleta and Britton. They suggest how strictures on sex were connected to Christian Europe's other consuming anxieties. [39]
Fleta required that "Apostate Christians, sorcerers, and the like should be drawn and burnt. Those who have connections with Jews and Jewesses or are guilty of bestiality or sodomy shall be buried alive in the ground, provided they be taken in the act and convicted by lawful and open testimony." Britton, meanwhile, ordered a sentence of burning upon"sorcerers, sorceresses, renegades, sodomists, and heretics publicly convicted." [40] Both treatises saw "sodomy" as an offense against God. They classed it, though, with other offenses against ritual and social purity, involving defilement by Jews or apostates, the racial or religious Other.
The grab-bag of crimes was telling. It matched medieval law's treatment of "sodomy" elsewhere in Europe. The offense was not limited to sexual acts between men, but could include almost any sexual act seen as polluting. In some places it encompassed intercourse with Turks and "Saracens" as well as Jews. [41]
In part, this traced to an old strain in Christian theology that held sexual pleasure itself to be contaminating, tolerable only to the degree that it furthered reproduction (specifically, of Christians). [42] More cogently, though, it reflected increasing fears in the advancing Middle Ages about pollution and defilement across social boundaries. The historian R.I. Moore finds in the eleventh and twelfth centuries the birth of a "persecuting society" in Europe, targeting various enemies within-Jews, lepers, heretics, witches, prostitutes, and "sodomites"-who threatened purity and carried contamination, and had to be cast out and controlled. [43] Periodic bursts of repression against these and other groups characterized European law for centuries to follow. "Sodomy" was pollution. Punishing it marked out racial and religious identity. The urgency British authorities later showed in transplanting "sodomy" laws into colonial contexts-even before they were fully codified at home-may reflect the legal category's origins. It was a way of segregating the Christian, European self from alien entities that menaced it with infection.
In England, King Henry VIII's break with the Catholic Church in the sixteenth century led to revising much of the country's common law-simply because offenses that had formerly been tried in church courts now had to be heard in secular ones. Many sexual offenses were among them. A 1533 statute, therefore, reiterated the criminalization of "sodomy" as a state rather than Church concern. Under the name of the "detestable and abominable Vice of Buggery committed with mankind or beast," it was punished by death. [44] In one form or another, this law persisted until 1861. The last known execution for "buggery" in England was in 1836. [45]
The sense of the mysterious, polluting power of "sodomy" or "buggery" complicated the prosaic legal task of coming up with definitions. Precision was dangerous because it flirted with contamination. The jurist Edward Coke, in his seventeenth-century compilation of English law, wrote that "Buggery is a detestable, and abominable sin, amongst Christians not to be named." He stressed the foreign derivation of the term-"an Italian word"-as well as the act itself: "It was complained of in Parliament, that the Lumbards had brought into the realm the shamefull sin of sodomy, that is not to be named." He nonetheless named it as acts "committed by carnal knowledge against the ordinance of the Creator, and order of nature, by mankind with mankind, or with brute beast, or by womankind with brute beast." [46] Coke specified that anal sex between two men or a man and a woman, along with bestiality, were comprised by the term.
Describing "sodomy" precisely was risky, to be avoided. In an 1842 British court case that involved a man accused of committing "nasty, wicked, filthy, lewd, beastly, unnatural and sodomitical practices" in the vicinity of Kensington Gardens, the defense objected that the adjectives gave no indication of what the crime actually was. [47] The vagueness became more an issue as, in the nineteenth century, reformers set about codifying and imposing order on the chaos of British common law and statute law. The Offences Against the Person Act in 1861 consolidated the bulk of laws on physical offences and acts of violence into one "modern," streamlined statute-still the basis for most British law of physical assault. It included the offense of (consensual and nonviolent) "buggery," dropping the death penalty for a prison term of ten years to life.
Less well known is that codifying sexual offenses began far earlier, in 1825, when the mandate to devise law for the Indian colony was handed to the politician and historian Thomas Babington Macaulay. Macaulay chaired the first Law Commission of India and was the main drafter of the Indian Penal Code-the first comprehensive codified criminal law produced anywhere in the British Empire. [48]
The colonial environment was the perfect field for experiments in rationalizing and systematizing law. The colonies were passive laboratories. A nineteenth-century historian observed that the Indian Penal Code was a success because there, unlike at home, the British government could express "a distinct collective will" and could "carry it out without being hampered by popular discussion." [49] This autocratic imposition of a unified code took advantage of the "absence of a developed and contentious Indian public opinion around questions of criminal law," allowing Macaulay a "free field for experimentation." [50]
Fears of moral infection from the "native" environment made it urgent to insert anti-sodomy provisions in the colonial code. A sub-tradition of British imperialist writing warned of widespread homosexuality in the countries Britain colonized. The explorer Richard Burton, for instance, postulated a "Sotadic Zone" stretching around the planet's midriff from 43 degrees north of the equator to 30 south, in which "the Vice is popular and endemic …. whilst the races to the North and South of the limits here defined practice it only sporadically amid the opprobrium of their fellows." [51]
The European codifiers certainly felt the mission of moral reform-to correct and Christianize "native" custom. Yet there was also the need to protect the Christians from corruption. Historians have documented how British officials feared that soldiers and colonial administrators-particularly those without wives at hand-would turn to sodomy in these decadent, hot surroundings. Lord Elgin, viceroy of India, warned that British military camps could become "replicas of Sodom and Gomorrah" as soldiers acquired the "special Oriental vices." [52]
Macaulay finished a draft Indian Penal Code in 1837, though Indian resistance and English hesitation meant that an approved version did not come into force until 1860. Introducing the text in an 1837 speech, he discussed the clauses in detail-except when, reaching his version of the anti-sodomy provision, he showed a traditional discomfort that drafters had to speak to such distasteful issues:
Clause 361 and 362 relate to an odious class of offences respecting which it is desirable that as little as possible should be said … [We] are unwilling to insert, either in the text or in the notes, anything which could give rise to public discussion on this revolting subject; as we are decidedly of opinion that the injury which would be done to the morals of the community by such discussion would far more than compensate for any benefits which might be derived from legislative measures framed with the greatest precision. [53]
Despite this, however, Macaulay tried in fact to rationalize the British offense of "buggery." All the old vagueness around the term called out for clarification, and the colonies were the place to put this into practice. Macaulay came up with a broader definition of the violation of the "order of nature," involving any kind of offending "touch." But he introduced a new axis of classification, according to whether the act was consensual or not-something never relevant in the old crime of "buggery." He chose to impose fresh language on India. Two clauses pertained to "Unnatural Offences," distinguished by the element of consent:
Cl. 361 Whoever, intending to gratify unnatural lust, touches, for that purpose, any person, or any animal, or is by his own consenttouched by any person, for the purpose of gratifying unnatural lust, shall be punished with imprisonment … for a term which may extend to fourteen years and must not be less than two years, and shall also be liable to fine.
Cl. 362 Whoever, intending to gratify unnatural lust, touches for that purpose any person without that person's free and intelligent consent, shall be punished with imprisonment … for a term which may extend to life and must not be less than seven years, and shall also be liable to fine. [emphasis added]
The "injunction to silence" [54] that Coke and other jurists had promoted around the vocabulary of "sodomy" continued to be powerful, however. When the final draft of the Indian Penal Code came into force in 1860, the "Unnatural Offences" section was modified. The ultimate, historic text-which, in one form or another, influenced or infested much of the British Empire-read:
Section 377: Unnatural offences – Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any man, woman or animal shall be punished with imprisonment for life, or with imprisonment … for a term which may extend to 10 years, and shall be liable to fine.
Explanation – Penetration is sufficient to constitute the carnal intercourse necessary to the offence described in this Section.
The reasons for the change remain unclear, but its effects are evident. On the one hand, this version went back to the outlines of the old standard of "buggery," replacing the reference to "touching" with the criterion of "penetration." There were still plenty of ambiguities (including the question of what had to penetrate what). These in turn let future colonial and post-colonial jurists redefine what these provisions actually punished.
On the other hand, the attempt to organize the offense around the axis of consent/non-consent was dropped. In principle, stipulating that the act had to be "voluntary" meant the victim of forcible "carnal intercourse" could not be criminalized. But the other actor received the same punishment, and was guilty of the same offense, whether the act was forcible or not. Despite the code's modern pretensions, the provision offered no differing standard of harm based on the use of force.
Thus the separate Penal Code provision addressing rape (Section 375) remained restricted to a man's rape of a woman. No distinct criminal offense was entailed in a man's sexual assault on another man; it was simply lumped with consensual offenses in Section 377. Section 377 also had no separate provision or protection prohibiting an adult male from having sexual relations with a male child. That offense, too, was contained in 377 without distinction. [55]
As a result, India-along with other countries from Zambia to Fiji with legal systems affected by the Indian Penal Code-was left without laws fully covering rape or child protection. To the drafters, the act of "sodomy" itself was so horrible that the harm seemed uniform: regardless of the other party's age, and regardless of whether he consented or not. Section 377 appeared in a Penal Code section on "Offenses Affecting the Human Body." The fiction that "carnal knowledge against the order of nature" violated one's own physical integrity, even if consented to, seems to have been powerful. (As the next chapter notes, it found fodder in medical myths that supposed the "habitual" sodomite prone to literal physical deformation).
Section 377 was exported to, and modified in other British colonies, and reinterpreted by their courts. Two themes emerge. They show again how colonial law was a field for exploring the meaning of an old British standard.
oBy defining "carnal knowledge" in terms of penetration, the Indian Penal Code language limited the act and left open the possibility that only the penetrating party might be guilty. As the law was applied in British colonies in subsequent years, one project was to redefine the scope of "penetration"-and ensure the provision would criminalize as broad a range of acts, and partners, "against the order of nature" as possible.
oThe absence of the factors of age or of consent in the law meant that consensual homosexual conduct was legally indistinguishable from rape or pedophilia. Thus the figure of the "homosexual" could easily be linked and assimilated-in popular thinking as well as before the law-to violent sexual criminals.
Finally, the "modernization" of British law in the Indian Penal Code was almost immediately exported back to Britain itself. The 1861 Offences against the Person Act dropped the death penalty for the "abominable crime of buggery," imposing a sentence modeled on that in the IPC. [56]
British law at home underwent a further refinement in 1885, during a revision of laws on the "protection of women, girls [and] the suppression of brothels." Henry Labouchere, a member of Parliament, introduced an amendment so unrelated to the debate that it was almost ruled out of order. When finally passed, it punished "Any male person who in public or private commits or is a party to the commission of or procures or attempts to procure the commission by any male person of any act of gross indecency with another male person," with two years at hard labor. "Gross indecency" was a broad offence designed to include virtually all kinds of non-penetrative sexual acts between two men. Unlike the 1861 "buggery" law, the Labouchere Amendment also explicitly extended to private acts. The press quickly dubbed it the "blackmailer's charter." Oscar Wilde was convicted under its terms in 1895. [57]
Labouchere's law acknowledged that two men could practice many other sexual acts than "sodomy." A society ambitious to extirpate such acts needed an express acknowledgement of its power over privacy, and a wider criminal framework to punish them.
Labouchere's provision came too late to be introduced in the Indian Penal Code itself. However, subsequent colonial codes incorporated versions of it, including codes that derived from the IPC. It appeared in the Sudanese Penal Code in 1899, and in the influential penal law of Queensland in the same year. Malaysia and Singapore received the gross indecency provision jointly through an amendment in 1938. [58] Moreover, as explained below, subsequent jurisprudence in India (particularly the Khanu judgment) expanded the scope of "unnatural offences" to include what would otherwise have been "gross indecency" under British law. Further, though Labouchere's innovation only spoke of male-male sex, some governments have made "gross indecency" apply to sex between women-by dropping the "male" before "person" (as detailed below in chapter IV).
The Indian Penal Code became the model for British colonies' legal systems throughout most of Asia and Africa. Each territory took over the newest version, one legal historian writes, "improving and bringing them up to date, and the resulting product [was] then used as the latest model for an enactment elsewhere." [59] The Straits Settlement Law of in 1871, covering territory that today encompasses Singapore, Malaysia, and Brunei, effectively duplicated the IPC. [60] Between 1897 and 1902 administrators applied the Indian Penal Code in Britain's African colonies, including Kenya and Uganda. [61] Some British residents complained about the undemocratic character of the codes. British East Africans, for instance, protested a policy of placing "white men under laws intended for a coloured population despotically governed." [62]
The Sudanese Penal Code of 1899 also adapted the IPC, but shows a different strain in codifying "unnatural offences." It reintroduced, uniquely among British colonies, the axis of consent and a form of differentiation by age. Its version of Section 377 reads:
S. 318 Whoever has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with any person without his consent, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to fourteen years and shall also be liable to fine; provided that a consent given by a person below the age of sixteen years to such intercourse by his teacher, guardian or any person entrusted with his care or education shall not be deemed to be a consent within the meaning of this section [emphasis added]. [63]
Similarly, while the Sudanese code adopted the "gross indecency" provision, it only punished it when non-consensual. [64] These distinctions were lost after independence, however, when in 1991 Sudan's government imposed a shari'a-inspired penal code. [65]
The Penal Code of the Australian colony of Queensland (QPC) was drafted in 1899 by the colony's chief justice, Sir Samuel Griffith. [66] It came into force in 1901 and was the second most influential penal code after the IPC, especially in British Africa. The QPC introduced into the IPC's version of "unnatural offences" the category of the "passive" sexual partner-the one who "permits." Section 208 read:
Any person who –
(a) has carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature; or
(b) has carnal knowledge of an animal; or
(c) permits a male person to have carnal knowledge of him or her against the order of nature, is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for fourteen years [emphasis added].
This eliminated one of the ambiguities in the IPC, making clear that both partners in the act were criminal. The QPC also widened the ambit beyond "penetration," by introducing an independent provision for "attempts to commit unnatural offences." [67] Thus any sexual act or approach not resulting in penetration could be called an "attempt."
Outside Australia, the QPC first took root in Papua New Guinea. The chief justice of Northern Nigeria, H.C. Gollan, then decided to adopt it as the model for his colony's penal code, which came into force in 1904. It then became the subject of bureaucratic battles between colonial administrators; officials in Southern Nigeria were divided between proponents of the QPC and supporters of the Indian Penal Code. [68] The former finally won out. In 1916, two years after Nigeria combined into a single colony, a common criminal code based on the QPC was adopted. [69]
That process reveals a point. Despite the claims of modern political leaders that anti-sodomy laws represent the values of their independent nations, the Queensland Penal Code spread across Africa indifferently to the will of Africans.
The whims, preferences, and power struggles of bureaucrats drove it. After the Criminal Code of Nigeria was imposed, colonial officials in East Africa-modern Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania-moved gradually to imitate it. A legal historian observes that the "personal views and prejudices" of colonial officials, rather than any logic or respect for indigenous customs, led to replacing IPC-based codes with QPC-based codes in much of the continent. [70]
The versions of "unnatural offences" that spread with the QPC now encompassed a variety of acts: they punished a passive partner in sodomy, attempts at sodomy, and also "gross indecency." For instance, Uganda's Penal Code provided that:
S. 140: Any person who (a) has carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature; or (b) has carnal knowledge of an animal; or(c) permits a male person to have carnal knowledge of him or her against the order of nature, is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for fourteen years.
S. 141 Any person who attempts to commit any of the offences specified in the last preceding section is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for seven years.
S.143 Any male person who, whether in public or private, commits any act of gross indecency with another male person, or procures another male person to commit any act of gross indecency with him, or attempts to procure the commission of any such act by any male person with himself or with another male person, whether in public or private, is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for five years.
Nigeria did offer variations from the trend. Its version narrowed "carnal knowledge" to exempt sex between "a husband and wife," making clearer what it understood by the "order of nature." [71] The law zeroed in toward its primary focus on sex between men. [72]
Three generalizations arise from the confused history of "carnal knowledge" in colonial penal codes.
The anti-sodomy provisions that contemporary politicians defend as part of indigenous values never drew on local customary law, nor were they drafted through a deliberative process. Colonial officers devised and imposed them. They saw the sex laws as necessary precisely because they viewed local cultures as lax, a haven for "unnatural offenses."
Colonial authorities continuously grappled with terms and definitions, trying to arrive at both adequate language and common understandings around "unnatural offences." But they did so under the shadow of a moral anxiety about the effects of debate, an injunction to silence that helped justify autocratic lawmaking with no discussion among the "subject" peoples.
Redefinition tended to widen the scope of the law-and to criminalize not just sexual acts, but a kind of person.
III. Colonial Power on the Street and over the Body
Why was criminalizing consensual homosexual conduct important to the colonial, and post-colonial, state?
No single explanation can describe what happened-what is still happening-in places as distant and different as Zambia and Singapore. One hint, though, lies in the other laws and practices colonizers imported along with anti-sodomy provisions. Those provisions were part of a package, one that extended the "civilizing," reforming mission-and the power and the knowledge-of the still-tenuous colonial apparatus over both broader and more intimate areas of life. The state rigidly policed the public sphere and people's bodies. Many of its mechanisms are still working.
From "Vagrant" to "Eunuch"
Vagrancy laws target people whom officials see as wandering or loitering with no purpose. Beyond that, though, they help to rid the public sphere of people not wanted there: to "alleviate a condition defined by the lawmakers as undesirable," as one commentator observes. [73] They do not require a "proscribed action or inaction," another writes, but depend on a "certain personal condition or being a person of a specified character." [74] They make people criminals for what they are, not what they do. And not every "wanderer" qualifies as a target. Enforcement usually aims selectively at despised groups such as migrant laborers, the poor, the homeless, beggars, travelers, or street children. [75]
In Europe for centuries, legal and administrative measures controlling "vagrancy" criminalized poverty, to keep it and the effects of economic dislocation out of sight. [76] Brutal laws in England had been a fixture at least since the Tudor period, when enclosures and privatizing common land had caused vast increases in the numbers of homeless, drifting poor. A 1572 act required "Rogues, Vagabonds, or sturdy Beggars" to "be grievously whipped, and burnt through the gristle of the right Ear with a hot Iron." [77] The United Kingdom's 1824 Vagrancy Act systematized both classification and punishment of undesirables for a bourgeois age. Anyone begging or sleeping out, as well as appearing to engage in prostitution or acts associated with a "disreputable mode of life," could be convicted as "idle and disorderly" and sentenced to two weeks' hard labor. Multiple convictions, or conspicuous poverty, led one to be classed as a "rogue and vagabond" or, worse, an "incorrigible rogue," in a descending ladder of permanent legal stigma. [78] This breadth and sweep of preemptive classification remained a feature of vagrancy laws into the twenty-firstcentury. (In California, for instance, a 1950s legal change revised the former common-law definition of a vagrant as "a wanderer from the place where he worked," to one where any "idle, or lewd or dissolute person" could be classed as vagrant. [79] )
The 1824 law was a model for equally broad criminalization of "vagrancy" throughout British colonies. The Bengal Vagrancy Act and the Bombay Beggary Prevention Act are classic examples. Most such colonial-era laws used the same tripartite distinction between "idle and disorderly persons," repeat offenders who are "rogues and vagabonds," and "incorrigible rogues"; many laws heightened punishments over their British forebear. And most of these laws still remain in effect. Zambia's Penal Code, for example, makes any "idle or disorderly person" (including "every person who, without lawful excuse, publicly does any indecent act") liable to a month in prison; a repeat conviction can cause one to "be deemed a rogue and vagabond" with a far steeper sentence. These categories give the government wide latitude to control public expression (Section 27 of the 1906 public nuisance law in Singapore includes under "rogues and vagabonds" people who show "any obscene print, picture or other indecent exhibition") as well as almost any other conduct in public. (In Zambia, "rogues and vagabonds" include "every person found wandering … in any public place at such time and under such circumstances as lead to the conclusion that such person is there for an illegal or disorderly purpose." [80] )
In the colonies, these laws both served the "civilizing mission" and gave police enough power to punish almost any behavior, or people, they wanted. Sexual conduct-or sexualized identities-were among those singled out. The 1899 Sudanese Penal Code is an instructive instance. As noted earlier, this code, unique among British colonial laws, did not punish consensual sodomy. It compensated, however, by creating a new identity within the "habitual vagabond": the "catamite." (The Northern Nigeria code also followed this example). The code listed seven types of "vagabonds," one of them the "catamite," defined as a "any male person who 1) dresses or is attired in the fashion of a woman in a public place or 2) practises sodomy as a means of livelihood or as a profession." [81]
A person's clothing became not only criminal in itself, but potentially the sign of a criminal sexual history. One legal commentator clarified that "catamite" meant a "habitual" practitioner of sodomy, adding that "it is not necessary to prove when and where any individual act of this nature occurred." [82] Beyond the person's appearance, no evidence was needed for his (or her) arrest and jailing.
In Europe, vagrancy laws targeted the poor, but rarely had an explicitly racial side. [83] In the colonies, everything was racial. These laws regulated the movements, and controlled the conduct, of the non-white population. In British India, moreover, legislation notoriously marked out whole tribal (and other) groups as intrinsically, unchangeably criminal. The Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 in India, inspired by vagrancy laws, defined certain tribal communities collectively as dacoits, thieves, and undesirables. These provisions are a high-water mark in European legal racism. "Nomadic tribes are invariably addicted to crime," one administrator wrote. [84] To be born in a community that was listed as a criminal tribe put one under permanent legal disability. All members of criminal tribes had to register individually with the authorities; non-registration could lead to prosecution. Once registered, the tribe member's movements were restricted to authorized areas, and she or he could be arrested if found outside them-or even inside them, if discovered in suspicious circumstances-with a penalty up to three years in prison. [85]
British authorities associated nomadism not only with crime but with sexual immorality. The criminal tribes "implied absolute licentiousness" to the colonizers, one historian notes. [86] A British administrator's 1914 study monotonously repeats its judgments on one ethnic group after another: "The women of the tribe are notoriously immoral"; "Nearly all the girls of the tribe are reserved for prostitution"; "Immorality is very prevalent"; "The women, from their vagrant life, naturally bear an indifferent character. … Girls have considerable liberty before marriage, and lapses from virtue on their part are not seriously dealt with"; "Their women are all prostitutes." [87]
Along these moralizing lines, authorities amended the Act in 1897 expressly to include "eunuchs" as a notified group. A eunuch was "deemed to include all members of the male sex who admit themselves, or upon medical inspection clearly appear, to be impotent." In practice, this meant India's hijras, presumed to be sexually immoral and guilty of "sodomy." [88]
Hijras-possibly derived from the Urdu word ezra meaning a nomad or wanderer-form a large community of people in India who, born male, live their lives as female or third-gender. In many traditional Indian cultures they had a defined and permitted social niche. [89] Under the statute, though, any "eunuch" who appeared"dressed or ornamented like a woman in a public street … or who dances or plays music or takes part in any public exhibition, in a public street" could be arrested without warrant and imprisoned for up to two years. The law denied eunuchs legal personhood, including the rights to draw up a will or to adopt children. Local authorities had to keep a register of all eunuchs "reasonably suspected" of "committing offences under Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code." [90]
The British considered hijra communities in India a "distasteful nuisance." [91] Colonial authorities obstructed their traditional rights, including rights to land and money they owned, in villages across India. [92] Anti-begging provisions in vagrancy laws, such as those in the Bombay and Bengal Presidencies, also criminalized the customary social niche of hijras as mendicants. The 1897 amendment-subtitled "An Act for the Registration of Criminal Tribes and Eunuchs"-linked "eunuch" identity to Section 377. It showed how the vagrancy and sodomy provisions stemmed from the same motive: to place not just behaviors, but classes of people, under surveillance and control. Colonial vagrancy laws ultimately made the "personal condition" of being a hijra a criminal offence. One Indian human rights organization observes that
The sexual non-conformity of the eunuch thus earned severe strictures and penalties from the colonial administration. Being a eunuch was itself a criminal enterprise, with surveillance being the everyday reality.… The role of the police in inflicting violence through and outside the law governed their lives as much as it governed the lives of the former criminal tribes. However … it is important to note that because of the stigmatized nature of their sexualities, the eunuchs never found a voice in nationalist or subaltern histories. [93]
The categories of the vagrant catamite and criminal eunuch allowed the state to arrest people on the presumption of sodomy, without proof of an actual act. Being, or looking like, a certain kind of person became the basis for harassment, arrest, detention, and abuse.
Forensic Mythologies
"Infundibuliform" means "funnel-shaped." An unusual word, it has been used to describe two things in particular-the shapes of certain flowers, and the anuses of "habitual sodomites." Colonial law, predictably, was more interested in the latter.
Its concern can be seen in one of the first reported cases under Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code to be appealed. In Queen-Empress v. Khairati [94] in 1884, the sessions judge convicted the anonymous hijra defendant (called only Khairati or beggar)under 377, on the charge "that he, within four months previously to the 15th of June (1883), the exact time it being impossible to state, did in the district of Moradabad abet the offence of sodomy, by allowing some unknown person to commit the offence of sodomy on his person." Khairati was called a "eunuch," as he "was found singing dressed as a woman among the women of a certain family."
The trial court stated that"he is shown to have the characteristic mark of a habitual catamite - the distortion of the orifice of the anus into the shape of a trumpet … which distinctly points to unnatural intercourse within the last few months." [95] Thus Khairati was not tried for any particular incident of sodomy: the only clue was clothing-substantiated by later medical examination. The lower court stated that "the three facts proved against the accused-his appearance as a woman, the misshapement [of the anus], the venereal disease-irresistibly lead to the conclusion that he has recently subjected himself to unnatural lust." The appeals court set aside the conviction because there was no specificity about the act: time, place, and identity of the "accomplice" were unknown. However, the judge called official attempts at "checking these disgusting practices … laudable." [96]
In Khairati, the first court took the forensic evidence as proof that sodomy definitely had happened at a prior time. Despite the appeals judge's demand for specificity, the authorities' "laudable" medical endeavors would continue-and would gain general acceptance as evidence.
The full impact of sodomy laws cannot be understood by looking at the legal offence alone. Evidentiary requirements to prove the offence of sodomy have helped to establish the state's authority over the suspect body, as well as to create the criminal identity of the homosexual.
All sexual offences give the state unusual power to undertake interventions directly into people's bodies: to determine the occurrence of the offence, to separate truth from false accusation, and often to establish the exact extent to which sexual interaction took place. Thus, for example, forensic medical experts must examine a rape victim-especially in common-law countries-to search for physical injuries or other signs of assault. Forensic doctors also helped establish regimes for the control of sex workers. The various nineteenth-century Contagious Diseases Acts enacted in Britain and throughout its colonies created the category of the "common" or habitual prostitute. Under those acts, women's bodies were subjected to brutal medical exams. A diagnosis of venereal disease was the equivalent of criminal conviction, and led to jailing. [97]
Forensic medicine in the Victorian era also invented elaborate, imaginary sets of signs to find the "habitual sodomite." As Michel Foucault wrote: "The nineteenth-century homosexual became a personage, a past, a case history, and a childhood … with an indiscreet anatomy and possibly a mysterious physiology." [98]
The French forensic doctor Auguste Ambroise Tardieu published his hugely influential treatise on identifying the prostitute and the "pederast" in 1857. Six infallible signs, he believed, marked out the latter: "the excessive development of the buttocks; the funnel-shaped deformation of the anus; the relaxation of the sphincter; the effacement of the folds, the crests, and the wattles at the circumference of the anus; the extreme dilation of the anal orifice; and ulcerations, hemorrhoids, fistules." [99] In Britain, Glaster's Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology followed Tardieu: in editions stretching into the twentieth century it proclaimed "an infundibuliform shape of the anus" as a confirmed sign of the passive sodomite. [100]
Human Rights Watch has documented examinations to detect such imaginary deformations, in countries from Egypt to Zimbabwe. They invade bodily privacy. Conducted without consent in carceral conditions, they are torture. The theories underlying them are medically worthless. Dr. Lorna Martin, professor of forensic pathology at the University of Cape Town, South Africa, told Human Rights Watch that Tardieu's theories are "bizarre and antiquated … rubbish." She added, "It is impossible to detect chronic anal penetration; the only time the [forensic anal] examination could be of any use is for acute non-consensual anal penetration, when certain injuries may be seen." [101] Nonetheless, the fact that they still take place suggests they are important not only for the medical mythology behind them, but because their component elements-the subject's humiliation, and the assertion of the government's power over his body-support, in a drastic and torturous way, the state's policing of sexuality.
Various Indian forensic-medical experts followed the writings of Tardieu and Glaster, adding new parameters based on their own understanding of the "difference" in sodomites's bodies. They claimed the "catamite" or "sodomite" as a scientifically separate manner of person, physically distinct. Ejaz Ahmed, for example, points to the "patulous state of the anus, and the destruction of the folded or puckered state of the skin in this part." [102] Narayan Reddy takes the notion of dilation further and provides a rough sphincterometer, requiring as proof an opening of "4 to 5 cm. in diameter through which rectum can be seen." [103] Another forensic expert moves beyond just the physical signs of penetration to the way the sodomite prepares his appearance. He lists "the shaving of the anal hair but not necessarily the pubic hair" as evidence to impugn a habitual, passive sodomite. [104]
These conjectures by forensic writers are not attempts to document single sexual acts, but to infer life histories and an identity. [105] In the colonial Indian case of D. P Minwalla v. Emperor the defendantused the un-infundibuliform, unmarked character of his anus to maintain he had an un-criminal past. Minwalla was caught in the act of anal sex with another man. To exonerate himself, he submitted to a medical examination to convince the court his anal orifice was not shaped like a funnel. The appeals court confirmed Minwalla's conviction but with a reduced sentence, mindful that the physical examination suggested this had been a momentary lapse rather than a habitual identity. [106]
Much as women's sexual histories can be manipulated to deny them protection in rape cases, the status of a "habitual sodomite" means, in effect, losing the right to refuse consent. [107] A 1981 case from independent Pakistan is illustrative. Pakistan inherited the Indian Penal Code and retains Section 377; in the 1970s, however, the government's program of Islamizing national law also introduced the offence of zina, which among other things punishes sex between men when coupled with abduction. [108] In Muhammad Din two men were charged with zina for raping another young man at a railway station in Lahore. The medical examination of the accuser, though, found his anus "moderately funnel shaped and he appeared to be a habitual passive agent." Based on this, the court threw out the victim's claim. The view that he willingly participated in sex "received support from the medical evidence that he appeared to be a habitual passive agent." The court thus refused to believe "that the complainant had been kidnapped or abducted for the purpose of subjecting him to unnatural lust." It dropped the charge of zina. [109]
IV. Interpreting Sodomy Laws: The Scope Expands
Forensic medical exams display the particularity to which the state descends when it tries to parse out the specifics and the evidence of sexual acts. The story of how courts in the colonial period and beyond interpreted the various versions of Section 377 also shows state authorities stuck in morasses of sexual detail. Together, they exhibit the logical gymnastics states get into in defining the line between permissible and punishable sexual acts-and trying to keep a rationale for the distinction.
One distinction that never mattered much, in "unnatural offences," was the axis of consent. Most of the surviving jurisprudence under colonialism and since independence (what reached the law reports were largely cases on appeal, undoubtedly representing only a fraction of convictions) deals with charges of non-consensual sodomy. Nearly universally-as one Zimbabwean legal expert writes-the fact that "an assault (possibly violent) has taken place is of secondary importance" to the court. [110] The law's silence on consent translates into judges' indifference to the victim. It also reaffirms that "the non-existence of a victim," where there was consent, is no hindrance to prosecution. [111]
This chapter will show:
First, investigating the details of sexual acts led to further expanding the scope of acts covered by Section 377. The law came to recognize broader categories of "sexual perversion," and while that extended into acts committed by heterosexual couples, the "sodomite" or "catamite" or "homosexual" was at the center of its meaning.
Second, Section 377's failure to distinguish consensual from non-consensual acts, or to offer separate protection to minors from abuse, led to identifying "homosexuality" with other violent sex crimes-intensifying the legal stigma.
Third, British law never punished sex between women-and hence British colonialism never imported criminal penalties for it. However, the breadth of the British "gross indecency" provision has given states an opening to penalize lesbians as well.
Jurisprudence: From "Crimes against Nature" to Communal Values
In 1930s India, police captured a young man called Ratansi while he and another man were trying to have sex. In court, Ratansi did not deny it. The furious judge called him a "despicable specimen of humanity," addicted to the "vice of a catamite" on his own admission. [112] It was not just the act in isolation that appalled the court: it was the contemptible class of person. Yet the judge could not punish the two accused: they were caught before they could finish the act. A gap yawned between his repulsion at the arrested men, and the evidentiary limits his understanding of the statute demanded. Conviction required penetration, and physical or other proof.
Much of the later jurisprudence around Section 377, in the many places where it was enforced, would try to close that gap: to re-draw the sexual map of "immorality" and cram a sufficiently wide range of acts within the criminal compass, so that no "despicable specimen of humanity" would be acquitted. What counted as "unnatural" and, as one commentator observes, "what counted as penetration continued to be an ongoing, arbitrary, and unsystematic discussion" across courts and countries. [113]
"Carnal intercourse against the order of nature" had never been precisely defined. One of the first Indian cases to reach the law reports on appeal, though, reflected what was probably the usual judicial understanding. The phrase meant anal sex, since "the act must be in that part where sodomy is usually committed." [114]
The 1925 Indian case of Khanu v. Emperor [115] took the first step toward redrawing the boundaries of Section 377. It became, for a long time, the guiding judgment on interpreting 377 through British colonies in South Asia, East Asia, and East Africa. The case involved forcible oral sex between an adult male and a minor. The non-consensual nature of the act played no role in the appeals decision. The only question that concerned the court was whether oral sex was an unnatural carnal offence under Section 377.
Khanu said yes. 377 was not limited to anal sex. [116] It cited two lines of reasoning.
The first defined the order of nature in sex as "the possibility of conception of human beings": oral sex was legally like anal sex in that it was not reproductive. The colonial court's complete divorce from the Indian context-its reliance on purely European traditions of sexual propriety, which conflated nature with procreation-could not have been clearer. Nor did the court consider that other forms of penetrative sex (for instance, using birth control) also foreclosed the "possibility of conception." [117]
The second line of thinking redefined penetration. The court defined "carnal intercourse" as
a temporary visitation to one organism by a member of the other organism, for certain clearly defined and limited objects. The primary object of the visiting organism is to obtain euphoria by means of a detente of the nerves consequent on the sexual crisis. But there is no intercourse unless the visiting member is enveloped at least partially by the visited organism, for intercourse connotes reciprocity. [118]
As long as there is an orifice (the mouth) to enclose the "visiting member," there can be carnal intercourse. When it cannot lead to procreation, there is an "unnatural offence." [119]
Khanu opened the way to bringing other acts under the scope of Section 377. For example, a 1961 case from East Pakistan(present-day Bangladesh) found that the identical provision in the Pakistan Penal Code criminalized what it called "thigh sex." [120] The court followed the penetration-specific definition of Khanu and held that "the entry of the male organ of the accused into the artificial cavity between the thighs of [the other partner] would mean penetration and would amount to carnal intercourse."
The post-independence Indian case of Lohana Vasantlal also followed and modified the Khanu decision. [121] On the facts, much like Khanu, it involved three men who forced an underage boy to have anal and oral sex with them. However, the judgment neglects the injury caused to the boy who was forced to undergo the sexual act: there is no discussion of coercion. Instead the court concentrated on including oral sex under 377. As with other appealed cases involving coerced sex, the court's reasoning would apply seamlessly to consensual acts.
Lohana Vasantlal agreed with Khanu in finding oral sex unnatural: the "orifice of the mouth is not according to nature meant for sexual or carnal intercourse." [122] The court applied two tests. Its main source, tellingly, came from the UK: the eminent British sexologist Havelock Ellis. Following him, it argued that oral sex might be permissible if it was part of foreplay leading to "natural" (vaginal) sex: "If the stage of the aforesaid act was for stimulating the sex urge, it may be urged that it was only a prelude to carnal intercourse." [123] However, again citing Ellis, it found that when forms of sex play cease being "aids to tumescence" and "replace the desire of coitus," then "They became deviations … and thus liable to be termed 'perversions.'" [124] The Lohana court also developed an "imitative test" for sex acts. For example, oral sex imitated anal sex in terms of penetration, orifice, enclosure, and sexual pleasure. Therefore it could also be punished under Section 377.
K. Govindan, a 1969 Indian case, used the "imitative test" from Lohana to arrive at the same conclusion as the court in former East Pakistanon "thigh sex": if "the male organ is 'inserted' or 'thrust' between the thighs, there is 'penetration' to constitute unnatural offence." [125]
The judge in Khanu had said, "I doubt if mutual cheirourgia would be" a form of "carnal intercourse"-turning to Greek to dredge up a euphemism for masturbation. [126] However, a court moved mutual masturbation under the ambit of Section 377 in the Indian case of Brother John Antony v. State [127] in 1992. In this case, again, allegations of coercion were of no interest to the court. The judgment instead delves into the "sexually perverse," analyzing and analogizing practices like "tribadism," "bestiality," "masochism," "fetichism," "exhibitionism," and "sadism." [128] Using the imitative test, it concluded that mutual masturbation falls within 377, as "the male organ of the petitioner is said to be held tight by the hands of the victims, creating an orifice-like thing for manipulation and movement of the penis by way of insertion and withdrawal." [129]
In Singapore, two cases from the 1990's-PP v. Tan Kuan Meng [130] and PP v. Kwan Kwong Weng [131] -followed the distinction (between "prelude to" and "substitute for" the act of "natural" sex) that Lohana had laid down. Each of these 377 trials involved a woman's allegation that a man had forced her to have oral sex. The court in Kwan Kwong Weng defined the crime as "fellatio between a man and woman, whether the woman consented or not, which was totally irrelevant." [132]
Kwan Kwong Weng weighed current mores among heterosexuals, taking note of "statistical evidence … of these forms of oral sex being practised in Singapore. We cannot shut our minds to it." [133] The court granted "it is a fact of life that foreplay occurs before copulation." And it held that "when couples engaged in consensual sexual intercourse willingly indulge in fellatio and cunnilingus as a stimulant to their respective sexual urges, neither act can be considered to be against the order of nature. In every other instance the act ... will be ... punishable." [134]
Heterosexual oral sex was thus like a middling restaurant in the motorists' guide: worth a detour, but never, ever deserving a journey in itself. Heterosexuals, though, had a legal leeway for oral sex that was denied to homosexuals. They could claim that "natural," vaginal sex was somewhere off in distant view, the long-planned destination after a diversion to a different orifice.
However, both Lohana and Kwan Kwong Weng subtly undermined the foundations of the old Khanu ruling, by quietly discarding the "procreation" justification. The judge in Kwan Kwong Weng accepted implicitly (as the statistics before the Singapore court suggested) that people have sex for pleasure in and of itself–a major judicial concession.
This opened again the question: how confidently can the law distinguish between "natural" and "unnatural"? The lack of a self-evident standard in the Kwan Kwong Weng case ultimately led to a renewed push in Singapore for reforming the colonial-era provision. That push was given force by more prosecutions of heterosexuals for oral sex. In 2004, Singapore courts sentenced a former policeman to two years in prison for having oral sex with a teenage girl. [135] One judge spoke of "certain offences that are so repulsive in Asian culture … There are countries where you can go and suck away for all you are worth. People in high places do it for all they're worth. I'm not an expert, but you read about it in the papers. But this is Asia." [136]
"Asia" was not as conservative as the judge thought. Criminalizing homosexual acts was one thing; criminalizing heterosexual acts by now sparked outrage. Press and public opinion rebelled at the presumption that straight "sucking" was alien to Singapore. Under pressure, the government launched a review of the law. Officials said from the beginning it would aim to decriminalize consensual oral sex between men and women, but leave all oral sex between men banned. [137]
That was what happened. The review eventually turned into a revision of the entire Penal Code; but homosexual conduct was the only real dispute. The government willingly discarded the "carnal intercourse" provision of the law, which included heterosexual conduct. A battle line formed, though, at Section 377A-the old Labouchere Amendment text, criminalizing "gross indecency" between men. Human rights activists launched a petition to eliminate the ban on consensual homosexual conduct, as well as liberating heterosexuals; it gained thousands of signatures. LGBT advocates courageously joined in public debate. Yet in 2007, the government at last determined to cling to Section 377A.
Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong voiced personal sympathy for gay citizens: "We … do not want them to leave Singapore to go to more congenial places to live." But, he added, "homosexuals should not set the tone for Singapore society":
Singapore is basically a conservative society. The family is the basic building block of our society. It has been so and, by policy, we have reinforced this and we want to keep it so. And by "family" in Singapore, we mean one man one woman, marrying, having children and bringing up children within that framework of a stable family unit. [138]
Despite the reference to procreation, one thing was clear in the debate: the criterion of "nature" had basically been thrown out the window. If heterosexual oral sex could be legally seen as natural in itself-despite its lack of any connection to "having children"-there was no coherent basis for calling oral sex between two men "unnatural." [139] One commentator wrote,
I am especially suspicious of arguments that resort to "nature"; these have had an appalling history in justifying racism, sexism, xenophobia and homophobia, leading to the murder and torture of millions of people. What is natural? You might say that transplanting A's kidneys into B's body is unnatural. The fact that an act is or isn't natural is not a good reason to make it a criminal offence. [140]
Even the most virulent defenders of Section 377A argued not by appealing to the "natural," but by theorizing about community values. One parliamentarian declaimed,
If we seek to copy the sexual libertine ethos of the wild wild West, then repealing s377A is progressive. But that is not our final destination. The onus is on those seeking repeal to prove this will not harm society. … We have no need of foreign or neo-colonial moral imperialism in matters of fundamental morality. Heterosexual sodomy unlike homosexual sodomy does not undermine the understanding of heterosexuality as the preferred social norm. [141]
Yet relying on a "preferred social norm" actually undermined the original foundations of the law, based on belief that "sodomy" was "against the order of nature," not just the order of a particular society. And-most importantly-foreign "moral imperialism in matters of fundamental morality" was exactly what had brought the law to Singapore in the first place.
The Singapore story tears off the mask. It shows that Section 377's central focus, despite the heterosexual acts it had always punished, lay in eliminating homosexual conduct. It also shows, though, how tenuous the case for that purpose had become. "Nature" was no longer a credible justification. The mores of particular societies were all that was left. As a Malaysian court had declared in 1979 (addressing a wife's claim that her husband had sexual relations with other men): "Such despicable conduct though permitted among some Westerners should not be allowed to corrupt the community's way of life." [142]
Of course, the governments of Singapore and Malaysia, both politically repressive states, had only limited interest in listening to that "community," or actually testing its values. [143] Elsewhere too, though, invoking a vague set of "national" or "cultural" norms became the main defense of the colonial-era sodomy laws. To the colonizers, laws on sex were needed because the "native" was corrupt and an enticement to moral corruption. Now it was the West that threatened to corrupt indigenous standards.
A 1999 verdict from Zambia indicates how sour and weak the argument around "nature" had turned, and at the same time how unconvincing the appeal to popular beliefs could be. The judge in a local court, faced with charges that a man had oral sex with other men, approached them through a muddle of theology and anatomy:
Surely the mouth is not the same as a vagina. God gave specific functions to each organ … The mouth is for eating etc., and the vagina is for both sex and urinating. … Accused couldn't change God's desire. For behaving in the way he did, he implied God made a mistake [in] his distribution of functions.
Yet the conclusive factor for the judge, as he studied the accusation under a British law brought to Zambian territory by colonial invaders less than a hundred years before, was: "Accused's behavior is alien to the African custom." [144]
Ignoring Rape, Intensifying Stigma
Consent in the British colonial anti-sodomy laws is irrelevant. In a 1982 sodomy case, the court stated it clearly: "This is one of the offences to which a victim cannot consent." [145] Or, as an Indian court explained, "consent of the victim is immaterial" under Section 377, simply because "unnatural carnal intercourse is abhorred by civilized society." [146]
These laws, in their original form, are thus completely silent about male-male rape. One sinister effect has been to place the victims of such rape under the same legal stigma as people who engage in consensual homosexual acts-or as the rapists. Sometimes, people who have suffered sexual abuse have confronted criminal punishment themselves.
In a 1973 Papua New Guinea case, a man filed a complaint against his employer for committing "sodomy" on him. He ended up convicted himself, as an accomplice. The court believed he had "allowed" himself to be sodomized, fearing he would lose his job if he protested. [147]
The court relied on a 1952 British decision that had determined "the offence of buggery whether with man or beast does not depend upon consent; it depends on the act and if an act of buggery is committed, the felony is committed." [148] Justice Prentice, writing a separate concurring judgment, stated that the word "permit" does not necessarily imply consent, but can simply mean "that once a person allowed, suffered or did not prevent … intercourse, having perceived what was about to take place-the character of the act-he would be committing an offence." [149] The Justice also made clear that protecting individuals was not the provision's purpose. "Buggery," he wrote, "is one of the offences of sexual indecency which modern text writers see as not designed so much for private protection as for the enforcement of officially received opinions on particular aspects of sexual morality."
In practice, most courts probably do accept lack of consent as a defense. A Ugandan commentary clarifies, "all participants in unnatural offences are perpetrators, unless any of them is not a consenting party." [150] However exceptional, the Papua New Guinea ruling still shows the sheer travesties of justice the law's muteness around consent can generate.
Courts dealing with cases of non-consensual "sodomy" continue to show little or no interest in the plight of the victim-only the unnaturalness of the act. [151] And this legal lacuna leads to media and popular opinion regularly mixing "sodomy" up with rape. In Zimbabwe-where the law is similar-one activist says "the angle of articles" in the press about consensual sodomy arrests "is always … as far as possible to suggest that abuse was involved." [152]
Malaysia, as recounted below, has tried to address these injustices by separating non-consensual "carnal knowledge against nature" from consensual acts in the Penal Code. (The punishment for the two, however, remains effectively the same.) In country after country, however, British-derived laws continue to restrict the definition of rape to forcible insertion of a man's penis in a woman's vagina. India's courts (both before and after independence) in Khanu, Lohana, and K. Govindan have widely expanded the scope of "sodomy": but judges have refused to extend the meaning of rape to make it gender-neutral. [153]
In fact, as will be seen below, campaigns in Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and Botswana that meant to create a gender-neutral definition of rape ended with lawmakers re-defining "unnatural offences" to include sex between women. Meanwhile, legislators have repeatedly denied demands by women's rights activists to criminalize marital rape. Once again the heterosexual marital sphere has been placed beyond the law's reach-both for consensual "unnatural" acts and for rape itself. [154]
Equating consensual and coercive acts, and the lack of any separate punishment for same-sex acts with children, together deepen the stigma around homosexuality. The colonial court in Khanu hadconflated pedophilia with consensual homosexual conduct between adults. It claimed "the danger to young persons, lest they be indoctrinated into sexual matters prematurely," as an important justification for anti-sodomy laws. The idea lives on. India's Home Ministry has warned that "Removal of Section 377 will open floodgates of delinquent behaviour." [155] The Indian petition against 377 asks only that the High Court reinterpret the provision to decriminalize consensual sex between adults-and leave standing the protection of male children against abuse. Nonetheless, a senior Law Ministry official defended the whole law, saying the Section "acts as an effective deterrent against paedophiles and those with sick minds." [156]
Independent India's Supreme Court has held that an offence under 377 implies "sexual perversity." [157] This lends authority to linking homosexuality indiscriminately with almost any kind of "perversion." As far back as 1958, a judge in colonial Malaysia identified "sodomy" with sadomasochism, stating that "In view of the well-known psychological connection between the giving and the suffering of pain and sexual perversion, a sentence of whipping is not a suitable punishment for such offence." [158] An Indian court in 2001 alleged the "perversity" that leads to sexual offences may result either in "homosexuality or in the commission of rape." [159]
"Gross Indecency" and Criminalizing Lesbians
"Gross indecency" in British-derived penal codes is highly elastic. A Singapore Court has stated its meaning depends "on what would be considered grossly indecent by any right-thinking member of the public." [160] Just slightly more specifically, a 1998 amendment to the Tanzanian Penal Code clarified that gross indecency included any act that "falls short of actual intercourse and may include masturbation and indecent behaviour without any physical contact." [161] Thus two men kissing, holding hands, sleeping together, or conceivably even looking at one another with sexual intent, could break the law.
On the one hand, "gross indecency," like its British ancestor the Labouchere Amendment, only targets acts between men-as opposed to "carnal knowledge," which could, at least as originally interpreted, also include heterosexual acts. On the other, unlike "carnal knowledge," gross indecency does not entail penetration. In practice it was used to root out men who have sex with men who were caught in non-sexual circumstances, allowing arrests wherever they gathered or met-parks and railway stations, bathhouses and bars, and private homes and spaces. And unlike "carnal knowledge," the absence of penetration meant a lower standard of proof. No forensic tests or flower-shaped anuses were needed.
The usefulness of "gross indecency" in convicting men for homosexual conduct comes clear in the 1946 Singapore case of Captain Marr. [162] A naval officer faced charges of committing gross indecency with an Indian man. There were no witnesses, but police found the Indian's shirt in the captain's room. Such circumstantial evidence persuaded the court to convict.
The authorities are free to infer "gross indecency" from any suspicious activity. The term is insidious, a legal bridge between "unnatural" sexual acts and the associated identity of a certain kind of person: the "homosexual" as a criminal offender. Homosexuality becomes a crime of the "personal condition." This broader understanding of "unnatural acts" permits state and police harassment on a wider scale. A homosexual need not be caught in the act: presumptions fed by prejudice, or stereotypes of attire, manner, or association, are enough. [163]
"Gross indecency" has been used to extend criminal penalties to sex between women. Lesbian sex had never been expressly punished in English law. The colonial court in Khanu excluded it from "carnal knowledge" because a woman lacked a penis. A recent Ugandan commentary explains that "women who perform sexual acts on each other are not caught by the current law because they do not possess a sexual organ with which to penetrate each other." [164] Non-penetrative sex is not "real" sex. [165]
Between men, however, it was seen as something sex-like enough to be "grossly indecent." There was no reason the same logic could not extend to women. Some modern governments did want lesbian acts and identities moved under the criminal law. They found their chance through public debate about reforming rape laws.
In the late 1980s the Malaysian women's movement campaigned for a new, gender-neutral definition of rape, as well as for criminalizing marital rape. [166] Partially in response to their lobbying, the legislature in 1989 moved to amend the Penal Code. [167]
In the end, however, legislators ignored the calls to modernize law on rape, and instead turned their scrutiny to Section 377. Their comprehensive re-write divided the Section into five different parts, while broadening its meaning and reach more than ever before. Their excuse? They could make rape effectively gender-neutral by adding a new crime of non-consensual "carnal intercourse against the order of nature." [168] The new provision also offered limited protection for children against sexual abuse. [169] But the two most significant changes were:
oFor the first time in a British-derived legislative provision, "carnal intercourse" was expressly defined as both anal and oral sex.
oIn a vengeful and almost parodic response to the demands of women's rights activists, the offence of "gross indecency" was made gender-neutral. [170] It could now be applied to heterosexual couples-and also to lesbian and bisexual women. [171]
A similar, regressive rape law change occurred in Sri Lanka. Falling back on religious and communal values, the state rejected women's rights activists'demands to legalize abortion, criminalize marital rape, and make the crime of rape gender-neutral. However, it did amend the "gross indecency" provision to make it gender-neutral and apply to sex between women. [172]
Meanwhile, in Botswana, legislators put gender-neutral language in both the "carnal knowledge" and "gross indecency" provisions of the British-derived Penal Code, in a general revision aiming at gender equity in 1998. [173]
V. Conclusion: The Emancipatory Potential of Decriminalization
What are so-called "sodomy" laws for?
South Africa's Constitutional Court justice Albie Sachs, concurring with the historic decision to overturn his country's law against sodomy, wrote:
It is important to start the analysis by asking what is really being punished by the anti-sodomy laws. Is it an act, or is it a person? Outside of regulatory control, conduct that deviates from some publicly established norm is usually only punishable when it is violent, dishonest, treacherous or in some other way disturbing of the public peace or provocative of injury. In the case of male homosexuality however, the perceived deviance is punished simply because it is deviant. It is repressed for its perceived symbolism rather than because of its proven harm. …. Thus, it is not the act of sodomy that is denounced… but the so-called sodomite who performs it; not any proven social damage, but the threat that same-sex passion in itself is seen as representing to heterosexual hegemony. [174]
The legal scholar Dan Kahan writes that "Sodomy laws, even when unenforced, express contempt for certain classes of citizens." [175] This contempt is not simply symbolic. Ryan Goodman, in exhaustive research based on interviews with lesbian and gay South Africans before the sodomy law was repealed, found the statutes have multiple "micro-level" effects.These impacts are independent of occasions when the law is actually enforced. To the contrary: even without direct enforcement, the laws' malign presence on the books still announces inequality, increases vulnerability, and reinforces second-class status in all areas of life.
The laws "disempower lesbians and gays in a range of contexts far removed from their sexuality (for example, in disputes with a neighbor or as victims or burglary)," Goodman writes. They influence other areas of knowledge: "the criminalization of homosexual practices interacts with other forms of institutional authority, such as religion and medicine." The statutes empower social and cultural arbiters to call the homosexual a criminal. Goodman concludes that "The state's relationship to lesbian and gay individuals under a regime of sodomy laws constructs … a dispersed structure of observation and surveillance. The public is sensitive to the visibility of lesbians and gays as socially and legally constructed miscreants." [176]
This report suggests that the colonial-era sodomy laws ultimately became, not punishments for particular acts, but broad instruments of social control. They started as invaders' impositions-an alien framework to subdue subject populations-and have morphed over time into alleged mirrors of a supposedly originary moral sense. States use them today to separate and brutalize those beyond those postulated primal norms. They are terms of division and tools of power.
The real impact of sodomy laws-the way they single out people for legal retaliation, and make them ready victims of other forms of violence and abuse-appears in stories from six countries addressed in this report.
India
In July 2001, police in Lucknow arrested four staff members from two organizations that combated HIV/AIDS among men who have sex with men. The HIV/AIDS outreach workers from Naz Foundation International (NFI)'s Lucknow office and from Bharosa Trust were charged under Section 377 as well as with criminal conspiracy and "sale of obscene materials": the police interpreted distributing information about AIDS prevention as running a gay "sex racket."
They were jailed for 47 days. A Lucknow judge denied them bail, accusing them of "polluting the entire society." The prosecutor in the case called homosexuality "against Indian culture." In jail guards threatened and beat them; police told the prisoners they were "trying to destroy our country by promoting homosexuality" and that "Hindus don't have these practices-these are all perversions of the Muslims." [177]
In January 2006, the same police superintendent in Lucknow oversaw the arrest of four more men under Section 377: the police said they were engaged in a "picnic" in a public place, and accused them of belonging to an "international gay club." An attorney in the case told Human Rights Watch that undercover police agents logged into an internet chatroom and pretended to be gay men, entrapping one of the victims into meeting, then arrested him. In custody, he was threatened until he agreed to call several acquaintances and arrange a meeting in person, at which point the police arrested them as well. Press reports suggested that police obtained the mobile telephone numbers or identifying information of 18 to 40 other gay men in Lucknow, and that they were also investigating hundreds of other men in India who had logged onto the website. [178]
Section 377 continues to provide a pretext for police harassment, extortion, arrests, unreported and arbitrary detention, and other abuses against LGBT people in India. [179] The law creates legal stigma for lesbians as well. In 2006 in New Delhi the father of a 21-year-old woman told the police that his daughter's lesbian partner had "abducted" her. A magistrate refused to accept the daughter's statement that she had left the parental home of her own free will, saying, "it appears that …there are hidden allegations of an offence under Section 377 as well." [180]
Reports also continue in India of forced detention of lesbians and gays in psychiatric hospitals, and involuntary aversion therapy and other forms of abuse aimed at "converting" people to heterosexuality. In April 2001 the National Human Rights Commission of India declared that it "did not want to take cognizance" of a case objecting to these medical abuses. The commission stated that "sexual minority rights did not fall under the purview of human rights." [181] Reportedly a member of the Commission told the press, "Homosexuality is an offence under IPC, isn't it? So, do you want us to take cognizance of something that is an offence?" [182]
Pakistan
In late 2006, in Faisalabad, Shumail Raj and Shehzina Tariq married in a ceremony that Tariq described as "a love marriage." Born a woman, Shumail Raj identified himself as a man.
The case led to a full-blown public panic, coursing through the media and eventually the courts. Raj had undergone two operations to alter his physical appearance to match the gender he lived in. Headlines nonetheless called them a "she-couple," a "same-sex couple," and two "girls" or "lesbians," and described-and dismissed-their union as the country's first same-sex marriage. [183]
Shehzina Tariq's father complained to police about the marriage, and they launched an investigation, invoking Section 377. Hauled before the High Court in Lahore, the couple told officials that Raj was a man.
A court-appointed panel of forensic doctors had, in the end, to try to settle the issue of legal identity. As Human Rights Watch has noted, "It was more important to identify the history behind Shumail Raj's full beard and masculine build than to recognise his right to privacy, his dignity and self-respect." [184]
Prosecutors chose ultimately not to try the pair under 377; the uncertainty over Raj's gender joined with the legal ambiguity over whether the law could be used against what officials now saw as a lesbian relationship. Clearly, though, the stigma the provision created helped set off the investigation and sustain hysterical public pressure. On May 28, 2007, a court sentenced the couple to three years' imprisonment for perjuring themselves - for saying in court that Shumail Raj was a man. The judge called the sentence "lenient." [185]
Sri Lanka
Extending criminal penalties in 1995 to include sexual acts between women led to an increased atmosphere of stigma and menace. The leader of an LGBT support group has reported having to leave the country for a time because of death threats. [186] In 2000, when a lesbian conference was held on the island, a newspaper printed a letter to the editor urging the participants be raped, "so that those wanton and misguided wretches may get a taste of the zest and relish of the real thing."
The Press Council, a state body, rejected a complaint against the paper, citing the fact that "Homosexualism is an offence in our law. Lesbianism is at least an act of gross indecency and unnatural." It stated:
Lesbianism itself is an act of sadism and salacious. Publication of any opinion against such activities is not tantamount to promoting sadism or salacity, but any publication which supports such conduct is an obvious promotion of all such violence, sadism, and salacity. Therefore, the complainant is the one who is eager to promote sadism and salicity, not the respondents.
The Council instead slapped a fine on the complainant, one of the conference's organizers. [187]
Singapore
Singapore police periodically use its laws on homosexual conduct to raid gay gathering places, including saunas: one raid in 2001 led to four men being charged initially under Section 377A, though the charge was later moved under Section 20 of the Miscellaneous Offences (Public Order and Nuisance) Act. The men received a substantial fine. [188] Further raids took place in April 2005. [189] There may be no organized official campaign against such establishments. Rather, local activists point to the enticing possibilities of blackmail that the laws offer lower-ranking officers as an incentive to repeated incursions. The provisions implicitly encourage arbitrary behavior. [190]
The government-conscious of its international image, and of pressure from international business-has occasionally made gestures toward non-discrimination, but its commitment to Section 377A strips them of meaning. In 2003, the prime minister publicly said that civil service jobs were open to gay people. Christian groups vigorously objected, and launched a protest campaign targeting Parliament and press. [191] Two years later, a researcher interviewed civil servants about whether the promise had any effect, and heard "a uniformly resounding 'no.'" He concluded the prime minister's statement was "nothing more than an embellishing discourse designed to make Singapore appear more attractive to potential immigrants." [192]
Police keep tight control on all public or political events in Singapore. In 2004, they banned a theatre group from holding seminars on gay literature. [193] Authorities have also denied permits to gay pride events. Censorship enforces silence about LGBT people's lives. [194] In 2004, the state film board banned a Taiwanese romantic comedy for its gay themes, saying it "creates an illusion of a homosexual utopia, where … no ills or problems are reflected." [195] In 2008, authorities fined a Singapore television station for a show that depicted a gay couple and their baby, alleging it "promotes a gay lifestyle." [196] They also fined a cable station that aired a commercial with two women kissing, because "TV advertising guidelines … disallow advertisements that condone homosexuality." [197]
Perhaps the most serious side effect, though, is that the state rejects all attempts by LGBT groups to register their organizations legally. One activist laments, "The laws make for a chicken-and-egg problem. In order to work towards decriminalization, the gay community has to get organized, but organizing to defend a 'criminal act' in turn makes gay people and their supporters cagey." [198] One Singapore gay leader told Human Rights Watch in 2008: "In the absence of legality, we are effectively breaking the law whenever we organize anything." [199]
Uganda
For years, Uganda's government has used the criminalization of homosexual conduct to threaten and harass Ugandans. In 1998, President Yoweri Museveni told a press conference, "When I was in America, some time ago, I saw a rally of 300,000 homosexuals. If you have a rally of 20 homosexuals here, I would disperse it." True to his word, when (inaccurate) press reports the next year recounted a wedding between two men in Uganda, Museveni told a conference on reproductive health, "I have told the CID [Criminal Investigations Department] to look for homosexuals, lock them up, and charge them." Police obediently jailed and tortured several suspected lesbians and gays; most later fled the country. [200]
Similarly, in October 2004, the country's information minister, James Nsaba Buturo, ordered police to investigate and "take appropriate action against" a gay association allegedly organized at Uganda's Makerere University. On July 6, 2005, the government-owned New Vision newspaper urged authorities to crack down on homosexuality: "The police should visit the holes mentioned in the press, spy on the perverts, arrest and prosecute them. Relevant government departments must outlaw or restrict websites, magazines, newspapers and television channels promoting immorality – including homosexuality, lesbianism, pornography, etc." That month, local government officers raided the home of Victor Mukasa, an activist for LGBT people's human rights and chairperson of Sexual Minorities Uganda (SMUG). They seized papers and arrested another lesbian activist, holding her overnight. [201]
LGBT activists held a press conference in Kampala in August 2007, launching a public campaign they called "Let Us Live in Peace." The next day, Buturo, now ethics and integrity minister, told the BBC that homosexuality was "unnatural." He denied police harassment of LGBT people, but added menacingly, "We know them, we have details of who they are." Four days later, the press announced that the attorney general had ordered lesbians and gays arrested. "I call upon the relevant agencies to take appropriate action because homosexuality is an offense under the laws of Uganda," he reportedly said. "The penal code in no uncertain terms punishes homosexuality and other unnatural offenses." [202]
The media intensify the metastasizing fear. In August 2007, the Uganda tabloid paper Red Pepper published a list of first names, workplaces, and other identifying information of 45 alleged gay men. In exposing the victims to firing or the threat of violence, the paper claimed it published the list "to show the nation … how fast the terrible vice known as sodomy is eating up our society." [203]
Nigeria
Arrests under Nigeria's federal sodomy law happen steadily, as local headlines suggest: "Paraded by Police for Homosexuality, Married Man Blames 'Evil Spirit' For His Unholy Act" [204] ; or "Caught in the Act: 28-yr-old Homosexual Arrested by OPC While in Action."" [205]
Most of Nigeria's Northern provinces now have their own penal codes. These combine principles of Islamic law with elements of the Northern Nigeria Penal Code adopted at the time of independence. [206]
The penal codes of Kano and Zamfara states have simply taken over the language of the British colonial provisions on "carnal intercourse against the order of nature," and put it under the shari'a-esque heading of "sodomy (liwat)." They provide punishments of 100 lashes for unmarried offenders, and death by stoning for married ones. The Zamfara Penal Code also criminalizes "lesbianism (sihaq)," punishing it with up to 50 lashes and six months' imprisonment:
Whoever being a woman engages another woman in carnal intercourse through her sexual organ or by means of stimulation or sexual excitement of one another has committed the offence of Lesbianism. … The offence is committed by the unnatural fusion of the female sexual organs and or by the use of natural or artificial means to stimulate or attain sexual satisfaction or excitement." [207]
Courts in the north have handed down death sentences for homosexual conduct under the combined shari'a-and-colonial codes, though there have been no accounts of executions-yet. The UN special rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary, or arbitrary executions reports that on a 2005 visit to Nigeria, he asked to meet with all death-row inmates in Kano prison:
One of them was a 50 year old man awaiting death by stoning after being convicted of sodomy. A neighbour had reported him to the local Hisbah Committee [described by the Rapporteur as "groups of mostly young men who patrol neighbourhoods with the aim of preventing crime and arresting individuals suspected of committing crimes against the Shari'a"] which carried out a citizen arrest and handed him to the police. He claimed to have been comprehensively beaten by both groups. The official court records show that he admitted to the offence, but sought the court's forgiveness. He had no legal representation and failed to appeal within the time provided. The Special Rapporteur subsequently took steps so that a late appeal could be lodged and the case is now under review.
In December 2005 the Katsina Shari'a Court acquitted two other men charged with the capital offence of sodomy, because there were no witnesses. They had nevertheless spent six months in prison on remand which the judge reportedly said should remind them "to be of firm character and desist from any form of immorality." [208]
Although draconian provisions were in place at federal and state levels, Nigeria's government tried to go further. In January 2006, the president's office proposed new legislation called the "Same Sex Marriage (Prohibition) Act." That was a misnomer: the bill's reach went far beyond marriage. It would punish any "publicity, procession and public show of same sex amorous relationship through the electronic or print media physically, directly, indirectly or otherwise," and adoption of children by lesbian or gay couples or individuals. It dictated five years' imprisonment for anyone, including a cleric, who abetted a same-sex couple in marrying-and for any person " involved in the registration of gay clubs, societies and organizations, sustenance, procession or meetings, publicity and public show of same sex amorous relationship directly or indirectly in public and in private." In addition to condemning to prison human rights defenders who address issues of sexuality, the bill could be used to jail even lesbian or gay couples holding hands. [209]
Despite a push to rush the bill through the National Assembly in early 2007, it eventually died without a vote. It could, however, be revived at any time. In international arenas, Nigeria has continued its campaign, openly calling for killing people who engage in homosexual conduct. At the UN Human Rights Council in September 2006, Nigeria ridiculed "the notion that executions for offences such as homosexuality and lesbianism is [sic] excessive." Its diplomat said: "What may be seen by some as disproportional penalty in such serious offences and odious conduct, may be seen by others as appropriate and just punishment." [210]
It is appropriate to end with Nigeria, because the 2006 bill-criminalizing all aspects of lesbian and gay identity and life-culminated the arc that Macaulay's Indian Penal Code began. Its all-embracing provisions would render the bill uniquely severe among the world's anti-gay laws. The trajectory from punishing acts to repressing a whole class of persons was complete.
The paradox remains that a democratic government promoted this repressive legislation as part of indigenous values, although it actually extended old, undemocratic colonial statutes. "Basically it is un-African to have a relationship with the same sex," the Nigerian minister of justice said in 2006. A national newspaper intoned, "This progressive legislation is expected to put a check on homosexuality and lesbianism, a deviant social behaviour fast gaining acceptance in Western countries." [211]
Sodomy laws encourage all of society to join in surveillance, in a way congenial to the ambitions of police and state authorities. That may explain why large numbers of countries that have emerged from colonialism have assumed and assimilated their sodomy laws as part of the nationalist rhetoric of the modern state. Authorities have kept on refining and fortifying the provisions, in parliaments and courts-spurred by the false proposition they are a bulwark of authentic national identity.
The authoritarian impulse behind legal moves like Nigeria's also points, though, to the emancipatory potential of decriminalizing consensual homosexual sex.
The campaigns for law reform are not merely for a right to intimacy, but for the right to live a life without fear of discrimination, exposure, arrest, detention, or harassment. Reform would dismantle part of the legal system's power to divide and discriminate, to criminalize personhood and identity, to attack rights defenders, and to restrict civil society.
Removing the sodomy laws would affirm human rights and dignity. It would also repair a historical wrong that demands to be remembered. The legacy of colonialism should no longer be confused with cultural authenticity or national freedom. An activist from Singapore writes: "It's amazing" that millions of people "have so absorbed Victorian prudishness that even now, when their countries are independent- and they are all happy and proud they're free from the yoke of the British-they stoutly defend these laws." He concludes, "The sun may have set on the British Empire, but the Empire lives on." [212] These last holdouts of the Empire have outlived their time.
Recommendations
To all governments, including those that inherited British colonial laws criminalizing homosexual conduct
·Repeal all laws that criminalize consensual sexual activity among adult people of the same sex.
·Ensure that criminal and other legal provisions of general application are not used to punish consensual sexual activity among adults of the same sex.
·Pass laws defining the crime of rape in a gender-neutral way so that the rape of men by men, or of women by women, is included in the definition and subject to equal punishment.
·Pass laws expressly criminalizing the rape or sexual abuse of children.
·Consistent with the principle of non-discrimination, ensure that an equal age of consent applies to both same-sex and different-sex sexual activity.
·Repeal any law that prohibits or criminalizes the expression of gender identity, including through dress, speech or mannerisms, or that denies individuals the opportunity to change their bodies as a means of expressing their gender identity.
To the Commonwealth Secretariat
·Consistent with the 1971 Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles, which affirms "the liberty of the individual," "equal rights for all citizens," and "guarantees for personal freedom," condemn and call for the removal of all remaining British colonial laws that criminalize consensual sexual activity among adult people of the same sex.
·As part of Commonwealth programs to help member nations implement international obligations in their laws, promote the decriminalization of consensual, adult homosexual conduct.
·Also as part of these programs, develop models for gender-neutral legislation on rape and sexual abuse, and for the protection of children.
·Integrate issues of sexual orientation and gender identity into all human rights educational and training activities, including the Commonwealth Human Rights Training Programme for police.
To the United Nations and its human rights mechanisms
·Consistent with the decision of the UN Human Rights Committee in the 1994 decision of Toonen v. Australia, condemn and call for the removal of all remaining laws that criminalize consensual sexual activity among adult people of the same sex, as violations of basic human rights to privacy and equality.
Acknowledgements
This report was researched and written by Alok Gupta, consultant to Human Rights Watch. Substantial contributions to the research and writing were made by Scott Long, director of the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Rights Program at Human Rights Watch. At Human Rights Watch, it was reviewed by Maria Burnett and Corinne Dufka, researchers in the Africa division, and Meenakshy Ganguly, researcher in the Asia division. It was edited by Dinah PoKempner, general counsel, and Joe Saunders, deputy program director. Jessica Ognian provided production assistance. Grace Choi and Fitzroy Hepkins prepared the report for production.
Human Rights Watch is grateful for the advice and assistance of the Lawyers Collective HIV/AIDS Unit, Mumbai, India; Alternative Law Forum, Bangalore, India; Voices Against 377, India; and Alex Au, Duma Boko, Vikram Doctor, Isabel Goodman, Sydney Malupande, Derek Matyszak, Alice Miller, Arvind Narrain, Oliver Phillips, Jeff Redding, Jessica Stern, and Ashwini Sukthankar, who provided information or commented on the manuscript in vital ways. Peter Rosenblum, associate clinical professor of human rights at Columbia University Law School, assisted with access to law libraries for legal research.
Human Rights Watch thanks Reid Williams for his generous support of this work.
[1] As explained below, most law derived from British colonialism makes no distinction between homosexual acts committed with or without consent, or between homosexual acts committed by adults as opposed to adults' abuse of children. Therefore, the petition aims to "read down" rather than strike down the law. It asks the Court to state that consensual homosexual acts between adults are no longer criminal under the provision, while leaving intact Section 377's application to non-consensual acts and to children-until India passes a modern, gender-neutral rape law, and provides express legal protection for male children against sexual abuse.
[133] Ibid. para 30.
[134] Ibid. para 28.
[135] First press accounts suggested that she was 16, above the legal age of consent for (vaginal) sex, and had consented. Later reports, however, suggested she was 15. "Singapore Reviews Oral Sex Law," BBC News, January 6, 2004;
[136] Quoted in Mark Baker, "No Oral Sex Please, This Is Clean-Living Singapore," Sydney Morning Herald (Australia), February 18, 2004.
[137] Chan, "Oral Sex - A Case of Criminality or Morality?"
[138] "Lee Hsien Loong's Speech on Section 377A,"
www.yawningbread.org/apdx_2007/imp-360.htm
(accessed August 25, 2008).
[139] Lee Kuan Yew, the powerful former prime minister, made the shift from nature-based to culture-based arguments explicit, telling supporters: "You take this business of homosexuality. It raises tempers all over the world, and even in America. If in fact it is true -- and I have asked doctors this -- that you are genetically born a homosexual because that's the nature of the genetic random transmission of genes, you can't help it. So why should we criminalise it? But," he went on, "there's such a strong inhibition in all societies …" Straits Times, April 23, 2007, quoted in "The Oracle from St. James," www.yawningbread.org/arch_2007/yax-734.htm (accessed November 15, 2008).
[140] Paul Tan Beng Hwee, "Oral sex law demeans the individual," Straits Times, November 10, 2003.
[141] "377A serves public morality : NMP Thio Li-Ann," The Online Citizen, October 23, 2007, http://theonlinecitizen.com/2007/10/377a-serves-public-morality-nmp-thio-li-ann/ (
accessed
August 15, 2008). She also warned ominously, "To those who say that 377A penalizes only gays not lesbians, note there have been calls to criminalize lesbianism too."
[142] Lim Hui Lian v. CM Huddlestan , 1979 Malayan Law Journal, Vol. 2, p. 134.
[143] The only statistical study regularly cited in the debate showed a high level of negative feeling among Singaporeans about homosexuality per se, but did not ask whether they wanted those opinions translated into criminal penalties: Benjamin H. Detenber, Mark Cenite, Moses K. Y. Ku, Carol P. L. Ong, Hazel Y. Tong, and Magdalene L. H. Yeow, "Singaporeans' Attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay Men and their Tolerance of Media Portrayals of Homosexuality," International Journal of Public Opinion Research , Vol. 19, No. 3 (July 2007), pp. 367-79. See also Kenneth Chan, "Gay Sexuality in Singaporean Chinese Popular Culture: Where Have All the Boys Gone?" China Information, Vol. 22, No. 2 (July2008), pp. 305 -29.
[144] Quoted in More than a Name: State-Sponsored Homophobia and Its Consequences in Southern Africa, pp. 91-92.
[145] State v Bakobaro, 1982 Nigerian Criminal Report, Vol. 1, p. 110.
[146] Mihir v State of Orissa, 1992 Criminal Law Journal, p. 488.
[147] Regina v. MK, 1973 Papua New Guinea Law Report, p. 204.
[148] Sydney Joseph Bourne, 1952 Criminal Appeals Report, Vol. 36, p. 125 (United Kingdom). The law of Papua New Guinea derived from the Queensland Penal Code, which expressly punished anyone who "permits a male person to have carnal knowledge of him … against the order of nature."
[149] Regina v. MK, Prentice J.
[150] D. D. N. Nsereko, "Uganda," International Encyclopaedia of Laws , "Criminal Laws," Vol. 4, Part 1, ch. 7 ("Particular Crimes"), para. 385 (Leyden: Kluwer Law International, 2006), emphasis added.
[151] See, for instance, Calvin Francis v. State of Orissa, 1992 Crimes Report, Vol. 2, p. 455 and State of Gujarat v. Bachmiya Musamiya , 1998 Gujarat Law Report, Vol. 2, p. 2456.
[152] Keith Goddard, director, Gays and Lesbians of Zimbabwe, quoted in Long 2003, p. 289.
[153] Sakshi v. Union of India, 2004 Supreme Court Cases, Vol. 5, p. 518.
[154] The very definition of "consent" is a point of deep political division in India. Secs 375 and 376 of the IPC, which deal with rape, have accumulated jurisprudence around what "consent" means which, even after independence, reflects Victorian presumptions about women's purity. In a famous 1970s case in Maharashtra, two policemen raped a 16-year-old tribal girl in their station. A local court acquitted the policeman, holding that since the girl had already eloped with her boyfriend, she was "habituated" to intercourse, had implicitly consented-and could not be raped. A high court decision overturned this ruling, and tried to elaborate a distinction between consent on the one hand, or passive submission or helpless surrender due to threat on the other. The Supreme Court overruled the high court and set aside the conviction, holding in effect (similarly to the Papua New Guinea ruling, above) that passive submission was the equivalent of consent.
The case triggered a women's rights campaign to reduce the high standard requiring a rape victim to prove "beyond reasonable doubt" that she had not consented. Advocates demanded that a woman's retrospective claim that she had not consented be given evidentiary force. Partial criminal law reforms in 1983 accepted this standard but only for rape in custodial settings such as jails. During the debate in the Lok Sabha (Parliament), MPs revealed some of the society's underlying attitudes about women's sexuality and how to "protect" and control it. At one extreme-suggesting some women merited no protection-one speaker said, "We're not dealing all the time with virtuous women. We may also deal with some women who unfortunately do not conform to normal standards of womanhood." At another extreme-of repression masquerading as protection-another MP suggested classing any sexual relationship between an unmarried woman and a man as rape, which he claimed would be consistent with "our own sexual morality." Quoted in Nivedita Menon, "Embodying the Self: Feminism, Sexual Violence, and the Law," in Partha Chatterjee and Pradeep Jeganathan, eds., Community, Gender, and Violence: Subaltern Studies XI (New York: Columbia University, 2000). See also Flavia Agnes, Journey to Justice (Bombay: Majlis, 1990).
Women's rights advocates maintain the Indian judiciary is still rife with the belief that some women-"lewd" or of "questionable character"-deserve no protection against sexual violence. See Oishik Sircar, "Women Make Demands, but Only Ladies Get Protection," at http://infochangeindia.org/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=5621, (
accessed
August 21, 2008). The conflicting standards are conspicuous: no man can consent to "sodomy," but some women cannot deny consent to any sexual act.
[155] Nagendar Sharma, "Gays Have No Legal Rights: Ministry," Hindustan Times, August 28, 2008.
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Who became Scotland’s longest-serving first minister in November 2012? | Who have been Scotland's first ministers? - BBC News
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Who have been Scotland's first ministers?
16 May 2016
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Image caption Five politicians have served a first minister since the devolved Scottish Parliament was created in 1999
Nicola Sturgeon is set to continue as Scotland's first minister following the SNP's victory in the Scottish Parliament election on 5 May 2016.
Ms Sturgeon became first minister on 20 November 2014, following the resignation of Alex Salmond.
She is the fifth politician to head Scotland's devolved government (not counting Jim Wallace, who served as acting first minister three times.)
Here's a quick look at Scotland's leaders, past and present, and the legacies they have left.
Donald Dewar: 13 May 1999 - 11 October 2000
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Donald Dewar secured his place in history when he became first minister of the first Scottish Parliament in almost 300 years, but his time in the role was cut sadly short.
He was known for an astute legal brain, fierce, fast and formidable debating skills and squaring up to the opposition benches.
Not a typical Labour man, he was born in Glasgow on 21 August 1937 into a middle class family and studied law before entering the Commons in 1966 as MP for Aberdeen South and, later, represented the seat of Glasgow Garscadden.
His loyalty in the shadow cabinet during Labour's wilderness years saw him rewarded with the post of secretary of state for Scotland by Tony Blair in 1997 - the vehicle by which he helped bring about devolution two years later, earning him the title "Father of the Nation".
Mr Dewar became MSP for Glasgow Anniesland, but his new administration was soon embroiled in an access-to-ministers scandal, the Holyrood building fiasco and the repeal of Section 28.
He admitted the first year was "towsy".
Despite an operation to replace a leaky heart valve and being two years off becoming a pensioner, he was determined to resume his key role in politics.
On 10 October 2000, Mr Dewar fell on the pavement outside his official residence and later died from a brain haemorrhage.
Mr Dewar's legacy lives on through the devolved parliament itself, and a towering statue of the man himself in Glasgow city centre.
Henry McLeish: 26 October 2000 - 8 November 2001
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Whatever Henry McLeish's achievements in politics, his tenure in office will always be marked by having been the only Scottish first minister forced to resign from the job.
The former professional footballer cut his political teeth in Fife in the early 1970s, working his way through the echelons of Kirkcaldy District Council and Fife Regional Council to be elected Labour MP for Fife Central in 1987.
He served on the shadow benches before becoming a devolution minister in the former Scottish Office, playing a key role in delivering the Scottish Parliament in 1999.
Mr McLeish was regarded as a competent parliamentary performer, and was seen as a safe pair of hands to take over the reins following the death of Donald Dewar.
But there were doubts about the presence of a "common touch" and the ability to control rebellion in the ranks.
Nevertheless, he masterminded the introduction of Scotland's historic scheme to provide free personal care for the elderly.
The Fife MSP's downfall came during a row over his Westminster constituency office expenses, dubbed "Officegate".
The episode was made worse by Mr McLeish's inability to resolve the matter in the eyes of the public and media, and he eventually stood down as first minister, describing his actions as "a muddle, not a fiddle".
Mr McLeish's post-Holyrood years have seen him lecture widely in the United States.
He has also served on several SNP government investigations and commissions looking into a range of issues, including prisons, football, broadcasting and colleges.
That, along with his post-2007 commentary about Labour's woes, during which he lambasted the party's "culture of denial", led some observers to cheekily question whether he was "going Nat".
Jack McConnell: 22 November 2001 - 16 May 2007
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Elected Labour MSP for Motherwell and Wishaw in 1999, the former maths teacher came to the fore after taking up the "poisoned chalice" of education minister, tackling a crisis at the Scottish Qualifications Authority head-on.
Following Henry McLeish's resignation, Lord McConnell won the job - openly admitting to a previous extra-marital affair in the process - and taking on the post while wondering whether devolution could survive.
As first minister, he saw through the ban on smoking in public places and forged new links with the African country of Malawi, one of the poorest in the world, which have been maintained to this day.
He stood down as Scottish Labour leader after the SNP's 2007 election win, moving to the backbenches for four years.
Mr McConnell was due to become British High Commissioner to Malawi in 2009 but, before having a chance to take up the post, the then prime minister Gordon Brown decided to appoint him his "special international representative on strengthening conflict resolution capacity".
The move provoked speculation that it would avoid a Labour by-election defeat in Motherwell and Wishaw.
After being made a life peer, taking the title Lord McConnell of Glenscorrodale, he announced a move to leave Holyrood.
He also expressed his wish to work in post-conflict reconstruction and campaign for vulnerable young people.
Despite the odd gaffe - including having to reverse a decision to attend a golf club dinner rather than D-Day commemorative events in Normandy and once telling a group of high school pupils it was okay to get drunk "once in a while" - Lord McConnell says he is immensely proud of his achievements as first minister.
In his parting shot to Holyrood, Lord McConnell said the Scottish Parliament was failing in its role as a focal point for national debate and ministerial scrutiny and was in need of "radical change".
And as Mr Salmond's milestone as longest-serving first minister approached in November 2012, Lord McConnell took to Twitter, cheekily writing: "This might be my last ever night as 'longest serving First Minister of Scotland'. Maybe overtaken tomorrow? Still the youngest though!"
Alex Salmond: 16 May 2007 - 19 November 2014
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Seen as one of the most talented politicians of his generation, Alex Salmond already had a high-profile before he won two historic Holyrood elections as SNP leader, securing the mandate to hold a referendum on Scottish independence in the process.
Born in 1954 in Linlithgow, Mr Salmond graduated from St Andrews University and began a career in economics, working for the Scottish Office and the Royal Bank of Scotland.
Despite earning himself a brief expulsion from the SNP in 1982 for his role in the breakaway '79 Group, he began his parliamentary career as MP for Banff and Buchan in 1987, building himself a high-profile.
He served as party leader from 1990, standing down after 10 years only to make a dramatic comeback to the SNP's top job before winning the 2007 Holyrood election.
Often derided by his political opponents as arrogant and self-serving, Mr Salmond nonetheless succeeded in turning his party into the most popular in the history of devolution, on his platform of fighting for Scottish interests.
Despite a hard-fought campaign on the "Yes" side, voters rejected independence by 55% to 45% in the 18 September vote and, the following day, Mr Salmond announced he was standing down as first minister and SNP leader.
After more than seven years as first minister, there is little doubt Mr Salmond has changed the course of Scottish politics forever.
Nicola Sturgeon: 20 November 2014 - Ongoing
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Born in the North Ayrshire town of Irvine in 1970, Ms Sturgeon joined the SNP at the age of 16, when Margaret Thatcher was prime minister.
Ms Sturgeon said her decision to become an SNP member rather than Labour was borne from a "strong feeling that it was wrong for Scotland to be governed by a Tory government that we hadn't elected" and that the country would only truly prosper with independence.
After studying law at Glasgow University and working as a solicitor at the city's Drumchapel Law Centre, Ms Sturgeon's entry into full-time politics came at the age of 29, when she was elected to the new Holyrood parliament in 1999, as a Glasgow regional MSP.
She gained an early reputation for being overly serious, which earned her the nickname "nippy sweetie".
When John Swinney resigned as SNP leader in 2004, Ms Sturgeon launched a leadership bid before withdrawing from the race once Alex Salmond unexpectedly threw his hat into the ring.
Ms Sturgeon agreed to become Mr Salmond's deputy, standing in for him as the party's "Holyrood leader" while Mr Salmond remained an MP at Westminster.
After the SNP's victory in the 2007 election, Ms Sturgeon became Scotland's deputy first minister and health secretary, seeing through popular SNP pledges such as the reversal of A&E closures and the abolition of prescription charges.
She also won praise for her handling of the swine flu crisis, and played a large part in the SNP's historic majority in the 2011 election.
Ms Sturgeon later described the result - and the dismantling of Labour strongholds across the country - as having broken the mould of Scottish politics, and put the SNP's success down to being "in touch with the country it served".
Ms Sturgeon subsequently accepted one of the Scottish government's biggest roles, overseeing the 2014 independence referendum, and was the obvious successor to Mr Salmond when he stood down as both first minister and SNP leader after voters rejected independence by 55% to 45%.
In her first six months in the job, Ms Sturgeon led the SNP to a stunning success in last year's general election, when the party won 56 of the 59 seats in Scotland.
The party also won a third successive victory in the Scottish Parliament election on 5 May 2016, when it won 63 of the 129 seats - short of a majority, but all but guaranteeing Ms Sturgeon will remain as first minister.
Ms Sturgeon is married to Peter Murrell, who is chief executive of the SNP. The pair wed in 2010, after meeting 15 years previously at an SNP youth weekend in Aberdeenshire.
Jim Wallace: Between 1999 and 2001
Liberal Democrat Jim Wallace never held the post of first minister on a permanent basis but was called on to do the job on three occasions when sickness, death and scandal befell the Labour incumbent.
The politician, now known as Lord Wallace of Tankerness, became deputy first minister in 1999, staying in the post until his resignation as Scottish Liberal Democrat leader on a high, following a good night at the polls for his party in the 2005 UK election.
He studied law at Edinburgh University and worked as an advocate before entering parliament in the 1983 General Election as MP for Orkney and Shetland.
Mr Wallace joined the Liberal Party in 1972 and became its Scottish party leader in 1992, before being elected MSP for Orkney when devolution happened in 1999.
When no clear winner emerged in the first devolved government, Mr Wallace's Liberal Democrats agreed to become Labour's coalition partner.
He credits his party's role in the coalition for bringing about policies like scrapping up-front tuition fees, free personal care and Scotland's "right to roam" land reforms.
But it was not all plain sailing when, as Scottish justice minister, Lord Wallace was forced to perform a series of u-turns, with plans to ban smacking, close Peterhead jail and open up children's hearings to over-16s all dropped.
Less than a year after devolution, Mr Wallace took up the post of first minister when Donald Dewar became ill, stepping in again when he died in October 2000.
When Mr McLeish quit in 2001, Lord Wallace found himself, albeit briefly, back in the hot seat, and his efforts saw him named Scottish Politician of the Year.
After his move to the Lords and a bit of a back seat, Lord Wallace again found himself in government, putting his political and legal skills to use as Advocate General for Scotland in the UK coalition.
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Anthony van Dyke was court painter of which English monarch? | Salmond's EU crisis: polling suggests Scottish voters care | UK news | The Guardian
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Salmond's EU crisis: polling suggests Scottish voters care
The backlash over the first minister's phantom legal advice on EU membership has been one of the most difficult of his now record-breaking tenure, and the opinion polls suggest the issue could matter to Scottish voters
Alex Salmond, pictured here at a 2014 Commonwealth games event, has endured a very rocky time over EU membership. Photograph: Jeff J Mitchell/Getty Images
Wednesday 7 November 2012 09.19 EST
First published on Wednesday 7 November 2012 09.19 EST
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The continuing furore over Alex Salmond's legal advice on an independent Scotland's entry into the European Union is certainly not how he would wish to celebrate becoming Scotland's longest-serving first minister.
That milestone – surpassing Jack McConnell's tenure as the last Labour first minister - was passed on Wednesday; Salmond has now been first minister for 2002 days – a milestone marked by the Herald on Saturday with a useful 'report card' style piece, profiles and interviews by the BBC and elsewhere.
The Scottish Sun (@ScottishSun)
EU liar: Alex Salmond blasted as SNP are forced into climbdown after admitting they never took legal advice on EU entry thescottishsun.co.uk/scotsol/homepa…
October 23, 2012
Future polling will tell us whether the EU legal advice crisis has affected Salmond's wider popularity – splash headlines such as "EU Liar" in the Scottish edition of the Sun cannot have helped - and wider support for independence.
What recent polling tells us about Scottish attitudes to European Union membership is instructive: it suggests that Scots tend to be more Euro-phile than voters elsewhere in the UK, and have less deep-seated hostility towards the EU and institutions.
But that tendency is balanced by consistently significant levels of scepticism in Scotland – not as deep rooted as in England, certainly, but still commanding more a third of voter sentiment.
While sketchy (no in-depth Scottish polling on Europe has been done of late), the Scottish data suggests voters may be more troubled by doubts about maintaining EU membership than most English voters. In the short-term, that could make life more uncomfortable for Salmond and the SNP. It also illustrates why Salmond and Nicola Sturgeon, his deputy, are keen to regain control of this agenda.
Professor John Curtice , the elections expert at Strathclyde university and a research consultant with the Scottish Centre for Social Research, says the Scottish samples in recent YouGov polling suggests a warmer attitude towards Europe – but only by a few percentage points. Nothing dramatic.
Curtice said:
We know from the standard Scottish Social attitudes survey's constitutional preferences question that those in favour of independence would prefer to be in rather than out of the EU by a ratio of around 2:1.
Otherwise it is a case of scratching around the Scottish end of British polls.
Three UK-wide YouGov polls since December which tested sentiment in detail had a modest total sample of 473 Scottish voters. What they did show that 13% of Scots favoured "more integrated Europe" versus an 8% UK average, with 18% of Scots favouring the status quo against 14% across the UK.
Asked about less integration, that was backed by 36% of Scots against a 37% UK average; on complete EU withdrawal, Scots voters were somewhat less supportive: 23% of UK voters as a whole favoured pulling out, against 19% of Scottish voters. So when those answers are aggregated, we find a slim majority which is critical of the status quo.
Both the ambivalence and the scepticism were underlined by a fourth YouGov poll last month , for the Sunday Times. Again, the Scottish sample was small – the weighted sample was 165 (unweighted 198) – but if found that 62% of Scots wanted a referendum on EU membership (two points more than the UK total).
While the UK-wide figures were very firmly in favour of quitting the EU by 48% to the 31% who preferred to stay in (presumably because of the eurozone debt crisis), in Scotland opinion was more cleanly divided. YouGov found 42% would vote to leave the EU against 43% who would vote to stay.
But cast forward, what if the Westminster coalition government's split over a future referendum on Europe deepens?
What if, in the run-up to the 2015 general election, David Cameron is forced into ever-greater concessions to Tory Eurosceptics while his deputy Nick Clegg continues to champion European integration, and rails violently against his Tory partners as he bids to build for the election?
Perhaps then, an SNP strategy of embracing Europe might eventually play well at home. While facing a hammering on the non-existent EU legal advice, SNP ministers and spin-doctors are carefully at work here , preparing a longer term strategy, as part of their shift to capture the centre left high ground in Scotland from Labour.
There is a reason for that, says Prof James Mitchell , a Scottish politics specialist also at Strathclyde university, and co-author of the definitive study on SNP members politics and attitudes, The Scottish National Party, published by OUP.
He said the differences between Scottish and English sentiment on Europe are often exaggerated; the aggregated polling results underline that point. Indeed Scotland was once the most Euro-sceptic part of the UK: it came close to voting against EEC membership in 1975 referendum.
Yet that changed markedly during the Thatcher era; while she became more phobic and hostile, senior Scottish political figures and opinion-formers became fans of Brussels. The SNP became a keenly pro-EU party in the early 90s.
That could happen again: a Euro-phobic Tory-led government could make Scots more favourable to Europe.
Because Scots want to define ourselves as 'not Tories', [there's] no doubt we know from the past that London, particularly under the Tories and how they behave, affects the Scottish view of things. If the past is any guide, we can expect a shift.
So Salmond's pro-Europe positioning "could make sense, longer term.
What will be interesting will be not only what the SNP says but how the various elites and opinion formers in Scotland react: how does the Labour party, the unions and business leaders react? What the SNP is trying to do is lead opinion in a direction to highlight differences [with Westminster].
So, would Salmond's troubles over EU membership and legal advice make Scotland's Euro-sceptics more cynical about independence? Half-jokingly, Mitchell asks whether some would vote for independence if Scotland's continued EU membership was in doubt.
Yet there are troubles here too for Salmond within the SNP. Senior figures in the older more conservative SNP generation – former leader Gordon Wilson and former SNP MP and deputy leader Jim Sillars – want Scotland to quit the EU and like Norway join the European Free Trade Alliance instead, reported the Herald on Tuesday . As open critics from within the SNP they are in a minority, but it shows that ambivalence is widespread. Salmond will need to tread carefully; playing the pro-EU card could be risky.
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Who directed and co-starred in the 1958 film ‘Touch of Evil’? | Touch of Evil (1958) - IMDb
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A stark, perverse story of murder, kidnapping, and police corruption in a Mexican border town.
Director:
Orson Welles (screenplay), Whit Masterson (based on the novel "Badge Of Evil" by)
Stars:
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Title: Touch of Evil (1958)
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6 wins & 1 nomination. See more awards »
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Storyline
Mexican Narcotics officer Ramon Miguel 'Mike' Vargas has to interrupt his honeymoon on the Mexican-US border when an American building contractor is killed after someone places a bomb in his car. He's killed on the US side of the border but it's clear that the bomb was planted on the Mexican side. As a result, Vargas delays his return to Mexico City where he has been mounting a case against the Grandi family crime and narcotics syndicate. Police Captain Hank Quinlan is in charge on the US side and he soon has a suspect, a Mexican named Manolo Sanchez. Vargas is soon onto Quinlan and his Sergeant, Pete Menzies, when he catches them planting evidence to convict Sanchez. With his new American wife, Susie, safely tucked away in a hotel on the US side of the border - or so he thinks - he starts to review Quinlan's earlier cases. While concentrating on the corrupt policeman however, the Grandis have their own plans for Vargas and they start with his wife Susie. Written by garykmcd
The Overwhelming Drama of a Strange Vengeance See more »
Genres:
Rated PG-13 for some violence and drug content | See all certifications »
Parents Guide:
February 1958 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Badge of Evil See more »
Filming Locations:
$70,725 (USA) (11 September 1998)
Gross:
Did You Know?
Trivia
When Orson Welles discovered that his film was recut, he wrote a letter to the production house with specifics on how he would have wanted the film to be released. This memo, thought to be lost, was found to be in the possession of star Charlton Heston and was the basis for the re-edited 1998 re-release. See more »
Goofs
When Menzies tells Vargas that his wife is charged with murder, Vargas says, "Murder?" His lips don't move. See more »
Quotes
See more »
Crazy Credits
In the 111-minute restored version, there are no credits at all until the end of the film. See more »
Connections
(Andorra) – See all my reviews
Seldom have I seen so many comments with so little understanding. The movie is not about Heston's "Mexican-ness" or lack of it. The movie is not about the 5 or 8 or 10 minute opening shot. The movie is not even, god help us, about Welles' descent from the heights into "slumming it" in a "Grade B" flick.
The movie is about two things : film-making, and character. Every shot worth remembering (and there are few that aren't) is an exercise in the possibilities of film, particularly black and white film. Woody Allen makes movies in black and white that are all conversation. Welles made movies in black and white because that's where the colors of the characters, the location and ultimately the meaning of the movie are possible. Black and white film is about the infinite possibilities of shadow. Touch of Evil is about the infinite possibilities of human nature.
Heston, for those of you who just can't see past a "bad" accent is about rigidity and short-sightedness. What kind of idiot would leave his wife in all those threatening situations? The kind of idiot who can't imagine that anyone would harm HIS wife, simply because she IS his wife! Akim Tamiroff's Grandi is about flexibility to the point of breakage. Always playing ALL ends against the middle he is the essence of "harmless" corruption, that ultimately harms everyone.
And Welles' Hank Quinlan ... I just don't have the time or space to explain that Quinlan is about the true cost of police work when the humanity has gone out of it. Ultimately Quinlan would kill his best and only friend, the only one, as Dietrich has it, who really loves him. At one time, perhaps, Quinlan WAS the image that Pete Menzies saw. But the man behind that image was eaten up long ago with alcohol and frustrated grief. It's all about winning and losing now, and things he would never do. Until he does them.
There are so many other moments and characters that I'm afraid you'll just have to watch the film with your eyes and your mind open instead of shut to "get it". Pay attention to what's on the screen instead of the smart, cynical, hip comments you can make about an actual work of heart.
Well, what the hell. Joan Didion said it best. Film criticism is petit point on kleenex.
Raoul Duke
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What is the full width of a badminton court in feet? | 'Touch of Venice' Mural Finished on Windward Avenue - Venice, CA Patch
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'Touch of Venice' Mural Finished on Windward Avenue
The new mural by artist Jonas Never remembers a past age of Venice and adorns the side of Danny's Deli on Windward Avenue.
By Paul Chavez (Patch Staff) - April 24, 2012 4:24 am ET
The finishing touches of the sweeping "Touch of Venice" mural on Windward Avenue have been applied and the homage to Venice history, culture and film stands ready to provide something for everyone for decades to come.
The 102-foot-by-50-foot adaptation of Hollywood legend Orson Welles' 1958 film "Touch of Evil" was completed a few weeks ago, muralist Jonas Never said Monday.
Never has been working on the gigantic mural since November and said he enjoyed painting it and hearing from the public as the work progressed.
"It's in that part of Venice Beach where you get a cross-section of America," Never said. "Locals, tourists, homeless and artists come through here and all of them had different takes on the mural and what should be there."
The film harkens back to Welles' dark film noir classic and its opening sequence, which is one of the best tracking shots in cinema history. The famous scene was shot along Windward and Pacific avenues with Venice doubling as a Mexican border town in the film about drug cartels, corrupt cops and inter-racial marriage. The film was written, directed and co-starred Welles and featured Charlton Heston and Janet Leigh, who are shown in the mural's foreground strolling up Windward Avenue. Welles also can be seen in the lower right side of the mural and Never hid a self-portrait of himself on the right side, too.
"I wanted to capture what Venice was, what it could be and what it is today," Never said.
A lofty goal to be sure, but one that Never achieves not only with his exceptional skills as an artist, but also with his well thought-out approach to the task.
For example, Never includes details in the mural that he couldn't find in historic photos, but spotted elsewhere. The old Townhouse logo and sign in the mural was seen in another old movie, the 49er sign was found on matchbooks and the Chop Suey sign was discovered in a random tour guide from the 1960s, Never said.
A "Jesus Saves" sign on the southern side of the mural was turned into a "Dog Town" sign in reference to Venice's historic skateboard scene and the inclusion of the old "People's Drug Co." sign seemed a good fit given the medical marijuana prescriptions available on the boardwalk and the wafts of pot smoke that sometimes drifted upward as he worked on the mural, Never said.
Never said he watched "Touch of Evil" three times to find a good quote for the mural, but the movie was such a downer that nothing worked. He ended up lifting a line – "like a dream that I remember from an easier time" – from a song by a band from his dad's hometown in New Jersey.
He added the line and the title to the mural so it wouldn't look like a photograph, but instead like the opening scene of a movie. A few passers-by have second-guessed him on the title and quote, but Never said he's spotted plenty of tourists taking pictures underneath both.
Whether you're a film buff, a local, a tourist or a longtime Venice resident, Never said he hopes there's something in the mural for everyone to appreciate.
Ann Everest and Simone Scharff of General Real Estate, one of the biggest property management firms in Venice, commissioned the work.
"They couldn't have been better benefactors of the process," Never said. "They knew my style and my taste and rather than pandering to something that was a settlement, they let me run with my vision of it and supported it 100 percent."
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‘Say hello to my little friend’ is a quote from which film starring Al Pacino? | Al Pacino: Say hello to my little friend! - YouTube
Al Pacino: Say hello to my little friend!
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Published on Sep 15, 2013
Quote: You wanna play rough? Okay. Say hello to my little friend!
Actor: Al Pacino
Movie/Show: Scarface
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Standard, Miniature and Toy are all breeds of which dog? | Al Pacino's Scarface machine gun up for auction - Telegraph
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Al Pacino's Scarface machine gun up for auction
The machine gun that Al Pacino used in the 1983 film Scarface and which his character referred to as "my little friend" is expected to fetch £100,000 at auction.
The M-16A1 machine gun was also wielded by Arnold Schwarzenegger in the 1987 film Predator Photo: REX
5:30PM BST 03 Sep 2010
The Hollywood star, who played Tony Montana in the gangster movie, was a method actor and insisted his weapon was the correct weight – so he used a real M-16A1 machine gun.
In the film, he said the line "say hello to my little friend" before killing four rival gunmen with it.
At the time the weapon was a live firing fully automatic machine gun and grenade launcher. It was also wielded by Arnold Schwarzenegger in the 1987 film Predator.
Following the death of actor Brandon Lee, who was accidentally shot by a live round fired from a pistol on a film set in 1993, the US banned automatic weapons in filming.
As a result Pacino's weapon was retired and was privately bought from the props company that owned it by collector Kevin Martin 12 years ago.
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Which two US actors played the title roles in the 1969 film ‘Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid’? | Butch Cassidy And The Sundance Kid Cast List: Actors and Actresses from Butch Cassidy And The Sundance Kid
Full Cast of Butch Cassidy And The Sundance Kid Actors/Actresses
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Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid cast list, listed alphabetically with photos when available. This list of Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid actors includes any Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid actresses and all other actors from the film. You can view additional information about each Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid actor on this list, such as when and where they were born. To find out more about a particular actor or actress, click on their name and you'll be taken to page with even more details about their acting career. The cast members of Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid have been in many other movies, so use this list as a starting point to find actors or actresses that you may not be familiar with.
List contains actors like Paul Newman and Robert Redford.
If you want to answer the questions, "Who starred in the movie Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid?" and "What is the full cast list of Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid?" then this page has got you covered.
This cast list of who was in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid includes both lead and minor roles. (12 items)
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Captain James Cook began his training as a seaman in the 18th Century at which English port? | 'Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid': THR's 1969 Review
'Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid': THR's 1969 Review
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On Sept. 23, 1969, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid premiered in Los Angeles. The film, starring Paul Newman and Robert Redford, impressed critics and eventually claimed box-office glory and four Oscars. The Hollywood Reporter's review, originally titled "'Sundance' Beams With Joy: A Great & Profitable Film," is below:
For an industry whose portion of non-creative, irresponsible agents and system-bound producers have brought it close to collapse by over-pricing familiar failures whose liability to endless productions is the only clear measurable, it is a relatively promising event to encounter a screenplay which has been overpriced in direct ratio to its merit. 20th's release of Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, a Campanile production, has both William Goldman's justly expensive screenplay and two stars who could not be better fitted to the realization of the title roles. Thus inspired, director George Roy Hill's intelligence and craft have never been so clearly and confidently manifest in bringing to the screen the aggregate virtues of the ingredients.
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid is the story of two of the most likeable outlaws in western history, researched in facts and conveyed in joyous contemporary spirit, employing the broadcast spectrum of creative techniques to sustain the timeless aura of legend and the vital, damned-fool heroics of its characters. Both are still young, yet nearly over the hill, threatened by the increasingly dirty, mechanized resource of law-men and the railroads, who are taking the sport and the wits out of the chase. A Newman-Foreman presentation, produced by John Foreman, with Paul Monash as executive producer, the picture stars Paul Newman, Robert Redford and Katharine Ross. In no less degree, it stars cinematographer Conrad Hall. It is a great film and will be an exceptionally popular and profitable one.
Romantic Legend
Much like Citizen Kane, the film opens with a small screen, black and white, simulated newsreel, circa 1905, of the team known as "The Wild Bunch." Quick-witted Butch (Newman) and fast-draw Sundance (Redford) are already fabled, undefeated and seemingly undefeatable champions of their trade. Says Newman, "I got vision and the rest of the world wears bifocals." What he sees of late pleases him less and less and he looks to new frontiers, new pickings, beyond the reach of the hired killers the railroad has enlisted to stop their infernal raids on the train's money runs.
With Redford and Katharine Ross, Redford's hotblooded schoolteacher girlfriend, he seeks a new lease on life in Bolivia, after a wild tour of turn-of-the-century highlife in Manhattan and aboard ship. After an hilarious and humiliating series of rudimentary Spanish lessons necessary to inform the locals that "This is a stickup!"; after nearly being robbed by local bandidos who play dirty and force Newman to kill for the first time; too late to go straight, pursued with a vengeance more appropriate to their legend than their acts and code, they proceed straight to their destiny, which fittingly requires no less than a massed army to bring them down.
The film ends with one of the most appropriate uses of freeze frame since Truffaut's The 400 Blows. It freezes the characters' most unquenchably foolhardy heroics, as the soundtrack plays out the final action, a roar of gunfire that brings their lives to an inevitable conclusion, but also a cannonade whose reverberation perpetuates their memory and carries it in romantic legend through history. Early in the film, Newman visits the town of Power Springs, encountering a squat and ugly armory that is the new bank. "What was the matter with the old bank this town used to have?" he asks the guard. "It was beautiful." The guard responds, "People kept robbing it." "A small price to pay for beauty," Newman shrugs, aware that "the architects of this world are the enemies of mankind."
Another of the techniques frequently employed ill of late and used with perfect aptitude in this film is the musical interlude, underscored by song. The song is "Raindrops Are Falling On My Head," with music by Burt Bacharach and lyric by Hal David, sung in lazy-daisy pop style by B.J. Thomas to underscore the carefree celebration of the two robbers on holiday, as Newman and Miss Ross try out a new-fangled bicycle in a woodland idyll.
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Fine Drama
The film also balances black and white sequences and shifts to color exactly and creates a fine dramatic and historical tintype effect using a green-gold tint. Throughout, Conrad Hall's inventive and dramatically sound application of color and focal effects exploits the best potential of Panavision and Color by DeLuxe, which respond consistent to the artistic challenge.
John Neuhart creates an outstanding graphic montage of panned still photos of the period in which the faces of the three principals are cheated into period stills of Manhattan street crowds and Coney Island funmakers. These are augmented by whole brilliant sequences, such as the shipboard party and dance, shot in a progression of stills. The stills are the photo recreations of Lawrence Schiller, and the monumental and punctilious editing is in the superior command of John C. Howard and Richard C. Meyer.
Second unit direction was wisely entrusted to Mickey Moore, working with second unit cinematographer Harold C. Wellman. The outstanding complement of key personnel at their best also includes young assistant directors Jack Martin Smith and Philip Jeffries, set decorators Walter M. Scott and Chester L. Bayhi and special photographic effects specialists L.B. Abbott and Art Cruickshank. Achievement of the latter pair, in concert with cinematographer Hall, is extraordinarily worthy.
Noteworthy, too, is the sound by William E. Edmondson and David E. Dockendorf.
Most Inventive
One of the most inventive and appropriate participants in the buoyant and heady action of the film's witty character study is Burt Bacharach, who composed the score, not to neglect the contribution of those venerable orchestrators, Leo Shuken and Jack Hayes. From the first to the final solo piano memory theme, through a remarkable sax and guitar duet and the heavenly incongruity of a chase set to a Swingle Singer-like choral arrangement, Bacharach's score breaks every tradition while sustaining a perfect musical wedding to the style and action of the film.
Like Butch Cassidy, like no other, the film grants and gains from Paul Newman a performance to match the presence, a cresting achievement in a career whose disappointments have been less frequent than many and almost always with honor. Redford, whose contribution to the shrewdly timed comic interchanges with Newman are crucial and precise, profits most, with the best role he has had since Barefoot in the Park, a far better assignment and performance than that and one by which his stardom may at last be defined.
Miss Ross, while possibly a bit less earthy than the role prescribes, is very good, while Strother Martin is outstanding as the manager of the Bolivian Tin mines who hires the pair to ride rifles over his payroll. As the cordial company patriot who greets the robbers like old friends but insists upon being blasted from his post on guard of the railroad vault, Georg Furth creates an excellent comedy characterization. Ted Cassidy, Henry Jones, Jeff Corey, Donnelly Rhodes, Kenneth Mars, and Don Keefer, a victim whose admiration for the robbers is greater than his loyalty to the railroad, all contribute sound, clear and endearing characterizations under Hill's wise and winning direction.
Now if someone could just talk Goldman into breaking down and cracking his own novels for the screen. - John Mahoney, originally published Sept. 10, 1965.
Twitter: @THRArchives
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How many stations are on the London Underground Victoria Line? | Victoria Line Underground Stations - Facts, Trivia And Impressions - Randomly London
This post is part of my Randomly London v. The Tube Challenge . Get the latest about challenge updates here . Donate to Bowel Cancer UK here .
Retro Victoria Line Tube Map Found At Pimlico, the only station still using this type of map.
Given that London has few sunny and warm weekends, especially in September, most Londoners make the most of them when they do happen. I, on the other hand, chose to ride the tube from Brixton to Walthamstow Central along the Victoria line.
The Victoria line is an interesting one for a few reasons: it was the first deep level underground line to be built across central London since 1907, it is the longest line entirely underground (at least for the travelling public), and almost every station has tiled artwork relating to the station itself, or the surrounding area.
I visited each of the 16 stations on the line over the course of approximately 3 hours on the very sunny 8th of September. Here are my impressions and a random fact about each station:
Brixton
Huge London Underground roundel at Brixton station and tiled artwork at platform level playing on the "brick" part of the name.
Impressions: Brixton is among the more interesting areas of London. It has reputation for being somewhat dodgy and dangerous, but in my opinion this view is increasingly outdated. While Brixton remains at present a mixed area, all signs point to rapid gentrification. The most noticeable feature about Brixton station, to my mind, is the huge London Underground roundel over the entrance. It was also extremely busy on the day I visited.
Random Fact: Brixton station opened in 1971, 3 years after the first section of the Victoria line. Tweet This
Stockwell
The entrance to Stockwell Station and the bizarre dazzle inspired tiled artwork at platform level.
Impressions: If Brixton is one of the most interesting areas of London, Stockwell feels like one of the most bland. Stockwell station is one of the ugliest stations on the whole network. The view is not much improved once you leave, as you're immediately thrust onto busy Clapham Road. The one interesting thing I did notice about the station is that there is no up escalator from the northbound Victoria line platform. I guess not many people go from Brixton to Stockwell by tube. It was also far less busy than Brixton.
Random Fact: Stockwell is the southernmost London underground station that serves more than one line. Tweet This
Vauxhall
Vauxhall Bus & Tube station in rare traffic free moment and the tiled artwork at platform level.
Impressions: Vauxhall station feels a bit like a rabbit warren when you leave the ticket hall, as there are exits and entrances in all directions. Once you manage to get yourself outside, you're again confronted with a series of busy roads. Not the most beautiful area of London. There are, however, two notable sights. The first is the conspicuous MI6 headquarters, which I've always found a little bizarre. Surely the point of the SIS is to remain secret? The second is the Vauxhall bus station, whose roof looks like a ramp to the sky.
Random Fact: The Russian word for 'central railway station' (vokzal) is likely named after Vauxhall . Tweet This
Pimlico
Pimlico Station's unique roundel and dot inspired artwork at platform level.
Impressions: Just the other side of the river from Vauxhall, Pimlico has an entirely different feel. When you leave Vauxhall underground station you're confronted with a series of busy roads, but when you leave Pimlico station you feel right in the heart of residential London. Pimlico was designed as an extension of Belgravia, yet I've always felt it has far more of an edge to it.
This is of course only relative to the most expensive area of London. In the station itself, the thing that really stood out to me was the fact that most of the original signage and maps are still in use from when the station first opened in 1972. This is the only station I came across where this is the case, and hence, it is my favourite station along the line.
Random Fact #1: Pimlico station is the only station on the Victoria line not to have an interchange with any other tube/rail line. Tweet This
Random Fact #2: Pimlico station opened in 1972, the last station to open on the Victoria line. Tweet This
Victoria
The exterior of Victoria Station without too many tourists and the tiled artwork of Queen Victoria's silhouette at platform level.
Impressions: I travel through Victoria almost every day for work and it's always incredibly busy. If possible, it's even worse at the weekend. There are tourists everywhere who have no idea where they're going. It's a bit of shame, because Victoria Rail Station is an impressive building but I always find myself wanting to leave as quickly as possible.
Random Fact: Victoria station is the second busiest on the network after Waterloo. Tweet This
Green Park
The entrance to Green Park station along the green wall which leads directly in and out of Green Park itself and more dot inspired tiled artwork at platform level.
Impressions: Green Park tube station is another popular station with tourists at the weekend, due to its proximity to Buckingham Palace. The station has recently undergone refurbishment, which gives it a nice modern feel. It also means you can now enter/exit directly from Green Park along a 'living' green wall.
Random Fact: Green Park is one of three Victoria line stations that intersect with the Piccadilly line. Tweet This
Oxford Circus
Entrance and Exit to Oxford Circus Tube. My least favourite tube station on the Victoria line. I failed to get a good picture of the artwork at platform level due to passenger volumes.
Impressions: I tend to follow the old saying, 'a true Londoner never walks along Oxford Street, only across it.' Thus, I do my utmost to avoid the area at all times since it's another area completely mobbed by tourists. Due to my rather strong feelings, I found that Oxford Circus station is my least favourite. It doesn't even follow the tiled artwork designs of all other Victoria Line stations, hence the pictures above.
Random fact: Oxford Circus is the busiest tube station without a national rail connection. Tweet This
Warren Street
Warren Street Station Entrance and the maze-like artwork (a play on "warren") at platform level.
Impressions: I travel through Warren Street station almost every day, but have never formed a strong feeling about it one way or another before. Few people get on or off here. My station visit does little to change my initial impressions. The main highlight for me at this point is that after visiting Warren Street station, I'm halfway done the Victoria line.
Random fact: The doors for trains on all four platforms at Warren Street open on the left hand-side. Tweet This
Euston
The entrance sign to Euston Station and the tiled artwork of the Euston Arch, which ironically was destroyed before the Victoria line platforms opened.
Impressions: Euston is normally where I leave the Victoria line in the morning and where I rejoin it in the evening. From a commuting point of view, the station is great because you can transfer directly between the Northern line and the Victoria line across the platform. This makes transfers very quick. However, Euston National Rail station is easily the ugliest station in London. Designed in typical Brutalist style, the station is a crime against architecture.
Random Fact: Euston Victoria line platforms have tiles of the 'Euston Arch'. Ironically it was knocked down before the line opened. Tweet This
King's Cross-St. Pancras
Sign for King's Cross Station with St. Pancras station in the background and the tiled artwork at platform level - a cross of crowns (for Kings).
Impressions: This is the heart of the tube. Over half of London's underground lines come through the station. On top of that, it serves two National rail stations (from where it gets its rather unwieldy name). Both stations have undergone major refurbishment in the last few years and are each worth a visit.
Unfortunately, the area immediately surrounding the stations is still a little rough around the edges, although I gather from talking to a friend of mine who grew up in the area, that it's much better than it was in the late 80s and early 90s. The Victoria line platforms are rather unremarkable, but it is the only stop along my whole visit where my train is delayed.
Random Fact: King's Cross-St. Pancras station is the most connected London Underground station with connections to 6 lines. Tweet This
Highbury & Islington
Entrance sign to Highbury & Islington Station and tiled artwork of Highbury House, which was finally demolished in 1938.
Impressions: Highbury & Islington station is interesting because it's tucked away beside The Famous Cock Tavern. Unlike most other stations on the Victoria line, the entrance to Highbury & Islington almost feels like a secret. However, while the station itself is well connected, it isn't really that remarkable.
Random Fact: Highbury & Islington was briefly the southern terminus for the Victoria line when it first opened. Tweet This
Finsbury Park
Finsbury Park Station entrance and a pair of duelling pistols as Finsbury Park was a popular site for duelling in the 18th century.
Impressions: Finsbury Park station is odd because there are no Oyster/ticket gateways when you leave the tube. It also doesn't have any escalators or lifts, only stairs to ground level. The area around the station feels very mixed, with expensive coffee shops such as Costa next to bordered up buildings. I get the sense I'm now on my way out of central London.
Random Fact: The first station at Finsbury Park opened on 1 July, 1861 and was originally named Seven Sisters Road (Holloway). Tweet This
Seven Sisters
Seven Sisters station entrance and the artwork depicting the seven elms that give the area its name
Impressions: I have friends who used to live in Seven Sisters, so I'm vaguely familiar with the area. While it's by no means the suburbs, it's also not central London. It's one of those areas that's stuck in between. Like Finsbury Park, the area has a very mixed feeling to it, although fewer signs of gentrification. The station also has a disused platform you can visit, if you're into that sort of thing.
Random Fact: The distance between Seven Sisters and Finsbury Park is the longest between adjacent stations in deep level tunnels. Tweet This
Tottenham Hale
Tottenham Hale Station entrance and the interesting artwork found at platform level.
Impressions: Tottenham Hale really does not feel like London any more. In fact it could be almost anywhere in the UK. The area outside the station is nothing more than a parking lot with a bunch of big box chain shops.
Random fact: Tottenham Hale was originally called just Tottenham and opened in 1840. It was renamed when it became a Victoria line station. Tweet This
Blackhorse Road
A tiny image of Blackhorse Road Station and the very original artwork found at platform level.
Impressions: Blackhorse Road station is another relatively nondescript station (similar to Stockwell). The area outside is not glamorous, but it's a very small improvement over Tottenham Hale. However, the Standard Music venue and Waltham Forest Business Centre both look like they've seen better days,
Random Fact: Blackhorse Road is the least used station on the Victoria Line. Tweet This
Walthamstow Central
The welcome sight of Walthamstow Central Station and the headache inducing artwork you can find at platform level.
Impressions: Finally after 15 other stations, I arrive at my final destination of Walthamstow Central. Like many of the preceding stations, the area feels decidedly mixed. The exit from the station is not the most obvious as there are several ways to go, and I end up on the National Rail platforms.
However, once you get out of the station, there are crowds of people enjoying the adjacent park. It's not an altogether bad place to end up at the end of a journey, but I still have to make the trek back south to my neck of the woods.
Random fact: Walthamstow Central was originally known as Hoe Street before the Victoria line arrived. Tweet This
Oyster journey history, proof I tapped in and out at each station along the Victoria line.
Many of my impressions of the Victoria line are clouded by the fact that I use it every day to get to and from work. Overall, it's the tube's workhorse; it serves a vital role in helping to keep the whole network running. It's also the second shortest line and doesn't venture too far from central London.
Other positives about the line include the fact that it has among the most modern carriages on the network and the fact that, at rush hour, trains run every 2 minutes or less. While in theory this should mean you almost never have to wait for a train in the morning, in practice it means that you often have to wait for several to go by before finding one with enough space to cram yourself in.
10 Victoria Line Facts:
Number of stations: 16. Tweet This
Journey time from Brixton to Walthamstow Central (if you don't get off at each station): 32 minutes. Tweet This
Random Fact #1: Only line entirely underground, besides the Waterloo & City line. Tweet This
Random Fact #2: Most intensively used line based on average number of journeys per mile. Tweet This
Random Fact #3: One of only two lines built after the war (The other is the Jubilee line) Tweet This
Random Fact #4: The Victoria line allows trains to store gravitational potential energy as they slow down and release it when they leave a station. Tweet This
Random Fact #5: Other proposed names for the line included the "Walvic line" (Walthamstow – Victoria) and "Viking line" (Victoria – King's Cross). Tweet This
Favourite Station: Pimlico, because it feels like a secret staion right in the heart of London.
Least Favourite Station: Oxford Circus, mostly because I hate Oxford Street and the station is always overrun with tourists.
How you can help the challenge:
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Yeux is French for which part of the body? | London Underground: 150 fascinating Tube facts - Telegraph
Telegraph
150 London Underground facts (including the birth of Jerry Springer in East Finchley station)
It's closed today, but it's still interesting Credit: John Stillwell
Jolyon Attwooll , Travel writer
9 January 2017 • 11:00am
You can't ride it today, thanks to industrial action. But you can learn a few things about the Tube instead.
1. There is only one Tube station which does not have any letters of the word 'mackerel' in it: St John's Wood.
2. The average speed on the Underground is 20.5 miles per hour including station stops.
3. The busiest Tube station is Waterloo, which was used by around 95 million passengers in 2015. In 2014 Oxford Circus took top spot, in 2009 it was Victoria, and in 2005 it was King's Cross,
4. On the Metropolitan line, trains can reach over 60mph.
The Night Tube service started on August 19, 2016 Credit: AFP or licensors/DANIEL LEAL-OLIVAS
5. The shortest distance between two adjacent stations on the underground network is only 260 metres. The tube journey between Leicester Square and Covent Garden on the Piccadilly Line takes only about 20 seconds, but costs £4.90 (cash fare). Yet it still remains one of the most popular journeys with tourists.
6. Many tube stations were used as air-raid shelters during the Second World War, but the Central Line was even converted into a fighter aircraft factory that stretched for over two miles, with its own railway system. Its existence remained an official secret until the 1980s.
7. Angel has the Underground's longest escalator at 60m/197ft, with a vertical rise of 27.5m.
8. The shortest escalator is Stratford, with a vertical rise of 4.1m.
9. Only 45 per cent of the Underground is actually in tunnels.
10. The longest distance between stations is on the Metropolitan line from Chesham to Chalfont & Latimer: a total of only 3.89 miles.
The history of the Tube in pictures
11. The longest continuous tunnel is on the Northern line and runs from East Finchley to Morden (via Bank), a total of 17.3 miles.
12. Aldgate Station, on the Circle and Metropolitan Lines, is built on a massive plague pit, where more than 1,000 bodies are buried.
13. The longest journey without change is on the Central line from West Ruislip to Epping, and is a total of 34.1 miles.
14. The deepest station is Hampstead on the Northern line, which runs down to 58.5 metres.
15. In Central London the deepest station below street level is also the Northern line. It is the DLR concourse at Bank, which is 41.4 metres below.
Only 45 per cent of the Underground is actually in tunnels
16. The TARDIS, (Dr Who’s transport) can be found outside Earl’s Court station. Or at least an old police call box can.
17. The London Underground manages about 10 per cent of all green spaces in London.
18. Wildlife observed on the Tube network includes woodpeckers, deer, sparrowhawk, bats, grass snakes, great crested newts, slow worms.
19. Over 47 million litres water are pumped from the Tube each day, enough to fill a standard leisure centre swimming pool (25 metres x 10 metres) every quarter of an hour.
20. The London Underground trains were originally steam powered.
21. The station with the most platforms is Baker Street with 10 (Moorgate also has 10 platforms but only six are used by Tube trains - others are used by overground trains).
22.The District Line has the most stations: 60.
There are 270 stations on the network Credit: Dominic Lipinski
23. The Waterloo and City Line has the fewest stations (no intermediate stations)
24. The Underground name first appeared on stations in 1908.
25. London Underground has been known as the Tube since 1890 due to the shape of the tunnels.
26. The first deep-level electric railway line also opened in 1890.
27. The Tube's logo is known as “the roundel” (a red circle crossed by a horizontal blue bar)
28. The station with the most escalators is Waterloo with 23.
29. The total number of passengers carried during 2013/14 was 1.265 billion – making it the world's 11th busiest metro.
30. The highest station above sea level is Amersham, at 147 metres.
What we love about the London Underground
31. Tube trains travelled 76.4 million kilometres last year.
32. The Northern line has the highest maximum number of trains required for scheduled peak period service: 91.
The Tube's logo is known as “the roundel” Credit: Reuters Photographer
33. The Waterloo & City line has the fewest scheduled for peak period service at just five.
34. The total length of the London Underground network is 250 miles.
35. In 1926, suicide pits were installed beneath tracks due to a rise in the numbers of passengers throwing themselves in front of trains.
36. The eastern extension of the Jubilee line is the only Underground line to feature glass screens to deter "jumpers".
37. The earliest trains run from Osterley to Heathrow on the Piccadilly line, starting at 4.45am.
38. The greatest elevation above the ground level is on the Northern line at Dollis Brook viaduct over Dollis road, Mill Hill: it rises a total of 18 metres (60ft).
39. One of the early names proposed for the Victoria Line was the Viking line.
40. In 1924, the first baby was born on the Underground, on a train at Elephant & Castle on the Bakerloo line.
The Tube's prettiest stations
41. The American talk show host Jerry Springer was born at East Finchley during the Second World War: his mother had taken shelter in the station from an air raid.
42. Builders working on the Bakerloo Line are reported to have suffered from the bends while tunnelling under the Thames.
43. The inaugural journey of the first Central line train in 1900 had the Prince of Wales and Mark Twain on board.
The total length of the London Underground network is 250 miles Credit: PA
44. The tunnels beneath the City curve significantly because they follow its medieval street plan.
45. The Central line introduced the first flat fare when it opened at the turn of the 20th century. The tuppence fare lasted until the end of June 1907 when a threepenny fare was introduced for longer journeys.
46. Charles Pearson, MP and Solicitor to the City of London, is credited with successfully campaigning for the introduction of the Underground. He died in 1862 shortly before the first train ran.
47. The first escalator on the Underground was installed at Earl's Court in 1911.
48. The first crash on the Tube occurred in 1938 when two trains collided between Waterloo and Charing Cross, injuring 12 passengers.
49. Harry Beck produced the well known Tube map diagram while working as an engineering draughtsman at the London Underground Signals Office. He was reportedly paid 10 guineas (£10.50) for his efforts.
50. Harry Beck’s map was considered too big a departure from the norm, but the public liked it and it became official in 1933.
51. Busking has been licensed on the Tube since 2003.
52. Sting and Paul McCartney are both rumoured to have busked on the Underground in disguise.
53. The phrase "Mind the gap" dates back to 1968. The recording that is broadcast on stations was first done by Peter Lodge, who had a recording company in Bayswater.
A photo posted by bologna|2001|galvani (@_f_r_e_0_1_) on
Aug 18, 2016 at 4:53am PDT
54. The Peter Lodge recording of “Mind the Gap” is still in use, but some lines use recordings by a Manchester voice artist Emma Clarke. On the Piccadilly line the recording is notable for being the voice of Tim Bentinck, who plays David Archer in The Archers.
55. The Jubilee Line was the only Underground Line to connect with all the others until the East London line ceased to be part of the Underground in 2007 (now the Central Line does too).
56. Approximately 50 passengers a year kill themselves on the Underground.
57. Fewer than 10 per cent of Tube stations lie south of the Thames.
58. The total number of lifts on the Underground, including four stair lifts, is 167.
Ye Olde London Underground Credit: Getty
59. Smoking was banned on the Underground as a result of the King's Cross fire in November 1987 which killed 31 people. A discarded match was thought to be the cause of that inferno.
60. An estimated half a million mice live in the Underground system.
London's lost Tube stations: in pictures
61. 1961 marked the end of steam and electric haulage of passenger trains on the London Underground.
62. One of the levels in Tomb Raider 3 is set in the disused Aldwych tube station, featuring scenes of Lara Croft killing rats.
63. In the film Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, the Hogwarts headmaster has a scar that resembles a map of the London Underground on his knee.
64.There are only two tube station names that contain all five vowels: Mansion House, and South Ealing.
65. Edward Johnston designed the font for the London Underground in 1916. The font he came up with is still in use today.
66. Amersham is also the most westerly tube station, as well as the highest (see above).
67. A macabre statistic is that the most popular tube suicide time is around 11am.
68. In January 2005, in an attempt to alleviate a problem with loitering young people, the London Underground announced it would play classical music at problem stations.
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69. The Underground has the oldest section of underground railway in the world, which opened in 1863.
70. The first section of the Underground ran between Paddington (Bishop's Road) and Farringdon Street. The same section now forms part of the Circle, Hammersmith & City, and Metropolitan lines.
London Underground: 10 of the funniest videos
71.The Underground was first used for air raid shelters in September 1940.
72. During the Second World War, part of the Piccadilly line (Holborn - Aldwych branch), was closed and British Museum treasures were stored in the empty spaces.
73. The London Passenger Transport Board was nationalised and became the London Transport Executive in 1948.
74. The first Tube tunnel was opened in 1880, running from the Tower of London to Bermondsey.
75. The Central Line used to be nicknamed as the 'Twopenny Tube' for its flat fare.
76. Dot matrix train destination indicators were introduced onto London Underground platforms in 1983.
77. The single worst accident in terms of fatalities on the Underground occurred on February 28, 1975 at Moorgate, when 42 people died.
78. The Piccadilly line extended to serve Heathrow Terminal 4 in 1986.
79. Penalty fares were only introduced in 1994.
80. The Tube carried one billion passengers in a year for the first time in 2007.
London Underground quiz
81.The last manually operated doors on Tube trains (replaced by air-operated doors) were phased out in 1929.
82.The Jubilee Line was named to mark Queen Elizabeth II’s Silver Jubilee in 1977 – but the line did not open until 1979.
A photo posted by Merve (@lknmerve) on
Aug 1, 2016 at 12:25pm PDT
83. A census carried out on September 27, 1940, found that 177,500 Londoners were sleeping in Tube stations.
84. During the war, special supply trains ran, providing seven tonnes of food and 2,400 gallons of tea and cocoa every night to people staying in the Tube.
85. Covent Garden is believed to be haunted by the ghost of William Terris who met an untimely death near the station in 1897.
86. Another station that is believed to be haunted is Farringdon. The so-called Screaming Spectre is believed to have been a milliner.
87. The Seven Sisters Underground station is believed to have been named after a line of elm trees which stood nearby until the 1830s.
88. The fictitious station of Walford East, which features in the long-running soap opera Eastenders, is supposed to be on the District Line.
89. Every week, Underground escalators travel the equivalent distance of going twice around the world.
90. According to TFL, London Underground trains travel a total of 1,735 times around the world (or 90 trips to the moon and back) each year.
91. A spiral escalator was installed in 1907 at Holloway Road station, but linear escalators were favoured for the rest of the network. A small section of the spiral escalator is in the Acton depot.
92. A small section of the old London Wall survives in the trackside walls of Tower Hill station at platform level. One of the largest pieces of the wall also stands just outside this station.
93. Finsbury Park station has murals that show a pair of duelling pistols, harking back to a time when men would visit the park after hours to defend their honour.
The Jubilee line receives the most complaints Credit: © Pixel Youth movement / Alamy Stock Photo/Pixel Youth movement / Alamy Stock Photo
94. In 2012, the most complained about line was the Jubilee.
95. The London Underground is thought to be the third largest metro system in the world, in terms of miles, after the Beijing Subway and the Shanghai Metro.
96. The London Underground is the third busiest metro system in Europe, after Moscow and Paris.
97. The coffin of Dr. Thomas Barnardo was carried in funeral cortege on an underground train in 1905, one of only two occasions this is known to have happened.
98. The Underground helped over 200,000 children escape to the countryside during the Second World War.
99. During the war, some stations (now mostly disused) were converted into government offices: a station called Down Street was used for meetings of the Railway Executive Committee, as well as for the War Cabinet before the Cabinet War Rooms were built.
100. Brompton Road (now disused) on the Piccadilly, Line was apparently used as a control room for anti-aircraft guns.
101. Only five London Underground stations lie outside the M25 motorway
The Night Tube is finally here Credit: AFP or licensors/DANIEL LEAL-OLIVAS
102. The Underground runs 24 hours a day at New Year, during special events (such as for the opening and closing ceremonies of the London Olympics), and on selected lines at the weekend.
103. According to a 2002 study air quality on the Underground was 73 times worse than at street level, with 20 minutes on the Northern Line having "the same effect as smoking a cigarette".
104. The former poet laureate John Betjeman created 'Metroland' series, a homage to the people and places served by the Metropolitan line in 1973.
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105. The Oyster card was introduced in 2003.
106. The worst civilian death toll on the Underground occurred at Bethnal Green Tube tragedy in 1943, when 173 people died. It is the largest loss of life in a single incident on the London Underground network.
107. The largest number of people killed by a single wartime bomb was 68 at Balham Station.
108. The 100th anniversary of the roundel (the Tube Logo) was celebrated in 2008 by TfL commissioning 100 artists to produce works that celebrate the design.
109. The largest Tube car park is at Epping and has 599 parking spots.
110. The Central Line has the most tube stations with no surface building (Bank, Bethnal Green, Chancery Lane, Gants Hill, Notting Hill Gate)
111. Of the stations that have stairs, Hampstead Station has the most steps (320 in total).
112. There are 14 journeys between stations that take less than a minute on average.
113. King's Cross St Pancras tube station is served by more Underground lines than any other station on the network.
114. Seven London Boroughs are not served by the underground system, six of them being situated south of the River Thames.
115. The total number of carriages in London Underground's fleet, as of January 2013, was 4,134.
116. The total number of stations served on the network is 270.
117. London Underground transferred from the control of the Government to Transport for London (TfL) on July 15, 2003.
118. Scenes from the film Sliding Doors were shot at Waterloo station on the Waterloo & City Line and at Fulham Broadway tube station on the District Line.
119. Filming on location in the Underground costs £500 per hour (plus VAT) unless you have a crew of less than five.
120. You can now no longer go around the Circle Line in a full circle. From 2009, the Circle Line terminated at Edgware Road.
121. Greenford on the Central Line was the last Tube station to use wooden escalators. They were replaced in 2014.
122. Arsenal (originally Gillespie Road) on Piccadilly line is the only station named after a football team.
123. There are three tube stations on the Monopoly board: Liverpool Street Station, King’s Cross and Marylebone.
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124. The number of stations that only use escalators is 12
125. Nineteen stations just use lifts.
126. The River Westbourne was funnelled above a platform on Sloane Square in a large iron pipe suspended from girders. It remains in place today.
127. The first tube station to be demolished was Westbourne Park on the Metropolitan Line. It was re-sited in 1871.
128. There is a mosquito named after the Tube – the London Underground mosquito, which was found in the London Underground. It was notable for its assault of Londoners sleeping in the Underground during the Blitz.
129.The London Underground Film Office handles over 200 requests a month.
130. In Alfred Hitchcock’s first feature film The Lodger (1926) featured the director making a cameo on the Tube.
131. The record for visiting all the stations on the London Underground network – known as the Tube Challenge – is currently held by Ronan McDonald and Clive Burgess of the United Kingdom, who completed the challenge in 16 hours, 14 minutes and 10 seconds on February 19, 2015
132. The Tube Challenge record did not appear in the Guinness book of records until its eighth edition in 1960, when it stood at 18 hours, 35 minutes.
133. An interactive novel has been published, set on the London Underground. You can read it here .
134. In cockney rhyming slang, the London Underground is known as the Oxo (Cube/Tube).
135. Around 30,000 passengers went on The Metropolitan Line on its first day of public business – January 10, 1863.
136. There were claims the first baby born on the Underground was called Thelma Ursula Beatrice Eleanor (so that her initials would have read TUBE) but this story later proved false – her actual name was Marie Cordery.
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137. On August 3 2012, during the Olympic Games, the London Underground had its most hectic day ever, carrying 4.4 million passengers – but that record was beaten on Friday December 4 2015, when 4.82 million people used it.
138. St James is the only Underground Station to have Grade-I protected status. It includes 55 Broadway, the administrative headquarters of London’s Underground since the 1930s.
139. The most recent Tube birth – a boy – was in 2009.
140. The most common location for filming is Aldwych, a disused station.
141. As Princess Elizabeth, the Queen travelled on the Underground for the first time in May 1939, when she was 13 years old, with her governess Marion Crawford and Princess Margaret.
Apr 30, 2016 at 3:30pm PDT
142. Poems on the Underground was launched in 1986, the idea of American writer Judith Chernaik.
143. A series of animal shapes have also been highlighted in the London Underground map, first discovered by Paul Middlewick in 1988. They're created using the tube lines, stations and junctions of the London Underground map.
144. A fragrance known as Madeleine was trialled at St. James Park, Euston, and Piccadilly stations in 2001, intended to make the Tube more pleasant. It was stopped within days after complaints from people saying they felt ill.
145. There were eight deep-level shelters built under the London Underground in the Second World War. One of them in Stockwell is decorated as a war memorial.
146. After the war, the deep level shelter at Clapham South housed immigrants from the West Indies.
147. A 2011 study suggested 30 per cent of passengers take longer routes due to the out-of-scale distances on the Tube map.
148. The first ever air-conditioned, walk-through Underground train ran on the Metropolitan line in 2010.
149. The average distance travelled by each Tube train annually stands at around 114,500 miles.
150. Alcohol was banned on the Tube – and all London Transport – from June 2008.
Editor's note: Note that one or two facts have changed since this article was first published in 2014 and this has been updated to reflect those changes.
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Which analgesic occurs naturally in the bark of the cinchona tree? | QUININE -
Description
Product Description
Quinine is a natural white crystalline alkaloid having antipyretic (fever-reducing), antimalarial, analgesic (painkilling), and anti-inflammatory properties and a bitter taste. It is a stereoisomer of quinidine which, unlike quinine, is an antiarrhythmic. Quinine contains two major fused-ring systems: the aromatic quinoline and the bicyclic quinuclidine.
Though it has been synthesized in the laboratory, quinine occurs naturally in the bark of the cinchona tree. The medicinal properties of the cinchona tree were originally discovered by the Quechua, who are indigenous to Peru and Bolivia; later, the Jesuits were the first to bring cinchona to Europe.
Quinine was the first effective treatment for malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, appearing in therapeutics in the 17th century. It remained the antimalarial drug of choice until the 1940s, when other drugs such as chloroquine that have fewer unpleasant side effects replaced it. Since then, many effective antimalarials have been introduced, although quinine is still used to treat the disease in certain critical circumstances, such as severe malaria, and in impoverished regions due to its low cost. Quinine is available with a prescription in the United States and over-the-counter, in minute quantities, in tonic water. Quinine is also used to treat lupus and arthritis. Quinine was also frequently prescribed in the US as an off-label treatment for nocturnal leg cramps, but this has become less prevalent due to a Food and Drug Administration statement warning against the practice.
Quinine is very sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light and will fluoresce in direct sunlight due to its highly conjugated resonance structure.
Cas Number: 130-95-0
| Quinine |
Who directed the 1982 film ‘Gandhi’? | Cinchona. U. S. Cinchona, Cinch. [Peruvian Bark, Yellow Peruvian Bark]. Cinchona Rubra, Red Cinchona. | Henriette's Herbal Homepage
Cinchona. U. S. Cinchona, Cinch. [Peruvian Bark, Yellow Peruvian Bark]. Cinchona Rubra, Red Cinchona.
Botanical name:
Preparations: Fluidextract of Cinchona
"The dried bark of Cinchona Ledgeriana Moens, Cinchona Calisaya Weddell, and of hybrids of these with other species of Cinchona (Fam. Rubiaceae), yielding not less than 5 per cent. of the alkaloids of Cinchona." U. S.
Cinchonae Flavae Cortex; Yellow Cinchona Bark, Cinchona Flava, U. S. 1880, Yellow Cinchona, Calisaya Bark; Cortex Chinae Calisayae, Cortex Chinae Regiae; China Regia; Königschina, Calisayarinde, G.; Quinquina jaune royal, Quinquina Calisaya, Fr. Cod.; China gialla. It.; Quina calisaya, Quina amarilla, Sp.
Cinchona Rubra. U. S. (Br.)
Red Cinchona, Cinch. Rub.
"The dried bark of Cinchona succirubra Pavon (Fam. Rubiaceae), or of its hybrids, yielding not less than 5 per cent. of the alkaloids of Red Cinchona." U. S. "Red Cinchona Bark is the dried bark of the stem and branches of cultivated plants of Cinchona succirubra, Pav." Br.
Cinchonae Rubrae Cortex, Br.; Red Cinchona Bark; Cortex Chinae Ruber, China Rubra; Red Peruvian Bark; Red Bark; Quinquina rouge, Fr.; Cortex Chinee, P. G; Chinarinde, Rothe Chinarinde, G.; China rossa, It.; Quina roja, Sp.
Botanical History.
"Though the Peruvian bark was introduced into Europe so early as 1640, it was not until the year 1737 that the plant producing it was known to naturalists. In that year La Condamine, on a journey from Quito to Lima, through the province of Loxa, had an opportunity of examining the tree, of which, upon his return, he published a very complete description, with plate, under the name Quinquina, stating that three species were recognized. (Mem. Ac., Paris, 1738, p. 226.) Four years later, Linne proposed a new name, Cinchona, in honor of the Countess of Chinchon, who first made the bark known in Europe. Linne recognized but one species, which he called C. officinalis, and this continued for a long time to be recognized by the Pharmacopoeias as the only source of the Peruvian bark of commerce. But a vast number of plants belonging to the Linnaean genus Cinchona were in the course of time discovered; and the list became at length so unwieldy and heterogeneous that botanists were compelled to distribute the species into several groups, each constituting a distinct genus, and all associated in the natural family of Rubiaceae.
For our knowledge of these plants as they existed naturally, we are chiefly indebted, to the following botanists, besides La Condamine, of whom we have before spoken: Joseph de Jussieu, who, in the year 1739, explored the country about Loxa, and gathered specimens which still exist in the cabinets of Europe; Mutis, who in 1772 discovered Cinchona trees in Colombia, and afterwards, aided by his pupil, Zea, made further investigations and discoveries in the same region; Ruiz and Pavon, who in 1777 began a course of botanical inquiries in the central portions of Lower Peru, and discovered several new species; Humboldt and Bonpland, who visited several of the Peruvian bark districts, and published the results of their observations after 1792; Poppig, who travelled in Peru so late as 1832, and published an account of his journey about the year 1835; Wed-dell, whose researches in Bolivia are so well known and have been productive of valuable information in relation to the Calisaya bark and allied species; while Karsten, Caldas, Martius, Ledger, Markham, and other intrepid explorers have in later times largely added to our information. At the present time (1917) thirty or forty more or less clearly defined species of Cinchona are recognized. Of all of these probably but four with their cultivated hybrids yield the Cinchona Bark of commerce. The principal sources of information bearing on this phase of the subject are the several reports of the plantations in Java, India, and Jamaica. Howard's Quinology of the East Indian Plantations, Markham's Peruvian Bark, Kuntze's Arten, Hybriden und Cultur der Chininbäume, Hooper in the Pharmacographia Indica, several contributions by Trimen to the Tropical Agriculturist, and Rusby in the Pharmaceutical Record, October, 1887. The literature of the cinchona hybrids is hopelessly confused by the same name being frequently used by different authorities for the different hybrids and the one hybrid having various names. Thus, C. robusta of Trimen is known in Ceylon as C. lanosa, and in the Neilgherry Hills as C. magnifolia, also as C. pubescens.
C. Calisaya Weddell, is tall, usually surpassing those about it, the trunk often more than two feet in diameter. Leaves petiolate, the blade ovate-oblong to slightly obovate, 7 to 17.5 cm. long by 2.5 to 7 cm. broad, obtuse, the base acute or slightly attenuated, very thin, smooth, and, especially below, with a satiny luster, above dark green, below emerald-green or deep purple-green, scrobiculate, the glands scarcely visible above. Stipules oblong, about equalling the petioles, very smooth, very obtuse. Panicles ovate to subcorymbose. Calyx pubescent, with a cup-shaped limb and short triangular teeth. Corolla rose-colored (in cultivation often white or nearly so), the tube cylindrical and about 8 mm. long, the laciniae more deeply colored, the edges white-hairy. Stamens included. Capsule ovate, scarcely as long as the flowers. Seeds elliptical lanceolate, the margin irregularly fimbriate-toothed. Bolivia and Southern Peru, 4000 to 6000 feet. Source of the Calisaya or Yellow Bark. The species presents many forms, and two varieties are recognized.
C. Ledgeriana Moens., formerly recognized as a variety of C. Calisaya, differs from the type chiefly in its thicker, narrower, oblong leaves, with attenuate base, often bluish-green below. It yields a thick and remarkably rich bark, and is probably the most valued of all the cinchonas. This species was named in honor of Ledger, who first brought seed of this species from Bolivia.
C. succirubra Pavon, Mas. (Howard in P. J., Oct., 1856, p. 209, with a figure). Extreme size even greater than that of the last. Branches silvery. Petiole pubescent, leaf ovate to oval, acute with a very short point, the base more or less narrowing, often 6 by 9 inches, dark green and smooth above, below paler and pubescent to a variable degree, especially on the veins, not scrobiculate, the margin slightly revolute. Stipules entire, oblong, obtuse, sub-amplexicaul. Flowers much as in the last, but rather smaller. Fruit lanceolate. Western slopes of Mt. Chimborazo. The source of the Red Bark.
C. officinalis Hooker fil..Petioles smooth, cylindrical, and, like the veins, reddish; blade 10 to 12.5 cm. long, varying from broadly oval to lanceolate, acute at both ends, the margins usually recurved, smooth and deep green above, paler, but bright green below, scrobiculate, the principal veins pubescent. Stipules equalling the petioles, ovate, acute, entire, pubescent. Flowers and fruit much as in C. Calisaya. Widely distributed in the equatorial Andes, at an elevation of from 5000 to 7500 feet. The source of the barks known as Pale, Crown, Loxa, Cuenca, and Huanuco. This is the original species, upon which the genus Quinquina or Cinchona was founded. All things considered, it is, perhaps, to be regarded as the principal species of the genus and its variability is extreme.
The specific variations produced by hybridization in the above characters may not be here considered, though it may be stated that they are entirely characteristic. The parentage of a hybrid is ordinarily fully and strongly indicated in its appearance. As a rule, also, the alkaloidal yield takes a mean between that of the parents, but sometimes this is conspicuously not the case. Goris and Reimers (Trav. Lab. Nat. med. Ecol. supe. Pharm., in Bot. Centralbl., 1906, p. 462) pointed out the use of Cinchona robusta Trimen as a collective name for all hybrids of C. succirubra and C. officinalis. Rosenthaler gives an account of the structural characteristics and alkaloidal content of C. robusta and other cinchona hybrids produced by grafting. (B. P. G., 1908, p. 126.)
Geographical Distribution.
The genuine Cinchona trees are natives exclusively of South America. In that continent, however, they are widely diffused, extending from the 19th degree of south latitude, considerably south of La Paz, in Bolivia, to the mountains of Santa Marta, or, according to Weddell, to the vicinity of Caracas, on the northern coast, in about the 10th degree of north latitude. They follow, in this distance, the circuitous course of the great mountain ranges, and for the most part occupy the eastern slope of the second range of the Cordilleras. Except northward from Guayaquil, both the western slope and the plateau are entirely too dry or too cold for these plants, which require a moderate and equable temperature and an abundant and fairly constant supply of water. Irrigation cannot supply the place of a humid climate, for the atmosphere as well as the soil must be well charged with moisture. A certain amount of dry weather is, however, required for the ripening of the capsules. Free drainage is an important condition. Cross and others, who have personally inspected the region in the Andes where the best barks are obtained, have found the Cinchona trees only on the well drained slopes, and never on wet ground. With regard to temperature, Cross found that in the region of the C. officinalis the variation was from 1.1° to 21.1° C. (34°-70° F.), a fall below 40° or a rise above 65° being rare, and the mean range being from 45° to 60°.
The limits of altitude and climatic conditions are closely drawn. In the most southern districts, the trees descend to about 2500 feet, "while in the warmest regions they scarcely ascend to the 10,000-foot level. The individual species are for the most part rigidly restricted as to altitude and latitude, and, indeed, it has not always been found easy to detect the climatic conditions which would cause one species or variety to thrive while another very near it would languish. This is especially true of the more valuable forms.
It is to be noted that at present the stocks of wild barks have been enormously reduced, as detailed under Commercial History. Indeed, in certain sections, as the Calisaya district, the tree was practically exterminated in the wild state, so far as relates to a bark supply. From the far interior, however, occasional bales of wild Calisaya have been received. The low price of cultivated bark since 1885 has resulted in checking the destruction of the wild trees, which have begun again to multiply, so that they may possibly become once more common or even abundant. The Crown Bark region of Ecuador is still fairly productive, and in Colombia and Venezuela there are vast supplies of more or less inferior barks which await some favorable change in the market—never very likely to take place—that will render their collection profitable. Even at present a limited and irregular supply of one of these barks is furnished. With the exceptions here noticed, our present supplies of bark are entirely the product of cultivation, to which, therefore, we must give our chief attention.
Cultivation and Production.
The alarming prospect of the failure of the supply of Cinchona bark (see Commercial History) induced Europeans, about the middle of the nineteenth century, to turn their attention to the possibility of introducing the trees to cultivation. So early as 1737, La Condamine had collected a large number of young plants, with a view of conveying them to Europe; but, after having descended the Amazon in safety for more than a thousand leagues, they were washed overboard, near the mouth of that river, from the boat containing them, and were all lost. After this failure, though the idea of transplanting the Cinchonas was occasionally suggested, nothing was done until 1846, when Weddell, now celebrated for his successful exploration of the region of the Calisaya bark, sent some seeds to France, which were planted with success in the Jardin des Plantes, and thus supplied some of the conservatories of Europe with specimens of the plant. But the first successful effort with a view to great practical results was made in 1853 by the Dutch government, by which Hasskarl, formerly superintendent of the Botanical Garden in Java, was sent to South America on this important mission. Five hundred Calisaya seedlings were forwarded by him directly across the Pacific to Batavia, which they reached before the close of 1854. From these, and from seeds obtained from other sources, which were planted in the mountains of Java, in sites selected for their supposed conformity in climate with the native locality of the Cinchona, have sprung the most important plantations now in existence.
Stimulated by the suggestions of Royle, and by the partial success of the Dutch, the English government engaged, in 1859, the services of Clements R. Markham, who proceeded to Bolivia, in South America, and, after almost incredible hardships, arising partly from the nature of the country and partly from the jealousy of the native authorities, succeeded in collecting and transmitting to England upwards of 400 Calisaya plants. Most of these, however, were so much injured on their way from England to India, by the excessive heat of the Red Sea, that very few, on their arrival in Hindostan, had sufficient life remaining to grow when planted. Happily, the deficiency was supplied by seeds of C. Calisaya sent from Java, to Calcutta, at the request of the English Governor-General. While Markham was in Bolivia, other agents were collecting other species in Peru and Ecuador, whence seeds of the pale and red bark Cinchonas reached India, and, being planted in the selected sites, proved to be very productive.
Careful attention to the conditions of growth enumerated under Geographical Distribution was found essential in the selection of sites for the plantations. Those selected were near the Sanitary Station of Ootacamund in the Neilgherry Hills of Southern India, at heights varying from 5000 to 7450 feet. These positions unite the peculiar characters of the native regions of the Cinchonas in the Andes, not only as regards elevation and latitude, but also as to atmospheric moisture. Other sites were selected for experimental plantations, and since the first introduction of the Cinchona trees, their culture has been extended to various points from Hakgalla, in the island of Ceylon, to the Himalaya Mountains,—as in the Wynaad, the Coorg, the hills of Travancore, and especially at Peermede in the Presidency of Madras; in Sikkim and Darjeeling in the Presidency of Bengal; at Lingmulla in the Presidency of Bombay; and in the valley of Kangra in the Punjab,—from the southern to the northern extremity of British India. Outside of India and Ceylon, culture by the British has been undertaken in the West Indies, particularly Jamaica, in Guiana, and in the Fiji Islands. The first plants taken by Weddell from Peru to Paris all perished, but the French afterward established plantations in the Isle of Bourbon, at Guadeloupe, and in Algiers, none of which are known now to exist. The Portuguese have established plantations upon the west coast of Africa, and these now yield considerable quantities of bark. Very extensive plantations have been formed, chiefly by the Germans, in Bolivia, A rather large plantation in Colombia is now old enough to be productive. In Mexico and Central America various attempts to introduce the industry have been made. The question of introducing it into the United States has frequently been raised, but it may be stated that there is no spot in North America where the conditions warrant the slightest hope of success in this direction.
The history of Cinchona cultivation affords a striking illustration of the importance of government aid in the establishment of a new industry of this kind. The early and repeated disappointments and failures, owing to the natural obstacles in the way of securing stocks, and to an almost total ignorance of the conditions determining the successful propagation and growth of the plant, and the composition of its bark, were such as to have discouraged the most hopeful of private enterprises. Repeated and expensive expeditions were necessary before the first transplantings were accomplished, and these stocks were preserved and propagated only through the instrumentality of well appointed public gardens and plantations. In Java, after these early difficulties had been surmounted and success apparently attained, it was found that owing to cross fertilization much of the progeny was entirely worthless, and the work of propagation had to be begun anew. The same difficulty was encountered elsewhere, and the slow and expensive method of propagation by cuttings was largely resorted to. In Ceylon the public were slow to become interested, and the officials were obliged not only to give away the young plants, but to solicit experiments with them as a personal favor. In Jamaica a hurricane visited the young and flourishing plantations and almost completely destroyed them. But at length, in spite of all, not only were thriving and permanent government plantations established, but private capital and enterprise upon a vast scale were enlisted. The question of commercial success is dominated not simply by climatological surroundings, but also by the price of labor. It is stated that both in India and Java the natives who work in the cinchona forests are paid from one dollar to one dollar and seventy cents per month, without food, according to the age and sex. The ability to extract the bark upon the spot is capable of largely counterbalancing a lack of market facilities; but it so happens that this advantage also inures to the benefit of the Eastern countries. Originally undertaken in India for the purpose of affording a cheap antiperiodic (the crude alkaloids known as "febrifuge" or "quinetum") home extraction has become a most important industry, and has assumed various forms. In Java the powdered bark is thrown into a 5 per cent. solution of caustic soda at 50° C. (122° F.) treating this with Java petroleum, separating, treating the petrolic solution with water acidulated with sulphuric acid and evaporating; the result is said to be a quinine containing less than 1 per cent. of cinchonine. (J. P. C; 1901.) It is imported largely into the United States—50,000 kilogrammes a year—but on account of its yellow color is chiefly employed in the making of proprietary medicines rather than tablets. Through the influence of the above conditions the locations of the important industry of Cinchona cultivation have been gradually wrought out, and at present about four-fifths of the cinchona barks of the world, outside of India, are furnished by Java. The first shipment from Java was of 900 pounds, in 1869. In 1902 it was 14,700,000 pounds and in 1911 over 20,000,000 pounds. India produces annually over 2,000,000 pounds; Ceylon about 400,000 pounds; Portuguese West Africa about 180,000 pounds, and South America 775,000 pounds. Tunmann estimates that the yearly output of cinchona bark is about 10,000,000 kilogrammes, and the production of quinine as about 500,000 kilogrammes. (Apoth. Zeit., 1910, p. 565.)
It is to be remembered that a great part of the Indian product is not exported.
Methods of Cultivation.
The history of Cinchona cultivation teems with evidence as to the difficulty of obtaining pure seeds, owing to the tendency of the plants towards cross-pollination. In every locality where the industry has been established has the disgust of the gardener been excited by the discovery that the plants which he had reared. with great care, and upon which he bad based great expectations, were contaminated by the admixture of foreign pollen. This was especially true in case of the earlier attempts, before this tendency had become known. Experience at length established the fact that absolute isolation of the seed-trees was essential. One of the curious developments of these experiments was the fact, already referred to, that the value of the progeny was not always assured by the value of its parentage. Some of the hybrids, even when least expected, would develop a surprisingly rich yield; and this tendency has been utilized to develop the most valuable stocks in existence. So certain is it that some of the plants from the best seed will prove worthless, that the careful selection of the seedlings while young is deemed necessary, and in South America, at least, all planting contracts are based upon this expectation, the contractor not being paid for his work until the plants have become old enough to show with certainty the proportion of good plants contained. Both in the selection of the young seedlings and the acceptance of the plantation, the test of identity is found in the leaf. Propagation by cuttings, extensively practised in some localities, has been found too slow and expensive to become general. A thorough preparation of the soil is as beneficial in the case of Cinchona as in that of other crops. Thorough tillage after transplantation is also essential, a free growth of weeds meaning destruction to a large number of the young trees. The cultivation of a secondary crop between the rows of trees is, however, practicable. A large percentage of profit depends upon the selection of a suitable age for collecting the bark. There comes a time when the use of the ground for starting a new crop is more valuable than the gain by permitting the present crop to remain, and after some years an actual deterioration of the bark sets in. This age is not the same for all the trees in the plantation. Several years' difference may occur in the maturing of trees germinated at the same time. In the case of Calisaya it occurs at from six to nine years from seed, and its indication is the it "chicken-leg" scaliness of the bark, as described under Classification. The "officinalis" matures somewhat less early. In the Bolivian plantations the most experienced hand is selected as the marker, and the cutters follow him, peeling the trees which he has indicated. How far these careful methods of selection are followed elsewhere, the writer is not informed.
Collection of Bark.
Four principal methods of collecting the bark are in vogue, these being variously modified in different sections. The first is uprooting, the most primitive, by which the trees are simply uprooted at the proper age, and the ground replanted. The barks of root, stem, and branches are preserved and marketed separately. The second method is coppicing, by which, after peeling a quill from the lower portion of the trunk, the latter is cut a few inches from the ground and the remainder of the stem bark and the branch bark are removed. The "coppice" is formed by a second growth of two shoots from each of the stumps. A second coppice is commonly grown, and this is harvested by uprooting. By the third method, scraping, the outer bark is scraped off, leaving the liber untouched. This has been found especially applicable to young trees, in which the second growth of bark is rapidly formed and contains 20 to 30 per cent. more alkaloid than that which has been taken off. It seems to be a general opinion among the planters that scraping checks the growth of the tree after it is five years old, so that from three to five years is the age at which it is best practised. The fourth method is known as mossing. It having been noticed that the Cinchona alkaloids, especially in any other form than that of sulphate, were apt, on exposure to the direct light of the sun, to become reddened by the generation of coloring matter, at the expense of the alkaloid, it was a very natural inference that a similar change might take place in the living plant, as a consequence of which the proportion of alkaloids they were capable of producing might be greatly diminished. It was also observed that the bark upon that side of the tree where the sun struck it was less rich than that upon the shady side. To obviate this presumed effect, Maelvor was induced to make the experiment of covering the stems of the growing trees with a layer of moss, so as to completely protect the bark against the influence of sunlight. The result was favorable beyond all expectation, and the yield of alkaloids in the bark thus protected is said to be doubled, tripled, or increased even in larger proportion. A tree can thus be made continuously productive; for if a slip is removed longitudinally from the trunk, from top to bottom, by covering the decorticated portion with moss, the bark is renewed at least as rich as previously in the alkaloids, while from time to time other strips may be taken, until the whole of the old bark is removed, and the new ready for removal by a repetition of the same process; and the tree is thus preserved indefinitely, probably for the whole normal length of its life. Hooper says that renewed bark is always of greater value than the mossed, and mossed than the natural, so long as the trees are under twenty years old, for it has been found that after that time the bark ceases to thicken, and the alkaloids remain stationary or even decrease. Perhaps twenty years is even too old. The practical difficulty with the process is that it requires skilled workmen, not always attainable, and hence the " coppicing system" still largely prevails in India.
The methods of packing the bark have also undergone important modifications since the early days of cultivation. The extensive adulteration practised when the wild bark brought very high prices led to a demand for it in large pieces which could be readily and quickly examined; hence the appearance of the large tabla and quill forms, the latter afterwards becoming the standard for the cultivated bark. The bark of the trunk, and sometimes of the branches when very large, is cut into two-foot lengths, and each length removed in a single piece, which in drying rolls up to form a quill. Such peeling can of course be successfully practised only at the appropriate season of the year. The bark or the roots, branches, and dead or dry trunks must be removed by chipping, scraping, or shaving, commonly the latter. The quills, after thoroughly drying, are carefully packed in bales, or preferably in boxes, to avoid breakage, and are marketed in packages of from 100 to 250 pounds. Large quantities of cultivated bark are still marketed in this way, but, increasing competition having lowered prices so that economy in freight has become a very important item, most of the bark is now broken up, and its bulk even reduced by high pressure, and in fact only a trifling amount of wild South American bark comes into commerce. Cultivation has very greatly increased, not only the quantity, but also the quality of bark. For some years, in India the attempt was made largely to increase the general average in total alkaloids rather than in quinine, so as to increase the production of the impure alkaloids which are so largely used as febrifuges in the British East Indies. Of recent years, however, even in India, efforts have been directed to the obtaining of quinine rather than of inferior alkaloids. The barks of Ceylon have always been of poor quality, while those of Java to-day are probably the best that have ever been put upon the market. The effect of the efforts of arborculturists is well shown by the facts that in 1889 the average percentage of quinine in Java bark was 4; in 1893 it had risen to 4.6; while in the five years, from 1900 to 1904 inclusive, the average quinine percentage of all the Java barks sold in the Amsterdam market was 5.37. The result does great credit to Java, for during the early history of her bark. enterprise her plantations were stocked with discouraging quantities of poor or even worthless barks, which have been eliminated by the most steady enterprise and patient industry. David Howard presented a comprehensive survey of cinchona barks and their cultivation. (J. Soc. Ch. Indus; 1906, p. 97.) Winkler describes the methods employed in the cultivation of Cinchona in Java, also the manner of collecting the bark and preparing it for market. (Der Tropenpflanzer, 1906, p. 222.) Bohringer gives a review of the progress in the cultivation of Cinchona in Ceylon. (Tropenpflanzer, 1909, p. 269.) Schneider discusses the possibility of cultivating Cinchona in California. (W. D., 1906, p. 136.)
Commercial History.
The above general history of Cinchona leaves little necessary to be said of its commercial history, except to deduce from the facts already presented certain practical conclusions showing the present conditions of supply and demand, these bearing especially upon our concluding remarks concerning pharmacognosy and classification.
For more than a century after Peruvian bark came into use, it was procured almost exclusively from the neighborhood of Loxa. In a memoir published in 1738, La Condamine speaks of the bark of Riobamba, Cuenca, Ayavaca, and Jaen de Bracomoros. Of these places, the first two, together with Loxa, lie within the ancient kingdom of Quito, at the southern extremity; the others are in the same vicinity, within the borders of Peru.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century, however, the trees were discovered to exist in Colombia, in central Peru, near Lima (whence the name Lima bark, at one time applied to the drug) and in Bolivia.
The consequence of these discoveries was a vast increase in the supply of bark, which was now shipped from the ports of Guayaquil, Payta, Luna, Africa, Buenos Ayres, Cartagena, and Santa Marta. At the same time the average quality was probably deteriorated; for, though many of the new varieties were possessed of excellent properties, yet equal care in superintending the collection and assorting of the bark could scarcely be exercised in a field so. much more extended. The varieties poured into the market soon became so numerous as to burden the memory if not to defy the discrimination of the druggist, and the best pharmacologists found themselves at a loss to discover any permanent peculiarities which might serve as the basis of a proper and useful classification. More or less perplexity attending the recognition of the barks continued until after the firm establishment of the bark culture and the cheapening of the price, to the exclusion of the worthless varieties, as already described.
One of the most important developments of the modern bark trade is the fixing of the price in accordance with the quality as determined by assay. The most accurate method of selecting a characteristic sample for assay is a subject which has received much study, without the discovery of any method which does not depend for its value upon the discrimination and care exercised in its employment. The plan which is regarded as the safest, is to take a given weight, say eight ounces, from the inner portion of each package constituting the lot, mix and powder the whole of it, and furnish to applicants the required amount of the resulting powder. If any portion of any bale or bales is damaged, care is taken to add a proportionately large fragment of such portion. The bark is then recorded as containing so many units, a " unit" being each per cent. of quinine contained in a pound of bark. In rich bark the units are of course worth more than in poor, owing to the increased yield of alkaloid for the same cost of manufacture.
In the United States, at least, some difficulty has been experienced by druggists in securing the better grades of bark at regular rates, owing to the activity of the manufacturers in draining the market of the most desirable stock. The finer appearing packages of unbroken bark, having been marketed at greater cost, are necessarily held at higher prices. Possessing no special value for manufacturing purposes, these fall to the share of the druggist, but at higher prices than broken bark of the same richness. This fact has led to the recognition of two distinct classes, known as manufacturers' bark and druggists' bark. Druggists' bark, though in quills or unbroken pieces, and of a much finer appearance than manufacturers' bark, is on the average, inferior in quinine percentage. The druggists' bark finds its entrance into commerce through various channels but the bulk of the cinchona trade, including practically all that is known as manufacturers' bark, centres in Amsterdam and London; of these marts that at Amsterdam is much the more important. In 19.1-6 there were imported into the United States 3,947,320 pounds of cinchona barks, and 1,791,738 pounds of quinine sulphate and other salts of the cinchona alkaloids. The bark which is sold in Amsterdam comes almost exclusively from Java; that in London from India, Ceylon, and South America. Manufacturers' bark is sold, without respect to its physical characters or place of origin, entirely by its chemical analysis, the buyer in London being furnished with samples of the different lots of the bark sufficient time before the sale to enable him to make his own analysis, while in Amsterdam the percentage of quinine sulphate in any lot is given in the catalogue and often tagged upon the bale.
Formation of the Alkaloids.—In a very careful series of experiments made at the Java governmental cinchona plantations, Lotsy (Bull. Inst. Botanique Buitenzorg, 3, 1900) found that the seeds of C. succirubra and C. Ledgeriana contain no alkaloids, but that these alkaloids appear in the cotyledons shortly after they become green. They exist chiefly in the bark in combination with a tannic acid. Lotsy found that the percentage of alkaloids is ten times greater in young than in old leaves; also that the petioles are richer in alkaloids than is the blade, and that the branch bark contains more than the trunk bark, and that the root bark is practically free from alkaloids. During the active life of the parenchymatous cells of the leaves, wood, and cortex, the alkaloids can always be found in the active protoplasmic contents, but when these cells pass into the inactive condition, are deposited in the cell-walls. The alkaloids found in the leaves are, however, never crystalline, hence it would appear that these organs produce by direct synthesis, probably as the result of the action of cinchonic acid with ammonia, a fundamental alkaloidal base, which probably in the cambium layer of the tree, and during its deposition in the growing bark, is elaborated into the true cinchona alkaloids.
Classification.
Extreme difficulty attended the earlier attempts to classify the Cinchona barks of commerce,—difficulties not probably encountered elsewhere in the Materia Medica. The varieties have, however, been reduced to a very few, and the whole subject decreased greatly in importance by the chemical method of the sale now in vogue. Most of the discarded barks will be found described in previous editions of this work. We find it necessary to enumerate and describe here only the Pale bark, from C. officinalis, the Red bark, from C. succirubra, the Yellow bark, from C. Calisaya and its var. Ledgeriana, and the Hard Yellow or Maracaibo bark, and to refer briefly to the hybrid forms. First, a few words concerning the forms in which Cinchona bark occurs. We have (1) the large flat pieces or chips of irregular shape and size,—this referring at present almost wholly to the Maracaibo variety; (2) the small chips or broken bark, referring in large part to the root bark, and to other bark broken for close packing; (3) the shaved bark, referring to some root bark and to stem bark taken from dry stems, but chiefly to branch bark; (4) the quill bark, referring to natural bark taken from the stem and root in quill form, this including the uncultivated pale bark and all the varieties of cultivated bark; and (5) the renewed and mossed bark, which may be of any cultivated variety. The classification of all varieties and forms into druggists' and manufacturers' barks enables us to dispense in great part with a description of some of these forms. The manufacturer cares nothing for form, appearance, or structure, and but little for the variety of his supplies. He is interested wholly in its composition, and this he determines by assay. For this reason most of the broken bark goes to him. The druggist requires the quill or large chip bark; so that the great bulk of the branch bark is also thrown, at low prices, upon the hands of the manufacturer.
As regards the root barks, no classified description is available. In their structure they correspond very closely to the stem barks of the same variety. They can be readily distinguished from the latter by being thinner, having lighter external and darker inner color, greater softness, and twisted or contorted structure. They occur in short, irregular quills or chips, or sometimes as shavings, and contain very much more dust than any other form. Except partly as regards structure, the description of stem barks will not apply to branch barks of the same variety, for the characteristic markings do not appear in the young condition. The branch bark appears in shavings, to the inner surfaces of many of which more or less wood adheres. If the branches were shaved while yet fresh, these shavings will be more or less rolled up and curled; but if dry before being removed, this rolling and curling will not occur. Shaved bark taken from living trees is thin, soft, and brittle, consisting of the outer bark only. The large quills are of uniform length from the same plantation, but not necessarily so from different plantations or different sections. They are commonly from two to three feet in length, but some have been marketed having a length of five feet. Usually they represent the entire circumference of the stem, but occasionally only half of it. In drying they roll up very tightly from one or both edges, and rarely one will be wholly or partly involved in another. The periderm, with all its markings, remains intact, and no other form so well displays the natural appearance as this. Mossed bark differs from natural stem bark in its great thickness and weight, less breadth of the quills, freedom from lichens, very dark color, and rough, corrugated or warty surface. The outer bark or cellular portion bears a greater ratio to the inner or fibrous portion than in natural bark. Renewed bark is lighter, both in color and weight, thinner, soft and brittle, and marked by a very peculiar external smoothness, sometimes very marked indeed. In its general appearance it is strikingly like a root bark, except for the relative straightness of its fibres. Like the mossed bark, it is in narrow, only partly rolled quills or bands, and is entirely free from lichens.
As they differ so greatly among themselves in coloration, lichen-growth, degree and form of exfoliation, structure and consequent fracture, there are but few characters which can be combined in a general description of the Cinchona barks which we consider. The external color varies from light ashy gray to nearly black, the inner varies less in its shades of yellow-brown and red-brown. All are more or less bitter, and most are astringent, but only Loxa bark has a distinctive odor. The fracture is never very long-splintery and never tough. As to structure, the bast fibers are loosely arranged, the radial rows being neither continuous nor very long. The fibers themselves are always unbranched, which distinguishes the true from the false barks, are rather short and obtuse, brittle, and usually easily detached from the bark. Laticiferous ducts and stone-cells may or may not be present. The former become less conspicuous as the bark grows older, so that their relative absence becomes indicative of a stage in which the due proportion of alkaloid should have been acquired.
It may be noted here that by far the greater portion of the alkaloid, particularly quinine, is stored in the outer bark, though that in the inner bark is in a purer state. The latter is not stored in the fibers, but in the cellular tissue between them.
As regards the former classification of barks by color, it referred only in small part to the external color, chiefly to the powder. These colors were never regarded as absolutely characteristic, as the three barks, yellow, red and pale, exhibited gradations by which they mingled at their extremes. Under present conditions, the lines of demarcation have become even more indistinct, and, as a matter of fact, in the market the terms " yellow " and " red " are used with great looseness. It is true that we receive much pure-blooded Yellow Bark, Ledgeriana from the East, and Calisaya both from there and from South America; but it is also undeniable that much of the bark sold under the several names is of mixed hybrid, and the typical characters are often greatly obscured. The presence in our market of these mixed forms has made the terms even less valuable than they once were, and dealers cannot be found to agree as to the character of many samples. Nevertheless, the occurrence of the typical forms, and appearance in a hybrid of the blended characters, render it desirable to preserve this classification, and to group the new forms around the types.
Yellow or Calisaya bark. Cinchona flava.
The official description is as follows: "In quills or curved pieces of variable length, bark from 3 to 5 mm. in thickness, or in small broken fragments or in transversely curved pieces from 3 to 7 mm. in thickness, externally gray, rarely brownish-gray, with numerous intersecting-transverse and longitudinal fissures having nearly vertical sides, and usually with patches of foliaceous lichens with their small, brownish-black apothecia; when the outer bark is absent, the color externally is cinnamon-brown; inner surface light cinnamon-brown, finely striate; fracture of the outer bark short and granular, of the inner bark finely splintery; odor faintly aromatic; taste very bitter and somewhat astringent. The powder is reddish-brown; bast-fibers spindle-shaped, yellowish, from 0.3 to 1.35 mm. in length, with thick, strongly lignified, lamellated walls having slit-like, oblique pores; starch grains single or 2- to 5-compound, the individual grains spherical or plano-convex and from 0.003 to 0.015 mm. in diameter; sphenoidal micro-crystals of calcium oxalate numerous. Heat 1 Gm. of powdered Cinchona in a dry test tube; a tarry distillate forms, having a purplish color and a somewhat granular appearance." U. S.
Its lichens are thin and closely adherent, not rendering it shaggy. External markings very characteristic, consisting of a very light longitudinal ridging or none at all, but of numerous transverse and longitudinal fissures or cracks, the presence and arrangement of which constitute the chief characteristic of Calisaya. Upon the young stems and branches they do not appear. The first to appear are the usually large primary fissures, which encircle the stem at the nodes, or points where pairs of leaves once stood. Subsequently, numerous smaller secondary transverse fissures appear upon the internodes, and these quickly become connected and crossed by longitudinal cracks, thus dividing the periderm up into more or less quadrangular checks, which may remain attached or fall away. This gives to mature Calisaya bark an appearance of scaliness like that upon the tarsus of a fowl, and this is known to the South American collectors by a term which signifies the "chicken-leg appearance." It has also been spoken of as a "carving-like" marking. Like the roughness upon a musk-melon, its great development is regarded as an indication of high quality, and especially is this true of a close proximity of the primary fissures. This roughness is also regarded as a sure indication of maturity. There are excellent distinctions between these and the somewhat similar fissures upon the bark of C. officinalis. In the latter they are coarser and more gaping. Even more important is the absence from Pale Bark of most of the longitudinal cracks, so that it does not become " chicken-legged," or at most only very slightly so. The external color of Yellow Bark is lighter than that of the Pale Bark. Longitudinal ridges are few if any, short, irregular, and inconspicuous. In fine South American bark some very small bright-red spots can be detected upon the periderm. East Indian Calisaya can commonly be recognized by its somewhat dingy or brownish shade of gray, the gray of the South American bark being bright and somewhat bluish-steel-colored.
In structure, the zone of large, rather numerous laticiferous ducts just outside the bast is conspicuous in young, and therefore inferior, samples. The rather small bast fibers are loosely scattered, almost uniformly single or a radial arrangement being apparent. The fracture is rough-splintery, though not coarse. Stone cells few or none. Odorless, more bitter, and less astringent than the Pale Bark. Ledger bark is the same as Calisaya in all its essential characters, but does not reach so great a size. In hybrids of Calisaya with succirubra the characters and quality of the latter appear to predominate.
This bark is scarcely collected in a wild state, but cultivated in all plantations. It is the largest quinine yielder, its amount being 70 to 80 per cent. of the total alkaloids contained in the bark. The var. Ledgeriana yields a very valuable hybrid bark with C. succirubra. C. Calisaya also hybridizes with the latter species. Hartwich describes the microscopical characteristics of Cinchona and related barks in S. W. P., 1909, p. 249. Grutterink discusses the micro-chemistry of Cinchona alkaloids, with illustrations in Zeit. anal. Chem., 1912, p. 215. Rosenthaler reviews the pyro-analytical results that have been obtained with Cinchona bark and describes the crystals found in the tar. (B. P. G., 1911, p. 203.)
Red bark. Cinchona rubra.
This bark is recognised by the U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias (for definition, see page 333). It is described in the U. S. P. IX as "in quills or curved pieces of variable length, bark from 2 to 4 mm. in thickness, or in small broken fragments or in transversely curved pieces from 3 to 7 mm. in thickness; externally gray, grayish-brown, or reddish-brown, more or less rough from corky protuberances, occasionally with transverse fissures which are rarely numerous or much intersected, and having their sides sloping, and with occasional patches of foliaceous lichens; inner surface reddish or orange-brown, distinctly striate; fracture short and granular in the outer bark, shortly and rather coarsely splintery in the inner bark; odor slight; taste very bitter and astringent. The powder is light brown; bast-fibers and sphenoidal micro-crystals of calcium oxalate, resembling those in cinchona; starch grains resembling those of cinchona relatively few, from 0.003 to 0.01 mm. in diameter. Heat 1 Gm. of powdered Red Cinchona in a dry test tube; a tarry distillate forms having a bright red color." U. S.
In the British Pharmacopoeia it is described as "In quilled or curved pieces, length varying from 5 to 30 cm. or more; usually from about 2.5 to 6 mm. thick; cork brownish or reddish-brown, with longitudinal ridges which are most apparent in the branch bark, and sometimes with reddish warts; inner surface brick-red or deep reddish-brown, irregularly and coarsely striated; fracture shortly fibrous in the smaller, and finely fibrous in the larger, pieces. In transverse section in the cortex, cells filled with minute crystals of calcium oxalate, and also large secretion tubes; in the bast numerous, large, strongly-thickened fibers usually 0.050 to 0.070 mm. wide and about 1 mm. long, isolated or in small groups. The powdered Bark is brownish or reddish-brown, exhibits abundant parenchymatous tissue with brownish cell-walls, and often with brownish contents, small starch grains, and large isolated bast fibers about 0.060 mm. in diameter, with distinctly striated walls. No marked odor; taste bitter and somewhat astringent."
The quills are similar to those of Calisaya, though running somewhat broader and thicker. Externally of a dingy brown gray, less lichen-bearing than either of the others. Inner surface of a more reddish cinnamon-brown than in Calisaya. Powder reddish-brown.
The important characteristic of red bark is the prominent longitudinal ridges, many of them short and confluent, with intervening furrows or elongated meshes. The ridges are suberous, bear numerous small warty protuberances, and may be traversed by faint fissures. Transverse fissures may or may not be present in red bark. If so, they are few, short, and irregularly disposed, and not connected by longitudinal cracks to give the checkered appearance of Calisaya. Hybrids with "officinalis" display numerous transverse fissures, and the external color is lighter and more dingy. Fracture short-splintery, not coarse. Odor none. Taste bitter and astringent.
It is scarcely collected in a wild state, but cultivated in all plantations except those of South America. Demand and production rapidly decreasing. A large alkaloid yielder, but of this only about 20 per cent. is quinine. Largely hybridized with C. officinalis. Also hybridized with C. Calisaya and its var. Ledgeriana.
Pale bark.
Varieties and Synonyms.—Crown Bark, Loxa or Loja Bark, Cuenca Bark, Huanuco Bark. Derived from C. officinalis. Collected in a wild state above Loxa and other parts of Ecuador, and cultivated in all plantations except the South American, especially in India. Demand and production decreasing. Quinine constitutes 60 to 70 per cent. of the total alkaloids. Largely hybridized with C. succirubra.
Description.—Quills single or double, irregularly broken or entire, attaining a length of nearly 2 dm., a width of nearly 2.5 cm., and having a very wide range in thickness, the natural mostly 2 to 4 mm. thick. Shaggy, with more abundant lichens than in any other species, the abundance of these having been considered, not entirely without reason, as an indication of the relative quality. Color of periderm darker than in the other species, but varying much from a brown gray to nearly black. Inner surface of a paler brown than in the other species, finely striate. Color of powder pale brown. The external markings consist of transverse fissures and longitudinal ridges, some of them wart-bearing. It is only in the thinner samples, in which the warts and fissures scarcely appear, that the ridges are continuous and conspicuous. In the prominence and breadth of its fissures and the inconspicuousness of its ridges, this bark is most distinct from the Red Bark. These characters are yet sufficiently distinct from the somewhat similar ones of Calisaya, as noted in describing that bark.
Fracture short, the inner fibrous zone sharp and narrow. Taste not so bitter as in the others. Odor of the genuine Loxa variety peculiar and characteristic. Its structure shows the rather short and not numerous bast fibers in short interrupted single or double radial rows, and much disposed to occur in bundles of three to six or more. Stone cells rarely seen, and lactiferous ducts conspicuous only when young.
Hard yellow, or maracaibo bark. Puerto Cabello bark.
Derivation not at all certain. Collected only in a wild state in the mountains of Southern Colombia, and yielding almost the whole of the inferior wild bark now collected for market. Importation and sale in the United States quite irregular and unimportant. One of the best of the lower-grade barks, but not to be compared with any of those already described. Said to yield about 2 per cent. of crystallizable sulphates, three-fourths of which is quinine sulphate, but a characteristic specimen assayed for this investigation by Virgil Coblentz yielded 2.65 per cent. of total alkaloids, only a trace of which was quinine. Contains a large amount of resin. The common or commercial names by which have been designated the several barks of the northern countries related to this one are of very irregular application. At the time when the trade in them was large and important, the term "Maracaibo Bark" was restricted to the less resinous variety, derived from C. cordifolia. It was also formerly sold simply as "Yellow Bark," and it's not impossible that it was sometimes accepted, under this synonym, for Calisaya. The investigations of Morgenthau into the value of certain derivatives of cuprein may give these barks a real value. For a description of Cuprea Bark, see 19th ed., U. S. D., p. 349.
Description.—Rusby described it as occurring in irregular broken pieces, mostly from 5 to 15 cm. long, 2.5 to 7 cm. broad, and 3 to 10 mm. thick. Formerly it included many much smaller fragments as well as much dust, but these portions are now mostly sifted and winnowed out before marketing. The pieces are more or less flat, the thinner and narrower ones somewhat incurved, the broader and thicker recurved. The bark is compact, heavy, and fibrous. Most of the pieces display upon the outer surface more or less of the periderm, forming silvery-white or yellowish-white patches, very thin and rather soft. Occasionally the periderm is instead dark, hard, very rough, and much fissured. From many pieces the entire periderm is absent, disclosing the outer face of the bast, very similar to the inner face. This is compactly and rather finely fibrous, of a deep yellow, with a slight rust-brown tinge. Throughout, the bast is of this structure and color. Between it and the periderm there may be seen with varying distinctness, in most pieces, a characteristic resinous band of irregular width, dark reddish-brown and waxy-lustrous on the cut surface. The radial rows of bast fibres are irregular. The fracture is long-fibrous. The odor is distinct, and the taste quite bitter.
Chemical History.
I have deleted 14 pages of agonizingly precise discussion of the alkaloids of Cinchona ... trust me—you don't need to know ... (--Michael Moore)
Uses.—This valuable remedy was unknown to the civilized world until about the middle of the seventeenth century, though the natives of Peru are generally supposed to have been long previously acquainted with its febrifuge powers. Humboldt, however, is of a different opinion. In his memoir on the Cinchona forests, he states that it is unknown as a remedy to the Indians inhabiting the country where it grows, and, as these people adhere pertinaciously to the habits of their ancestors, he concludes that it never was employed by them. They have generally the most violent prejudices against it, considering it poisonous, and in the treatment of fever prefer the milder indigenous remedies. Ruiz and Pavon, however, ascribe the discovery to the Indians; and Tschudi states, in his "Travels in Peru" (Am. cd., ii, 280), that the inhabitants of the Peruvian forests drink an infusion of the green bark as a remedy in intermittent fever. On the other hand, the statements of Humboldt have been confirmed by the travellers Markham and Spence, the former remarking that the native Indian doctors did not use the bark, and the latter that the Cascarilleros of Ecuador believed that their red bark is used solely for dyeing. It is uncertain whether, as Jussieu stated in 1739, the Jesuit fathers received their knowledge from the Indians, or, as Humboldt believes, discovered the virtues of the drug for themselves, having been led to make trial of it by its extreme bitterness. The Countess Chinchon, wife of the Viceroy of Peru, having in her own person experienced the beneficial effects of the bark is said, on her return to Spain in the year 1640, to have first introduced the remedy into Europe. Hence the name of pulvis Comitissae, by which it was first known. After its introduction it was distributed and sold by the Jesuits, who are said to have obtained for it the price of its weight in silver. From this circumstance it was called Jesuits' powder, a title which it long retained. In 1653, Chifflet, physician to the Archduke Leopold, directed the attention of all Europe to the bark by his work entitled Pulvis Febrifugus Orbis Americani. This gave rise to a very active controversy, the high price of the drug aiding very greatly those who opposed its introduction. According to Stunn, twenty doses in 1658 cost sixty florins. It seems first to have been advertised in England for sale in 1658 by a James Thomson, and by 1660 it was much employed. It still, however, encountered much prejudice and ignorance, and was not made official in the London Pharmacopoeia until 1677. Sir Robert Talbot (or Talbor) used it as a secret remedy with so much address and success that in 1679 he cured Charles II of a tertian, and subsequently sold his secret to Louis XIV of France, who published it in 1681.
When taken into the stomach, the bark usually excites in a short time a sense of warmth in the epigastrium, which often diffuses itself over the abdomen and even the breast, and is sometimes attended with considerable gastric and intestinal irritation. Nausea and vomiting are sometimes produced, especially if the stomach was previously in an inflamed or irritated state; and its action is not unfrequently accompanied by purging. If the dose of the cinchona bark has been large enough, the symptoms of cinchonism may result. At one time cinchona bark and its preparations were used as antiperiodics, but at present for such purpose one of its alkaloids is always selected. The best preparation for use as a tonic is the compound tincture.
Dose, ten grains to one drachm (0.65-3.9 Gm.).
Off. Prep.—Cinchona.— Fluidextractum Cinchonae , U. S.; Tinctura Cinchonae , U. S.; Extractum Cinchonae, N. F.
Red cinchona.—Extractum Cinchonae Liquidum, Br.; Infusum Cinchonae Acidum, Br.; Tinctura Cinchonae , Br.; Tinctura Cinchonae Composita , U. S. (Br., from Tincture); Fluidextractum Cinchonae Aquosum, N. F.: Gargarisma Guaiaci Compositum (from Compound Tincture of Cinchona), N. F.
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National Heroes Day is celebrated in Barbados during which month of the year? | National Heroes’ Day – April 28 (Barbados)
National Heroes’ Day – April 28 (Barbados)
National Heroes’ Day is a public holiday in Barbados.
Trafalgar Square, Bridgetown
A country occupying the easternmost island of the West Indies. Probably first visited by the Portuguese, the island was settled by the British in the early 1600s, became a separate colony in 1885, and gained full independence in 1966. Bridgetown is the capital and the largest city. Population: 281,000.
The Right Excellent Samuel Jackman Prescod (1806 – September 26, 1871) became the first person of African descent to be elected to Barbados’s Parliament in 1843.
He also helped found the Liberal Party, whose following included small landowners, businessmen, and coloured clerks. The Barbadian parliament has enacted that he should be called “The Right Excellent” and that his life should be Celebrated on National Heroes Day .
According the Barbados’ Order of National Heroes Act, those people that have “given outstanding service to Barbados”, “contributed to the improvement of the economic and social conditions of Barbados”, and demonstrated “visionary and pioneering leadership, extraordinary achievement and the attainment of the highest excellence” will be honored every year on April 28, a day set aside as National Heroes’ Day.
History of National Heroes’ Day in Barbados
The country of Barbados has been shaped by the vision and achievement of numerous people, and in 1998, the parliament wanted to recognize those people. In April of that year, Prime Minister Owen Arthur announced that April 28 would be celebrated as Barbados’ National Heroes’ Day.
The day would serve as a means of both taking pride in post-independence nationhood and also recognizing the contributions that Barbadians have made.
Arthur also announced that Trafalgar Square in Bridgetown would be renamed to National Heroes Square.
The April 28 date was chosen in honor of the birth of Sir Grantley Herbert Adams, one of the ten national heroes remembered every year.
The current list of heroes remembered each year is:
Bussa (????-1816)
Dr. Charles Duncan O’Neal (1879-1936)
Clement Osbourne Payne (1904-1941)
Sir Grantley Herbert Adams (1898-1987)
Rt. Hon. Errol Walton Barrow (1920-1987)
Sir Hugh Worrell Springer (1913-1994)
Sir Frank Leslie Walcott (1916-1999)
Sir Garfield St. Aubyn Sobers (1936- )
Right Excellent Errol Walton Barrow
Each of the ten received the title “Right Excellent” as part of the act. The act was amended in 2009 to confer extra privileges to living heroes.
Barbados’ National Heroes’ Day Traditions, Customs and Activities
Schools are particularly involved every year with spreading awareness of Barbados’ national heroes to the youth.
Special historical presentations, re-enactments, and games are typical fare for Barbados’ youth.
Heroes Day Cup
www.barbados.org/chess/
Additionally, sports are typical on the island on this day. Games like hockey, soccer, and even chess are to be found. In April and May of 2009, Barbados had its first Heroes Day Cup, a chess tournament celebrating the people and history of the game, with festivities tied directly into the National Heroes’ Day festivities.
In the heart of Bridgetown, many celebrations take place at Heroes Square. Food, music, and fireworks are to be found, with many stalls giving others the opportunity to discover more about Barbados’ culture and the people that have shaped it over the years.
Heroes Square – Bridgetown
This is located in front of the parliament buildings and was known as Trafalgar Square until 1999. It is home to a large bronze statue of Lord Admiral Horatio Nelson, which was erected in 1813, and was actually there before the one in London! However as this statue does not commemorate a Barbadian, it was moved from prime position to the edge of the gardens in 1990.
Here you will also find the Cenotaph, which commemorates Barbadians who lost their lives in both World Wars.
And finally in the square you will find the Dolphin Fountain, which commemorates piped water into Bridgetown in 1861. However the fountain’s water supply is never turned on to show appreciation for the limited water resources on the island.
At the government buildings that overlook Carlisle Bay, you will find a bronze statue of Sir Grantley Adams, the first premier of Barbados.
At the NIS Building, just off Collymore Rock you will find a bronze statue to Sir Frank Walcott.
In Rock Hall you will find a monument that represents freedom; it commemorates a family of freed slaves and the village of Rock Hall, which was the first free village in Barbados.
The most famous of emancipation statues is that of Bussa, a huge bronze statue that shows a slave with broken chains, it is located on Highway 1 on the Emancipation roundabout. Bussa is rumoured to have led the slave revolt which led to emancipation.
There is a bronze statue of Sir Garfield Sobers, a great honour to this cricketing legend as he gets to drive past it every day and know how proud his fellow countrymen are of his sporting achievements. It is located on Highway 1, at the Sir Garfield Sobers roundabout.
On the west coast road you will see Needlepoint, a monument erected to honour those who lost their lives in the 1976 bombing of a Cuban civilian airliner as it took off from Barbados, killing all 73 people aboard. The monument was unveiled during the 1998 visit of Cuban President Fidel Castro to Barbados.
At Gun Hill Signal Station, you will find a 10ft high Lion, which was carved by Captain Henry Wilkinson an officer at Gun Hill Signal Station in 1868 from one single rock.
In Holetown, you will find two monuments – one marks the 1625 landing of the first settlers in Barbados, who were the English crew of the Olive Blossom, the other is to commemorate those who lost their lives in both the World Wars.
There are also two new statues to be made in bronze to honour the Right Excellent Errol Walton Barrow, who led Barbados to its independence and another one for the Right Excellent Samuel Jackman Prescod, who led Barbados to the democracy that is today.
Amazing Photos…see more: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pictureinfocus/4220496064/
For more information about each of these heroes, visit Barbados’ Government Information Service.
A Celebration of Women
Best Wishes to All Our Women
of Barbadoes.
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Ankara is the capital of which country? | Holiday - National Heroes Day, Hero
National Heroes Day
Zanzibar Revolution Day
National Heroes Day
Heroes Day or National Heroes Day may refer to a number of commemorations of national heroes in different countries. It is often held on the birthday of a national hero or heroine.
Angola :
It is a holiday in Angola on September 17, the birthday of the national hero Agostinho Neto.
Barbados :
National Heroes Day is a public holiday in Barbados on April 28.
Cape Verde :
It is a public holiday in Cape Verde on January 20.
Cayman Islands :
The Day commemorate Cayman's maritime past on 28th January.
Jamaica :
It is a Jamaican holiday, observed on the third Monday in October. It is a celebration of the island's seven National Heroes.
Mexico :
Mexico celebrates on 13th September.
Mozambique :
It is a public holiday in Mozambique on February 3.
Namibia :
Celebrated on 26th August in Namibia. It marks the beginning of the armed struggle during the Namibian War of Independence.
Paraguay :
Paraguay celebrates on 1st March.
Philippines :
It is a public holiday in the Philippines on the 4th Monday of August. It commemorates the "Cry of Pugad Lawin" by Filipino revolutionaries called the Katipunan.
Saint Kitts and Nevis :
This Day in Saint Kitts and Nevis takes place on September 16, the birthday of the national hero Robert Bradshaw.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines :
Celebrates on 14th March.
Turkmenistan :
Celebrated on May 8. The Day of Commemoration of the National Heroes of the 1941-1945 World War.
Turks and Caicos Islands :
Turks and Caicos Islands celebrates on 26th May.
Uganda :
Uganda celebrates on 9th June.
Zambia :
Heroes Day is a holiday in Zambia on July 2.
Zimbabwe :
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Which fictional bear’s favourite food is marmalade sandwiches? | Paddington Bear | Literawiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Origins
Statue of Paddington Bear at Paddington train station, London.
Michael Bond was inspired to write what would become the first chapter of the 1958 book A Bear Called Paddington by a toy bear which he had bought on London's Portobello Road as a Christmas present for his wife. He named the bear Paddington after the nearby London train station which he could see from his apartment. Bond says of the toy bear, "In no time at all, he became part of the family. In fact, for a long time he was the family and was treated as such; joining us at meal times, sharing our holidays, occasionally interrupting our conversations". [1] Bond has said that he had not yet read the stories about Winnie-the-Pooh when he began to write about Paddington. He was, however aware that Pooh loved honey. In order to make his bear different, Bond decided that Paddington's favorite food would be marmalade. [2]
Fictional character biography
The bear who would later come to be known as Paddington was born in "Darkest Peru". He was raised by his Aunt Lucy, his only known living relative apart from his Uncle Pastuzo. [3] Aunt Lucy always encouraged her nephew to emigrate when he was old enough and taught him English for that reason. After his Aunt Lucy went to live in a home for retired bears in Lima, the young bear stowed away on a ship bound for England. He spent the entire journey in a lifeboat, living off one jar of marmalade. The only other possessions he brought with him were one suitcase, containing a photograph of his Aunt Lucy and a few Peruvian coins, and an old hat which he always wore that had once belonged to his uncle.
While at London's Paddington station to meet the train bringing their daughter Judy home from school, Mr. and Mrs. Brown noticed the young bear. Having found out that he did not know anybody in London and had nowhere to stay, the Browns invited Paddington to stay with them for a few days. When the bear told her that nobody could understand his Peruvian name, Mrs. Brown renamed him Paddington after the train station where they found him.
The Browns soon decided to allow Paddington to stay with them forever. He shares their home at 32 Windsor Gardens with their children Jonathan and Judy and their housekeeper Mrs. Bird. Although she has a reputation for being fierce and sometimes gets annoyed with Paddington's attempts to help her that go wrong, Mrs. Bird is very fond of Paddington and is protective towards him.
Novels about Paddington and other merchandise featuring the character are on sale at Paddington train station, London.
Soon after arriving in England, Paddington was given his famous blue duffel coat. He later acquired a pair of Wellington boots too. [4] Paddington often carries all of his possessions with him in his suitcase. He also uses his suitcase to carry the marmalade sandwiches which are his favorite food.
While shopping on the Portobello Road, Paddington met the antiques dealer Mr. Gruber, a man originally from Hungary who had spent time in South America when he was younger. He soon became Paddington's good friend and they spend many happy hours together chatting and drinking hot chocolate. Paddington also has an enemy in the form of the Browns' bad tempered neighbor Mr. Curry, one of the few people who is not able to laugh off the mishaps which the bear causes.
Paddington is naturally friendly and very polite. One of the reasons why he always wears a hat is so that he can raise it in greeting if he sees somebody he knows. However, if he feels that people are being rude or condescending towards him, Paddington fixes them with a stare which makes them feel extremely uncomfortable. Paddington has good intentions in almost everything he does and often tries to put right something he perceives as wrong. However, he is rather naive and often misunderstands the situation. As a small bear, he also has some physical difficulty in living in the human world, which makes him appear clumsy. As a result, Paddington frequently causes trouble for himself and those around him. However, Paddington rarely ends up in any real difficulty. The accidents which Paddington causes often have unintended positive consequences or can at least be laughed off by those affected by them.
Notes and references
| Paddington Bear |
What was the first name of PGT Beauregard, the first prominent general of the Confederate State Army in the American Civil War? | Watch The Adventures of Paddington Bear Online - Full Episodes of Season 3 to 1 | Yidio
The Adventures of Paddington Bear Full Episode Guide
Season 3 13 full episodes
Episode 13 - Paddington the Babysitter / Paddingto...
Episode 12 - One Bear's Treasure / A Bear of Style...
2 decades ago
Clutter has overtaken the Browns' life and Paddington discovers the perfect way to get rid of the pile: a car boot sale where people "pile it high and sell it cheap". Mr. Brown becomes ill, and Mr. Curry volunteers to drive Paddington to the sale in exchange for a share of the profits. Mr. Curry jacks up the prices and it looks like they'll be stuck with their lot until Paddington really does "pile it high". / Paris is one of the world's fashion centers. So what better place for a new trend in fashion to be born, even if unexpectedly. Paddington's floppy hat, worn duffle coat and Wellington boots become the rage and haute couture will never be the same. / Paddington's voice is discovered by a famous Diva who is thrilled she has found a new talent to mold. She will present him at the opening of her new Opera. Never before has Paddington been encouraged to be loud... much to the Brown household's dismay. But he really is good. Perhaps too good. Why... he might become a star. Paddington must decide if that is what he really wants?
Episode 11 - The Spy Who Loved Marmelade / Padding...
2 decades ago
Paddington's suitcase is the center of a classic spy intrigue when it is switched, switched, switched, then switched again. Paddington confuses both good and bad spies alike and gets his suitcase back--without ever even knowing it went missing in the first place. / Paddington is delighted to accompany Mr. Gruber to the famous tennis competition. Especially when a small misunderstanding lands him on center court getting first paw experience as a ball bear. / The local Shakespeare in the Park play is underway and Paddington is in charge of sound effects for the performance of Romeo and Juliet. Paddington's thunder claps take everyone by surprise and make the play a resounding success when a real life Romeo and Juliet story comes to a happy ending.
Episode 10 - April Fools / Gold Rush Paddington / ...
2 decades ago
Mr. Curry thinks Paddington's made him an April Fool, so he retaliates by sending Paddington on a fool's errand. Poor Paddington doesn't even know what April Fool's is. Aunt Lucy always taught him it was rude to play tricks on people. But in this case, Paddington's honesty turns out to be the best trick of all. / Paddington unknowingly starts a new gold rush when he finds a nugget while panning for gold. It turns out the nugget is the gold tooth that fell out of Mr. Gruber's mouth, but when the truth is discovered, gold fever is out of control. / Mr. Brown's new video camera gives Paddington the idea he can make his own movie and enter a film festival. Mr. Curry gives Paddington little choice but to use him as his leading man. When Paddington shows the rough cut to Mr. Gruber, he suggests a better place for the film: a blooper TV show and Paddington and Mr. Curry win first prize.
Episode 9 - Paddington the Tour Guide / The Royal...
2 decades ago
Paddington is mistaken for a tour guide and always the helpful bear, he leads 5 Japanese tourists on a tour of the Brown's house. Mr. Curry invites them over to his Bed and Breakfast for tea (for a fee) but the guests like it so much they just won't leave. / A boring royal banquet in Luxembourg becomes rather exciting when a strange, exotic dignitary arrives un-announced. Paddington Brown from Darkest Peru rubs elbows with royalty and teaches them how to have fun at a party. / Paddington gets his hands on The Encyclopedia of Superstitions and becomes a safety bear, warning everyone about impending doom. It turns out Paddington is more bad luck than the original superstition, especially because it's Friday the 13th.
Episode 8 - Paddington Gets His Money's Worth / D...
Episode 7 - Mr. Curry's Birthday Bash / Paddingto...
Episode 6 - The Great Escape / Paddington Takes O...
Episode 5 - The Amazing Paddington / Pirates / Pa...
Episode 4 - A House-Training / Dare Devil Bear / ...
Episode 3 - Paddington Clocks In / Paddington Goe...
Episode 2 - What's Going On at Number 32 / Paddin...
2 decades ago
Paddington is delighted when Mr. Brown purchases a new television and antenna. Now he can watch all his favorite programs. Unfortunately for the Browns, that's just what Mr. Curry is hoping to do as well. / A research trip to India leads Paddington and Mr. Gruber to a fantastic garden of stone statues where it's hard to tell the difference between who's real and who's made of stone. / Paddington's favorite words are "free" and "demonstration" so when he sees these two words together, he can't help but head down to the bargain basement. And what a demonstration it is...
Episode 1 - Paddington Takes a Cut / Anchors Away...
Season 2 13 full episodes
Episode 13 - A Sticky Time / Corporal Paddington /...
2 decades ago
Paddington loves cooking shows, but this time, the toffee recipe he's made turns out all wrong and indigestible. So when Paddington complains of stomach cramps and grabs his stomach in pain, the Browns hurry him to the hospital for emergency surgery. Luckily it's just a case of galloping toffee drops which got stuck to Paddington's fur.When Mr. Gruber and Paddington's car breaks down in a small, dusty, mid-west town in the U.S., they are unknowingly recruited into the Army Reserves--and are sent off to boot camp. Paddington and Mr. Gruber find the Army isn't all it's cracked up to be, especially the food, but they make the best of it and end up being awarded medals of honour.Paddington is swindled into buying some bogus shares for the Portobello Road Oil Company, so he sets out to the Stock Exchange to trade his bad shares for good ones. Paddington sets the market on a downswing when rumours spread about bogus shares flooding the market. But the rumours also help catch the con man, and Paddington gets his money back.
Episode 12 - Paddington In Touch / Paddington and ...
2 decades ago
Paddington's old school invites the Browns to a special rugby match against a team from Peru. Paddington finds his loyalties are divided until the Peruvian team is one man short. Paddington gets in the scrum and soon helps tie the game... thanks to a little help from his Aunt Lucy, who's in England on a surprise visit. As a reward for all their hard work, Mr. Gruber and Paddington visit a luxurious spa on the shores of the Dead Sea. Paddington is amazed at what people do to get body and mind in shape--it looks more like torture to him--and he does his best to rescue Mr. Gruber from harm. In the end, Paddington and Mr. Gruber are exhausted and need a vacation from their vacation.Aunt Lucy's visit to London has kept the Browns on their toes and made them exhausted, so all are greatly relieved when Paddington sets out with his Aunt to do a little shopping. Little do they know they're looking for a gift to thank Mr. Brown for being so kind to Paddington, and it's a gift that will land them smack dap in the middle of the Thames in need of rescue by the harbour patrol.
Episode 11 - In and Out of Trouble / Sir Paddingto...
2 decades ago
Paddington tests Mr. Curry's hammock - and finds the darn thing tricky at best.Paddington and Mr. Gruber step into the past when they arrive in Charlemagne, Germany, for a medieval festival, complete with knightly competitions. Paddington dons armour and mounts a horse for a joust against the Black Knight, and thanks to some slippery marmalade, Sir Paddington is victorious. Paddington's been room-less for 2 weeks while Mr. Brown procrastinates with the painting and wallpapering. So when Paddington finds himself at loose ends and alone in the house, he has a go at fixing up his room. His attempts fail and now it looks like the Browns will have to bring in professionals, which is just what everyone really wanted in the first place.
Episode 10 - Paddington Makes a Clean Sweep / Padd...
2 decades ago
Paddington does a wonderful imitation of a black bear when he tries to clean out the Browns' sooty chimney - and winds up losing his brushes inside.Through a bureaucratic bungling, Paddington is chosen to represent England and run a leg in the Olympic Flame relay across the United States. But when Paddington takes a wrong turn and ends up lost in the middle of the city, it looks like the opening ceremonies are doomed. Luckily for him, and the world, Paddington runs into some very helpful people who get him to the stadium in the nick of time.When he spies Paddington hard at work, making a "do it yourself" magazine rack for Mr. Brown, Mr. Curry convinces the little bear to drop by his house and make him a magazine rack as well. Unfortunately for Mr. Curry, Paddington's carpentry is a little rough around the edges. In the end, the magazine rack is completed - at the cost of Mr. Curry's kitchen table.
Episode 9 - Paddington and the Cold Snap / Paddin...
2 decades ago
In his attempts to unfreeze Mr. Curry's water pipes, Paddington ends up flooding his neighbor's bathroom.Does the Yeti really exist? Mr. Gruber doesn't think so while Paddington would like to believe that it does. They may be close to discovering the answer when they get stranded in the Himalayas and seek refuge in a cave. After some very strange occurrences in the night, they both know they saw something... or was it simply each other? Paddington is a contestant on a game show where his skewed logic delights the audience and totally befuddles the harried host.
Episode 8 - Pantomime Time / Paddington in Alaska...
Episode 7 - Paddington in a Hole / Paddington in ...
Episode 6 - Paddington Breaks the Peace / Padding...
2 decades ago
Mr. Curry tricks Paddington into doing some yard work for him. Unfortunately for Mr. Curry (and his yard in particular), Paddington's lawnmowing skills leave much to be desired.Paddington and Mr. Gruber visit Buzz Booster, a rocket scientist with NASA, and he gives them a royal tour of the space center. Mr. Gruber wants to include space travel in his book, but Paddington almost makes it into the history books when he's suited up and is about to blast off in the space shuttle to become the first bear in space. Paddington experiences snow for the first time and he becomes a little over-zealous with snowballs when he tosses one into Mr. Curry's bedroom. To make it up to his neighbour, Paddington shovels his walk, but in the process, locks Mr. Curry out of his house... more than once.
Episode 5 - Paddington Goes to the Dentist / Padd...
2 decades ago
When Paddington breaks a tooth, it's off to the dentist's office where Mr. Leach, the family dentist, discovers that bears can be difficult patients at best.The entire idea that huge reptiles once roamed the Earth is amazing for Paddington, and certainly worthy of a chapter in Mr. Gruber's book, The World and its Wonders. So Paddington and Mr. Gruber are off to the badlands in Alberta, Canada, to learn all they can about dinosaur fossils. And do they ever learn a lot, especially when Paddington discovers a new species--the Paddingsaurus Marmaladous.Paddington wins a hairy leg contest at the local pier and is delighted with his prize: free water skiing lessons. Water skiing isn't as easy as it looks, especially when your umbrella pops open in mid-ski, but Paddington helps revitalize an old sport and people line up from all around to have a go.
Episode 4 - Paddington Steps Out / Paddington Pre...
Episode 3 - A Day to Remember / Paddington In Spa...
2 decades ago
When Harold Price and Deirdre Flint ask him to be an usher at their wedding, Paddington is thrilled...until he discovers that he can't remove the wedding ring he has slipped onto his paw.It's the flamenco festival in Seville, Spain, which is in itself a wonderful event. But for Paddington, coming to the home of the famous Seville oranges, which are used in his favorite marmalade, pushes Paddington over the edge and he can't stop himself from whipping up a batch of extra sticky marmalade. And when he does, he's the belle of the ball at the flamenco festival's grand finale.While visiting Sir Huntley Martin's marmalade factory, Paddington is mistaken for a worker and set to work cleaning out barrels. A special ceremony is punctuated by an avalanche of empty marmalade barrels that come thundering through the scene.
Episode 2 - Old Master Paddington / Paddington an...
2 decades ago
In his attempt to discover an "old master" beneath one of the paintings in the drawing-room, Paddington ends up making a mess of Mr. Brown's entry in the local handicraft exhibition.Paddington and Mr. Gruber arrive in France to experience the age old tradition of a Pardon. The citizens of St. Castille are sure to remember this year's ceremony for years to come when Paddington joins the local marching band--and helps end the day with a bang.When Paddington and the Browns go for a picnic on the river, Paddington ends up in the river. And, when he hears Judy tell everybody that he can't swim, well, down he sinks...into the river's nine inch depths. Paddington is rescued - minus hat! Did his most favorite possession fall victim to the river's whirlpool?
Episode 1 - A Disappearing Trick / Paddington Sav...
Season 1 26 full episodes
| i don't know |
Who played the title role in the 1970 film ‘Cromwell’? | Cromwell (1970) - IMDb
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Oliver Cromwell can no longer tolerate King Charles' policies and the self-interest of the ruling class and leads a civil war to install Parliament as the ultimate ruler of England.
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Won 1 Oscar. Another 1 win & 5 nominations. See more awards »
Photos
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Director: Robert Siodmak
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Director: Alan Spencer
In Brooklyn, fishing is the hobby of the workers Jonah Goodwin and Olaf Johnson and they use to fish every night in their old boat. Jonah's daughter is the twenty-one year-old telephone ... See full summary »
Director: Anatole Litvak
Facing the decline of everything he has worked to obtain, conqueror Napoleon Bonaparte and his army confront the British at the Battle of Waterloo.
Director: Sergey Bondarchuk
Edit
Storyline
Disgusted with the policies of King Charles I, Oliver Cromwell plans to take his family to the New World. But on the eve of their departure, Cromwell is drawn into the tangled web of religion and politics that will result in the English Civil War. Written by Marg Baskin <[email protected]>
In his raised fist, the power of the people !
Genres:
17 July 1970 (UK) See more »
Also Known As:
Cromwell - Der Unerbittliche See more »
Filming Locations:
70 mm 6-Track (70 mm prints)| Mono (35 mm prints)
Color:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Scenes showing Cromwell's campaign in Ireland were cut from the final film due to the Troubles in Northern Ireland. See more »
Goofs
Cromwell is present at the King's execution. In fact he did not attend, but went to a prayer meeting instead. See more »
Quotes
Oliver Cromwell II : Do you think it could come to war, Father?
Oliver Cromwell : Well, Oliver, when men run out of words, they reach for their swords. Let's hope we can keep them talking.
(Los Angeles, CA) – See all my reviews
Honestly, this is the kind of movie that gives historical drama a bad name.
Granted, it is handsomely produced, with lavish costumes and sets, but it's mostly a big snooze. Especially when one compares it to Richard Lester's "The Three Musketeers," made only three years later, large parts of this film feel inescapably stagebound, much like the historical epics that were regularly churned out during the early 1950s, at the beginning of Cinemascope (i.e. "The Robe").
Yet the battle scenes and crowd scenes are impressive in their pageantry, and are about the only times in this movie where things seem to come alive. The cinematography is pretty nice, and Alec Guinness's performance as King Charles is remarkable in its subtlety and complexity. But Richard Harris' performance as Cromwell verges on camp, and he provides many unintentional chuckles, as he chews the scenery and spits it out again with a vengeance. One wonders why they didn't just get Chuck Heston for the role. "Get your stinking paws off of me, you DAMNED DIRTY KING!!" But maybe he just wasn't available. So here we have a grandstanding Dick Harris in what should perhaps be called "Planet of the Roundheads."
The major problem is that there are really no characters- with the sole exception of King Charles- that are interesting. Virtually everyone in this movie can be described with one adjective. Cromwell is righteous, the Queen is scheming, Prince Rupert is foppish, Fairfax is moderate, etc. etc.
It's impossible to care about any of these cardboard cut-outs in fancy dress, and after a while I was beginning to wish one of those Diggers would go postal and mow down the principal players with the 17th century equivalent of a Glock. The music is particularly obnoxious too- a Carmina Burana rip-off complete with a chorus bellowing out, at intervals, "REJOICE! REJOICE!" And I'm not even going to touch the subject of the director's highly questionable decision to canonize someone like Oliver Cromwell, whose character might be charitably called "complex." I'm not even Irish, but my stomach was lurching at those- many- moments when Richard Harris was staring nobly off into the distance while that damn chorus screeched away in the background like it was the umpteenth millionth remake of "Quo Vadis."
However, with all this said, it's impossible for me to hate this movie. It tries... so... hard! The final result is dubious, to say the least, but at least the project's ambition is commendable, and rather touching in a way. "Cromwell" is a noble experiment which- rather like Cromwell's Commonwealth itself- ends ultimately in failure.
But hey, on the bright side, at least there's Alec Guinness!
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| Richard Harris |
What is the largest gulf in the world? | Cromwell - Buy, Rent, and Watch Movies & TV on Flixster
Flixster User Reviews
xGary Xx
Crowmell tells the story of the man who was the driving force behind the English civil war and the father of English democracy. Oliver Cromwell is played with… More Crowmell tells the story of the man who was the driving force behind the English civil war and the father of English democracy. Oliver Cromwell is played with great intensity by Richard Harris as an honourable and incorruptible man who stuck by his principles despite the burden of his conscience; the fact that he was also a bigoted religious zealot, bullying imperialist and war criminal are all conveniently glossed over. But it would be in a film called "Cromwell", wouldn't it. Alec Guiness juggles the arrogance and inflexibility of Charles I and his refusal to relinquish absolute power even though his life depended upon it, with his more human side as a loving father. It also has some (for the time at least) epic battle sequences but it is very stagy, and may not quicken the pulses of those without an interest in politics and history. A well made and well acted historical drama that resembles an illustrated (albeit not entirely accurate) history lesson rather than Braveheart-like popular entertainment.
David Sayers
Caught this at the weekend. One of those big historical films that Britain used to make. Harris is excellent and really gets his teeth into the role. Great to… More Caught this at the weekend. One of those big historical films that Britain used to make. Harris is excellent and really gets his teeth into the role. Great to see him acting in a 'class' project (sadly he will mostly be remembered by most young people now as an old wizard!). Guiness is also brilliant as Charles and in fact the film suffers once his character is executed. Yes the film is overlong and is probably not historically accurate but they don't make them like this anymore. Shame.
Walter M.
Aided by a very good cast, "Cromwell" is a lavish if mostly simplistic spectacle about the conflict between Parliament led by Oliver Cromwell(Richard… More Aided by a very good cast, "Cromwell" is a lavish if mostly simplistic spectacle about the conflict between Parliament led by Oliver Cromwell(Richard Harris) and King Charles I(Alec Guinness) that starts in 1640 as England is facing an invasion from Scotland and Cromwell is about to immigrate to America with his family and fellow Puritans. However, the cause of defending farmers from the king's interests intercedes and Cromwell and his allies work tirelessly in Parliament in an escalating fight that leads to civil war. What works best in "Cromwell" is the contrast between Charles and Cromwell which is expressed perfectly in a great debate about whether ordinary men are capable of extraordinary things. Cromwell takes one side of this argument as he fights for a more just society but loses himself along the way, eventually becoming a tyrant as much as the one he eliminates. On the other hand, the subject of religion is skirted over as is Cromwell's brutal stint in Ireland.(Gore Vidal once wrote that the Puritans left England not because they were persecuted but because they were persecuting everyone else.) The movie's one critical error is in arguing that a country requires a strong head of state to succeed. Just don't knock anarchy if you haven't tried it.
Marcus Woolcott
| i don't know |
How many squares are on a Spear’s Games Snakes and Ladders board? | Snakes and ladders 3D - Android Apps on Google Play
Snakes and ladders 3D
Description
Play the game of Snakes & Ladders in glorious 3D!
The aim of the game is to reach the top square by climbing the ladders and avoiding the snakes! If you land at the bottom of a ladder you climb to the top... but if you land at the top of a snake you slide all the way down its back to its tail!
You can choose from one to four players.
Tap on the die to roll it.
Watch as the pieces move themselves up the board towards the top square.
Who will reach the top square first? Just when you think one player is winning another player can overtake!
You can move the board around to look at it from different angles. This fantastic 3D board has 3D snakes and ladders on it. It makes much more sense than a flat board!
It is as if the players are climbing up a zig-zag hill.
The game is set in the Indian jungle where Snakes and Ladders was invented more than a hundred years ago!
Good luck!
1 599
Pig Slayer
Its really hard to find good board games out in today's world, but snakes and ladders 3D is easily the best I've played in years. The fun and simple game play to those amazing graphics, its an all around amazing game. If you haven't played this game yet you need to! 10/10 will fap to again.
yoyo h.m
Its not good. Once you take the role, the other dice work twice than the other
MARYAM Kamran
LOVED IT I liked this game very much we can play them with our friends, family and alone too just for fun. I thank the developer to make such a great game for everyone. I would recommend this game to others too
Samuelle Velayo
Cool Nice. And, if your playing with 2-4 players, and you dont know whos next, theres a ball that shows a color of your player. And, the no. of how many move you can make, is right at your face. Not on top.
W Lamirande
Don't like the background music! Android Nexus 5 user. If you turn down the volume you miss out on the neat sound effects of the men movement. You need a separate option button to turn off just the music please.
Dave Burgess
Classic game from my childhood...love it!.....well implemented....do not understand the neg reps...adults thinking that this game is for adults may be disappointed...
User reviews
Pig Slayer April 20, 2016
Its really hard to find good board games out in today's world, but snakes and ladders 3D is easily the best I've played in years. The fun and simple game play to those amazing graphics, its an all around amazing game. If you haven't played this game yet you need to! 10/10 will fap to again.
yoyo h.m September 28, 2015
Its not good. Once you take the role, the other dice work twice than the other
Full Review
MARYAM Kamran April 1, 2016
LOVED IT I liked this game very much we can play them with our friends, family and alone too just for fun. I thank the developer to make such a great game for everyone. I would recommend this game to others too
Full Review
Samuelle Velayo January 22, 2015
Cool Nice. And, if your playing with 2-4 players, and you dont know whos next, theres a ball that shows a color of your player. And, the no. of how many move you can make, is right at your face. Not on top.
Full Review
W Lamirande November 29, 2015
Don't like the background music! Android Nexus 5 user. If you turn down the volume you miss out on the neat sound effects of the men movement. You need a separate option button to turn off just the music please.
Full Review
Dave Burgess April 26, 2014
Classic game from my childhood...love it!.....well implemented....do not understand the neg reps...adults thinking that this game is for adults may be disappointed...
Anjela Vincent February 5, 2015
Average Because its not so special and how to exit that s the promblem
Tyler Read October 16, 2014
Crap Wont let me open it wish i haddrnt downlosded it now
Sanchit Mahajan July 27, 2014
A waste game poor graphics no fun 1star is also too much for this game
Deepika dk April 24, 2014
Takes moi back to childhood days...i absolutely love ♥it
Sam Syed August 19, 2013
What is this? Playing one player seem to be joke with me. Uninstalling right now.
Bibhav shrestha March 29, 2014
Stupid irritating game . Don't think of downloading it
Tim Jefferies January 17, 2016
Bad I can't control the players it's like I'm a baby
Shery Amna August 20, 2014
Shahryar Hated it just rubbish won't open
Gun Gun Chopra March 21, 2015
It is a stupid game Plz don't download
Tanzil Raja September 9, 2013
V nice Tanzil Ur Rehman Raja of Pari Mohra Syedan
Millie x3 December 21, 2013
good i wish you could change the carecters of the game
Ashley Lawrence July 1, 2015
This is amazing to play so so amazing Play when bored
Eric Joshua Lachica January 11, 2016
Nice game very excellent I really love it especially HD QUALITY
Mona Sahni September 7, 2014
Saaali kutti game 3saal de bachiya vste
Vishnu Waghmare December 17, 2014
Samsung galaxy not 2 Very nice game
eduard bastareche May 26, 2014
fun this is amazing but please can you add some amazement
Sumukha Sreenidhi April 29, 2014
Better But it should be more colorful and attractive for the people.
edy ip October 24, 2014
Aim Mirak Great and Fun Game to Play!!!!
Gunawan Tri Nugroho March 22, 2015
Katrok... Pasti menang kl dah smp 100.. Langkah g bs mundur saat klbhn angka ke 100..
Ailie-jaye McIntosh October 15, 2013
It's good It hurts your eyes
Piggy POP! February 28, 2016
A-Maz-Ing Love this game of S and L
Muhammad Naeem January 7, 2014
not that much i did not try this game yet
Mary Srobles January 4, 2014
No it not okey
Alana Milham September 13, 2014
Way love it best game ever x
Anthony O'Dell February 18, 2014
Come on Ah its ok I guess
Nirmala Vijayasingh April 8, 2014
Game may interest toddlers!
Yadav Mithles June 17, 2015
Mithles Classic game is my fr
rahimul islam April 5, 2014
ASRAFUL ALAM Good hame enjoy it.
Raj Nambiar April 5, 2014
EXCELLENT what a game sirji :-D
Arpan Das May 11, 2014
Goooooooood Gives back my childhood
Rohit Munna February 21, 2014
Good 3d game Loving hyderabadi
Gaurab Sarkar March 9, 2014
Nice Fun playing this cute game
Emanuel Balot January 31, 2014
This game is very good Asome game
Lloyd Watkins October 12, 2014
This game looks cool.
| one hundred |
‘The Compact Pussycat’ is driven by which character in the children’s television series ‘Wacky Races’? | The Timelessness of Snakes and Ladders – re:form – Medium
The Timelessness of Snakes and Ladders
How a common children’s game has survived for centuries as a moral teaching tool
Chances are you’ve played Snakes and Ladders. Rebranded in 1943 by Milton Bradley as Chutes and Ladders, most of us have sat with a version of it at some point in our young lives, but its origins involve much more than just child’s play. The game is a potent teaching tool whose simple design has been used for centuries, arguably even millennia, as a way to embody and reinforce religious teachings and cultural values. Along the way it’s evolved and adapted to incorporate the themes and aesthetics relevant to each culture that played it, from ancient India to Victorian England, to the US and far beyond.
Chutes and Ladders Boardgame. Flickr / Ben Husmann
Surviving game boards suggest Snakes and Ladders emerged somewhere in Northern India or Nepal. In its earliest identifiable form it was called Gyan Chauper , though other versions have gone by names like Leela, Moksha Patamu, and Paramapada Sopanapata. These titles translate roughly to terms like Game of Self-Knowledge , Ladder to Salvation, or Steps to the Highest Place, showing the weight of the content it was meant to convey. Over centuries the game traveled and evolved, its basic design serving as a durable chassis for any culture that took it up, containing and transmitting their moral and spiritual beliefs.
For the one among you who hasn’t played some version of it, Snakes and Ladders progresses players in a zig zag pattern up a grid of about 100 squares by the roll of dice, or cowry shells originally. Planted on various squares are ladders that move players further up the board and snakes (or chutes) that slide them back down. The first player to reach the final square, entirely by chance, is the winner.
Jnana Chaupar: A Game of Knowledge (19th century AD) from the Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, Jodhpur
Bookending each ladder and snake is a moral lesson, whether in the form of an illustration or explicitly written out. This is where a lot of the game’s most obvious moral and religious didactics happen. But in playing, people are also made to experience the course of fate, and the consequences attached to virtues and vices. The experiential and communal nature of games is what makes even (maybe especially) the most basic of designs so effective at reinforcing culture.
“They are meant to teach us in a way that is very different from oral history and storytelling,” says Colleen Macklin, director of New School’s PET Lab , which designs games around social engagement and education in underserved communities around the world. “Without the players, the game doesn’t even really exist — I mean, you could say that there’s a board with some images drawn on it, or some dice, but it really isn’t anything until we play it.”
Play predates any formal system of language, education, politics, even our species itself. For us and our fellow primates, play is as much a way of being entertained as a way to work out how we interact and negotiate with the world. With that in mind, it’s really no surprise that evidence of humans playing games goes back thousands of years. But in an age when many of the newest games become unplayable within a decade of their invention, we still have something to learn from games as old as Snakes and Ladders — and its relatives like Pachisi — that have stuck around for thousands of years.
Jain version Game of Snakes & Ladders. Gouache on cloth, India, 19th century,
Jain, Hindu, Islamic, and Buddhist Versions of Snakes and Ladders are well documented. Often made simply of painted cloth, few boards have survived from any earlier than the mid-18th century. But some scholars think the earliest form of the game may have emerged from ancient Jain mandalas, in which various squares were illustrated with karmic concepts and progressions, connected by religious scribes with lines to underscore their relationships. The leap from those connective lines to ladders and snakes isn’t a big one — both are symbols common to many religions’ spiritual stories.
Jain Gyan Chaupar on cloth, National Museum (India, 19th century)
Devout laypeople would play these games as a form of meditation or communal exercise, reinforcing the teachings of their religion in a form of study that didn’t involve books or sermons. As such, the contents of each square were carefully considered, their connections intended to invite contemplation about specific tenets and the larger worldview they reflected when taken together. Predictably, landing on a snake square for ‘drunkenness’ would drop your piece a few spaces, but that square’s relationship to those around it was also relevant to the message of the game. Their groupings would divide and classify various spiritual concepts, or outline a religion’s cosmology. It’s possible that even the ratios of snakes to ladders (one version had 40 to 22) were a means of communicating how fraught and narrow the righteous path could be.
“My impression is that some boards (including Jain ones) seem more pessimistic in that they include a lot of snakes and fewer and shorter ladders to aid the upward path,” says Andrew Topsfield, keeper of Eastern art at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford , and a leading scholar on the game. “This may reflect the very highly developed nature of Jain karma theory and the many subtle spiritual pitfalls that the Jain scholars identified. The bhakti or devotional worship-based boards (Hindu and Muslim) can seem a little more balanced in this respect, though not without generous provisions of dangerous snakes of their own.”
The designs were also beautiful. Many boards have squares adorned with elaborate illustrations of religiously relevant phrases, figures or architecture, framed by flora, fauna, and symbols of spiritual planes. Rows of squares are sometimes arranged by levels of enlightenment, even in shapes suggesting the human body, simultaneously reflecting concepts like karmic paths, chakras, or other conceptions about various levels of the spiritual realm. One surviving board is even divided into sub-games corresponding to distinct spiritual or earthly states of being, an elaboration on the basic mechanic that enhances the religious content. Many of the old boards are genuine works of art, as telling as any manuscript or painting (and in a sense, they’re both).
Calico Museum of Textiles
“Games are an art form, and the aesthetics are important,” Macklin says. “It’s kind of like ritual — and of course games are very tied to ritual. The way that a church looks for instance, or the weight of the goblet you might be passing around in some kind of ceremony, all matter as much as the meaning behind it.”
Nomenclature is another major distinguishing factor between versions of Snakes and Ladders. The final square of a rare remnant of a 200 year old Sufi board, for example, speaks of ‘extinction into God,’ echoing the Sufi doctrine of “death before death.” Though distinct, these notions aren’t dissimilar from the Jain and Hindu versions’ goal of reaching Moksha — the ultimate release from the cycle of life and death—in their terminal squares. In the American version, we “win” a blue ribbon.
Modern adaptations of the game are much less rigorous in the messages they try to impart. In a popular American version, moral lessons are illustrated as comically simple drawings that anyone born in the ‘80s will recognize — a boy rescues a cat and makes a new friend at the top of the ladder, a girl eats too many chocolates which, as shown at the bottom of the connected chute, makes her ill (confusingly, at the top of another ladder, a girl is apparently preparing to eat an entire cake as her reward for baking it). There’s no apparent plan in the arrangement of these messages, their relationships to one another, or their correspondence with the number of squares a given ladder or chute advances a player or sets them back.
Imperial Britain is largely responsible for any of us in the west being exposed to this game. It was imported to Victorian England and soon caught on, even keeping the Indian iconography in its boards until around the 1930s. The virtues and vices became more generalized, endorsing grace and success under the ladders with warnings of poverty and disgrace adorning the snakes. Pregnant religious inscriptions were replaced by the two-part cartoon dramas, separated by a ladder or a serpent (and eventually a chute), as the snake to ladder ratio was generally evened out.
“It was probably thought that US infants would be frightened by all those snakes,” says Topfield. “Perhaps this might reflect some deeper cultural predisposition, going back to when the first West-bound settlers had to watch out for rattlesnakes.”
Flickr / Jonathan Dueck
It did well in the UK and US, retaining its potency as a childhood game that, at least in part, furthered the moral vision of its host culture. These games are vehicles for culture, another reason the chameleonic nature of Snakes and Ladders is so interesting — it provides a window into numerous places and times in world history. In their look, feel, and design, we see the priorities, values, aesthetics, and mentality of people we’ll never get a chance to meet.
Today the game continues to demonstrate its value as an educational tool, in promoting linear thinking, and concepts of sequence. It’s a format that’s still being innovated upon. Versions have been designed to educate communities facing the consequences of climate change , on how to face conflict , or to learn local farming cycles . The PET Lab mentioned earlier uses the cultural adaptability of simple games to foster disaster preparedness education in places where people have little access to technology, or even weather forecasts.
Games like these aren’t designed to be won, but to teach and communicate through experience. In our time, games are still as much an amplifier of culture as films, music or literature. A game like Grand Theft Auto probably says a lot about our culture — not all of it good — but little of that message really comes from the mechanics or design of the game itself.
As a design, this game model is robust enough to last for centuries precisely because of its simplicity and adaptability. The reason today’s most popular video games are unlikely to survive for another century, let alone another few decades, is largely because the complexity of their underlying code renders it impossible to adapt them to new ideas and perspectives. They’re closed systems, whereas games like Snakes and Ladders — whose underlying mechanism is akin to guided reading — allows any message or idea to be tooled to fit its time and place.
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How many Deadly Sins are there? | Deadly Sins: Are There Any? - Life, Hope & Truth
Deadly Sins: Are There Any?
by Dave Johnson
The list of the “seven deadly sins” is fairly familiar: wrath, greed, sloth, pride, lust, envy and gluttony. Are these or other sins truly deadly?
Are there deadly sins? How do we get free from them?
The list of seven deadly sins is believed to have originated with a fourth-century monk, who composed a list of eight evil thoughts. A few changes were made to the list over time, until Pope Gregory I issued the list of seven deadly sins as we know them today. These sins were believed to cause other sins and were thus considered to be “deadly.”
The list of seven deadly sins then became popularized by the Italian poet Dante in The Divine Comedy.
What does the Bible say about deadly sins?
The specific listing of the “seven deadly sins” shown above cannot be found in any scriptural text. The Bible does show that those activities are sinful, but also reveals that other sins should be avoided as well.
For instance, in Proverbs 6:16-19 , there is a list of seven things God hates. These are:
A proud look.
Hands that shed innocent blood.
A heart that devises wicked plans.
Feet that are swift in running to evil.
A false witness.
One who sows discord among brethren.
Although these things are specifically called out as things that God hates, only pride matches up as one of the “seven deadly sins.”
Galatians 5:19-21 lists many “works of the flesh” and says that those who practice such things will not inherit the Kingdom of God. These works include things such as adultery, idolatry, sorcery, hatred, heresies and murder; but only one of the items listed (envy) is included in the “seven deadly sins.”
God provides a definition of sin: “Whoever commits sin also commits lawlessness, and sin is lawlessness” (1 John 3:4). The King James Version renders this as “transgression of the law.” Actions contrary to God’s law are sin. “Therefore, to him who knows to do good and does not do it, to him it is sin” (James 4:17).
Sin has a certain “life cycle” that results in death. “But each one is tempted when he is drawn away by his own desires and enticed. Then, when desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; and sin, when it is full-grown, brings forth death” (James 1:14-15).
The list of sins resulting in death is not limited to seven! All sin leads to death, and that death would be permanent for each of us if it were not for the sacrifice of Jesus Christ, who atoned for our sins.
The list of sins resulting in death is not limited to seven! All sin leads to death, and that death would be permanent for each of us if it were not for the sacrifice of Jesus Christ, who atoned for our sins.
“For the wages of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord” (Romans 6:23). How did Christ’s sacrifice make forgiveness of our sins possible? And can we simply continue to sin because Jesus Christ paid the price?
The need for Christ’s sacrifice
The “wages of sin”—what sin earns for us—is death. This generally does not come in the form of God instantly striking people dead for sinning; but without Christ’s sacrifice, “eternal life in Christ Jesus” would not be possible.
The apostle Peter explains more about the sacrifice of Christ: “Who, when He was reviled, did not revile in return; when He suffered, He did not threaten, but committed Himself to Him who judges righteously; who Himself bore our sins in His own body on the tree, that we, having died to sins, might live for righteousness—by whose stripes you were healed” (1 Peter 2:23-24).
The penalty of permanent death (the wages of sin) was paid by Christ Himself at His death. The book of Hebrews illuminates further:
“For such a High Priest was fitting for us, who is holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners, and has become higher than the heavens; who does not need daily, as those high priests, to offer up sacrifices, first for His own sins and then for the people’s, for this He did once for all when He offered up Himself” (Hebrews 7:26-27).
Under the sacrificial system of ancient Israel, the priest, as described in Hebrews, offered up sacrifices for himself, then offered daily sacrifices to atone for the sins of the people. Christ offered up Himself once, for all mankind, to atone for our sins.
Now what?
Sins are deadly—all of them. There is no scriptural indication to support the idea that there are only seven deadly sins, with the rest being of lesser severity. Sins are the transgression of God’s law and would inevitably result in permanent death if not for the sacrifice of Christ.
So where does that leave us now? Do we simply acknowledge Christ as our Savior and go on with life as before, feeling secure in the knowledge that what we do doesn’t matter from now on? The apostle Paul answers that question very directly:
“What shall we say then? Shall we continue in sin that grace may abound? Certainly not! How shall we who died to sin live any longer in it?” (Romans 6:1-2). Paul continues in verse 4: “Therefore we were buried with Him through baptism into death, that just as Christ was raised from the dead by the glory of the Father, even so we also should walk in newness of life.” Repentance and baptism are required. (For further information, please see the “Baptism” section of this website.)
After baptism, we are expected to walk in “newness of life.” We are expected to turn from sin and go in the other direction. That can be a difficult thing. Sin has a certain repetitive pattern, or cycle, as described earlier in James 1:14-15 .
Breaking the cycle
How can we break the cycle of sin and choose a different path? Once again, our primary help is from Jesus Christ. He is our High Priest, as shown in Hebrews 7. He is also our spiritual forerunner—the One who went before us and showed us the path to follow.
“Therefore we also, since we are surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight, and the sin which so easily ensnares us, and let us run with endurance the race that is set before us, looking unto Jesus, the author and finisher of our faith, who for the joy that was set before Him endured the cross, despising the shame, and has sat down at the right hand of the throne of God” (Hebrews 12:1-2).
It will also help to look at the individual steps involved in the process that leads to sin. If we are more aware and informed on how we are led into sin, step by step, then we will be better prepared to break the deadly cycle and choose a different path. Those steps are:
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How many Jokers are in a standard pack of cards? | A List of Sins from the Bible
A List of Sins from the Bible
September 8, 2014 by Jack Wellman 33 Comments
The Bible says that sin has separated us from God. What are the sins listed in the Bible?
What is Sin?
Sin is the transgression of the Law of God ( 1 John 3:4 ) as John writes “Everyone who makes a practice of sinning also practices lawlessness; sin is lawlessness.” We are all sinners, even those who have been saved as Paul says “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” ( Rom 3:23) and “the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord” (Rom 6:23). Isaiah writes “your iniquities have made a separation between you and your God, and your sins have hidden his face from you so that he does not hear.” The good news is that “God shows his love for us in that while we were still sinners, Christ died for us” (Rom 5:8) and “while we were enemies we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son” (Rom 5:11a). Jesus solved our sin problem by becoming sin for us so that for those who have repented and trusted in Him can be seen as having the same righteousness as Christ does (2 Cor 5:21) but if not, we still have the wrath of God on us (John 3:18b, 3:36b).
All Sins Fit under the Ten Commandments
There are almost one hundred and twenty-five sins listed in the Bible so I thought it might be useful to show why God gave us the Ten Commandments as a standard by which to live. Of course no one can keep the Ten Commandments but even though it’s not humanly possible, this doesn’t give us an excuse to break them so what I have done below is to list the Ten Commandments and what sins fall under each of these sins. It should be noted that many of these sins could be placed under more than one of the Ten Commandments but in order to see where the biblical list of sins fall, I think it best to list almost all of the sins given in the Bible under each of the Ten Commandments because if we were able to keep the Ten Commandments, none of the sins would be broken so here is a list of the Ten Commandments and the sins which they fall under each one. There is no doubt that since there are so many sins listed in the Bible, some might be inadvertently missed while others may be repeated since they fall into the differing commandments.
The Ten Commandments and Associated Sins (Ex 20:3-17)
The First Commandment: You shall have no other gods before me.
Idolatry, greed, covetousness, love of money, gluttony, complaining, not loving God with all your heart, mind, soul, and strength, tempting God, high-mindedness, disobedience, witchcraft, lover of self, putting family, friends, job, or anything else above God including food, money, sports, inter, TV, Internet pornography, movies, cars, attachment to riches or material goods and dozens of other things.
The Second Commandment: You shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. You shall not bow down to them or serve them, for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments.
Love of money, greed, disobedience, covetousness, love of money, lover of self, putting family, friends, job, or anything else above God, irreverent use of God’s Word, attachment to riches or material goods.
The Third Commandment: You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain, for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain, irreverent use of God’s Word
Cursing, swearing, blaspheming, breaking oath taken in God’s name, irreverent use of God’s name in humor, speaking evil of the church, taking communion or the Lord’s Supper in a careless manner or unworthily, anger at God, careless use of God’s name, euphemisms like “geez, gosh, oh my God” etc.
The Fourth Commandment: Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, and do all your work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God. On it you shall not do any work, you, or your son, or your daughter, your male servant, or your female servant, or your livestock, or the sojourner who is within your gates. For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested on the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and made it holy.
Sloth, laziness, neglecting to assemble with the saints, profaning worship service, fighting or speaking evil of Christian brothers or sisters.
The Fifth Commandment: Honor your father and your mother, breaking civil laws when taught by parents to do obey the laws, failing to take care of aged parents, failing to take care of sick parents, fighting with and/or speaking evil about siblings, that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you.
Cursing father or mother, dishonoring parents, striking or fighting with parents, disobeying parents, making fun of parents, filthy talk, speaking evil or badly of parents, and grandparents included in the aforementioned things.
The Sixth Commandment: You shall not murder.
Murder, anger, hate, enmity, rage, brawling, rioting, striker, unforgiving heart, wrath, unmerciful, dissensions, contentions, clamor, despitefulness, debate, arguing, fighting, abortion, divisions, strife, rivalries,
The Seventh Commandment: You shall not commit adultery.
Adultery, fornication, sexual immorality, filthy talk, crude joking, whoremongers, defiling the body, homosexuality, sensuality, impurity, tempting others sexually, inordinate passion, corrupt language, effeminate, pornography, vulgar or crude jokes.
The Eighth Commandment: You shall not steal.
Stealing, bribery, extortion, sloth or laziness at work, defrauding, dishonesty, cheating, gambling,
The Ninth Commandment: You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
Lying, gossiping, slandering, backbiting, spreading rumors, deceit, extortion, railing, slander, defrauding, breaking promises, craftiness, hypocrisy, dishonesty, whisperers, idle words, withhold all of the truth, double-tongued, bragging, boasting, flattery, exaggerating the truth, whining, speaking evil of others.
The Tenth Commandment: You shall not covet your neighbor’s house; you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, or his male servant, or his female servant, or his ox, or his donkey, or anything that is your neighbor’s.
Coveting, envy, lust, jealousy, drunkenness, sorcery (Greek means drug abuse), materialism, wantonness, sensuality, gambling, revelings, attachment to riches or material goods, lawsuits against Christians, emulations, extortion, desire for money, desire for power, desire for sex (relating to sexual immorality), anger at other’s good fortunes, desiring things of others, flirting or playing with temptation.
Conclusion
There is but one way a person can be saved and that is to repent and confess sins and then putting trust in Christ to save them. No one can ever out-sin the work of Christ on the cross. The blood of the Lamb of God covers every sin ever committed. Only the sin of unbelief cannot be forgiven if when Christ comes a person has not asked to be saved by the only name given to us to be saved and that is Jesus Christ (Acts 4:12). There is no other possible way.
Another Reading on Patheos to Check Out: What Did Jesus Really Look Like: A Look at the Bible Facts
Article by Jack Wellman
Jack Wellman is Pastor of the Mulvane Brethren church in Mulvane Kansas. Jack is also the Senior Writer at What Christians Want To Know whose mission is to equip, encourage, and energize Christians and to address questions about the believer’s daily walk with God and the Bible. You can follow Jack on Google Plus or check out his book Blind Chance or Intelligent Design available on Amazon
Top 7 Bible Verses About Accepting Others »
Bob
The sin of gluttony has been removed from American churches, culture and country. We never hear about it because over a third of the people are now clinically obese. If any minister mentions it in the pulpit (and many are obese themselves) they risk losing members and therefore money. A Purdue study recently showed that overweight and obese rates were even higher in regular church attendees so churches not only ignore it, they promote it. The primary church to even address it is Saddleback Church, Minister Rick Warren. Kudos to them. Shame on the others that preach what is politically correct while ignoring the elephants in your rooms! (pun intended)
Jack Wellman
Great point Bob. Well said sir. Spot on about the silence from behind the pulpits.
franky
Excuse me jack will god forgive me for masterbating is he
John Carver
Are you masturbating or baiting your Master? God can forgive that sin along with all your other sins but the unforgivable sin, refusing to get to know he is that he is and what that is that you might learn to feel more than guilty. Try being loving for instance.
The SaintTwo
Holly mother of pearl Jack, you lumped all these into the sixth commandment?
“Murder, anger, hate, enmity, rage, brawling, rioting, striker, unforgiving heart, wrath, unmerciful, dissensions, contentions, clamor, despitefulness, debate, arguing, fighting, abortion, divisions, strife, rivalries,”
Seriously you are beyond delusional.
The SaintTwo
And how in the wide world of sporty did you derive “Sloth, laziness, neglecting to assemble with the saints, profaning worship service, fighting or speaking evil of Christian brothers or sisters.” from the “The Fourth Commandment: Remember the Sabbath day,”?
BTW, do you even know which is the Sabbath, is it Saturday or Sunday? Most christians sects conflict on this. But I’m sure you will point us to the ‘truth’ because all others are wrong, right?
John Carver
I thought we were supposed to be building up the saints and doing our best not to alienate sinners. How can one love others and not accept them at the level they are at? Why attack people in the church publicly. Is it any wonder the church seems to have gone beyond profaning the Name of God and Christian has taken on connotations of trouble making sinner haters. Don’t you profane the name of Christ by being repulsive to sinners that used to flock to him when he was known as Immanuel? Get your relationships right with God, keep them that way, and judge yourselves instead of taking cheap shots at others, any idiot could do. I am unimpressed.
John Carver
Sir are you for real? or maybe you are the reason there is a shortage of psychiatrists in churches? Do you even know what reality is? Have you even had anything to do with it? And you profess to share a truthful opinion? You live in a fantasy world. Wake up thou sleeper. There are real things to do with your time. May Jesus speak to you soon. I fear you are so confused even he might not be able to lead you back. But don’t give up. I don’t think he’ll carry you back by the beach or anywhere else. Get real. Get true. Pray for us. We need you guys. Why did you give up on us? Was it something one of you said and you decided to emulate him? Was it something Jesus said that put you to sleep. I am that I am, but I have no idea what any of you are but the guy that’s worried about masturbation. Did you ever think a fat preacher may be suffering you holier than thou trolls, you!
David
My main point is to question whether all sins can in fact be placed under the 10 commandments?
Jack Wellman
Probably not sir. Great observation. This article is a “List of Sins” and not a “List of all sins.” Make sense?
The SaintTwo
The ministers minister to the narcissistic, egocentric nature of so-called believers Robert; “god made the universe with me in mind,’ “god loves me because I’m special,’ and ‘god will send me to heaven.’ But nothing about “love your enemy,” “forgive so you can be forgiven,” “sell all your belongings and give to the poor,” Plus they are told that they will be forgiven for all their sins.
John Carver
What kind of a God picks and chooses what sins he will forgive? It is a sin too to backbite and criticize the church. Or haven’t you heard that in a while at your church?
John Carver
In my opinion sir, we spend way too much time blasting sins and alienating sinners without telling anyone how to deal with the problem and add to the sins from the pulpit by complaining. Stop finger pointing which is very nearly slander, a major sin, and start accepting or changing what we have. Stop sinning sir.
John Carver
Really? Eating too much! Is that what they were praying about in your church while Hell came to visit everyone else? What planet do you guys live on? There are real people dealing with reality on a regular basis everyday out there. And this is all you guys can find that’s wrong with the churches! The very Savior at your disposal and you are worried your pastor is fat. No wonder Jesus doesn’t answer Christian prayers anymore. Gluttony has almost nothing to do with reality let alone something excellent to think about. Why do you have this stupid topic online. You’re as bad as any other site online. Are purposely trying to emulate them, or what? Tell me how you would have me pray for the rest of your fantasies. I will, I promise, but I warn you it will get real even if we have to leave you behind not even to have noticed we left.
kzarley
Someone finally said it. Good for you, Robert. And if pastors preached it, they’d lose their jobs. I heard that for the early Pilgrims here, the two main sins were slouthfulness and gluttony.
radiofreerome
What about Usury? How many people preach about shutting down payday loan centers that enslave individuals and families to debt? What about the sin of Sodom as Ezekiel interpreted it, persecution of the poor and immigrants? Some Evangelicals have started to inveigh against city laws which make feeding the homeless in public illegal. Making charity illegal was the earliest sin cited against Sodom in Hebrew tradition.
Andrew Dowling
Haha, our whole modern economic system is based on usury. I’d love for the church to be “truly” counter-cultural and preach jubilee-style economics but I don’t count on that occurring . . .
Fred
“No one can ever out-sin the work of Christ on the cross.”
No, but many are trying.
John Carver
People that intentionally refuse him do that very thing. Stop sinning and get out there and accept people, please?
The SaintTwo
BTW, there are more than 10 commandments, a lot more. There is even one that says that “thou shall not boil a kid goat in its mother’s milk,” real useful rule.
John Carver
The point if I read the OT correctly was to make them a people for himself with their own peculiarities as a people. I think you missed the point of the OT entirely, Sir.
John Carver
The first word in the Holy Bible is not God ironically, but ‘In…” try including people instead of excluding saints if there are any left in what has largely become apostate anyway. Isn’t being a Christian more about pulling together under Christ’s banner than chasing away people who need Jesus because of people who criticize anything they can all the time. Stop sinning and try to make this thing work or don’t you have any fear of I Am, not to mention Christ. I am ashamed when people I try to evangelize quote people like you guys. Ask yourself a simple question before you try to be Light for others. Is what I am about to say Holy. If not, shut up and stop sinning. We really don’t want to lose you, too!
John Carver
I have belonged to two churches, a baptist church that prayed for something bad to happen to some member of the church that more people might be brought into the church out of sympathy and a bible church that prayed for a man to get into a car accident so they could minister to the family in the event he died or in the event the alcoholic man survived to have the opportunity to save his soul. Both were successful in the disaster area but what does that say about the mean spirit in churches these days? I prayed for the alcoholic to find out what they did and they blamed me for him getting so mad at them it is unlikely he will ever be in Heaven. I quit the church. My spirit isn’t that mean. I didn’t belong there any longer.
SJ
Learn to pray for people. Spurgeon’s meditation.
Tuesday, July 07, 2015
C. H. Spurgeon
“Brethren, pray for us.”—1 Thessalonians 5:25.
HIS one morning in the year we reserved to refresh the reader’s memory upon the subject of prayer for ministers, and we do most earnestly implore every Christian household to grant the fervent request of the text first uttered by an apostle and now repeated by us. Brethren, our work is Solemnly momentous, involving weal or woe to thousands; we treat with souls for God on eternal business, and our word is either a savour of life unto life, or of death unto death. A very heavy responsibility rests upon us, and it will be no small mercy if at the last we be found clear of the blood of all men. As officers in Christ’s army, we are the especial mark of the enmity of men and devils; they watch for our halting, and labour to take us by the heels. Our sacred calling involves us in temptations from which you are exempt, above all it too often draws us away from our personal enjoyment of truth into a ministerial and official consideration of it. We meet with many knotty cases, and our wits are at a non plus; we observe very sad backslidings, and our hearts are wounded; we see millions perishing, and our spirits sink. We wish to profit you by our preaching; we desire to be blest to your children; we long to be useful both to saints and sinners; therefore, dear friends, intercede for us with our God. Miserable men are we if we miss the aid of your prayers, but happy are we if we live in your supplications. You do not look to us but to our Master for spiritual blessings, and yet how many times has He given those blessings through His ministers; ask then, again and again, that we may be the earthen vessels into which the Lord may put the treasure of the gospel. We, the whole company of missionaries, ministers, city missionaries, and students, do in the name of Jesus beseech you
“BRETHREN, PRAY FOR US.”
http://www.spurgeon.org/morn_eve/this_morning.cgi
John Carver
Some ministers are best prayed for as follows: This man is spiritual abuser. Take him home before he does even more damage to the little ones and your Church. Amen.
John Carver
I think the only way to be a Christian nowadays is to leave your chuches and join thee Church. I’m a poor man and can’t see funding parking lots with my few dollars or building a new church with my pittance. Are there any real Christians out there? I’ve been looking, looking hard and can’t find anyone brave enough to be real about anything. It’s leaving me cynical. Where did Jesus Christ go? Did we miss the entire Book of Revelations or what? If Jesus is in this present Hell, I wish someone would point him out to me.
John Carver
I am tired of writing Christian books. Religion is a waste of time and effort. I have nothing to say to the dead church and there really isn’t much to say to those who don’t care if their spirit was no more than the spirit in their dead bodies dies along with the physical. Good-bye. I wish I could say it was nice being one of you. As for me and my family we choose to live! You are nothing but skeletons counting your bones for lack of anything else better to do. I don’t want to learn your stupidity or your vain ability to be big shots and count.
David
I don’t see the sin of ingratitude ,mentioned here
Jack Wellman
Great point sir. I based these upon the Ten Commandments so perhaps it could fall under one of these but you are so right…it is a big sin for sure; the refusal to give thanks to God for all He has done and all He has provided. Thank you David for pointing that out.
Rico D del Rosario
Thank you for this list. It showed me how I’ve fallen short. The Law condemns me. I need a Savior.
Jack Wellman
Thank you sir. This is why grace is just so amazing.
mipoki
Clearly the author of this article has never read the bible. Nor had any education since he can’t read. Please go to school and educate yourself.
Robin Miley
The Bible is a map for us to grow a personal relationship with our Maker. The stipulations of holiness and our call to obey His words do not change for anyone. God’s word does not adapt to a person based on their opinion of His word. The Truth remains the Truth regardless of what we think. The idea is that we allow His words to read us so we in turn become His words walking in flesh. Bickering over semantics does nothing useful to build up His kingdom. In fact, those willing to participate in argument proves there’s much growing that individual has yet to do and they should seek the Lord concerning whatever troubles their heart. For the bible directs us to “put away profane and idle babbling for they only lead to more ungodliness” (2 Timothy 2:16). What the bible also directs us to do is to edify one another WITH His word…not use it against each other. I urge you, brothers and sisters, speak kindly. If you believe someone is misled with their interpretation of scripture then offer advice, prayer, and maybe even a time of study together. Do not look for the wrong in others but seek the good and help strengthen the weaker areas. Don’t simply call them out and leave the person to fumble around while you sit on your own thrown of judgement. We must be careful. Strive to love, in all that you do, with the love of Christ. God bless <3
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Tipperary is in which European country? | Ireland Map / Geography of Ireland / Map of Ireland - Worldatlas.com
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The last Ice Age melted away some 10,000 years ago, and that dramatic event created the English Channel , Irish Sea and hundreds of rivers and lakes. Great Britain and Ireland (long attached to the European continent) were now islands, and cultural history was about to change.
The Celtic people occupied great stretches of land across central Europe by 500 BC. They first arrived in Ireland around 300 BC, subsequently controlling and influencing this land that the powerful Roman culture never reached.
The Pope in Rome (Celestinus the First) sent the first Christian missionaries to Ireland in the 5th century, including St. Patrick. The Catholic faith spread rapidly, and by the turn of the century abbeys and monasteries were beacons of hope across Ireland.
This somewhat peaceful Celtic world was first invaded by the Vikings in the late 8th century. Their overpowering raids of monasteries and villages continued through the 10th century, and they eventually built permanent power base settlements at Cork, Dublin and Waterford.
Localized fighting over land and property continued for decades, but over time, some Celtic family groups and Vikings reached alliances - sort of a workable, live together understanding. That ended when the Irish King Brian Boru defeated the Danish Vikings in 1014.
In 1169, aggressive English and Norman forces crossed the Irish Sea ; Dublin (a Viking stronghold) and other cities quickly fell, and the all-powerful Pope (in Rome ) declared that Henry II (the English King) was now the "Lord of Ireland." As you can imagine, that didn't sit very well with the locals.
Centuries of conflicts and localized wars continued, and finally, the embattled Irish chiefs were forced to retreat into the northern province of Ulster (parts of which are now Northern Ireland ). By 1607, most, if not all, would flee this land and the English saw an opening.
They quickly instigated a policy called 'plantation,' where waves of Scottish and English Protestants literally took the available land from the now weakened Catholics, laying the groundwork for the strong differences and bitterness that remain to this day.
Understandably, the now angry and proud Celts rebelled, and bloody riots soon followed. Then, after the native Irish supported the losing side in England 's Civil War, the worst for Ireland was yet to come.
In 1649, Oliver Cromwell, England's "Protestant" Lord Protector, (on the winning side in that war) led a punitive expedition into Ireland. The massacre was bloody, brutal and most destructive - and not yet forgotten.
As the English enforced strict (none of this, none of that) new laws on the Catholics, Protestant powers increased, and Ireland and its northern areas grew further apart, primarily for economic reasons.
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087 (but also 083, 085 or 086)-Vodafone Ireland
085- Meteor
Eircom official website: www.eircom.ie
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Madras was the former name of which Indian city? | India Place Name Changes - Major Cities and States
India Place Name Changes
India Place Name Changes
Significant Place Name Changes Since Independence
Over the past few years, several places in India have changed their names to shed their colonial monikers in favor of appropriate indigenous names. Source: CIA World Factbook, 2007
By Amanda Briney, Contributing Writer
Since declaring its independence from the United Kingdom in 1947 after years of colonial rule, a number of India's biggest cities and states have undergone place name changes as their states underwent a reorganization. Many of these changes to city names were done to make those names reflect the linguistic systems in the various areas.
The following is a brief history of some of India's most famous name changes:
Mumbai vs. Bombay
Mumbai is one of the world's ten largest cities today and is located in the Indian state of Maharashtra. This world-class city wasn't always known by this name however. Mumbai was formerly known as Bombay, which has its origins in the 1600s with the Portuguese. During their colonization of the area, they began calling it Bombaim - Portuguese for "Good Bay." In 1661 though, this Portuguese colony was given to King Charles II of England after he married the Portuguese princess Catherine de Braganza. When the British then took control of the colony, its name became Bombay- an anglicized version of Bombaim.
The name Bombay then stuck until 1996 when the Indian government changed it to Mumbai.
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It is believed that this was the name of a Kolis settlement in the same area because many Kolis communities were named after their Hindu deities. By the early 20th Century, one of these settlements was named Mumbadevi for a goddess of the same name.
Therefore the change to the name of Mumbai in 1996 was an attempt to use the previous Hindi names for a city that was once controlled by the British. The use of the name Mumbai reached a global scale in 2006 when the Associated Press announced it would refer to what was once Bombay as Mumbai.
Chennai vs. Madras
However, Mumbai was not the only newly named Indian city in 1996. In August of that same year, the former city of Madras, located in the state of Tamil Nadu, had its name changed to Chennai.
Both the names Chennai and Madras date back to 1639. In that year, the Raja of Chandragiri, (a suburb in South India), allowed the British East India Company to build a fort near the town of Madraspattinam. At the same time, the local people built another town close to the site of the fort. This town was named Chennappatnam, after the father of one of the early rulers. Later, both the fort and the town grew together but the British shortened their colony's name to Madras while the Indians changed theirs to Chennai.
The name Madras (shortened from Madraspattinam) also has links to the Portuguese who were present in the area as early as the 1500s. Their exact impact on the naming of the area is unclear however and many rumors exist as to how the name really originated. Many historians believe that it may have come from the Madeiros family who lived there in the 1500s.
No matter where it originated though, Madras is a much older name than Chennai. Despite that fact, the city was still renamed Chennai because it is in the language of the area’s original inhabitants and Madras was seen as being a Portuguese name and/or was associated with the former British colony.
Kolkata vs. Calcutta
More recently, in January 2001, one of the world's 25 largest cities, Calcutta, became Kolkata. At the same time the city’s name changed, its state changed from West Bengal to Bangla as well. Like Madras, the origin of the name Kolkata is disputed. One belief is that it is derived from in the name Kalikata - one of three villages present in the area where the city is today before the British arrived. The name Kalikata itself is derived from the Hindu goddess Kali.
The name could have also been derived from the Bengali word kilkila which means "flat area." There is also evidence that the name could have come from the words khal (natural canal) and katta (dug) which would have been present in older languages.
According to Bengali pronunciation however, the city was always called "Kolkata" prior to the arrival of the British who changed it to Calcutta. The changing of the city’s name back to Kolkata in 2001 was then an attempt to get back to its earlier, non-anglicized version.
Puducherry vs. Pondicherry
In 2006, the union territory (an administrative division in India) and city of Pondicherry had its name changed to Puducherry. The change officially occurred in 2006 and but is only recently being recognized worldwide.
Like Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata, the changing of the name to Puducherry was a result of the area’s history. The city and territory's inhabitants said the area had been known as Puducherry since ancient times but it was changed during French colonization. The new name is translated to mean "new colony" or "new village" and is considered the "French Riviera of the East" in addition to being the educational center of south India.
Bongo State vs. West Bengal
The most recent place name change for India's states is that of West Bengal. On August 19, 2011, India's politicians voted to change West Bengal's name to Bongo State or Poschim Bongo. Like other changes to India's place names, the most recent change was done in an attempt to remove its colonial heritage from its place name in favor of a more culturally significant name. The new name is Bengali for West Bengal.
The public opinion on these various city name changes is mixed. People residing within the cities often never used the anglicized names like Calcutta and Bombay but instead used the traditional Bengali pronunciations. People outside of India though often became used to such names and are unaware of the changes. Regardless of what the cities are called though, city name changes are a common occurrence in India and other places around the world.
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What is Philip Treacy famous for designing? | Madras History - Culture, Religion and Lifestyle in Madras
Madras, India » City Info » History
Chennai is stated to be an important contributor towards administrative, military, and economic centre since the 1st century. The Pallava, the Chola, the Pandya, and Vijaynagar the noticeable dynasties ruled over Chennai. Mylapore was a major port of the Pallava. In 1522, the Portugese built a port called Sao Tome. It was named after the Christian leader of reforms, St. Thomas who preached in the area between 52 and 70 A.D.
Madras, acquired its name from Madraspattinam which is a fishing village situated to the north of Fort St. George. There are various versions related to the origin of the name Madras. One of the theory states that the name Madre de Deus must be given by the Portuguese to the village when they arrived there in the 16th century. Whereas, the historians believe that it is named after a prominent Madeiros family who declared the Madre de Deus as a sacred church in San Thome in 1575. This church demolished in the year 1997. On the contrary, the other theory says that the village is named after an Islamic college named 'A Madrasa' situated in the same area.
Similar to the versions of the origin of the name Madras, there are various such versions related to the origin of the name Chennai as well. It was considered as a part of the empire of the King of Chandragiri, the period when the British arrived in 1639 A.D. Further; it was named as Chennapattanam by the British when they acquired it from Chennappa Nayaka, the leader of Vijayanagar. In Tamil language the word 'Chenni' means face and the Chenna Kesava Perumal Temple was thought of as the face of the city. Therefore, some people believed that the Chennapattanam was named after the Chenna Kesava Perumal Temple.
In due course the two towns Madraspattinam and Chennapattinam merged in the 17th century i.e. the period when the British gained possession of the area. The united town was referred as Madraspattinam by the British whereas the localities preferred to call it 'Chennapattinam'.
During 16th and 18th century, Madras was ruled by Portuguese and Frenchmen. The arrival of railway in India during 19th century helped city to connect with other crucial cities like Mumbai and Kolkata which encouraged the communication and trading in the surrounding area.
On 22nd August 1639, a small piece of land was purchased by the British East India Company which is located on the Coromandel Coast in Chandragiri from Peda Venkata Raya, king of Vijayanagar. For trading projects, Damerla Venkatapathy being the ruler of Vandavasi region permitted the British to build a factory and a warehouse. The next year British built the Fort St. George which then became a core part of the growing colonial city.
In 1746, the French under General La Bourdonnais, the Governor of Mauritius, who ransacked the town and nearby villages captured the Fort St. George and Madras. The control once again went in the hands of the British in 1749 through the Treaty of the Aix-la-Chapelle. They then strengthened the town’s fortress wall to defy further attacks from the French and other looming threat by Hyder Ali, the Sultan of Mysore.
Along with Tamil Nadu, the other northern modern-day states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka were conquered by the British in the late 18th century. This was the period when Madras Presidency was established with Madras as the capital. Under British rule, the city grew into a major urban centre and naval base.
During World War I, German light cruiser 'SMS Emden' attacked an oil depot in Madras. This attack demolished the shipping lanes in the Indian Ocean causing interruption to shipping. Madras was the only Indian city which was attacked during the World War I.
After India gained independence in 1947, Chennai became the capital of Madras State. In 1969 Madras state was renamed as state of Tamil Nadu.
In 2004, An 'Indian Ocean Tsunami' altered the coastline of Chennai permanently, killing many and leaving thousands of hundreds homeless.
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Prince Albert, husband of British monarch Queen Victoria, was born in which modern-day country? | Prince Albert, Queen Victoria's Stylish German Husband
By Robert McNamara
Prince Albert was a member of German royalty who married Britain's Queen Victoria and helped to spark an era of technological innovation as well as personal style.
Albert, who had been born as a prince in Germany, was initially seen by the British as an interloper in British society. But his intelligence, interest in new inventions, and capability in diplomatic affairs made him a respected figure in Britain.
Albert, who would eventually hold the title Prince Consort, became known for his interest in helping society improve in the mid-1800s. He was the great champion of one of the world's great technology events, the Great Exhibition of 1851 , which introduced many inventions to the public.
He died, tragically, in 1861, leaving Victoria a widow whose trademark attire would become the black of mourning. Just prior to his death he served an important role by helping to dissuade the British government from a military conflict with the United States.
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Profile of Queen Victoria
Early Life of Prince Albert
Albert was born on August 26, 1819 in Rosenau, Germany. He was the second son of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and was greatly influenced by his uncle Leopold, who became the king of Belgium in 1831.
As a teenager Albert traveled to Britain and met the Princess Victoria, who was his cousin and nearly the same age as Albert. They were friendly but Victoria was not overly impressed with the young Albert, who was shy and awkward.
The British were interested in finding a suitable husband for the young princess who was to ascend to the throne. British political tradition decreed that a monarch could not marry a commoner, so a British suitor was out of the question. Victoria's future husband would have to come from European royalty.
Albert's relatives on the continent, including King Leopold of Belgium, essentially steered the young man toward being Victoria's husband. In 1839, two years after Victoria became Queen, Albert returned to England and proposed marriage. The Queen accepted.
Marriage of Albert and Victoria
Queen Victoria married Albert on February 10, 1840 at St. James Palace in London. At first the British public and the aristocracy thought little of Albert. While he was born of European royalty, his family was not wealthy or powerful. And he was often portrayed as someone marrying for prestige or money.
Albert was actually quite intelligent and was devoted to helping his wife serve as monarch. And over time he became an indispensable aid to the queen, advising her on political and diplomatic affairs.
Victoria and Albert had nine children, and by all accounts their marriage was very happy. They loved being together, sometimes sketching or listening to music. The royal family was portrayed as the ideal family, and setting an example for the British public was considered a major part of their role.
Albert also contributed to a tradition familiar to us today. His German family would bring trees into the house at Christmas, and he brought that tradition to Britain. The Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a fashion in Britain which was carried over to America.
Career of Prince Albert
In the early years of the marriage, Albert was frustrated that Victoria did not assign him tasks which he felt were up to his abilities. He wrote to a friend that he was "only the husband, not the master in the house."
Albert busied himself with his interests in music and hunting, and he did eventually become involved in the serious matters of statesmanship.
In 1848, when much of Europe was being shaken by revolutionary movement, Albert cautioned that the rights of working people had to be seriously considered. He was a progressive voice at a crucial time.
Thanks to Albert's interest in technology, he was the main force behind the Great Exhibition of 1851 , a grand show of science and inventions held at a stunning new edifice in London, the Crystal Palace. The purpose of the exhibition was to showcase how society was being changed for the better by science and technology. It was a stunning success.
Throughout the 1850s Albert was often deeply involved in the affairs of state. He was known for clashing with Lord Palmerston, a highly influential British politician who served as foreign minister and also prime minister.
In the mid-1850s, when Albert cautioned against the Crimean War , some in Britain accused him of being pro-Russian.
Albert Was Given the Royal Title of Prince Consort
While Albert was influential, he had not, for the first 15 years of the marriage to Queen Victoria, received a royal title from Parliament. Victoria was disturbed that her husband's actual rank was not clearly defined.
In 1857 the official title of Prince Consort was finally bestowed upon Albert by Queen Victoria.
Death of Prince Albert
In late 1861 Albert was stricken with typhoid fever, a disease which was quite serious though not usually fatal. His habit of overwork may have weakened him, and he suffered greatly from the disease.
Hopes for his recovery dimmed, and he died on December 13, 1861. His death came as a shock to the British public, especially as he was only 42 years old.
On his deathbed, Albert had been involved in helping to lessen tensions with the United States over an incident at sea. An American naval vessel had stopped a British ship, the Trent, and seized two emissaries from the Confederate government during the early stage of the American Civil War .
Some in Britain took the American naval action as a grave insult and wanted to go to the war with the United States. Albert viewed the United States as a friendly nation to Britain and actively helped steer the British government from what surely would have been a pointless war.
Prince Albert Remembered
The death of her husband devastated Queen Victoria. Her grief seemed excessive even to people of her own time.
Victoria would live as a widow for 40 years, and was always seen wearing only black, which helped create an image of her as a sullen and remote figure. Indeed, the term Victorian often implies a seriousness which is in part due to Victoria's image as someone in deep grief.
There is no question that Victoria deeply loved Albert, and after his death he was honored by being entombed in an elaborate mausoleum at Frogmore House, not far from Windsor Castle. After her death, Victoria was entombed beside him.
The Royal Albert Hall in London was named in honor of Prince Albert, and his name is also affixed to London's Victoria and Albert Museum. A bridge crossing the Thames, which Albert suggested building in 1860, is also named from him.
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Which animal is depicted as the face of breakfast cereal Coco Pops? | Monarchy Rules: a look at Queen Victoria – Royal Central
In praise of unsung heroes: The Queen’s Award for Voluntary Service
“The important thing is not what they think of me, but what I think of them.” – Queen Victoria
She is this country’s second longest-reigning Monarch, and she reigned over a grand industrial age for Britain as well as a British Empire that stretched half way across the globe. Her reign was so successful that her name defined the 63 year period in which she was Queen. We are of course talking about Queen Victoria.
Queen Victoria as a child.
Born Alexandrina Victoria at Kensington Palace, Queen Victoria was the only child of the fourth son of King George III, Edward Duke of Kent and Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. Victoria’s father died when she was just a year old. She became an heir to the throne, owing to the fact that her three uncles (King George IV, King William IV and Frederick Duke of York) had no legitimate children.
Throughout her childhood, Queen Victoria was kept away from Court and from her ‘wicked’ uncles by her mother. She was sheltered at Kensington Palace with her mother and the Comptroller of the Household, Sir John Conroy, who manipulated Victoria’s mother into secluding her daughter from King and country. The ‘Kensington System’, as it became known, would not allow Victoria to sleep alone nor walk down the stairs without holding somebody’s hand.
Queen Victoria ascended the throne in June 1837 following the death of her uncle, King William IV, who was determined to survive long enough to avoid a Regency. A Regency that would see Victoria’s mother rule in her name under the gaze of Sir John Conroy. A Regency was avoided, and the ascension of a new Queen signalled the dawn of the Victorian era.
As Queen at the age of 18, it was evident that Victoria had much to learn and even more apparent that she was easily influenced. From the beginning of her reign, Victoria was influenced by two men in particular; Lord Melbourne, her first Prime Minister and Prince Albert, her husband who she married in 1840. While Lord Melbourne was using Queen Victoria for his own political advancement, Prince Albert taught his wife how to be a ruler in a constitutional monarchy, whereby the monarch had very few powers but could exercise a hell of a lot of influence. Prince Albert wasn’t using Victoria for his own gains, he was supporting his wife not just because she was his Queen but simply because he loved her.
The wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.
Queen Victoria and Prince Albert brought nine children into their family between 1840 and 1857. Victoria, Princess Royal was the first of those children born in 1840 followed by the future King Edward VII in 1841. Alice was born in 1843, Alfred was born in 1844, Helena was born in 1846 followed by Louise in 1848, Arthur in 1850 and Leopold in 1853. Princess Beatrice was the last of Victoria and Albert’s children to be born in 1857.
Just over 20 years into her reign, tragedy struck Queen Victoria when Prince Albert died on 14th December 1861 following a bout of typhoid fever. Victoria was naturally devastated and entered a period of mourning that some argue continued for the rest of her life, for the remainder of her life she wore black and for many years following Albert’s demise, Victoria was rarely seen in public, secluding herself at various royal residences including Windsor Castle, Osborne House and the Scottish home that Albert purchased for Victoria, Balmoral Castle. Victoria’s seclusion from her public duties earned her the nickname ‘Widow of Windsor’ though The Queen never neglected her official correspondence and continued to give audiences to her ministers and official visitors. Her isolation from the public did diminish Victoria’s popularity and that of the monarchy and encouraged the growth of a republican movement. In 1864, one protester stuck a note to the gates of Buckingham Palace which read, “these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant’s declining business.” The death of Prince Albert not only rocked Queen Victoria on a personal level but also shook the once solid foundations of the British Monarchy and only began to recover when Victoria made her first public appearance in years, at the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society in Kensington.
Following the increasing imperial sentiment from the 1870s onwards, the call for a republic wavered, and Queen Victoria’s popularity increased. This popularity increased somewhat more in 1877 when Victoria was declared Empress of India, following the Indian Mutiny of 1857 when the Government of India was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown. While the power of the Sovereign was decreasing day by day, Victoria was becoming to be regarded with great affection by her people and while her power diminished, her high level of prestige never wavered.
In 1887, the British Empire celebrated the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria, marking the 50 years since Victoria ascended the throne. Celebrations included a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited followed by a procession through the streets London and a thanksgiving service at Westminster Abbey. A decade later, Queen Victoria surpassed her grandfather, King George III, as Britain’s longest reigning monarch though Her Majesty requested that any celebrations be put back a year, to coincide with the occasion of her Diamond Jubilee. Much the same as her Golden Jubilee celebrations, a thanksgiving service was held outside St Paul’s Cathedral as Queen Victoria looked on from her open top carriage.
Despite her advanced age, Victoria continued her official duties right up to her death including a visit to Dublin in 1900. Queen Victoria died on 22nd January 1901 at the age of 81 at Osborne House. Her son and successor, King Edward VII, was at her deathbed as well as her grandson, Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany. Some four years previously, in 1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral in which she said it must be military as befitting for a soldier’s daughter and head of the army. Victoria’s funeral was held on 2nd February 1901 at St George’s Chapel, Windsor Castle and she was buried alongside her husband, Prince Albert, in Frogmore Mausoleum. Above the Mausoleum are Victoria’s own words inscribed, “farewell best beloved, here at last I shall rest with thee, with thee in Christ I shall rise again.”
Queen Victoria
While there have been many Kings of this country, there have only been a handful of Queens though in my opinion, every Queen that has reigned has made hugely significant contributions to this country and its people. Whether it be the ‘bloody’ reign of Queen Mary I, the glorious reign of Queen Elizabeth I, the prosperous reign of Queen Anne, the reign of Empire of Queen Victoria or the modern reign of Queen Elizabeth II there is one common denominator between all of them, they are all female Sovereigns and have reigned over a time of great change and prosperity for our country. Though Queen Victoria lost her title of longest reigning British monarch to her great-great granddaughter, Elizabeth II, just recently she will still go down as one of this country’s greatest and most devoted monarchs- a title that can never be taken away from her!
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The countries Ghana, Nigeria and Kenya are all in which continent? | African Venture Capital: Nigeria and Kenya are leading the continent with startups and fundraising | VentureBeat | Entrepreneur | by Chris O'Brien
African Venture Capital: Nigeria and Kenya are leading the continent with startups and fundraising
Tags: Africa , global , Kenya , nigeria , starups , vc4a , Venture Capital
Image Credit: Screengrab - Startup Kenya
While still small compared to much of the rest of the world, Africa’s startup scene is starting to gather momentum, led by Nigeria and Kenya, according to a new report .
Published by Venture Capital For Africa, or “VC4A,” the report says that Nigeria has the most startups raising capital, but Kenya has attracted more overall investment. However, it also notes that the startup action is still not widely distributed across the continent, with only a handful of other countries attracting meaningful amounts of entrepreneurs or venture capital investments.
“The research shows there are a growing number of businesses that are successfully growing their operations over time and adding much-needed jobs to the African marketplace,” said VC4Africa cofounder Ben White, in a statement. “This is a key message to investors. Now is the time to get involved in this space.”
VC4Africa is a platform for connecting entrepreneurs in Africa with investors. In general, there’s not a lot of solid information on the African startup ecosystem, which is why VC4A says it produced the report.
Its findings indicate that from the 113 venture-backed startups in the survey, 21 percent (or 24 startups) are based in Nigeria and have raised $1.4 million. Another 17 percent (19 startups) are based in Kenya and have raised $4.7 million.
Also making the list from companies surveyed: Tanzania (12 startups), South Africa (11), Ghana (10), Uganda (10), Cameroon (9), and Egypt (9). These companies had created 1,000 jobs through the end of 2013, the report says, but it’s hoping that number will grow to 5,000 by the end of 2015.
Again, these are tiny numbers by Silicon Valley standards. But there’s a reason that European-based companies like Rocket Internet and Chinese are investing a lot of time and money in the region: Its small base of Internet adopters is growing rapidly.
The question now is how long before all this activity has a meaningful impact on Africa’s economy.
| Africa |
What colour is superhero Batman’s Batphone? | Kenya Map / Geography of Kenya / Map of Kenya - Worldatlas.com
Kenya is named after Mount Kenya, a major landmark and the second highest mountain peak in Africa , and its first inhabitants were hunter-gatherers related to modern Khoisan speakers.
Bantu-speaking farmers began to populate the region by the first millennium AD followed quickly by Arab traders.
A Persian Prince of Shiraz, Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi, founded the medieval Kilwa Sultanate during 10th century, which at its peak spanned the entire length of the Swahili Coast, including Kenya.
Arab migrants soon began settling the coast, and established autonomous city-states. Eventually, elaborate mosques were built and Islam was introduced to the region.
In 1888, the Imperial British East Africa Company arrived, and built the Kenya-Uganda railway.
The British moved to and settled the interior central highlands, becoming wealthy from the farming of coffee and tea. As more Europeans arrived, their political power over the region grew - a result of their contribution to the economy.
However, the Kikuyu people habituated the land prior, and in order to protect their interests the Europeans banned farming and introduced a hut tax against the tribe. Subsequently, many natives began to move to cities as their ability to provide a living from the land diminished.
After decades of colonial rule the country gained its independence from Great Britain in December, 1963 and on December 12 1964, the Republic of Kenya was proclaimed. Mzee Jomo Kenyatta became its first president and remained in office until his death in 1978.
Daniel arap Moi became president following Kenyatta's death and retained that office until 1988. (He ran unopposed in elections held in 1979, 1983 and 1988). The 1988 election was done by the mlolongo (queuing) system – voters lined up behind their favorite candidate instead of using a secret ballot. This led to a constitutional reform.
Daniel arap Moi was reelected in multiparty elections in 1992 and 1997. He was constitutionally barred from running in 2002 and Mwai Kibaki won and was then re-elected in 2007.
Violence erupted following the 2007 election with the Kikuyu people being targeted, and Kibaki's opponent, Raila Odinga, accusing the government of fraud. His supporters carried out attacks for months, until UN Secretary General Kofi Annan brought both sides together and negotiations were ultimately reached.
President Kibaki has focused his efforts on generating economic growth, combating corruption, improving education, and rewriting its constitution. As a result, Kenya has remained stable, despite changes in its political system and crises in neighboring countries.
Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta is the fourth and current President of Kenya, in office since 9 April 2013.
Kenya's population is relatively young – over 70% are under the age of 30. The population has also increased rapidly – in just over 80 years, it has grown from less than 3 million to 44 million.
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The caber, kilts and bagpipes are all associated with with European country? | Kilts, whisky and deep-fried Mars bars?: Scottish cliches busted
Kilts, whisky and deep-fried Mars bars?: Scottish cliches busted
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Stereotypes about Scotland are legion, although few refer to the great artists, philosophers and scientists the nation has produced over the centuries of its proud history (AFP Photo/Andy Buchanan)
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Edinburgh (AFP) - Stereotypes about Scotland are legion, although few refer to the great artists, philosophers and scientists the nation has produced over the centuries of its proud history.
Cliches about Scots tend to involve kilts, ruddy complexions and whisky, or throwing tree logs in the air for fun -- a traditional martial sport known as caber-tossing.
But are they true? Here is an informal look at five common cliches about Scots, as they prepare to vote in a historic independence referendum next week:
Miserly Scots?:
FALSE - The idea of a Scot enjoying a drink but being reluctant to pay for it is a persistent stereotype.
"Originally it reflected Scots' poverty and then became complimentary, focussing on the fact that Scots are very good at money, good at business," said Murray Pittock, a historian and literature professor at the University of Glasgow.
Many studies have shown the penny-pinching reputation is way off, including a poll from last year that found Scots on average give £365 pounds (455 euros, $587) a year to charity compared to £268 pounds for wealthier Londoners.
Bad diets?:
EXAGGERATED - Scottish cuisine includes many alternatives to the much-loved haggis -- a stuffed sheep's stomach. But bad diets are a problem and alcohol consumption is high compared to other parts of the United Kingdom.
"Is it true? In parts of Scotland yes, in particular in the wet parts of Scotland, in the west," Pittock said.
The Scottish national health service said bad eating habits partly explain a life expectancy that is lower than in England and Wales -- 76.5 years for a boy born in 2012 and 80.7 years for a girl.
Often held up as an example is fried food, including the notorious deep-fried Mars bar. Pittock dismissed the chocolate calorie bomb as "largely exaggerated" and "a bit of a legend".
Hard to understand?:
SOMETIMES - Heavily Scottish-accented English can be hard for an English person or foreigner to understand but should not be confused with Scottish Gaelic, a distinct Celtic language that is only spoken by a small minority.
"That tends to be post-1940/1950 when you started to hear on national radio and later on TV, union leaders of the west of Scotland speaking with a thick accent and they were rather difficult for people in England to understand," Pittock said.
The professor said Scottish speakers then were sometimes subtitled on television, but there is now greater pride in accents that people would have tried to tone down in the past. Additionally, there is a general tendency for accents in Britain to be more uniform.
Patriotic Scots?:
TRUE - A recent study found that 69 percent of Scots feel "Scottish first" and 20 percent feel "British first". In comparison, the number of English people who feel "English first" is just 43 percent.
"As a small country, a very marginal place in the European world geographically, Scotland has always had some strong form of patriotism," Pittock said.
"The idea has a long heritage going back to the Middle Ages," he said, pointing to the French proverb -- "proud as a Scot".
Some of the patriotism is associated with anti-Englishness.
As one Scottish comedian, Frankie Boyle, quipped: "In Scotland we have mixed feelings about global warming, because we will get to sit on the mountains and watch the English drown."
Kilt-wearing?:
TRUE - Or at least it used to be. A type of woollen multi-coloured cloth, kilts were the traditional attire for men from the Highlands since at least the 16th century and they are one of the most popular symbols of Scotland.
Kilts are rooted in history and are associated with patriotism as they were banned following the Jacobite uprising in the 18th century and only re-introduced in the army.
"Obviously, most Scots don't wear kilts every day," Pittock said, adding: "Kilts, bagpipes, tartan are all rather kitsch interpretations of Scotland but people are embracing them, saying at least it is a visible brand".
Asked what they wear underneath, if anything, Scottish men like to joke they have "the future of Scotland".
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| Scotland |
What is the name of the fictional road on the council estate to which the Queen and her family have to move in the 1992 novel ‘The Queen and I’ by Sue Townsend? | Our Scottish Culture - So Much More Than Kilts And Bagpipes
4 June, 2013
By John
There’s more to Scottish Culture than kilts & bagpipes. As a nation we are proud people. We love being Scottish, we can glorify failure, we never give up, and we don’t take ourselves too seriously. That last sentence almost sums us up, but not quite.
With our remarkable history, and diverse culture, is it really any wonder we have an inbred sense of identity? This is in spite of the fact that we are part of the United Kingdom and not an independent country as such.
The Union of the Crowns took place in 1603, with James VI of Scotland becoming James I of England, and the Act of Union on 1st May 1707, united both parliaments, effectively ending Scotland’s struggle to retain independence. So, considering that we are no longer a separate sovereign state, and with no independent membership of the United Nations or the European Union, what is it exactly that constitutes our sense of identity?
Well, in Scotland we have our own legal system, and our own education system which is different from that of England and Wales.
We have our own banking system, and our rail network is managed independently from the rest of the UK. The country also hosts many of its own national sporting competitions, and enjoys independent representation at some of the major international sporting events like the FIFA World Cup, the Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games. Following devolution, a new Scottish Parliament was elected in 1999, with our own Secretary of State becoming a part of the UK Cabinet.
Confused enough?
So am I, let’s continue ……
This small country is the northernmost part of the UK, surrounded on three sides by water and having just one land border with England, which runs between the Rivers Tweed (east) and Solway Firth (west). We have around 787 islands, mostly groups which form the Hebrides, the Orkney and the Shetland Islands. We are well known for our beautiful mountainous scenery and lochs (lakes). Although seemingly tranquil at times, Scotland is a vibrant, exciting country, and home to a wide range of cultures and traditions, not to mention our bloody, violent and colourful history.
With around 3000 castles, 3000 golf courses, a fabulous collection of museums and galleries, plus a vast range of activities and events, our Scottish culture provides something for people of all ages and interests to explore.
Scottish national dress is the kilt, a wrap around of four yards of tartan with box pleats. Men wear the kilt and sporran, tartan hose, jacket and bonnet, and a sgian dhubh (black knife) tucked in the hose.
Rarely seen apart from weddings, Burns’ Suppers, other special occasions, and more remote parts of the country, tartan has been associated with clans, but nowadays there are many new tartan designs that have no clan connection whatsoever. Check eBay For Scottish Kilts and accessories.
The use of the word “Scotch” referring to all things Scottish was commonplace outwith the country in bygone days, however, the modern use of the term describes only Scottish products, usually food or drink. It’s worth remembering not to refer to the people as “Scotch”. We are likely to be offended. We are “Scots” and our nationality is “Scottish” 🙂
Our biggest export is Scotch whisky, well known throughout the world. However in Scotland you will not hear anyone order a “Scotch”. In keeping with Scottish culture, a whisky will be asked for by brand name, or “a whisky”, “a half”, “a dram”, or “a nip”, depending on which part of the country you’re in. A “glass” is a double measure.
Our “other national drink” is Irn Bru, (pronounced Iron Brew) a soft drink which many swear by as a hangover cure. It’s very gassy, and it sure tingles the taste buds. There are some things you must sample when in Scotland, and this is one of them.
Food you must try is Porridge, a dish of boiled oatmeal, usually eaten at breakfast. Porridge should be flavoured with salt during cooking, but some people have been known to use sugar, which is enough to put the wind up the kilt of true Scotsmen.
If you visit, you should also try the Haggis, a wonderful delicacy usually served with potatoes & turnip. Now don’t pay too much attention to the ingredients, they’ll put you off, you’re better just knowing how to cook it, so have a look at Scottish Recipes .
Haggis, neeps and tatties (turnip & potatoes) is the traditional fare that is served on ‘Burns Night’ in honour of the birth date of our national poet, Robert Burns , on 25th January. Burns Nights are celebrated not only in Scotland, but all over the world, where there are Scottish connections.
But there is so much more to Scottish culture than Kilts,
Bagpipes, Haggis and Whisky.
Saint Andrew’s day (our patron saint), is celebrated on the 30th November. Read the story of how The Saltire (St Andrew’s Cross)
became our national flag. Our national emblem is the Thistle.
There are three officially recognised languages: English, Scots and Scottish Gaelic, although the 2001 UK Census showed that there are only 58,652 Gaelic speakers, out of a population of 5,062,011. You’re most likely to hear Gaelic spoken in the western isles. Mind you, Scotland has a language all of its own, when you consider some of the old Scottish Sayings . It’s worth getting to grips with them, the ones that are not so old, and some of our Scottish slang words. One of our slang words is ‘fitba’ meaning football. As a nation we are passionate about our football. See the Fitba Daft page.
This small country has made a significant contribution to the world of creativity and entertainment, and many Scots have become famous in the field of invention such as :
John Logie Baird – started the first TV station in the world.
Alexander Graham Bell – inventor of the telephone.
Sir David Brewster – invented the kaleidoscope.
James Watt – steam engine inspired the Industrial Revolution.
Music in Scotland offers something for all tastes, ranging from traditional Celtic music to modern jazz, opera, rock and popular music, and Glasgow boasts Fantastic Nightlife to match any city in Europe. The city also offers some of the best shopping to be found anywhere, and with a superb range of free entry museums, Glasgow has become a magnet for tourists the world over, as has Edinburgh, the capital.
Scottish theatre has been transformed from its old music hall days to a broad spectrum of drama, comedy and dance. Our major festivals, although still very much promoting Scottish culture, have a more international look, especially the Edinburgh Military Tattoo and the Edinburgh Fringe Festival , offering a true cosmopolitan flavour. You can sample true Scottish culture and traditions with the fabulous Highland Games , held all over the country during the summer months.
If you’re here late December, then make a point of staying for the famous Edinburgh Hogmanay Party , the worlds’ biggest New Year bash. You’re guaranteed a smashing time, but be careful not to get ‘Blootered’ (meaning can be found on the Scottish sayings page). Visit us and sample our Scottish culture, our colourful history, our lochs, mountains, warm hospitality, and The Things I Love About Scotland
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In the game of billiards, what colour are the spots on the spot balls? | The Rules of Billiards and Snooker
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The Rules of Billiards and Snooker
The following is a basic set of instructions for the friendly play of the game of Billiards and Snooker including additional comments designed to assist with the understanding of the game. Note: 1 foot = 30.48 cm
Billiards
Equipment
A full-size Billiards table measures twelve feet by six feet, one and a half inches and has a baize-covered slate bed. The four edges of the table feature rubber edges covered in baize called "cushions". Six "pockets" are situated one at each corner plus one at the centre of each long side of the table into which the balls can drop. The six pockets normally have a net or a small collecting channel to catch the balls. Two feet, five inches from one end, a line is drawn across the table called the "baulk" line. Any ball between the baulk line and the nearest end is generally referred to as being "in baulk". A semi-circle is inscribed within the baulk area with is axis as the middlepoint of the baulk line and with a radius of eleven and a half inches. This semi-circle is termed the "D". At the other end of the table, twelve and three-quarter inches from the end cushion, a spot is centrally inscribed as a starting point for the red ball.
The cue ball is struck with tapered sticks featuring a striking tip called "cues". The cue tips are chalked to prevent a slippery contact with the ball. There is almost always an additional accessory available called a "rest" which is like a cue with a cross on the end upon which the cue can be rested to extend its playing length. Quite often, a "full-butt" and a "half-butt" are also available - these are much longer rests with arched fixments on the end that come with their own long cues for playing very long shots.
Billiards is played with one red ball and two white cue balls, one with a small black spot and one without.
The Start
A doubles game is occasionally played but the game is usually singles. One player chooses to play with the white cue ball and the other the spotted white cue ball. To begin with, players play their cue ball from within the D down the table so that it bounces back up the table and comes to rest in baulk. The player whose ball is closest to the baulk cushion chooses to go first or second. Most players prefer to go second because the first turn occurs with only two balls on the table - a severe limitation.
The game starts with the red ball on it's spot and the cue ball of the starting player placed in the D at the front of the table. Players agree how many points will constitute a game and the objective is merely to be the first to score than number. A typical number for expert players might be 1000 points - professionals regularly score more than this in a single break. Beginners might consider 150 as a more appropriate target.
Basic Play
Each turn is called a "break" and consists of a series of strikes of the cue ball that come to an end when a player makes a non-scoring strike or a foul stroke. Scoring is achieved by "potting" balls, by "cannons", and by going "in off". A ball is "potted" when the cue ball knocks it into a pocket. A "cannon" is when the cue ball strikes first one ball and then the other. A player's ball goes "in off" when it falls into a pocket having first "kissed" (struck) another ball.
Whenever the red ball is potted, it is immediately returned to the red spot for the next strike. Whenever the cue ball goes in off, it is immediately returned to the player who can position it anywhere within the D for the next strike. If the opponents ball is potted, it remains out of play until the end of that player's break. In this case, the opponent starts the next turn by positioning his ball anywhere within the D. Otherwise the opponent starts the next turn by striking the ball from wherever it ends up. Potting the opponents ball is usually to be avoided since scoring is much harder with only two balls on the table.
Foul shots
A foul occurs when a player's ball hits no other balls in which case 1 point is added to the opponent's score or when the player's ball goes directly into a pocket without hitting any other ball whereupon 3 points are given to the opponent. It will quickly be seen, however, that the size of these penalties are trivial compared to the injury suffered merely as a result of allowing the opponent onto the table.....
3 points for potting or going in off the red ball.
2 points for potting or going in off the opponents ball.
2 points for a cannon.
Scoring is cumulative within a single strike so for instance, a common play is to both pot and go in off the red ball, thus scoring 6 points. The cue ball is deemed to go in off the first ball that it comes into contact with. So if the player strikes the opponents ball, cannons onto the red ball and then goes in off, 4 points are scored. The largest score possible in one strike is 10 points although, since this requires the opponents ball to be potted, it is is normally a bitter-sweet achievement.
Special Situations
When the player's ball finishes touching another ball, the red is put on its spot, the other player's white is placed on the centre spot, and the player must return his ball to the D.
Snooker
Equipment
Snooker is played upon a Billiards table and uses the same cues and standard equipment. Different balls are used, though - one white cue ball is used by both players together with 15 red balls worth 1 point each and 6 coloured balls worth differing points viz:
Yellow - 2 points - initially placed on the right corner of the D as looked at from baulk.
Green - 3 points - initially placed on the left corner of the D as looked at from baulk.
Brown - 4 points - initially placed on the middle of the baulk line directly between the yellow and green balls.
Blue - 5 points - initially placed slap bang in the middle of the table.
Pink - 6 points - initially placed on a spot midway between the blue ball and the end cushion.
Black - 7 points - initially placed on the spot used for the red ball in Billiards - twelve and three-quarter inches from the middle of the end cushion.
The fifteen red balls are set in a triangle (using a special triangular frame) between the pink and the black balls so that the triangle points towards baulk with the red at the tip almost but not quite touching the pink ball.
In addition to the rest and the butts of the Billiards table, a three other special rests are sometimes available called "spider", "extended spider" and "swan neck". These are rests with special fixments on the end to gain additional height as well as length.
The Objective and the Start
The objective is to score more points that the opponent by potting balls and, less commonly, by playing snookers that will force the opponent to make a foul stroke and thus give points away. Players flip a coin to decide who goes first. To prepare for the first shot, the player concerned sets the cue ball anywhere within the D so that it can be aimed at a red ball.
Basic Play
Each turn is called a "break" and consists of a series of strikes of the cue ball that come to an end when a player makes a non-scoring strike or a foul stroke. While there are reds on the table, a break must always start by potting a red. When a red has been potted the player must next pot a nominated coloured ball (if it is not obvious which colour is being aimed at, the player is required to orally make this clear). A coloured ball that has been potted after a red is immediately returned to the table on its home spot. After a coloured ball, another red ball must be potted followed by a colour and so on until there are no red balls left. After the final red ball and its accompanying colour have been potted, the balls must be potted in order starting with yellow and finishing with black.
In all cases, the next ball to be potted or colour nominated to be potted must be the first ball struck by the cue-ball or a foul shot is declared. So when a player has next to pot a red ball, if a ball other than a red ball is struck first, it is a foul stroke.
As soon as the break comes to an end the other player has a chance to make a break which must always start with a red ball if there are any left, regardless of how the last break ended. The cue ball must be played from where it finished after the previous shot unless it went in-off. Once all the reds have been potted breaks start with the lowest value colour and continue through to the black ball.
Points are scored according to the value of each ball potted.
Snooker is not all about potting balls - very often it is more advantageous to play safe by putting the cue ball into a position such that the the opponent will find the next shot very difficult to play or to score from. Whenever a player is not able to directly play the ball to be struck with a straight shot, that player is said to be "snookered" on that ball. In this case the opponent is required either to swerve the white ball around another ball or to bounce the cue ball off one or more cushions in order to hit the target ball. With either type of shot, it is difficult to judge the outcome and so the player who engineered the snooker has a good chance either of winning points because the opponent plays a foul shot or at least benefiting from a good position for the next turn.
Common Foul shots
A foul shot is declared in any of the following scenarios.
The cue-ball strikes first a ball other than the next ball to be potted or the colour nominated to be potted.
Whenever the cue ball goes in-off (into a pocket) or leaves the table. The ball is placed anywhere in the D by the next player before the next strike.
Whenever an incorrect ball is potted. For instance, if the red is being played but the blue ball gets knocked into the pocket.
The player who committed a foul stroke receives no points for that stroke even if a legitimate ball was potted and the break is over. However, any points made in the break prior to the foul shot are kept.
Whenever a foul stroke is committed, the opponent receives some penalty points viz:
If the ball being played is the black or the foul occurred because the black ball was struck first incorrectly or potted incorrectly, then seven points are forfeited.
If the ball being played is the pink or the foul occurred because the pink ball was struck first incorrectly or potted incorrectly, then six points are forfeited.
If the ball being played is the blue or the foul occurred because the blue ball was struck first incorrectly or potted incorrectly, then five points are forfeited.
Otherwise four points are forfeited.
Where more than one foul occurs in one stroke, only one penalty applies but it is always the largest applicable penalty. So if a red is being played and the player misses hits the yellow first, pots the green and goes in-off, only four points are awarded to the opponent. However, if the brown is being played and the player hits it first but accidentally knocks it onto the pink ball which falls into a pocket, six points are awarded to the opponent.
Some rules apply to the turn following a foul stroke viz:
After any foul shot, the player who would normally play next may choose to allow the fouling player to take the next shot, instead.
If, following a foul shot, the next player is is snookered, that player may take a "free ball". In this case, the player has the option to play any ball on the table as if it was the ball that should properly be played next. Thereafter play continues normally. So if a free ball occurs on a red, the player may play any colour as if it were a red, after which a coloured ball is nominated. The shot after that would be on a red ball if available - the yellow otherwise. If a free ball occurs on a coloured ball after all the reds are potted, the player will attempt to pot any nominated ball and the next shot will revert to the lowest value ball.
Less oft-used rules
If the cue-ball ever comes to rest touching another ball, a "touching ball" is called. If the ball being touched is the ball to be played or is nominated as such by the player, then the player is counted as having played the ball already. Regardless, the player must play away from the ball in order to avoid playing an illegal push shot.
Sometimes a coloured ball that has been potted after a red cannot be returned to the table on its home spot due to being covered by another ball. In this case, the spot of the black is used or, if that is not available, the pink spot and so on down to the yellow spot. If none of the spots are available, then the ball is placed on an imaginary line through the black and pink spots as close to the black spot as possible from the end of the table.
Less common foul shots are listed below:
If the player plays a "push shot". This happens if the targeted ball is close to the cue ball and the cue tip is still in contact with the cue-ball when it strikes the target ball.
In the case of a "touching ball", the player must play away from the ball - if it moves then it is a push shot and a foul.
If the cue-ball hops over the ball being aimed at, this is deemed a "jump shot" and is a foul stroke.
If the cue-ball is struck twice.
If a ball is touched before it has finished rolling.
If the player strikes the cue ball without at least one foot touching the floor.
The End
Eventually all balls except the black have been potted. At this stage, if the difference in score is more than seven points, the game ends since it is only sporting to assume that a player will not miss a direct shot and so there is no way for the losing player to win. Otherwise, the last ball is potted in the usual way.
If the game is drawn, then the black is re-spotted and the cue ball is moved to and played from anywhere within the D. The players flip a coin to decide who plays first and play continues. The player who pots the black wins the game.
At any point during the game a player can resign the game. A player would normally resign when the score is such that even with all the balls and two or three snookers he would not overtake the other player.
| Black |
A fewterer is a keeper of which animals? | Snooker Rules
Rules of Snooker
Type of Game: International or "English" snooker is the most widely played form of snooker around the world. It is generally played on 6'x12' English billiard tables, with cushions that are more narrow than on pocket billiard tables and which curve smoothly into the pocket openings. 5 x 10 and snooker tables of even smaller playing dimensions may be used for the game. On a 6 x 12 snooker (English billiard) table the playing area within the cushion faces shall measure 11' 8.5" x 5' 10" with a tolerance on both dimensions of +/-0.5". The height of the table is measured from the floor to the top of the cushion rail, and the height shall measure 34" with an allowable variance of +/-0.5".
If you like playing snooker on your computer, you can also try casino gaming online for free or real money. Sites like www.realmoneyaction.com provide online casino games, guides and reviews of best online casinos.
Players: 2
Balls Used: Set of Snooker balls: fifteen object balls that are not numbered and are solid red (called reds), six object balls of other colors that are not numbered (called colors) and a cue ball (called the white ball). Point values for object balls: red-1, yellow-2, green-3, brown-4, blue-5, pink-6, black-7. In International Snooker the balls used are 2-1/16" diameter.
The Rack: Play begins with the balls placed as in the diagram above. The pink is spotted on the Pyramid Spot. The apex ball of the triangle of reds is racked as close as possible to the pink without touching it.
Baulk-line and Baulk: A straight line drawn 29" from the face of the bottom cushion and parallel to it is called the Baulk-line and the intervening space termed the Baulk.
The Half Circle: The Half Circle is a semi-circle described in Baulk with its center at the middle of the Baulk-line and with a radius of 11.5". When the striker has cue ball in hand within the Half Circle he may place the base of the cue ball anywhere on the line or within the Half Circle, and may use his hand or any part of his cue (including the tip) to position the cue ball--as long as it is judged he is not attempting to play a stroke.
Object of the Game: To score a greater number of points than opponent.
Scoring: Points are scored in two ways: players are awarded points for fouls by the opponent (see Penalties For Fouls below), and by legally potting reds or colors. Each legally potted red ball has a point value of one; each legally potted color ball has a point value as indicated (Balls Used above). A frame ends when all balls have been potted, following the Rules of Play; if, however, only the black (7) ball is left on the table, the frame ends with the first score or foul. If the players' scores are equal after that scoring, the black is spotted on its original position and the layers lag or draw lots for the choice of playing at, or assigning opponent to play at, the black ball with the cue ball in hand within the Half Circle, first score or foul then ends the frame.
Opening Break: Players lag or draw lots for choice of break in the opening frame. In a match format the players alternate the break in subsequent frames. Starting player has cue ball in hand within the Half Circle. He must cause the cue ball to contact a red ball. It is not necessary to send a ball to a rail or into a pocket. Failure to meet this requirement is a foul (see Penalties For Fouls) A foul is scored and--with all fouls--the incoming player has a choice of (1) accepting the table and becoming the striker, or (2) requiring the offender to break again.
Rules of Play
1. A legally potted ball entitles the striker to continue at the table until he fails to legally pot a ball.
2. On all shots, the striker must comply with the appropriate requirements of Rules of Play 5 and 6. It is not necessary to cause the cue ball or an object ball to contact a cushion or drop in a pocket after the cue ball has contacted a legal object ball (ball on). Failure to contact a legal object ball first is a foul.
3. As long as reds are on the table, the incoming striker (player taking his first stroke of an inning) always has a red as his legal object ball (ball on).
4. Any red balls potted on a legal shot are legally potted balls; the striker need not call any particular red ball(s), pocket(s) or details of how the pot will be played.
5. When the striker has a red ball as his "ball on" (legal object ball), he must cause the cue ball's first contact to be with a red ball. Failure to do so is a foul (See Penalties For Fouls)
6. After the striker has scored a red ball initially, his next legal object is a color, and as long as reds remain on the table he must alternate his play between reds and colors (though within each group he may play a ball of his choice). When reds remain on the table and a color is his object, the striker must (a) designate prior to stroking which color ball is his object (that specific color is then his "ball on"), and (b) cause the cue ball's first contact with a ball to be with that colored ball. If the striker fails to meet these requirements, it is a foul (See Penalties For Fouls).
7. If the striker's ball on is a red, and he pots a color, it is a foul.
8. If the striker's ball on is a color, and he pots any other ball, it is a foul.
9. Jump shots are illegal in International Snooker. It is a foul if the striker intentionally causes the cue ball to jump (rise from the bed of the table) by any means, if the jump is an effort to clear an obstructing ball.
10. While reds remain on the table, each potted color is spotted prior to the next stroke (see Spotting Balls below for spotting rules). After a color has been spotted, if the striker plays while that ball is incorrectly spotted (and opponent or referee calls it before two such plays have been taken), the shot taken is a foul. If the striker plays two strokes after such error without its being announced by opponent or referee, he is free of penalty and continues playing and scoring normally as though the spotting error simply had not occurred. The striker is responsible for ensuring that all balls are correctly spotted before striking. If the striker plays while a ball(s) that should be on the table is not a foul may be awarded whenever the foul is discovered during the striker's inning. Any scoring prior to the discovery of the foul will count.
11. When no reds remain on the table, striker's balls on become the colors, in ascending numerical order (2,3,4,5,6,7). These legally potted colors are not spotted after each is potted; they remain off the table. (The black (7) ball is an exception in the case of a tie score; see Scoring.)
Illegally Potted Ball: Reds illegally potted are not spotted; they remain off the table. Colors illegally potted are spotted. (See Spotting Balls.)
Object Balls Jumped off the Table: Reds jumped off the table are not spotted and the striker has committed a foul. Colors jumped off the table are spotted and the striker has committed a foul. (See Penalties For Fouls)
Spotting Balls: Reds are never spotted. Colors to be spotted are placed as at the start of the game. If a color's spot is occupied (to mean that to spot it would make it touch a ball), it is placed on the spot of the highest value color that is unoccupied. If all spots are occupied, the color is spotted as close as possible to its original spot on a straight line between its spot and the nearest point on the top (foot) cushion.
Cue Ball after Jumping off the Table: Incoming player has cue ball in hand within the Half Circle. When cue ball is in hand within the Half Circle (except the opening break), there is no restriction (based on position of reds or colors) as to what balls may be played; striker may play at any ball on regardless of where it is on the table.
Touching a Ball: While balls are in play it is a foul if the striker touches any object ball or if the striker touches the cue ball with anything other than the tip during a legal stroke.
Snookered: The cue ball is snookered when a direct stroke in a straight line to any part of every ball on is obstructed by a ball or balls not on. If there is any one ball that is not so obstructed, the cue ball is not snookered. If in-hand within the Half Circle, the cue ball is snookered only if obstructed from all positions on or within the Half Circle. If the cue ball is obstructed by more than one ball, the one nearest to the cue ball is the effective snookering ball.
Angled: The cue ball is angled when a direct stroke in a straight line to any part of every ball on is obstructed by a corner of the cushion. If there is any one ball on that is not so obstructed, the cue ball is not angled. If angled after a foul the referee or player will state "Angled Ball", and the striker has the choice to either (1) play from that position or (2) play from in hand within the Half Circle.
Occupied: A spot is said to be occupied if a ball cannot be placed on it without its touching another ball.
Touching Ball: If the cue ball is touching another ball which is, or can be, on, the referee or player shall state "Touching Ball." Thereafter the striker must play away from it or it is a push stroke (foul). No penalty is incurred for thus playing away if (1) the ball is not on; the ball is on and the striker nominates such ball; or (3) the ball is on and the striker nominates, and first hits, another ball. [If the referee considers that a touching ball has moved through an agency other than the player, it is not a foul.]
Push Stroke: A push stroke is a foul and is made when the tip of the cue remains in contact with the cue ball (1) when the cue ball makes contact with the object ball, or (2) after the cue ball has commenced its forward motion. Provided that where the cue ball and an object ball are almost touching, it shall be deemed a legal stroke if the cue ball hits the finest possible edge of the object ball.
Miss: The striker shall to the best of his ability endeavor to hit the ball on. If the referee considers the rule infringed he shall call foul and a "miss." The incoming player (1) may play the ball(s) as they lie, or (2) may request that the ball(s) be returned to the original position and have the offending player play the stroke again. Note: if the ball on cannot possibly be hit, the striker is judged to be attempting to hit the ball on.
Free Ball: After a foul, if the cue ball is snookered, the referee or player shall state "Free Ball." If the non-offending layer takes the next stroke he may nominate any ball as on. For this stroke, such ball shall be regarded as, and acquire the value of, the ball on. It is a foul should the cue ball fail to first hit, or - except when only the pink and black remain on the table - be snookered by, the free ball. If the "free ball" is potted, is is spotted, and the value of the ball on is scored. if the ball on is potted it is scored. If both the "free ball" and the ball on are potted, only the value of the ball on is scored.
Fouls
If a foul is committed:
1. the player who committed the foul incurs the penalty prescribed (which is added to the opponent's score), and has to play again if requested by the next player. Once such a request has been made it cannot be withdrawn. 2. should more than one foul be committed in the same stroke the highest value penalty shall be incurred. 3. any ball improperly spotted shall remain where positioned, except that if off the table it shall be correctly spotted.
Penalties for Fouls
| i don't know |
In the nursery rhyme, who was eating curds and whey? | Miss Muffet And Her Curds And Whey | A Moment of Science - Indiana Public Media
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A Moment of Science
Miss Muffet And Her Curds And Whey
By A Moment of Science Staff
Posted September 27, 2003
Photo: henrylumbard (Flickr)
The proteins found in milk can be separated into two basic groups by adding rennin.
“Little Miss Muffet, sat on her tuffet, eating her curds and whey. Alon…” You may remember this beloved nursery rhyme, but have you ever wondered, ‘what are curds and whey?”
Cottage Cheese
Actually, you’ve probably eaten curds and whey without knowing it. Curds and whey are actually the lumps and liquid found in cottage cheese.
If you didn’t know, cottage cheese is made from skim milk . But how exactly does skim milk become curds and whey?
The Complexities Of Milk
In spite of its simple appearance, skim milk is chemically quite complex. There are dozens of different proteins floating around in that white fluid.
Fortunately, for cottage cheese makers, all the proteins in milk can be separated into two basic groups by simply adding a chemical called rennin. Rennin is an enzyme from a calf’s stomach, and it makes some of the proteins in milk clump together.
These clumping proteins are called “curd proteins,” while the milk proteins that refuse to clump are called “whey proteins.” These proteins are the curds and whey of Miss Muffet’s lunch.
Voilà
Unfortunately, whey doesn’t actually taste very good–so modern cottage cheese makers tend to press or wash their product, leaving a cottage cheese that is mostly curds.
But that’s how you get curds and whey. They are two kinds of milk proteins, which separate when you add rennin to them.
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truthrevy
The Solution to the Little Miss Muffet Rhyme
It just so happens that as in so many so called nursery rhymes, there is a bit of mischief.
Many times they stem from some ridiculous position of ridicule. In this situation, of which came from so long ago that very few know where, the alias Little Miss Muffet was a very sexy little girl who was often found playing with her little “muff” while sitting on her “tough” little bottom. While she has been found massaging herself, she has also been found with her fingers in her mouth, going back and forth between the two areas with both hands. Quite a sight, to be sure. Then along come spectators, who often stayed at a distance, spying on her. No one could ever come too close or else she would cease her little spectacle. Then she would often run away to hide, crying as she went.
This little girl loved the great outdoors, and enjoyed her nudity within the fresh air and sunlight. Everyone knew this and made fun of her for it. She did not like this of people so she had few if any friends.
It wasn’t long before little digging rhymes began to surface, of which were geared to indicate that no-one should ever attempt to befriend such a strange little woman. The saddest part was about the bit about a spider going up to sit down beside her. That was about me. I was the one who attempted to befriend her, also with the mind to maybe do more than just be friends.
I can tell you this because I was there. It was the years 1607 when we all were making fun of that cute little, dirty little girl. And her little bottom was VERY dirty, indeed!
I have also regretted repeating such a misfit of slander due to the fact that I also became very much infatuated with her, and cried many nights over my love for her. You see, I was the spider… Just one of the many people who spied on her while she performed her little acts of indulgence.
I wish I had never done such a thing. I grew very old and so did she I thought at the time. Alas, she died of a ripe old age of only 27…. That is, I think she was 27, but she was a little younger. All I know is that her putting her fingers in her mouth after finding them dripping with her womanly juices, may not have been the healthiest thing for her. Hence, this committed the bit about the “curds and whey” within the rhyme.
She died so young. Why, I myself still remain only God knows. Maybe someday I will see her again. She will forever be my little miss Muffet.
truthrevy
The Solution to the Little Miss Muffet Rhyme
Sen McCartney
So you’re a 405 year-old spider that surfs the web and makes perverted rhymes from the acts of children?
Dude, umh, your meds wore off……
Another Fad
| Little Miss Muffet |
The English resort of Broadstairs is in which county? | Eating her curds and whey - What is Whey? | We are not Foodies
We are not Foodies
Eating her curds and whey – What is Whey?
Categories:
by Stuart
We all know the nursery rhyme about Little Miss Muffet eating her curds and whey, but in today’s world, I wonder how many people even know what they are.
Curds are the easy part, in that they are the solids when you make cheese. The whey is just the liquid that is left over and is sometime just thrown away. After making mozzarella the other day, I wondered what use I could put all the whey to, and after a little research I found out there are lots of uses.
Whey after cheese making
Even though whey is just a by-product of cheese and yoghurt making, it is packed full of protein, vitamins, minerals, enzymes and beneficial bacteria. Though it should be noted, that anyone with lactose intolerance should avoid whey, since it contains lactose.
In commercial food production whey is added to cakes, breads, pastry and many other processed food as well as for making ricotta cheese. I had never thought that ricotta was a by-product of cheese making, but it is literally Italian for ‘re-cooked’, in that the whey is cooked to extract the ricotta. However ricotta technically isn’t a real cheese, since it is made from albumin and globulin proteins, rather than coagulated casein as in other cheeses.
Some uses of Whey in the Kitchen
Re-cook the whey to make ricotta cheese or other whey cheeses such as Anari, Brunost , Prim-ost, Mesost, Mysost, Gjetost, Brocciu.
Make whey cream or butter for a tangy, slightly cheesy alternative to normal cream or butter.
Use whey as a substitute for water or milk in baking such as bread, scones, American biscuits, pancakes, cakes, pastry, muffins, pizza dough, waffles, etc.
Whey can be used to kick start lacto-fermentation in preserves such as sauerkraut, kimchi, etc.
Cook rice, potatoes or pasta using whey to add some more flavour to dishes.
Make soups and stews with whey instead of stock
Make smoothies or milkshakes with whey. This would be a cheaper alternative than adding commercial whey powder.
Make a marinade. The enzymes in the whey will help break down the meat.
Use whey as a substitute instead of buttermilk in recipes.
If you end up making your own cheese, you’ll end up with gallons of whey, and there is only so much you can do with it in a short time, however if stored in a clean vessel, it can keep for a few months in the refrigerator or it can be frozen.
| i don't know |
Leonard, Ria, Adam, Russell and Ben are all characters in which British television series? | Butterflies (TV Series 1978–1983) - IMDb
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Ria, a happily married suburban housewife, reaches the age where she feels as if life is passing her by. Being taken for granted by her butterfly collecting dentist husband doesn't help. So... See full summary »
Stars:
The thought of cooking for Christmas frightens Ria though she is cheered to meet Leonard again, though they have a row. Back home this preys on her mind and she burns the pizza and freaks out at the ...
8.1
The boys have the opportunity to buy a window cleaning business but Ria is still depressed and goes to church for guidance. When she comes out she finds Leonard has put his diary in her car. She ...
7.9
Six months have elapsed and Ria meets Leonard in the park. They hug, he says he loves her and wants to carry on with her. Meanwhile Ben is having lunch with a widowed friend Amanda. She seems to ...
7.5
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Edit
Storyline
Ria, a happily married suburban housewife, reaches the age where she feels as if life is passing her by. Being taken for granted by her butterfly collecting dentist husband doesn't help. So, when the opportunity for an affair comes up she tries to decide whether she loves her husband enough to be faithful to him. Written by Dave Smith <[email protected]>
10 November 1978 (UK) See more »
Also Known As:
Did You Know?
Trivia
At the beginning of the first series, Ben is said to be 48 years old; Geoffrey Palmer was actually 51 at that time. Ria's age is not specifically mentioned, but she worries about having looked like 50 - ten years before she should; Wendy Craig was 44. Leonard has a birthday in the first series and turns 45; Bruce Montague was 39. See more »
Quotes
(Vancouver, Canada) – See all my reviews
Even 20-odd years after the fact (and with it's late-70s sexual revolutionism looking humorously dated these days), Carla Lane's 'Butterflies' remains one of the freshest and funniest sitcoms Britain ever produced. The story itself is relentlessly simple -- a stifled housewife's yearning for more in her life is complicated by a distantly ironic husband, two sex-crazed still-at-home sons, and the romantic attention of a wealthy playboy whose desire revs up the more undesirable she feels. But it's not the plot that makes 'Butterflies' great so much as it is the opportunity that that plot gives Lane to explore Ria Parkinson's world as it slowly collapses around her, and it's impossible not to see a little bit of oneself in the sometimes-hilarious, sometimes-sobering struggles of Lane's memorable characters as they attempt to survive the small anguishes of day-to-day life. Smart writing and great performances all around.
A few years back, 'Butterflies' would show up in late-night rotation on PBS in the states and Canada; if it does again, catch it.
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| Butterfly |
In pre-decimal currency in the UK, how many florins were in a pound? | From the Archive: A British Television Blog: Is Love Like a BBC Butterfly?
Every week I randomly pick a British television show from my collection to watch and then write about it. Pretty simple! Feel free to take part in the discussions by leaving a comment or e-mailing me at [email protected]
Sunday, November 23, 2014
Is Love Like a BBC Butterfly?
I talk a lot about my remembrances of when I was young and started to watch British television. It was a naïvely happy time of getting into something that would have a strong impact on my life. It was all new to me. I think most people who discovered a love and soon passion for this genre may have started out the same way but maybe took some different direction.
Being in the US, my love for British television started with Doctor Who. This is no revelation from me and I would guess that quite a few of the US viewers who got into British television via PBS would possibly have started the same way. I was only 9 years old or so when I got into yet but to think of a time without British television or Doctor Who in my life fills me with anxiety. Through these programs, I have experienced so much in my life that started with these programs. It’s a period of time when watching a favourite program transcended into meeting people and making lifelong friendships. It’s hard to believe that I started on this journey in 1984 and really got active in 1988. It’s just four years but at the time and even now it seems like there was a ten year gap between the time I started to watch these programs and when I got involved and started to meet people with like passions.
Love IS like a butterfly.
Who would have thought that a comedy series from 1978 would have been so instrumental in my love for all thinks British. What makes it so interesting is as a 9 or 10 year, there is much of this series that would have gone over my head. There are themes and scenarios that I wouldn’t have picked up on which are actually the basis for the series. These are not one-off plot points but actual over-riding arcs that go beyond the whole series. Yet, when I watched it, I loved it. It doesn’t answer the question of why?
Butterflies is a wonderful BBC series that ran from 1978 to 1983 taking some time off in-between to complete four stellar series. It’s written by Carla Lane. She created, amongst other things, the ground breaking series The Liver Birds. Butterflies stars Wendy Craig, Geoffrey Palmer, Andrew Hall, Nicholas Lyndhurst and Bruce Montague. The theme song was sung by Clare Torry which is a cover of the song “Love is Like a Butterfly” from Dolly Parton. Those are the basic facts yet these are the building blocks of what would put me on a road that has lead me to where I am today.
It’s really tough to peg Butterflies because I think it is more than a comedy but it’s not drama. Butterflies is about life crisis. From initial viewing, I think we could say that the life crisis just concerns Ria who is the mother of the family but I think you could put a life crisis for each character. Ria is middle aged and is suffering from a mid-life crisis. She is smart and creative. I think it must have been odd for viewing audiences to see a mother that is not so traditional, yet Ria tries. She tries to cook and fails. She lets her imagination run away with her which is actually an endearing quality. It’s sad because she tries and no one really listens or take her seriously. She is taken for granted.
Her husband Ben might be labelled as the “long-suffering husband” but when viewing this years after seeing it as a child, it is sometimes harsh to see how he treats her. He is not a mean person. He is more traditional in his ways but is frightened by the modernization his children bring into his life. He is generally a stick in the mud because he doesn’t know how to really say what is on his mind. He is a dentist and clearly has provided his family a comfortable middleclass lifestyle. This is enough that makes him believe that he should be treated with more respect. Ria can’t cook and it appears everyone woman in Ben’s life never could cook so maybe he has never had a good meal in his life. I think it is interesting that in the first episode of the series, Ben is a much harsher character in every way. He is written and played as a stereotypical husband who sits at the table demanding his food. He is rude and barks orders. When I was re-watching the episode for this article, I was in shock as that was not how I remembered him. Luckily, by Episode Two, he was much milder. He still was bad-tempered, uptight and grouchy but done more light-heartedly and humourous. More so, he was endearing. One could see why Ria fell in love with him. Oh, did I mention that his hobby is collecting butterflies? Hmmmm…..
The kids are Adam & Russell. They are not far a part in age and get along very well. They are a little older probably reaching around 18 to 20 and are good kids. They don’t have jobs which is a big problem for Ben. He sees what his children are doing is directly tying into the crumbling of the moral fiber of Britain. I think Ria is actually exhilarated by this because she can see that they both have the creativity and imagination that she has. She doesn’t want to grow up and I think she is envious of them to that so is Ben. That being said, the series really starts because of one man named Leonard enters into Ria’s life.
Leonard is in his mid-40s and has been recently divorced. As much as he seems like a nice guy, what he really wants to do is tempt Ria away from her family because he is infatuated with her. Ria meets Leonard in the first episode at a café. This is something I am not familiar with as we don’t do this in Minnesota but in this place, strangers will sit together at the same table at a restaurant. It’s odd to me but makes sense. This sort of thing also happens in LA and New York. There is a similar type scene in The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin. They strike up a conversation and it is clear they have a connection of sorts except that Ria is married. She gives the impression she is happily married but she does keep talking with Leonard.
Ria isn’t really the one to seek out Leonard, Leonard’s infatuation brings him to try a lot of things to get her to come around. It’s all done in a gentlemanly sort of way but he is pretty persistent. When he gets frustrated or storms off, Ria will often go after him. Leonard is a self-made man who does alright for himself. I am sure to Ria, he seems exciting and worldly. Ria accepts Ben for who is he but can’t help but to acknowledge how exciting it is to be pursued by someone else. It is clear she likes the attention.
Each episode of Series 1 has a plot to it but the main driving force of the episodes is the way that Leonard tries to stay in Ria’s life. It is interesting because after their first encounter at the café where Ria unknowingly flicked cigarette ash in Leonard’s trifle and spilled his coffee all over the place, she actually told Ben about it. After that, she doesn’t talk about Leonard to Ben again.
As mentioned above, another theme throughout the first series is how Russell and Ben have their differences. In the first episode, they haven’t spoken for a year. They only start talking again in Episode Two but then stop in Episode Three to start up again later. Adam and Russell mean no harm but they don’t always think which leads to them innocently breaking Ben’s butterfly net and other foolish things which is a problem.
There is a great bit of dialogue in Episode Two where Ria takes Ben’s butterfly catcher hat and puts it in the sofa pillow and has a conversation with it basically insinuating that it is basically like speaking with the real Ben. In this dialogue, she lets it go. She talks about how she wants to run through Harrods and shout Woolworths! By the time she gets to the end of the dialogue, she goes through what she wants to do for the week and ends it by saying on Friday she will kill herself. You never get the impression she means it but even so it is such a powerful statement because this bubbly woman who is doing the best she can with a family who intermittently communicates with each other is, in fact, very unhappy. Right before the cleaning lady comes into the living room, she exclaims, “I want to be raped!” It is such an interesting thing to hear being said from a mother and the star of the show. It’s not too surprising.
The series is very smartly written. It is very funny and may have some serious moments to it, generally it is smartly written observational humor. I also loved all of the references to Butterflies as comparisons to the character’s lives. Here are some I picked up from Series 1:
Ria Parkinson: “Love is a funny old thing isn't it. We're all kids chasing butterflies”
[Ria makes actions to match what she says]
Ria Parkinson: “You see it... You want it... You grab it.”
[Ria looks at clutching hand, opening it slowly]
Ria Parkinson: “And there it is... all squashed in your hand”
In Episode Two they talk about “a bottle full of Butterflies.”
In a later episode, “Man dreaming like a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming as a man?”
Part of why I love this series and the productions from this era and this look is that I am a real big fan of interiors being shot on video and exteriors being shot on film. I love it! There is a great shot in Episode Two while Leonard and Ria are walking down a bust street in a market. No one else in that shot are actors and it shows. The film cameraman is in front of Ria and Leonard shooting them but the people behind Ria and Leonard are not sure if they should keep walking in the same direction, duck out of shot or just gawk. It’s magical! Some things are not quite so magical such as the disgusting food Ria makes in every episode. Ria can’t cook. Sometimes it looks so bad that when she is asked what it is, she can’t remember because it is no longer recognizable to her. Did Jack Kine’s group for BBC special effects make the food? Sometimes they actually have to eat it! Blah!
So, to get back to my original question above as to why this series had such a strong impact on me. When I was 9 or 10 and first started to watch Doctor Who, I started to become interested in all thing British which would last to this day. When I started to really get into Doctor Who, I wanted to watch more series from the BBC and started to watch anything that my local PBS station KTCA would show. Obviously, one of the first I would watch would be All Creatures Great and Small but Butterflies just so happened to be on at the time and I started to watch it.
I remember it would be on first at 10pm and then followed by another comedy series Brass. I never got into Brass and to this day have never seen it again. I remember while my Dad was away on a work trip, I watched the final episode of Butterflies in my parent’s bedroom and fell asleep. I will try not to overwhelm you with any more interesting stories like this.
I ended up loving everything about Butterflies when I first saw it at a young age. I loved the look of the house they lived in, how the phone would ring and even how the phone looked. I loved how Britain looked in the episodes and I loved Russell’s car which was painted as a Union Jack. I fell in love with the UK through this series. My love for the UK had never dwindled. Once in the late 1990s, I was very close to moving over there. I was working with a company that placed people at jobs over there. I was very close. I was packing my stuff, that’s how close I was. I was placed to work over there. Then I met someone and changed my mind. I, obviously, ended up staying here. Do I regret it? No. Is there a possibility that I may move out there someday? Maybe!
As I mentioned how I fell in love with every aspect of the series, I really loved the opening titles to Butterflies. The premise of the opening credits is a display case of the butterflies caught with the name of the series and the stars in it. I make that sound macabre. They are not pinned in there like specimens. They are very casual. The theme music is my favourite. It was written and originally recorded by Dolly Parton in 1974. The version for the BBC series was recorded by Claire Torry and it is easily my favourite rendition of it. It is more airy and whimsical. It is beautiful. Up to literally 1 day ago, I did not realize Claire recorded a full version of the song. I had only heard the version used in the opening and closing credits. Below is the version. It is wonderful. It was also very emotional for me to listen to this because it just opened up all sorts of wonderful memories of my youth. I never knew there was a full version so it was almost like finding a lost treasure!
Butterflies, as most other popular series, have been released many times on different home media formats. My favourite is probably the recent purchase I made from eBay which is the first four episodes of the series from BFS video……on beta! How cool! Like I don’t have enough crap in my house already.
At one time I made my own DVD covers for each series of Butterflies. See below, I prefer mine more but of course I would say that.
Finally, I work at an advertising agency where we sometimes have a fair amount of fun. Sometimes, if someone leaves their computer unlocked and walk away from it, someone else will get on it and type an e-mail to the whole agency (about 250+ people) looking like it came from the person who own that computer. Such e-mails could be sent from a guy’s computer saying something in the subject line like, “Do I look fat today?” As you can imagine, hilarity ensues. One day, my friend/co-worker Mike left his computer open and I couldn’t resist.
Sending to the whole agency from Mike, I put in the subject line, “Did you know…”
The body of the e-mail simply read:
“Love is like a butterfly
As soft and gentle as a sigh
The multicolored moods of love are like its satin wings
Love makes your heart feel strange inside
It flutters like soft wings in flight
Love is like a butterfly, a rare and gentle thing
I feel it when you're with me
It happens when you kiss me
That rare and gentle feeling that I feel inside
Your touch is soft and gentle
Your kiss is warm and tender
Whenever I am with you I think of butterflies
Love is like a butterfly
The multicolored moods of love are like its satin wings
Love makes your heart feel strange inside
It flutters like soft wings in flight
Love is like a butterfly, a rare and gentle thing
Your laughter brings me sunshine
Everyday is spring time
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Who was voted the Cricket Writers’ Club Young Cricketer of the Year in 1963? | Yorkshire duo win Cricket Writers' Club Awards - News - Yorkshire County Cricket Club
Yorkshire duo win Cricket Writers' Club Awards
— 30 September 2014
They have been inseparable for much of Yorkshire’s County Championship-winning season so it was appropriate that White Rose opening batsmen Alex Lees and Adam Lyth both won Cricket Writers’ Club awards for 2014 on Tuesday.
Cricket Writers’ Club Young Cricketer of the Year: Alex Lees (Yorkshire)
Cricket Writers’ Club County Championship Player of the Year: Adam Lyth (Yorkshire)
Peter Smith Award: David ‘Bumble’ Lloyd.
Lees topped a poll of 15 candidates to be voted The Cricket Writers’ Club Young Player of the Year after scoring 971 Championship runs at an average of 44.13.
Resticted to England-qualified players under the age of 23 on 1st May and, by tradition, an award that can only be won once in a career, 21-year-old left-hander Lees became the fourth Yorkshire player in the past seven years and 11th in all after Fred Trueman (1952), Phil Sharpe (1962), Geoffrey Boycott (1963), Chris Old (1970), Ashley Metcalfe (a joint-winner in 1986), Richard Blakey (1987), Chris Silverwood (1996), Adil Rashid (2007), Jonathan Bairstow (2011) and Joe Root (2012) to be named Young Cricketer of the Year.
Lees succeeded Durham and England all-rounder Ben Stokes as the winner of an award dating back to 1950, making it one of the oldest such honours in cricket.
If Lees had a successful season, Lyth was truly prolific with a haul of 1,489 Championship runs, including six hundreds, at 67.68.
That return saw the 27-year-old chosen as the third winner of the Cricket Writers’ Club County Championship Player of the Year, in association with William Hill, after Somerset’s Nick Compton and Derbyshire’s Wayne Madsen, with the honour again restricted to England-qualified players but without an age limit.
Both awards were voted for by the more than 300 Full and Life Members of the Cricket Writers’ Club, with trophies presented at the organization’s Annual Lunch at London’s Plaisterers’ Hall on Tuesday.
Neither Lees nor Lyth has yet gained full representative honours for England, but the history suggests they will both be unlucky to remain uncapped, given former winners of the Young Cricketer of the Year award alone have amassed more than 2,000 Test appearances between them.
Meanwhile David Lloyd received the Peter Smith award for his outstanding contribution to the promotion of cricket following a lifetime involvement in the game where his career as a Lancashire batsman, England opener, umpire, Lancashire and England coach and, currently, a television broadcaster and newspaper columnist, has seen him become one of the sport’s best-loved advocates.
Lloyd follows another Lancastrian in 2013 recipient Jim Cumbes, a former seamer and latterly the county’s and chief executive, in being awarded a discretionary prize named in honour of the late Peter Smith, a former Cricket Correspondent of the Daily Mail and the first media liaison officer at what was then the Test and County Cricket Board.
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Bald-Faced Hornet is another name for which insect? | Yorkshire batsman Jonny Bairstow wins Young Cricketer of the Year - BBC Sport
BBC Sport
Yorkshire batsman Jonny Bairstow wins Young Cricketer of the Year
21 Sep 2011
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Bairstow hit 41 from 21 balls on his England debut against India in Cardiff
Jonny Bairstow has followed in a long list of illustrious names by being voted this year's Cricket Writers' Club Young Cricketer of the Year.
The Yorkshire wicketkeeper-batsman, 21, received the award at the club's 65th anniversary lunch in the Long Room at Lord's, just three days after his England debut against India in Cardiff .
Bairstow received nearly double the votes of runner-up Chris Woakes.
He said: "I'm very proud and honoured to win the award."
WINNERS WHO HAVE NOT PLAYED TEST CRICKET
1956: B Taylor
1958: A C D Ingleby-Mackenzie
1971: J Whitehouse
2009: J W A Taylor
The Bradford-born youngster is the ninth Yorkshireman to win the award.
Fred Trueman was the first Tyke to claim the prize in 1952, followed by Phil Sharpe (1962), Geoffrey Boycott (1963), Chris Old (1970), Ashley Metcalfe (1986), Richard Blakey (1987), Chris Silverwood (1996) and Adil Rashid (2007).
On his England debut, Bairstow hit 41 from 21 balls against India at Cardiff.
He added: "It was great playing that innings in Cardiff and I would obviously love to go on to play Test cricket for England. I know I have to concentrate on taking one step at a time."
Bairstow's late father David also starred for Yorkshire and represented England in four Tests and 21 one-day internationals. His elder brother, Andy, played first-class cricket briefly for Derbyshire.
The youngster had an excellent season, scoring 1,015 County Championship runs at 46.13, as well as hitting a century for England Lions against Sri Lanka A at Scarborough in August.
He made his maiden hundred, the first of three tons this summer, against Nottinghamshire in May , which turned into a double century - and also took 46 catches, mostly as Yorkshire wicketkeeper.
PREVIOUS 10 WINNERS
2001: Owais Shah (6 Tests)
2002: Rikki Clarke (2 Tests)
2003: James Anderson (63 Tests)
2004: Ian Bell (69 Tests)
2005: Alastair Cook (72 Tests)
2006: Stuart Broad (41 Tests)
2007: Adil Rashid
2008: Ravi Bopara (12 Tests)
2009: James Taylor
2010: Steven Finn (12 Tests)
He also hit 385 runs in 10 CB40 innings for Yorkshire, as well as making a further 203 in the Friends Life t20.
But he added: "I'm hoping to improve on my one-day form next season as I wasn't too happy with it."
Previous award-winners include Sir Ian Botham, David Gower, six of the current England team, chairman of selectors Geoff Miller and 1991-winner Mark Ramprakash, who presented Bairstow with his trophy.
Of the previous 61 winners, only 10 have not gone on to play Test cricket and two of those, Rashid and Leicestershire batsman James Taylor, could still make the grade.
The award is restricted to England-qualified players under the age of 23 on 1 May.
Andrew Symonds, who made 26 Test appearances for Australia and helped them win the World Cup in 2003, was English-qualified when he picked up the award in 1995.
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Choiseul, Guadalcanal and Malaita are all part of which island group? | Solomon Islands | Island Escapes
Solomon Islands
Introduction
The Solomon Islands are unspoiled, you will feel like you stepped back in time into a lost world. Experience an unhurried way of life and exotic cultures. The Solomon Islands are the perfect destination for adventure travelers and divers.
There are 922 islands and they’re all different. From small islands with huge mountain ranges to little atolls surrounded by beautiful coral reefs. Explore the history of the islands when you arrive in Honiara. Then get on the water to explore the many stunning islands and the underwater world. Here you will find the traditional way of life remarkably well preserved. Behold the magic of these islands and watch a shark-caller at work. The Solomon Islands is a land of adventure. Explore the magnificent rainforests, the many waterfalls, the mighty volcanoes and the mist-enshrouded mountain peaks. No other Pacific Island group has such a diversity of nature. Climb the volcanic peaks, hike trough lush forest, kayak alongside the beautiful coastline and cruise trough the many islands. The diving is great at Munda, Gizo and Uepi island. Marvel at the underwater world and the amazing creatures that live within the depths of the ocean. If you go here for your honeymoon, it will truly be a unique experience. Enjoy the sunset on a secluded beach and loose yourself in the tranquility and peace of these islands.
Gizo
Gizo is a village in the Western Province, situated at the island of Ghizo. It’s right at the waterfront with rolling and steep hills in the background. Gizo serves as the centre of the Western Province, which is famous for the stone and wood carvings. There’s also some amazing diving around here! Coming Soon…
Honiara
Honiara is the capital of the Solomon Islands. Here is also the international airport and its the gateway to the surrounding islands. Highlights here are the historical sights dated from WWII and the market. The wharf and the museum are both worth a visit as well. Coming Soon…
Uepi
Uepi Island is a barrier reef island. The land is covered by rainforest and surrounded by sandy beach and fringing coral reef. The diving here is exceptional and only minutes away from the island. You can stay at the Uepi Island Resort. What makes this place special is that you never have to share it with hordes of tourists. There’s only place for a few tourists at any one time to stay at the island. Coming Soon…
Munda
The village of Munda is located on New Georgia Island in the Western Province. Again this is a famous destination for diving, including some wreck dives! The picture perfect Roviana Lagoon is perched on the edge of the island with its beautiful crystal clear water. Another destination in the Solomon Islands you don’t want to miss! Coming Soon…
Regions
Honiara
The main port of entry into the Solomon Islands is at Henderson International Airport on the island of Guadalcanal. Situated approximately 15 minutes drive from the airport is the capital, Honiara. The town is on the northern coastline and incorporates a small picturesque sea port at Point Cruz. Visitors will enjoy the hustle and bustle of Honiara and there are many things to do and see.
Central Province
This group of islands comprises the Nggela (or Florida) group, across Iron Bottom Sound from Honiara, Savo and Russell Islands. There are superb dive sites and natural wonders like the unique Megapode birds breeding on thermal springs on Savo Island. Tulagi, the colonial capital of Solomon Islands, boasts historic tales and sites. Russell Islands has one of the largest coconut groves in the South Pacific.
Choiseul Province
Under-developed, Choiseul is an adventurer’s haven. Made up of one large island of 3294 square kilometres lying north of Western Province, the province’s main attraction are its virgin, untouched natural wonders like nesting sands for the endangered Hawksbill turtles. Whales have also been sighted in the surrounding waters. Choiseul is home to rare pottery and weaving. The Provincial Capital is Taro.
Guadalcanal Province
It is here in Guadalcanal, that you find the country’s capital, Honiara. War wrecks are an attraction. An absence of roads along the west coast makes the region mostly inaccessible to outsiders by land, but it abounds in natural wonders. The island is mainly mountainous and deeply dissected with narrow river valleys and coastal plains.
Makira and Ulawa Province
Makira, Ulawa and their seven small neighbors are sometimes called the Eastern Solomons, although Temotu Province is further east. The main island of Makira is 3,188 sq km with other islands within 32 km of its shores except for Ulawa, 75 km distant. Visitors will find the two-island province full of surprises. Some cultural practices are unique to Makira and Ulawa like ancient fishing methods, crocodile wrestling and the shark hole underneath a church altar at Suholo village in Ulawa. Witnessing the island’s annual land crab harvest should a highlight.
Malaita Province
Natural and cultural delight as its main attractions, Malaita is made up of one main island to Guadalcanal’s east as well as atolls to the extreme north namely Ontong Java and Sikiana whose inhabitants are Polynesian. Man-made islands, in and near Auki, the provincial capital, are a must see. Ancestral worship ceremonies and other rituals as shark calling are still being practised in certain religions. Some villages especially those up in the mountains are difficult to access.
Isabel Province
Made up of one main island to the northwest of Guadalcanal. Explore the relaxed surroundings of forests, coconut plantations and mountain villages; as well as guided bush walks. Visit a village built on stilts in Kia, turtle breeding site for endangered Hawksbill turtles. The province is also famous for its unique dance for women, the vanishing lake and numerous skull shines. Bird and crocodile watching can be organised as well as attending an impromptu pan-pipe concert. Isabel Province comprises of the islands of Santa Isabel, San Jorge, Ramos, Arnavon and the Western Islands.
Rennell & Bellona Province
Rennell, a World Heritage site, is the main attraction, with the South Pacific’s largest inland lake, Lake Te Nggano. The two-island province of uplifted corals lies directly south of Guadalcanal. The lake and its surrounds are home to numerous endemic birds and plants. Activities for visitors include land crab hunting, spear diving, night fishing and dolphin watching. A number of resthouses are by the lake whilst Bellona offers cave accommodation.
Temotu Province
Temotu province is an isolated and widely scattered group of small islands situated some 350km east of Honiara. Made up of three main islands in the extreme east, Temotu offers a historical and culturally unique experience for visitors. The French La Perouse wrecks were found here and Spanish explorer Alvaro de Mendana entered the Solomon’s archipelago through Temotu, proven by sites of a Spanish village he attempted to build. The country’s most active volcano is at Tinakula and the unique red feather money is found here. Ancient and massive Kauri trees grow at Vanikoro and Santa Cruz and if you’re surfer perfect curls can be found at Carlise Bay.
Western Province
This is Solomon’s tourism mecca, the province boasts magnificent aerial views of verdant islands and azure lagoons; incredible diving and snorkeling at multiple sites, coral reefs and WWII wrecks, Kennedy Island (named after JF Kennedy); Kavachi underwater submarine volcano; Morovo Lagoon, eco-tourism lodges; skilled stone and wood carvers; Megapode birds at Vella Lavella and ancient head hunting and skull shrines. Marovo Lagoon and Vonavona Lagoons have great productive fishing spots. Some eco-lodges offer spectacular hiking trails and mountain biking.
Climate
The Solomon Islands, lying within 12 degrees latitude of the equator has a tropical climate characterized by high humidity and hot temperatures which are tempered by sea breezes. Because of the low altitude of the islands they are less subject to the damaging effects of tropical cyclones however cyclone still poses a threat to the country each year during the wet season. The months between April to November are the best time to visit the Solomon Islands as the Southeast trade winds fan the islands and there is less rain.
Average Temperature
Summer: 87F maximum (31°C) 73F minimum (23°C)
Winter: 84F maximum (29°C) 71F minimum (22°C)
Average Water Temperature
The water temperature sits on a comfortable year-round 82-84F (28-29°C)
Dry/Cool Season
| Solomon Islands |
Which British politician was the first person to be made an Honorary Citizen of the United States of America? | Solomon Islands: Maps, History, Geography, Government, Culture, Facts, Guide & Travel/Holidays/Cities
Earthquake and Tsunami Strike in April 2013
Geography
A scattered archipelago of about 1,000 mountainous islands and low-lying coral atolls, the Solomon Islands lie east of Papua New Guinea and northeast of Australia in the south Pacific. The islands include Guadalcanal, Malaita, Santa Isabel, San Cristóbal, Choiseul, New Georgia, and the Santa Cruz group.
Government
Parliamentary democracy.
History
It is thought that people have lived in the Solomon Islands since at least 2000 B.C. Explored in 1568 by Alvaro de Mendana of Spain, the Solomons were not visited again for about 200 years. In 1886, Great Britain and Germany divided the islands between them, but later Britain was given control of the entire territory. The Japanese invaded the islands in World War II, and they were the scene of some of the bloodiest battles in the Pacific theater, most famously the battle of Guadalcanal. The British gained control of the island again in 1945. In 1976 the islands became self-governing and gained independence in 1978.
The border with Papua New Guinea (PNG) remained a source of tension in the 1990s. Incursions into Solomon Islands territory by PNG forces, who were countering secessionist action on neighboring Bougainville Island, gave rise to formal protests in mid-1997.
Since early 1999, the Isatabu Freedom Movement, a militia group made up of indigenous Isatabus from Guadalcanal, have expelled more than 20,000 Malaitans from the island. The Malaitans had migrated from nearby Malaita, and many secured jobs in the capital, Honiara, stirring resentment among Isatabus that has grown steadily since independence. In response to the ethnic violence and expulsions, a rival Malaitan militia group was founded, the Malaita Eagle Force. In June 2000, the Malaita Eagle Force stole police weapons, forced Prime Minister Bartholomew Ulufa'alu to resign, and seized control of Honiara. The rival groups agreed to a cease-fire in June 2000, barely averting a civil war. Although a peace agreement had been signed and elections had taken place, the country continued to suffer from lawlessness. In July 2003, at the request of the prime minister, a 2,250-strong international peacekeeping force led by Australia arrived on the island to restore order, disarm the militias, and expel the “thieves, drunkards, and extortionists” from the notoriously corrupt police force. Australia's intervention was highly successful, and two years after troops had arrived, the country remained relatively stable.
In April 2006 Snyder Rini was appointed prime minister. Rioting and looting followed—many claimed Rini, who had previously served as deputy prime minister, was beholden to Chinese interests. Eight days later he stepped down. The parliament then elected the opposition candidate, Manasseh Sogavare, to the post.
A magnitude 8.0 earthquake and tsunami struck the Solomon Islands in April 2007, killing at least 20 people and destroying villages.
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In Greek mythology, who went to Colchis to bring the golden Fleece back to Baeotia? | Jason and the Golden Fleece | Article about Jason and the Golden Fleece by The Free Dictionary
Jason and the Golden Fleece | Article about Jason and the Golden Fleece by The Free Dictionary
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Jason+and+the+Golden+Fleece
Also found in: Dictionary , Thesaurus , Wikipedia .
Jason,
in the New Testament. 1 St. Paul's host at Thessalonica. 2 Companion of Paul at Corinth, perhaps the same as (1.)
Jason,
in Greek mythology, son of Aeson. When Pelias Pelias
, in Greek mythology, usurper of the throne of Iolcus. He was the son of Tyro and Poseidon and the twin brother of Neleus. After his birth his mother married Cretheus, king of Iolcus, and gave birth to Aeson.
..... Click the link for more information. usurped the throne of Iolcus and killed (or imprisoned) Aeson and most of his descendants, Jason was smuggled off to the centaur Chiron Chiron
, in Greek mythology, centaur, son of Kronos. He was a renowned sage, physician, and prophet. Among his pupils were Hercules, Achilles, Jason, and Asclepius. When Hercules accidentally wounded Chiron, the pain was so great that Chiron surrendered his immortality to
..... Click the link for more information. , who reared him secretly on Mt. Pelion. Later Pelias promised Jason his rightful kingdom if he would bring the Golden Fleece Golden Fleece,
in Greek mythology, the magic fleece of the winged ram that saved Phrixus and Helle, the children of Nephele and Athamas, from the jealousy of Ino, Athamas' second wife.
..... Click the link for more information. to Boeotia. Jason assembled Greece's bravest heroes and together they sailed in the Argo in quest of the fleece. On their journey the Argonauts were seduced by beautiful women, attacked by warriors, buffeted by storms, and challenged by monstrous creatures. Finally the blind prophet Phineus told them how to make their way safely to Colchis Colchis
, ancient country on the eastern shore of the Black Sea and in the Caucasus region. Centered about the fertile valley of the Phasis River (the modern Rion), Colchis corresponds to the present-day region of Mingrelia in Georgia.
..... Click the link for more information. , where the Golden Fleece was kept. When they arrived there, King Aeëtes demanded that before Jason take the fleece he yoke together two fire-breathing bulls, plow the field of Ares, and sow it with dragon's teeth obtained from Cadmus Cadmus,
in Greek legend, son of Agenor and founder of Thebes. Misfortune followed his family because he killed the sacred dragon that guarded the spring of Ares. Athena told him to sow the dragon's teeth, and from these sprang the Sparti [sown men], ancestors of the noble
..... Click the link for more information. . Aeëtes' daughter Medea Medea
, in Greek mythology, princess of Colchis, skilled in magic and sorcery. She fell in love with Jason and helped him, against the will of her father, Aeëtes, to obtain the Golden Fleece.
..... Click the link for more information. fell in love with Jason and gave him magical protection that allowed him to complete the tasks. In return Jason swore an oath of fidelity and promised to take her with him to Greece. When Aeëtes still refused to relinquish the fleece, Medea revealed its hiding place and drugged the guardian dragon. The Argonauts then fled Colchis with the fleece, pursued by Aeëtes. But Medea killed and cut to pieces his son Absyrtus, scattering the parts of his body in the sea. Aeëtes stopped to retrieve them. In another version, Absyrtus led the pursuit and, when Medea tricked him into an ambush, was killed by Jason.
Jason and Medea stopped to be purified of the murder by Circe Circe
, in Greek mythology, enchantress; daughter of Helios. She lived on an island, where she decoyed sailors and treacherously changed them into beasts. According to the Odyssey,
..... Click the link for more information. at Aeaea, and there they were married. When they returned to Iolcus they found that Pelias had continued his tyrannical rule. Medea persuaded Pelias that he could be rejuvenated by having pieces of his body boiled in a magical brew. She then convinced his daughters that they should perform the task of cutting up their father. Pelias was thus murdered by his innocent daughters. Jason seized the city, but he and Medea were expelled by Acastus Acastus
, in Greek mythology, son of Pelias, cousin of Jason. He accompanied Jason on the Argonaut expedition, but when Jason and Medea murdered Pelias and usurped the throne of Iolcus, Acastus drove them away.
..... Click the link for more information. , the son of Pelias.
They sailed on to Orchomenses in Boeotia, where they hung the fleece in a temple. Then they went to Corinth. There Medea had rights to the throne, and Jason reigned for many years. But he forgot his oath and tried to divorce Medea so that he could marry Creusa, daughter of King Creon. In revenge, Medea, by magic and trickery, burned to death both the father and daughter. Because Jason had broken his oath, the gods caused him to wander homeless for many years. As an old man he returned to Corinth, where, resting in the shadow of the Argo, he was killed when the prow toppled over on him. The story of Jason and Medea appears frequently in literature, most notably in Euripides.
Jason
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What is the name of the building in which Mark and Jeremy live in the UK comedy television series ‘Peep Show’? | Myth of Jason and the Argonauts - Greeka.com
Discover the myth of Jason and the Argaunauts
The early story
The myth says that in the land of Iolcus, the modern city of Volos, there lived Pelius and his half-brother Aeson, born of the same mother Tyro, but of different fathers, Pelias of god Poseidon and Aeson of Cretheus, who was the King of Iolcus. After the death of Cretheus, Pelias usurped the throne from Aeson, the rightful heir and had him imprisoned. His plan was to murder all of the relatives of Aeson and even banish his twin brother Neleus. In despair over Aeson's situation, his wife Alcimede died, but before she had already secretly given birth to the son of Aeson, named Jason. Fearing Pelias would also kill the boy, Jason was sent away to Mount Pelion, to live with the Centaur Cheiron, a strange creature half-man half-horse. Centaur Cheiron became his tutor and Jason grew up to be a fine young man.
Meanwhile, in Iolcus, Pelias, still fearing he would lose his kingdom, approached the oracle at Delphi and was told to beware of a man with one sandal. Unknown to Pelias, this was going to be Goddess Hera's revenge. Many years ago he had angered Hera by committing the despicable act of killing his stepmother Sidero at the goddess's altar and by prohibiting the people from worshipping the Goddess. Hera had vowed to avenge herself such ignominy and she chose to do this through Jason.
When ha became twenty years old, Jason set out to reclaim the throne and kingdom of Iolcus from his uncle. While he was walking to Iolcus, across the river Anauros, Jason came across an old woman trying to cross over to the other side. Being a good-natured young man, Jason helped the woman across but the water drew away one of his sandals. The old woman thanked him and Jason continued on his journey unaware that he had helped Hera, Queen of the Gods, who had disguised herself into an old woman as part of her plan to punish Pelias, this arrogant mortal. Hera knew of his quest, but little did Jason know of the Gods participation in it.
At Iolcus, a celebration was being held to honor the sea god Poseidon, Pelias' father. Jason's arrival and his claim to the throne shocked Pelias who started seeing the old prophecy come true: here was the man with one sandal. To get rid of this dangerous stranger, Pelias agreed to abdicate the throne only if Jason brought him the Golden Fleece from the faraway land of Colchis, thought to be an impossible task. He was sure that Jason would never return and that he would remain king of Iolcus forever.
The story of the Golden Fleece
Well before the time of Jason, there lived two children, the boy Phrixos and his sister Helle, who were born of the union of King Athamas of Orchomenus and the cloud goddess Nephele. However, the King was seduced by the Queen of Thebes, Ino, and took her for his second wife. Ino, being jealous of his children, tricked Athamas into sacrificing them to the gods, as a sign of appeasement to end the long famine that was ruining their land. All of a sudden, during the sacrifice, a winged creature with a golden fleece appeared and took the two children away on its back to the far away land of Colchis. While flying over the sea, tragically Helle fell off the creature's back and drowned. The sea where Helle fell was named Hellespont after her.
The creature carried Phrixos safely to Colchis, where he later married the daughter of King Aeetes, sacrificed the creature to the gods and offered the king the Golden Fleece to give thanks for his hospitality. Sometime later, King Aeetes happened to hear a prophecy that not only foretold the loss of his kingdom to a stranger wishing to steal the Golden Fleece but also a betrayal by some member of his family. Aeetes killed Phrixos because he believed that he was the stranger man of the prophecy and nailed the Golden Fleece to a tree. He then had the tree and the Golden Fleece guarded by two fire breathing, bronze-hoofed bulls, known as the Khalkouri, and a dragon, to prevent anyone from stealing the fleece.
Preparation for the journey
Jason understood that the journey to Colchis would be long and arduous. He knew that he would need a strong and swift vessel to make such a long trip. Only one man in the land could build him such a craft, Argos, who was famous for his skill as a shipwright. Argos readily complied with his request and, with the help of Goddess Athena, they built the largest and sturdiest ship the ancient Greeks had ever seen, a ship that could withstand the ravages of the open sea. Built of oak and pine and over 22 meters in length, the ship had fifty oars and a low draught that allowed her to approach shallow waters without floundering. The construction was such that the mast, the rudder, the anchor and the oars could be removed and the ship then hauled ashore on cylindrical logs. This was significant, since it would prevent the ship from being destroyed or stolen.
As a gift from Zeus, Jason received the Dodona, a piece of speaking timber from the God's enchanted forest which was affixed to the prow. The Dodona had important roles to play, as an oracle offering the seafarers guidance on the best course of action and as a compass. The Dodona was oriented north and the ship's rudder, south, to help in navigation. The imaginary line that extended from the Dodona to the rudder had coordinates aligned with the stars above, helping Jason plot the ship's course with precision. The ship was named Argo after its builder and the crew was the Argonauts.
The Crew
When the ship was ready, Jason asked the strongest Greek men to accompany him in his journey and in fact the prospect of a great adventure brought many to sail with him. Numbering fifty, the list of heroes was astounding. There were the most famous and brave men of all over Greece, all mighty fighters and some of them had also other skills. Among the Argonauts, we discern Hercules, who was renowned for his strength and agility; Castor and Polydeuces, brothers, boxers and horse tamers; Orpheus, skilled in playing excellent music with his lyre; Argos, the shipwright and lots of others legendary men. Without much further ado the heroes cast off and set sail for the inevitable, their death or glory.
Adventures on the way
The Argonauts started their trip with feelings of joy and enthusiasm. They were only seeking for some excitement and wanted to experience new ways, to see the world around them. They thought it was just a usual journey and didn't know that this journey would change the life of most of them. They had no idea about the adventures and horrible things to come, nor did they know that some would never return back.
Landing on Lemnos
For a long time, the island of Lemnos had been inhabited only by women and it was there that the Argo first weighed anchor. These women had provoked the wrath of Goddess Aphrodite for not worshipping her and as a sign of vengeance she had cursed them with horrible body odor. Unable to bear the awful stench, their husbands had deserted them to this isolate island. Humiliated and furious for their deplorable condition, the women had murdered every male on the island. There they lived with their queen Hypsipyle until the day Jason and his Argonauts arrived. The Argonauts were welcomed with open arms and made babies with these women. Jason himself fathered twin sons born of Queen Hypsipyle.
On the land of the Doliones
A few years went by and the Argonauts realized that they had to go on with their trip. The Argo sailed from Lemnos and crossed Hellespont landing at Propontis to replenish their supplies. This was the home of the Doliones and ruled over by King Cyzicus, a kind and noble man who greeted the Argonauts warmly. While the Argonauts were gathering supplies they were attacked by Gegenees, earth-born monsters with six arms. King Cyzicus had forgotten to warn Jason about these monsters who now attempted to destroy the Argo and kill the handful guarding it.
However, the fearless and mighty warrior Hercules was one of the men guarding the ship, repelling the monsters until Jason and the other Argonauts returned. Together they killed the monsters and took to the sea again but in the dark of the night, a twist of fate brought them back to the land of the Doliones. King Cyzicus, unable to recognize his friends, the Argonauts, thought them to be marauders and attacked them with his men. In the confusion that ensued King Cyzicus was killed. In the dawn, both sides realized their mistake and with heavy hearts held a grand funeral for the King.
Giving Hercules a goodbye
The Doliones gave the Argonauts a warm send-off and soon the heroes were sailing along the coast of Mysia. Hercules, realizing he had broken his oar, went ashore with his squire Hylas to make an oar from the woods. While Hercules was at work, Hylas went to fetch water but was bewitched by a water nymph and followed her into the water. Hercules, heart-broken for not being able to find Hylas, refused to accompany the rest of the men on their quest. Some wanted to leave him behind but most wished to wait for him since Hercules was an invaluable asset to the team. The situation aboard the Argo soon became mutinous but Glaucus, a minor sea-god, appeared and calmed them all. He told the Argonauts that it was the will of the gods that Hercules stays there and goes on to complete other tasks. The Argo put out to sea again leaving behind Polyphemus to assist the mighty Hercules in his mission.
The fight with Amycus
A few days later, the Argonauts approached the land of King Amycus, ruler of the tribe Bebryces. He had a strange quirk to challenge every stranger he met to a fistfight. Catching sight of the Argonauts, he challenged them and Polydeuces, the skilled boxer, took it up and, after a difficult fight, managed to kill Amycus. All hell broke loose as the Bebryces attacked the Argonauts to avenge their King but that was not to be. They were comprehensively driven back and Jason and his friends once again sailed for their destination.
Meeting Pineaus
The Argonauts were beyond a strange sight after passing theBosporus and reaching Thrace. An old blind man who had sat down to his meal was attacked by two wingedcreatures that appeared from nowhere and started tormenting him and desecrating his food. Unable to bear this vagary of fate, Jason and his friends ran to help the man and chased away the creatures. To thank Jason, the old man told him that his name was Phineus and that he had once been a seer. However, he had divulged too many of Zeus' secrets and the God had cursed him, taking his vision. To further torment him, Zeus had sent the Harpies, the two winged creatures that the Argonauts had earlier seen, to despoil his food every time he tried to eat.
Hearing of Jason's quest, Phineus agreed to tell the Argonauts what lie ahead but on one condition: Jason and his friends should help him to get rid of the Harpies. Zetes and Calais, who were amongst the Argonauts, were children of Boreas, the god of the north wind and they could fly. It fell upon them to rid Phineus of the Harpies. They lay in wait to kill the Harpies but Iris, sister to the two creatures, intervened, vowing that the creatures would never bother the old man again. Phineus thanked the Argonauts for their help and told them that the next task of their voyage would be very dangerous. In order to cross the Symplegades which lay ahead, they must release a dove to see if she has safe passage between these two gigantic rocks.
The Symlpegades
The Argonauts were unable to comprehend the gravity of Phineus warning. Approaching the Symplegades, they were appalled at what laid in their path. Separated by a narrow strait, the Symplegades were two gigantic rocks which constantly clashed against each other, seldom letting anything pass between them. Heeding Phineus' words, Jason let loose a white dove. With bated breath, the Argonauts waited to see if she would have a safe passage through the rocks. Luck favored them as the dove flew through without mishap.
The Argonauts, ecstatic that they too could be allowed to pass through safely, set forth towards the clashing rocks. However, the Argo just about managed to scrape through. As the ship pulled clear, the rock started closing in on it but Goddess Athena appeared and held the cliffs apart. The Argo was now safe in the calm waters of the Axeinus Pontus.
The Stymphalian Birds
Another misfortune came to the Argonauts since Tiphys died. The navigator, asleep at the helm, had fallen into the sea. Thereafter, the Argonauts would almost have a fight with the Amazons, but Zeus sent favorable winds which took them away from the land of the warrior women. While nearing the deserted island of Ares, the Argonauts were suddenly attacked by the Stymphalian Birds which had lethal, bronze-tipped feathers. Being the sacred birds of the God of War, the Birds could only be driven away, not killed. Fortunately, one amongst the Argonauts recalled how Hercules had once encountered these birds and driven them away by making loud noises. At his advice, the Argonauts unsheathed their swords and beat upon their shields with them. The Birds, scared by the commotion, flew away and left the adventurers alone. Only Oileus was struck and wounded by a stray feather.
Finally in Colchis
Seeing that Jason was about to approach Colchis, Goddess Hera realized he would need help. For this, she chose Medea, the daughter of King Aeetes, a skilled sorceress and high-priestess of the temple of Hecate, Goddess of magic and witchcraft. Hera knew that Jason would need Medea to weave her magic not only here, but in Iolcus as well. She told Aphrodite to send her son Eros to make Jason and Medea fall in love. It was a simple task for Eros to ensure that the first person Jason would meet in Colchis would be Medea. Landing safely on the banks of the river Phasis, the Argonauts went ashore and decided to make their way to the city of Aia, to the court of King Aeetes of Colchis. Strangely, on the way they noticed bodies wrapped in hides hanging from the trees.
Trying to get the Golden Fleece
There was much gaiety in the palace of King Aeetes for the arrival of the strangers, but the King became furious when Jason announced he had come to Colchis only to take the Golden Fleece. Aeetes wanted to kill Jason right that moment but he knew that such a dastardly act would only make matters worse. He consented, only if Jason beat the fire-breathing bronze-hoofed bulls guarding the Golden Fleece and make them plough a field in which he was to sow the dragon's teeth. These seeds would turn into warriors that he would have to defeat afterwards. Jason agreed, though not too readily, for he knew that only Hercules could overcome such obstacles and rued that they had left him behind.
Trying to get the Golden Fleece
Medea prepared an ointment for Jason which would make him impervious to fire, so he could face the bulls. She also told him how to defeat the warriors of the earth. Armed with sorcery and courage, Jason set out to accomplish his tasks. Medea’s ointment allowed Jason to approach the bulls without being burnt alive. He defeated them and sowed the fields with dragon's teeth. as from the earth rose great warriors.
Following Medea's advice, Jason threw a stone amongst the warriors, distracting them. Not knowing who had thrown the stone, the earth-born warriors attacked each other, destroying themselves. King Aeetes was enraged at Jason's success and realized he must have had help from someone on the inside. He suspected various family members but couldn't pinpoint anyone. Instead he planned to kill the Argonauts.
On the way home
Suspecting her father would do something evil, Medea informed Jason and agreed to help him steal the Golden Fleece, only if he took her away with him. Jason consented to take her away from her father and also to marry her. The Golden Fleece was nailed to a tree in a small garden and guarded by the Sleepless Dragon. Orpheus, the great music player who was one of the Argonauts, and Medea, in a concerted effort of music and sorcery, put the beast to sleep while Jason quietly took the Golden Fleece. They rushed back to the Argo and immediately set sail, for they knew King Aeetes would chase them once ha found out their treachery.
Killing Apsyrtus
Sure enough, King Aeetes and his son, Medea’s brother Apsyrtus, chased them across the seas. Medea to distract her father, through magical things, killed her brother, cut him into pieces and threw the pieces of his body in the sea. Aeetes, in his despair, gave up the chase. However, Aeetes asked Zeus to punish Medea and Jason in order to get revenge for his son’s unfair death. Zeus asked his pray and drove the ship off course, to the island of Aeaea, where lived Circe, Medea's aunt. Distraught upon learning of her nephew's death, she immediately asked the Argonauts to leave.
Meeting the Sirens
An uneasy feeling shrouded the Argonauts, as strange mellifluous music wafted over the waters, tugged at their hearts and they found themselves rushing towards the source. To their dismay, they found themselves amongst the Sirens. The Sirens were beautiful women who sat on rocks, seducing sailors with their irresistible songs. Unable to avoid the beauty of their sight and their song, the sailors would run their ships aground on the rocks and be killed.
The presence of Orpheus once more saved the Argonauts such a fate. He played his lyre far more powerful and captivating than that of the Sirens, breaking their enchanting spell. Finding that they were no longer affected by the Sirens' charm, Jason and his friends rowed with all their might and well away from the rocks but unfortunately, Butes fell over. Lured by the Sirens, he swam towards the rocks and imminent death but miraculously, Aphrodite appeared out of nowhere and saved him.
The marriage
Thetis, the sea goddess, aided the Argonauts thenceforth and carried them safely past Scylla, a six-headed monster who had once been a maiden, and Charybdis, the deadly whirlpool, since a contact with either would have meant certain death for Jason and his men. The Argo was guided to the island of Drepane, territory of the Phaeacians and ruled by Alcinous and Arete. It was there where Jason and Medea got married.
Talos, the bronze giant
Nearing Crete , the Argonauts were exhausted from the long journey and wanted to land on the island but were fended off by a giant bronze man called Talos. He was the last of a race of giant bronze people and could only be killed in a certain manner, by rupturing the only vein in his body at the back of his ankle. Using her skills at sorcery, Medea cast a spell and a huge rock crashed against Talos' ankle, smashing his vein and causing him to bleed to death.
On Anaphe
Leaving Crete, they neared the island called Anaphe. There Euphemus dreamt that he made love to a woman who was the daughter of sea god Triton and that she had nowhere to go. She advised him to throw the clod of earth that he carried with him into the sea and it would grow into an island where she would mother his children and his descendents would live there forever. Jason heard Euphemus' dream and told him to throw the clod of earth into the sea once they were clear of the island of Anaphe. Well out to sea, Euphemus threw the clod of earth onto the sea and it grew into an island which he called Calliste. Many generations afterwards, Euphemus' descendant, Theras, returned to the island and renamed it Thera, after himself. It is the present island of Santorini .
The return to Iolcus
Without much further adventure, Jason and the Argonauts arrived back in Iolcus. He handed the Golden Fleece to Pelias, unaware that his uncle had already killed his father Aeson. Furious for this unfairness, he swore he would exact a terrible revenge against Pelias and asked Medea to help him. Pelias' death was a result of Medea's trickery. She had convinced Pelias' daughters that she had the power to restore their father's youth.
Being a sorceress, she had demonstrated the procedure by killing a ram, cutting it into pieces, throwing it into a cauldron of boiling water and then bringing it back to life as a young sheep again. Believing it to be true, the daughters murdered him. Jason seized the throne thereafter but soon had to leave Iolcus, because the residents didn't want Medea the sorceress for their queen. So, Jason, after so many vain adventures to get the Golden Fleece and become a king, relinquished the kingdom to Pelias' son, Acastus.
The tragic end
Hera had finally avenged herself through Jason. The quest for the Golden Fleece had been a trick to bring Medea to Iolcus to kill Pelias. Hera no longer had use of Jason who went into exile with Medea in Corinth, where he led a very uneventful life. But even the most righteous of men are swayed. Jason wanted to marry the princess of Corinth even though he already had Medea. Inconsolable at Jason's deceit, Medea killed the princess and even did something horrible: she killed her own three young children, the children she had with Jason, to punish her husband! After that, she escaped to Athens. Jason's once glorious life had ended in tragedy.
One day, as an old man, Jason was sitting lost in reverie next to the dilapidated hull of his beloved Argo. The ship that had once seen fabulous adventures now creaked and groaned ominously as if bemoaning its existence. Jason, this glorious and tragic figure, had been so tired of living that he asked Zeus to show mercy on him. A lashing snapped and a beam fell on Jason, ending his life and making him a legend.
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Who became leader of the British Liberal Party in July 1976? | Leader of the Liberal Party (UK) - iSnare Free Encyclopedia
Leader of the Liberal Party (UK)
The Liberal Party was formally established in 1859 and existed until merging with the Social Democratic Party in 1988 to create the Liberal Democrats .
Contents
6 External links
Leadership selection 1859–1969
Before the adoption of the 1969 constitution of the party, the party was led by the prime minister or the most recent politically active prime minister from the party. In the absence of one of these, the leaders in the House of Lords and House of Commons were of equal status and jointly led the party.
When a new leader was required, with the party in government, the monarch selected him by appointing someone as Prime Minister. However, in 1916 David Lloyd George , with the support of a minority of the Liberal MPs, formed a coalition government. H. H. Asquith , the former Prime Minister, remained as Liberal Party leader. Asquith retained the leadership until his health failed in 1926, including periods when he was not in Parliament or was a peer. He was the last leader of the whole party under the original arrangements for leadership.
When no overall party leader was a member of a House and a new leader was required in opposition, a leader emerged and was approved by party members in that House. From 1919 the Chairman of the Liberal Parliamentary Party, elected by MPs, functioned as the leader in the House of Commons. This required all the leaders after Asquith to retain their seat, to continue as leader. After 1926 the leader in the House of Commons was clearly pre-eminent over the leader in the House of Lords.
In 1931 Lloyd George was leader in the House of Commons, but he was ill when negotiations led to the formation of the National Government . Sir Herbert Samuel , who had been the deputy leader, was effectively the leader of the mainstream party from the time when he entered the government. This was made formal after the 1931 election.
Leadership selection 1969–1988
Under the original provisions of the 1969 party constitution, the MPs elected one of their number to be Leader of the Liberal Party. This was the same system as that used for the last MP only contested leadership election in 1967 , when Jeremy Thorpe became leader after a vote split between three candidates of 6-3-3.
As the number of Liberal MPs was very small (between 6 and 14 in the period the MPs retained the sole power of election) party members argued for a wider franchise. Before the leadership election of 1976 , all members were given a vote in an electoral college based on allocating electoral votes to constituency associations (which were then divided proportionately to the votes of the members of the association). The candidates were required to be members of the House of Commons, nominated by a quarter of the MPs. The electoral college system was only used once, when David Steel was elected leader.
Lists of Liberal Party Leaders
Leaders of the Liberal Party
Name
1988
Notes
^ a b Palmerston was appointed Prime Minister a few days after the meeting at Willis's Rooms on 6 June 1859, which formally created the Liberal Party. He was an Irish peer and a member of the House of Commons. He died in office.
^ Gladstone retired from the leadership in 1875, when the party was in opposition. The overall leadership of the party then became vacant until Gladstone was again appointed Prime Minister.
^ Rosebery resigned the leadership when the party was in opposition. The overall leadership of the party became vacant until the formation of the next Liberal government in 1905.
^ a b Maclean was elected Chairman of the Liberal Parliamentary Party. In the absence from Parliament of Asquith, who had lost his seat in the 1918 general election , he acted as leader of the Liberal MPs opposed to the Lloyd George coalition. Although this was a smaller group than the Parliamentary Labour Party, Maclean also performed the functions of Leader of the Opposition.
^ Asquith resigned the leadership when the party was in opposition. The overall leadership of the party became vacant until the adoption of the 1969 party constitution.
^ a b Lloyd George was elected Chairman of the Liberal Parliamentary Party. In the absence from Parliament of Asquith he acted as leader of the Liberal MPs. When Asquith became a peer in 1925, Lloyd George became leader in the House of Commons. When Asquith retired then from 14 October 1926, Lloyd George became the leading figure in the party.
^ a b Samuel deputised for the ill Lloyd George during the summer of 1931 and took office in the National Government on 24 August 1931. Following Lloyd George's move to complete opposition to the National Government in October, Samuel effectively acted as party leader. However he did not receive the formal title until after the 1931 general election . He lost his seat in the 1935 general election .
^ a b Sinclair lost his seat in the 1945 general election .
^ Thorpe was the first Leader of the Liberal Party under the 1969 constitution.
^ a b Grimond was appointed interim leader by the parliamentary party, between the resignation of Thorpe and the election of Steel.
^ a b Steel was the last party leader. He became one of the joint interim leaders of the Liberal Democrats on the merger in 1988.
^ Asquith became Prime Minister on 5 April although British Political Facts considers him to be leader from 30 April 1908. He lost his seat in the United Kingdom general election, 1918 .
^ Asquith was elected in a by-election and sat until he lost his seat in the United Kingdom general election, 1924 .
See also
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The heart of the 19th Century composer Chopin is said to be preserved in which liquid? | Learn and talk about Leader of the Liberal Party (UK), Leaders of political parties in the United Kingdom, Liberal Party (UK), Lists of leaders of political parties
6 External links
Leadership selection 1859–1969[ edit ]
Before the adoption of the 1969 constitution of the party, the party was led by the prime minister or the most recent politically active prime minister from the party. In the absence of one of these, the leaders in the House of Lords and House of Commons were of equal status and jointly led the party.
When a new leader was required, with the party in government, the monarch selected him by appointing someone as Prime Minister. However, in 1916 David Lloyd George , with the support of a minority of the Liberal MPs, formed a coalition government. H. H. Asquith , the former Prime Minister, remained as Liberal Party leader. Asquith retained the leadership until his health failed in 1926, including periods when he was not in Parliament or was a peer. He was the last leader of the whole party under the original arrangements for leadership.
When no overall party leader was a member of a House and a new leader was required in opposition, a leader emerged and was approved by party members in that House. From 1919 the Chairman of the Liberal Parliamentary Party, elected by MPs, functioned as the leader in the House of Commons. This required all the leaders after Asquith to retain their seat, to continue as leader. After 1926 the leader in the House of Commons was clearly pre-eminent over the leader in the House of Lords.
In 1931 Lloyd George was leader in the House of Commons, but he was ill when negotiations led to the formation of the National Government . Sir Herbert Samuel , who had been the deputy leader, was effectively the leader of the mainstream party from the time when he entered the government. This was made formal after the 1931 election.
Leadership selection 1969–1988[ edit ]
Under the original provisions of the 1969 party constitution, the MPs elected one of their number to be Leader of the Liberal Party. This was the same system as that used for the last MP only contested leadership election in 1967 , when Jeremy Thorpe became leader after a vote split between three candidates of 6-3-3.
As the number of Liberal MPs was very small (between 6 and 14 in the period the MPs retained the sole power of election) party members argued for a wider franchise. Before the leadership election of 1976 , all members were given a vote in an electoral college based on allocating electoral votes to constituency associations (which were then divided proportionately to the votes of the members of the association). The candidates were required to be members of the House of Commons, nominated by a quarter of the MPs. The electoral college system was only used once, when David Steel was elected leader.
Lists of Liberal Party Leaders[ edit ]
Leaders of the Liberal Party[ edit ]
Name
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The Kroon is a monetary unit of which European country? | Kroon - definition of kroon by The Free Dictionary
Kroon - definition of kroon by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/kroon
Also found in: Thesaurus , Financial , Wikipedia .
kroon
n. pl. kroon·i (krō′nē)
The primary unit of currency in Estonia before the adoption of the euro.
[Estonian, from German Krone, from Middle High German krōn, krōne, from Old High German korōna, from Latin corōna, crown (from the crown printed on the coin); see crown.]
kroon
n, pl kroons or krooni (ˈkruːnɪ)
(Currencies) the former standard monetary unit of Estonia, divided into 100 senti
[Estonian kron, from German Krone krone2]
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Have green tea and apple daily for good health
The aim of this European public procurement is transparently conclude a liability between a contracting authority, in the capacity of the town Hollands Kroon in the broadest sense of the word, and insurance (whether or not represented by an authorized agent or insurer) .
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| Estonia |
In October 2012, what did the minimum hourly wage rise to, in pounds sterling, for over 21 year olds in the UK? | Kroon (euro) - paper monetary unit, the note, a denomination, modern money of Estonia
Estonian (state)
EE (EST) 233
Estonia is an exhibiting country the European Union . Monetary unit - euro - to equal 100 eurocents. Unlike Latvia and Lithuania, Estonia could execute all Maastricht criteria necessary for transferring for euro by 2011, and on May, 12th, 2010 Eurocommission has acted with an official proposal about addition of this country to an eurozone on January, 1st, 2011 that Estonia and has made.
Till January, 1st, 2011, the native currency of Estonia, the kroon was, Which consisted of 100 cents. Issue of denominations was carried out by Bank of Estonia. In the cash circulation of the country were Notes of denomination of 2, 5, 10, 25, 100 and 500 crowns.
Till 1991 Estonia was one of 15 republics which were a part the USSR .
On face side of the monetary ticket of denomination in 2 kronas (modification of 2006) in the size 140 x 69 mm The plotting of a portrait of scientist Karl Ber, and on the back - a kind is possessed Buildings of Tartu university. The denomination has following protection frames: a watermark in the form portrait Karl Ber and figures " 2"; a protective strip with retried microtext " 2 Eesti Pank" Passing to the right of the center. Primary colours - grey and lilac.
The face side of 5 kronas contains the plotting of the chess player deserved the master of sports of the USSR, the grand master Paul Keres, is on the back seated the plotting of the Narva medal lock, the river of Narva and strength Ivangorod.
On denomination face side in 10 kronas (modification of 2006) the size 140 on 69 mm represents portrait Jacob Hurt, the reverse decorates the plotting of an old oak Tamm-Lauri in Urvast. Dominating colours - lilac, red And lilac.
On an obverse of the note in nominal value of 25 kronas the portrait of writer Anton Hanssen Tammsaare is seated, on the back represented Kind on Vargamjae. The Face side of 50 kronas contains the plotting of composer Rudolf Tobias, turnaround It is decorated by a theatre kind " Estonia" in Tallinn.
The face side of 100 crowns contains a portrait of poetess Lydia Kojduly, on a reverse - the plotting North Estonian Calcareous stone. On note face side in 500 crowns the portrait of the politician, the publicist is seated and Writer Charles Robert Yakobson, on turnaround - the plotting of a swallow.
It is updated 05.2012
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In medicine, albuminurophobia is the fear of disease of which part of the body? | Types Of Phobia
Types Of Phobia
Types Of Phobias List: A
Ablutophobia - Fear of washing or bathing.
Acarophobia - Fear of itching or of the insects that cause itching.
Acerophobia - Fear of sourness.
Aeroacrophobia - Fear of open high places.
Aeronausiphobia - Fear of vomiting secondary to airsickness.
Aerophobia - Fear of drafts, air swallowing, or airborne noxious substances.
Agliophobia - Fear of pain.
Agoraphobia - Fear of open spaces or of being in crowded, public places like markets. Fear of leaving a safe place. Fear of crowds.
Agraphobia - Fear of sexual abuse.
Agrizoophobia - Fear of wild animals.
Agyrophobia - Fear of streets or crossing the street.
Aichmophobia - Fear of needles or pointed objects.
Ailurophobia - Fear of cats.
Albuminurophobia - Fear of kidney disease.
Alektorophobia - Fear of chickens.
Amaxophobia - Fear of riding in a car.
Ambulophobia - Fear of walking.
Amychophobia - Fear of scratches or being scratched.
Anablephobia - Fear of looking up.
Ancraophobia - Fear of wind.
Anemophobia - Fear of air drafts or wind.
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Anemophobia - Fear of wind.
Anginophobia - Fear of angina, choking of narrowness.
Anglophobia - Fear of England, English culture, ect.
Angrophobia - Fear of becoming angry.
Ankylophobia - Fear of immobility of a joint.
Anthophobia - Fear of flowers.
Anthropophobia - Fear of people of society.
Antlophobia - Fear of floods.
Anuptaphobia - Fear of staying single.
Apeirophobia - Fear of infinity.
Aphenphosmphobia - Fear of being touched.
Apiphobia - Fear of bees.
Apotemnophobia - Fear of persons with amputations.
Arachibutyrophobia - Fear of peanut butter sticking to the roof of the mouth.
Arachnephobiba - Fear of spiders.
Ashenophobia - Fear of fainting or weakness.
Astraphobia - Fear of thunder and lightning.
Astrapophobia - Fear of thunder and lightning.
Astrophobia - Fear of stars and celestial space.
Asymmetriphobia - Fear of asymmetrical things.
Ataxiophobia - Fear of ataxia (muscular incoordination)
Ataxophobia - Fear of disorder or untidiness.
Atelophobia - Fear of imperfection.
Atephobia - Fear of ruin or ruins.
Athazagoraphobia - Fear of being forgotten or ignored or forgetting.
Atomosophobia - Fear of atomic explosions.
Atychiphobia - Fear of failure.
Auroraphobia - Fear of Northern Lights.
Autodysomophobia - Fear that one has a vile odor.
Automatonophobia - Fear of ventriloquist's dummies, animatronic creatures, wax statues-anything that falsely represents a sentient being.
Automysophobia - Fear of being dirty.
Autophobia - Fear of being alone or of oneself.
Aviatophobia - Fear of flying.
Complete Types of Phobia List
Bacillophobia - Fear of microbes.
Balenephobia - Fear of pins and needles.
Ballistophobia - Fear of missles or bullets.
Barophobia - Fear of gravity.
Basiphobia - Inability to stand. Fear of walking or falling.
Basophobia - Inability to stand. Fear of walking or falling.
Bathophobia - Fear of depth.
Batophobia - Fear of heights or being close to high buildings.
Batrachophobia - Fear of amphibians, such as frogs, newts, salamanders.
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Bogyphobia - Fear of bogies or the bogeyman.
Bolshephobia - Fear of Bulsheviks.
Bromidrophobia - Fear of body smells.
Bromidrosiphobia - Fear of body smells.
Brontophobia - Fear of thunder and lightning.
Bufonophobia - Fear of toads.
Complete Types of Phobia List
Cacophobia - Fear of ugliness.
Cainophobia - Fear of newness, novelty.
Cainotophobia - Fear of newness, novelty.
Caligynephobia - Fear of beautiful women.
Cancerophobia - Fear of cancer.
Cardiophobia - Fear of the heart.
Carnophobia - Fear of meat.
Catagelophobia - Fear of being ridiculed.
Catapedaphobia - Fear of jumping from high and low places.
Cathisophobia - Fear of sitting.
Cenophobia - Fear of new things or ideas.
Centophobia - Fear of new things or ideas.
Ceraunophobia - Fear of thunder.
Chemophobia - Fear of chemicals or working with chemicals.
Cherophobia - Fear of gaiety.
Chiraptophobia - Fear of being touched.
Cholerophobia - Fear of anger or the fear of cholera.
Chorophobia - Fear of dancing.
Claustrophobia - Fear of confined spaces.
Cleisiophobia - Fear of being locked in an enclosed place.
Cleithrophobia - Fear of being enclosed.
Cleithrophobia - Fear of being locked in an enclosed place.
Cleptophobia - Fear of stealing.
Climacophobia - Fear of stairs, climbing or of falling downstairs.
Clinophobia - Fear of going to bed.
Clithrophobia - Fear of being enclosed.
Cnidophobia - Fear of strings.
Contreltophobia - Fear of sexual abuse.
Coprastasophobia - Fear of constipation.
Counterphobia - The preference by a phobic for fearful situations.
Cremnophobia - Fear of precipices.
Cryophobia - Fear fo extreme cold, ice or frost.
Crystallophobia - Fear of crystals or glass.
Cyberphobia - Fear of computers or working on a computer.
Cyclophobia - Fear of bicycles.
Cymophobia - Fear of waves or wave like motions.
Cynophobia - Fear of dogs or rabies.
Cyprianophobia - Fear of prostitutes or venereal disease.
Cypridophobia - Fear of prostitutes or venereal disease.
Cyprinophobia - Fear of prostitutes or venereal disease.
Cypriphobia - Fear of prostitutes or venereal disease.
Types of Phobia: D
Complete Types of Phobia List
Daemonophobia - Fear of demons.
Decidophobia - Fear of making decisions.
Defecaloesiphobia - Fear of painful bowels movements.
Deipnophobia - Fear of dining and dinner conversation.
Dematophobia - Fear of skin lesions.
Dementophobia - Fear of insanity.
Dermatophathophobia - Fear of skin disease.
Dermatophobia - Fear of skin disease.
Dermatosiophobia - Fear of skin disease.
Dextrophobia - Fear of objects at the right side of the body.
Diabetophobia - Fear of diabetes.
Didaskaleinophobia - Fear of going to school.
Diderodromophobia - Fear of trains, railroads or train travel.
Dikephobia - Fear of justice.
Dinophobia - Fear of dizziness or whirlpools.
Diplophobia - Fear of double vision.
Dishabiliophobia - Fear of undressing in front of someone.
Domatophobia - Fear of houses or being in a home.
Doraphobia - Fear of fur or skins of animals .
Dromophobia - Fear of crossing streets.
Dutchphobia - Fear of the Dutch.
Dysmorphophobia - Fear of deformity.
Complete Types of Phobia List
Ecclesiophobia - Fear of church.
Eicophobia - Fear of home surroundings.
Eisoptrophobia - Fear of mirrors or of seeing oneself in a mirror.
Electrophobia - Fear of electricity.
Enissophobia - Fear of having committed an unpardonable sin or of criticism.
Enochlophobia - Fear of crowds.
Enosiophobia - Fear of having committed an unpardonable sin or of criticism.
Entomophobia - Fear of insects.
Eosophobia - Fear of dawn or daylight.
Epistaxiophobia - Fear of nosebleeds.
Eremophobia - Fear of being oneself or of lonliness.
Ereuthophobia - Fear of redlights.
Ergasiophobia - Fear of work or functioning.
Surgeon's fear of operating.
Erotophobia - Fear of sexual love or sexual questions.
Erythrophobia - Fear of redlights. Fear of blushing. Fear of red.
Erytophobia - Fear of redlights. Fear of blushing. Fear of red.
Euphobia - Fear of hearing good news.
Eurotophobia - Fear of female genitalia.
Types of Phobia: F
Complete Types of Phobia List
Febriphobia - Fear of fever.
Francophobia - Fear of France, French culture.
Types of Phobia: G
Complete Types of Phobia List
Galeophobia - Fear of cats.
Galiophobia - Fear of France, French culture.
Gallophobia - Fear of France, French culture.
Gamophobia - Fear of marriage.
Gephydrophobia - Fear of crossing bridges.
Gephyrophobia - Fear of crossing bridges.
Gephysrophobia - Fear of crossing bridges.
Gerascophobia - Fear of growing old.
Germanophobia - Fear of Germany, German culture, etc.
Gerontophobia - Fear of old people or of growing old.
Geumaphobia - Fear of taste.
Glossophobia - Fear of speaking in public or of trying to speak.
Gnosiophobia - Fear of knowledge.
Graphophobia - Fear of writing or handwritting.
Gymnophobia - Fear of nudity.
Complete Types of Phobia List
Hadephobia - Fear of hell.
Hagiophobia - Fear of saints or holy things.
Hamartophobia - Fear of sinning.
Haphephobia - Fear of being touched.
Haptephobia - Fear of being touched.
Harpaxophobia - Fear of being robbed.
Hedonophobia - Fear of feeling pleasure.
Heliophobia - Fear of the sun.
Hellenologophobia - Fear of Greek terms or complex scientific terminology.
Helminthophobia - Fear of being infested with worms.
Hemaphobia - Fear of blood.
Hereiophobia - Fear of challenges to official doctrine or of radical deviation.
Heresyphobia - Fear of challenges to official doctrine or radical deviation.
Herpetophobia - Fear of reptiles or creepy, crawly things.
Heterophobia - Fear of the opposite sex.
Hierophobia - Fear of priest or sacred things.
Hippophobia - Fear of horses.
Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia - Fear of long words.
Hobophobia - Fear of bums or beggars.
Hodophobia - Fear of road travel.
Homichlophobia - Fear of fog.
Homophobia - Fear of sameness, monotony or of homosexuality or of becoming homosexual.
Hoplophobia - Fear of firearms.
Hydrargyophobia - Fear of mercuial medicines.
Hydrophobia - Fear of water of of rabies.
Hydrophobophobia - Fear or rabies.
Hygrophobia - Fear of liquids, dampness, or moisture.
Hylephobia - Fear of materialism or the fear of epilepsy.
Hylophobia - Fear of forests.
Hynophobia - Fear of sleep or of being hypnotized.
Hypegiaphobia - Fear of responsibility.
Complete Types of Phobia List
Iatrophobia - Fear of going to the doctor or doctors.
Ichthyophobia - Fear of fish.
Illyngophobia - Fear of vertigo or feeling dizzy when looking down.
Insectophobia - Fear of insects.
Isolophobia - Fear of solitude, being alone.
Isopterophobia - Fear of termites, insects that eat wood.
Ithyphallophobia - Fear of seeing, thinking about, or having an erect penis.
Types of Phobia: J
Complete Types of Phobia List
Japanophobia - Fear of Japanese.
Complete Types of Phobia List
Kainolophobia - Fear of novelty.
Kainophobia - Fear of anything new, novelty.
Kakorrhaphiophobia - Fear of failure or defeat.
Katagelophobia - Fear of ridicule.
Kathisophobia - Fear of sitting down.
Kenophobia - Fear of voids or empty spaces.
Keraunophobia - Fear of thunder and lightning.
Kinesophobia - Fear of movement or motion.
Kinetophobia - Fear of movement or motion.
Kleptophobia - Fear of movement or motion.
Koinoniphobia - Fear of rooms.
Kolpophobia - Fear of genitals, particulary female.
Koniophobia - Fear of dust.
Kosmikophobi - Fear of cosmic phenomenon.
Kymophobia - Fear of waves.
Complete Types of Phobia List
Lachanophobia - Fear of vegitables.
Leukophobia - Fear of the color white.
Levophobia - Fear of things to the left side of the body.
Ligyrophobia - Fear of loud noises.
Lilapsophobia - Fear of tornadoes and hurricanes.
Limnophobia - Fear of lakes.
Luiphobia - Fear of lues, syphillis.
Lutraphobia - Fear of otters.
Lysssophobia - Fear of rabies or of becoming mad.
Types of Phobia: M
Complete Types of Phobia List
Macrophobia - Fear of long waits.
Mageirocophobia - Fear of cooking.
Malaxophobia - Fear of love play.
Maniaphobia - Fear of insanity.
Medomalacuphobia - Fear of losing an erection.
Medorthophobia - Fear of an erect penis.
Megalophobia - Fear of large things.
Melanophobia - Fear of the color black.
Melissophobia - Fear of bees.
Melophobia - Fear of hatred or music.
Meningitiophobia - Fear of brain disease.
Merinthophobia - Fear of being bound or tied up.
Mertophobia - Fear or hatred of poetry.
Metallophobia - Fear of metal.
Microphobia - Fear of small things.
Misophobia - Fear of being contaminated with dirt or germs.
Mnemophobia - Fear of memories.
Molysmophobia - Fear of dirt or contamination.
Molysomophobia - Fear of dirt or contamination.
Monopathophobia - Fear of difinite disease.
Monophobia - Fear of solitude or being alone.
Monophobia - Fear of menstruation.
Mycophobia - Fear or aversion to mushrooms.
Mycrophobia - Fear of small things.
Myctophobia - Fear of darkness.
Mysophobia - Fear of germs or contamination or dirt.
Mythophobia - Fear of myths or stories or false statements.
Myxophobia - Fear of slime.
Complete Types of Phobia List
Namatophobia - Fear of names.
Necrophobia - Fear of death or or dead things.
Nelophobia - Fear of glass.
Neopharmaphobia - Fear of new drugs.
Neophobia - Fear of anything new.
Nephophobia - Fear of clouds.
Noctiphobia - Fear of the night.
Nosemaphobia - Fear of becoming ill.
Nosocomephobia - Fear of hospitals.
Nosophobia - Fear of becoming ill.
Nostophobia - Fear of returning home.
Novercaphobia - Fear of your step-mother.
Nucleomituphobia - Fear of nuclear weapons.
Nudophobia - Fear of nudity.
Nyctohlophobia - Fear of dark wooded areas, of forest at night.
Nyctophobia - Fear of the dark or of the night.
Types of Phobia: O
Complete Types of Phobia List
Obesophobia - Fear of gaining weight.
Ochlophobia - Fear of crowds or mobs.
Ochophobia - Fear of vehicles.
Octophobia - Fear of the figure 8.
Odontophobia - Fear of teeth or dental surgery.
Odynephobia - Fear of pain.
Scopophobia - Fear of being seen or stared at.
Scoptophobia - Fear of being seen or stared at.
Scotomaphobia - Fear of blindness in visual field.
Scotophobia - Fear of darkness.
Scriptophobia - Fear of writing in public.
Selaphobia - Fear of light flashes.
Selenophobia - Fear of the moon.
Seplophobia - Fear of decaying matter.
Sesquipedalophobia - Fear of long words.
Sexophobia - Fear of the opposit sex.
Sexophobia - Fear of the opposite sex.
Siderophobia - Fear of stars.
Sinistrophobia - Fear of things to the left, left-handed.
Sinophobia - Fear of Chinese, Chinese culture.
Sitiophobia - Fear of food.
Sitiophobia - Fear of food or eating.
Sitophobia - Fear of food or eating.
Sitophobia - Fear of food.
Taphephobia - Fear of being buried alive or of cemeteries.
Taphophobia - Fear of being buried alive or of cemeteries.
Tapinophobia - Fear of being contagious.
Taurophobia - Fear of bulls.
Teleophobia - Fear fo difinite plans. Fear of Religious ceremony.
Telephonophobia - Fear of telephones.
Teratophobia - Fear of bearing a deformed child or fear of monsters or deformed people.
Testaphobia - Fear of taking test.
Tetanophobia - Fear of lockjaw, tetnus.
Teutophobia - Fear of German or German things.
Textophobia - Fear of certain fabrics.
Thaasophobia - Fear of sitting.
Thalassophobia - Fear of the sea.
Thanatophobia - Fear of death or dying.
Thantophobia - Fear of death or dying.
Theatrophobia - Fear of theaters.
Theophobia - Fear of gods or religion.
Theologicophobia - Fear of theology.
Tocophobia - Fear of pregnancy or childbirth.
Tomophobia - Fear of surgical operations.
Tonitrophobia - Fear of thunder.
Topophobia - Fear of certain places or situations, such as stage fright.
Toxiphobia - Fear of poison or of being accidently poisoned.
Toxophobia - Fear of poison or of being accidently poisoned.
Toxicophobia - Fear of poison or of being accidently poisoned.
Traumatophobia - Fear of injury.
Counterphobia - The preference by a phobic for fearful situations.
Cremnophobia - Fear of precipices.
Cryophobia - Fear fo extreme cold, ice or frost.
Crystallophobia - Fear of crystals or glass.
Cyberphobia - Fear of computers or working on a computer.
Cyclophobia - Fear of bicycles.
Cymophobia - Fear of waves or wave like motions.
Cynophobia - Fear of dogs or rabies.
Cyprianophobia - Fear of prostitutes or venereal disease.
Cypridophobia - Fear of prostitutes or venereal disease.
Cyprinophobia - Fear of prostitutes or venereal disease.
Cypriphobia - Fear of prostitutes or venereal disease.
Types of Phobia: D
Complete Types of Phobia List
Daemonophobia - Fear of demons.
Decidophobia - Fear of making decisions.
Defecaloesiphobia - Fear of painful bowels movements.
Deipnophobia - Fear of dining and dinner conversation.
Dematophobia - Fear of skin lesions.
Dementophobia - Fear of insanity.
Mycophobia - Fear or aversion to mushrooms.
Mycrophobia - Fear of small things.
Myctophobia - Fear of darkness.
Mysophobia - Fear of germs or contamination or dirt.
Mythophobia - Fear of myths or stories or false statements.
Myxophobia - Fear of slime.
Complete Types of Phobia List
Namatophobia - Fear of names.
Necrophobia - Fear of death or or dead things.
Nelophobia - Fear of glass.
Neopharmaphobia - Fear of new drugs.
Neophobia - Fear of anything new.
Nephophobia - Fear of clouds.
Noctiphobia - Fear of the night.
Nosemaphobia - Fear of becoming ill.
Nosocomephobia - Fear of hospitals.
Nosophobia - Fear of becoming ill.
Nostophobia - Fear of returning home.
Novercaphobia - Fear of your step-mother.
Nucleomituphobia - Fear of nuclear weapons.
Nudophobia - Fear of nudity.
Nyctohlophobia - Fear of dark wooded areas, of forest at night.
Nyctophobia - Fear of the dark or of the night.
Types of Phobia: O
Complete Types of Phobia List
Obesophobia - Fear of gaining weight.
Ochlophobia - Fear of crowds or mobs.
Ochophobia - Fear of vehicles.
Octophobia - Fear of the figure 8.
Odontophobia - Fear of teeth or dental surgery.
Odynephobia - Fear of pain.
Scopophobia - Fear of being seen or stared at.
Scoptophobia - Fear of being seen or stared at.
Scotomaphobia - Fear of blindness in visual field.
Scotophobia - Fear of darkness.
Scriptophobia - Fear of writing in public.
Selaphobia - Fear of light flashes.
Selenophobia - Fear of the moon.
Seplophobia - Fear of decaying matter.
Sesquipedalophobia - Fear of long words.
Sexophobia - Fear of the opposit sex.
Sexophobia - Fear of the opposite sex.
Siderophobia - Fear of stars.
Sinistrophobia - Fear of things to the left, left-handed.
Sinophobia - Fear of Chinese, Chinese culture.
Sitiophobia - Fear of food.
Sitiophobia - Fear of food or eating.
Sitophobia - Fear of food or eating.
Sitophobia - Fear of food.
Taphephobia - Fear of being buried alive or of cemeteries.
Taphophobia - Fear of being buried alive or of cemeteries.
Tapinophobia - Fear of being contagious.
Taurophobia - Fear of bulls.
Teleophobia - Fear fo difinite plans. Fear of Religious ceremony.
Telephonophobia - Fear of telephones.
Teratophobia - Fear of bearing a deformed child or fear of monsters or deformed people.
Testaphobia - Fear of taking test.
Tetanophobia - Fear of lockjaw, tetnus.
Teutophobia - Fear of German or German things.
Textophobia - Fear of certain fabrics.
Thaasophobia - Fear of sitting.
Thalassophobia - Fear of the sea.
Thanatophobia - Fear of death or dying.
Thantophobia - Fear of death or dying.
Theatrophobia - Fear of theaters.
Theophobia - Fear of gods or religion.
Theologicophobia - Fear of theology.
Tocophobia - Fear of pregnancy or childbirth.
Tomophobia - Fear of surgical operations.
Tonitrophobia - Fear of thunder.
Topophobia - Fear of certain places or situations, such as stage fright.
Toxiphobia - Fear of poison or of being accidently poisoned.
Toxophobia - Fear of poison or of being accidently poisoned.
Toxicophobia - Fear of poison or of being accidently poisoned.
Traumatophobia - Fear of injury.
| Kidney |
What is a female antelope called? | What is Chinese Medicine? • DocMisha.com
Therapeutic Modalities Used in Chinese Traditional Medicine
Introduction to Chinese Medicine
Chinese medicine is a complete system of medicine with its own forms of diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, and therapies. Chinese medicine views the body as an energetic system in dynamic balance. Qi, which can be translated as energy or life force, flows in a regular pattern through a system of channels — or meridians — to all parts of the body.
When the flow of Qi is unimpeded there is harmony, balance, and good health. When there are Qi blockages, too much or too little qi, there is an imbalance which can lead to disharmony and disease.
Chinese medicine helps restore the body to balance and works on an energetic level to affect all aspects of a person: mind/body/spirit. The beauty of Chinese medicine is that it can be used to correct imbalances that have become illness and pain, or even correct imbalances prior to the appearance of symptoms, preventing disease.
Chinese medicine treatments address imbalances using food therapy/diet, acupuncture, herbal remedies, Chinese exercise, and meditation along with Western therapies. Chinese medicine is the longest existing continuous medical system practiced in the world, with over 3000 years of history.
Chinese Medicine Philosophy
The primary goal of Chinese traditional medicine is to create wholeness and harmony within a person, allowing the mind/body/spirit to heal itself. Chinese philosophy states that there are two polar principles of life, yin and yang, and that they are dialectically opposed to each other. Imbalances of yin and yang within an individual may be reflected as illness, because the body is considered a microcosm of the world.
Chinese traditional medicine defines the physiological components of illness using the concepts Qi (Vital Energy), xue (Blood), jin-ye (Body Fluids), jing (Essence), and shen (Spirit), as well as Organ Systems. Organ Systems are domains within the body that govern particular body tissues, emotional states and activities.
For example, as is the Western kidneys, the Kidney System manages fluid metabolism. In Chinese medicine, the Kidney System is also responsible for reproduction, growth and regeneration. The bones, inner ear, marrow, teeth, and lumbar area are all part of the Kidney System. Frequent urination, low back pain, and the emotional state of fear may be associated with the Kidney System.
Each Organ System has functions that are unique.
Chinese traditional medicine theory postulates that it is the internal ability of the body to remain strong that is the key to health. In this theory, people are born with a certain amount of Original Qi, which is easily depleted as energy is used by the body and not replaced. It is not easy to increase the Original Qi, and a person must work hard during life just to retain it. Chinese exercise programs — along with proper eating and sleeping habits — are highly recommended for maintaining Original Qi . According to Chinese medical philosophy, if a person consistently lacks sleep, lacks proper nutrition, abuses drugs or alcohol, or has excessive or unsafe sex, they become deficient in Qi and other substances. When weakened, the person is more susceptible to infection by harmful external pathogens.
Roots of Disharmony: Causes of Disease in Chinese Medicine
Ancient Chinese Medicine did not recognize viruses or bacteria as triggers of disease or disorders. Of course, since Chinese medicine is a very pragmatic medicine, if the Chinese had know of viruses and bacteria it would have become part of the diagnostic system.
Instead, Chinese traditional medicine recognizes influences, which cause disharmony in yin/yang, the Essential Substances, the Organ Systems, and the Channels.
The Six Pernicious Influences — Heat, Cold, Wind, Dampness, Dryness and Summer Heat — are External climatic forces that can invade the body and create disharmony in the mind/body/spirit. For example, if you are exposed to excess Heat or Cold or Wind for a long time, or if you are exposed to such Influences when your body is already weak, you may develop an illness. This illness, triggered by External Influences, can migrate inward and become more serious — as a slight cold may become pneumonia. This happens when the External Pernicious Influences overpower the body’s natural protection against disease.
Cold When hypothermia hits a skier or a mountain climber, muscle control fades, motion becomes slow and awkward, fatigue sets in, the body shuts down. That’s the same effect that the Cold Pernicious Influence has — it saps the body’s energy and makes movements cumbersome. The tongue becomes pale; the pulse is slow. A person may develop a fear of cold and feel like sleeping in a curled up position. Cold is yin and when it invades the body it chills all or part of it. If there’s pain, it’s eased by warmth.
When External Cold attacks the body, acute illness may develop, along with chills, fever and body aches. When the External Cold moves inward and becomes an Interior disharmony it is associated with a chronic condition that produces a pale face, lethargy and grogginess, a craving for heat, and sleeping for longer than usual periods of time.
Heat disorders feel like you’ve been playing tennis for two hours in the blazing sun. You’re weary and at the same time, strangely cranked up. You can’t stop talking about the game, but your words stick in your mouth. You don’t feel like yourself again until you cool down and quench your thirst.
Heat disorders cause overactive yang functions or insufficient yin functions. They are generally associated with bodily heat, a red face, hyperactivity and talkativeness, fever, and thirst for cold liquids and a rapid pulse. Symptoms include carbuncles and boils, dry mouth and thirst. Confused speech and delirium arise when Heat attacks the Shen.
Dampness: Think about what happens to your backyard when it rains for two days — it becomes soggy and water collects in stagnant pools. That is how Dampness affects the body. Damp pain is heavy and expansive. Dampness blocks the flow of life energy and causes a stuffy chest and abdomen. When External Dampness invades, it enters the Channels and causes stiff joints and heavy limbs. When Dampness invades the Spleen, it can cause upset stomach, nausea, a lack of appetite, a swollen abdomen and diarrhea. Interior Dampness — caused by either the penetration of External Dampness to the Interior or by a breakdown in the Spleen’s transformation of fluids — is associated with mucous, which in Chinese medicine is more than simply bodily secretions. It is produced when the Spleen or Kidney is beset with disharmony and can cause obstructions and produce tumors, coughing, and if it invades the Shen, can lead to erratic behavior and insanity. Once Dampness has taken root, it is hard to displace.
Dryness is a frequent partner with Heat; just think about the cracked bottom of a dried up riverbed. But where Heat creates redness and warmth, Dryness creates evaporation and dehydration. External Dryness invading the body may create respiratory problems such as asthmatic breathing and a dry cough, acute pain and fever.
Summer Heat feels like the humid, oppressive weather that creates the Dog Days of August. It attacks the body after exposure to extreme heat and causes a sudden high fever and total lethargy. It is always an External influence and often arises along with Dampness.
Wind animates the body, stirring it from repose into motion just as wind moves the leaves of a tree. When Wind enters the body, it is usually joined to another influence such as Cold. If the body is infiltrated by Wind, the first symptoms usually appear on the skin, in the lungs, or on the face. Tics, twitches, fear of drafts, headaches and a stuffed-up nose are symptoms. When External Wind invades the body more deeply, it can cause seizures, ringing in the ears and dizziness.
Therapeutic Modalities Used in Chinese Traditional Medicine
The various therapeutic modalities of Chinese traditional medicine include dietary therapy; massage therapy, heat therapies, exercise, meditation, acupuncture, and herbal medicine. Heat therapies include the use of moxibustion, which is the burning of the common herb mugwort (artemesia vulgaris) over certain areas of the body to stimulate or warm these areas. Exercise therapy ranges from martial arts to more subtle forms of movement such as t’ai chi and qi gong. Acupuncture, perhaps the most well known form of Chinese traditional medicine in the United States, is the art of inserting fine sterile metal filiform needles into certain points in order to control the flow of energy in the meridians.
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| i don't know |
Which year saw the first indoor Wimbledon Men’s Final? | Andy Murray v Roger Federer - Wimbledon 2012 men's final: live - Telegraph
Wimbledon
Andy Murray v Roger Federer - Wimbledon 2012 men's final: live
Follow live game-by-game commentary as Andy Murray takes on Roger Federer in Wimbledon 2012 men's final in SW19, on Sunday July 8.
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Masterclass: Federer was just to strong for Murray after a bright opening from the Scot Photo: EPA
Chasing the game: Federer found another gear after the rain break Photo: GETTY IMAGES
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All square: Roger Federer claimed the second set 7-5 with a stunning break won by a beautiful volleyed backhand drop shot Photo: EPA
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Eye on the ball: Andy Murray looked the stronger of the two men in the opening two sets Photo: ACTION IMAGES
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Feel the strain: Murray broke Federer again then served out to take the first set 6-4. Photo: GETTY IMAGES
Getting ahead: Murray broke Federer's serve in the opening game
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Flying Scotsman: Murray broke Federer's first service game to get off to the best possible start Photo: REUTERS
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History beckons: Andy Murray and Roger Federer at then coin toss ahead of the Wimbledon men's final
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Big day out: Andy Murray arrives in SW19 for his final meeting with Roger Federer Photo: PA
6:30PM BST 08 Jul 2012
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FEDERER BEATS MURRAY 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 6-4 FOR SEVENTH WIMBLEDON TITLE
WRAP: A fantastic effort by Murray but ultimately again was beaten by the better player if not the best player to ever grace the SW19 courts. Today's final marked a step in the right direction, Murray wasn't beaten by nerves or the occasion. Early on, in fact, it was Murray who looked like a six-time champion rather than his rival and he won his first set in a major following three straight-sets defeats in his previous three final defeats. A failure to close out some of his service games will grate, but Federer was deserving of a seventh Wimbledon title which sees him equal Pete Sampras's achievement. It also sees him reclaim the world No 1 spot from Novak Djokovic and comes two years after his last major triumph. The old master past it? No way.
Thanks for joining us and all of your contributions today.
18.25 Federer: "Murray has been so consistent, it shows he cares so dearly about tennis his reaction, he'll win at least one grand slam. I think I played some of my best tennis in the last two sets."
18.18 Murray holds back the tears in his post-match interview on court, blowing hard. "I'm getting closer," is all he can manage before the crowd and Henman Hill erupts and Murray asks for a moment to let it all sink in as he gathers his thoughts. Murray breaks down as he tries to get any words out as girlfriend Kim Sears fights back the tears.
"I'd like to congratulate Roger, I was asked after my semi-final 'is this my best chance'. Roger is 30 now, he's not bad for a 30-year-old. I know he struggled early on with his back, but congratulations you deserve it. Thanks to everyone in my corner, we did a great job, so thank you.
"Everyone talks about how tough it is to play at Wimbledon with the pressure but the support has been incredible."
18.16 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 6-4 Murray
Crowd in full voice in support of Murray but it looks too little, too late. Murray hangs in and wins the first point off Federer's serve when the Swiss's diving return at the net goes long. Murray can't get his lob over and in though and Federer races to two championship points with a timely ace. Murray saves the first on Federer's second serve but Murray flashes his return wide and Federer falls to the turf, that's it, a seventh Wimbledon crown and 17th grand slam title overall. Murray returns to his chair to mop himself down, reflecting on what went wrong. FEDERER WINS SEVENTH WIMBLEDON TITLE
18.10 Federer 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 5-4 Murray*
Federer having a bit of a swing here, most probably as he knows that all he needs to do is serve out for the match and a seventh championship in a moment of minutes. He flashes at one and makes it for 40-30 and then another for deuce. Another deuce later and a 16th ace of the match from Murray gives him advantage and when Federer misses a backhand, the former world No 1 is a game away from reclaiming his spot at the top of the rankings.
18.05 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 5-3 Murray
Federer hardly ever looks like he has broken sweat and today is no different. But what's this, he finally allows Murray back at 30-all with a wild volley but Murray can't make the most of a second serve and hits wide. A cheeky drop shot with Murray in no man's land at the back of the court denies Murray any chance of a shot at a break.
18.00 Federer 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 4-3 Murray*
Murray's body language speaks volume as his errors count increases. He still has a little bit of luck on his side as a volley off the top of his racket puts him 40-30 up and allows him to close out the game.
17.57 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 4-2 Murray
Federer is gliding round the court now but credit to Murray for staying in the rally and forcing his rival to make one more shot, albeit more often than not a winning one. A double fault gives Murray a look at 30-15 but a shot at a break point goes begging when he sends a forehand long, how he needed that. In true Federer style he makes the most of his let off, wrapping up the next two points.
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: Ewan McGregor - Come on Andy!! Dinnae get aw bleek oan us noo!!&lt;/noframe&gt;
17.53 Federer 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 3-2 Murray*
Murray loses a challenge to fall 30-15 behind and with only one challenge left of the set. Another return is called long, but Murray wasn't call on Hawk-Eye this time and stars at two break points. Murray moves to take control of the point, hitting deep returns and moving into the net into a winnable position, but Federer reacts in the only way he knows how, taking aim and firing a passing winner to break and take control of the match. MURRAY IS BROKEN.
17.48 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 2-2 Murray
Federer toying with Murray, shaping for a drop shot only to delicately push away a return. This is Federer at his creative best, crafting winners and forcing his opponent into errors.
17.45 Federer 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 1-2 Murray*
Murray blowing hard here and a first double fault of the match hasn't eased his service yips. He's back level when Federer moves early and is gifted an ace but moves 30-15 up with another unforced error from Murray. Murray, thankfully, digs deep to hold.
I've been following your commentary on my iPhone deep inside Federer territory - Switzerland - where it's lovely and sunny and I've been visiting the Rhine Waterfall. It's very dramatic there - but so is the tennis!
Tom Brett
17.42 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 1-1 Murray
Murray has an outside chance of a break here as Federer hits wide for 15-30. Murray punches a volley into the deuce court and his attempt at a passing winner on break point doesn't come off and we're back to deuce. Two more winners from Federer puts heat back on Murray's service game.
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: Paul Hayward - 16 Grand Slam titles are playing zero titles here. Skill aside, Federer is a brilliant court strategist. Murray still battling at 2-1 down.&lt;/noframe&gt;
17.37 Federer 4-6, 7-5, 6-3, 0-1 Murray*
Murray in control of service game again for 40-15 but needs to hold it together and serve it out. He keeps getting to this position but failing to close out games. Federer draws closer again but Murray works his rival from side to side, creating an opening and volleying at the net to edge in front in the set.
17.31 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 6-3 Murray
Murray trading blows with Federer at the baseline and comes up trumps, outwitting him with a sublime cross-court forehand for 15-all. Shame that Federer pulls out an ace to edge in front, but his 30th unforced error of the match brings Murray back. Murray goes for a winner, but finds the tramlines before Federer fires down another ace for the set. FEDERER WINS THIRD SET
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: Sir Clive Woodward - &lt;a href="http://search.twitter.com/search?q=tennis" target="_blank"&gt;#tennis&lt;/a&gt; what a change in body language in this thrid set after the rain break &lt;a href="http://www.twitter.com/Andy_Murray" target="_blank"&gt;@Andy_Murray&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href="http://search.twitter.com/search?q=sport" target="_blank"&gt;#sport&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href="http://search.twitter.com/search?q=pressure" target="_blank"&gt;#pressure&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href="http://search.twitter.com/search?q=wimbeldon2102" target="_blank"&gt;#wimbeldon2102&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href="http://search.twitter.com/search?q=coaching" target="_blank"&gt;#coaching&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/noframe&gt;
17.27 Federer 4-6, 7-5, 5-3 Murray*
Again Murray races to a 40-0 lead only to be pegged back, first of his own underdoing by netting a straightforward volley and then with some brilliance from Federer. Luckily a handy ace makes Federer serve for set.
17.23 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 5-2 Murray
Federer has turned the screw and cements his break, dropping two points mind. Just a game away from taking a two sets to one lead.
17.19 Federer 4-6, 7-5, 4-2 Murray*
Ace number nine for Murray brings up three game points, but from this point on his game unravels, slipping to the turf as Federer edges his way back. A roar goes up as Murray puts away a forehand to hang in but he's down another break point with the game clock approaching nine minutes. Strong serve volleying brings Murray back within sight of the game, but he can't convert his opening. A fair few more deuces later and now we're at the 10th deuce and game approaching some 19 minutes. Murray races to the net and slips as he charges back to baseline as Federer's return lands flush on the line. Muray challenges, it's over-ruled, he only has one left now. Break point again for Federer and this time he takes it, moving Murray from side to side, biding his time before delivering the final blow. MURRAY IS BROKEN.
16.58 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 3-2 Murray
Murray shanks one off the top of his racket and Federer drills down an ace and another booming serve down the T for 40-0. It's another easy hold when Murray sends a return wide.
16.56 Federer 4-6, 7-5, 2-2 Murray*
The roof creates a great atmosphere inside, I can vouch for that having been on Centre for the Murray-Baghdatis match last Saturday, but the noise of the rain is doing it's best to quiet the crowd. Thankfully it hasn't thrown Murray's concentration as he holds.
16.53 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 2-1 Murray
Play resumes after the rain delay and David Cameron is finally back in his seat. Federer serves and wraps up game and players retreat for a brief rest.
16.50 The rain is chucking it down but the hardy folk on Henman Hill aren't bothered, it's only cost them £20-odd quid for a square of turf outside Court One, unlike the thousands of pounds some are said to have paid for a seat on Centre. I know where I'd rather be. If only I had the cash. Right, here we go...play resumes...
16.45 The players are back on court and will be back in action after another brief knock-up. Annie Simpson-Elder, meanwhile, has her fingers crossed for a Murray victory.
I'm in Southern Spain...no TV to watch..and 'cos Nadal is not playing...nowhere to go and watch...I have a lap top..that is grindingly slow....so I'm following the match on here...I really hope Andy wins...he so deserves to...and even if he doesn't what a grand result for him anyway...
16.38 Keep your predictions and thoughts coming in as we're waiting for play to resume under the roof. Tim Cain is still pondering the end of the second set.
Murray’s lob looked very in at 30-30 in last game of second set. No challenge, no Hawkeye replay, would be very interested to see one.
16.22 The roof is moving...this final will finish under the roof.
I'd love to see Andy win and its looking good.. Especially being born in England from Scottish roots, but brought up in Stirling. Great for both Scotland and Britain. It would also be fabulous to see Ivan Lendl get some credit. Undoubtedley the greatest player never to win Wimbledon and it would be poetic justice if he had a role to play in returning the world's most famous tennis championship to the UK. Go on yersel', Andy!!
Mike Gow
16.15 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 1-1 Murray
Murray's head drops as he overhits a return to put Federer in control at 40-0 up. The rain is coming down heavier here and Murray is almost wiped out as the groundstaff pull the covers across. Thankfully they stop in time to allow Murray to collect his bag and slowly wander off court. The players retreat into the dryness of the locker room. As Murray revealed the other day, he was just metres away from David Ferrer when they went off for their rain break. Do you think they afford them a little more luxury in the final and allow them a dressing room each? PLAY IS SUSPENDED DUE TO RAIN
16.11 Federer 4-6, 7-5, 1-1 Murray*
A limp drop shot attempt gives Federer the edge at 30-15 but Murray eases his and the fans's nerves when Federer can't reach a return. Those gathered on Henman Hill grab and shelter under their umbrellas. The rain is here. Probably good news for Murray in the mean time as it will give him time to regroup. He takes the next point and a solid first serve gives him game. But play continues for the time being as the clock passes two hours.
16.07 Federer* 4-6, 7-5, 1-0 Murray
Federer in front for the first time in the match as he holds serve to 15. Those in suits surrounding the court frantically looking to the skies hoping the grey clouds pass by.
16.02 Federer 4-6, 7-5 Murray*
An ace and then a flukey volley at the net on the spin (courtesy of the top of his racket) ensure Murray moves to a comfortable 30-0 position. Murray reads a drop shot quickly but Federer is quicker to make his return and turns up the heat by taking the next. Anxious moments on Centre and Murray looked as if he'd made a looped return from a crafty drop shot from the Fed, only for the ball to drop long of baseline, handing Federer set point. A superb rally ends with Federer pulling out a backhand drop shot to level at one-set all.
15.56 Federer* 4-6, 6-5 Murray
Murray is giving Federer a real workout this afternoon and the only way Federer is picking up points is by charging into the net and firing down some booming volleys. A double fault brings Murray back to 30-all and there are dark clouds looming over head. Federer responds with an ace but Murray gets the rub of the green when his service return clips the tape and falls perfectly onto Federer's side but he's out of luck as Federer takes the game.
15.52 Federer 4-6, 5-5 Murray*
Without wanting to jinx Murray, this has to be the best tennis he has played in any of his grand slam finals. He comfortably holds to love to put pressure back on Federer.
15.49 Federer* 4-6, 5-4 Murray
Federer charges down the court but hits a wild forehand to bring Murray back at 30-all. Another loose shot, this time a poor backhand hands Murray a gift of a break point opening but Murray can't take advantage and sends his return long. Some fantastic play from Murray brings up a second break point as he increases the tempo and takes the game to Federer with a put away at the net. But Federer is the master of the serve and volley game and keeps Murray pinned behind the net. More composure from Federer sees him dig deep and edging back in front. Heading for a tie-break perhaps?
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: Chris Hoy - People who wait for the crowd to go quiet then shout. Numpties.&lt;/noframe&gt;
15.41 Federer 4-6, 4-4 Murray*
The sight of Federer trading blows on the baseline is a welcome sight for Murray who is winning more of the duels. A successive regulation game is blotted when Murray goes for a forehand but hits long but takes the game when Federer can't return a powerful first serve.
15.38 Federer* 4-6, 4-3 Murray
Federer is taking every opportunity to come into the net whenever an opening is available and is keeping the points as short as possible. A comfortable hold to love and it remains on serve.
15.36 Federer 4-6, 3-3 Murray*
Murray is back on song with his serve, firing down a fifth ace on his way to a love game.
15.32 Federer* 4-6, 3-2 Murray
What Federer can do, Murray can match as the British No 1 leads the Swiss a merry dance with a neat drop shot and then a forehand winner down the middle for 30-15. The momentum is back with Murray, for a few moments at least, and he moves to two break points when he advances to the net and dispatches a volley. If anyone accuses Murray of being passive, they should watch this game. Federer swats away a first break point and Murray can't keep his service return in as Federer pulls back to deuce. At the third time of asking, Federer slam dunks his way to advantage as Murray hangs in behind the baseline and some neat serve-volleying from Federer keeps Murray at bay.
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: Frankie Boyle - The umpire should be someone who could do a bit of banter with the celebs during the breaks. David Mitchell would be a good. &lt;a href="http://search.twitter.com/search?q=Wimbledon" target="_blank"&gt;#Wimbledon&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/noframe&gt;
15.27 Federer 4-6, 2-2 Murray*
Federer has now found his angles and an acute return sends Murray out wide but unable to make a return. A solid serve edges Murray 30-15 up and some aggresive serve and volleying moves sees him wrap up the game. That's better from Murray.
15.23 Oliver Brown on the reaction to Murray's opening set triumph.
Remarkable scenes at Wimbledon. Murray Mount absolutely rapt, and scores of people dashing around the approaches to Centre Court with an air of disorientation. "Oh my God, it's actually happening!" goes the cry. Just try telling that to Ivan Lendl, the calmest man in the house. Not a clap, not a flicker as his boy wraps up the first set. They breed them tough in Ostrava.
15.23 Federer* 4-6, 2-1 Murray
Federer is cutting short the points on his serve and moves to 40-15 when Murray's return clips the tape and lands in the tramlines. Murray tries to hang in with some defensive lobs from behind the baseline, but a second is sent long and the set remains on serve.
15.20 Federer 4-6, 1-1 Murray*
Murray looks anxious as Federer edges his way to a break point opening but Murray saves a third break point for deuce. Federer can't meet a strong pass from Murray as the Briton brings up a second advantage but Federer's put away is too good and Murray can't hit a passing winner. Murray is hanging in another of his service games and is blowing heavily as he takes a second to regroup and calls for his towel. It works wonders as he stays calm to take the next point to get on the board in the second set.
15.11 Federer* 4-6, 1-0 Murray
Regulation game from Federer, holds to love in double quick time.
Look who's taken their places in the Royal Box. Sir Becks.
From Donna Bowater on Henman Hill. "There's barely a square inch of grass left uncovered on Henman Hill. People have even filled in the spaces behind columns and pillars; many can't really see the big screen but are there to enjoy it anyway. The atmosphere is much more convivial now the sun has come out and it's actually quite warm. The rest of the ground is eerily deserted, like a playground after the summer holidays begin. Everyone, everywhere has eyes glued to a screen or scoreboard."
15.08 Federer 4-6 Murray*
Murray serving for what would be his first set of a grand slam final, both players give each other a workout on their backhands but Murray brings up two set points with an outswinging ace. The set is his when Federer can't make a service return. Centre Court erupts and everyone is up on their feet. MURRAY WINS FIRST SET 6-4.
Nail biting stuff.. Watching on TSN here in Canada.. Federer is starting to fire on all cylinders which is a little disconcerting. And what is with all the coughing in between and during every point? Has all the rain this summer turned Centre Court into Sickbay??
Jonathan Price
15.02 Federer* 4-5 Murray
Murray rattles Federer when he drills a return which would've taken the head off the Swiss had he not ducked at the net. He takes the next to move to two break points and he has a second break of the first set when Federer nets a forehand. MURRAY BREAKS.
14.58 Federer 4-4 Murray*
Nervy moments for Murray as Federer sweeps home a forehand for a mini break. Murray responds with his own forehand winner loaded with topsin to draw level and when Federer edges a second serve off the metal of his racket it brings him game point. Murray falls short in his attempt to hit a backhand winner on the run, but whips a forehand out wide for advantage only to be foiled by the master across the court. A big roar goes up when Murray hits long to give Federer a look at another break point but another crafted forehand is too good for Federer. Camera switches to Boris Johnson who appears like he's desperate to look at his watch, somewhere you'd rather be Boris? Murray foils a second break point and then requires a second advantage as he holds on, just, in the longest game of the match so far.
14.45 Federer* 4-3 Murray
Almost a regulation game from Federer barring a sloppy forehand return. Both players seem to have settled down as they retreat to their chairs where their umbrellas await them...to shield them from the SUN. What? Surely that's an omen for Murray the sun is shining and everything.
14.43 Federer 3-3 Murray*
Blue skies overhead now and Murray is calmness personified, serving well while Federer is still finding his range. A second backhand winner brings Federer in at 40-30 and then deuce but Murray stays strong to serve it out.
Bryony Gordon at SW19 says: Sound has gone on the big screen here on Murray Mound. Crowd making up their sound effects. Cries of 'we want sound!' and 'who's got the remote? It's on mute!'
14.37 Federer* 3-2 Murray
Murray's strength is that he hangs in the points and it pays dividends as Federer hits a wild volley when he had most of the court vacant for a mini-break. Federer responds quickly to a clipped net return to put Murray on the backfoot to bring it back to 30-all. Again, Murray's ploy of making Federer play one more shot keeps in him the game, bringing the former world No 1 to deuce. A second deuce later and Federer wraps up the game when his kick-serve outwits Murray.
14.30 Federer 2-2 Murray*
Murray tests the water with his first drop shot of the match but Federer is equal to it. Luckily for Murray he keeps in check by firing down an ace and then drilling a forehand volley cross court which is too good for his opponent. Murray looks to the skies as the wind swirls around and it's thrown him off guard as Federer comes back to deuce. Another ace, this time a 130mph down the T from Murray keeps him at bay but he can't close out the game when his volley bounces wide of the tramline. An inch-perfect single-handed backhand from Federer falls inside the line for his first look at a break point. And when Murray can't make a backhand return, Federer has the break back and we're back on serve. MURRAY BROKEN.
14.22 Federer* 1-2 Murray
Federer settles down with his first ace of the match but flashes a backhand into the tramlines for his fifth unforced error of the match for 30-all. The Swiss pounces on a loose Murray return to move to within game point but he's pegged back to deuce when Murray's return catches him off guard. Federer won't allow Murray another sniff of a break as he wraps up his first service game.
14.18 Federer 0-2 Murray*
If anything it looks like Murray is the six-time champion out there given his solid start. A couple more errors from Federer gives the British No 1 40-30 and another long forehand from Federer sees him cement his break.
14.12 Federer* 0-1 Murray
Murray settles into proceedings quickly, winning the first point before Federer serves and volleys his way in front. Murray has a first break point when Federer hits a forehand long, and another uncharacteristic error by Federer when he sends a volley long of baseline hands Murray an early break. MURRAY BREAKS.
14.05 Final stat before proceedings get under way. The last time the No 3 seed won Wimbledon was 1990 (Edberg). The last time the No 4 seed won was in 2003 (a certain Mr Federer).
14.03 Great reaction from fans on Centre Court and it appeared that Murray had the slight edge over Federer. Up in the Royal Box Pippa Middleton looks very excited as the two players emerge giggling away with sister Kate. Players now warming up under the blue-ish skies. Here we go...
13.58 Here come the players. It's quite a walk down the corridors from the locker room to Centre Court. Federer leads Murray down the hallways. It's a familiar walk for him. No sign of his racket though. Murray has racket in hand. No chance of anyone else getting their grubby mitts on it.
A few final predictions before play begins...
Watching match in northern Michigan woods and have Scottish flag attached to a pine tree.
Ginanne Brownell
My prediction is that the match will finish in the fourth Set with the scores 7-5, 4-6, 6-3, 6-4, and seeing not Federer win victory for the 7th time, but a man we should be proud of our own Andy Murray as the VICTOR. The first British Mens Singles Champ for 76 Years!
Lyndon Morgan
13.50 Bryony Gordon has joined the masses on Henman Hill/Murray Mound (delete as appropriate).
Here I am on Murray Mound with a group who have been here since Friday night. They have just painted my face. There is someone who has flow in from Kenya, another from Hong Kong. There are 8 month old twins from Kentwjo have come with their plucky mother. Having rained all morning it is now blazing sunshine. David Beckham has arrived to a huge cheer. Let us hope the cheering continues all afternoon!
13.45 Sir Steve Redgrave has backed Murray to win today. The five-time Olympic gold medallist said "He will be pretty nervous but excited. Expectation plays a big part in it but you need that excitement, you need that adrenalin pumping." Asked how well Murray is likely to have slept last night, Sir Steve described he had one of his best performances after a terrible night's sleep and said he would love to be out on Centre Court today.
13.40 The roof is retracted but covers remain on Centre Court as light rain persists. If we have a heavy shower now before the start of the match will be held up as the roof is brought back on. Usually takes around 40 minutes to get all the conditions spot on.
13.35 Where would a Murray victory stand in British sport's history books ponders Paul Hayward?
How big is this match, historically? I keep hearing that question here. A personal view is that it would be the biggest triumph on home soil since 1966. Virginia Wade, Ashes victories and Nick Faldo winning The Open were all big. But Britain reclaiming men's tennis from the mists of 1936 would be immense. We're about to watch the greatest of all time slug it out with the best British player for 74 years. It's perfect staging.
13.30 Murray has spoken passionately of his determination to win a maiden grand slam and how reaching the final doesn't mean he has achieved anything as yet. In his first-piece column on the BBC he says of today's final: "One thing I guarantee is that I'll fight my absolute heart out."
Although it's my first Wimbledon final, I was in this position at the 2008 US Open and the Australian Open in 2010 and 2011. I know how it's going to feel and although there will be nerves, I know how to deal with them and use it as a positive.
Of those finals, losing to Novak Djokovic in Melbourne last year was the most painful, and it's one of the factors motivating me to lift the trophy this time round.
13.15 So are the omens on Murray's side? Jonny Marray became the first British man to win a gentleman's doubles title since 1936 late last night, Virginia Wade won the women's title at SW19 in the Queen's Silver Jubilee year? Well this is Murray's fourth grand slam final. It took Andre Agassi four attempts before he beat Goran Ivanisevic 20 years ago. Read how Agassi felt winning his first major on Centre Court .
13.10 Our man Oliver Brown has the latest news on the Royal Box line-up.
Appropriately, the line-up for the royal box this afternoon is the most glamorous yet. David and Victoria Beckham have both wangled invitations, and both the Duchess of Cambridge and Pippa Middleton are here. No appearance by the Queen, alas, although Judy Murray confirms she has received a very pleasant letter from the Prime Minister.
13.05 Under an hour to go before the action gets under way and great news to report. The covers are coming off...on the outside courts. No decision has been made on whether to retract the roof on Centre.
13.00 Judy Murray was wondering what to wear earlier. No idea if this was her choice as the photographer in question has cut her head off. I know one thing, Ian Poulter would approve.
12.55 Congratulations to Geoff Spencer who is first with the answer to the 'Murray's middle name?' quick-quiz question. The answer is, drum roll.....Barron...
Barron
as a boy's name is a variant of Barnett (Old English) and Baron (Old German, Old English), and the meaning of Barron is "burned clearing; young warrior".
12.45 Emily Benammar takes a breather from her live F1 blogging duties to let you know of one charity hoping Federer can make it a seventh triumph.
While the nation hopes to see its first British Wimbledon men's champion in 76 years, one charity could be facing a win-win situation thanks to a bet made nearly a decade ago.
Oxfam is set to collect £101,840 if Roger Federer beats Andy Murray at Centre Court tomorrow, after a punter bequeathed a bet made in 2003 to the charity. Nick Newlife, from Oxford, bet £1,520 in 2003 that the Swiss tennis legend - who then had just one Wimbledon title to his name - would win seven or more. To date, Federer has six titles. Bookmakers William Hill offered Mr Newlife, from Oxford, odds of 66/1. But he died in 2009, aged 59, leaving his entire estate - including the bet - to Oxfam. The charity estimates around 12 per cent of its income is from legacies.
12.40 Bit random but topical nonetheless, Miss Kitty hopes her webcomic illustration will make a few of you smile. Picture titled: 'Why are hamsters rubbish at tennis?'
12.38 Keep your guesses coming in for Murray's middle name. Sorry but those who have said 'Nicholi' need to try again.
12.35 When former 'plucky' Brit Barry Cowan took 'legend' Pete Sampras to five sets back in the day, or 2001 if you want a precise year, he listened to 'You'll Never Walk Alone' on his then Walkman or CD player during changeovers. Murray has spent most of his downtime in the locker room listening to Ed Sheeran's soothing vocals and tunes to keep him composed. Nice then that Ed has taken time to offer the Brit some support. Brief albeit but it's the thought that counts.
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: Ed Sheeran - good luck Andy Murray, you can do it&lt;/noframe&gt;
12.28 Word is, or more to the point Barnabas Bäuerle says that Federer hasn't been training today or yesterday, that's just lazy isn't it?
I have got word from a Wimbledon source - a person who organises the court schedule, including the practice court for players - that, unlike Andy, Federer did NOT practice on the Wimbledon grounds yesterday - nor has he done so today (thus far). He may have practiced elsewhere, although this is highly unlikely as he has made good use of the grounds within the past fortnight (why should he change locations now?)...
12.25 There's still been light rain on the outside courts at Wimbledon but it hasn't stopped Murray going through his paces on Court 15. Please be careful, Andy. We don't want any slip ups and injuries before you've even made it on to Centre Court. Have been plenty of other occasions where sportsmen and women have suffered silly injuries in the build up to a big game.
12.20 Ok, quick question time. Do you know what Murray's middle name is? Email your answers ASAP, a prize awaits for the quickest response.
12.15 Great to hear of so many of you keeping in touch from far-flung locations.
Hello we are on our yacht in the Indian Ocean, West Coast of Australia. We keep in touch with streaming mobile broadband on our Mac and we predict a win for Andy!!!
John Quarterman and Family.
I'm in India and will be glued to the TV to see how Murray handles this. My sense is that the general awesomeness of the occasion will get to Andy a bit at the start and he will lose the first set but after this he'll get himself together and play logically and with purpose. Roger will put up a herculean struggle but this is now Andy's time. He'll win in 5.
Joe Francis
Meanwhile one of our roving reporters, Donna Bowater, down at SW19 has been gauging reaction from those inside the gates.
Not even Britain's first men's Wimbledon finalist since Bunny Austin can diminish the respect afforded to six-time Champion Roger Federer. Fans gathering for the historic day at the All-England Club were torn between their countryman and arguably the greatest tennis player ever seen. Glenis Lee, 59, from King's Lynn, said she wanted the Swiss to win: "He deserves to get the Championship so he can get the record but I would like Murray to win because I think it's Britain's year." Robert Bean, 56, flew into SW19 from Texas and said: "It would good to see somebody from Britain win it for a change." Creichton and Avril Halliday were flying the flag for Murray's birthplace, Glasgow, with their family tartan and Mr Halliday donned a kilt to see the Scot make tennis history. "We can't help but follow Murray. He's the Colin Montgomerie of tennis."
12.00 How about a trip down memory lane? Let's go back to 2005 when Murray made his Wimbledon debut as a wildcard pick and announced himself on to the stage by reaching the third round after straight sets wins over George Bastl and Radek Štěpánek. Remember who dampened spirits, a certain David Nalbandian took advantage of a fatigued Murray by winning in five sets. The same Argentine who finds himself the subject of a police enquiry for his kick out at a line judge at the Queen's final (ok, ok it was the advertising hoarding really). Question marks were raised over Murray's stamina levels and ability to go five sets. Despite Murray's on court demeanour at least that shouldn't be one of his problems today, he's one of the fittest guys on tour.
11.50 Not much going on on the Island of Shetland today, according to Bernard Smith who writes in...
I live on the island of Shetland, born and raised and I'm routing for Andy Murray. At a time when the murder drama by Ann Cleeves is being filmed for BBC television here there cant be much filming going on today, every body must be watching Murray! Also we don't exactly see ourselves as Scottish, however when great sporting moments come along like this one, we no longer doubt our identity!
Meanwhile, especially for Geoffrey Patterson who asks: "Is it beyond the capability of the Telegraph to tell us what time the match start??", well the answer is 2pm. The roof remains on Centre Court currently but fingers crossed for a dry patch so the final can be played as it should outdoors.
11.45 Get on your marks, get set, and go. The lucky, lucky folk who have managed to get inside the Wimbledon gates today.
11.40 Your messages of support for Murray are flying in, keep them coming. Here's Barnabas Bäuerle's advice for him.
What a great day this is for Britain and for Scotland! It is so very important for Andy to keep his cool and stay focused. He has to get off to a quick start, lest he be steamrolled by Roger. Andy has to try and shut out the huge occasion and his opponent and focus on himself. More often than not, that has been his problem. Such a shame Wimbledon has become an indoor event!
Such a shame Barnabas has gone for Federer to pip Murray, mind. I won't hold it against you.
I probably won't be very popular for my pick. I think, given the grandeur of the occasion and his incredible success in the past, Roger will take it in 4 close sets ... But if we cheer him on enough, Andy just might pull off a sensational win!
11.35 Murray said after Friday's win over Jo-Wilfried Tsonga that he wasn't "bothered" how his parents manage to keep themselves composed during his nail-biting contests and that it's "much harder for me than them". Well, he's probably not fussed either that mum Judy can't decide just what to wear for her son's big day.
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: judy murray - What to wear? Decisions, decisions. Where's Trinny n Susannah when u need them?&lt;/noframe&gt;
11.30 Morning all, Vicki here taking over the reins from Emily and I promise not to leave my seat for the next six or seven hours or as long as it takes for Murray to end Britain's 76-year wait for a men's champion at SW19. Let me know how you're going to be following today's match and tweet us your pictures whether you're currently in the queue or getting prepared for a Wimbledon party this afternoon. Tweet us your pictures at @TelegraphSport .
11.22 Right, my brief stint on Murray is over, I hand you over to Vicki Hodges who will take you through the afternoon, I'm switching my tennis head for my F1 head and blogging Silverstone. Enjoy the tennis!
11.17 The roof remains closed on Centre Court so it looks like we're on for a 2pm start and some very damp fans on Murray Mound.
11.13 So I've mentioned Bunny Austin as the last British man to reach the final but two years before him, Fred Perry actually won the trophy. So when football fans complain about 46 years of hurt they've got nothing on tennis fans. Perry's win in 1936 was no fluke, he wasn't backed after a major seed was knocked out, no, that win in fact completed a hat-trick of consecutive wins on the SW19 grass and contributed to him holding the world No 1 ranking for four years. He's also the only British players to have ever won a grand slam and a 'career grand slam'. No pressure on Murray then, there's some rather substantial trainers to fill, winning today would just be the tip of the iceberg.
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: Oliver Brown - The Beckhams will be in the royal box today. Oh, and Pippa. &lt;a href="http://search.twitter.com/search?q=Wimbledon" target="_blank"&gt;#Wimbledon&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/noframe&gt;
While Murray contemplates one of the biggest matches of his career, I say one of because let's not forget he has actually reached this stage of a grand slam three times, his mum Judy is having problems of her own:
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: judy murray - What to wear? Decisions, decisions. Where's Trinny n Susannah when u need them?&lt;/noframe&gt;
First email of the day, and Ian Ruxton's gunning for Murray
"Gosh, with the Archbishop of York on his side Andy really can't lose can he? Cmon Andy - time to smash Roger and grab the prize!!"
Here's the latest from the man of the moment Andy Murray:
Knowing I am through to the final of Wimbledon fills me with so many emotions, but all of that will count for nothing unless I come away with the title.The only thing I can afford to focus on is my game and Roger Federer. He is a player I've beaten in the past, and I can do it again. He is arguably the best player of all time. There are a few guys who have a decent claim, but I'd say Roger and Pete Sampras. Sunday will be a great challenge and one that excites me. When you make it to this stage of a tournament it can be easy to get distracted, but I've kept things as normal as possible. A spot of practice, plenty of physio, chats with my team and walks with the dogs. The one thing I can guarantee is that I'll fight my absolute heart out. I need to give everything I have from the first point to the last."
10.50 Who's who on Centre Court, our man Jonathan Liew bring you a run down of who you might spot as the cameras tour the show court, starting with those he refers to as 'the hangers on'
Among the dignitaries in the Royal Box will be Pippa Middleton’s sister Kate and Alex Salmond, the batrachian first minister of Scotland. Also attending is David Cameron, gallantly facing down our nation’s many problems by spending a day at the tennis. If Murray hadn’t made the final, you can bet he would have sent Clegg.
10.47 Murray clearly in everyone's thoughts today, the Archbishop of York, Dr John Sentamu's even written him a prayer, take a look, bless him.
Loving God we are so filled with hope by the Wimbledon final today! Guide Andy Murray in the choices that come to him with every ball. Make us all the best that we can be, by your Holy Spirit, through Jesus Christ, to the glory of God our Father. Amen.
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: UK Prime Minister - Downing Street is flying the Saltire alongside the Union Flag today in support of &lt;a href="http://www.twitter.com/Andy_Murray" target="_blank"&gt;@Andy_Murray&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href="http://search.twitter.com/search?q=Wimbledon" target="_blank"&gt;#Wimbledon&lt;/a&gt; final.&lt;/noframe&gt;
10.30 Good morning and welcome to coverage of the men's final. There we were thinking it's sole use would be to celebrate the jubilee last month but break out the bunting there's a Briton in the Wimbledon final! It's the day tennis fans and Murray lovers/haters have waited for for years and it's finally here! The bad news? David Beckham is on his way to Wimbledon and we all know what kind of omen he has been at British sporting events...as my colleague Donna Bowater puts it:
&lt;noframe&gt;Twitter: Donna Bowater - Slightly concerned by the rumours David Beckham is coming to &lt;a href="http://search.twitter.com/search?q=Wimbledon" target="_blank"&gt;#Wimbledon&lt;/a&gt;. Anyone remember 2010 World Cup? Murray's 2010 semi? &lt;a href="http://search.twitter.com/search?q=jinxed" target="_blank"&gt;#jinxed&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/noframe&gt;
Who's feeling patriotic this morning then? Do we think Murray's got what it takes to dispatch the King of Centre Court? In little under four hours the eyes of the nation will be on the show court as the 25-year-old attempts to break a 74-year Wimbledon hoodoo for British tennis. Bunny Austin was the last home-grown player to reach this stage of the competition, that was back in 1938 when he played Don Budge, but let's hope Murray has more luck this afternoon as Austin only won four games in the entire match.
In typically British fashion rain has been falling all night and this morning though the heavens appear to have closed for now and that things are brightening up down at SW19. The roof is on for now.
| two thousand and twelve |
What colour is the berry of a coffee plant? | When is Wimbledon 2015: dates, order of play, and how to watch it live - Telegraph
Wimbledon
When is Wimbledon 2015: dates, order of play, and how to watch it live
Key information on the dates for Wimbledon 2015, order of play, which TV channel is it on, ticket latest and how to get there
By Claire Thomas
7:15PM BST 28 Jun 2015
Opening day's order of play
Play gets under way at 11.30am on the show courts, while the action will start on Centre Court and Court One at 1pm; (x denotes seeding).
Centre Court (13.00)
Novak Djokovic (Srbx1) v Philipp Kohlschreiber (Ger)
Maria Sharapova (Rus x4) v Johanna Konta (GB)
Stan Wawrinka (Swi x4) v Joao Sousa (Por)
Court One (13.00)
Serena Williams (US x1) v Margarita Gasparyan (Rus)
Simone Bolelli (Ita) v Kei Nishikori (Jap x5)
Grigor Dimitrov (Bul x11) v Federico Delbonis (Arg+)
Court Two (11.30)
Nick Kyrgios (Aus x26) v Diego Schwartzman (Arg)
Jarkko Nieminen (Fin) v Lleyton Hewitt (Aus)
Alison Riske (US) v Lucie Safarova (Cze x6)
Heather Watson (GB) v Caroline Garcia (Fra x32)
Court Three (11.30)
Marin Cilic (Cro x9) v Hiroki Moriya (Jap)
Xu Yi-Fan (Chn) v Ana Ivanovic (Srb x7)
Daniel Gimeno-Traver (Spa) v Milos Raonic (Can x7)
Madison Brengle (US) v Venus Williams (US x16)
Court 12 (11.30)
Anett Kontaveit (Est) v Victoria Azarenka (Blr x23)
Go Soeda (Jap) v John Isner (US x17)
Danka Kovinic (Mne) v Samantha Stosur (Aus x22)
Lucas Pouille (Fra) v Kevin Anderson (SA x14)
Court 18 (11.30)
Liam Broady (GB) v Marinko Matosevic (Aus)
Belinda Bencic (Swi x30) v Tsvetana Pironkova (BUL)
Luke Saville (Aus) v Richard Gasquet (Fra x21)
Shelby Rogers (US) v Andrea Petkovic (Ger x14)
When is Wimbledon this year?
Wimbledon 2015 runs from Monday 29 June to Sunday 12 July, with play on every day, apart from Sunday, 5 July, when the venue is closed to allow the players and staff a rest. The women’s final will be on the penultimate day (alongside the gentlemen’s and ladies’ doubles), and the men’s on the Sunday (with the mixed doubles). Qualifying takes place from 22 June until 25 June.
How do I get tickets?
Wimbledon is reasonably accessible, and there are many ways to come along to the Championships. A ballot is held at the end of each calendar year, allowing members of the public to apply for show court tickets for the upcoming tournament, and those lucky enough to receive a ticket are allocated up to two seats for a day of tennis. If money isn’t an object, you can purchase a five-year debenture ticket, securing a pair of tickets for each day of the tournament while the investment lasts.
It is now too late to get hold of these two options, but there are still ways to experience the fortnight. Wimbledon offers fans the chance to join the infamous Wimbledon Queue and purchase show court tickets or ground passes. Arriving in the early hours is enough for a ground pass towards the start of the fortnight, but – to secure a show court ticket later on in proceedings – camping overnight is essential. Water and toilet facilities are available, and tennis lovers from across the world come together to experience The Queue (below), which is – in itself – almost as enjoyable as the tennis at the end of it. Almost.
Those leaving for the day are encouraged to hand in their tickets, which are resold at discounted rates by stewards at the edges of the site, allowing late arrivals to enter the grounds to catch the end of the day’s play, and also generating funds for charities supported by the Wimbledon Foundation.
Viagogo, meanwhile, have tickets available for each day of the event .
When is the order of play announced?
The order of play for each day is announced the night before, normally between 8 and 10pm. The one match we already know will take place is Novak Djokovic, the defending men's champion , opening the tournament on Centre Court on the first day's play.
Who gets wild cards?
Eight men have received wild cards: Liam Broady (GBR), Kyle Edmund (GBR), Lleyton Hewitt (Aus), Nicolas Mahut (France), James Ward (GBR), Matthew Ebden (Aus), Brydan Klein (GBR) and Denis Kudla (USA). Five women have been announced: Naomi Broady (GBR), Johanna Konta (GBR), Anett Kontaveit (EST), Jelena Ostapenko (Lat) and Laura Robson (GBR, below). Three more will be announced in due course.
How can I keep up to date on the action?
The BBC’s coverage grows more comprehensive each year. Sue Barker fronts coverage across BBC One and BBC Two , and – on air – BBC Radio 5 live will have regular updates. The Telegraph will be blogging every day.
Is the celebrity-spotting any good?
From monarchs to Oscar winners, athletes to comedians and politicians – Wimbledon attracts crowds of well-known individuals , especially to Centre Court’s Royal Box, in which Prince Harry, Kate Middleton (below, with sister Pippa), Mo Farah, Sir Steve Redgrave, David Beckham, and Bruce Forsyth have all recently enjoyed a spot of tennis.
What else is there on site, apart from tennis?
The Queue, the compulsory white playing kit, the hoards of immaculately turned-out ball boys and ball girls: Wimbledon is steeped in tradition, and it wouldn’t be a visit to the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club (to give it its full title) without fully exploring the site. Buying overpriced strawberries and cream, sitting on Henman Hill with a cup of Pimms and your latest purchases from the gift shop, and visiting the wonderful Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum, are all essential - if expensive - parts of the experience.
How do I get to Wimbledon?
Wimbledon, famously, is held at the postcode SW19, and there are several ways to make your way there via public transport. Both Southfields and Wimbledon tube stations – on the District Line, are less than 20 minutes’ walk from the site. Wimbledon is slightly further, but the walk passes through Wimbledon Village, where all the shops are decorated with purple, green, and tennis paraphernalia, and you can stop off at Sharapova’s sweet shop – Sugarpova – to get yourself in the mood. Wimbledon train station can be accessed easily from London Waterloo, alongside other major stations.
There are also regular trams from East Croydon station to Wimbledon, and there is a special bus service during The Championships from Wimbledon station to the tennis itself, which runs regularly until late evening. Or, if you’d like to make some friends before you even arrive, share a taxi with some other tennis fans from the station, where a dedicated taxi rank will be set up.
Who will be defending their titles?
Gentlemen’s Singles – Novak Djokovic
Ladies’ Singles – Petra Kvitova
Gentlemen’s Doubles – Vasek Pospisil and Jack Sock
Ladies’ Doubles - Sarah Errani and Roberta Vinci
Mixed Doubles – Nenad Zimonjic and Samantha Stosur
Boys’ Singles – Noah Rubin
2014 Miss P. Kvitova (CZE)
2013 Miss M. Bartoli (FRA)
2012 Miss S. Williams (USA)
2011 Miss P. Kvitova (CZE)
2010 Miss S.J. Williams (USA)
2009 Miss S.J. Williams (USA)
2008 Miss V.E.S. Williams (USA)
2007 Miss V.E.S. Williams (USA)
2006 Miss A. Mauresmo (FRA)
2005 Miss V.E.S. Williams (USA)
2004 Miss M. Sharapova (RUS)
2003 Miss S.J. Williams (USA)
2002 Miss S.J. Williams (USA)
2001 Miss V.E.S. Williams (USA)
2000 Miss V.E.S. Williams (USA)
1999 Miss L.A. Davenport (USA)
1998 Miss J. Novotna (CZE)
1997 Miss M. Hingis (SUI)
1996 Miss S.M. Graf (GER)
1995 Miss S.M. Graf (GER)
1994 Miss I.C. Martinez (ESP)
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Which US duo performed ‘The Concert in the Park’, a free benefit concert in New York in September 1981? | Simon & Garfunkel - The Concert In Central Park (CD & DVD)
The Concert In Central Park (CD & DVD)
Simon & Garfunkel
August 2016 | 41 songs
The Concert in Central Park is the first live album by American folk rock duo Simon & Garfunkel, released in February 1982. It was recorded in September 1981 at a free benefit concert in Central Park, New York City, where the pair performed in front of more than 500,000 people. Proceeds went toward the redevelopment and maintenance of the run-down green space in the middle of Manhattan. This concert and album marked the start of a short-lived reunion for Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel. Besides hit songs from their years as a duo, their set-list included material from their solo and duo careers, and covers. Among the songs performed were the classics "The Sound of Silence", "Mrs. Robinson", and "The Boxer"; the event concluded with a reprise of Simon's song, "Late in the Evening".
Disc 1
4 Me and Julio Down by the Schoolyard
5 Scarborough Fair
6 April Come She Will
7 Wake up Little Susie
8 Still Crazy After All These Years
9 American Tune
10 Late in the Evening
11 Slip Slidin' Away
12 A Heart In New York
13 Kodachrome / Mabellene
14 Bridge over Troubled Water
15 Fifty Ways to Leave Your Lover
16 The Boxer
18 The 59th Street Bridge Song (Feelin' Groovy)
19 The Sounds of Silence
Disc 2
4 Me And Julio Down By The Schoolyard
5 Scarborough Fair
6 April Come She Will
7 Wake up Little Susie
8 Still Crazy After All These Years
9 American Tune
10 Late In The Evening
11 Slip Slidin' Away
12 A Heart In New York
13 The Late Great Johnny Ace
14 Kodachrome/Maybellene
15 Bridge over Troubled Water
16 50 Ways To Leave Your Lover
17 The Boxer
| Simon & Garfunkel |
Which cartoon character is usually portrayed wearing yellow checked trousers and scarf? | Sony Corporation of America: Legacy Recordings Set to Release 'Simon & Garfunkel - The Complete Columbia Albums Collection' on 180gram Audiophile Vinyl and 'Simon & Garfunkel: The Concert in Central Park' on CD/DVD for the First Time and 12" Vinyl
Overview
Company News
Legacy Recordings Set to Release 'Simon & Garfunkel - The Complete Columbia Albums Collection' on 180gram Audiophile Vinyl and 'Simon & Garfunkel: The Concert in Central Park' on CD/DVD for the First Time and 12" Vinyl
Sony Music Entertainment - 07/15/2015
NEW YORK, July 15, 2015 /PRNewswire/ -- Legacy Recordings, the catalog division of Sony Music Entertainment, will commemorate five decades of Simon & Garfunkel's extraordinary sound with two special career-defining collections to be released on August 7, 2015. Simon & Garfunkel - The Complete Columbia Albums Collection features six 12" LPs, newly remastered and struck on 180gram audiophile vinyl, with a 20-page booklet and photo poster, housed in a deluxe collectible library box. The long out-of-print Simon & Garfunkel: The Concert in Central Park will be available for the first time on DVD as part of a collectible CD/DVD set, as well as a 12" 180gram audiophile vinyl LP.
Simon & Garfunkel's The Complete Columbia Albums Collection vinyl and The Concert in Central Park CD/DVD are now available for preorder:
Complete Columbia Albums Collection (Vinyl): http://smarturl.it/sg_ccac_amzn
Concert in Central Park (CD/DVD): http://smarturl.it/sg_cicpCD_amzn
PBS has announced that it will air "The Concert in Central Park" (a full-length film originally broadcast on HBO in 1982) during its August Pledge Week (please check local listings).
The most comprehensive 12" vinyl Simon & Garfunkel anthology ever assembled, The Complete Columbia Albums Collection includes the duo's five Columbia Records studio masterpieces (first released between 1964 and 1970) as well as Simon and Garfunkel's Greatest Hits, their all-time best-selling title. Originally released in June 1972, two years after the duo split up, Simon and Garfunkel's Greatest Hits--a mix of 10 studio tracks (nine of them singles) and four (then) previously unreleased live recordings--sold more than 14 million copies in the US alone.
The new CD/DVD and 12" vinyl release of The Concert in Central Park (recorded in 1981) has been remastered for its CD/DVD and 12" vinyl release. Simon & Garfunkel's historic 1981 reunion concert drew more than half a million fans to New York's Central Park and was originally released as an album for Warner Bros. in February 1982.
Each of the discs housed in the Simon & Garfunkel - Complete Columbia Albums Collection comes in a 12" sleeve replicating the original album artwork. Each of the albums in the boxed collection has been remastered and struck on 180gram audiophile vinyl.
These six Columbia Records albums are the essential recordings which defined Simon & Garfunkel's distinctive harmonic sound and Paul Simon's probing lyrical sensibilities for a succession of generations who've come of age listening to the duo's culturally transformative music.
Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel, each born in 1941, grew up three blocks away from each other in Kew Garden Hills, Queens, New York and met in grade school in 1953 when they were both cast in the same school play. Simon, a guitarist and aspiring songwriter, and Garfunkel, an extraordinary singer with a pure tenor range and uncanny intonation, began performing together as "Tom and Jerry" in the mid-1950s, releasing their first professional recording in 1957.
The duo's original sound, initially influenced by the harmonies of the Everly Brothers and the insistent rockin' rhythms and poetic swing of Chuck Berry, made a quantum leap during the Greenwich Village folk music scene of the early 1960s. Paul Simon's songwriting developed along provocative and topical lines when the pair recorded Wednesday Morning, 3 A.M.--their first album as "Simon & Garfunkel" and their first for Columbia Records--in 1964.
Though S&G's debut reached only a small audience when first released, one of its tracks, "The Sound of Silence"--a haunting acoustic recording illuminated by the signature solo and harmony vocal blends S&G invented and perfected--had been overdubbed with electric instruments and released to radio, unbeknownst to either Simon or Garfunkel. The electrified version of "The Sound of Silence" became a massive hit, one of the archetypal anthems of an emerging folk-rock movement. Wednesday Morning, 3 A.M. was re-released in January 1966, alongside Simon & Garfunkel's second studio album, Sounds of Silence, which included the electric hit single version of the song.
"The Sound of Silence" launched a long unbroken chain of hits and album successes for Simon & Garfunkel. "I Am a Rock," a song that first appeared on The Paul Simon Songbook, became an enormous smash in its Simon & Garfunkel incarnation.
Parsley, Sage, Rosemary and Thyme, S&G's third studio album, was released in October 1966 and generated five singles.
"Mrs. Robinson," another anthemic Paul Simon composition, became the centerpiece for the soundtrack to "The Graduate," the iconic generational film directed by Mike Nichols.
"Mrs. Robinson" was also included on Simon & Garfunkel's fourth studio album, Bookends, which hit #1 in the US and the UK, becoming the pair's first #1 album. Simon and Garfunkel upped the ante once again with Bridge Over Troubled Water, an album that hit #1 all over the world following its release in January 1970. Their fifth, and last full studio album, Bridge Over Troubled Water featured a title track that ranks with the most beautiful songs ever written, made unforgettable through one of the most emotionally uplifting vocal performances ever recorded. "Bridge Over Troubled Water" brought the two partners' gifts to their highest expression. The album has sold more than 25 million copies worldwide.
Going out on the high note of Bridge Over Troubled Water, Simon & Garfunkel broke up their musical partnership to pursue individual musical, artistic and personal directions.
Simon and Garfunkel have reunited periodically for special musical events, notably a free concert in New York's Central Park in 1981, captured in The Concert in Central Park and a select series of "Old Friends" shows in 2004.
When Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel reunited for a one-off performance on the Great Lawn of New York's Central Park in 1981, the high-profile event drew one of the largest audiences ever assembled for a single concert. The show incorporated breath-taking full-band arrangements of Simon & Garfunkel's best-loved songs into a fan's dream set-list featuring incredible selections from Paul Simon's and Art Garfunkel's solo repertoires.
The 1981 Simon & Garfunkel reunion came into being when New York City officials decided to hold a free public concert to help the nonprofit Central Park Conservancy raise awareness and money for desperately needed renovations to the park, then in a state of serious decline. The right choice to headline the concert would have an enormous impact on the future of the city and the rebirth of Central Park.
Simon & Garfunkel, quintessential New Yorkers, embodied the spirit of the city, the times and generations of music lovers. "Unlike many of the Gotham-bred pop stars of their generation who made it big," wrote Stephen Holden in his review of the concert for Rolling Stone. "[Simon and Garfunkel] stayed around the city, continuing to assimilate its cultural resources, recycle them and give them back."
Simon & Garfunkel took to the Great Lawn on September 19, 1981, with a diverse set that drew upon their classic works as well as selections from Paul and Art's solo catalogs, many performed with dramatic new arrangements augmented with an expanded, 11-man band including notable session players Pete Carr (guitar), Anthony Jackson (bass), Richard Tee (piano), Rob Mounsey (synthesizers) and Steve Gadd (drums). An early rainfall did not deter audiences; an estimated 500,000 people were in attendance, exceeding initial expectations and becoming one of the largest concert audiences of all time.
In 1982, The Concert In Central Park was released as a double album and broadcast on HBO. Fans and critics were unanimous in their praise of the concert, while the duo would be inspired to embark on a world tour in the spring of that year. As the decade continued, donations inspired by the concert helped restore the park to its current state, with concerts still regularly held on the Great Lawn in the spirit of Simon & Garfunkel's magical night more than three decades ago.
* * * * *
Simon & Garfunkel created one of pop music's most distinctive vocal harmony signature sounds and their biggest hits--including "The Sound of Silence" (1964), "I Am a Rock" (1965), "Homeward Bound" (1965), "Scarborough Fair/Canticle" (1966), "A Hazy Shade of Winter" (1966), "Mrs. Robinson" (1968), "Bridge over Troubled Water" (1969), "The Boxer" (1969), and "Cecilia" (1969)--have topped the charts all over the world. Simon & Garfunkel are the recipients of several Grammy Awards. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990.
Simon & Garfunkel - The Complete Columbia Albums Collection
Wednesday Morning, 3.A.M. (originally released October 19, 1964, Columbia Records)
Sounds Of Silence (originally released January 17, 1966, Columbia Records)
Parsley, Sage, Rosemary & Thyme (originally released October 10, 1966, Columbia Records)
Bookends (originally released April 3, 1968, Columbia Records)
Bridge Over Troubled Water (originally released January 26, 1970, Columbia Records)
Simon and Garfunkel's Greatest Hits (originally released June 14, 1972, Columbia Records)
Simon & Garfunkel: The Concert in Central Park (recorded September 19, 1981; originally released February 16, 1982, Warner Bros.)
* * * * *
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What colour is the front door to 11 Downing Street in London? | 10 Downing Street - The World's Most Famous Front Door
10 Downing Street
The World's Most Famous Front Door
British politics has experienced many changes over the past 300 years, with 76 Prime Ministers overseeing the fortunes of the United Kingdom during this time. While many of these leaders would have had opposing views, one thing they nearly all have in common is having resided at 10 Downing Street.
Here we take an in-depth look into the fascinating history of Number 10’s iconic shiny black entrance, widely accepted as the most famous front door in the world.
1732
The property was offered to Sir Robert Walpole by King George II.
Walpole refused the offer as a personal gift but accepted on the basis that it would from then onwards be the official residency of First Lord of the Treasury, the position which he held at the time.
Did you
know
?
To this day 10 Downing Street is the official residence of the First Lord of the Treasury and not the Prime Minister, although since 1905 these have always been the same person.
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1735
After three years of renovations, Walpole took up residency on 22 September 1735 to begin a tradition which has lasted 280 years.
1766
Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend orders extensive repairs to the property. The front door was redesigned by architect Kenton Couse in a six-panelled Georgian style and was made from black oak.
Installed in the 1770’s, the door featured a centre door knob, lion head door knocker and brass letter plate which bore the inscription ‘First Lord of the Treasury’.
Did you
know
?
Soldiers heading to off to the trenches during the First World War used to touch the lion head door knocker for good luck. Then it was made of cast iron, whereas today it is brass and painted black to replicate the original.
1779
Downing Street is renumbered and the property is given the number 10.
Previously the numbers 2, 3, 4 and 5 stood where the present day 10, 11 and 12 are, with popular belief that number 10 used to be number 5.
1908
Herbert Asquith becomes Prime Minister and has the front door repainted dark green for a brief time.
Political historian Dr. Anthony Seldon writes in his book 10 Downing Street: An Illustrated History that the Prime Minister’s wife Margot Asquith complained that the building was ‘liver-coloured and squalid and lacked the landmark qualities of Marble Arch or the Albert Memorial.’
Why green? Historical Paint Consultant Patrick Baty advises that “Brunswick Green or Bronze Green were fairly standard on front doors during this time, with black on external surfaces comparatively rare until the 1930s and more generally in the 1960s.”
1960
Major works take place to renovate No.10 & 11 Downing Street and rebuild No.12 as designed by architect Raymond Erith.
The works last three years costing £1,000,000 – one year and £500,000 over budget.
As part of these renovations the front door of No. 10 is repainted along with new white numerals.
The ‘0’ numeral is painted at a 37° degree angle sloping to the left.
A Wonky Zero? A commonly given reason for this angled numeral is that it is a nod to the original door which featured a poorly fixed ‘0’. However, Professor James Mosley from the Department of Typography & Graphic Communication at the University of Reading has a far more plausible theory in that the ‘0’ is in fact a capital ‘O’ as found in the Roman’s ‘Trajan’ alphabet that was used by the Ministry of Works at the time.
Did you
| Black |
How many bottles of Champagne are in a Rehoboam? | No. 10 Downing Street - HUMPHRIES WEAVING
No. 10 Downing Street
Our Work > Institutions > No. 10 Downing Street
No. 10 Downing Street, London.
10 Downing Street, the locale of British prime ministers since 1735, vies with the White House as being the most important political building anywhere in the world in the modern era. Behind its black door have been taken the most important decisions affecting Britain for the last 275 years.
The building is much larger than it appears from its frontage. The hall with the chequered floor immediately behind the front door lets on to a warren of rooms and staircases. The house in Downing Street was joined to a more spacious and elegant building behind it in the early 18th century. Number 10 has also spread itself out to the left of the front door, and has taken over much of 12 Downing Street, which is accessed by a corridor that runs through 11 Downing Street – the official residence of the Chancellor of the Exchequer.
Furniture Gifts in celebration of the Queen’s Silver Jubilee
Chippendale Suite of Furniture.
Rose coloured silk and cotton damask used to reupholster a Chippendale suite of seat furniture. This suite was then copied on behalf of H.M The Queen in celebration of her Silver Jubilee and gifted to heads of state. The first set in the reproduction was presented to President Jimmy Carter for use in the Oval Office in The White House .
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Which painter had a ‘Blue Period’? | Depression Awareness Week: 11 Artists Who Had Blue Periods | The Huffington Post
Depression Awareness Week: 11 Artists Who Had Blue Periods
26/04/2012 13:11 | Updated 26 April 2012
Kate Sullivan The Huffington Post UK
The relationship between mental health and artistic creativity has long been a subject of debate.
From Picasso's 'blue period' to Tracey Emin's unmade bed, the manifestations of depression have been evident in the work of some of the most prominent and celebrated artists in history.
But then with one in five people in the UK suffering from depression at some time in their lives, it’s not surprising that some of the world's greatest painters, sculptors and illustrators have also been affected.
To coincide with Depression Awareness Week , here are 11 immense artistic talents who not only suffered from depression, but in some cases, found it steering their creativity.
View the gallery below;
| Pablo Picasso |
Which prehistoric period preceded the Bronze Age? | Famous Blue Period Art List | Popular Artwork from the Blue Period Movement
Famous Blue Period Artwork
1.4k views 11 items tags f t p @
List of famous Blue Period artwork, listed alphabetically with photos when available. The Blue Period movement was an awakening in the world of art, producing new types of paintings and sculptures that the world had never seen before. This is a list of the most popular Blue Period art pieces, so art enthusiasts will likely recognize the names of the famous artists who created these pieces. These renowned pieces of Blue Period artwork are showcased in museums all over the world, so if you can't afford an expensive vacation then this list is a great substitute for seeing fine Blue Period art. In the chance that pictures of these historic Blue Period works of art aren't available, you can click on the name of the piece for more information.
The list you're viewing is made up of many different pieces, including The Old Guitarist and Femme aux Bras Croisés.
If you want to know, "What is Blue Period art?" or "What are examples of Blue Period art?" then this list will answer your questions.
List Photo: Freebase /Public domain
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What is the capital of the principality of Lichtenstein? | Liechtenstein | Define Liechtenstein at Dictionary.com
Liechtenstein
[lik-tuh n-stahyn; German likh-tuh n-shtahyn] /ˈlɪk tənˌstaɪn; German ˈlɪx tənˌʃtaɪn/
Spell
noun
1.
a small principality in central Europe between Austria and Switzerland: economically linked with Switzerland. 65 sq. mi. (168 sq. km).
Capital: Vaduz.
Examples from the Web for Liechtenstein
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Historical Examples
Another replica is in the collection of Prince Liechtenstein in Vienna.
Chardin Paul G. Konody
The splendid portrait of the man with the sword at the Liechtenstein gallery was sold in 1800 for 4, 5s.
Riviera Towns Herbert Adams Gibbons
A beautiful painting of these two children is now in the Liechtenstein Gallery, in Vienna.
Famous European Artists Sarah K. Bolton
These generals were seventeen in number, and among them was Prince Liechtenstein.
Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, Complete Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne
British Dictionary definitions for Liechtenstein
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noun
1.
a small mountainous principality in central Europe on the Rhine: formed in 1719 by the uniting of the lordships of Schellenburg and Vaduz, which had been purchased by the Austrian family of Liechtenstein; customs union formed with Switzerland in 1924. Official language: German. Religion: Roman Catholic majority. Currency: Swiss franc. Capital: Vaduz. Pop: 37 009 (2003 est). Area: 160 sq km (62 sq miles)
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How many blue stripes are on the national flag of Thailand? | Liechtenstein | history - geography | Britannica.com
Liechtenstein
Alternative Titles: Fürstentum Liechtenstein, Principality of Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein
Fürstentum Liechtenstein (Principality of Liechtenstein)
Form of government
constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (Diet [25])
Head of state
Head of the Government (Prime Minister): Adrian Hasler
Capital
Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate
Male: (2010) 100%
GNI per capita (U.S.$)
(2011) 101,605
1In August 2004 the prince turned over most official day-to-day responsibilities to his son but did not rescind the role of head of state.
2The designation of “state church” for Roman Catholicism per article 37 of the constitution was under review in 2012.
Liechtenstein, western European principality located between Switzerland and Austria . It is one of the smallest countries of Europe ; its capital is Vaduz .
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Josef Muench
Geography
The eastern two-thirds of the country is composed of the rugged foothills of the Rhätikon Mountains , part of the central Alps . The highest peak is Grauspitz, which rises to 8,527 feet (2,599 metres), and much of the principality is at an elevation above 6,000 feet (1,800 metres). The lower slopes of the mountains are covered by evergreen forests and alpine flowers, while their bare peaks are blanketed by snow. The mountains contain three major valleys and are drained by the Samina River. The western section of the principality is occupied by the Rhine River floodplain, which, together with the valley of the Ill River, forms a triangular lowland widening northward. The river valley was once marshy, but a drainage channel built in the 1930s has made its rich soils highly suitable for agriculture.
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The climate of Liechtenstein is mild and is greatly affected by the warm southerly wind known as the foehn . Annual precipitation ranges, according to location, from about 35 to 47 inches (900 to 1,200 mm), though some areas in the mountains can receive as much as 75 inches (1,900 mm). In winter the temperature rarely falls below 5 °F (−15 °C), while in summer the average daily maximum temperature varies from the high 60s to the low 80s F (about 20 to 28 °C). These conditions allow for the cultivation of grapes and corn (maize), which is unusual in a mountainous area.
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Liechtenstein has a remarkable variety of vegetation. Water milfoil and mare’s-tail as well as reeds, bulrush, bird’s eye primrose, and orchids can be found. The forests comprise a mixed woodland with copper beeches, common and Norway maple, sycamore, linden, elm, and ash. Liechtenstein is also rich in wildlife, including red deer, roe deer, chamois, hares, marmots, blackcocks, pheasants, hazel grouse, partridges, foxes, badgers, martens, polecats, stoats, and weasels.
Liechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy. Its head of state is the prince, who succeeds to the throne by heredity through the male line as determined by the regulations of the princely house. The constitution of 1921 provides for a unicameral Landtag (Diet), which consists of 25 members elected to four-year terms. The traditional regions of Vaduz and Schellenberg are still recognized as unique regions—the Upper Country (Oberland) and the Lower Country (Unterland), respectively—and they form separate electoral districts. All citizens age 18 or older who live in the principality are eligible to vote in national elections.
Countries of the World
The government consists of a prime minister and four other cabinet officials (with at least two officials from each of the two electoral districts), who are appointed by the prince on the recommendation of the Landtag. The 11 Gemeinden (communes) are governed autonomously—but under government supervision—by mayors and city councils, elected every three years. To the south, the more industrial Upper Country contains the communes of Vaduz, Balzers, Triesen, Triesenberg, Schaan, and Planken. The Lower Country, to the north, is divided into the communes of Eschen, Mauren, Gamprin, Ruggell, and Schellenberg. The government maintains a nominal police force, but the standing army was abolished and neutrality proclaimed in 1868 (defense of the principality is the responsibility of Switzerland).
Liechtenstein has no natural resources of commercial value, and virtually all raw materials, including wood, have to be imported. All of the principality’s forested areas are protected in order to maintain the ecology of the mountain slopes and to guard against erosion. There is no heavy industry, but small manufacturing concerns are spread throughout the principality. Production includes metalworking, pharmaceuticals, precision instruments, electronic equipment, food processing, and the manufacture of consumer goods. In 1921 Liechtenstein adopted the Swiss franc as its currency, and in 1923 it joined a customs union with Switzerland.
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Rhaetian Alps
Few workers are employed in agriculture, but the average farming unit is fairly large, and the biggest concerns concentrate on livestock and dairying. Crops include corn, potatoes, and cereals. Vineyards are few and are split into small units. The Alpine slopes are used for grazing during the summer.
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Tourism is a leading sector of Liechtenstein’s economy and is sponsored by the government. Most visitors come from the surrounding European countries and centre their activities on Vaduz. The registration of tens of thousands of foreign firms in Liechtenstein provides a source of tax income. The principality has also become a centre of banking because of its stable political situation and its laws providing absolute bank secrecy. In the late 20th century, however, Liechtenstein became a centre for money laundering, and its laws were subsequently altered to prohibit the opening of accounts anonymously. Pressure from the United States and the European Union (EU) led to the reform of the banking sector in the early 21st century, and the country worked to shed its image as a tax haven.
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There is a network of excellent roads connecting Liechtenstein with its neighbours. The railway, part of the Paris-Vienna express route, passes through the northern sections of the country. There is no airport.
Ethnic Liechtensteiners, who compose about two-thirds of the population, are descended from the Alemanni tribe that came into the region after 500 ce. Although the official language is German, most of the population still speaks an Alemanni dialect containing local variations in pronunciation and vocabulary. Walsers , descendants of immigrants from the Swiss canton of Valais , settled in Triesenberg at the end of the 13th century and continue to speak a particularly distinctive form of the language. About four-fifths of the population is Christian (with about three-fourths of the total population identifying as Roman Catholic).
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Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Post-World War II industrialization resulted in a shift of people to the larger communes. The most populous communes are Vaduz, the administrative and commercial centre, and Schaan, the principal industrial community . Nevertheless, almost nine-tenths of the population is classified as rural.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Matters of public health are the responsibility of a committee of public health, which is headed by a state medical officer. Liechtenstein’s small medical institutions are supplemented by the excellent neighbouring Swiss facilities, to which the principality contributes support. Social security is sustained by a variety of compulsory insurance schemes; the financing of these comprehensive plans is shared by employers, employees, and the government.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Education is supervised by the National Board of Education and is compulsory beginning at age 7. The school system consists of primary schools, secondary schools, a vocational school, grammar school, commercial high school, music school, and a technical college. There is no university in the principality.
The world-famous art collections of the princes of Liechtenstein, exhibited in the Engländerhaus in the centre of Vaduz, include outstanding works of many 17th-century Dutch and Flemish painters. There is also a State Art Collection (1969). The Liechtenstein Treasure Chamber (2015) housed a collection that included the world’s largest Fabergé egg, the crown jewels of the royal family, and lunar rocks gifted to the principality by NASA . The Liechtenstein Postal Museum (founded in 1930) exhibits a large stock of stamps, including national issues since 1912. The Liechtenstein National Museum in Vaduz houses primarily early and Roman artifacts . The Hilti Art Foundation building (2015) served as a showcase for one of the most important privately held collections in Liechtenstein. The Liechtenstein National Library was established in 1961 as a public foundation. A large personal art collection of the Liechtenstein family also is displayed at the Liechtenstein Museum in Vienna (which reopened in 2004 after having been closed since 1938). The Liechtenstein Institute conducts research on topics relating to the country, especially in the sciences, economics, and history.
The Hilti Art Foundation exhibition building in Vaduz, Liechtenstein.
Gian Ehrenzeller—EPA/Alamy
History
The Rhine plain has always been the focus of settlement. For centuries the valley was occupied by two independent lordships of the Holy Roman Empire , Vaduz and Schellenberg. The principality of Liechtenstein, consisting of these two lordships, was founded in 1719 and remained part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was included in the Confederation of the Rhine from 1806 to 1815 and in the German Confederation from 1815 to 1866. In 1866 Liechtenstein became independent. Throughout most of its history, Liechtenstein was a quiet, rural corner of the world that was largely unaffected by its European neighbours, maintaining its neutrality in both World Wars I and II . After World War II, however, the country underwent a remarkably rapid period of industrialization, led by Francis Joseph II , who served as prince from 1938 until his death in 1989.
Francis Joseph II was succeeded by his son Hans Adam II , under whom Liechtenstein joined the United Nations (1990), the European Free Trade Association (1991), the European Economic Area (1995), and the World Trade Organization (1995). Relations between the Landtag and the prince were often tense. The prince offered several constitutional amendments that would strengthen his role, and he frequently threatened to relocate to Austria if his wishes were not granted. In a constitutional referendum in 2003, voters endorsed wider powers for the prince, including the right to veto legislation and the ability to implement emergency powers and to dismiss the government (even if it retained majority support in the Landtag); the referendum also gave citizens the right to call a vote of confidence in the prince, which could result in his removal. In 2004 Hans Adam’s son, Crown Prince Alois, assumed the day-to-day responsibilities of royal governance, though his father officially remained head of state. In 2006 the principality celebrated its 200th anniversary.
Prince Alois and Princess Sophie of Liechtenstein, 2006.
Peter Klaunzer—AFP/Getty Images
A massive tax-evasion scheme involving Liechtenstein’s banks came to light in 2008, and the government moved quickly to reassure investors and foreign leaders. A transparency and reform package adopted in 2009 led the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to remove Liechtenstein from its “black list” of tax havens. In 2011 Liechtenstein acceded to the Schengen Agreement , one of the EU’s foundational documents. The treaty relaxed border controls between its signatories, enabling passport-free travel within the Schengen area. The powers of the monarchy were reaffirmed in July 2012 when voters overwhelmingly rejected a measure that would have stripped Alois of the right to veto referenda.
Prince Hans Adam II (left) celebrating in Vaduz, Liechtenstein, after voters rejected an initiative …
Peter Klaunzer—Keystone/AP
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What was former US President Richard Nixon’s profession in 1937? | Richard Nixon: Life Before the Presidency—Miller Center
About the Administration
While courting common voters, Nixon made the most of his common origins; biographers, both sympathetic and critical, have tended to follow suit. He was born in one small California town (Yorba Linda) and grew up in another (East Whittier). His parents were in some ways opposites—Frank Nixon was as argumentative as Hannah Nixon was sweet-tempered. Richard Nixon suffered two great personal losses as a young man: the deaths of his younger brother Arthur after a short illness and his older brother Harold after a long one.
His school life brought a string of successes in endeavors common to politicians in training. He won debates and elections and leading roles in school dramatic productions. His grades were excellent, at both Whittier College and Duke University's law school. His scholastic achievements were not enough, however, to get him the jobs he applied for with the Federal Bureau of Investigation and with several prestigious law firms.
Nixon ended up in California, joining a Whittier law firm, the Whittier College board of trustees, and the Whittier Community Players. He fell romantically for a fellow cast member, Thelma Catherine "Pat" Ryan; they wed in 1940. Opportunities for work led Nixon back east, as a law professor's recommendation got Nixon a job with the Office of Price Administration in Washington, D.C. Following Pearl Harbor, Nixon enlisted in the Navy. His naval career ended with the war and in 1945 he was looking for his next job just as a group of prominent Southern California Republicans were looking for a suitable congressional candidate.
The Denigrative Method
As a campaigner, Nixon mastered early what historian Garry Wills called "The Denigrative Method" and what later analysts called "negative campaigning." Simply put, he attacked his opponents—sometimes unscrupulously, always effectively. His first campaign set the pattern.
His opponent was Jerry Voorhis, a New Dealer elected five times by voters of California's 12th congressional district. Voorhis was an anticommunist and refused to accept the endorsement of any political action committee unless the PAC renounced any and all communist influence. That stance deprived him of backing from the Congress of Industrial Organizations' PAC—CIO PAC—a communist-infiltrated labor group. When a newspaper falsely accused Voorhis of having the CIO PAC's endorsement, the congressman took out an ad proclaiming that the CIO PAC had refused to endorse him on account of his opposition to communists in the labor movement. "I can not accept the support of anyone who does not oppose them as I do," Voorhis said.
Nixon's campaign manager, however, claimed to have proof that Voorhis had the PAC's endorsement. During a debate with Nixon, Voorhis asked to see the proof. Nixon dramatically stepped forward with a bulletin of the local branch of the National Citizens Political Action Committee that included Voorhis among its recommendations. Voorhis pointed out that Nixon's evidence was about the NCPAC, not the CIO PAC, but the damage was done. Nixon had successfully linked Voorhis in the minds of voters to "the PAC," a tactic that helped him defeat Voorhis in November.
The House GOP rewarded Nixon with a seat on the House Un-American Activities Committee, where he rose to national stardom during the investigation of Alger Hiss. Through the presentation of evidence before HUAC and at two trials, Hiss, a prominent employee in the U.S. State Department, was revealed to have passed information to the Soviets. Proof of this espionage has only grown more overwhelming in recent years with the declassification of the "Venona" intercepts, decrypted Soviet cables on communist activities in America. Nixon won reelection in 1948 with the endorsement of both parties.
In 1950, his reputation buoyed by the Hiss case, Nixon ran for the Senate against Helen Gahagan Douglas in a campaign that echoed his race with Voorhis. This time, the Nixon campaign manual included a "pink sheet" comparing his opponent's voting record to that of Communist Party-liner Vito Marcantonio—what Nixon referred to as the "Douglas-Marcantonio axis." Nixon won a seat in the Senate and an indelible sobriquet—"Tricky Dick."The next rung up the ladder was the most important. In 1952, Dwight David Eisenhower, war hero and political phenomenon, gave Nixon the vice presidential nomination on the Republican ticket after the junior senator did some pre-convention maneuvering to lure California delegates into the Ike column. Then scandal struck, but not very hard. "SECRET RICH MEN'S TRUST FUND KEEPS NIXON IN STYLE FAR BEYOND HIS SALARY," screamed the New York Post. Nixon linked his troubles to the Reds. "You folks know the work that I did investigating Communists in the United States," he said at his next campaign stop. "When I received the nomination for the vice presidency I was warned that if I continued to attack the Communists in this government they would continue to smear me." Actually, the story came not from Communists but from Republicans—specifically, some disgruntled California politicos who thought Nixon should have been more steadfastly behind the favorite son presidential candidacy of Governor Earl Warren.
Presidential Speech Archive
Nixon's fund may have been unseemly—it was actually used to keep him on the campaign trail, not living "in style"—but it was not illegal. The candidate defended it in a nationally televised address whose emotional high point—a promise made to his little daughter Tricia never to return one campaign gift, a cocker spaniel puppy named Checkers—made it forever known as the "Checkers Speech." Public response to the speech was overwhelmingly positive. A political star was reborn. Ike and Dick won the 1952 election in a landslide.
As vice president, Nixon burnished his reputation for foreign policy expertise with international travel to dozens of countries. His South American tour garnered international headlines when a mob in Caracas, Venezuela, stoned his motorcade. The confrontations with the demonstrators abroad only made him more popular at home. His 1959 trip to the Soviet Union was even more dramatic and politically helpful. While taking in an exhibit showcasing a General Electric model kitchen at the U.S. Trade and Cultural Fair in Sokolniki Park, Nixon and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev traded words about the merits of their respective countries. Their exchange became known as the "kitchen debate":Nixon: There are some instances where you may be ahead of us, for example in the development of the thrust of your rockets for the investigation of outer space; there may be some instances in which we are ahead of you—in color television, for instance.
Khrushchev: No, we are up with you on this, too. We have bested you in one technique and also in the other.
Nixon: You see, you never concede anything.
Khrushchev: I do not give up.
Nixon: Wait till you see the picture. Let's have far more communication and exchange in this very area that we speak of. We should hear you more on our televisions. You should hear us more on yours.
Khrushchev: That's a good idea. Let's do it like this. You appear before our people. We will appear before your people. People will see and appreciate this.
Earlier, when President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack, Nixon's calm, understated performance as temporary steward of the nation's business won him glowing reviews in the news media. But the President's medical problem gave Democrats the opening to claim that a vote to re-elect Eisenhower in 1956 might be, in effect, a vote for Nixon to become President. Ike's popularity with Republicans, Democrats, and Independents, however, made it difficult for the opposition party to take him on directly. Nixon, the partisan politician, made a much more tempting political target. In the end, such arguments had little effect on the voters, who re-elected Eisenhower and Nixon in a second landslide.
The Election of 1960
Presidential Speech Archive
The presidential election of 1960 is best remembered for the first televised debate between Nixon and the Democratic nominee, John F. Kennedy. For many observers, the contrast between the pale, sweaty Nixon and the bronze, poised Kennedy captures the importance of image in politics, though the vote totals for the candidates—it was the closest election of the twentieth century—indicates that image is far from everything. (See Kennedy biography, "Campaign and Election" section for details.)Nixon blamed his defeat on other factors. An economic recession had bottomed-out shortly before Election Day. Also, Kennedy had the advantage of the challenger, the ability to stay on the offensive, while Nixon had to defend the record of the Eisenhower administration. And, fatefully, Nixon convinced himself that he was the victim of the Kennedys' ruthlessness:"We were faced in 1960 by an organization that had equal dedication to ours and unlimited money, that was led by the most ruthless group of political operatives ever mobilized for a presidential campaign. Kennedy's organization approached campaign dirty tricks with a roguish relish and carried them off with an insouciance that captivated many politicians overcame the critical faculties of many reporters. . . . From this point on I had the wisdom and wariness of someone who had been burned by the power of the Kennedys and their money and by the license they were given by the media. I vowed that I would never again enter an election at a disadvantage by being vulnerable to them—or anyone—on the level of political tactics."For Garry Wills, this passage from Nixon's memoirs suggests the inevitability of Watergate.
Nixon spent much of 1961 writing a book, Six Crises, and contemplating his return to politics. In 1962, he ran for governor of California and lost big. After his last defeat, he held what he claimed was his "last press conference," angrily telling reporters, "You won't have Dick Nixon to kick around any more."
Richard Nixon Essays
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What type of drink is Tio Pepe? | Gerald Ford - U.S. Vice President, U.S. Representative, U.S. President, Lawyer - Biography.com
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quotes
“I assume the Presidency under extraordinary circumstances.... This is an hour of history that troubles our minds and hurts our hearts.”
“We are bound together by the most powerful of all ties, our fervent love for freedom and independence, which knows no homeland but the human heart.”
“History will judge this Conference not by what we say here today, but by what we do tomorrow - not by the promises we make, but by the promises we keep.”
Gerald Ford
Synopsis
Gerald Ford was born on July 14, 1913, in Omaha, Nebraska. A star college football player, he served in the Navy during WWII. Elected to the House of Representatives in 1948, Ford represented Michigan's 5th District for nearly 25 years before suddenly finding himself at the crossroads of history. He was elevated to vice president, and then became the 38th U.S. president due to Richard Nixon's involvement in the Watergate scandal and subsequent resignation. Ford was defeated by Jimmy Carter in the 1976 election. He died in California in 2006.
Gerald Ford - Mini Biography (TV-14; 3:24) Vice President Gerald Ford was catapulted into the presidency after the Watergate scandal in the '70s. Learn more about his life beyond his stint in the White House in this mini biography.
Early Life
Gerald R. Ford Jr. was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14, 1913, in Omaha, Nebraska, but kept neither his name nor his hometown for long. In just weeks, he was whisked away by his mother, Dorothy Ayer Gardner, to her parents' home in Grand Rapids, Michigan. A plucky woman who would not tolerate abuse, she divorced his father, Leslie Lynch King Sr., within the year, and less than three years later, was married to Gerald Rudolff Ford, a local paint company salesman, from whence "Jerry" Jr. got his name—although it was not made legal until he was 22 years old.
Growing up in Grand Rapids, in the close-knit family with three younger brothers, Jerry Ford was not even aware of the existence of his biological father until he was 17. He became a local sports hero as captain of his high school football team and an avid Eagle Scout. His athletic prowess as a Wolverine at the University of Michigan eared him the designation of Most Valuable Player.
But instead of taking up a professional football career as offered by both the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers, Ford opted to take his economics degree to Yale University, where he attended law school and also worked as a football and boxing coach.
Early Political Career
Ford got his first taste of political life in 1940 as a volunteer for Wendell Wilkie's presidential campaign, attending the Republican Convention that year in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. A year later, he graduated from Yale Law School in the top third of his class, and then returned home to Grand Rapids to work in a law firm, putting his toe in the water of local politics.
However, WWII intervened, and Ford enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1942. He returned to civilian life in 1946, having earned the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, the Philippine Liberation Ribbon, the American Campaign Medal and the World War II Victory Medal, and quickly resumed his law practice and civic activities.
In August 1947, Ford met his future wife, Elizabeth (Betty) Bloomer Warren , through mutual friends. A former model and dancer with Martha Graham's company in New York City, the recent divorcee had recently returned home to Grand Rapids and was employed as department store fashion coordinator, while also teaching dance to handicapped children.
Less than a year later, Ford decided to run for Congress to represent his Michigan district (District 5). He and Betty were married in October 1948, a few weeks before his sweeping victory, which would sweep both newlyweds away to Washington, D.C. for the next 30 years.
Declining a suggestion to run for the Senate in 1954, Ford's long career as a congressman encompassed work on foreign policy, the military, spending, the space program and the Warren Commission.
Although he served as House minority leader, Ford's ambition to be speaker of the House seemed out of reach and, thusly, the congressman was contemplating retirement following his 13th term in the House concluded in 1976. The changing political atmosphere of the '70s would dictate otherwise, however.
On October 10, 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned under allegations of income tax evasion and bribery. Two days later, President Richard Nixon nominated Gerald Ford to take his place, under the provisions of the Constitution's 25th Amendment, and in two months, Ford was sworn in as the country's 40th vice president.
U.S. Presidency
Over the ensuing months, investigations into Nixon's involvement in the Watergate scandal sped up, culminating with Nixon's resignation on August 8, 1974. One day later, on August 9, 1974, Ford was sworn in as the 38th president of the United States.
The following month, President Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon—a move that hung like a shadow over Ford's longstanding reputation for integrity. That same month, Betty Ford was diagnosed with breast cancer, and subsequently underwent a radical mastectomy.
Ford's early presidency marked a state of tumult for the nation, with downfalls including a seriously ailing economy (and an almost bankrupt New York City), an essential defeat in the Vietnam War, rocky foreign relations and an energy crisis. In addition to that, around this time, two assassination attempts, by Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme and Sara Jane Moore, were made on Ford's life.
Following in Nixon's footsteps with China, Ford was the first U.S. president to visit Japan, but he is often remembered as clumsy, ironic given his athletic prowess, due to several trips, falls and gaffes that were immortalized in parody by Chevy Chase on Saturday Night Live.
Challenged by fellow Republican Ronald Reagan during his campaign for re-election in 1976, Ford eked out the nomination only to be defeated by Jimmy Carter in the presidential election.
Death and Legacy
Gerald Ford died on December 26, 2006, at home in Rancho Mirage, California, at the age of 93—the oldest any president has lived to date. Named in his honor are a presidential library in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and a museum in Grand Rapids, but both are eclipsed in renown by the Betty Ford Rehabilitation Clinic in California.
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Christopher Eccleston, Kerry Fox and Ewan McGregor played flatmates in which 1994 film? | Shallow Grave (1994) - IMDb
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Storyline
The new flatmate of three preexisting roommates turns up mysteriously dead but in possession of a large sum of money. When the roommates decide to keep it for themselves, their action sets in motion a destructive chain of events that spiral out of control. Written by Anonymous
What's a little murder among friends? See more »
Genres:
Motion Picture Rating ( MPAA )
Rated R for scenes of strong grisly violence, and for some language and nudity | See all certifications »
Parents Guide:
10 February 1995 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Petits meurtres entre amis See more »
Filming Locations:
£734,340 (UK) (20 January 1995)
Gross:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Ewan McGregor 's mother, Carol McGregor , has a cameo in the film as one of the prospective flatmates. See more »
Goofs
When David is talking to his boss, the file just before he hands it to David goes from being on the table to in his hands in between shots. See more »
Quotes
See more »
Crazy Credits
The closing credits appear over images of the three main characters in happier times, ironically all laughing hysterically. See more »
Connections
(U.S.A.) – See all my reviews
SHALLOW GRAVE is a mean spirited, cold-blooded Scottish thriller, stylishly directed with three interesting performances from EWAN McGREGOR, KERRY FOX and CHRISTOPHER ECCLESTON, as roommates with a deadly secret--a fourth roommate who died in bed with a trunk full of money hidden underneath the bed.
Discovery of the money has the three of them wondering whether to simply report it to the police or share the spoils of a dead man. The temptation to keep the money is too much and they work out a scheme on how to get rid of the body. Telling any more would be giving away what turns into a very gripping tale of suspense with the crime ripping apart their loyalties and their friendship turning deadly. None of the three are likable characters with their shallow, iconoclastic values. It's no great surprise when they turn on each other.
It's full of irony and none of that irony is lost on the viewer who will never look at trusting relationships the same way again.
The performances are all top-notch with some excellent supporting work from the entire cast. It's the kind of film Alfred Hitchcock would have been proud to call his own with a twist at the end.
A dark tale, relieved by bits of humor (mainly from Ewan McGregor, who comes up with some clever lines). Well worth watching, it's disturbing in some of the more graphic scenes of violence, but well worth watching for the final payoff.
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| Shallow Grave |
Fred the Red is the mascot of which English football club? | Shallow Grave
Shallow Grave
Certificate: 18
Synopsis
Black comedy thriller starring Kerry Fox, Christopher Eccleston and Ewan McGregor as three Edinburgh friends who fall out when their new flatmate dies in his room, leaving a suitcase full of money and a disposal problem...
Director
Ken Stott
Review
A grisly black comedy thriller, made with great flair by the makers of Trainspotting. Flatmates Kerry Fox, Christopher Eccleston and Ewan McGregor delight in taking the rise out of prospective flatmates and humiliating them. They let the fourth room to creepy Keith Allen, who dies of a drug overdose, leaving a suitcase full of money behind... Despite some fresh and funny dialogue, the plot soon boils down to the old thieves-fall-out syndrome, but the acting and especially Danny Boyle's lively direction gives it real class and, for once, there's a satisfying finish. A good showcase for young McGregor and his mum Carol has a cameo as one of the prospective flatmates. Although set in Edinburgh, most of the film's shot in Glasgow!
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How old was Shirley temple when she won a special Juvenile Academy Award? | Shirley Temple: Unknown facts about Hollywood's favourite child star - India.com
Comments
Shirley Jane Temple, better known as Shirley Temple the adorable child actor from Hollywood , passed away due to old age on the night of February 10, 2014 in Woodside, California, USA. Most people remember her as the wonderful child performer from many hit movies. But do you know she was also a politician and a diplomat? And that she had received the first ever Oscar for kids – the Academy Juvenile Award? Here are some lesser known facts about America’s favourite little sweetheart.
1. Shirley Jane Temple was born on April 23, 1928.
2. Shirley Temple acted in her first movie at the age of three.
3. Shirley was first noticed in War Babies (1932), but became popular with the 1934 film Bright Eyes, singing the famous On the Good Ship Lollipop.
4. But before Bright Eyes, she starred in the Baby Burlesks series of eight short films.
5. The lovable blonde ‘Curly Top’ (also the name of her 1935 film) performed so well that she carried entire films on her little shoulders, even credited with bringing film studio 20th Century Fox out of bankruptcy thanks to the crowds she could pull in.
6. Shirley brought cheer to thousands of heartbroken souls during The Great Depression years in the US.
7. Shirley became the youngest actor ever to win an Academy Juvenile Award in 1935. She was just six years old and the special Oscar was instituted for her.
8. Shirley the child artist retired at 21 from showbiz and joined politics.
9. She acted in over 43 movies as a child star.
10. After divorce from her first husband Agar, a sergeant, she married businessman and oceanography enthusiast Charles Alden Black.
11. Shirley and Charles’ loving marriage stood the test of time – for 55 years, until died in 2005.
12. Shirley served as a diplomat for many years, including as an ambassador to Ghana and the then Czechoslovakia.
13. She won the Screen Actors Guild Lifetime Achievement Award in 2006.
Shirley Temple lived a dignified life with her husband and three children, something which today’s child stars and their parents should definitely take a leaf from! May her soul rest in peace.
WATCH: Shirley Temple’s movie Bright Eyes
Photos: Getty Images, Fineartamerica and Facebook
Published Date: February 12, 2014 1:00 PM IST | Updated Date: February 13, 2014 8:09 PM IST
| six time |
Which scientist wrote a letter to a friend in 1704 in which he predicted the end of the world in 2060? | Hollywood star Shirley Temple dies - BBC News
BBC News
Hollywood star Shirley Temple dies
11 February 2014
Image copyright Getty Images
Former Hollywood child star Shirley Temple has died at the age of 85.
With her adorable charm and blonde curls, she was one of the most popular stars of the 1930s, in hit movies like Bright Eyes and Stand Up and Cheer.
After retiring from films in 1950 at the age of 21, Temple returned to the spotlight as a politician and diplomat.
She died on Monday at home in Woodside, California, from natural causes. "She was surrounded by her family and caregivers," a statement said.
Born in 1928, Temple soon became a major star after getting her first film role at the age of three.
Image copyright AP
Image caption She accepted the Screen Actors Guild Awards life achievement award in 2006
Her singing, dancing and acting won over fans worldwide. She was given a special juvenile Oscar in 1935, when she was just six years old. To this day, she is still the youngest person to receive an Academy Award.
With the nickname "America's little darling", she was ranked as Hollywood's biggest draw for four years running from 1935 to '38 in an annual poll of US cinema owners.
Her rendition of the song On the Good Ship Lollipop in the film Bright Eyes was among her most famous performances.
SHIRLEY TEMPLE'S LIFE IN MOVIES
Image copyright AFP
Born at 9pm on 23 April 1928, Shirley Temple later joked: "Too late for dinner, and so I started life one meal behind. Ever since I've tried to make up for that loss."
Temple started dancing at Mrs Meglin's Dance Studio in Los Angeles aged three.
It was here, in 1931, that she was signed up a series of shorts that parodied famous films with all-child casts. She was paid $10 a day.
Stand Up and Cheer was her first feature film in 1934.
A year later, aged six, she was the first recipient of a special juvenile Oscar. She holds the record as the youngest ever Oscar winner.
Her mother Gertrude did her hair for each movie. Every hairstyle had exactly 56 curls.
Temple made 14 short films and 43 features during her acting career.
Sources: Shirleytemple.com/IMDB
Her other films included Curly Top, The Littlest Rebel, Baby Take a Bow and Little Miss Marker.
She was such a hit that US president Franklin Delano Roosevelt dubbed her "Little Miss Miracle" for raising morale during the Great Depression and she was credited with helping save 20th Century Fox from bankruptcy.
Temple starred in a total of 43 feature films - but found it difficult to sustain her career in adulthood and left acting behind in 1950.
She continued to appear on television, but that work dried up and she eventually stepped away from the spotlight.
When she came back into the public eye, it was in a new guise. Under her married name Shirley Temple Black, she ran as a Republican candidate for Congress in 1967 but lost.
Richard Nixon later appointed her as a member of the US delegation to the United Nations General Assembly before President Ford named her the US ambassador to Ghana in 1974.
In 1989, she was made the US ambassador to Czechoslovakia shortly before the fall of the country's Communist regime.
She considered her background in entertainment an asset to her political career. "Politicians are actors too, don't you think?" she once said.
In a statement announcing her death, her family said: "We salute her for a life of remarkable achievements as an actor, as a diplomat, and most importantly as our beloved mother, grandmother, great-grandmother, and adored wife for 55 years of the late and much missed Charles Alden Black."
Actor George Clooney was among those to pay tribute. He said: "Watching clips of her, it's so amazing that she was such a part of our film history from the very beginning.
"I'm sure it wasn't easy being a child star, although she went on to become an ambassador, so she re-invented herself along the way. But it's a great loss. I wish all the best for her family and thank her for her contribution."
Actress Whoopi Goldberg wrote on Twitter : "The Good Ship Lollypop has sailed today with Shirley Temple aboard," and described the star as a true one of a kind.
Joan Rivers tweeted : "Rest in peace, Shirley Temple Black. I know that you're sailing up and away on the Good Ship."
Film critic Leonard Maltin wrote : "One of the most talented and brightest stars in the world has gone to the sky. A genuine phenomenon."
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The Ted Kennedys is a tribute band to which band? | TED KENNEDYS | tribute-band.com - tribute band directory for tribute bands
TED KENNEDYS
EH52 Fred
Drums
TED KENNEDYS are the UKs only Dead Kennedys tribute act. Formed in Edinburgh in early 2012 after a couple of self-confessed DK fanatical musicians discussed the reason why there are no DK tribute bands and thought... WTF? lets do it. So after intensive auditioning found like mind musicians, and here we are ..... "TED KENNEDYS".
SET LIST INCLUDES:
| Dead Kennedys |
Vitis is the Latin name for which fruit-bearing plant? | L.A.'s Top 20 Tribute Bands | L.A. Weekly
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L.A. is the tribute band capital of America. Don't believe us? Just head down to Paladino's in the Valley any weekend and you'll be treated a parade of doppelganger acts with names like Open Arms (Journey tribute), Hammer of the Broads (all-female Zeppelin tribute) and Stoned Temple Pilots (a tribute, we presume, to Scott Weiland's lost years).
Most are these tribute acts and cover bands are the short-lived side projects of local studio musicians, guitar techs and hobbyists. But a select few have built full-fledged careers upon the bands, genres and eras that inspired them.
Here, we've ranked 20 of the best, using a highly technical and scientific set of standards that we won't explain because you wouldn't understand them anyway. Suffice it to say that each of these tribute bands combines mimicry, creativity, showmanship and, in some cases, silliness to provide a club-sized live experience nearly as awesome as their arena-sized source material.
20. Skapeche Mode
Skapeche Mode does an excellent job of “ruining both the eighties and ska” — as they say on their Facebook page — with their cross-wired mix of romantic Depeche Mode covers and rockin', pogo-worthy ska arrangements. The band features some seasoned ska players — including two original members of Save Ferris — and their goofy music reportedly helped lift singer Kebin "Skrince" Smith out of a depression. Theirs is a wonderfully sacrilegious approach, and the measure of how much you like what they do is probably relative to how much you take music seriously in general. — Peter Holslin
19. Hollywood Stones
Nobody “Moves Like Jagger,” really, but Dick Swagger comes close. The long-time Mick impersonator (known for his previous band Sticky Fingers) has the mouth, the mojo and, most importantly, the vocal chops to channel the most bodacious frontman in rock & roll. As with the real Stones, it’s not all about the lead singer; Swagger and his “Glimmer Twin” Keef Riffoff have the rapport (and tension) required to make this tribute roll. Hollywood Stones focus on the late '60s, '70s and '80s-era Rolling Stones catalog, and often tour nationally. Ripping every joint they play and getting rocks off way beyond Hollywood, this tribute is pure satisfaction for Stones fans. — Lina Lecaro
18. Dead Man’s Party
Of L.A.'s many beloved-but-defunct '80s-era bands, The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo seem least likely to ever reunite, thanks to frontman Danny Elfman's wildly successful career as a film composer. So this OC-based eight-piece tribute crew is as close as SoCal Boingo fans can get to reliving the days when "Only a Lad" and "Weird Science" were in heavy KROQ rotation. Led by Elfman sound-alike Rob Elfaizy (we really hope that's his real name), the band has been "officially Elfo-recommended" by Danny's brother, Boingo-co-founder Richard, for their faithful, horn-fueled recreation of the band's early '80s heyday. — Andy Hermann
17. GayC/DC
Members of this campy outfit also play in a Go-Go’s cover band called The Gay-Gay’s, but it makes much more sense that they’d pair feather boas and glitter with the stiff riffs of Australia’s most iconic pack o’ dudes. Onstage, GayC/DC inserts all the obvious and necessary jokes into AC/DC hits like “Big Balls” and “Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap,” reworking them as pelvic-thrust-worthy power jams for the gay bar set. The band boasts an impressive collection of outfits — including trashy cocktail dresses and enormous wigs — and they spit their lyrics with extra sass. Because there’s nothing more homoerotic than testosterone-charged rock ’n’ roll, amirite? — Peter Holslin
16. The Flux Capacitors
Building your '80s cover band around a Back to the Future theme is almost too obvious, but The Flux Capacitors take the whole time-traveling shtick to such goofy extremes that we can't help but give them props (and have done so before ). Arriving at gigs in an actual DeLorean and dressed up as characters from the film, including Marty on vocals and Doc on guitar, they lay down both B2TF soundtrack hits and contemporaneous classics like "Walk Like an Egyptian" with geeky aplomb. Not surprisingly, they're perennial favorites at retro-themed joints like New Wave Restaurant & Bar , where they're sometimes joined onstage by actual '80s survivors like When in Rome's Clive Farrington. — Andy Hermann
15. Krammpstein
Krammpstein emerge to cause a rumpus in L.A. clubs around Christmas time, attacking the music of German electro-metalers Rammstein, and leaving fans traumatized and tantalized in their wake. With former members in Green Jello in the macabre mix, the theatricality and stage production here is a given, but they’re also sonically fiendish, bludgeoning intricate licks and rhythmic lashings with biting holiday-in-hell lyrics. Still, it’s the creepy costumes and props (cookies! cages!) that make these head-banging creatures' show so killer, it haunts your nightmares all year long. — Lina Lecaro
In L.A.'s Suburbs, a Mini-Empire of '80s Bars
It's zombies doing Dead Kennedys covers. Any questions? Didn't think so. Led by Dukey Flyswatter of venerable L.A. horror-punks Haunted Garage and featuring members of the Radioactive Chicken Heads, Undead Kennedys seldom play out, except around Halloween. But when they do, expect a ghoulishly good time, as they unleash appropriately unhinged renditions of DK classics, often rewritten ("Too Dead to Fuck") to better suit the brain-eating crowd. — Andy Hermann
13. Black Sabbitch
When it comes to reproducing the majestic gloom of Sabbath in a reverent way, these are the baddest bitches out there. The all-female tribute band are sticklers when it comes to capturing every sinister nuance just as it was recorded and rendering them in a live setting. It’s truly a trip to watch drummer Angie Scarpa brutalize the kit, and guitarist Blare N. Bitch (formerly of Betty Blowtorch) is hands-down one of the most mesmerizing guitar players in L.A., period, not just among tribute bands. With the addition of singer Aimee Echo (The Start) last year, these faeries with boots kicked their wicked sound into a new realm of darkness that’s now more relentless than ever. — Lina Lecaro
12. Damage Inc.
Ain’t nothing fancy about Damage Inc. The Metallica tribute band — not to be mistaken with Damaged Inc. from England, who also take their name from the final track on Master of Puppets — simply dishes out badass ’Tallica tunes on stages across SoCal. They aren’t discriminating about the thrash-metal elders’ somewhat divisive discography. They’ll play a classic like “For Whom the Bell Tolls” but also a later-period hit like “Fuel,” and they’ll play both with equal fury. Because sometimes you just want to bang your head and not worry about metal politics. (Bonus points to singer/guitarist Christopher Knight for looking a little like James Hetfield.) — Peter Holslin
11. Hell’s Belles
The ladies of Hell’s Belles are as evil and electric as prime-era AC/DC in pretty much every way: vociferous wails, big ballsy beats (which have nothing to do with anatomy) and raging riffs that are as appealing as they are imposing. Only one Belle, guitarist Sharon Needles, lives in Los Angeles — the rest reside in Seattle — but they take the highway to Hell-A enough to have a major fan base here. Singer Amber Saxon does both Bon and Brian proud, while axe vixen Adrian Conner's A+ turn as Angus is spazzy schoolgirl awesomeness. And any band smart enough to pin down Needles (another founding member of legendary L.A. rockers Betty Blowtorch) can definitely shake us all night long. — Lina Lecaro
10. The Band That Fell to Earth
Re-creating Ziggy Stardust-era Bowie in all his kooky, glam glory wouldn’t work without a captivating, far-out frontman. And The Band That Fell to Earth got one: sensuous singer Julian Shah-Tayler (of The Singularity). He pulls off the orange-red wig and the skintight alien chic, but more importantly, Tayler captures Bowie’s onstage charisma, even chattering in character in between numbers. His vocals are spot-on, especially on the Ziggy and Hunky Dory stuff, but he’s good enough to add his own new little inflections here and there, too. With skilled Spiders from Mars-alikes providing a solid cosmic backdrop, this mock Moonage Daydream makes us freak out every time. — Lina Lecaro
9. Dread Zeppelin
Tribute bands don't get any more high-concept than this so-wrong-it's-right collision of Led Zeppelin and Jamaican grooves, fronted by a Fat Elvis impersonator named Tortelvis. Amazingly, they've been at it for over 25 years, continuing to defile every corner of the Zeppelin catalog with skankin' grooves and Elvis jokes: "Heartbreaker" gets mashed up with "Heartbreak Hotel," "Black Dog" morphs into "Hound Dog"... you get the idea. They just released their 15th (!) album, SoSo, which even manages to give the John Bonham drum showcase "Moby Dick" a reggae makeover. — Andy Hermann
8. Strangelove
From leather jackets to vintage synths, Strangelove's tribute to Depeche Mode is heavy on the details and made for hardcore Modies. Singer Freddie "Devotional Dave" Morales not only does a spot-on impersonation of Dave Gahan's croon, he nails the hip-swivels. Once he grabs that microphone stand and spins, you will question your ability to tell the difference between the tribute band and the real thing. Strangelove's resemblance, both visually and sonically, to Depeche Mode is frightening. The main difference: Where Alan Wilder left Depeche Mode 20 years ago, Alan Wildest (Dave Sepe) still hits the stage with Strangelove. — Liz Ohanesian
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7. Richard Cheese
The alter ego of comedy writer Mark Jonathan Davis, Richard Cheese cornered the market on lounge lizard versions of rock anthems. Rising to infamy when KROQ picked up his campy jazz cover of Papa Roach’s “Last Resort,” Cheese went on to swankify every genre imaginable: hip-hop, diva pop, punk, metal, disco, etc. When it comes to the “Lounge Against the Machine”-era music that started it all, he’s clearly had the last laugh too, proving to have more longevity then a lot of the nu-metal acts he covered. Some health and medical issues saw the crooner take a hiatus from performing and recording the past couple years, but thankfully, Cheese is in full recovery and ready to melt (m)asses once again. — Lina Lecaro
6. Nudist Priest
Recently reunited after a lengthy hiatus, Nudist Priest, the naked Judas Priest cover band, began as a dare. Lead guitarist and vocalist John Ramirez was bantering with some female musicians when they issued a challenge: “If you do Nudist Priest, we’ll do ZZ Topless.” The girls chickened out, but Ramirez held up his end of the bargain. Playing naked only made drummer Matt Stein nervous on a few occasions, he says — like as the time his father-in-law, an actual priest, introduced the band. Then there was the time that Spaceland, whose promoters apparently didn't realize that the band actually would take it all off, slapped them with a lifetime ban and sparked fears of arrest. The plan for their upcoming summer shows is to be true to their name — but hopefully without breaking the law. — L.J. Williamson
5. Steel Panther
Technically a parody act, not a tribute band, but too awesome to leave off this list, Steel Panther offer up such a pitch-perfect spoof of ‘80s hair metal that actual fans of Poison and Mötley Crüe might think they’re for real. Of course Steel Panther is totally over the top, serving up masturbatory guitar solos alongside winking wordplay, gratuitous sexism, and even some disgusting scrotal sight gags in the video for their song “Pussywhipped.” And yet they also make for a loving homage, as they power through arena-ready hooks and David Lee Roth squeals while decked out in tacky outfits and plenty of hairspray. It’s a brilliant approach, underscoring just how much of a joke hair metal was in the first place. — Peter Holslin
4. Metalachi
Metalachi roll metal and mariachi music together into a big zesty burrito with just the right amount of heat. Like the most garish '80s glam bands, they don painted faces and wigs; they just top ‘em off with sombreros, and sometimes fancy polyester too. The shtick works because the guys are skilled mariachis, especially their horn and violin players, who attack their solos like Speedy Gonzalez meets Slash. They built a following playing Skinny’s in NoHo, but the band always made the most sense on the Strip. In fact, they should really get a residency at El Compadre across the street from Guitar Center. Their renditions of Dio's "Rainbow in the Dark," Ozzy Osbourne's "Crazy Train" and Guns n’ Roses “Sweet Child o' Mine” would go over muy bueno with some flaming margaritas. — Lina Lecaro
3. The Iron Maidens
Attempting to replicate the immense theatrics of an Iron Maiden concert is a very daunting task. But since their formation in 2001, this all-female tribute’s ability to scale down the Iron Maiden experience to a smaller stage has allowed their wings to spread far beyond Los Angeles, including tours of Japan, Australia, South America and Europe. The musical contributions of current and former members spread beyond the Iron Maiden realm as well, with drummer Linda MacDonald having previous experience in local ‘90s shredders Phantom Blue, and other members moving on to perform with acts as diverse as Alice Cooper and Blue Man Group. — Jason Roche
2. Sweet and Tender Hooligans
No average musician can just waltz onstage and imitate Morrissey. But if anybody can exude the same outsider charisma and raw sex appeal as the all-powerful Moz, it’s Jose Maldonado of Sweet and Tender Hooligans. The Mexican-American singer co-founded this legendary Smiths/Morrissey group way back in 1992, and throughout the ’90s he built a devoted cult following among Latino Morrissey fans from L.A.’s Eastside. Today the Hooligans are regarded as masters of Smiths tributedom, and this reputation certainly has a lot to do with the band’s glimmer-y guitar tones and unfussy onstage style. But really, it’s all about Maldonado’s own star power — not to mention his beautifully resonant voice and handsome pompadour. — Peter Holslin
1. Mac Sabbath
Heavy music, like heavy food, is best consumed voraciously and without much thought. But the McGenius behind Mac Sabbath is that they obviously put a lot of thought and skill into their quirky musical cookery, which roasts greasy fast-food corporations as much as it pays tribute to the pummeling rock of Ozzy and Sabbath. Like many gimmick-driven grinders, the members shroud themselves in secret sauce. Mike Odd of local costumed rock legends Rosemary's Billygoat is involved, which explains Mac’s ferocious metallic flavor and demented props. From their elaborate super-sized costumes (Grimalice, the Catburglar, and Slayer McCheeze back up creepy clown crooner Ronald Osbourne) to their clever, freak-fried takes on Sabbath’s lyrics (“Pair-A-Buns” to the tune of “Paranoid” and “Frying Pan” to tune of “Iron Man”), these happy meal menaces sizzle live, and always serve up more than the empty calories of most cover bands. — Lina Lecaro
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Jan Fischer became Prime Minister of which country in 2009? | Jan Fischer: Europe's 1st Jewish president? - Jewish World - Jerusalem Post
Jan Fischer: Europe's 1st Jewish president?
ByJTA
09 January 2013 10:30
Czech 'Joe Liberman' is neck and neck in the polls with another former government head as nation holds first round of elections.
Former Czech prime minister Jan Fischer 370. (photo credit:REUTERS/David W Cerny)
PRAGUE -- If the pundits are correct, the Czech Republic may become the first European country to elect a Jewish president.
Jan Fischer, 62, an understated former prime minister who led a caretaker government following a coalition collapse in 2009, is neck and neck in the polls with another former government head as the nation holds its first round of presidential elections on Friday and Saturday.
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The two front-runners advance to a runoff, and political prognosticators are predicting that Fischer will reach the second round. If elected,
"He's like our Joe Lieberman,” said Tomas Kraus, chairman of the Czech Federation of Jewish Communities, referring to the failed US vice presidential candidate. “Whether or not you support him, you can't help but be proud he has come this far.”
Also in Jewish World:
EJC head blasts 'Spiegel' writer for 'Israel hatred'
Technically speaking, Europe has had a Jewish president: Ruth Dreifuss, who was president of the Swiss Confederation in 1999. But the Swiss presidency is a one-year rotating post, not a popularly elected position, and the president doesn't really have broader powers than the other members of the Swiss Federal Council.
Europe has had other Jewish heads of government, aside from Fischer: Leon Blum, who was prime minister of France in the 1930s and '40s, and Austria's Bruno Kreisky, who served as prime minister from 1970 to 1983. Britain's Benjamin Disraeli came from Jewish stock, but his family converted out of the faith before he was born.
Fischer, whose career highlights include running the Czech Statistical Office and serving as vice president of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, slipped from first to second in the polls following a lackluster performance last week in a televised debate.
His ascent from skilled technocrat to high-echelon politics -- and possibly to Prague Castle -- sheds light on the region's nuanced relationship with Judaism and Israel.
Running on a platform promoting economic growth and political transparency, Fischer also is known for his pride in what he calls the Czech Republic’s “very friendly relations with Israel.” He noted that the Czech Republic was consistently one of Europe's most ardent supporters of Israel in times of crisis, a tradition dating back to the 1920s when the first Czechoslovak president, Tomas Garrigue Masaryk, endorsed the creation of the Jewish state.
More recently, the Czech Republic was among only a handful of countries in the world to vote against upgrading the Palestinians' status at the United Nations.
Fischer thus finds it unnecessary to bluster in the same way as his chief presidential rival, Milos Zeman, who has declared his support for a preemptive strike against Iran.
"I have no need to demonstrate my friendly attitude towards Israel because everyone is familiar with it, so I don’t need to say something very strong," he told JTA in a wide-ranging interview, adding that he is well aware that "Iran is the dark force in the region."
Fischer’s professions of devotion to Israel weren't always so robust. Before the Communist regime collapsed in 1989, it was dangerous for anyone -- especially a government employee -- to sympathize with Israel because the authorities toed the Soviet anti-Zionist line.
His upbringing is a case study of post-World War II Jewish life in Central Europe. His father survived Auschwitz and other Nazi concentration camps, and his mother was Catholic. He celebrated Czech Christmas and attended synagogue.
“My father brought me to the synagogue for Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah and Purim,” Fischer recalled. “During Pesach we didn't organize a seder, but we did have matzah. Father was a member of the Jewish community until the end of the 1950s.”
That changed once Czechoslovak Communist leaders became more virulently anti-religious; Judaism was no longer high on his family's list of priorities.
It changed again -- as it did for many of Fischer's generation -- when his son began to discover his Jewish roots. Also named Jan, Fischer’s son was born in 1989, the same year the Velvet Revolution swept communism from the country.
“He was very interested in the story of the Holocaust and he liked to talk about my father despite [the fact] that he died in 1975,” Fischer said. “Through his discoveries he developed a strong bond with Judaism, and he brought me back."
Fischer credited the Lauder Jewish School, which his son attended, for educating the whole family.
Fischer’s father, also a Prague statistician, was forced to collect numerical data on Jewish families for the Nazis.
"When he arrived in Auschwitz he didn't expect to live, but Mengele found out he was a mathematician and thought he could be of use,” Fischer said.
Although some may not deem Fischer as Jewish by halachah, or Jewish law, he invokes the Holocaust experience as a defining characteristic of those who view themselves as Jews.
“It is a common tragedy," he said, "and based on it I feel part of this community.”
Even in the relatively liberal-minded Czech Republic, however, being Jewish can be a political disadvantage. When Fischer took over as prime minister, a smattering of comments on blogs referred negatively to his Jewish origins. There were hints, too, that Fischer was part of a secret brotherhood, as one of his advisers also was Jewish.
But Czechs mostly were just curious about their new leader's religious background. His ethnicity again became a focus of public fixation when when his predecessor, thinking he was off the record during a taped magazine interview, slurred a gay minister and Fischer, linking a penchant for compromise to his Jewishness.
During his tenure as prime minister, Fischer was admired for aggressively pursuing extremist groups that were terrorizing the country’s largest minority, the Roma. As a result of these activities, and partly on account of his religion, Fischer's son was put under police protection.
Still, asked about anti-Semitism in the Czech Republic, he responds, “This country has so many political problems, but anti-Semitism is not one of them.”
Although Fischer’s influence as president would be limited in a parliamentary democracy and his powers largely ceremonial, the head of state does occasionally remark on foreign policy issues. And that is where Israel comes up again in conversation.
Fischer is bluntly critical of the European Union’s sometimes muddy statements with regard to Israel. Asked if he agreed with the EU's repeated condemnation of Israeli settlements, he said, "The voice of the European Union is sometimes strong [on this topic]. It is not the opinion of every country. The reality is that the EU hasn't got any foreign policy. I don't think the settlements are the greatest issue in the region. Iran is the greatest issue."
If there is a shadow hanging over Fischer in the eyes of Czech voters, it is not his religion but his former membership in the Communist Party. Fischer says he joined under pressure to keep his job as a public employee and has publicly apologized for the decision.
“I gave in and it is nothing I am proud of,” he said.
Compared to his two larger-than-life predecessors -- human rights luminary Vaclav Havel and Euroskeptic Vaclav Klaus -- Fischer is distinguished largely by the fact that he is so reserved. Critics have noted his lack of charisma.
Jiri Pehe, a former adviser to Havel and now a well-known political commentator, doesn’t think that’s such a bad thing. Fischer, he says, appeals to the average citizen.
“Czechs are fed up with a presidency where a president has to be highly visible and interfere with party politics, and make speeches on issues like global warming,” Pehe said. “Maybe they want someone ordinary, someone to act as the chief notary, putting a seal on international documents.”
Rabbi Manes Barash, who runs a Chabad synagogue in Prague where Fischer occasionally prays, takes the charisma issue a step further.
“A lot of people who are crooks have charisma,” Barash joked. “Maybe it’s a good thing he doesn’t have charisma.”
On a more serious note, Barash says Fischer might be good for the country, which is among the most atheistic in the world, according to surveys.
“That he is a believer is something very special for the Czech Republic,” Barash said. “Such a secular society, it is missing here.”
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Who was the first European-born and trained National Hockey League captain to win the Stanley Cup? | Tag: Jan Fischer | Jewish Journal
Jewish Journal
Czech ‘Joe Lieberman’ could be Europe’s first Jewish president
January 7, 2013 | 3:07 pm
If the pundits are correct, the Czech Republic may become the first country other than Israel to elect a Jewish president.
Jan Fischer, 62, an understated former prime minister who led a caretaker government following a coalition collapse in 2009, is neck and neck in the polls...
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Which British monarch said of his son ‘After I am dead, the boy will ruin himself in 12 months’? | 1936 The Year of the Three Kings | Lisa's History Room
1936 The Year of the Three Kings
October 2, 2009 by Lisa Waller Rogers
1936 The Year of Three British Kings: dad George V and his 2 sons - George VI & Edward VIII
The year 1936 brought many changes within the British monarchy. In January of that year, the first monarch of the House of Windsor, King George V, died and his son, Edward VIII ascended the throne. King Edward VIII though was not destined to rule long. He had a married American mistress – Wallis Warfield Simpson – who was in the process of divorcing her second husband. The King’s choice of sweetheart would soon bring him tumbling down.
Wallis Warfield Simpson, Duchess of Windsor (1896-1986). Wallis' second husband Ernest Simpson couldn't keep her happy. She was accustomed to a grander style of living than he was capable of providing. They were living well beyond their means and having to fire servants when, in 1931, she was introduced to the playboy Prince of Wales, who ascended to the British throne in 1936 as King Edward VIII. The King - called "David" by his friends and family - dropped all his other married girlfriends and became obsessed with Wallis, showering her with jewels and clothes and taking her on expensive ocean cruises - while she was still Mrs. Married Simpson.
The King shocked the nation – already reeling from the King’s scandalous behavior of appearing in the society pages with Mrs. Simpson – by announcing that he planned to marry Mrs. Simpson.
The British people and the government would never have accepted Mrs. Simpson as their queen. Divorced people were not accepted at court, especially ones with two living ex-husbands. Although the King was not forbidden to marry Mrs. Simpson, Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised him, on religious and political grounds, that he must make a choice between the throne and marrying Mrs. Simpson – or the government would resign.
By December 1936, King Edward had made his decision. He used his power to expedite Wallis’ divorce from Ernest Simpson [divorces took years back then] then, declared to his kingdom – the United Kingdom, Canada, and India – that it was impossible to carry out his duties “without the help and support of the woman I love,” and gave up the throne. Edward became the only monarch in the history of Great Britain to voluntarily abdicate. Edward’s younger brother, King George VI, then ascended the throne. Edward did marry Wallis and they became the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, settling in France until World War II began.
Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon [pictured] was Wallis’ sister-in-law. She was married to King George VI, the Duke of Windsor’s younger brother who ascended the throne following his 1936 abdication. Elizabeth was known as “The Queen Mum” in later years, after King George VI died in 1952 and their daughter, “Lilibet,” became Queen Elizabeth II. Queen Elizabeth II’s mother – also called Queen Elizabeth when she was queen – died in 2002 at the age of 101. The Queen Mum hated Wallis, the Duchess of Windsor, and was determined that Wallis would never reenter British society after causing the abdication crisis. She also blamed the Duke and Wallis for the premature death of her husband George VI in 1952 upon the stress of his reign as king – again, because of her brother-in-law’s abdication to marry Wallis. Wallis wasn’t so happy with the Queen herself and returned her hostile sentiments, ridiculing the Queen’s fussy style of confectionary dress by nicknaming her “Cake.” Wallis had never forgotten the snub that King George VI gave her – at his wife Queen Elizabeth’s insistence – of refusing to allow Wallis to be referred to as “Her Royal Highness.”
The abdication and the subsequent exile to France of the newly titled Duke and Duchess of Windsor turned out to be a gigantic blessing for the UK, because, by September of 1939, Great Britain would declare war on Nazi Germany. It was a good thing King Edward VIII had been replaced with the level-headed King George VI and his queen, Queen Elizabeth (known later as the Queen Mum). They had the good sense to see the threat a Nazi Germany presented and the courage to lead the British people through the terrible bombings of Great Britain by the Nazis. King George VI began his reign as a reluctant king. He was a nervous man with a pronounced stutter who never wanted to rule. But, with Queen Elizabeth by his side, they were able to summon the strength from God and selves to help the British people endure the war and oppose the Nazi regime.
“When war broke out in 1939, George VI and his wife resolved to stay in London and not flee to Canada, as had been suggested. The King and Queen officially stayed in Buckingham Palace throughout the war, although they usually spent nights at Windsor Castle to avoid bombing raids. George VI and Queen Elizabeth narrowly avoided death when two German bombs exploded in a courtyard at Buckingham Palace while they were there.”
So, as history would have it, Great Britain owes an enormous debt to Wallis, the Duchess of Windsor, for spiriting the Duke away before he could do any real harm. At the time, it seemed a great sadness for the Duke to have to give up the throne because convention wouldn’t allow for him to be married to the Duchess. But now we know that it would have been a disaster for him to be King during World War II. Because, as it turned out, both he and the Duchess were Nazi sympathizers. They held their wedding ceremony at the Chateau de Cande in Mont, France, the home of Nazi collaborator Charles Bedaux.
Within months, Bedaux had arranged for them to travel to Germany to dine with Adolf Hitler. It was widely believed that Hitler planned to install the Duke back on the British throne after the Germans had conquered England. The Duke was desperate for a kingdom and made no secret of his fondness for fascism. Fortunately,the Duke’s brother, the King, got wind of his brother’s nefarious activities and schemes and, at the start of the War, whisked him and the Duchess off to a British island [the Bahamas] far out in the Caribbean. Had Edward been the British monarch during WWII, not George VI, we might today to looking at a frighteningly different world order.
King George V, the Duke of Windsor’s father, never thought much of his son David. He was disgusted by his son’s playboy ways and inability to grow up and settle down.
The King [George V] was reluctant to see Edward inherit the Crown, and was quoted as saying of Edward [the Duke of Windsor]:”After I am dead, the boy will ruin himself in 12 months.”
George V knew his son well. King Edward VIII…or “David,” the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Windsor, – he had so many names, it can be so confusing – was self-indulgent to the point of self-destruction. King Edward VIII’s reign as monarch was one of the shortest in British history, lasting only 325 days, or about 11 months, one month less than his father had so sagely predicted. Edward never did have a coronation ceremony. He was never crowned king.
Readers, for more on the Duke and Duchess of Windsor on this blog:
| George V |
Which US state is known as the Sooner State? | King George V | Britroyals
Full Name: George Frederick Ernest Albert
Born: June 3, 1865 at Marlborough House, London
Parents: Edward VII and Alexandra of Denmark
Relation to Elizabeth II: grandfather
House of: Windsor
Ascended to the throne: May 6, 1910 aged 44 years
Crowned: June 22, 1911 at Westminster Abbey
Married: Mary, the daughter of the Duke of Teck
Children: Five sons including Edward VIII and George VI, and one daughter
Died: January 20, 1936 at Sandringham, Norfolk, aged 70 years, 7 months, and 16 days
Buried at: Windsor
Reigned for: 25 years, 8 months, and 15 days
Succeeded by: his son Edward VIII
George V was the second son of Edward VII. His mother was Alexandra of Denmark, sister of Empress Marie of Russia. He joined the Royal Navy aged 12 and served until 1892 when he became heir to the throne on the death of his elder brother Albert, Duke of Clarence, who died of pneumonia.
In 1893, he married Princess Victoria Mary of Teck (known as �May� to her family) who had previously been engaged to his brother. They became Duke and Duchess of York and lived on the Sandringham Estate, in Norfolk. The marriage was a success and George unlike his father never took a mistress. They had 6 children Edward, Albert, Mary, Henry, George and John. The youngest Prince John suffered from epilepsy and died aged 13.
He became King George V on the death of his father Edward VII in 1910, and Mary became Queen consort. They toured India in 1911 as Emperor and Empress of India. During World War I he made several visits to the front, and Mary visited wounded serviceman in hospital. She was staunch supporter of her husband during difficult times that included not only the war with Germany, but also the Russian revolution and murder of George�s cousin Princess Alix who was Tsarina Alexandra wife of Tsar Nicholas II, civil unrest including the General Strike in England, the rise of socialism, and Irish and Indian nationalism. George V has been criticised for not rescuing the Russian Royal family but at the time there was serious concern that it would incite a similar revolution in the UK. He sent a ship in 1922 to rescue the Greek Royal family including 1 year old Prince Philip now the Duke of Edinburgh.
In 1917 with anti-German sentiment running high, he changed the family name from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (popularly known as Brunswick or Hanover) to Windsor, and he relinquished all German titles and family connections. George V enjoyed stamp collecting and although considered dull by biographers he became by his Silver Jubilee in 1935 a much loved King. In 1932 he started the tradition of the Royal Christmas broadcast which has continued ever since. His relationship deteriorated with this eldest son Edward (later Edward VIII) when he failed to settle down and had affairs with married women, but he was fond of his second son Albert (�Bertie� later George VI) and his granddaughter Elizabeth (later Elizabeth II) whom he called �Lilibet�. She called him �Grandpa England�. He died of pleurisy in January 1936.
King George V's Signature
Quotes:
�After I am dead, the boy will ruin himself in twelve months� � George V (about his son Edward who became Edward VIII)
�Try living on their wages before you judge them� � George V (taking exception to the suggestion that workers involved in the General Strike were revolutionaries)
�I cannot understand it, after all I am only a very ordinary sort of fellow� � George V (on adulation from cheering crowds at his Silver Jubilee)
Timeline for King George V
Year
| i don't know |
Which American boxer was born Rocco Francis Marchegiano? | Rocky Marciano - Suzie Q Tribute (Any Given Sunday Soundtrack) - YouTube
Rocky Marciano - Suzie Q Tribute (Any Given Sunday Soundtrack)
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Published on Jun 23, 2012
Rocky Marciano (born Rocco Francis Marchegiano; September 1, 1923 -- August 31, 1969) was an American professional boxer and the World Heavyweight Champion from September 23, 1952, to April 27, 1956. Marciano is the only champion to hold the heavyweight title and go untied and undefeated throughout his career. Marciano defended his title six times.
Marciano's punch was tested and it was featured in the December 1963 issue of Boxing Illustrated: "Marciano's knockout blow packs more explosive energy than an armour-piercing bullet and represents as much energy as would be required to spot lift 1000 pounds one foot off the ground."
Marciano was named fighter of the year by Ring three times. His three championship fights between 1952--54 were named fights of the year by that magazine. In 2006, an ESPN poll voted Marciano's 1952 championship bout against Walcott as the greatest knockout ever. Marciano also received the Hickok Belt for top professional athlete of the year in 1952. In 1955, he was voted the second most important American athlete of the year.
Marciano is a member of the International Boxing Hall Of Fame.
A bronze statue of Marciano was planned for a 2009 completion date in his hometown of Brockton, Massachusetts, to be a gift to the city by the World Boxing Council. The artist Mario Rendon, head of the Instituto Universitario de las Bellas Artes in Colima, Mexico, was selected to sculpt the statue.After years of delays in the planning stages, the groundbreaking for the statue was held on April 1, 2012 on the grounds of Brockton High School.
A bronze statue of Marciano has been erected in Ripa Teatina, Italy, to celebrate the birthplace of Marciano's father.
The name of the song is Graciosa by Moby from the movie Any Given Sunday
Category
| Rocky Marciano |
What does the Latin Phrase ‘Scienta est potentia’ translate to in English? | Rocco Marchegiano | ZoomInfo.com
Web References (24 Total References)
Rocco Marchegiano
Rocco Marchegiano was born in Brockton, Massachusetts, on September 1, 1923.
Both of
his
parents emigrated from Italy to the United States in the second decade of the twentieth century.
...
Rocco was the second, followed by three daughters and two more sons. The Marchegianos lived in a two bedroom apartment with no running hot water or central heat. They were poor and the Great Depression made them poorer.
Rocco dropped out of high school at age seventeen; well short of earning
his
"I was never good in school,"
he
acknowledged later. "I just didn't care for the books. Over the next three years,
he
drifted from menial job to menial job; delivering coal, digging ditches, and working in the same shoe factory as
his
father.
He
washed dishes, did landscape work, delivered beer, and put in a stint as a short-order cook. On March 4, 1943,
he
was drafted into the United States Army.
Marchegiano was stationed in Europe for two years during World War II; then in Tacoma, Washington.
His
first exposure to organized boxing came in 1945, when
he
entered several Army tournaments.
He
was discharged from the service in December 1946 and took a job with the Brockton Gas Company, shoveling coal and stoking furnaces for a dollar an hour.
On March 17, 1947, in need of money, Marchegiano fought in the opening bout of a professional fight card in Holyoke, Massachusetts. It wasn't until late in
his
career that the fight became part of
his
Marchegiano had been promised fifty dollars for the fight. The promoter gave him thirty-five.
One month later, a dream that Marchegiano had nursed since childhood came to an end.
Growing up,
had started at center and linebacker in football for Brockton High School.
But
his
true love was baseball. For four years, he'd played catcher for a local American Legion team.
He
was good.
But not good enough. In April 1947, the Chicago Cubs invited Marchegiano to a tryout. However,
he
failed to impress and the team decided against offering him a minor league contract. It was then that
he
parents emigrated from Italy to the United States in the second decade of the twentieth century.
...
Rocco was the second, followed by three daughters and two more sons. The Marchegianos lived in a two bedroom apartment with no running hot water or central heat. They were poor and the Great Depression made them poorer.
Rocco dropped out of high school at age seventeen; well short of earning
his
"I was never good in school,"
he
acknowledged later. "I just didn't care for the books. Over the next three years,
he
drifted from menial job to menial job; delivering coal, digging ditches, and working in the same shoe factory as
his
father.
He
washed dishes, did landscape work, delivered beer, and put in a stint as a short-order cook. On March 4, 1943,
he
was drafted into the United States Army.
Marchegiano was stationed in Europe for two years during World War II; then in Tacoma, Washington.
His
first exposure to organized boxing came in 1945, when
he
entered several Army tournaments.
He
was discharged from the service in December 1946 and took a job with the Brockton Gas Company, shoveling coal and stoking furnaces for a dollar an hour.
On March 17, 1947, in need of money, Marchegiano fought in the opening bout of a professional fight card in Holyoke, Massachusetts. It wasn't until late in
his
career that the fight became part of
his
Marchegiano had been promised fifty dollars for the fight. The promoter gave him thirty-five.
One month later, a dream that Marchegiano had nursed since childhood came to an end.
Growing up,
had started at center and linebacker in football for Brockton High School.
But
his
true love was baseball. For four years, he'd played catcher for a local American Legion team.
He
was good.
But not good enough. In April 1947, the Chicago Cubs invited Marchegiano to a tryout. However,
he
failed to impress and the team decided against offering him a minor league contract. It was then that
he
parents emigrated from Italy to the United States in the second decade of the twentieth century.
...
Rocco was the second, followed by three daughters and two more sons. The Marchegianos lived in a two bedroom apartment with no running hot water or central heat. They were poor and the Great Depression made them poorer.
Rocco dropped out of high school at age seventeen; well short of earning
his
"I was never good in school,"
he
acknowledged later. "I just didn't care for the books. Over the next three years,
he
drifted from menial job to menial job; delivering coal, digging ditches, and working in the same shoe factory as
his
father.
He
washed dishes, did landscape work, delivered beer, and put in a stint as a short-order cook. On March 4, 1943,
he
was drafted into the United States Army.
Marchegiano was stationed in Europe for two years during World War II; then in Tacoma, Washington.
His
first exposure to organized boxing came in 1945, when
he
entered several Army tournaments.
He
was discharged from the service in December 1946 and took a job with the Brockton Gas Company, shoveling coal and stoking furnaces for a dollar an hour.
On March 17, 1947, in need of money, Marchegiano fought in the opening bout of a professional fight card in Holyoke, Massachusetts. It wasn't until late in
his
career that the fight became part of
his
Marchegiano had been promised fifty dollars for the fight. The promoter gave him thirty-five.
One month later, a dream that Marchegiano had nursed since childhood came to an end.
Growing up,
had started at center and linebacker in football for Brockton High School.
But
his
true love was baseball. For four years, he'd played catcher for a local American Legion team.
He
was good.
But not good enough. In April 1947, the Chicago Cubs invited Marchegiano to a tryout. However,
he
failed to impress and the team decided against offering him a minor league contract. It was then that
he
parents emigrated from Italy to the United States in the second decade of the 20th century.
...
Rocco was the second, followed by three daughters and two more sons. The Marchegianos lived in a two-bedroom apartment with no running hot water or central heat. They were poor and the Great Depression made them poorer.
Rocco dropped out of high school at age 17; well short of earning
his
"I was never good in school,"
he
acknowledged later. "I just didn't care for the books. Over the next three years,
he
drifted from menial job to menial job; delivering coal, digging ditches, and working in the same shoe factory as
his
father.
He
washed dishes, did landscape work, delivered beer, and put in a stint as a short-order cook. On March 4, 1943,
he
was drafted into the United States Army.
Marchegiano was stationed in Europe for two years during World War II; then in Tacoma, Washington.
His
first exposure to organized boxing came in 1945, when
he
entered several Army tournaments.
He
was discharged from the service in December 1946 and took a job with the Brockton Gas Company, shoveling coal and stoking furnaces for a dollar an hour.
On March 17, 1947, in need of money, Marchegiano fought in the opening bout of a professional fight card in Holyoke, Massachusetts. It wasn't until late in
his
career that the fight became part of
his
Marchegiano had been promised 50 dollars for the fight. The promoter gave him 35.
One month later, a dream that Marchegiano had nursed since childhood came to an end.
Growing up,
had started at center and linebacker in football for Brockton High School.
But
his
true love was baseball. For four years, he'd played catcher for a local American Legion team.
He
was good.
But not good enough. In April 1947, the Chicago Cubs invited Marchegiano to a tryout. However,
he
failed to impress and the team decided against offering him a minor league contract. It was then that
he
parents emigrated from Italy to the United States in the second decade of the twentieth century.
...
Rocco was the second, followed by three daughters and two more sons. The Marchegianos lived in a two bedroom apartment with no running hot water or central heat. They were poor and the Great Depression made them poorer.
Rocco dropped out of high school at age seventeen; well short of earning
his
"I was never good in school,"
he
acknowledged later. "I just didn't care for the books. Over the next three years,
he
drifted from menial job to menial job; delivering coal, digging ditches, and working in the same shoe factory as
his
father.
He
washed dishes, did landscape work, delivered beer, and put in a stint as a short-order cook. On March 4, 1943,
he
was drafted into the United States Army.
Marchegiano was stationed in Europe for two years during World War II; then in Tacoma, Washington.
His
first exposure to organized boxing came in 1945, when
he
entered several Army tournaments.
He
was discharged from the service in December 1946 and took a job with the Brockton Gas Company, shoveling coal and stoking furnaces for a dollar an hour.
On March 17, 1947, in need of money, Marchegiano fought in the opening bout of a professional fight card in Holyoke, Massachusetts. It wasn't until late in
his
career that the fight became part of
his
Marchegiano had been promised fifty dollars for the fight. The promoter gave him thirty-five.
One month later, a dream that Marchegiano had nursed since childhood came to an end.
Growing up,
had started at center and linebacker in football for Brockton High School.
But
his
true love was baseball. For four years, he'd played catcher for a local American Legion team.
He
was good.
But not good enough. In April 1947, the Chicago Cubs invited Marchegiano to a tryout. However,
he
failed to impress and the team decided against offering him a minor league contract. It was then that
he
| i don't know |
Which 1990 film was the first western to win Best Picture Oscar for 60 years? | 1990 Academy Awards® Winners and History
GoodFellas (1990)
Actor:
JEREMY IRONS in "Reversal of Fortune", Kevin Costner in "Dances With Wolves", Robert De Niro in "Awakenings", Gerard Depardieu in "Cyrano de Bergerac", Richard Harris in "The Field"
Actress:
KATHY BATES in "Misery", Anjelica Huston in "The Grifters", Julia Roberts in "Pretty Woman", Meryl Streep in "Postcards from the Edge", Joanne Woodward in "Mr. & Mrs. Bridge"
Supporting Actor:
JOE PESCI in "GoodFellas" , Bruce Davison in "Longtime Companion", Andy Garcia in " The Godfather, Part III ", Graham Greene in "Dances With Wolves", Al Pacino in "Dick Tracy"
Supporting Actress:
WHOOPI GOLDBERG in "Ghost", Annette Bening in "The Grifters", Lorraine Bracco in "GoodFellas" , Diane Ladd in "Wild at Heart", Mary McDonnell in "Dances With Wolves"
Director:
KEVIN COSTNER for "Dances With Wolves", Francis Ford Coppola for " The Godfather, Part III ", Stephen Frears for "The Grifters", Barbet Schroeder for "Reversal of Fortune", Martin Scorsese for "GoodFellas"
The Best Picture winner, co-producer/director/actor Kevin Costner's three-hour epic and revisionistic western film Dances With Wolves was an anomaly win in Oscar history - it was only the second time that a western genre film won the Best Picture Oscar. [The first Best Picture western film was Cimarron (1930-31), sixty years earlier.] However, some argued that Costner's (another actor-turned-director) romantic-epic film shouldn't have been categorized as a Western.
Dances With Wolves was honored with twelve nominations and seven Oscar wins - Best Picture (Costner), Best Director (for Costner's directorial debut film), Best Adapted Screenplay (Michael Blake), Best Cinematography (Dean Semler), Best Sound, Best Original Score (John Barry), and Best Film Editing. The pretentious, but visually-impressive film told the saga of a Civil War Union officer, Lt. John W. Dunbar, who became disillusioned, headed west, and eventually found peace away from white civilization with nature and the Lakota Sioux. The film contained long portions of the Sioux-Lakota language and detailed the native American culture.
The other four Best Picture nominees were:
director Penny Marshall's psychological drama Awakenings (with three nominations and no wins), a semi-true account of a doctor who 'awakens' catatonic patients with an experimental drug
director Jerry Zucker's highly-successful, romantic comedy/fantasy Ghost (with five nominations and two wins - Best Supporting Actress and Best Screenplay), about a murder victim who protects his wife through a psychic
director Francis Ford Coppola's long-awaited gangster epic sequel The Godfather, Part III (with seven nominations and snubbed with no wins, although both previous parts of the saga won Best Picture Oscars - and it was the first of only two trilogies to have all three films nominated for Best Picture) - an extension of the Mafia-tale about an older crime kingpin Michael Corleone (Al Pacino) and his temperamental, trigger-happy nephew (Andy Garcia) and daughter (Sofia Coppola)
director Martin Scorsese's GoodFellas (with six nominations and one win - Best Supporting Actor), a violent and foul-mouthed adaptation of Nicholas Pileggi's non-fiction book Wiseguy, about thirty years in a contemporary Brooklyn Mafia family and about federally-protected witness Henry Hill
Two of the directors of Best Picture nominees were not selected as Best Director nominees: Jerry Zucker for Ghost, and female director Penny Marshall for Awakenings. [Marshall's failure to receive a Best Director nomination was interpreted as sexist. Up to this time in Oscar history, only one women had been nominated for Best Director - Lina Wertmuller for Seven Beauties (1976), and female director Randa Haines had been passed over four years earlier as Best Director for her Best Picture-nominated Children of a Lesser God (1986).]
The two directors put into their slots for films without Best Picture nominations were Stephen Frears for The Grifters (with four nominations and no wins), a shocking film-noirish tale of three con artists - a film adaptation of Jim Thompson's hard-boiled novel, and director Barbet Schroeder for the dramatic Reversal of Fortune (with three nominations and one win - Best Actor), the story of Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz's defense appeal of Claus Von Bulow's conviction for attempted murder of his wife.
The Best Actor award was presented to Jeremy Irons (with his first nomination) for his performance in Reversal of Fortune as the icy, arrogant, and decadently-aristocratic millionaire Claus Von Bulow who was accused of trying to kill his comatose Newport heiress wife Sunny (Glenn Close).
The other four Best Actor nominees were:
Kevin Costner (with his first nomination) as idealistic frontier officer Lt. John W. Dunbar who encounters the Lakota Sioux tribe in Dances With Wolves
Robert De Niro (with his fifth nomination) as Leonard Lowe - a comatose patient who was revived in Awakenings
Gerard Depardieu (with his first nomination) as the long-nosed swordsman/poet in French director Jean-Paul Rappeneau's film Cyrano de Bergerac (with five nominations and one win - Best Costume Design)
Richard Harris (with his second nomination) as stubborn Irish farmer 'Bull' McCabe in director Jim Sheridan's The Field (the film's sole nomination)
The Best Actress award was given to Kathy Bates (with her first nomination) as obsessed, psychopathic fan Annie Wilkes for a romance novelist (James Caan) in director Rob Reiner's black thriller Misery (the film's sole nomination), William Goldman's adaptation of Stephen King's novel.
Her competing nominees for Best Actress included:
Anjelica Huston (with her third nomination) as racetrack scammer Lilly Dillon in The Grifters
Julia Roberts (with her second consecutive nomination) in a star-making role as wheeler-dealer Richard Gere's fantasy Los Angeles prostitute Vivian Ward in director Garry Marshall's Pretty Woman (the film's sole nomination)
Meryl Streep (with her ninth nomination, and 7th Best Actress nomination) as drug-addicted film actress Suzanne Vale in director Mike Nichols' Postcards from the Edge (with two nominations and no wins), a disguised semi-autobiography of Carrie Fisher (daughter of Debbie Reynolds)
Joanne Woodward (with her fourth nomination) as conservative, mousy, middle-aged Kansas wife India Bridge in director James Ivory's Mr. and Mrs. Bridge (the film's sole nomination)
In the Best Supporting Actor category, Joe Pesci (with his second nomination) won his first Oscar award for his ferocious performance as comically psychotic gangster killer Tommy DeVito in GoodFellas (the film's sole Oscar win). [The same year, Pesci starred as a clumsy burglar in the blockbuster Home Alone starring Macauley Culkin.]
The other four Best Supporting Actor nominees were:
Bruce Davison (with his first nomination) as David - one of nine gay New Yorkers followed over a nine year period while coping with the killer disease AIDS in director Norman Rene's Longtime Companion (the film's sole nomination)
Cuban-born Andy Garcia (with his first nomination) as Vincent Mancini - the illegitimate son and heir apparent of godfather Michael Corleone's brother Sonny in The Godfather, Part III
Canadian-born Graham Greene as Native-American Sioux Indian Kicking Bird in Dances With Wolves [Greene was the second Native-American to receive an Oscar nomination]
Al Pacino (with his sixth nomination) as over-the-top crime boss Big Boy Caprice in director/producer/actor Warren Beatty's comic-bookish Dick Tracy (with seven nominations and three wins - Best Art/Set Direction, Best Song, and Best Makeup). [Pacino's nomination for Dick Tracy instead of for The Godfather, Part III was truly unexplainable, except for the fact that Andy Garcia was nominated in his stead, to avoid splitting the vote]
In 1990, Whoopi Goldberg became the second black actress to win an acting Oscar. [The first black actress to win an Oscar was Hattie McDaniel's win for
Gone With The Wind (1939) .] Favored to win, Goldberg (with her second nomination) won the Best Supporting Actress award for her performance as an imposter clairvoyant - and then genuine psychic medium Oda Mae Brown in Ghost. [Some interpreted Goldberg's win as a 'consolation' prize for not winning Best Actress five years earlier when she was considered for the award for her performance in The Color Purple (1985), and lost to Geraldine Page's performance in The Trip to Bountiful (1985).]
The other four Best Supporting Actress nominees were:
Annette Bening (with her first nomination) as provocative con artist Myra Langtry in The Grifters
Lorraine Bracco (with her first nomination) as Henry Hill's wife Karen in GoodFellas
Diane Ladd (with her second nomination) as Marietta Pace - Nicolas Cage's possessive mother in director David Lynch's erratic and surreal Wild at Heart (the film's sole nomination)
Mary McDonnell (with her first nomination) as Sioux Indian Stands with Fist - an emotionally-traumatized white woman captured and raised from childhood by Indians in Dances With Wolves
Never-nominated actress Myrna Loy received an Honorary Oscar this year, "in recognition of her extraordinary qualities both on screen and off, with appreciation for a lifetime's worth of indelible performances." She was best known for her appearance opposite William Powell in The Thin Man (1934) series of films. Sophia Loren was also presented another Honorary Oscar - "one of the genuine treasures of world cinema who, in a career rich with memorable performances, has added permanent luster to our art form." She had been nominated as Best Actress for Marriage-Italian Style (1964), and won her only Best Actress Oscar for Two Women (1960).
Oscar Snubs and Omissions:
The biggest omission of the year was the Coen Brothers' neglected and fresh gangster film Miller's Crossing (see below for acting omissions) - with no Best Picture, cinematography, or screenplay nominations. In addition, actor/director Jack Nicholson's The Two Jakes, a sequel to Polanski's Chinatown (1974) was completely overlooked: Nicholson's dual roles, screenplay by Robert Towne, Vilmos Zsigmond's cinematography, and Harvey Keitel as the "other" Jake. And female director Penny Marshall was overlooked as a Best Director nominee, even though her film Awakenings was a Best Picture nominee. There was no recognition for the latex animatronic costumes (by Jim Henson Productions) for Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Movie, for Jim Henson's last-produced film - director Nicolas Roeg's - The Witches with Anjelica Huston, or for Michael Caton-Jones' story about a WWII B-17 bomber and its crew, Memphis Belle.
Bruce Joel Rubin won the Best Original Screenplay Oscar for Ghost, but his co-scripted screenplay for Jacob's Ladder (with no nominations) was neglected.
The following were not nominated for their acting performances - note that the first four films listed here were 'quality' gangster films - 1990 was a glutted year for the genre:
John Turturro as bookie Bernie Bernbaum, Garbriel Byrne as Tom Reagan, Marcia Gay Harden as Verna, or Albert Finney as Leo in Miller's Crossing
Al Pacino as violent Mafia head Michael Corleone in The Godfather, Part III
Ray Liotta as 'wiseguy' gangster Henry Hill, Robert DeNiro as mobster/hitman Jimmy Conway, and Paul Sorvino as mob boss Paul Cicero in Martin Scorsese's GoodFellas
Gary Oldman as Hell's Kitchen gang member Jackie Flannery in Phil Joanou's first big-budget film State of Grace
Richard Gere as sadistic rogue cop Dennis Peck in Mike Figgis' Internal Affairs
Michael Gambon as Albert Spica - the Thief in Peter Greenaway's British film The Cook, the Thief, His Wife and Her Lover
Robin Williams as the experimental doctor in Awakenings
Sean Connery as defecting Soviet submarine Capt. Marko Ramius in John McTiernan's political action thriller The Hunt for Red October (with three nominations, Best Editing, Best Sound, and Best Sound Effects (win))
Paul Newman as the other half of the middle-aged midwestern couple in Mr. and Mrs. Bridge
Mia Farrow as the title character in Woody Allen's Alice
Debra Winger as a Sahara Desert-dwelling American in a romantic triangle in Bernardo Bertolucci's visually-stunning The Sheltering Sky
Uma Thurman as bi-sexual June Miller in writer/director Philip Kaufman's NC-17 rated Henry & June
Meg Ryan in a tri-part role as office secretary DeDe, LA debutante/socialite Angelica Graynamore, and Angelica's blonde half-sister Patricia in the romantic comedy fantasy Joe Versus The Volcano
Glenn Close as playboy Claus Von Bulow's (Oscar-winning Jeremy Irons) threatened heiress wife Sunny (who narrated her earlier life with him in flashback) in Reversal of Fortune
Jennifer Jason Leigh as a prostitute in Miami Blues
Tim Robbins as tortured, hallucinating ex-Vietnam vet Jacob Singer, and Elizabeth Pena as Jezzie - his mysterious live-in girlfriend and co-worker, in Adrian Lyne's supernatural horror-thriller Jacob's Ladder (with no nominations
| Dances with Wolves |
Astraphobia is the irrational fear of which weather condition? | Rewind: The Oscar-winning best pictures - CNN.com
Rewind: The Oscar-winning best pictures
By Todd Leopold and Lee Smith, CNN
Updated 3:08 PM ET, Fri February 28, 2014
Chat with us in Facebook Messenger. Find out what's happening in the world as it unfolds.
Photos: Oscar-winning best pictures
'Spotlight' (2015) – "Spotlight" -- a film about Boston Globe investigative reporters digging into a sex abuse scandal involving Catholic priests -- won best picture at the 88th annual Academy Awards. Here's a look back at all of the past winners for best picture:
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'Wings' (1927) – The first Academy Awards were given out at a dinner on May 16, 1929. The best picture winner was 1927's "Wings," a film about World War I pilots starring Clara Bow, right, Charles "Buddy" Rogers, left, Richard Arlen and Gary Cooper. Even today, the silent film's aerial sequences stand out as some of the most exciting ever filmed. Another film, "Sunrise," was given an Oscar as most "unique and artistic production," an honor that was eliminated the next year. The academy didn't begin using a calendar year for awards until movies made in 1934 (with ceremonies held in 1935).
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'The Broadway Melody' (1929) – The musical "The Broadway Melody" was the first sound film to win best picture. The film stars Charles King, Anita Page and Bessie Love.
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'All Quiet on the Western Front' (1930) – "All Quiet on the Western Front," best picture of 1929-30, was the film adaptation of Erich Maria Remarque's classic novel. The film stars Lewis Wolheim and Lew Ayres and was directed by Lewis Milestone.
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'Cimarron' (1931) – "Cimarron," based on the Edna Ferber novel, is best remembered for its portrayal of the 1889 Oklahoma Land Rush, which literally featured a cast of thousands. Richard Dix and Irene Dunne star in the film.
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'Grand Hotel' (1932) – The all-star cast of "Grand Hotel," including Greta Garbo and John Barrymore (pictured), portrayed characters in a mix of plot lines at a Berlin hotel. The film won just the one Oscar, but has been immortalized for one of Garbo's lines of dialogue: "I want to be alone."
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'Cavalcade' (1933) – "Cavalcade," based on a Noel Coward play, won the 1932-33 prize for best picture. The film follows a London family from 1899 to 1933 and stars, left to right, Una O'Connor, Diana Wynyard and Clive Brook.
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'It Happened One Night' (1934) – "It Happened One Night" was one of the great underdog winners. Its studio, Columbia, wasn't considered one of the majors at the time, and neither Clark Gable nor Claudette Colbert, its stars, were excited about the project. But it became the first film to sweep the five major categories of picture, actor, actress, director and screenplay. To this day, only two other films -- "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" (1975) and "The Silence of the Lambs" (1991) -- have pulled off the same trick.
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'Mutiny on the Bounty' (1935) – Clark Gable was in the best picture winner the next year as well, playing Fletcher Christian in the 1935 version of "Mutiny on the Bounty." Charles Laughton plays Captain Bligh.
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'The Great Ziegfeld' (1936) – Luise Rainer stars in "The Great Ziegfeld." She picked up an Oscar for best actress, though William Powell, who played the title figure, came up empty (although he was nominated for another movie, "My Man Godfrey").
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'The Life of Emile Zola' (1937) – "The Life of Emile Zola" won three Oscars, including best picture. The film is a biography of the famed French author. Star Paul Muni was nominated for best actor but lost to Spencer Tracy ("Captains Courageous").
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'You Can't Take It With You' (1938) – "You Can't Take It With You" is one of the rare comedies to win best picture. The film, based on the George Kaufman and Moss Hart play, stars James Stewart, Jean Arthur and Lionel Barrymore. It also won a best director Oscar for Frank Capra, Capra's third in five years.
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'Gone With the Wind' (1939) – Still considered one of the great Hollywood epics, 1939's "Gone With the Wind" won 10 Oscars, including best picture and best actress for star Vivien Leigh, right. Though Clark Gable was nominated for best actor, he lost to Robert Donat ("Goodbye, Mr. Chips") in one of the great Oscar upsets.
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'Rebecca' (1940) – After "Gone With the Wind," producer David O. Selznick scored again with another adaptation of a best-seller, Daphne du Maurier's "Rebecca." He brought Alfred Hitchcock from Britain to direct Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine in a tale of a shy young woman living in the shadow of her husband's first wife. "Rebecca" was not only Hitchcock's first American film, but also his only one to win a best picture Oscar.
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'How Green Was My Valley' (1941) – The movie many critics regard as the greatest American film didn't win the best picture Oscar for 1941. Orson Welles' "Citizen Kane" lost to a film directed by another classic director, John Ford, who helped re-create a Welsh mining village in California for "How Green Was My Valley." Roddy McDowall, left, and Walter Pidgeon starred.
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'Mrs. Miniver' (1942) – Hollywood's war effort went full throttle with William Wyler's "Mrs. Miniver" starring Walter Pidgeon and Greer Garson as a heroic couple whose family endures German air raids during the Battle of Britain. Garson also won the best actress award and received much flak for a lengthy acceptance speech that became the stuff of Hollywood legend.
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'Casablanca' (1943) – We'll always have Bogart and Bergman, aka Rick and Ilsa, in Michael Curtiz's "Casablanca." Nobody at Warner Bros. expected this movie, based on an unproduced play, "Everybody Comes to Rick's," to be a classic when it came out, but the American Film Institute ranked this best picture winner as the third-greatest U.S. film more than 60 years later.
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'Going My Way' (1944) – Hollywood's favorite crooner became its favorite priest. Bing Crosby, left, won the best actor award as Father Chuck O'Malley in "Going My Way." He encountered resistance from a crusty old priest (Barry Fitzgerald) when he tried to help an impoverished church parish.
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'The Lost Weekend' (1945) – With World War II coming to an end, Hollywood turned to dark subject matter, such as alcoholism in Billy Wilder's "The Lost Weekend." Star Ray Milland, left, won the best actor award as a writer on a binge. Howard Da Silva was the bartender.
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'The Best Years of Our Lives' (1946) – Veterans Fredric March, pictured, Dana Andrews and Harold Russell returned home to adjust to life in post-war America in this William Wyler classic. Myrna Loy, Teresa Wright and Cathy O'Donnell were the women in their lives who also found the world much more complicated with the war's end. Russell, a real vet, lost both hands in World War II.
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'Gentleman's Agreement' (1947) – Elia Kazan's "Gentleman's Agreement" continued Hollywood's exploration of more serious subject matter, this time anti-Semitism. Gregory Peck, right, plays a reporter who goes undercover posing as a Jew, making his girlfriend (Dorothy McGuire) face uncomfortable truths about her upper class WASP life. A young Dean Stockwell played Peck's son.
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'Hamlet' (1948) – A British film took home the best picture Oscar when Laurence Olivier directed himself in an Oscar-winning role as Shakespeare's famous Danish prince who cannot make up his mind. Olivier trimmed the play's text and chose to do Hamlet's famous soliloquy ("To be, or not to be, that is the question") as a voice-over. Jean Simmons was Ophelia.
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'All the King's Men' (1949) – Unlike the 2006 remake with Sean Penn, this adaptation of Robert Penn Warren's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel was a critical and box-office success. Star Broderick Crawford also won the best actor award for his role as Willie Stark, a cynical politician who rises to become governor. Any resemblance to Louisiana's Huey Long was mere coincidence.
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'All About Eve' (1950) – Director Joseph L. Mankiewicz's screenplay about an aging actress (Bette Davis, right) battling a scheming newcomer (Anne Baxter) remains one of the most quotable movies ever almost 65 years after its release. "All About Eve" held the record for a movie with the most Oscar nominations (14) until "Titanic" tied it in 1997. A young Marilyn Monroe, center, also attracted attention in an early role. As Margo Channing (Davis' character) would say, "Fasten your seat belts, it's going to be bumpy night!"
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'An American in Paris' (1951) – This MGM musical with Gene Kelly as an aspiring artist who falls for Leslie Caron in the City of Light faced stiff competition at the Oscars. But "An American in Paris" scored a major upset when it beat dramatic heavyweights "A Place in the Sun" and "A Streetcar Named Desire" for best picture.
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'The Greatest Show on Earth' (1952) – Producer-director Cecil B. DeMille had been making epics since the silents, but none had won best picture until "The Greatest Show on Earth," a 1952 circus spectacular with Betty Hutton, pictured, and Charlton Heston. Many critics and fans dismiss the movie as one of the worst best picture Oscar winners. "Singin' in the Rain," considered Hollywood's greatest movie musical , wasn't even nominated that year.
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'From Here to Eternity' (1953) – Facing the strict movie censorship of the 1950s, director Fred Zinnemann's version of "From Here to Eternity" considerably toned down James Jones' tough and profane novel about military life in Hawaii on the eve of the Pearl Harbor attack. But Burt Lancaster and Deborah Kerr's sexy tryst on the beach made waves among moviegoers.
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'On the Waterfront' (1954) – Marlon Brando, right, went up against corrupt union boss Lee J. Cobb in Elia Kazan's "On the Waterfront." In one of moviedom's most famous scenes that inspired countless future actors, Brando confronts his brother, a union lawyer played by Rod Steiger, in the back seat of a car: "I coulda been a contender. I coulda been somebody, instead of a bum, which is what I am."
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'Marty' (1955) – Hollywood studios saw television as the enemy in the 1950s as Americans stayed home in droves to watch series such as "I Love Lucy." But live TV plays soon were providing material for movies, including 1955's best picture winner, "Marty." Ernest Borgnine won stardom and the best actor award as a lonely butcher in the Paddy Chayefsky drama.
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'Around the World in 80 Days' (1956) – Responding to the competition from TV, the movies turned increasingly to epics in the 1950s such as producer Mike Todd's "Around the World in 80 Days." The picture was based on Jules Verne's novel and starred Shirley MacLaine, David Niven and Cantinflas as well as dozens of other celebrities in cameo roles, such as Noel Coward, Marlene Dietrich, Red Skelton and Frank Sinatra.
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'The Bridge on the River Kwai' (1957) – Director David Lean proved filmmakers could make intelligent epics such as "The Bridge on the River Kwai." Already a star in British films, Alec Guinness won international fame and a best actor Oscar as a British colonel held prisoner with his men in a Japanese camp during World War II.
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'Gigi' (1958) – For one of its last great musicals, MGM turned to Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe after their success with "My Fair Lady" to create a musical based on Colette's "Gigi." The Vincente Minnelli film with Louis Jourdan, center, and Leslie Caron, right, won every Oscar it was nominated for (nine), including best picture and director. Legendary French star Maurice Chevalier had a memorable song with "Thank Heaven for Little Girls."
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'Ben-Hur' (1959) – Biblical epics were all the rage in the 1950s, and none more so than William Wyler's "Ben-Hur." The movie won a then-record 11 Academy Awards, including best picture, director (Wyler) and actor (Charlton Heston, right). The chariot scene undoubtedly helped ensure "Ben-Hur's" No. 2 ranking on the American Film Institute's list of greatest epics.
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'The Apartment' (1960) – Long before "Mad Men," Billy Wilder's "The Apartment" skewered corporate life of the early 1960s. Up-and-comer Jack Lemmon stays busy loaning his apartment key to company men who need a place to cheat on their wives. He falls for Shirley MacLaine, center, who is having an affair with one of the bosses ("My Three Sons' " Fred MacMurray in an unsympathetic role).
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'West Side Story' (1961) – "West Side Story" used the streets of New York as backdrops for this musical version of "Romeo and Juliet." The Jets and Sharks replaced the Montagues and Capulets as rival gangs ready to rumble, leading to tragedy for young lovers Tony (Richard Beymer) and Maria (Natalie Wood). The film took home 10 Oscars, including best supporting actor (George Chakiris), supporting actress (Rita Moreno) and direction (Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins, the first time the award was shared).
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'Lawrence of Arabia' (1962) – David Lean created the epic of all epics with "Lawrence of Arabia." Peter O'Toole , left, with Omar Sharif, became a superstar with his portrayal of T.E. Lawrence, the legendary British officer who helped lead the Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire in World War I. The movie won seven Oscars, including for Lean's direction.
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'Tom Jones' (1963) – Albert Finney tackled the amorous title role in "Tom Jones," a British comedy based on Henry Fielding's novel about a foundling raised by a wealthy landowner. Diane Cilento, right, was one of his conquests. Tony Richardson also won the Oscar for his direction of the film.
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'My Fair Lady' (1964) – Julie Andrews' fans were upset when the original Broadway star of "My Fair Lady" wasn't chosen for the film of the Lerner-Loewe musical. Audrey Hepburn may not have been convincing as a guttersnipe in the opening scenes of George Cukor's best picture winner, but no one could deny she was ravishing in Cecil Beaton's costumes once Eliza Doolittle had been transformed into a swan.
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'The Sound of Music' (1965) – Forget the recent live broadcast of the Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein musical on NBC with Carrie Underwood. For many movie fans, Julie Andrews remains the one and only Maria, governess to the von Trapp children in Austria on the eve of World War II. Marni Nixon, who dubbed the singing voices of Natalie Wood in "West Side Story," Deborah Kerr in "The King and I" and Audrey Hepburn in "My Fair Lady," had her first on-screen role as a nun. Not only did "The Sound of Music" win best picture, it was also for a time the biggest moneymaker ever.
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'A Man for All Seasons' (1966) – Paul Scofield re-created his stage role as Sir Thomas More in Fred Zinnemann's film version of the Robert Bolt drama "A Man for All Seasons." The film portrayed More as a man of conscience who refused to recognize King Henry VIII as head of the Church of England because of his denial of the Pope's authority. Scofield and director Zinnemann both won Oscars for their work. Susannah York, right, co-starred.
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'In the Heat of the Night' (1967) – Youth-oriented movies began taking over Hollywood by 1967, the year of "Bonnie and Clyde" and "The Graduate." But the best picture winner went to Norman Jewison's "In the Heat of the Night," an old-fashioned crime drama in which an African-American detective (Sidney Poitier, left) goes South to solve a murder, working with a reluctant redneck sheriff (Rod Steiger). Poitier played the role of Virgil Tibbs in two sequels, and the movie later spawned a hit TV series with Carroll O'Connor.
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'Oliver!' (1968) – This best picture winner was a musical adaptation of Charles Dickens' "Oliver Twist" with Mark Lester as an orphan who teams up with other young pickpockets led by an old criminal. Carol Reed also took home the Oscar for best director. Two of 1968's best-remembered movies, Stanley Kubrick's "2001: A Space Odyssey" and Roman Polanski's "Rosemary's Baby," weren't even nominated for best picture.
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'Midnight Cowboy' (1969) – John Schlesinger's "Midnight Cowboy" was the first best picture Oscar winner to be rated X, reflecting the easing of censorship in the late '60s. The movie established Jon Voight, right, as a star for his portrayal of a dumb, naive Texan who fancies himself a gigolo to rich women in New York but ends up a hustler. Fresh from "The Graduate," co-star Dustin Hoffman as con man Ratso Rizzo proved he was one of the top actors of his generation.
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'Patton' (1970) – George C. Scott made Oscar history when he became the first actor to refuse the award. Scott played the title role in this biography of volatile World War II Gen. George S. Patton Jr. The film, directed by Franklin J. Schaffner, reportedly was one of President Richard Nixon's favorite films.
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'The French Connection' (1971) – Gene Hackman as Detective "Popeye" Doyle goes after hit man Marcel Bozzuffi in William Friedkin's "The French Connection." This best picture winner about New York cops trying to stop a huge heroin shipment from France features one of the movies' most memorable chase scenes.
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'The Godfather' (1972) – With his career in decline for nearly a decade, Marlon Brando scored a comeback as Don Vito Corleone, the aging patriarch of a crime family, in Francis Ford Coppola's "The Godfather." Brando won his second Oscar for best actor (which he refused), and the movie made a superstar of Al Pacino as the son who takes over the "family business." The movie ranked No. 2 on the American Film Institute's list of the top 100 U.S. films.
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'The Sting' (1973) – Teaming up again after "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid" (1969), Paul Newman and Robert Redford in best picture winner "The Sting" helped make the buddy film one of the key movie genres of the '70s. The two played con men in 1930s Chicago in the George Roy Hill movie, which featured the music of ragtime composer Scott Joplin.
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'The Godfather: Part II' (1974) – Al Pacino returned as Michael Corleone in "The Godfather: Part II," which became the first sequel to win the best picture Oscar. Francis Ford Coppola received the best director award this time, and newcomer Robert De Niro won the best supporting actor Oscar playing Vito Corleone as a young man. Coppola's "The Godfather: Part III," released in 1990, did not repeat the success of the first two films.
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'One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest' (1975) – "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" captured all four top Academy Awards, a feat that had not been accomplished in more than 40 years (not since "It Happened One Night.") Besides best picture, the movie took home Oscars for best director (Milos Forman), actor (Jack Nicholson) and actress (Louise Fletcher). It won a fifth for best adapted screenplay. In this film of Ken Kesey's novel, Nicholson, second from left, struck a chord with audiences as McMurphy, a rebellious inmate in a mental institution who faces off against the ultimate authority figure, Nurse Ratched (Fletcher).
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'Rocky' (1976) – Sylvester Stallone, left, as struggling boxer Rocky Balboa, gets his shot at the championship against Carl Weathers as Apollo Creed in this best picture winner. Like its hero, "Rocky" was an underdog, a low-budget film written by Stallone, then an unknown actor, that became one of the decade's biggest sleeper hits. Stallone would go on to make five sequels.
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'Annie Hall' (1977) – Moviegoers fell in love with Diane Keaton in her Oscar-winning role as the ditsy, insecure heroine of Woody Allen's autobiographical "Annie Hall." Her thrift-store fashions and offbeat sayings ("La-di-da, la-di-da") became hallmarks of the late '70s. Allen won Oscars for best director and original screenplay (with Marshall Brickman) for the film.
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'The Deer Hunter' (1978) – Hollywood began to explore the Vietnam War in the late '70s. Michael Cimino's "The Deer Hunter" examined the effects on steelworkers, from left, John Cazale, Chuck Aspegren, Robert De Niro, John Savage and Christopher Walken. Cimino and Walken also won Oscars for best director and best supporting actor, respectively.
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'Kramer vs. Kramer' (1979) – Dustin Hoffman played a bewildered dad who had paid little attention to family life until his wife leaves him and he has to raise their son (Justin Henry, right) alone in "Kramer vs. Kramer." A bitter custody battle ensues once the wife (played by Meryl Streep) decides she wants her son back. Both Hoffman (best actor) and Streep (best supporting actress) won Oscars for their roles, and Robert Benton took home direction and writing honors for the film.
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'Ordinary People' (1980) – Timothy Hutton, right, played a suicidal young man struggling to cope with the death of his brother in "Ordinary People," the first film directed by actor Robert Redford. Donald Sutherland, left, was his helpless father, and Mary Tyler Moore surprised audiences with her portrayal as Hutton's icy, controlling mother.
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'Chariots of Fire' (1981) – In another Oscar sleeper, "Chariots of Fire," a small British film about two English runners competing in the 1924 Olympics, beat Warren Beatty's epic film "Reds" for best picture. "Chariots" won four Oscars, including one for its stirring score by Vangelis. The theme music also hit No. 1 on the pop charts. Beatty wasn't entirely shut out: He picked up the Oscar for best director.
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'Gandhi' (1982) – Director Richard Attenborough's epic, three-hour film about the life of Mohandas K. "Mahatma" Gandhi won eight Oscars. Ben Kingsley, here with Candice Bergen, played the inspiring leader who used nonviolent tactics to help establish the modern country of India. Among the films it beat for best picture: "E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial" and "Tootsie."
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'Terms of Endearment' (1983) – Debra Winger, Shirley MacLaine and Jack Nicholson starred in James L. Brooks' adaptation of Larry McMurtry's novel about an up-and-down mother-daughter relationship. Brooks produced, directed and wrote the film and won Oscars for all three (best picture goes to the producer); to this day, he's the only person to pull off the trick solo.
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'Amadeus' (1984) – Another epic, "Amadeus" was based on Peter Shaffer's award-winning play about composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (Tom Hulce) and his rival, Antonio Salieri. The film won eight Oscars, including awards for director Milos Forman -- his second, after "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" -- and star F. Murray Abraham, who played Salieri.
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'Out of Africa' (1985) – Isak Dinesen's autobiographical book was turned into a movie that won seven Oscars. Meryl Streep stars as the independent-minded Danish author who spent part of her married life in British East Africa, later Kenya. She falls for a big-game hunter, played by Robert Redford, while her fragile marriage falls apart.
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'Platoon' (1986) – "Platoon" made headlines in 1986 for its blunt and unsparing look at the U.S. experience in Vietnam. It follows a small group of men, including leaders Willem Dafoe, pictured, and Tom Berenger, who play on the loyalties of raw recruit Charlie Sheen. The film made director and writer Oliver Stone, himself a Vietnam veteran, a household name. "Platoon" won four Oscars, including best picture and best director.
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'The Last Emperor' (1987) – Director Bernardo Bertolucci's film about the life of Chinese emperor Puyi won nine Oscars -- quite an achievement, considering it was nominated for zero awards in the acting categories. Besides best picture, it also won best director, best adapted screenplay and best cinematography, among others.
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'Rain Man' (1988) – Though "Rain Man" is ostensibly about the relationship between Dustin Hoffman's autistic Raymond Babbitt and his brother, Charlie (Tom Cruise), it's probably best remembered for Hoffman's performance as a savant who can do complicated calculations in his head, count cards in Las Vegas and never miss an episode of Judge Joseph Wapner's "People's Court." The film won four Oscars, including a best actor award for Hoffman and a best director trophy for Barry Levinson.
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'Driving Miss Daisy' (1989) – Stage actress Jessica Tandy finally became a movie star at age 80 as an Atlanta Jewish matriarch who develops a close relationship with her driver, Hoke, played by Morgan Freeman, in Bruce Beresford's film of Alfred Uhry's Pulitzer Prize-winning play. "Driving Miss Daisy" didn't compete for best picture against some of the year's most acclaimed movies -- "Sex, Lies, and Videotape," "Do the Right Thing" and "Drugstore Cowboy" weren't nominated for the top award.
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'Dances With Wolves' (1990) – In what was essentially a two-horse race, Kevin Costner's three-hour "Dances With Wolves" faced off against one of Martin Scorsese's best, "Goodfellas." "Dances With Wolves," about a Civil War soldier who falls in with a Lakota tribe in the American West, was the decisive winner, earning best picture, best director for Costner and best adapted screenplay for Michael Blake, three of its seven Oscars. "Goodfellas" won just one: Joe Pesci's best supporting actor trophy.
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'The Silence of the Lambs' (1991) – It's rare that a film released early in the year manages to even get nominated for best picture, not to mention winning the award, but "Lambs" -- based on the Thomas Harris novel about a serial killer helping an FBI agent to catch another killer -- took home best picture, best actor (Anthony Hopkins, who plays Hannibal Lecter), best actress (Jodie Foster), best director (Jonathan Demme) and best adapted screenplay. Hopkins' performance had relatively little screen time -- less than 20 minutes -- but was so commanding he can be credited for the continuing fascination with Lecter, who now headlines an NBC series.
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'Unforgiven' (1992) – "It's a hell of a thing, killing a man," says Clint Eastwood's gunfighter, William Munny, in "Unforgiven" -- and, indeed, the Western can be seen as one of Eastwood's many meditations on the impact of violence in society. The actor and director plays Munny, a retired outlaw who is drawn back into his old role to avenge himself on a brutal sheriff (Gene Hackman). "Unforgiven" was just the third Western to win best picture, after "Cimarron" (1931) and "Dances With Wolves" (1990).
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'Schindler's List' (1993) – By 1993, Steven Spielberg was already known as one of the great directors in Hollywood history, but an Oscar had eluded him. That changed with "Schindler's List," a gripping story about a German industrialist who saved more than 1,000 Jews during the Holocaust. The film earned honors for picture, director, adapted screenplay and cinematography.
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'Forrest Gump' (1994) – Tom Hanks plays a Southern bumpkin who always seems to be in proximity to great events, whether they be the Vietnam War, U.S.-Chinese ping-pong diplomacy or the writing of "Imagine." Though some critics hooted, the film was a popular success and also won Oscars for Hanks, director Robert Zemeckis and adapted screenplay -- six in all.
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'Braveheart' (1995) – Mel Gibson directed and starred in the story of Scottish warrior William Wallace, who led the Scottish army against English invaders led by King Edward I. The film won five Oscars, including best picture and best director, and has led to countless sports teams yelling "Freedom!" as they go up against opponents.
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'The English Patient' (1996) – Some found it lyrical. Others, such as an episode of "Seinfeld," mocked it as boring. Either way, "The English Patient," with Ralph Fiennes and Kristin Scott Thomas, was a huge hit with audiences and critics -- and with the academy, which bestowed nine Oscars on the film about a burned British soldier and a loving nurse. Among the winners: director Anthony Minghella and supporting actress Juliette Binoche.
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'Titanic' (1997) – In the months leading up to its release, "Titanic" was rumored to be as big a disaster as the ship on which its story was based. But director James Cameron had the last laugh: When the final results were tallied, "Titanic," with Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet, had become the biggest box-office hit of all time (since surpassed by another Cameron film, "Avatar") and winner of 11 Oscars in 1997 -- the most of any film since 1959's "Ben-Hur." Cameron took home a trophy for best director, too.
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'Shakespeare in Love' (1998) – Was the film really that good or had Harvey Weinstein, its co-producer and head of studio Miramax, done an exceptionally good job at lobbying? Either way, there were gasps when best picture went to "Shakespeare" and not to favorite "Saving Private Ryan." Still, "Shakespeare" had plenty going for it, including an Oscar-winning best actress performance by Gwyneth Paltrow (here with Joseph Fiennes) and a clever script by Marc Norman and Tom Stoppard. It won seven Oscars total.
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'American Beauty' (1999) – Kevin Spacey stars as a frustrated middle manager who develops a crush on one of his daughter's friends (Mena Suvari) in "American Beauty." Besides the big prize, the film won best director for Sam Mendes and best actor for Spacey as part of its five Oscars. Also immortalized: a plastic bag blowing in the breeze.
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'Gladiator' (2000) – Russell Crowe stars as Maximus in "Gladiator," the hugely successful Ridley Scott film about a warrior in ancient Rome. The film took home five Oscars, including best actor for Crowe.
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'A Beautiful Mind' (2001) – "A Beautiful Mind," the story of troubled mathematician John Nash (Russell Crowe) and his battle with mental illness, won four Oscars.
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'Chicago' (2002) – For years, musicals had had a rough time at the Oscars -- indeed, they'd had a rough time in Hollywood, period -- until 2002's "Chicago" won best picture. The movie, which stars Renee Zellweger as a wily murderess in 1920s Chicago, won six Oscars.
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'Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King' (2003) – The final film in Peter Jackson's "The Lord of the Rings" trilogy, "The Return of the King," swept all 11 categories in which it was nominated -- including best picture. From left, Elijah Wood, Andy Serkis and Sean Astin play three of J.R.R. Tolkien's characters: Frodo Baggins, Gollum and Samwise Gamgee.
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'Million Dollar Baby' (2004) – "Million Dollar Baby" is about an old trainer (Clint Eastwood, left, with Morgan Freeman and Hilary Swank) who takes on a female boxer, with unforeseen consequences. The film won four Oscars, including a directing prize for Eastwood, best actress for Swank and best supporting actor for Freeman.
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'Crash' (2005) – Few best pictures have been as polarizing as "Crash," about the criss-crossing lives of several Los Angeles residents. The film touches on issues of race and justice and stars -- among many others -- Thandie Newton and Matt Dillon.
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'The Departed' (2006) – Director Martin Scorsese's films were often well-reviewed but couldn't win the big prize, until "The Departed," about a Boston gangster and some corrupt cops. The film stars Leonardo DiCaprio, left, Ray Winstone, and Jack Nicholson, right.
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'No Country for Old Men' (2007) – The Coen brothers' grim "No Country for Old Men," about a Texas drug deal gone wrong, won four Oscars. Javier Bardem received a best supporting actor award for his portrayal of the brutal enforcer Anton Chigurh, who carries around a lethal bolt gun and doesn't hesitate to use it.
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'Slumdog Millionaire' (2008) – Another little movie that paid off big, "Slumdog Millionaire" was slated to go straight to video until its American distributor found a partner. The sleeper film, about a poor Indian man (Dev Patel, left) whose success on "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire" is questioned by a suspicious detective, won eight Oscars.
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'The Hurt Locker' (2009) – In a David-vs.-Goliath scenario, "Avatar," James Cameron's big-budget box office king, was pitted against "The Hurt Locker," a low-budget film about a bomb disposal unit in the Iraq War. "The Hurt Locker" won six Oscars, including best picture and best director (Kathryn Bigelow, one of Cameron's ex-wives).
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'The King's Speech' (2010) – "The King's Speech," about England's King George VI and how he overcame his stutter, won four Oscars, including a best actor trophy for star Colin Firth.
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'The Artist' (2011) – Jean Dujardin and Bérénice Bejo star in "The Artist," the first (mostly) silent film to win best picture since 1927's "Wings." The film, about the fall and rise of a silent film star, won five Oscars.
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'Argo' (2012) – "Argo," based on a 1980 operation to free some of the American hostages during the Iran hostage crisis, won three Oscars: best picture, best adapted screenplay and best film editing. Ben Affleck, right, directed and starred.
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'12 Years a Slave' (2013) – Benedict Cumberbatch, left, and Chiwetel Ejiofor appear in "12 Years a Slave," which won the Oscar in 2013. The story of Solomon Northup (Ejiofor), a free African-American man who was kidnapped and sold into slavery, won three awards: best picture, best supporting actress (Lupita Nyong'o) and best adapted screenplay (John Ridley).
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'Birdman' (2014) – "Birdman" won the Academy Award for best picture in 2016. The film also won three other Oscars: best director, best cinematography and best original screenplay.
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How many violins are in a string quartet? | String Quartets - What instruments are in a string quartet?
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String Quartets
What instruments are in a string quartet, and what type of events are string quartets best suited to?
What is a string quartet? As the name suggests, it is a band that consists of four stringed instruments. A string quartet like String Musicians Australia usually has two violins, a viola and a cello. The people that play these instruments are well trained musicians who can play any form of music for you. The beauty of string quartets like http://www.stringmusicians.com.au/ is that they sound like a mini orchestra and classical, jazz, pop, instrumental and all form of modern music can be played. A lot of the musicians who are part of this string quartet have played at professional orchestras before.
There are so many types of events for which string quartet hire would work well. Do you want to make on official function, such as a farewell or an annual day more fun? Would you like all the members of your organization to forge stronger bonds and build themselves as better employees? Your string quartet playing lovely music will definitely be a strong temptation for people to drink and dance in these office events, leading them to get to know each other better in the informal settings. For all types of corporate functions, having string quartets will change the look and feel of your function.
Another occasion where the string quartet can play is at birthday parties. You would like to gift your spouse or your partner something special for their birthday. You can ask the band to customize a song on behalf of you and play it for the special birthday person. This gives that person a extraordinary feeling and a wonderful song to always remember that occasion by. So many years after that birthday, there will always be a reference to that unique birthday celebration.
Last but not the least wedding string quartets are also very popular, for example http://www.stringmusicians.com.au/weddings. There are so many guests in a wedding party and there is nothing as special as having a string quartet play lovely live music at the party, so that everyone at the wedding can put on their dancing shoes and enjoy with gay abandon.
Read more about String Instruments at Wikipedia .
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What was the first name of Marconi, Italian inventor known for his pioneering work on long-distance radio transmission? | The Origins of String Quartets
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Despite the 1516 woodcut shown above which depicts Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen 1 playing as a string quartet, it is Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) who is generally credited with having established the string quartet. Previous composers had written works for two violins, a viola and a cello, but it was Haydn who was to impose upon the quartet the classical form which gave it so much potential.
Before Haydn, Gregorio Allegri (1582-1652) and Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) had composed works for two violins, a viola and a cello, but they were different in style, with the cello supplying the traditional accompaniment role of the "basso continuo" and they failed to inspire further works. Giovanni Battista Sammartini (c.1700-1775) also had previously composed several such works but while they were freer from the constraints of the "basso continuo" they lacked Haydn's classical structure. But even in his early works before his ideas about form had become established Haydn denied that these composers influenced him, rather he credited Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714-88) as a source of inspiration. Although C.P.E. Bach never composed a string quartet, but Haydn's compositions do indeed show the same innovative irregularities that can be heard in Bach's piano works.
As Haydn progressed, although he retained his capability to surprise with an unexpected use of silence and tonality, his compositions began to show an internal order and symmetry which is now referred to as the classical style. Within this regularity Haydn's dramatic fluctuations, which he had inherited from the mannerist style, appeared not as whimsical inventions but as logical developments justified by the complete structure of the work. The perfection of the form and its inevitable consequences were the essence of the classical musical style 2 . Contemplated as frozen architecture a classical composition was like a Greek temple.
Starting in about 1757, the exact date remains disputed, and continuing until 1806, three years before his death, Haydn is credited with having composed 68 string quartets 3 . As with his symphonies Haydn used the quartets to develop the classical style, and like the symphonies many of the quartets have been given individual names. In accordance with the then custom for chamber music 54 of the quartets were published in sets of six, and most of these sets have also acquired names, for example, the 'Sun', the 'Prussian' and the 'Apponyi'.
Joseph Haydn was not alone in composing numerous string quartets at this time. His contemporary, Luigi Boccherini (1743-1805), a native of Lucca 4 in Tuscany, was living and composing quartets in Madrid. In his works he too frees the cello from its traditional accompaniment role of the "basso continuo" and allows it to play in the higher ranges. Boccherini's was to compose over 90 quartets; like Hadyn's they reflect the composers' nature; they are harmonious and good humoured. But Boccherini's works contained little organic development of the musical material. This was the essence of Haydn's style and so, despite Boccherini's works being elegant and popular, it was Haydn's quartets that would provide the model for other composers. Like Mozart, Boccherini would experiment with the form of the string quartet by adding another voice, another instrument, converting it into a quintet. Mozart added a second viola to emphasis the higher range. The remarkable quintet in G minor, KV 516, one of the six quintets he composed, demonstrates the emotional depth achievable with this extended string combination. On the other hand, Boccherini, a virtuoso of the cello, chose that instrument thereby enhancing the lower range 5 .
Despite Haydn's efforts to develop a rigorous style for the string quartet the compositions were received with disapproval by some of his contemporaries, who perceived in them a lack of serious content. This reflected a sentiment against instrumental music in general. It was a complaint that began in the middle of the seventeenth century when music without words began to grow in popularity. Until then vocal music had prevailed 6 . The assumption that music must be accompanied by words dated back to the beginning of western civilization. Plato had defined music as consisting of harmonia, rhythmos and logos and the latter, human reason, was expressed by language 7 . It was not necessary that the language be of words; a tone poem, a musical painting, a representation or program, could serve almost as well; but without extra-musical language instrumental music was thought to be just pleasant sounds; to lack depth. For Kant in 1790 it was 'more pleasure without culture'; an agreeable, transitional pleasure; appealing to the senses but not the reason; like wallpaper 8 . If music were to be a 'fine art' then, like a painting or a sculpture, it had to represent something.
But attitudes were changing rapidly at the end of the eighteenth century. In 1810, one year after Haydn's death, E. T. A. Hoffmann published what many musicologists consider the most important review in the history of music. Its subject was Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, its tone philosophical, and its wide acclaim documented the acceptance of 'absolute music'. Such 'formalist' music � music where its theme was it own form rather than something external (like a tree is external to a painting of a tree) - such absolute music, began now to be considered superior to music that represented or accompanied words, rather than inferior as it had been regarded by previous generations 9 . Embracing the philosophy of German Idealism the nineteenth century talked of absolute music's ability to transcend language and achieve revelation. And if it was the symphony, 'the opera of the instruments' in Hoffmann's phrase, that was initially the prime medium for absolute music, public concerts were soon felt to be less appropriate for contemplation than private performances. Gradually therefore the string quartet became the epitome of absolute music. As Carl Dahlhaus writes:
"Around 1870, Beethoven's quartets became the paradigm of the idea of absolute music that had been created around 1800 as a theory of the symphony: the idea that music is a revelation of the absolute, specifically because it 'dissolves' itself from the sensual, and finally even from the affective sphere." 10
Schopenhauer even elevated the source of music's power to a higher plain. He argued that its power lay not in arousing emotions within the listener but was innate in the music itself: music was a representation of cosmic Will 11 . For Schopenhauer and his followers it was art par excellence and although absolute music was to have its opponents - amongst them Hegel and Wagner - there were many, and there still are, who were convinced of its spiritual power.
The rapid changes that were taking place to the structure of society in the nineteenth century also had consequences for music. Virtually all of Haydn's string quartets had been written in the service of Prince Paul Anton von Esterházy. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (who was to compose 29 string quartets - six of which he dedicated to Haydn) was also supported by a patron and many of his works (including the string quartets K.575, 589 and 590) were written for court occasions. Now the rise of a wealthy and literate bourgeois class produced a demand for public concerts and could finance composers and musicians. The nineteenth century saw the establishment of the first professional quartets.
Composers in that century and its sequel such as Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Tchaikovsky, Smetana, Brahms, Dvorak, Borodin, Ravel, Sibelius, Debussy, Bartók would expand the string quartet repertoire considerably. Their works would lead the string quartet away from the strict classical form as they gradually explored further possibilities. But their compositions still recall Haydn's thoughts and remain manifestations of absolute music rather than musical representations. Finally between 1938 and 1974 Shostakovich would produce 15 quartets which, when viewed through the distorting lens of socialist realism, would recall the formalist debate two centuries earlier.
Footnotes:
Today Galen is less well-known than Plato, Aristotle or Hippocrates. But until the beginning of the sixteenth century his writings had been influential. Galen, the personal physician to three Roman emperors: Marcus Aurelius, Commodus and Septimius Severus, had published an account of human anatomy which became the orthodox theory for over one thousand years. His theories were based on his dissections of Barbary apes which he assumed had anatomies similarity to humans. Galen's observations that the nerves issuing from the brain and spinal chord were necessary for muscle contraction made him argue against Aristotle's contention that the soul was situated in the brain rather than in the heart.
However Galen's influence diminished abruptly after Andreas Vesalius published De humani corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body) in 1543. Unlike Galen, for whom the laws of ancient Rome forbade the dissection of humans, Vesalius could dissect the bodies of executed criminals and in doing so had noticed critical differences in the anatomies of humans and apes.
The final blow to Galen's theories occurred in 1628 when William Harvey established that the heart acts as a pump to cause the blood circulation.
Charles Rosen's book "The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven" provides a comprehensive study, with numerous examples, of the how this style was developed by the first Vienna school.
These include the first 10, although they are strictly more divertimenti , the unfinished quartet opus 103, but not the popular quartet transcription of the orchestral work 'The Seven Last Words of our Saviour on the Cross" opus 51.
A charming walled town lying between Florence and Pisa whose numerous summer tourists are more aware of the other composer who is its native son: Giacomo [Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria] Puccini.
If Mrs. Wilberforce in the 1955 Ealing Studios black comedy 'The Ladykillers' had been married to a musicologist rather than a seaman she might have noticed that although 'Professor' Marcus's quintet was giving a perfect rendering of Boccherini's Minuet (from his String Quintet in E, Op. 11 No. 5) it was doing so with only one cellist!
As of course it still obviously does when popular music is taken into account.
It is believed that almost all the music in Ancient Greece was vocal accompanied by stringed instruments playing the same notes of the melody. The music was therefore monodic rather than polyphonic. One of seven modes or scales would have been used, each of which had an affinity to the mood being expressed by the words.
Immanuel Kant, Kritik der Urteilskraft (Felix Meiner Verlag, 5th Edition, Leipzig 1922), p.49. Kant's Critique on Aesthetics, like his other two critiques on pure reason and on ethics, makes notoriously difficult reading and is probably best approached through the secondary literature. All three works contain penetrating insights and although we might disagree with some of his conclusions Kant's efforts to achieve a rational basis for experience made him, in the eyes of many, the Enlightenment's greatest philosopher.
For a discussion of the change in attitudes between the publications of Kant in 1790 and Hoffmann in 1810, see: Mark Evan Bonds, Music as Thought (Princeton University Press, 2006), Chapter 1.
Carl Dahlhaus, The Idea of Absolute Music (The University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 17.
Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, - Vols. 1 & 2; 1819, 1844 (Dover, 1969). Music is discussed in book III of volume one and chapters XXIX - XXXIX of volume two.
Shostakovich and his string quartets
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